m: 


•:iir,-A 


FAEEOWS 

llLITAM  ElCYCLOPEDIA 

A  DICTIONARY  OF  MILITAllY  OOWLEDGE 

ILLXJSTR^TED 

WITH  MAPS  AND  ABOUT   THREE    THOUSAND   WOOD   ENGRAVINGS 


BY 


EDWARD  S.  FARROW,  V.  S.  Army, 

LATE  ASSISTANT  INSTRUCTOR  OF  TACTICS  AT  THE   UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY, 

WEST   POINT,    NEW   YORK 


"What  Is  obvious  is  not  always  known,  and  what  Is  known  Is  not  always  present."— JoaNSOX. 


COMPLETE    IN    THREE    VOLUMES.     VOLUME   I. 

NEW  YORK: 

PUBLISHED   BY   THE  AUTHOR, 

240  BROADWAY. 

188;"). 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1884, 

By  EDWAKD  S.  FARROW. 

Assistant  Ixstbuctob  of  Tactics  at  West  Point, 

In  the  ofSce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


DEDICATED 


TO  THE 


NATIONAL  GUARDS  OF  AMERICA 

In  Appreciation  of  tl)cir  (gutcrprisc  anb  balor 

AND  AS  A  TRIBUTE  OF  HOMAGE 

TO 

GALLANT  SOLDIERS. 


SANTA  BA. 


PREFATORY  NOTICE. 


The  design  of  this  work  is  that  of  a  Librabt  of  Militaet  Knowledge  for  the 
People — not  a  mere  collection  of  elaborate  treatises  in  alphabetical  order,  but  a  work  to 
be  readily  consulted  as  a  Dictionary  on  every  military  subject  on  which  people  generally 
require  some  distinct  information — no  article  being  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 
The  several  topics  are  not  handled  with  a  view  to  the  technical  instruction  of  those  who 
have  to  make  a  special  study  of  particular  branches  of  military  knowledge  or  art.  The 
information  given  may  be  characterized  in  many  instances  as  vo7i-2yrofcssional,  embracing 
those  points  of  the  several  subjects  which  every  intelligent  man  or  woman  may  have  occa- 
sion to  speak  or  think  about.  At  the  same  time  every  effort  is  made  that  the  statements, 
so  far  as  they  go,  shall  be  precise  and  scientifically  accurate. 

Although  about  30,000  subjects  have  been  compiled  from  the  various  publications  and 
records  of  the  War  Department,  Foreign  War  Offices,  and  Military  Works  of  reference, 
more  than  5000  original  articles  have  been  prepared  by  specialists  in  America  and  abroad. 
While  the  Tactics,  Ordnance,  Gun  Machinery,  Implements,  and  Equipments  of  all  ages 
and  of  aU  military  powers  have  been  fully  described  and  illustrated  under  appropriate  head- 
ings, a  complete  system  of  cross-references  enables  the  military  student  to  quickly  locate 
several  hundred  articles  pertaining  to  the  general  subject  under  investigation.  Thus, 
under  the  article  Magazine  Gun  will  be  found  the  following  references:  Boch,  Hujfi/tffton, 
SxiUard,  Surgess,  Burton,  Chajfee-Reece,  Clemmons,  Colt,  Dean,  EUiott,  FrankUn,  Hunt, 
Lee,  Lewis-Rice,  Miller,  Remington,  Russell,  Spencer-Lee,  Springfield-Jones,  Tiesing, 
Trahue,  Whitney,  and  W/nrhester  3fagazine  Guns.  Under  each  of  these  articles  are  refer- 
ences to  articles  describing  and  illustrating  all  other  arms  of  the  respective  classes.  The 
Compiler  has  made  special  effort  to  set  forth  in  detail  the  numerous  decisions,  rendered  by 
the  War  Department  and  Tactical  Department  at  West  Point,  on  the  tactical  points  raised 
and  submitted  from  time  to  time  by  the  Officers  of  the  Army  and  National  Guard.  The 
descriptions  and  illustrations  of  more  than  500  varieties  of  Gun  Machinery,  Steam  Hammers, 
Cranes,  etc.,  constitute  a  novel  feature  of  the  work  to  be  appreciated  by  those  wishing  to 
investigate  the  subjects  of  construction,  testing,  etc. 

The  original  plan  has  been  strictly  adhered  to  throughout;  and  if,  as  the  work  pro- 
ceeded, there  has  been  any  change  in  the  method  or  quality  of  the  execution,  it  may  at 
least  be  affirmed  that  the  change  has  not  been  for  the  worse.     After  some  experience,  it 


PREFATORY   NOTICE. 


bfcame  easior  to  find  the  person  specially  qualifietl  to  write  a  particular  kind  of  article,  and 
thus  the  circle  of  contributore  became  widened,  and  the  distriliution  of  the  work  more  special 
ized.  It  was  also  seen  to  be  desirable,  in  regard  to  certain  classes  of  subjects,  to  admit  a 
rather  ampler  selection  of  heads.  This  has  been  effected  without  increasing  the  scale  of 
the  work,  not  so  much  by  less  full  treatment  of  the  subjects,  as  by  increased  care  in  con- 
densing the  statements  and  omitting  everything  superfiuous.  A  great  quantity  of  matter 
i)ertaining  to  Foreign  Armies  has  been  uitroduced  in  this  work,  so  as  to  enable  the  military 
student  to  compare  the  organization,  arms,  etc.,  of  all  armies  with  those  of  his  own  service. 
The  Encyclopedia  contains  also  descriptions  of  ancient  armor,  and  of  arms,  lately  in  use, 
which  have  become  obsolete,  as  it  may  be  of  some  interest  to  follow  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  mode  and  means  of  fighting  from  the  earliest  period  down  to  the 
present  time.  The  insertion  of  veterinary  terms  and  of  remedies  for  the  common  com- 
plaints of  horses  will  be  found  useful  under  conditions  where  a  Veterinary  Surgeon  is  not 
available,  as  is  often  the  case  in  detached  parties  of  Cavalry.  A  description  of  all  tools 
anil,  machines  found  commonly  in  workshops  may  prove  acceptable  to  Departmental  Officers 
on  their  first  joining  Government  Manufacturing  Establishments.  , 

Of  the  Sciences,  the  least  adapted  to  encyclopedic  treatment  is  Mathematics.  All 
terms  of  common  occurrence  in  Gunnery,  Reconnoissance,  etc.,  however,  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  a  brief  exposition  of  the  subjects  given,  as  far  as  could  be  done  in  an  elemen. 
tary  way.  Natural  Philosophy  has  received  ample  attention,  and  all  the  leading  doctrines 
and  facts  of  general  interest  will  be  found"  under  their  appropriate  heads,  treated  in  a 
popular  way,  and  divested  as  far  as  possible  of  the  technicalities  of  mathematics.  Chem- 
istry, some  knowledge  of  which  is  becoming  daily  more  indispensable  in  all  departments  of 
military  life,  receives  a  comparatively  large  space.  Prominence  has  been  given  to  those 
points  of  the  subject  that  have  either  a  direct  practical  military  bearing  or  a  special  scien- 
tific interest.  During  the  progress  of  the  work,  several  changes  in  the  nomenclature  and 
notation  of  the  Science  have  come  into  general  use;  these  have  been  duly  noted  under  the 
appropriate  headings.  The  new  and  far-reaching  doctrines  of  the  Correlation  of  Forces 
and  the  Conservation  of  Energy  have  produced  vast  changes  in  the  nomenclature  and 
classification  of  the  various  sections  of  Military  Physics;  while  the  more  complete  investi- 
gations into  the  phenomena  and  laws  of  light,  heat,  motion,  and  electricity  have  created 
virtually -new  sections,  which  must  find  a  place  in  any  adequate  survey  of  scientific  prog- 
ress. Mechanical  invention  has,  indeed,  so  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  Military  Science 
and  the  Art  of  War,  that  in  almost  every  department  of  Physics  improved  machines  and 
processes  have  to  be  described,  as  well  as  new  discoveries  and  altered  points  of  view.  The 
Tnanufacture  of  gunpowder  and  high  explosives  is  a  signal  instance  of  the  extent  to  which 
in  our  day  scientific  discovery  is  indebted  to  appropriate  machinery  and  instruments  of 
observation  and  analysis.  These  extensive  changes  in  Physics  involve  corresponding 
changes  in  the  method  of  their  exposition.  The  scientific  department  of  the  work  is 
consequently  treated  in  all  its  branches  in  the  most  effulgent  manner,  and  over  1000  very 
fine  engravings  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  illustration. 

True  to  its  projected  plan  as  a  Library  of  Military  Knowledge  fob  the  People, 
this  Encyclopedia  will  be  found  to  1)e  especially  rich  in  notices  of  miscellaneous  military 
matters.     Some   of   the   subjects   introduced   might    perhaps  be   considered   beneath  the 


PREFATORY  NOTICE. 


dignity  of  a  book  aspiring  to  a  more  severely  scientific  character;  but  all  of  them  are,  if 
not  instructive,  at  least  curious  or  entertaining,  and  likely  to  occur  in  the  course  of  reading 
or  conversation.  During  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  Compiler  has  received  numerous 
assurances  from  parents  as  to  how  highly  it  was  prized,  even  though  only  partly  issued,  by 
their  sons  at  Military  Schools,  as  a  repertory  of  the  kind  of  things  they  are  constantly  in 
search  of  and  often  puzzling  their  elders  about.  This  use  of  the  Encyclopedia  has  been 
steadily  kept  in  view;  and  it  is  gratifying  to  learn  that  it  is  found  efEciently  to  serve  the 
purpose  intended. 

In  conclusion,  the  Compiler  asks  the  indulgence  of  Military  Critics  wherever  errors  or 
discrepancies  have  crept  into  this  work,  and  begs  to  acknowledge  the  valuable  help  ob- 
tained from  the  works  of  many  authors,  both  military  and  scientific,  through  the  courtesy 
of  Messrs.  John  Wiley  &  Sons  and  Mr.  D.  Van  Nostrand,  publishers,  and  the  assistance  he 
has  received  from  various  friends.  To  General  Stephen  Y.  Benet,  Chief  of  Ordnance, 
United  States  Army,  he  is  especially  indebted  for  courteous  assistance  in  the  preparation 
of  the  work.  To  economize  in  space  and  to  avoid  crowding  up  the  text,  the  name  of  the 
author  from  whom  information  has  been  derived  has  not  been  inserted  after  each  quotation; 
but  a  list  of  all  works  which  have  been  consulted,  and  from  which  extractions  have  been 
made,  will  be  found  at  the  commencement  of  each  volume. 

It  is  intended,  with  the  view  of  meeting  the  changes  which  are  constantly  taking  place 
in  the  materiel  of  armies,  new  processes,  military  inventions,  etc.,  to  issue  a  Supplement  at 
suitable  intervals,  containing  all  alterations  and  additions. 

Unitkd  States  Mtutaky  Academy 
West  Point,  New  York,  1885 


LIST  OF  WORKS  CONSULTED  OK  EXTRACTED  FROM. 


Aide-M^moire  de  lOfBcler  d'fttat-Major.    M.  de  Rouvre. 

Aide-M«''moire  to  the  Military  Sciences. 

Almanacb  de  Ootha.  ISTfi. 

American  Univeraal  Cyclopedia. 

Ammunition,  Treatise  on,  1874.    Published  by  English  au 

thority. 
Analytical  Digest  of  the  Jlilitary  Laws  of  the  U.  S.    Scott. 
Apervus  em  quclques  Details  de  la  Guerre.    Bugeaud. 
Archives,  German  Military. 
Armies  of  Asia  and  Europe.    Upton. 
Arms  and  Annour.    Boutell. 

Army  and  Xavy  Pension  La«-s.    Mayo  and  Moulton. 
Army  Circulars.    Publishe<i  by  the  English  War  Office. 
Art  and  Science  of  War.    WTieeler. 
ArtiUerist  's  Handbook  of  Reference.    WeU  and  Daltou. 
ArtillerLst's  Manual.    Gibl)on. 
Artillerist's  Manual,  Uth  edition.    GrifBths. 
Artillery  and  Infantry.    Kingsbury. 
Artillery,  Dictionary  of.    Cotty. 

Artillery  Exercises,  Field,  Changes  in,  in  1ST3.    Phlllpotts. 
Artillery  Institution  Papers. 

Artillery,  Lectures  on.    Owen  and  Dames. 

Artillery,  Modem.    Owen. 

Artillery,  TreaU.se  on.    Boxer. 

Art  of  War.    Graham. 

Art  of  War.    Jomini. 

Astronomical  Atlas.    Milner. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Evidence.    Greenleaf. 

Baker's  Elements  of  Mechanism. 

Balfour's  Encyclopedia  of  India. 

Battles  of  the  Revolution,    Carrington. 

Blue  Books  (Parliamentary). 

Bourne  on  the  Steam  Engine. 

Brande  and  Cox's  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art, 
1875. 

Campaign  In  Germany,  1866.    Prussian  Staff. 

Campaigns  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.    Swinton. 

Cape's  Mathematics. 

Cavalry  Manual.    AinsUe. 

Chambers's  Encyclopedia. 

Change  of  MatZ-riel.    Ihiblished  by  the  English  War  Office. 

Chemistry  as  applied  to  the  Arts  and  Manufactures.    Mus- 
pratt. 

Chemistry,  Handbook  of.    Abel  and  Bloxam. 

Chemistry,  Manual  of.    O'Shaughuessy. 

Classical  Dictionary.    Smith. 

Commentaries,  with  Notes.    Blackstone. 

Conferences  du  MinLstre  de  la  Guerre  (France). 

Conferences  Militaires  Beiges. 

Construction  of  DwelUng-houses. 

Consulate  and  the  Empire.    Thiers. 

Courts-Martial.    De  Hart. 

Court«-Martlal.    Macomb. 

Cross'  and  Hetzel's  Military  Laws  of  the  United  States. 

Cummer  Steam  Engine. 

Customs  of  Service  for  Non-commiasioned  Officers  and  Sol- 
diers of  the  Army.    Kautz. 

Customs  of  Service  for  Officers  of  the  Army.    Kautz. 

Defense  of  Military  Outposts.    Jebb. 

De  la  Tactlque  des  Trols  Armes;  Infanterie,  Cavalerie,  ArtU- 
lerie.    Decker. 

Dictionary,  Handy,  of  Military  Terms.    Knollys. 

Dictionary,  Military  and  Naval.    Burn. 

Dictionary,  Military  and  Naval.    James. 

Dictifinury  of  Arts  and  Sciences.    Francis. 

Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines.    Ure. 


Dictionary  of  Every  Days  Difficulties.    Shilton. 

Uicionarj-  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.    Smith. 

Dictionary  of  Military  Science.    Campliell. 

Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art.    Brande. 

Dictiouary  of  the  EnglLsli  Language.    Johnson. 

Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.    Nuttall. 

Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.    Smart. 

Dictionary  of  the  United  States  Army.    Gardner. 

Dictionary,  Philosophical.    Button. 

Dictionnaire  Militaire  Portatif.    Le  Grand. 

Dictionnairi"  Portatif  et  KaLsonne.    Couturier. 

Die  Lehre  Vom  Neueren  Festungski-ieg.    Rilstow. 

Dienst- Vorschriften  der  Koniglich  Preussischen  Armee.    Voa 

Helldorff. 
Digest  of  Decisions  of  Federal  Courts.    Peters. 
Digest  of  Laws  of  the  United  States.    Dunlop. 
Digest  of  Laws  of  the  United  States.    Gordon. 
Digest  of  MiUtary  Laws.    Mordecai. 

Digest  of  Opinions  of  the  Judge- Advocate  General.  Winthorp. 
Electro-Ballistic  Machines.    Benet. 
Elementary  Lectures  on  Military  Law.    Tulloch. 
Elementary  Principles  of  Fortification.    Hyde. 
Elements  of  International  Law.    Wheaton. 
Elements  of  Military  Arts  and  Sciences.    Halleck. 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  1 187.5). 
Encyclopedic  Militaire  et  Maritime. 
Field-book  of  the  Revolution.    Lossing. 
Field  Exercise  and  Evolutions  of  the  Army. 
Field  Exercise  (English),  1870. 

Field  Fortification:  a  Manual  of  Military  Sketching  and  Re- 
connaissance.   Published  by  EngUsljf  authority. 
Field  Fortification.    Macaulay. 
Field  Fortifications.    Mahan. 
Field  Fortifications.    MTieeler. 
Fortification  and  other  MiUtary  Subjects  as  carried  on  at  the 

Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich. 
Fortification,    .\metti. 
Frederick  the  Great.    Carlyle. 
French  Revolution.    Thiers. 
Friend  of  All.    (jreeu. 
Frontal  Attack  of  Infantry.    Laymann. 
Geographic  PliLsique.  Historique  et  MiUtaire.    Lava. 
Grand  Military  C)|)erations.    Jomini. 
Great  Campaigns.    King. 
Grunilzuge  derTaktik  der  DreiWaffen,  Infanterie,  Kavallerie, 

und  Artillerie.    Brandt. 
Gunnery.    H5'de. 
Gunpowder.     Badeley,  Anderson,  Qoodenough,  Smith,  and 

Morgan. 
Ourley  on  Mathematical  and  Surveying  Instruments. 
Handbook  for  Field  Service.    Lefroy. 
Handbook  for  Military  Artificers.  1875.    Armstrong. 
Handbook  of  Artillerj-.    Roberts. 
Handbook  of  Natural  Philosophy.    Lardner. 
Handbook  of  the  Mechanical  Art8.    Burns. 
Heather  on  !MalhematicaI  Instruments. 
I  Heavy  Artillery  Tactics.    Tidball. 
Heerwesenund  Infanteriedienst  der  Koniglich  PreuESlscben 

Armee.    Wltzlebon. 
Hlstoire  et  Tactlque  des  Trois  Armes,  et  plus  PartlculiSrement 

de  I'Artillarie  de  Canipagne.    Favt'*. 
History  of  the  Dre.ss  of  the  British  Soldier.    Luard. 
HIstDry  of  the  Peninsula  War.    Nai)ier. 
History  of  the  Rebellion.    Teuney. 
History  of  the  War  In  the  Peninsula  and  in  the  South  of 

France.    Napier. 


LIST  OF  WORKS  CONSULTED   OR  EXTRACTED  FROM. 


9 


Holtzapffel's  Turning  and  Mechanical  Manipulation. 

How  we  are  to  Govern  Oui'selves.     Fonblanque. 

Indifui  and  Burman  Timbers.    Skinner. 

Infantry,  Cavalry,  and  Artillery  Tactics,  United  States  Army. 

Instructions  for  Armies.    Lieber. 

Instructions  for  Field  Artillery. 

Instructions  in  Military  Engineering.  Published  by  English 
authority. 

Instructions  in  the  Duties  of  Cavalry  reconnoitring  an  Ehiemy, 
for  the  use  of  Auxiliary  Cavalry. 

Instruments,  Mathematical,  Meteorological,  etc.    Queen. 

Jomlni's  Treatise  on  Grand  Military  Operations,  or  a  Critical 
and  Military  History  of  the  Wars  of  Frederick  the  Great. 
Holabird. 

Journals  of  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution. 

Judge-Advocate  and  Recorder's  Guide.    Regan. 

Knight's  Mechanical  Dictionary. 

Kriegsfeuerwerkerei  Zum  Gebrauch  fUr  die  KtiuigUch  Preus- 
siscbe  Artillerie.    Bath. 

Kri^swOrterbuch.    Loehr. 

Law  Dictionary.    Bouvier. 

Law  of  Nations.    Vattel. 

Legislation  et  Administration  Militaires.    Guillot. 

l^issons  of  War  from  the  Great  Masters.    Soady. 

Life  of  Napoleon.    Jomioi. 

Life  of  the  Duke  of  Slarlborough.    Coxe. 

Manual  for  Engineer  Troops.    Duane. 

Manual  for  Rifle  Practice.    Wingate. 

Manual  of  English  Artillery  Exercises,  1875. 

Manual  of  Instructions  for  Testing  the  Defective  Vision  of 
Soldiers.    Longmore. 

Manual  of  Military  Law.    Pipou  and  Collier. 

Manuel  coinplet  a  I'Usage  des  Candidats  au  Grade  d'OflScier 
d'Infanterie.    TurUn. 

Manuel  d' Ad  ministration  et  de  Complabilite  A  I'usage  des 
OflBciers  des  Compagnies  ou  Escadron  des  Corps  d'Infan- 
terie et  de  Ca.valerie.    Ruffln. 

Maunder's  Treasury  of  Knowledge. 

Maxims  of  War.    Napoleon. 

May  hew  on  the  Horse. 

Mechanic's  Magazine. 

Memoire  sur  divers  Perfectionnements  Militaires.    Cavalli. 

Memoirs,    fiherman. 

Method  of  Horsemanship,     Baucher. 

Militair  Conversations- Lexikon.    Von  der  Llihe. 

MiHtary  Bridges.    CuUum. 

Military  Bridges.    Haupt. 

Military  Carriages,    Close. 

Military  Carriages.  Treatise  on.    Kemmis. 

Military  Catechi.sm  and  Handbook.    Walshe. 

Military  Commission  in  Europe.    McClellan. 

Military  Dictionary.    Duane. 

Military  Dictionary.    Scott. 

MiUtary  Elngineering.    Mahan. 

Mihtary  Gymnastics.    Farrow. 

Military  I^aw  and  Court -Martial.    BenCt. 

Military  Law  Authorities.    Hough. 

Military  I>aw.    Clode. 

Military  MLscellany.    Marshall. 

Mihtary  Schools  and  Courses  of  Instruction  in  the  Science 
and  Art  of  War.    Barnard. 

MiUtary  Sketching  and  Reconnaissance.  Hutchison  and  Mac- 
Gregor. 

Military  Telegraph  during  the  CivU  War  ia  the  U.  S.    Plum. 

Motion  of  Projectiles.    Owen. 

Mountain  Scouting.    Farrow. 

Mutiny  Act  and  Articles  of  War. 

Naval  and  Military  Technical  Dictionary  of  the  French  Lan- 
guage.   Bums. 

Naval  Gunnery.    Douglas. 

Naval  Ordnance  and  Gunnery.    Cook. 


New  Bayonet  Exercise.    Kelton. 

Operations  of  War,  2d  and  3d  editions.    Hamley. 

Orders  and  Correspondence  of  General  Winfleld  Soott,  Con- 
g^ressional  Documents,  etc. 

Ordnance  and  Armor.    HoUey. 

Ordnance  and  Gunnery.    Benton. 

Ordnance  and  Naval  Gunnery.    Simpson. 

Outpost.    Mahan. 

Outposts.    Hamley. 

Pictorial  Field-book  of  the  War  of  1812.    Lossing. 

Practical  Treatise  on  Attack  and  Defense.    Jebb. 

Precis  of  Modem  Tactics.    Home. 

Principles  of  Gunnerj-.    Sladen. 

Queen's  Regulations,  18?3. 

Regulations  and  Instructions  for  Encampments  lEnglish). 

Report  on  the  Transport  of  Sick  and  Wounded  by  Pack  Aui 
mals.    Otis. 

Reports  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  U.  S.  Army,  18?i-18ftL 

Revue  d'Artillerie. 

Revue  Militaire  de  I'fitranger  (Paris). 

Rifle  Exercises  and  Musketry  Instructions. 

Rifle  Firing.    Laidley. 

Rifles  and  Rifle  Practice.    Wflcox. 

Royal  Ai-tiflery.  History  of.    Dimcan. 

Russian  Campaigns  in  Turkey,  1877-78.    Greene. 

Sandhurst  Papers. 

Science,  La,  des  Personnes  de  Cour,  d'fipfee  et  de  Robe. 

Shifts  and  Expedients  of  Camp-Life.    Lord  and  Baines. 

Short  Notes  on  Field  Batteries.    Browne. 

Simmons  on  Courts-Martial. 

Small's  Veterinary  Tablet. 
i  Some  Weapons  of  War.    Bartlett. 

Spectateur  Militaire  (Paris). 

Steam  Engine.    Burns. 

Strategy  and  Tactics.    Dufour, 

Studies  in  Tactics  of  Infantry.    Von  Scherff. 

Sur  la  Formation  des  Troupes  pour  le  Combat.    JominL 

Tableau  Analytique.    Jomini. 

Tactical  Deductions  from  the  War  of  1870-71.    Bog^uslawski. 

Tactics  and  Strategy.    Twemlow. 

Text-book  for  School  of  Musketry  at  Hythe. 

Text-book  of  Gunnery.    Mackinlay. 

Text-lx>ok  of  the  Construction  and  Manufacture  of  the  Rifled 
Ordnance  in  the  British  Service.    Stoney  and  Jones. 

The  Admim'stration  and  Organization  of  the  British  Army,  with 
especial  Reference  to  Supply  and  Finance.    Fonblanque. 

The  Armies  of  Europe.    McClellan. 

The  Art  of  Travel.    Galton. 

The  Duties  of  the  General  Staff.    Von  Schellendorf. 

The  Elements  of  Mihtary  Art  and  History.    Duparcq. 

The  Elements  of  Modem  Tactics.    Shaw. 

The  Law  relating  to  Officers  in  the  Army.    Prendergast. 

The  Military  Laws  of  the  United  States.    Callan. 

Theorj-  of  War.    Macdougall. 

The  Soldier's  Pocket-book  for  Field  Service.    Wolseley. 

Tomlinson's  Cyclopedia  of   the  Useful  Arts  and  Manufac- 
tures. 

Treatise  on  Cranes.    Towne. 

Treatise  on  Fortification.    Lendy. 

United  States  Army  Regulations. 

United  States  Bridge  Equipage. 

United  States  Revised  Statutes. 

Voyle's  Military  Dictionary. 

Weale's  Series. 

Weapons  of  War.    Demmln. 

Webster's  Dictionary. 

West  Point;   or.  Information  for  those  about  to  Enter  the 
Academy.    Farrow. 

WUhelm's  Military  Dictionary  and  Gazetteer. 

Worcester's  Dictionary. 

Youatt  on  the  Horse.    Skinner. 


ABRHENIATIOXS    OF    MODERX  TERMS,   PHRASES   ANT)   TITLES  EM- 
PLUVED  IN  FARRONNS  MILn'ARY  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


A.A.S.  {Academuv  Americancp  Socius.) 
Membt'p  of  the  American  Academy. 

A.H.  (Artinni  Bucculaureits.)  Bachelor 
of  Arts. 

A.H.C.F.M.  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions. 

Abp.    Archbishop. 

A.C.    (Ante  Chriatum.)    Before  Christ. 

A.  D,  {Anno  Domini.)  In  the  year  of 
our  Lord. 

JEt.    i^^Jtatis,)    Of  age:  aged. 

Al.    Alabama. 

A.M.    {Artium  Mafjister.)      Master  of 

Arts;  {Ante  Merirltem)  Before  noon; 

(Anno  J/unrftt   In    the   year   of   the 

world. 
An.    {Anno.)    In  the  year. 
Apr.    April. 
A.K.    (Anno  Regni.)  In  the  year  of  the 

reign. 
Ark.     Arkansas. 
A.l'.C.    [Anno  Urbis  Condit<e.)    In  the 

year  from  the  foundation  of  the  city. 
Au<t.    August. 
A  voir.     Avoirdupois. 

B.  Book;  ib.)  Born. 

B.A.     Bachelor  of  Arts.  • 

Bol.    Balance. 
Bart.     Baronet. 
Bhl.     Barrel 
B.C.    Before  Christ. 
B.C.L.    Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 
B.D.    Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
Bd.    Bound. 
Bds.    Bound  in  boards. 
Benj.    Benjamin. 
Bk.    Book. 

B.L.    Bachelor  of  Laws;  Breech-load- 
ing. 
B.L.R.    Breech- loading  rifled. 
Bp.    Bishop. 
Brig.-Gen.    Brigadier-General. 

C.  or  Cap.    (Caput.)    Chapter. 
Cal.    California. 

Cam.,  or  Camh.    Cambridge. 

Caps.    Capitals. 

Cant.    Captain. 

C.B.    Companion  of  the  Bath 

C.  C.  P.    Cou  rt  of  Common  Pleas. 

C.E.    Civil  Engineer. 

Cent.    iCentum.)    A  hundred. 

C.J.    Chief  Justice. 

CO.    Commanding  officer. 

Co.    Company. 

Col.    Colonel :  Colorado. 

Com.    Commodore. 

Conn.,  or  ct.    Connecticut. 

Cor.    Corinthian. 

Cor.  Sec.    Corresponding  Secretary. 

Crim.  Con.  Criminal  Conversation : 
AduUer>'. 

Ct.    Cent. 

Cts.    Cents. 

Civt.    Hundredweight. 

D.,  or  d.    Penny,  or  pence. 

Dan.     Daniel. 

D.A.Q  M.G.  DcDuty  Assistant  Quarter- 
master-General. 

D  C.    District  of  Columbia. 

D.C.L.    Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.D.  (Divinitatia  Doctor.)  Doctor  of 
Divinity. 

Dea.     Deacon. 

Dvc.    December. 

Del.    Delaware. 

Dep.     Deputy. 

Dept.    Department. 

Deut.     I)eutercnif>iny. 

De/t.,  (ir  d/t.     Defendant. 

Dint.     District, 

Dist.  Atty.    District  Attorney. 

ditti},  or  do.    The  same. 

D.M.     Doctor  of  Music. 

DoU.    ($)    Dollars. 

Dot.     Dozen. 

Dr.    Doctor;  Debtor;  Dram. 

D.V.    {Deo  Volente.)    God  willing. 


Dvt.    Pennyweight. 

E.    East. 

Ed.    Edition;  Editor. 

Edu:    Edward. 

E.g..  or  e.g.  (exempli  gratia.)  For  ex- 
ample. 

Eliz.    Elizabeth. 

E.  N.  E.    East  -  North-East. 

Eph.    Ei)hesian3. 

Esq.     Esquu'e. 

et.  al.    (et  alii.)    And  others. 

etc.,  or  (tc.    {et  cwtera.)    And  so  forth. 

et  seo.  (et  seanentia.)  Ajad  what  follows. 

Exoa.     Exodus. 

E.rpl.    Explanation. 

Ez.    Ezra. 

Ezek.    Ezekiel. 

Fahr.    Fahrenheit. 

Feb.    February. 

F.G.     Fine  grain;  Field-gun. 

Fl.,  or  Floi\    Florida. 

Fred.    Frederic. 

FK.S.    Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.S.    Field-service. 

Ft.    Foot,  or  feet. 

Fur.    Furlong. 

Ga.    Georgia. 

G.B.    Great  Britain. 

O.C.    Goc<l  conduct. 

G.C.B.    Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

Gen.    Genera!;  Genesis. 

Geo.    George;  Georgia. 

Oov.    Governor. 

Gov.-Gen.    Governor-General. 

G.S.    General  service. 

G.S.  ir.    General  service  wagon. 

H.,  or  fl.    Hour. 

Hab.     Hahakkuk. 

H.B.M.    His.  or  Her,  Britannic  Majesty. 

H.C.    House  of  Commons. 

Ileh.     Hebrews. 

Hltd.     Hogshead. 

H.L.    House  of  Lords. 

H.Af.     His.  or  Her.  Majesty. 

H.M.S.  His,  or  Her,  Majesty's  Ship,  or 
Service. 

Hon.    Honorable. 

Hos.    Hosea. 

H.R.    House  of  Representatives. 

H.R.H.    His,  or  Her,  Royal  Highness. 

Hnnd.    Hundred. 

/.,  or  Isl.    Island. 

//i..  Ibid.    (Ibidem.)    In  the  same  place. 

/(/.    {Idem.)    The  same. 

i.e.     (id  est.)    That  is. 

I.II.S.  (/e.*fHs  Ilominum  Salvator.)  Jesus 
the  Saviour  of  men. 

///.     Illinois. 

In.     Inches. 

Incofj.    {Incognito.)    Unknown. 

Ind.     Indiana. 

I.y.R.I.  {lesHs  XazarenuA,  Rex  Tudce- 
<prum.)  Jesus  of  Naziiretb,  King  of  the 
Jews. 

Innt.    Instant  (the  current  month). 

/«>.    Iowa. 

i.q.    {idem  (piod.)    The  same  as. 

la.     Isaiah. 

It.    Italics. 

J.    Justice;  Judge. 

Jan.     January. 

Jos.    James. 

Jtr.    Jeremiah. 

Jntt.    John. 

Jona.    Jonathan. 

Jos.    Joseph. 

Jt/sh.    Josiiua. 

J. P.    Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr..  or  Jun.    Junior. 

Juilif.    Judges. 

Jul.'   Jidy. 

Kan.     Kansas. 

KB.  Knight  of  the  Bath;  King's  Bench. 

K.C.B.  Kniglit  Commander  of  the  Bath. 

Ken.,  or  Ky.     Kentuclty. 

K.G.    Knight  of  the  Garter. 

K.O.C.    Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross. 


Ki.    Kings. 

Knt.,  or  Kt.    Knight. 

L..  or  lb.     Pound  (weight). 

L.,  /.,  or  f.     Pound  titerling. 

Im.     Louisiana. 

Lot.     Latitude. 

L.G.     Large  crain. 

L.I.     Long  Island. 

Lieut.     Lieut  enaut. 

LL.B.    Baclielor  of  Laws. 

LL.D.    Doctor  of  Laws. 

L.L.R.    Line  of  least  resistance. 

L.S.     Land  service. 

M.,  or  m.     Masculine. 

M.A.  Master  of  Arts;  Military  Academy. 

Maj.     Major. 

Mar.    JIarch. 

Mass.    Massachusetts. 

Matt.    Matthew. 

M.C.    Member  of  Congress. 

M.D.    Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Md.    Maryland. 

Mdlle.,  or  Mile.    Mademoiselle. 

M.E.    Mechanical  Engineer. 

Me.    Maine. 

Mem.     Memorandum. 

Messrs.    Gentlemen. 

Meth.     Methodist. 

Mich.    Michigan. 

Min.,  or  viin.    Minute,  or  minutes. 

Minn.    Minnesota. 

Mi.'iS.    Mississippi. 

M.L.    Muzzle-loading. 

M.L.R.     Muzzle-loading  rifled. 

MM.     Messieurs. 

Mme.    Madame. 

Mo.  Missouri;  Month. 

Muns.    Monsieur. 

Mos.,  or  mos.     Months. 

M.P.    Member  of  Parliament. 

M.P.P.  Member  of  Provincial  Parlift- 
ment. 

Mr.    Master,  or  Mister. 

Mrs.     Mistress,  or  Missis. 

M.S.    Sacred  to  the  Memory. 

MSiy.     Manuscripts. 

Mt.    Mount,  or  Mountain. 

M.T.     Mountain  train. 

Mus  D.     Doctor  of  Music. 

iV.,  or  n.    North;  Noun;  Neuter. 

N.A.    North  America. 

Nath.    Natlianiel 

N.B.  New  Brunswick;  iXota  bene)  Note 
well,  or  take  notice. 

N.C.  North  Carolina;  Non  -  commis- 
sioned. 

N.C.O.    Non-commissioned  Offlcer. 

N.E.    North-East;  New  England. 

Neb.    Nebraska 

N.F.     Newfoundland. 

N.H.     New  Hampshire. 

N.J.    New  Jersey. 

N.L.     North  Latitude. 

N.N.E.     North  North-East. 

N.N.  W.     North-North-West. 

No.    { Xnmero.  i    Number. 

Non  Sfq.  {Non  scqititur.)  It  does  not 
follow. 

Nos.     Numbers. 

Nov.     November. 

N.P.    Notarv  Public;  New  pattern. 

N.S.  Nova  Scotia;  The  New  Style  (since 
175:;). 

N.T.    New  Testament. 

N.  IV.     North-West. 

N.Y.    New  York. 

0.    Ohio. 

Ob.     (Obiit.)    Died. 

Ob.,  or  OMt.    Obedient. 

Oct.    October. 

O.P.    Old  Pattern. 

Or.    Oregon. 

O.S.    Old  Style. 

O.T.    Old  Testament. 

Ox/.,  or  Oxon.    {Oxonia.)    Oxford. 

Oz,    Ounce,  or  ounces. 

P.,  or  p.    Page;  Bebble. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


11 


Pa.,  or  Fenn.    Pennsylvania. 

Fart.    Parliament. 

Fd.    Paid. 

F.K.I.    Prince  Edward  Island. 

Fer  cent.  (Fer  ciiitum.)  By  the  hun- 
dred. 

Fh.lK  (PhHos<>phi(B  Doctor.)  Doctor  of 
Philosopliy. 

Fhil.     Phjlippiaus. 

Fhila.     Philadelphia. 

Finx.,  or  I'xt.  {Fhixit.)  Placed  after 
the  painter's  name  on  pictures:  as, 
"Turner  pxi." 

Fk.     Peck. 

Ft.     Plural 


Fiff.     Plaintiff. 
P.M. 


Postmaster:  Past  Master;  (Post 

Meridum)  Afternoon. 
P. M.  O .    Pust master- General. 
P.O.    Postufflce. 
pp.     Pages. 
F.F.C.    {Four  Prendre  Conge.)   To  take 

leave. 
Pr..  or  V.    (Per.)    By  the. 
Prcs.    President. 
Fro/.     Professor. 
Fro  tern.    (Pro  tempore.^    For  the  time 

bein(j. 
Prov.    Proverbs;  Province. 
Frox.  (Proximo.)  Nextithenextmonth). 
P.S.    (Post  Hcriptuin  )    Postcript. 
Ps.    Psalm,  or  Psalms. 
Ft.     Pint. 

Ptib  Doc.    Public  Documents. 
Ptct.     Penny  weight, 
p..  or  pit.    Qiu'ry;  Question;  Queen. 
y./>.    Quefn's  Bench. 
Q.C.    Queen's  Council. 
Q.ED.    \Qiiod  Krat  Demonstrandum.) 

Which  was  to  be  demonstrated. 
p.  3t.    Quartermaster. 
p.iU.fr.    Quartermaster-General. 
pr    Quarter   {2S    pounds) ;    Farthing; 

Quire 
Qt.    Quart:  Quantity. 
Ov.     {Quod  vide.)    Wliich  see. 
R.     (/?f-x)  King:  (/^cg/nn)  Queen. 
K.A.    Royal  Academy,  or  Academician; 

Rear  -  Admiral :      liight     Ascension : 

Royal  Artillery. 
R.C.D.    Royal  Carriage  Department. 
R.E.     Royal  Engineers. 
Rec.  Sec.    Recording  Secretary. 


Rev.    Revelation:  Reverend. 

R.F.G.     Kille  line  grain. 

R.G.F.     Royal  gtm  factory. 

R.l.     Rhode  Island. 

R.L.     Royal  Laluiratory. 

R.L.O.    Kitle  large  grain. 

R  M.A.    Royal  Jliliiary  Academy. 

R.y.    Royal  Navy. 

Rom.     Roman;  Romans. 

Rom.  Cath.    Roman  CatboHc. 

R.R.     Railrc)ad. 

Rt.  Hon.    Right  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev.     Right  Reverend. 

S.    South:  Signor:  shilling. 

6'.^.    South  America:  Small  arms. 

S.A.A.     Small-arm  anmiuuitiun. 

a.  Afr.    S<mlh  Africa. 

Sat.    Saturday. 

S.B.    Smooth-bore. 

S.C.    South  Carolina:  Scrap -carriage. 

^ic,  or  Hcidp.  iSridpsit.)  Placed  after 
the  engraver's  name  on  a  picture. 

Sch.^  or  Schr     Schooner. 

Scil ,  or  .Sc.    {Scilicet.)   To  wit;  namely. 

Script.    Scripture. 

S.E.    South-East. 

Sec.    Secretary;  .Section. 

Sen.    Senate;  Senator;  Senior. 

Sep.,  or  Sept.    September. 

Serg.    Sergeant. 

Serv.,  or  Servt.    Servant. 

S.J.    Society  of  Jesus. 

S.J.C'.    Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

S.  Lat.    South  Latitude. 

Sid.    Sailed. 

Sm.     Sanuiel. 

S.M.J.  iSa  Mojestt'  Imperiale.)  His,  or 
Her,  Imperial  Majesty. 

S.O.     Stair  Officer. 

Soc.    Society. 

Sq.    Square. 

Sq.ft.    Square  feet. 

Sq.  in.    Square  inches. 

Sq.  m.    S<piare  miles. 

St.    Sir.  or  Senior. 

SS.,  or  ss.    iScilicct.)    Namely. 

S.S.    Sea-service;  Sunday-school. 

S.S.E.     South-South-East. 

S.S.  W.     South'South-West. 

at.    Saint;  Street. 

Stat.    Statute. 

S.T.D.  (SacrcB  Theologia' Doctor.)  Doc- 
tor of  Divinity. 


Sun.,  or  Sund.    Sunday. 

Supt.    Superintendent. 

S.tV.    South-West. 

Ten.,  or  Tenn.    Tennessee. 

Tex.'  Texas. 

Tfi.,  or  Tkurs.    Thursday. 

77teo.    Theodore. 

Tr.   Translation;  Transpose;  Treasurer; 
Trustee. 

Tu.^  or  l\ie8.    Tuesday. 

Ult.    (Ultimo.)     Last,  or  Pertaining  to 
the  last  month. 

U.S.     United  States. 

U.S.A.    United  States  of  America;  Uni- 
ted .Stales  Army. 

U.S.M.     United   Slates    Mail :    United 
States  Marine. 

U.S.M. A.    United  States  Military  Aca- 
demy. 
I  U.S.y.    United  States  Navy. 

U.i>.  I'.    United  States  Volimteers. 

U.7\     Utah  Territory. 

Ko.    Virginia. 

V.C     Victoria  Cross. 

I'ice-Pres.    Vice-President. 

Urrf.    (Vide.)    See. 

Vis.,  or  Vise.    Viscount. 

Viz.    {Videlicet.)    Namely;  to  wit. 

V.n.    Verb  neuter. 

Voc.    Vocative. 

Vol.    Volume. 

V.P.    Vice-lVesident. 

V.R.     {Victoria  Regina.)     Queec  Vic- 
toria. 

Vs.    ( Versus  )    Against. 

Vt.    Veimont. 

K*    Week;  West. 

Wash.    Washington. 

Wed.    Wednesday. 

W.l.     West  India;  West  Indies. 

W.  Lon.    West  Longitude. 

Wm.     William. 

W.M.    Worshipful  Master. 

W.y.  W.    West-North-West. 

W.S.  W.    West-South-West. 

Wt.     Weight. 

Xmas.    Christmas. 

Y.    Year. 

Yd.    Yard. 

IV.    Your. 

Zach.    Zachai^-. 

Zech.    Zechariah. 

Zeph.    Zephaniah. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES  E:MPL0YED  IN  FARROW'S  MILITARY 

ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Abante.  (L.I    Before;  previously. 

A  hux.  (Fr. I    Down. 

Ab  extra.  (LI    From  llie  outside 

Ab  initio.  iL  )    From  the  beginning. 

Ab  origint.  (L.  t    From  the  oriCTU. 

Ab  oi'o  uJtque  aft  tnala.  iL.  t  From  the 
egs:  to  the  apples;  from  first  to  last. 
Roman  tiarMpiets  began  with  eggs,  and 
ended  witli  apples. 

Ahnrlu'innditii.  iL.i  From  the  founda- 
tion of  llie  fity. 

Acnmvte.  iY'r.\    On  account. 

Adiuyinitiim.  iL.)    To  infinity. 

Ad  interim.  (L.)    In  the  mean  while. 

Ad  libitum.  (L.i    At  one's  pleasure 

Ad  naiuieam.  (L.)  To  disRust;  till  dis 
(rust  is  excited. 

Adptitres  iL  1  To  his  fathers;  ie..dead. 

Ad  referendum.  (L.)  Till  further  con- 
sitleration. 

Ad  valorem.  fL.)  According  to;  upon 
the  value. 

Affaire  d'amoiir.  (Fr  I  An  intrigue: 
a  Inve-affnir 

Affaire  dliominir.  (Ft.)  An  affair  of 
honor;  i.e  .  a  duel 

A  fortiori.  (L  )    With  stronger  reason. 

A  guxto.  (ItaM  To  o;ie's  heart's  con- 
tent. 

.4  hi  Itonne  keure.  (Fr,  t  In  happy  time: 
at  a  eood  hour. 

A  la  FVani^ai.se.  (Tr.)  In  the  French 
manner. 


Ala  mode.  (Fr.i  In  fa.sliion:  fashionable. 

A  I'Angtaise.  (Fr.)  In  the  English  man- 
ner. 

A'fr.sro   (Ital  >    In  the  open  air. 

Alias  (LI  Otherwise;  e.9..  Jones,  oiios 
the  Coiint  Johannes. 

Alibi  il.  1  F.lsewhere  A  legal  defense 
bv  which  the  defendant  attempts  to 
show  that  he  was  absent  at  the  time 
and  from  the  plae""  »'  the  commission 
of  the  crime. 

Allons.  (Fr)    Come  on ;  let  us  go. 

Alma  mater  (L/l  A  nourishing  mother. 
A  name  frequentlv  applied  by  stu- 
dents ro  their  college, 

,1  Voutranre  (Fr.)  To  the  uttermost: 
the  last  extremitv. 

Alter  eqo.  (T,  (    A  second  self, 

AInmniix.  (LI  A  foster-child:  a  pupil 
The  graduates  of  American  colleges 
are  often  called  alumni. 

Amende  honorable  (Fr.i  To  make  the 
amende  honorable  is  to  make  a  i  uit- 
ahle  anolngy  for  and  confession  of 
one's  offense. 

.4mor  patrice.  (T..)  Love  of  country; 
patriotism. 

.-(Bioiirpropre.  (Ft.)    Self-esteem. 

^ncien  reqime  (Fr.)  The  old  govern- 
ment; the  French  monarchy  before 
the  Revolution. 

Anno  Domini.  CL.)  In  the  year  of  our 
Lord. 


^nno  mundi.  (L.)    In  the  year  of  the 

world. 
Annus  mirabillis.  (L.)    The  wonderful 

year. 
Antebellum.  (L.)    Before  the  war. 
Ante  meridiem.  (L.)    Before  noon. 
A  posteriitri.  (L. )    From  the  latter;  the 

cause  from  the  effect, 
A  priori.    (L.)    From  the  former;    the 

effect  from  the  cause. 
A  propos.    (Fr.)     Appositely;    seasou- 

aoly:  in  regard  to. 
Artfitnientuiii  ad  hominem.  (L.)    An  ar- 
gument to  the  man;  i.e..  personal. 
Audi  alteram  partem.   (L  )    Hear  the 

other  part:  both  sides. 
An  fait.  (Fr.)     Skilled;  accomplished; 

competent. 
Au  fond.   (Fr.)    To  the  bottom;   tho'r- 

oughlv. 
Au  reioir.  (Fr.)    Goodby,  till  we  meet 

Auto  da  fe.  (Rp.)  An  act  of  faith;  i.e., 
burning  heretics. 

Aux  amies.  (Fr.)    To  arms. 

A  rotre  sanle.  (Fr.)    To  your  health. 

Bas  bleu.  (Fr.)  A  bluestocking;  a  lit- 
erary* woman, 

Peau  ideal.  (Ft.)  Ideal  beauty.  The 
absolute  beauty  which  exists  only  in 
the  mind. 

Beau  monde.  (Fr.)  The  gay  world;  the 
wo-ld  of  fashion. 


12 


FOREIGN   WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


Bel  esprit.  (Fr.)    A  fine  mind ;  wit. 

Ben  trovata.  (ICal.)  Well  fouod;  "a 
happy  thoufcht." 

BHe  noir.  (Fr.)  A  scarecrow;  ^  hug- 
bear. 

Billet-doux.  (Fr.)  A  love -letter;  a 
"sweet"  note. 

Bizarre.  (Ft.)  Strange;  eccentric;  fan- 
ciful. 

Bl<u^.  (Fr.)  One  who  has  seen  and 
enjoyed  everj'thing.  and  upon  whom 
pleasure  palls,  is  called  blasr. 

Bvndfidr.  it,.)  lu  good  faith;  genuine: 
actual. 

BoH-gre.  mal-Qi-r.  (Fr.)  With  a  good  or 
ill  grace;  wllly-nHly. 

Bonhumie.  (Fr.)  Simple,  unaffected 
good-nature. 

Bun-Jour.  (Fr.)  Good-day:  good-mom- 
ine. 

Bou-mnt.  Fr.)  A  good  word,  i.e..  a 
witty  sayiu^. 

Ccetvr'is  paribus.  (L.)  Other  things 
beine:  equal. 

Canaille.  (Fr.>  The  rabble;  the  com- 
mon inuUiiude. 

Carte  blancht.  tFr t  Bliink  sheet  of 
paper.  To  eivea  person  nirte/ilanrht- 
Is  to  give  hiin  an  unconditional  dis- 
cretion. 

Casus  belli.  (L.»  A  case  of  war;  an  act 
which  justities  war. 

Cetlaut  nrniit  toga;.  (L.)  Let  arms 
yield  to  the  guwn;  i.e.,  miUtary  to 
civil  power. 

Celu  va  salts  dire.  (Fr.)  That  goes  with- 
out sayiuc:  follows  as  a  matter  of 
course  anti  necessarilj-. 

Chacun  a  son  goiU.  (Fr.)  Every  man  to 
his  taste. 

Ch/iteauxen  Ksp<tgne.  (Fr.)  Castles  in 
Spain;  air  castles. 

Chef  d'tvurrr.  (Fr.)  A  masterpiece ;  an 
unequale<l  work. 

Cfie  sarti,  sara.  (Ital.)  What  is  to  be. 
will  be. 

Chei-alier  d'ittdustrie.  (Fr.)  An  adven- 
turer; one  who  lives  by  his  wits. 

Chroitique  Hcandaleuse.  (Fr.)  A  record 
of  scantlals. 

Cicerone.  (ItaL*  A  person  who  acts  as 
guide  to  sighl-seers. 

Comtne  il /aut.  (Fr.)  Neatly;  properly; 
rightly;  in  "good  form.*' 

Compagnon  de  voyage.  (Fr.)  Compan- 
ion of  one's  travels. 

Compos  mentis.  (L.)  Sane;  of  sound 
mind. 

Con  amore.  (Ital.)  Eamestlj-;  zeal- 
ously. 

Con  apirito.  (Ital.)  In  a  spirited  man- 
ner. 

Corps  Diplomat  if jue.  (Fr.)  The  foreign 
ambassa<iors. 

CorpH.t  iltUcti.  (L)  The  body  of  the 
offense. 

Coup  d'etat.  (Fr.)  A  bold  stroke  in 
politics. 

Coitpdegr/ice.  (Fr.)  A  stroke  of  mercy: 
a  tliial  blow. 

Coup  de  main.  (Fr.)  A  bold,  swift  un- 
derstanding. 

Coup  d'wil.  I  Fr.  I  A  swift  glance  of  the 
eye. 

Cofite  <iu'il  cofite.  (Fr.)  Let  it  cost 
what  it  may. 

Cui  t>ono.  iL.)  Towhat (for whosel good. 

Cum  grano  salts.  (L.)  With  a  grain  of 
salt;  not  un<|ualifle<lly. 

Currente  calanio.  (L.)  Rapidly  and  flu- 
ently. 

Da  capo.    (Ital.)    From  the  beginning. 

IM  bonne  grAce.  (Fr.)  lieadily;  with 
good  will. 

D^but.  (Ft.)  One's  first  appearance  in 
society,  or  on  the  stage. 

De  facto.     (L)    Actual;  in  fact. 

De  gustibus  non  eat  di.yiutoniluin.  (L.) 
There  is  no  disputing  about  tastes. 

De  jure.  (L.)  Rightfully;  lawfully;  law- 
ful. 

De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum.  (L.)  Say  no- 
thing but  eood  of  the  dead. 

Denouement.  (Fr.)  The  catastrophe  of  a 
plot. 

ffenovo.  (L.)  Anew;  over  again :  afresh. 

iMo  volente.     (L.t     If  it  nlea.se  Go<l. 

Dernier  ressort.  (Fr.)  The  last  resource. 

De  trop.    (Fr.)  In  the  way;  too  much. 

Dieu  et  mon  droit.  (Fr.i  Ooil  and  my 
right. 

Distingue.  (Fr.)  Distinguished  In  man- 
ner. 

Distrait.  (Fr.)  Preoccupied;  absent- 
minded. 


Divide  et  impera.    (L.)   Divide  and  gov- 
ern. 

Dolce  far  niente.  (Hal.)  Sweet  do-noth- 
ing: luxurious  idleness. 
Double  entente.    iFr.i  Double  meaning; 
obscenity  in  disguise.    i(.>ften  errone- 
ously written  double  entendre.) 
I\tuceur     (Ft.\    Sweetuess;  compensa- 
tion: a  gratuity. 
Dramatis  persuiux.  (L.)  The  characters 

of  a  drama. 
Dulee  domum.     (L.t    Sweet  home. 
Dum  vivimus,  vit^imiut.    (L.  i    While  we 
.live,  let  us  live;  enjoy  life  to  the  full. 
Kclat.  (Fr.)  Spleudor;"distinction;  bril- 
.liancy. 
Klan.    (Fr.)    A  spring;   Are;  dash;  im- 
petuosity. 
Embanas  de  i-ichesses.  (Fr. )  Embarrass- 
ment of  riches;  excess  of  anything^ 
Embonpoint.  (Fr.)  Plumpness  of  figure. 
Empressemeni.  (Fr.) Enthusiasm; eager- 
ness. 
En  famille.   (Fr.)  In  family ;  by  them- 
selves. 
Enfant  gdte.    (Fr.>    A  spoiled  child. 
Enfiiitt  ten-ible.   (Fr.)  A  terrible  child; 

making  ill-timed  remarks. 
Kii  grande  toilette.     (Fr.)  In  full  dress; 

toilet. 
En  masse.  (Fr.)    In  a  body. 
En  rapport.  (FV.)    In  communication. 
En  r^gle.  (Fr.)    Asitshould  be;  in  rule. 
En  revanche.  (Fr.)    To  make  up  for  it. 
En  route.  (Fr.)    On  one's  way. 
En  suite.  (Fr.)    In  company  together. 
Entente  cordiale.  (Fr.)  A  cordial  under- 
standing. 
Entourage.     (Fr.)    Surroundings;    ad- 
juncts. 
Eutre  nous.  (Fr.)  Between  ourselves. 
E  pluribns  unum.   (L.)  One  of  many. 

Motto  of  the  United  States. 
Ergo.  (L.)    Therefore. 
Eftprit  de  corps.   (Fr.)    The  spirit  of  the 
body :  a  feeling  for  the  honor  and  inter- 
est of  an  organization. 
Esprit  fort.    (Fr.)    A  skeptic;  a  free- 
thinker. 
Et  ccetero.  (L.)    And  the  rest;  etc. 
Ex  cnthedrd.  (L.t    From  the  chair;  with 

authority. 
AVce/jtior.'iL.  I    Higher. 
tlxennt  omne».  (L.)   They  all  go  out. 
Ex  nihilo  nihil  fit.  (L.)    From  nothing, 

nothing  conies. 
Ex  officio.  tL.)    By  virtue  of  his  office. 
Ex  parte.  (L.)    From  a  part;  one-sided. 
Ex  post  facto.    (L)    After  the  deed  is 

done. 
Ex  tempore.  (L.)    Off-band. 
Facile  princeps.  (L.)  Easily  the  chief. 
Earilis  est  descensus  Averni.    (h.)    The 

descent  into  hell  is  easy. 
Fait  accompli.    (Fr. )    An  accomplished 

fact. 
Faux  jxis.  (Fr.)  A# false  step;  a  mistake. 
Fecit.  iL.)  He,  or  she,  made.    This  word 
is  put  after  an  artist's  name  on  a  pic- 
lure. 
Feb>  de  se.  (L.)  A  felon  of  himself;  a  sui- 
cide. 
Femme  dechambre.   (Fr.)   A  chamber- 
maid. 
Femmesole.  (Fr.)  An  unmarried  woman. 
Festina  lente.  (L.)  Make  haste  slowly. 
F^te  champetre.   (Fr.i    A  rural  party ;  a 

party  iu  the  open  air. 
Feuillettm.  (Fr.)  A  small  leaf .    The  bot- 
toms of  the   pages  in   French   news- 
f)aners  are  so  called,  being  given  up  to 
ight  literature. 
Fiat  Jiistitia,  mat  caelum.  (L.t  Let  jus- 
tice be  done,  though  the  heavens  fall. 
Finis  coronat  opus.  (L.)  The  end  ci-owns 

the  work. 
Flagrante  delicto.  fL.)    In  the  act. 
Fugit  hora.  (L  )    The  hour  Hies. 
Gamin.  (Fr.)    A  street-urchin. 
(iari;on.  iFr.)    A  waiter. 
(iarde  du  corps.  (Fr. )    A  body-guard. 
Oarde  mobile.   (Fr.)    Troops  liable  for 

general  sen'ice. 
Gtisronnade.  (Fr.)    Boasting;  bragging. 
Qaucherie.  (Fr.)  Awkwardness;  clumsi- 
ness. 
<7en</nmie.  (Fr.)     An  armed  policeman. 
ft'eniu.thici.  iL  t  The  genius  of  the  place. 
Oentilhomme.  (Fr.)  A  gentleman ;  noble- 
man. 
(Sennshomo.  (L.)    Tlie  human  race. 
Gloria  in  txcelsis.  (L.)   lilory  to  God  in 

the  hiirhest 
Gloria  Patri.  (L.i    Glory  to  the  Father. 
Grand  siecle.  (Fr.)  A  great  century. 


Grossierete.  iFr.)   Grossuess;  rudeness. 
Hal*eas  corpus.  iX*.)  You  may  have  the 

body. 
Hauteur.  (Fr.)    Haughtiness;  loftiness. 
IIiretubique.il,.)  Here  and  everywhere. 
Hicjacet.  (L.)    Here  lies. 
Homme  d'etat.  (Fr.)    A  statesman. 
Hani  soit qui  mat  !/  pens*:.  (Fr.)  Shame 

to  him  who  evil  thinks. 
Horribile  dietn.  (L.)    Ht»rrible  to  say. 
Hots  de  combat.  (Fr.k   Out  of  condition 

to  fight. 
HAtel  de  ville.  (Fr.)    A  town-hall. 
Ibidem.  (L. »    In  the  same  place. 
Ich  dien.  (Ger.)  I  sen-e.    (Motto  of  the 

Prince  of  Wales.) 
Ici  on  parte  Fran^ais.    (Fr.)    French 

si>oken  here. 
Idem  sonans.  iL.)    Sounding  the  same. 
I  Id  est.  (L.)    That  is;  i.e. 

Ignis  fatuus.  (L.)  A  foolish  fire;  adelu- 
'      slon. 

I  Ignobile  vulgus.  (L.)  The  ignoble  crowd. 
I  Ignotum  perignotius.  (L.)  The  unknown 

by  something  more  unknown. 
I  Imprimis.  (L.)    In  the  first  place. 
I  In  articido  mortis.  (L.)  At  the  point  of 
death. 
Index  expurgatorius.  (L.)  A  purging  in- 
dex; a  list  of  works  prohibited  lo  be 
read. 
7a  embryo.  (L.)    In  the  rudiments. 
In  esse.  (L.)    Actual;  in  existence. 
In  extremis.  (L.)  At  the  point  of  death. 
In  flagrante  delicto.  (L.)    In  the  very 

act. 
Infra  dignitatem.   (L.)    Beneath  one*s 

dignity. 
Infuturo.  (L.)  In  the  future. 
In  hoc  .vi(/no  I'inees.    (L.)    lu  this  sign 

thou  shalt  conquer. 
In  loco.  (L.)    In  place;  on  the  spot. 
In  medias  res.  (L.)    In  the  middle  of  a 

subject. 
1)1  pace.  (L.)    In  peace. 
In  pel^H•tuum .  (L. )    Forever. 
In  pi-opri/i  persond.  (L.)    In  one's  own 

person. 
In  re.  (L.)  In  the  thing;  in  the  matter  of. 
In  rem.  (L.I    Against  the  thing. 
In  so'culd  sceculorum.  (L.)    For  ages  of 

ages. 
Instantei:  (L.)    Instantly. 
In  statu  quo.  (L  )    In  the  state  in  wluch 

it  was. 
Inter  alia.  (L.)    Among  other  things, 
/lifer  nos.  (L.)    Between  ourselves. 
Inter  se.  (L.)    Among  themselves. 
In  ioto.  iL.)    Entiivlv;  wholly. 
In  transitu.  (L.)  Iu  tlie  passage;  on  the 

way. 
In  riuo  Veritas.  (L.)    In  wine  there  is 

truth. 
Ipse  dixit.  (L.)    He  said  it  himself. 
Ipso  facto.  iL  )    By  the  fact  itself. 
Je  ne  sais  quoi.  (Fr.)    I  know  not  what. 
Jeu  de  mots.  (Fr.)    A  play  upon  words. 
Jour  de  fete.  (Fr.)  Asaiut'sday;  a  fes- 
tival. 
Jubitante  Deo.  (L.)     Be  joyful  to  God. 
Jupiter  tonans.  (L.)    Jupiter  the  thun- 

derer. 
Jure  divino.  (L.)    By  divine  law. 
Jure  humano.  (L.)    B^'  human  law. 
Jus  civile.  (L.)    The  civil  law. 
Jus  gentium.  (L.)    The  law  of  nations. 
Juste  milieu.  (Fr.)    The  Eolden  mean. 
Labor  omnia  vincit.    (L.)    Labor  con- 
quers all  things. 
Laissez  faire.  (Fr.)    Let  things  alone. 
I^apsus  linguce.  (L.)  A  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Lares  et  penates.  (L.)    The  household 

gods. 
La  us  Deo.  (L.)    Praise  be  to  God. 
L'areiii'r.  (Fr.)    The  future. 
Le  fieau  monde.  (Fr.  i  The  world  of  fash- 
ion. 
Lt-se  rnc^jeste.  (Fr.)    High  treason. 
Lex  l(x-i.  (L.)    The  law  of  the  place. 
Lex  scripta.  (L.)    The  written  law. 
Lex  talionis.  (L.)    The  law  of  retalia- 
tion. 
Literatim.  (L  )    Letter  for  letter. 
Litterateur.  (Fr.)    A  literary  man. 
Locus  .'iigilli.  (L.)   The  place  of  theseal. 
Ma  chere.  (Fr  )    Mv  dear. 
Mafoi.  (Fr.)     My  faith;  upon  my  faith. 
Muifnum  bonum.  iL.)    Agi-eatgood. 
Mai.ton  de  ville.  (Fr)    The  town  house. 
Maltre  dhotel.  (Fr.)    A  house-steward. 
Major  domo.  (Ital.>    A  chief  steward. 
Maladie  du  paf/s.  i  Fr  )    Homesickness. 
Materiel.  (F.)    Opposed  to  personnel. 
Mnter  faniHias.  (L  )     The  mother  of  a 
family. 


FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 


13 


Mouiaise  haute.  (Fr. i    Bashfulness. 

Uaximum.  iL.t    The  greatest  possible. 

Ufjudice.  (L.t    In  my  judgment. 

Memento  nufri    (L.  I  "Remember  death. 

Mriiiorabitia.  iL.)  Things  deserving  to 
be  remembered. 

Mens  Sana  in  corpore  sano.  (L.)  A  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body. 

Meum  et  iuum.  (lu.)    Mine  and  thine. 

Mirabile  dictu.  (h.)    Wonderful  to  tell. 

Mise  en  scene,  (Fr.)  Putting  on  the 
stage. 

Modus  operandi.  (L.)  The  method  of 
operating. 

Jlon  ami.  (Fr.)    My  friend. 

Hot  ilordre.  (Fr.)  The  password;  coun- 
tersign. 

Muttum  in  parvo.  (L.)    Much  in  little. 

Nemine  contradicente.  (L.j  No  one  con- 
tradicting. 

Se  phut  xdtra.  (L.t  Nothing  more  be- 
yond; the  utmost. 

Xil  admirari.  (L.;  To  wonder  at  no- 
thing. 

A'i7  desperandum.  (L.)  ^Ve  must  not  de- 
spair. 

Kil'un  ni  I  autre.  (Fr.)  Neither  the  one 
nor  the  other. 

I^imptii-te.  (Fr.)    It  does  not  matter. 

Nijfi  priitn.  (L.)    Unless  before. 

Noblesse  oblige.  (Fr.)  Nobility  obliges; 
noble  must  act  nobly. 

Nolens  vtAens.  (L  )    Willy-nilly. 

Noli  me  tangere.  (L.)  Don't  touch  me; 
hand.s  off. 

Nolle  prosequi.  (L.)  To  abandon  prose- 
cution. 

Nom  de  guerre.  (Fr.)    A  war-name. 

Nom  de  plume.  (Fr.)  Pen-name ;  name 
assumed  by  an  author. 

Nttn  compos  mentis.  (L.)  Not  in  one's 
right  mind. 

Non  eat  inventus.  (L.)  He  has  not  been 
found. 

Non  multa.  sed  multum.  (L.)  Not  many 
things,  but  much. 

Nota  bene.  vL.)    Mark  well. 

Nous  ai'on.t  vhanqe  tout  ceta.  (Fr.)  We 
have  changed  all  that. 

Nous  verrou.t.  (Fr. )    We  shall  see. 

Odium  theotogicum.  (L.)  Theological 
hatred. 

Olla  p*Ml)-idft.  <Sp  )    A  mixture. 

Omnia  vincit  amor.  (L.)  Love  conquers 
all  things. 

On  dit.  (Fr.i    They  say;  people  say. 

Onus  probandi.  (L.)  The  burden  of 
proof. 

Oro  pro  nobis.  (L.)    Pray  for  us. 

O  tempora!  O  mores'  (L.)  Oh,  the 
times  1    Oh,  the  manners ! 

Otium  cum  dignitate.  (L.)  Ease  with 
dignity. 

Outre.  (Fr.)    Extravagant;  e-Vtreme. 

Par  excellence.  tTr.)  By  way  of  emi- 
nence :  in  the  highest  degree. 

Parhafard.iTT.)    By  chance. 

Pari pas.tu.  (L.)    With  equal  step. 

Parvenu.  (Fr.)  An  upstart;  a  rich 
snob. 

Pilfer  familias.  (L.)  The  father  of  a 
familv. 

Pater  patrice.  (L.)  The  father  of  his 
country. 

Pax  robUcum.  (L.)    Peace  be  with  you. 

Peccavi.  (L.)    I  have  Sinned. 

Pendente  lite.  (L.)  While  the  suit  is 
pending. 

Per  annum.  (L.)    By  the  year. 

Per  capita.  (L.)  By  the  head;  on  each 
pe-^on. 

Per  contra.  (L.)    On  the  other  hand. 

Per  diem.  (L.)    By  the  day;  everyday. 

Perse.  (L.)    By  itself. 

Per.mnnel.  (Fr.)  The  staff;  persons  In 
any  service. 

Petitio  princijiii.  (L.)  Begging  the  ques- 
tion. 

Petite.  (Fr.)    Small;  little. 


Piece  de  resistance.  (Fr.)  A  joint  of  meat. 

Piuxit.  (L  )    He.  or  she.  painted  it. 

Pis  alter.  (Fr.)    A  lasit  expedient. 

Plebs.  (L.)    The  common  people. 

Poeta  nascitur.  non  Jit.  (L.)  A  poet  is 
bom,  not  made. 

Point  d'appui.  (Fr.)    Point  of  support. 

Posse  comitaius.  (L.)  The  power  of  the 
country;  the  force  that  may  be  sum- 
moned by  the  Sheriff. 

Paste  restante.  (Fr.)  To  be  left  till  called 
for. 

Post  meridiem.  (L.)    Afternoon. 

Post  mortem.  (L.)    After  death. 

Post  obilmn.  CL.)    After  death. 

Pourparler.  (Fr.)    A  consultation. 

Pour  prendre  conge.  (Fr.)  To  take 
leave. 

Precieuse.  (Fr.)  A  bluestocking;  a  con- 
ceited woman. 

jPrei(.r  chevalier.  (Fr.)  A  gallant  gentle- 
man. 

Prima  donna.  (Ital.)  The  first  lady;  the 
principal  female  singer  in  an  ItaUan 
opera. 

Piimti  facie.  (L.)  On  the  flrst  face;  at 
first  sight. 

P)im us  inter  pares.  (L.)  First  among 
his  peei-s. 

Pro  bono  publico.  (L.)  Fbr  the  public 
good. 

Proces  verbal.  (Fr.)  Verbal  process;  the 
taking  of  testimony  in  writing. 

Pro  et  con .  (h.)    For  and  against. 

Proformd.  (L.)    For  the  sake  of  form. 

Pro  patriA.  (l..'l   For  ones  country. 

Pro  tempore.  (L.)    For  the  time. 

Punica  Jides.  (L.)  Punic  faith;  i.e., 
treachery. 

Quantum  sufficit.  (L.)  As  much  as  is 
sufficient. 

Quelque  cho.te.  (Fr.)    As  if. 

yii/rf  Muiic'  (L.)    What  now?  A  gossip. 

Quid  pro  quo.  (L.)    An  equivalent. 

Qui  Vive.  (Fr.)     Who  goes  there  ? 

Quod  erat  demonstrandum.  (L.)  Which 
was  to  be  demonstrated. 

Quondam.  (L)    At  one  time;  once. 

fiai-aavis.it..)    A  rare  bird. 

Rechauffe.  (Fr.)    Warmed  over;  stale. 

Recherche.  (Fr.)    Choice;  elegant. 

Redacteur.  (Fr.)     Ad  editor. 

Redivivus.  (L.)    Restored  to  life. 

Reductio  ad  absurdum.  (L.)  Reduction 
to  an  absurdity. 

Rentes.  (Fr.)  Public  funds;  national  se- 
curities. 

Requiescat  in  pace.  (L.)  May  he,  or  she, 
rest  in  peace. 

Res  gesttr.  IL.)    Things  done. 

Resurgam.  (h.)    I  shall  rfee  again. 

i?ei*enoii.'<  d  no^  nioi/fons.  iFr. )  Let  us 
return  to  our  sheep;  come  back  to  the 
subject. 

Robe  de  chambre.  (Fr.)  A  dressing-gown. 

Roue.  (Fr.)    A  rake. 

Rouge  et  noir.  (Fr.)  Red  and  black  (a 
game). 

Sanctum  sanctorum.  (L.)  The  holy  of 
holies. 

.Sangfroid.  (Fr.)  Cold  blood;  self-pos- 
session. 

Sans  culottes.  (Fr.)  Without  breeches ; 
red  republicans. 

Sartor  resartus  (L.)  The  tailor  patched. 

Sauve  qui  pent.  (Fr.)  Save  himself  who 
can. 

Savoir-faire.  (Fr.)  Knowing  how  to  do 
things. 

Satoir-iiiTe.  iTr.)  Knowledge  of  the 
world. 

Semper  idem.  (L.)    Always  the  same. 

Semper  paraius.  (L.)  Always  prepared. 

Seqxiitur.  CL.)    It  follows. 

Sertadni.  (L  )    In  order. 

Sic  iiur  ad  astra.  (L.)  Thus  men  go  to 
the  stars. 

Sic  semper  t'lrannis.  (L.)  Thus  always 
with  tyrants.    The  motto  of  Virginia. 


Sic  transit  gliyria  mundi.  (L.)  So  | 

the  glory  of  the  world. 
Similia  stmilibus  curantur.   (L.)    Like 

is  cured  by  like. 
Sine  die.  (L.  i    Without  a  day. 
.Sine  qua  non.  (L.)  Without  which,  not; 

an  indispensable  condition. 
Soidisant.  (Fr.)    Self-styled. 
Spirituel.  <  Fr. )     Witty. 
Status  quo.   (L.)    The  state  in  which; 

the  former  state. 
Stet.iL.)    Let  it  stand. 
Suai*l(ei-   in   modo.  fortiter   in    re.  (L.) 

Gently  in  manner,  bravely  in  action. 
Sub  rose.  (L  )   Under  the  rose;  secretly. 
Hui  genei-is.  [L.)    Of  its  own  kind. 
Sumiiiuiii  bonum.    (L.)     The  supreme 

good. 
Tableau  vivant.  (Fr.)    A  living  picture. 
Tahle  d'hote.  iFr.)    A  public  ordinary; 

dinner  at  a  fixed  price. 
Tabula  rasa.  (L.)    .V  smooth  tablet;  a 

blank. 
Tant  mieux.  (Fr.)    So  much  the  better. 
Tant  pis.  iFr.)   So  much  the  worse. 
Te  Deum  laudamus.  (L.)  Thee,  God,  we 

praise. 
Tempora  mutantur,  et  nos  mutamur  in 

illis.    (L.)       Times   change,    and   we 

change  with  them. 
Tempus  fugit.  (L.)    Time  flies. 
Terra  finna.  (L.  I    Solid  earth. 
TeiTa   incognita.    (L.)       An    unknown 

country. 
Tete-a-tete.  (Fr.)    Head  to  head ;  in  pri- 
vate conversation. 
Tiers  elat.  (Ft.)    The  third  estate;  i.e., 

the  commons. 
Totidem  verbis.  (L.)     In  just  so  many 

words. 
Tour  deforce.  (Fr.)    A  turn  of  strength. 
Tout  ensemble.  (Fr.)    The  whole  taiken 

together, 
rout /<■  monde.  (Fr.)    Everybody. 
Trottoir.  (Fr.)    The  pavement. 
Tu    quoque,    Brute!   (L.)     Thou,    too, 

Brutus. 
Ubi  libertas,  ibi  patria.  (L.)  Where  lib- 
erty is,  there  is  my  country. 
Vbi  supra.  (L.)    As  mentioned  above. 
Ultima   rhule.   (L.)    Uttermost  Thule; 

the  end  of  the  earth. 
Usque  ad  imiUK-nm.  (L.)    Till  it  was,  or 

is.  absolutely  sickening. 
C'(i7e  dulci.   (L.)     The  useful  with  the 

sweet. 
Ut  infra.  (L.)     As  below, 
Ut  supra.  (1j.)    As  above. 
Vade  mecum.  (It.)    Go  with  me ;  a  com- 
panion. 
r<p  i'ic/i».  (L.)     Woe  to  the  vanqtiished. 
Vale.  (L.)    Farewell. 
Fa/efde  c/iOKihre.  (Fr.)    A  servant 
Feni,  vide,  vici.  (L.)     I  came,  I  saw,  I 

conquered. 
Verbatim  et  literatim.  (L.)    Word  for 

word ;  letter  for  letter. 
Verbum  .sat  sapienti.  (L.)    A  word  to 

the  wise  is  sumcient. 
rid.  (L.)    By  way  of. 
X'ide.  (L.)    See. 
Videlicet.  CL.)    Namely. 
Vinculum  matrimonii.  (L.)    The  bond 

of  matrimony. 
Vis  a  vis.  (Fr.)    Face  to  face. 
Vis  inert iw.  (L.)  The  force  of  inactivity. 
Vis  viva.  (L.)    Living  force. 
Vivdvoce.  (L.)    By  the  lining  voice. 
Fife  la  bagatelle.    (Fr.)       Success   to 

trifles. 
Vive  la  Reine.  (Fr.)  Long  live  the  Queen. 
Viiv  lEmpereur.  (Fr.)     Long  live  the 

Emperor. 
Vive  le  Roi.  (Fr.)    Long  live  the  King. 
Voila.  (Fr.  I    See  there;  behold. 
Vox,  et  prceterea  nihil.  (L.)     A  voice, 

and  nothing  more. 
I'ox  popxtti,  vox  Dei.  (L.)    The  voice  of 

the  people  is  the  voice  of  God. 


INDEX  OF   MATTERS  NOT  HAVING   SPECIAL  ARTICLES. 


At  the  close  of  Volume  III.  w\\\  be  found  an  Index  of  Subjects  not  having  Speciai, 
Articles.  It  has  noi  been  thought  necessary  to  repeat  in  this  Index  the  titles  of  the 
many  thousand  articles  composing  the  body  of  the  work.  A  person  consulting  the 
Encyclopedia  is  supposed,  iu  the  first  instance,  to  look  for  the  subject  he  is  in  quest  of  in 
its  proper  alphabetical  place.  If  it  is  not  to  be  found  there,  or  by  a  cross-reference,  by 
turning  to  the  Index  he  is  likely  to  get  a  reference  to  it  under  another  name,  or  as  coming 
in  for  notice  in  connection  with  some  other  subject.  It  frequently  happens  that  subjects, 
having  articles  of  their  own,  are  further  noticed  under  other  hcad.s;  and  where  it  seemed 
ot  importance,  a  reference  is  given  in  the  Index  to  this  additional  information.  The  title 
of  the  article  referred  to  is  printed  in  italics;  and  when  the  article  is  of  considerable 
length,  the  page  is  given  in  which  the  information  is  to  be  found. 


CONTINUED  REVISION. 


The  process  of  revising  Farrow's  Military  Encyclopedia  is  constantly  carried  on, 
thus  keeping  up  the  information  to  the  latest  possible  date.  These  revisions  and  additions 
will  be  supplied  every  few  years  in  the  shape  of  Supplements.  A  few  blank  pages  are 
inserted  at  the  close  of  each  volume  for  the  purpose  of  noting  the  reference  to  the  various 
articles  in  the  Supplements,  which  would  naturally  find  alphabetical  arrangement  in  the 
respective  volumes. 


LIST  OF   MAPS   AND   FULL-PAGE   ILLUSTRATIONS   IN    VOLUME    \. 


Africa,  .  .  .  . 

Arms,        .... 

Asia,    .... 

Balloons, 

Boilers,         .  .  .  . 

Canada,    .... 

Cannon,  etc..  Antique, 

Catapults,  etc., 

Dbnuark,       .  .  .  . 

Dredge,    .... 

Electricity.  .  .  .  . 

England  and  Wales.   . 

Equipment  and  Accocterments, 

Europe,    .... 

Flags,  ,  .  .  . 

Fortification,    . 

France,  .  .  .  . 

Furnaces,  Reducing  Ores,  etc., 

Germ.vn  Empire, 

Guns,   .... 


PAGE 

24 
74 
111 
131 
204 
274 
275 
309 
460 
502 
537 
571 
579 


585 
672 
694 
703 
720 
761 
796 


ABACA. — The  fibre  of  a  species  of  plantain  or 
banana,  Miwi  Troghxlytarum,  a  native  of  the  Phil- 
ippine Isles,  where  it  is  extensively  cultivated.  The 
leaf-stalks  are  split  into  long  stripes,  anil  the  fibrous 
part  is  then  sc|iarateil  from  the  fleshy  pulp.  A 
laborer  can  in  this  way  produce  daily  .'iO  lbs.  of 
hemp.  Before  1825  the  quantity  prothiced  was  in- 
significant, but  now  it  amounts  to  nearly  31,000  tons 
annually.  In  Manilla  there  is  a  steam  rope-work  for 
making  ropes  of  it  for  naval  and  inililary  purposes. 
They  are  durable,  but  not  very  flexible.  The  fibre  of 
a  number  of  species  of  M-Usa  is  used  in  tropical 
coimtries. 

ABAISSE.— A  term  used  in  Heraldry.  When  the 
fesse  or  any  other  armorial,  figure  is  depressed,  or 
situated  below  the  centre  of  the  shield,  it  is  said  to  be 
dbai»S('.  AdoKHe  (back  to  back),  uffroute  or  eonfnmtr 
(facing  or  fronting  one  another),  nitinixst'  (sharpened 
at  the  point),  niU,  (winged),  are  other  heraldic  terms 
iKirrowed,  like  abaisse,  from  the  French,  and  used  by 
English  heralds  in  senses  not  differing  essentiallj' 
from  their  ordinary  significations  in  that  language. 
See  Heraldry. 

ABAHTTKUS, — A  buttress,  or  second  wall,  built  to 
strengthen  another.  These  are  frequently  employed 
in  forlifieations. 

ABANDON. — This  term  in  a  militarj'  sense  signifies 
to  retire  suddenly  from  a  place,  fortified  or  other- 
wise, thus  leaving  it  and  the  inhabitants  to  the  mere}' 
of  the  enemy.  Abandoning  any  fort,  post,  guard, 
arms,  ammunition,  or  colors  without  good  cause  is 
punishable  as  provided  in  the  42d  Article  of  War. 
The  term  abandon  is  also  used  in  the  relinquithment 


o_^o 


significative  of  some  base  or  ungentleman-like  act  on 
lh<'  part  of  the  bearer.  The  coat  is  then  said  to  be 
aliated,  or  lowered  in  dignity.  Guillini  gives  nine 
such  marks,  all  of  which  are  of  either  one  or  the 
other  of  the  two  disgraceful  colors,  tenne  (tawny) 
and  sanguine.  Such  are  the 
delf  tenne,  assigned  to  him 
who  revokes  his  challenge;, 
the  escutcheon  reversed  san- 
/  |\,         giiine,    proper     to    him     who 

-  I      >       offends  the  chastity  of  virgin, 
^    -— .    \^        wife,  or  widow,   or  flies  from 
^      \^      \      his    Sovereign's    banner;     the 
^^^^^^^^^      ]ioint-dexter  tenne,  due  to  him 
"  who   overmuch  boast eth   him- 

.Miatement.  j,^^,,f  ^,f    j^j^  n,.,rtial    acts;    and 

the  like.  Marks  of  al>atement  arr  generally  repu- 
diated by  the  best  heraldic  authorities.  Mencstrier 
calls  them  sottims  mif/luixi's,  and  Jloutagu  is  of 
opinion  that  we  shall  seek  in  vain  for  a  more  appro- 
priate designation.  Almtements  are  carefully  to  be 
distiugiiished  from  such  subtractive  alterations  in 
coats-of-arms  as  signify  juniority  of  birth,  or  removal 
from  the  principal  house  or  senior  branch  of  the 
family.  These  are  commonly  called  marks  of 
cailcnc}',  distinctions,  differences,  or  brisures.  The 
lalter  term  is  generall.v  ajiplied  to  marks  of  bastardy, 
which  might  with  less  impropriety  be  classed  with 
abatements.     See  Heraldry. 

ABATIS — ABATTIS.— An  accessory  means  of  de- 
fence formed  by  cutting  off  the  smaller  branches  of 
trees  felled  in  the  direction  from  which  the  enemy 
may  be  expected.    It  is  readily  seen  in  the  drawing 


Abatis. 


of  a  military  post,  district,  or  station,  or  the  breaking 
up  of  a  milit.ary  establishment. 

ABASE. — An  old  word  signifjing  to  lower  a  flag. 
Abaisser  is  in  use  in  the  French  Marine,  and  both  are 
probably  derived  from  the  still  older  abeigli,  to  cast 
down,  to  humble.  In  Heraldry,  abased  is  used  of 
certain  annorial  bearings,  when  turned  downward 
toward  the  ))oint  of  the  shield.     See  Heraldry. 

ABATEMENT.— In  Heraldry,  a  mark  placed  over 
a  portion  of  the  paternal  coat-of-arms  of  a  family, 


how  an  abatis  placed  at  »',  will  impede  the  approach 
of  the  enemy  advancing  over  the  clacis  slope  k,  and 
e.vpose  his  front  to  a  galling  fire  ?rom  the  principal 
guns  of  the  work.  The  ends  of  the  larger  branches 
are  sharpened,  and  the  butts  of  the  limbs  or  trees 
fastened  b.v  crochet-picket,  or  by  imbedding  in  the 
earth,  so  that  they  cannot  be  easily  removed.  In 
redoubt.s  or  intrenchments  they  are  usually  fixed  in 
an  upright  position  against  the  counterscarp,  or  at  the 
foot  of  the  glacis,  the  plane  of  which  is  broken  so  as 


ASDUCTIOK. 


ABSOLUTE  FORCE  OF  OUNPOWBEB. 


to  conceal  the  nlmtis  from  the  y'ww  of  the  enemy,  and 
to  jrviard  a^iinst  dtistructin^'  ihe  musketry-tire  from 
tUi'"l>anipet  in  their  rear.  Abatis  arv  alse)  an  excel- 
lent means  of  lil.K-kinsr  up  a  road,  when  trees  grow- 
on  either  side.  If  lirjinches  are  properly  placed,  and 
intertwined  one  within  another,  thiir  discngjigenient 
is  extremely  illllieult.  An  alnitis  will  always  1h' 
found  a  verV  useful  and  etfeetive  auxiliary  to  the  de- 
fence of  housesor  isolated  post*,  if  judiciously  placed 
within  nmm'  of  musketry.  When  close  in  front  of 
the  windows  on  the  groiind-tloor.  or  used  as  a  cover 
to  the  entrance-<i(H)r.  it  will  be  extremely  <lilticult  f()r 
the  cnemv  to  force  his  way  int<)  the  building.  It  is 
vrry  readily  sten  how  u  i)rotile  may  be  much 
strengthened  by  planting  n  row  of  palisades  in  the 
ditch,  or  even  by  driving  stakes  into  it.  and  sharix'n- 
ing  them,  or  inaking  a  perix'ndicuhir  abatis,  by 
l)lanting  brushwood  upright  in  the  l)Ottom,  with  the 
ends  sharpened.  An  expeditious  way  also  of  adding 
to  the  dillieulties  of  an  as«iult  is  S(>eii  where  common 
hurtlivs  or  gates,  rails  or  brushwood,  laid  on  the 
ground  soon  after  conuuencing  the  work,  with  their 
extremities  l)uried  under  the  iiarapet,  may  be  made 
use  of  ;  the  earth  underneath  them,  not  .shown  in  the 
figure,  should  be  cut  awaj-  Avhen  the  ditch  has  been 
sunk  to  its  full  depth.  See  Accessory  Meant  of  De- 
fence. 

ABDUCTION.— The  diminishing  the  front  of  a  line 
or  column  by  breaking  off  a  division.  sub-di\Tsion,  or 
files,  in  order  to  avoid  some  obstacle. 

ABET. — To  encourage  by  aid  or  countenance;  for- 
merly used  in  a  goo<l,  but  iiow  chielly  iu  a  bad  sen.se. 
It  is  a  grave  crime  to  aid  or  abet  in  mutiny  or  sedi- 
tion, or  excite  resistance  against  lawful  orders.  Any 
officer  or  soldier  who,  being  present  at  any  luutiny 
or  sedition,  docs  not  use  his  utmost  endeavor  to  sup- 
press the  same,  or.  having  knowledge  of  any  intended 
mutiny  or  sedition,  does  not.  without  delay,  give  in- 
fonuation  thereof  to  his  commanding  officer,  shall 
suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  Court- 
Martial  may  direct. 

ABLE-BODIED. — A  tenu.  in  a  militarj'  sense,  ap- 
pljing  to  one  who  is  physically  competent  as  a  sol- 
ilier  for  all  duty. 

ABLECTI.— An  ancient  military  term  applied  to  a 
select  body  of  men  taken  from  the  Extraordinarii  of 
the  Roman  army  to  serve  as  a  body-guard  to  the 
Commanding  General  or  the  Consul.  'The  guard  con- 
sisted of  forty  mounted  and  one  hundred  and  sixty 
disnHJunted  men. 

ABOLLA. — A  military  robe  of  thick  woollen  stuff 
(lined  or  doul)led)  worn  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans. 

ABOMINATION  OF  DESOLATION.— The  Roman 
standard  which  was  set  up  in  the  Temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem, to  which  the  soldiery  offered  sacrifices  as  to  an 
idol. 

ABOUT. — A  technical  word  to  exjiress  the  move- 
ment by  which  a  body  of  troops  or  artillery -carriages 
chnnires  front. 

ABRADANT. — A  material,  generally  in  powder, 
tised  in  the  armory  for  grinding,  The  term  includes 
emery,  sjind,  glass,  and  many  other  materials.  Laps, 
glazers,  ritles, j)a|x;r,  etc.,  are  armed  with  al)nulants. 
ABBI. — A  French  fenn  signifying  shelter,  cover, 
concealment;  arm-sheds  in  a  cam])  secure  from  rain, 
du.st,  etc.;  place  of  security  from  the  effect  of  shot, 
shells,  or  attack. 

ABSENCE. — Every  offl<-er  commanding  a  regiment 
or  an  independent  troop,  battery,  or  company,  not  in 
the  tield,  may,  when  actually  i|uartered  witli  such 
command,  gnmt  furlousbs  to  the  enlisted  men,  in 
such  numlMTs  and  for  such  time  as  he  shall  deem 
consistent  with  the  gooil  of  the  si-rvice.  Every  officer 
commanding  a  reiriment.  or  an  independent  troo]), 
battery,  or  company,  in  the  tield,  may  grant  fur- 
loughs not  excecdiMLT  thirty  <lays  at  one  time,  to  five 
per  centum  of  the  enlisted  men.  for  good  conduct  in 
the  line  of  duty,  but  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
communder  of  the  forces  of  which  said  enlisted  men 


form  a  jiart.  Every  company  officer  of  a  regiment, 
commanding  any  troop,  l)attery,  or  company  not  in 
the  field,  or  conunanding  in  any  garrison,  fort,  post, 
or  barnick,  may,  in  the  absence  of  his  field-officer, 
gnmt  furloughs  to  the  enlisted  men,  for  a  time  not 
exceeding  twenty  days  in  six  montlis,-  and  not  to  more 
than  two  persons  to  l)e  absent  at  the  same  time. 

Any  soldier  who  absents  himself  from  his  troop,  bat- 
tery, company,  or  detjichment,  without  leave  from  his 
commanding  "officer,  shall  !«  punished  as  a  Court-Mar- 
tial  may  direct. 

Any  officer  or  soldier  who  fails,  except  when  pre- 
vented by  sickness  or  other  necrssity,  to  repair,  at  the 
fixed  time,  to  the  place  of  parade,  exercise,  or  other 
rendezvous  appointed  by  his  commanding  officer,  or 
goes  from  the  sjime.  without  leave  from  his  com- 
mamling  officer,  before  he  is  dismissed  or  relieved, 
shall  be  punished  as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

ABSOLUTE  FORCE  OF  GUNPOWDER.— The  abso- 
lute force  of  gunpowder  is  measured  by  the  pressure 
which  it  exerts  when  it  exactly  tills  the  space  in  which 
it  is  fired.  Various  experiments  have  been  made  to 
determine  mechanically  the  absolute  expansive  force 
of  fired  gunpowder,  but  with  widely  different  results. 
Robins  estimated  it  at  1000  atmospheres,  Ilutton  at 
1800,  D'Antoni  from  1400  to  1900,  and  Rumford  car 
ried  it  as  high  as  100,000  atmospheres.  These  discre- 
pancies arise,  in  a  great  measure,  from  the  verj-  great 
difference  which  exists  Ix-tween  the  expansive  force  of 
the  ga.ses  in  the  different  mo- 
ments of  combustion,  ami  from 
a  want  of  coincidence  in  the  ob- 
servations! 

The  apparatus  used  by  Rum- 
ford  to  determine  this  point  con- 
sisted, essentially,  of  a  small 
eprouvette,  E,  capable  of  holil- 
ing  exactly  25  grains  of  powder. 
The  orifice  wa.s  closed  with  a 
heavy  weight,  and  the  powder 
was  fired  by  heating  the  stem  of 
the  eprouvette,  S,  with  a  red-hot , 
csmnon-ball,  B.  For  the  first  I 
trial  he  filled  the  eprouvette 
with  25  grains  of  the  best  quality  of  dry  powder,  and 
rested  upon  the  cover  the  knob,  C,  of  a  24-pdr.  gun, 
whose  W'cight  was  8081  lbs.  Notwithstanding  Its 
great  strength,  the  eprouvette  was  burst  at  the  first 
fire  into  two  pieces,  and  the  24-pdr.  was  rai.sed. 
Rimiford  endeavored  to  .show  from  the  weight  thus 
raised  that  the  pressure  of  the  gases  on  the  sides  of 
the  eprouvette  was  greater  than  10,000  atmospheres. 
He  further  attempteil  to  show,  that  as  the  tenacity  of 
gooil  iron  is  equal  to  42iU  times  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  on  the  sjime  surface,  and  as  the  surface  of 
rupture  was  Vi  times  that  of  the  bore,  the  force  neces- 
sary to  produce  the  rupture  of  the  eprouvette  must 
have  been  13  X  4231,  or  55,003  atmospheres. 

There  are  circumstances  attending  this  experiment 
which  should  lie  taken  into  account,  and  which  will 
very  niatcrially  diminish  this  result.  They  are,  the 
diminution  of  the  tenacity  of  the  iron,  due  to  heating 
the  eprouvette  to  produce  explosion,  and  the  incorrect 
method  by  which  Rumforil  estimated  the  strength  of 
a  hollow  cylinder  subjected  to  a  strain  of  expansion. 

Experiments  were  continued  with  a  .similar  appara- 
tus to  determine  the  relation  between  the  density  and 
the  expansive  force  of  fired  gimpowder.  The  capa- 
city of  the  ejirouvette  was  nearly  25  gnnns.  It  was 
fired  with  various  charges  from  1  up  to  18  gnnns;  and 
the  expansive  force  of  each  discharge  was  detemiined 
by  the  smallest  weight  necessary  to  close  the  orifice 
against  the  escape  of  the  gas.  With  the  results  of  85 
trials  a  table  was  formeil,  from  w  hich  a  curve  was 
constructed  which  e.xpres.ses  the  relation  between  the 
density  and  expansive  force  of  fired  gunpowder,  from 
1  to  15  gi-airis.  I5y  analogy  antl  calculation,  this  curve 
was  conliiuied  up  to  a  cljarge  of  24  grains;  and  for 
the  density  corresponding  to  this  charge  the  pressure 
was  found  to  be  29,178  atmospheres. 


ABSTEEDAM  PERCTTSSION-ITJSE. 


ACADEMIC  BOABD. 


This  pressure  is  much  greater  than  tliat  developed 
in  the  explosion  of  projectiles  and  mines,  owing  to  the 
low  temperature  of  the  surrounding  surfaces  and  the 
large  amount  of  heat  which  they  absorb.  It  is  the 
same  with  cannon,  for  the  most  rapid  firing  does  not 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  bore  above  210  Fahr., 
which  is  much  below  that  of  the  eprouvette.  Be- 
sides, the  powder  does  not  completelj-  fill  the  space  in 
rear  of  the  ball;  and,  as  powder  bums  progressively, 
this  space  is  enlarged  l)efore  the  gases  are  completely 
developed,  and  consequently  their  density  is  dimin- 
ished. There  is  also  a  lo.ss  of  force  by  the  escape  of 
the  ga-ses  through  the  windage  and  vent. 

The  following  cquiition  expres-ses  the  relation  found 
to  exist  between  the  den.sity  imd  expansive  force  of 
charges  of  gunpowder,  from  1  to  1.5  grains,  tired  in 
an  eprouvette  the  capacity  of  which  was  25  graias — or 
in  other  words,  for  charges  in  which  the  densities 
v&iy  from  .04  to  .6:  p  =  1.841(90r)(?)'~"*'*';  in  which  p 
represents  the  pressure  in  atmospheres,  and  d  the  den- 
sity of  the  inflamed  products.  It  will  be  seen  from 
this  e<iuation  that  the  pressure  increases  more  rapidly 
than  the  density,  since  tlie  exponent  of  the  density  is 
greater  than  unity.  The  density  of  the  gases  is  equal 
to  the  weight  of  the  powder  burned  di\ided  by  the 
space  occupied  by  the  gases.  By  substituting  this  in 
the  equation,  we  can  determine  the  pressure  exerted 
at  any  given  instant  of  the  combustion.     Although 


since  tlic  value  of  p  is  not  affected  so  long  as  d  remains 
the  same.     See  Explanioii  and  Uini]X>uder. 

ABSTERDAM  PEECUSSION-FUSE.— This  fuse  con- 
sists of  a  metal  fuse-stock.  A,  closed  at  the  front  end 
by  a  screw-cap,  B;  a  movable  plun- 
ger, C,  ca.st  around  a  cone-piece,  D; 
and  a  hollow  tin  cylinder,  E.  The 
tin  cylinder,  E,  at  the  base  of  the 
plunger  is  cut  longitudinally,  so  that 
when  opened  out  into  the  recess,  F, 
at  the  ba.sc  of  the  fase-stock,  the 
plunger  is  held  in  place  securely 
until  the  impact  of  the  shell.  The 
shock  of  discharge  straightens  out 
the  tin,  freeing  the  plunger,  which 
moves  forward  to  the  cap,  B,  explod- 
ing the  musket-cap  on  the  cone-piece 
that  ignites  the  bursting-charge.  See 
Fuge. 

ABSTEEDAM     PEOJECTILE.— A 
projectile  cast  in  a  single  piece  and 
iia\-ing  an  expanding  ring  of  brass  which  projects 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  beyond  the  base  of  the  Tsro- 
jcctile.     See  Projectile. 

ABSTEACT. — A  sheet  of  a  prescribed  form  to  ac- 
company Returns,  so  prepared  as  to  consolidate  the 
contents  of  numerous  Vouchers.  The  following  is  one 
form  used  by  Quartermasters: 


Abstract  ofTranrfers  of  Funds  made  to  officers  on  account  of  the  Quartermaster' s  Department  by  - 
Quartermaster ,   U.  S.  Army,  during  the  month  of ,  188 — . 


1 

To 
whom 

trans- 

Regular ;lncldental 
supplies,  'expenses. 

Bcrracks   Transpor-    Clothing 

and       1  tation  of  |      and 
quarters,  the  Army,  equipage. 

TotaL 

"t< 

0 

i 

ferred. 

Dolls.  Cts.  DoUs.  Cts.  Dolls.  Cts. 

Dolls. 

Cts.  DoUs.  Cts.  Dolls.  Cts. 

ill 

Dolls.  Cts. 

Dolls.  Cts.  Dolls. 

1        1 

Cts. 

DoUs.  Cts. 

Total.. 

1 
1 

I  certify  that  the  above  abstract  is  correct. 


(Signed  in  duplicate.) 

this  relation  is  de<luned  for  a  particular  kind  of  pow- 
der, it  may  be  used  for  all  service-iwwders  and  ser\ice- 
charges  without  serious  error,  since  the  actual  amount 
of  gaseous  products  is  nearly  the  same  for  idl,  imd 
the  densities  of  the  highest  ser\ice-charges  never  ex- 
ceed 0.6. 

The  accuracy  of  Rumford's  formula  has  been  lately 
verified  by  a  series  of  experiments  made  by  Captain 
Rodman."  The  apparatus  used  by  this  officer  consisted 
of  a  vcrj'  thick  cast-iron  shell,  to  which  was  attached 
An  indenting  piston  for  determining  the  pressure  on 
the  inner  surface,  or  powder-ca\itj-  of  the  shelL  The 
following  table  shows  the  pressures  calculated  by  the 
fonnula  and  the  pressures  obtained  by  the  experiments, 
for  three  different  densities: 


Quariermasier  , 


Density. 

Pressure  by 
Rumford's  Formula. 

Pressure  by 
Rodman's  Experiments. 

m 

1.890  lbs. 
2.900   •• 
3.700    " 

1.066  lbs. 
2.5'»   •• 
3.230   " 

The  les.ser  pressure  obtained  by  Rodman's  experi- 
ments may  be  in  a  great  measure  explained  by  the 
facts  that  the  shell  was  not  heated,  but  fired  with  ?. 
friction-tube,  and  that  the  gas  was  allowetl  to  escape 
through  the  vent.  Further  experiments  were  made 
which  show  that  .so  long  as  the  volume  of  the  charge 
hears  the  same  proportion  to  the  space  in  which  it  is 
fired,  the  pressure  on  the  unit  of  surface  remains  the 
same,  no  matter  what  may  l)e  the  amount  of  the 
charge.    This  follows  also  from  Rumford's  formula. 


One  copy  of  an  Abstract  is  retained  by  the  officer  who 
makes  the  transfers,  and  the  other  is  sent  to  the  Chief 
of  the  Bureau  with  the  Accoun^Cu^rent.  See  .4c- 
counts-CuTTent. 

ABUSES  AND  DISOEDEES.— Every  Commanding 
Officer  is  recjuired  to  keep  good  order,  and,  to  the 
utmost  of  his  power,  redress  all  abu.ses  and  disorders 
which  may  be  committed  by  any  officer  or  soldier  of 
his  eommiuid.  If,  upon  complaint  made  to  him  of 
officers  or  soldiers  beating,  or  othenvise  ill-treating, 
any  jjerson,  of  disturbing  fairs  or  markets,  or  of  com- 
mitting any  kinds  of  riots,  to  the  disquieting  of  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  etc.,  the  said  Commander 
shall  refu.se  or  omit  to  see  justice  done  to  the  offender 
or  offenders,  and  reparation  made  to  the  party  or 
parties  injured,  as  far  as  part  of  the  offender's  pay 
shall  enable  him  or  them,  he  shall,  upon  proof  there- 
of, be  cashiered,  or  othe^\^•ise  punished,  as  a  General 
Court-Martial  shall  direct. 

ABUTMENT.— The  block  at  the  rear  of  the  barrel 
of  a  fire-arm  (esp(>eially  a  breech-loader),  which  re- 
ceives the  rearwaril  force  of  the  charge  in  firing.  It 
has  the  function  of  the  breech-plug  or  breech-pin  in  the 
muzzk'-Ioading  firearm.  A  similar  term  is  applied 
to  the  corresponding  portion  in  breech-loading  can- 
non. The  variations  in  the  ammgement  are  numer- 
ous, and  the  different  de\ices  form  the  subjects  of 
many  ])atents  in  the  Unitetl  States  and  foreign  coun- 
tries. 

ACADEMIC  BOARD.— The  Academic  Staff  of  the 
United  States  Jlilitary  Academy.  By  law,  the  Aca- 
demic Board  consist"  of  the  SuiK-riutemlent  and  the 


AC&NZI. 


ACCELEBOORAPHS. 


Heads  of  the  several  deparlmenls  of  instruction.  A 
majority  of  the  Board  constitutes  a  (luoruni.  Dissent- 
inir  niemlxTs  of  tlie  Boanl  may  present  tlieir  views  in 
a  nport  whieli  is  entered  on  the  record  anil  triuismitted 
to  the  War  Department.  The  Bo;ird  recommend 
for  the  approval  of  the  War  Department  tlie  te.xt- 
lKX)ks  best  suited  for  each  dei)artmeiit  of  instruction; 
examine  Cadets,  and  deeiile  on  their  merits,  ^nint 
diploma.s,  and  recommend  for  promotion;  and  re- 
port to  Uie  War  Department  on  the  system  of  studies 
and  instruction,  proixisiiiir  any  improvement.^  therein 
that  e-\periencc  may  liave  sugirested.  The  deliliira- 
tions  and  ili.scussions  of  the  Board  are  contidenlial, 
and  no  member  nor  the  Secretary  shall  disclose  the 
decision  of  the  Boanl  Ix'fore  the  Siune  shall  be  an- 
nouncetl  by  Jiroper  authority,  nor  shall  any  member 
nor  the  Secretary  discover  or  disclose  the  vote  or 
opinion  of  any  mcmt«r.  At  the  annual  examination 
in  June,  the  Academic  Board  examme,  arranirc  in 
order  of  merit,  and  detcnuine  the  prolicieucy  of  the 
Cadets  of  the  First  Class  iu  all  the  studies  prescribed 
for  that  class.  For  the  purpose  of  examining  the  Ca- 
dets of  the  other  diLsses,  the  Superintendent  may,  at 
his  discretion,  di\ndc  the  Academic  Bosu-d  into  Com- 
mitteis,  each  to  consist  of  not  less  than  three  members 
of  the  Board,  each  Conjmittee  to  examine,  an-an^e  in 
order  of  merit,  and  determine  the  prolicieucy  of  the 
Cadets  in  such  branches  of  st  udy  as  the  Superintend- 
ent shall  direct.  The  Superintendent  may,  at  his  dis- 
cretion, be  a  member  of  either  Conxmillee,  and  preside 
therein;  otherwi.se,  the  senior  member  of  tlie  Academic 
Board  present  shall  preside.  Each  member  of  the 
Aciulemic  Board  keeps  careful  notes  of  the  examina- 
tion, to  enable  him  to  give  fidl  and  ample  Informa- 
tion, wlien  re<iuiivd,  of  the  performance  of  everv  one 
examined.  To  insure  accurate  classilication  and  the 
a.scertainment  of  ca.ses  of  dcticiency,  every  Instnictor 
in  charge  of  a  section,  just  before  it.s  examination, 
carefully  i)repares  and  submits  to  the  Examining  Com- 
mittee a  list  of  such  section,  arranged  in  the  order  of 
merit  as  suggested  by  the  marks  during  the  term,  and 
tlie  hnpre.ssion  which  the  dxiily  recitations  have  left 
Ulion  his  mind,  noting  everj-  ca.se  of  doubtful  profici- 
ency. The  Committees  report  to  the  Academic  Board 
the  results  of  their  e.xiiminations  of  the  .several  classes, 
upon  which  report  the  Board  take  such  action  as 
they  maj-  think  proper.  The  senior  Assistant  in  the 
br.mch  of  study  under  examination  is  a  niemlier  of 
the  Academic  Board,  or  of  the  Committee,  for  all  the 
purixjses  aliove  mentionetl;  and  the  Instructor  of  the 
section  under  examinalion  is  a  member  of  the  Aca- 
demic Board,  or  of  the  Committee,  as  the  ca.se  may 
be,  for  the  purpose  of  examining  and  arranging  it  iii 
order  of  merit.  Tlie  record  of  each  Committee  is  kept 
by  im  officer  detailed  for  that  purjxjsc-,  and  is  deliv- 
ered by  him,  after  the  approval  of  tlie  i^residing  of- 
ficer, to  the  SecreUiry  of  the  Academic  Boanf, .  for 
preservation  among  the  records  of  the  Academy;  and 
no  niemlx-r  of  a  Committee,  nor  its  Secretary,  shall 
di.sclose  the  decision  of  the  Committee  before  the 
same  .shall  be  announced  by  proper  authority.  Tlic 
Academic  Board  decide  the  question  of  proticiency 
of  a  Cadet  by  vole  taken  by  ayes  and  nays  {tira  roce 
or  by  ballot,  as  the  Board  may  decide).  At  the  close 
of  each  examination  the  Academic  Board  report  to 
the  War  Department  the  names  of  all  Cadets  who  are 
deficient  in  stiidies  or  discii)line,  to  be  dis<-harged, 
unles.s  otherwi.sc  recommended  by  the  Academic 
Board.  The  Superintendent  may,  at  any  other  time, 
bring  any  Cadet  before  the  Board  to  be  examined, 
and  reported  in  like  manner,  if  found  ho)>ele.ssly  de- 
ficient. No  Cadet  is  promoted  until  he  has  com- 
pleted the  entire  course  of  studies  at  the  Academy 
and  received  a  diploma  from  the  Academic  Boanl. 
In  the  promotion  of  Cadets  the  rank  of  ea<li  corre- 
sponds with  his  standing  on  the  roll  of  general  merit 
CStablisheil  by  the  Academic  Boanl.  No  Cadet  re- 
signing his  warrant,  or  otherwise  .separated  fn)Mi  the 
Academy  before  Ihe  coinphtion  of  his  .slu<liis.  shall 
receive  an  appointment  in  the  Army  until  after  the 


promotion  of  the  class  to  which  he  belonged,  unless 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  Academic  Board;  nor 
then,  if  such  apiK)intment  interferes  with  the  rjuik  of 
any  Cadet  of  that  class.  The  Jledical  Otticers,  con- 
vened annuiilly  at  West  Point,  in  the  month  of  June, 
to  examine  into  the  physical  qualifications  of  the  can- 
didates for  admission  into  the  Military  Academy,  are 
as.sociated  with  the  Superintendent  of  the  Academy 
and  the  Commandant  of  Cadets;  and  these  Officers 
'  constitute  a  Board  for  the  purpose  of  examining  into 
the  physical  qualifications  of  the  members  of  the 
graduating  class,  and  no  member  of  that  class  can  be 
commissioned  in  the  Army,  or  attached  as  a  super- 
numerary thereto,  who,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board, 
does  not  possess  the  requisite  physical  ability  to  serve 
his  country  in  the  arduous  and  laborious  stjition  of 
a  Jlilitary  OHicer.  See  United  Statea  Military  Acad- 
eiiii/. 

ACANZI. — In  military  history,  the  name  of  the 
Turkish  light-horse  who  formed  the  vanguard  of  the 
Sultan's  aniiv. 

ACCELERATED  MOTION.— Motion  in  which  the 
velocity  is  continuallj'  increasing,  ^^^len  the  incre- 
ments of  velocity  are  equal  in  equal  tunes,  the  motion 
is  s;iid  to  be  vidformly  accelerated.  The  best  example 
of  such  a  motion  is  that  of  a  falling  body.  It  is 
found  that  near  the  earth's  surface  a  body  descend- 
ing from  a  state  of  rest  falls  16^  ft.  in  the  first 
second.  Now  a  little  consideration  will  show  that  at 
the  end  of  the  fii-st  second  it  is  moving  at  the  rate  of 
32  j  ft.  per  second.  For  since  the  velocity  was  noth- 
ing at  first  and  increased  uniformly,  Ki^,  ft.  must 
have  been  the  nuaii  velocity — i.e.,  the  velocity  at  the 
middle  of  the  time;  and  therefore  the  velocity  at  the 
end  must  be  double,  or  32,V  ft.:  82 J  ft.  is  thus  the 
measure  of  the  aeeelerative  force  of  gravity.  At  the 
end  of  the  second  and  third  seconds  the  velocity  is 
found  to  be  doubled,  trebled,  etc.,  or  64i,  96i  ft.  See 
FaUintj  liiiditit. 

ACCELERATING  FORCE.— Force  considered  only 
with  reference  to  velocity  generated  and  not  with 
reference  to  the  mass  moved.  Accelerating  force,  if 
uniform,  is  measured  by  the  velocity  generated  in  a 
unit  of  time;  if  variable,  by  the  velocity  which  would 
be  generated  in  a  unit  of  time  if  the  force  were  con- 
tinued constant  during  that  unit.  The  best  example 
of  such  uniform  motion  is  that  of  a  falling  bodv. 

ACCELERATING  GUN.- A  gun  having  additional 
charge-chambers  and  a  muzzle  covering,  with  the 
necessjiry  means  of  exhausting  the  air,  whereby  the 
atmosiiheric  resistance  is  removed  from  Ihe  front  of 
the  pnjjeclile  while  passing  along  the  bore.  As  soon 
as  the  gun  has  been  fired  and  the  ball  has  passed  the 
chamber,  the  tire  in  the  bore  ignites  the  charges  in 
the  additional  charge-chambers,  thereby  giving  the 
ball  additional  force.  The  average  penetration  with 
this  gun  in  laminated  armor  composed  of  ^-in. 
boiler-plates  is  4|",;  in.;  and  4i  iu,  in  solid  iron,  using 
a  lil-oz.  steel  bolt  8  in.  long  and  J  in.  diameter,  with 
a  charge  of  4i  oz.  ]iowder.     See  Multi-eluiryv  Gun. 

ACCELEROGRAPHS.— The  principle  has  long  since 
been  made  known  on  which  the  apparatus  called 
"  accelcrographs"  arc  constructed,  which  the  Marine 
Artillery  Service  has  adopted,  accoriliiig  to  Ihe  inven- 
tion of  Mr.  Marcel  Deprez,  and  which  are  designed 
for  measuring  the  succession  of  pressures  developed 
in  a  given  jioint  of  a  powder-chamber  by  the  com- 
bustion of  a  charge  of  powder  either  enclosed  in  a 
vessel  or  placed  in  the  bore  of  a  gun  and  acting  on  the 
projectile.  The  first  apparatus  which  were  I'stab- 
li.shed  on  this  principle  were  experimented  on  in  1873, 
in  Ihe  workshops  of  Jlr.  Bianchi,  of  Paris,  for  the 
study  of  combustion  in  a  closed  vessel;  afterwards,  in 
1874,  on  Ihe  i>roving-ground  of  the  Nevers  foundry, 
for  the  study  of  combustion  in  guns.  Since  that  time 
various  improvements  have  been  successively  made  in 
the  mode  of  constniclion  and  in  the  manner  of  em- 
plovnient  of  these  apparatus. 

The  aceelerograi>hs  llius  modified  were  emi)loyed 
sevend  years  ago,  iu  numerous  experiments,  bolli  at 


ACC£L£SOGBAFHB. 


ACC£L£BOGBAPHS. 


the  laljoratorj-  of  the  central  depot  for  powder  and 
saltpetre,  courteously  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
marine  by  the  engineers  of  that  service,  and  at  the 
proving-ground  of  the  Sevran-Livrj'  powder-works 
■with  the  double  advantage  of  proving  the  material 
and  the  powder  fabricate<l  on  tlie  account  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  marine.  In  these  trials  these  appa- 
ratus proved  convenient  for  handluig  and  of  practi- 
cal employment,  and  they  furnished  some  valuable 
obser^'ations  on  the  law  of  combustion  of  powder- 
charges,  and  on  that  of  the  development  of  the  pres- 
sures resulting  therefrom  both  in  close  vessels  and  in 
guns  of  various  calibres.  Also,  by  a  slight  modifi- 
cation of  the  aecelerograph,  employed  for  measuring 
the  pressures  developed  in  the  firing  of  guns,  this  ap- 
paratus can  be  utilized  for  determining  simultaneously 
the  law  of  the  pressure  developed  in  ^he  bore  and  the 


Fio.  1. 

law  of  the  recoil  of  the  gun.  The  accelerographs  in 
question  were  of  the  types  called  slide-aeeclerographs, 
in  which  the  law  of  the  movement  of  the  piston,  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  the  powder-ga-ses,  is  deduced 
from  that  of  the  known  movement  of  a  style-bearing 
slide  displacing  itself  in  a  direction  normal  to  that 
of  the  piston.  More  recently  there  has  been  a  return 
to  the  employment  of  accelerographs,  in  which  the 
movement  of  the  piston  is  deduced  from  the  tracing 
of  the  vibrating  fork.  We  will  describe  brietly  the 
arrangements  peculiar  to  these  diiTerent  apparatus. 
Finally,  from  the  commencement  of  the  experiments 
on  accelerographs,  trial  was  made  conjointly  of  ap- 
paratus called  accelerometers,  based  on  tlie  same 
principle,  but  which  indicated,  at  each  experiment, 
only  one  isolated  value  of  the  pressure  developed  by 
the  powder,  corresponding  to  an  arbitrary  sub(ii\-ision 
of  the  duration  of  combustion  of  the  charge.     These 


apparatus,  which  require  the  repetition  of  identical 
experiments  for  determining  perfectly  the  law  of  the 
development  of  the  pressures  produced  by  the  com- 
bustion of  a  charge  of  powder  placed  in  certain  defi- 
nite conditions,  have  lieen  applied  to  the  study  of  the 
combustion  of  powder  in  a  closed  vessel,  as  well  as  to 
the  study  of  tlie  pressure  develo)x?d  in  the  bore  of 
guns.  But  they  have  been  more  especiallj'  employed 
in  this  latter  ca.se  by  jilacing  them  in  front  of  the 
Initial  .site  of  the  projectile  for  measuring  the  pressure 
existing  against  the  "  sabot"  of  this  latter  at  the  .siune 
moment  when  it  attains  a  definite  point  of  its  passage 
in  the  bore,  because  one  single  experiment  with  this 
apparatus  .suffices,  in  this  particular  ca.se,  to  sliow  the 
value  sought.  Accelerometers  should  jjresent  dif- 
ferent arrangements,  according  as  they  are  intended 
to  be  mounted  on  fixed  receptacles  for  the  stud}'  of 
the  combustion  of  powder  in  a  closed  vessel,  or  as  it 
is  proposed  to  mount  them  on  guns;  two  principal 
tyjies  have  therefore  lx?en  established,  the  one  denomi- 
nated weight-accelerometers,  and  the  other  spring- 
accelerometers.  Fork-accelerometers  have  al.so  been 
employed  for  increasing  the  precision  obtaine<l.  V>'e 
will  describe  briefly  these  diiTerent  types,  as  well  as 
the  apparatus  which  it  was  necessary  to  create  for 
obtaining  the  "  tarage." 

Slide-aeceU'rograph ,  used  for  studying  the  comlmttion 
of  poteder  in  a  closed  vessel. — It  is  known  that  the 
aecelerograph  is  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  in- 
dicate the  law  of  the  movement  of  a  piston,  of  known 
section  and  weight,  bedded  in  a  groove  cut  nonnallj' 
in  the  sides  of  the  ptfwder-chambcr  and  subjected 
freely,  on  its  ba.se,  to  the  action  of  the  gjtses  produced 
by  the  combustion  of  the  charge.  The  apparatus 
registers  the  spaces  passed  by  the  piston  each  instant 
during  the  combustion,  and  consequently  these  pas- 
sages can  be  exactly  measured  for  very  small  and 
regularly  divided  intervals  of  time.  The  curve  of 
the  spaces  traversed  by  the  piston  is  thus  determined 
by  points  in  the  function  of  times,  and  by  a  known 
process,  which  will  be  referred  to  hereafter,  the  law 
of  the  velocities  acquired  and  the  law  of  the  acceler- 
ating forces  to  which  the  piston  hiis  been  subjected 
can  be  deduced.  According  to  these  remarks,  each 
chronograph  apparatus  should  be  composed  of  a  pis- 
ton of  definite  weight  and  section,  mo\ing  in  a  suit- 
able groove,  of  a  table  supported  by  the  piston  and 
designed  to  receive  the  registeriugs,  and  of  a  chrono- 
graphic  organ  designed  to  produce  these  registering 
tracings.  To  these  pieces  must  be  added  for  the  ap- 
paratus designed  for  studying  the  combustion  of 
powder  in  a  closed  vessel,  the  chambers  or  eprouvettes 
designed  to  contain  the  powder  and  the  preceding 
organs.  Finally,  all  the  apparatus  are  completed  by 
the  special  instruments  for  the  "tarage"  and  the  read- 
ings. Fig.  1  represents  an  accelerngraph  arranged 
for  the  study  of  combustion  in  a  closed  ves-sel,  and 
moiinted  for  that  purpose  on  apparatus  which  has 
received  the  name  of  epronvctte.  This  eprouvette 
is  composed  of  a  removable  chamber  of  steel,  with 
very  thick  sides,  in  which  the  powder  subjected  to 
trial  is  exploded.  As  a  precautionary  measure,  this 
chaml)er  is  introduced  in  a  bronze  envelope,  B,  fur- 
nished with  a  lid.  On  tliLs  envelope  is  mounted  the 
frame  of  the  aecelerograph  proper,  D.  The  steel 
chaml^er  is  closed  by  two  screw-stoppers,  arnmged  so 
as  to  form  obturators  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas.  This 
obturation  is  obtained  by  these  stoppers  terminating 
in  perfectly  adjusted  parts  and  hollowed  in  the  form 
of  basins,  whose  bevelled  edges  can  sustain  a  certain 
expansion  from  the  pressure  of  the  gases,  and  the 
higher  the  pressure  on  the  sides  of  the  cylindrical 
passage  which  they  should  stop  the  more  exactly  do 
they  fit.  The  gases  are  collected  for  analysis  by 
means  of  a  screw-cock,  K.  The  lower  stopper  is  trav- 
ersed by  a  truncated  plug  of  steel,  perfectly  ad- 
justed, prolonged  by  a  cylindrical  bar  smd  eleclncally 
msulated  from  the  body  of  the  stopper  by  the  iuter- 
po.sition  of  a  leaf  of  gold-beater's  skin  glued  with 
gum-lac.     This  plug  supports  in  the  interior  of  the 


ACCEUIBOOBAFHS. 


6 


ACCELEROORAFHS. 


chamber,  l)y  means  of  a  proloiigiUion  in  llic  form  of 
It  terminal,'  the  extremity  of  a"  very  tine  iilatiiuim 
wire,  whu'*  other  end  is  tixe<l  on  a  similar  terminiil 
communieatiujj:  with  the  body  of  the  apparatus.  This 
wire,  raised  to  a  red  heat  uniler  the  action  of  an  elec- 
tric current  brought  by  the  conductors,  ignites  the 
charge  of  powder  with  winch  it  is  i>laced  in  contact. 
The  up|KT  .stt)pper  is  traversed  by  an  oritice  in 
which  is  adjusted,  with  care,  the  piston  whose  move- 
ment is  to  be  registered.  This  i)iston  extends  through 
the  lid  of  the  bronze  envelope,  and  is  screwed  at 
its  upper  extremity  into  a  cubic  inece,  T,  which 
slides  in  the  rectangular  frame  which  is  sustained 
by  the  lid.  The  piston  and  the  cube  that  sur- 
mounts it  form  thus  a  movable  body  of  known 
■weight,  susceptible  of  being  freely  disi)lace(l  under 
the  action  of  the  force  developed  by  the  powder- 
gases,  but  only  within  the  limit  of  the  stroke  which 
the  height  of  the  frame  that  serves  as  guide  permits. 
In  the  upper  face  of  the  cube  is  fitted  an  India- 
rubber  plug,  which  abuts  against  a  screw  of  large 
diameter,  W,  which  hoMs  the  frame  at  its  upper 
part;  the  shock  which  results  from  the  arrest  of  the 
movement  is  thus  deadened.  Tlie  screw  may  be  let 
down  more  or  less,  thereby  diminishing  at  will  the 


that  of  the  slide,  which  are  affected  in  rectangular 
directions,  have  a  strictly  common  origin.  Accord- 
ing to  this  arrangement,  if  we  supixjse  that  the  pis- 
ton alone  is  displaced  while  the  slide  remains  station- 
ary, the  stylus  will  trace,  on  the  left  siile  of  the  table, 
a  vertical  line,  following  the  same  law  of  movement 
which  it  is  the  question  to  determine.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, we  suppose  that  the  piston  is  immovable  and 
the  slide  lilxirated,  the  stylus  will  trace  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  table  a  horizontal  line,  following  a  law  of 
a  known  movement.  If  the  two  movements  are  pro- 
duced simultaneously,  their  combination  will  pro- 
duce a  tracing  in  the  fonn  of  a  regular  curve  in  the 
direction  of  the  angle  formed  by  the  two  preceding 
right  lines,  which  will  serve  as  co-ordinate  axes;  and 
if  we  measure  with  precision  the  abscissas  and  the 
ordinatcs  of  the  different  points  of  this  curve,  the 
horizontjd  abscissas  giving  the  durations  of  the  tra- 
jectory of  the  stylus,  since  we  know  the  law  of  its 
movement,  we  shall  have  the  vertical  strokes  of  the 
piston  which  correspond  to  these  known  durations, 
and  consequently  we  can  ascertain  by  points  the 
curve  of  the  spaces  passed  by  the  piston  in  the  func- 
tion of  the  times.  The  readings,  according  to  the 
two  co-ordinate  rectangular  axes,  are  made  by  meana 


Fio. 


stroke  from  its  extreme  value,  which  is  about  0.05  [ 
metres  (1.988  inches).     It  is  the  law  of  the  movement  [ 
of  the  piston,  or  rather  of  the  ctibe  that  surmounts  it, 
which  is  the  object  to  be  registered.     For  this  pur-  | 
pose  a  small  stjuare  table  of  steel,  or  even  of  thick 
glass,  covered  with  lamp-black,  is  fixed  on  one  of  the 
faces  of  this  cube.     In  front  of  this  table  is  arranged 
a  small  slide  which  has  a  stylus  fonned  of  a  needle 
pressed  by  a  small  spiral  si)ring,  or,  better,  of  a  small 
flexible  and  finely  cut  steel  pin.     The  slide  slides  be-  I 
twccn  two  parallel  rails  arranged  horizontallv,  and  j 
in  this  movement  its  stylus  traces  a  horizontal  path 
on  the  table,  on  its  upper  part,  if  we  supimse  it  to  be 
immovable  in  its  initial  ))osiiion.     The  slide  is  set  in 
motion  by  the  action  of  a  triggcrspriiiL',  very  rajiid, 
which,  in  the  apparatus  represented  by  the  figure,  is 
nothing  else  than  a  strongly  extended  thong  of  India- 
rubber.     The  exact  law  of  the  movement  which  it 
takes  iHKler  the  infiuence  of  this  spring  is  also  known, 
as  will  be  shown  further  on.     It  is  kept,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  each  experiment,  at  the  extremity  of 
its  course  by  an  organ  arranu'cd  in  such  a  niuniiir  as 
to  lilK-ratc  it  at  the  jirecise  moment  when   the  iiislon 
is  set  in  motiim  under  the  action  of  the  pow<l(T-ga.ses, 
so  that  the  two  movements,  that  of  the  piston  and 


of  a  microscope,  with  crossed  hairs,  borne  on  a  slide 
which  can  be  displaced  conformably  to  two  rectangu- 
lar axes,  and  which  is  set  in  motion  in  each  of  these 
directions  by  means  of  a  micrometric  screw.  We  can 
thus  easily  make  the  readings  to  the  hundredth  of  a 
millimetre. 

Slulr  iieci'Urograph,  employed  for  stiidyinr;  the  com- 
btiHlioii  of  powder  in  guri,^. — When  the  accclerograjDh 
is  designed  for  measuring  the  pressures  developed  in 
guns,  the  piston  is  lodged  in  a  steel  bushing  like 
those  that  are  designed  for  the  apparatus  called  crush- 
ers employed  also  for  estimating  the  pressures  pro- 
duced by  the  combustion  of  powder.  This  bushing 
is  screwed  into  a  hole  pierced  in  the  sides  of  the  gun, 
normal  to  the  bore,  at  a  point  chosen  for  the  purpose, 
and  it  lerminiiles,  on  the  outside,  in  a  threaded  head 

'  on  which  is  screwed  the  frame  which  ser\'es  as  guide 
f(<r  the  cube  designed  to  receive  the  table  and  as  a 

!  support  for  the  stjius-bearing  slide.  This  frame  and 
these  organs  may  also  be  absolutely  the  .same  as  in 
the  powder-mill  accclcrograph,  and  the  Imshing 
which  holds  the  apparatus  may  be  jilaced  in  any 
jiosition  whatever,  either  in  the  vertical  plane  passing 
through  the  axis  of  the  gun,  or  in  any  meridian 
plane  inclined  to  the  vertical.     Fig.  2  represents  an 


ACCELEBOOBAFHS. 


ACCELEBOGBAFHS. 


accelerograph  insUillcd  on  a  14-centimetre  (5.31-incli) 
giin,  mudel  1870,  and  plated  in  a  vertical  position. 
The  slide  represented  by  these  figures  differs  from  that 
dcscritwd  above,  in  that  the  apparatus  is  here  ar- 
ranged for  registering  the  law  of  the  recoil  of  the 
gun,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter. 
The  only  difference  in  signalling 
with  the  powder-mill  apparatus, 
except  this  detail,  is  the  arrange- 
ment placing  the  additional 
weight  above  the  piston,  when 
there  is  room,  in  order  to  in- 
crease, as  occasion  requires,  the 
duration  of  the  unobstructed 
stroke  of  the  piston  and  to  pro- 
long it  so  as  to  continue  the 
movement  during  an  interval 
equal  to  that  of  the  passage  of 
the  projectile  in  the  bore.  This 
weight,  as  it  cannot,  on  account 
of  the  recoil  movement  of  the 
gun,  be  guided  by  a  stationary 
rod  placed  in  the  prolongation 
of  the  axis  of  the  piston,  as  in 
the  powder-mill  apiiaratus,  is 
here  left  free,  and  at  the  mo- 
ment of  the  initial  movement  gf 
the  shot  it  is  forced  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  apparatus. 
If  we  suppose  this  latter  to  be 
vertical,  as  the  figures  show,  the 
'"''  ■'■  weight  is  forced  vertically,  but 

in  conseqiience  of  the  comix)sition  of  the  ascensional 
movement  and  that  of  recoil,  it  describes  really  a 
panibola,  and  it  might  fall  on  the  gun  if  the  precau- 
tion is  not  taken  to  attach  it  to  the  extremity  of  an 
elastic  conl,  of  pro])er  length,  whose  other  end  is 
secured  at  a  fixed  point.  The  tension  of  this  cord, 
making  it  deviate  from  its  plane  curve,  diverts  It 
from  the  gun  so  that  it  strikes  the  ground  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  carriage  iuid  the  gun,  which  are  thus 
preserved  from  the  shock.  This  contrivance  is  not 
necessary  if  the  lodgment  of  the  piston  of  the  accel- 
erograph  is  placed  in  sn  inclined  position  in  regard 
to  the  vertical ;  it  is  then  only  neces.sary  for  it  to  have, 
on  the  side,  a  suflicient  space  free  to  fwrmit  the  pro- 
jection of  tlie  weight.  The  necessity  for  employing  a 
weight  of  this  kind,  if  it  is  desirable  that  the  appara- 
tus shotdd  not  reach  the  extremity  of  its  path  lx>fore 
the  projectile  has  passed  the  whole  length  of  the 
bore,  is  easy  to  demonstrate,  and  we  can  readily  per- 
ceive that  this  weight  ought  to  augment  with  the 
calibre  of  the  gun,  if  we  suppose  the  section  of  the 
piston  to  Ix;  constant  and  the  free  stroke  allowed  to 
the  apparatus  also  invariable.  We  know,  in  fact, 
that  if  two  movable  bodies  are  subjected  simulUine- 
ously  to  two  forces  which  remain  always  equal  to 
one  another  at  each  instant,  but  which,  however,  may 
be  varied  in  some  manner,  the  spaces  traversed  by 
these  two  movable  bodies,  under  the  influence  of 
these  forces,  are  constantly  in  inverse  ratio  of  their 
mass.  If,  then,  we  suppose  that  the  pressures  devel- 
oped in  the  chamber  of  the  gun  are  exerted  equally, 
at  Biich  instant,  on  all  the  elements  of  the  interior  of  this 
chamlxT  and,  consequently,  on  the  base  of  the  piston 
of  the  accelerograph  just  as  on  the  bottom  of  the  pro- 
jectile, we  must  admit,  neglecting,  however,  the  re- 
sistiince  opposed  to  the  projectile  by  the  forcing  and 
the  rifle-grooves,  that  the  spaces  passed  at  each  in- 
stant by  the  projectile  in  the  bore  and  by  the  piston 
of  the  accelerograph  in  its  cylinder  will  be  con- 
stantly in  inverse  ratio  of  the  masses  set  in  motion  in 
each  case,  these  masses  being  proportioned  to  the 
unit  of  .surface.  Now,  in  gims,  the  mass  of  the  pro- 
jectile referred  to  the  unit  of  section  increases  with 
the  calibre  and  also  proportionally  with  this  calibre, 
since  if  we  suppose  that  the  projectiles  are  sindlar, 
which  is  actually  the  case,  their  ma.sses  inerea.se  a.s 
the  cube  of  the  calibre,  while  the  sections  increase 
only  as  the  square,  so  that  the  proportion  of  these 


two  quantities  increases  as  the  first  power  of  the  cali- 
bre. If,  then,  for  a  given  calibre,  the  dimensions  of  the 
accelerograph  have  been  calculated  so  that  the  dura- 
tion of  the  pass;ige  of  the  free  stroke,  the  greatest  that 
can  be  allowed  it,  is  precisely  equal  to  the  duration 
of  the  passage  of  the  projectile  in  the  bore,  it  will  be 
necessary  in  pa.ssing  to  a  greater  calibre  to  augment 
proportionally  to  the  calibre  the  total  mass  of  pieces 
set  in  motion,  in  order  to  continue  to  .satisfy  the  .same 
condition,  and  supi)osing  that  neither  the  stroke  nor 
the  section  of  the  piston  of  the  apparatus  is  changed. 
In  the  apparatus  constructed,  when  a  piston  of  half  a 
centimetre  square  in  section  is  employed,  to  which  u 
free  stroke  is  allowed  of  o  centimetres  (1.968  inches), 
the  weight  of  the  cube  alone,  which  is  about  4  kilo- 
grammes (8.818  pounds)  without  additional  masses, 
secures  for  the  14-centimetre  (5. 512-inch)  gun,  a  reg- 
istering duration  nearly  equal  to  that  of  tlic  passiige 
of  the  projectile  in  the  bore;  it  is  then  only  on  depart- 
ing from  this  calibre  that  it  is  necessjiry  to  employ 
additional  masses  to  make  the  two  durations  corre- 
sjiond.  By  not  making  use  of  these  masses  we  accel- 
erate the  movement  of  the  piston  and  obtain  in  conse- 
(juence  greater  precision  in  the  tracing  of  the  curve  of 
the  passjige,  but  this  tracing  then  applies  only  to  a 
limited   fraction  of  the  duration  of  combttslion  of 


Fio.  4. 


the  charge.  We  can,  moreover,  without  at  all  touch- 
ing the  other  organs  of  the  apparatus,  vary  at  will  the 
proportion  of  this  duration  of  registering  to  the  dura- 
tion of  combustion  of  the  charge  by  changing  the  sec- 
tion of  the  piston;  for  this  purpose  the  apparatus  can 
be  fumi.shed  with  bushings  and  pistons  of  dififerent 
dimensions. 

Slide-acceUrograph,  employed  for  determining  the  law 
of  the  recaU  of  the  gun. — In  what  precedes  there  was 
no  notice  taken  of  the  influence  exerted  by  the  recoil 
movement  of  the  gim  on  the  movement  of  the  ac- 
cclerogi'aph-slide,  which  serves  to  give  the  measure 
of  the  times.  Now,  it  is  ca.sy  to  perceive  that  this 
influence  is  far  from  being  unimportant  and  that  it 
ought  to  be  taken  into  account.  If  we  suppose  the 
|)lane  of  the  accelerograph  table  to  be  adjusted  par- 
allel to  the  plane  of  fire,  it  is  e\ident  that  the  point 
of  attachment  of  the  extremity  of  the  spring  which 
oix-rates  the  slide,  which  point  is  sustained  directly 
by  the  frame  of  the  apjiaratus  in  the  simple  accelero- 
graph previously  describeil,  will  be  influenced  in  the 
recoil  movement  of  the  gun,  while  the  style-bearing 
slide  will  Ije  displaced  in  space.  The  displacement 
of  the  gim  while  the  jirojectile  is  passing  through  the 
bore  is,  in  fact,  far  from  being  unimportant,  as  has 
been  admitted  for  some  time,  and  it  will  be  found 
that  for  a  24<eiUimetre  (9.4o-inch)  gun,  for  example, 
it  is  nearly  30  millimetres  (1.1811  inches).     The  ten- 


ACCELEROGRAPHS. 


8 


ACCELEBOORAFHS. 


sion  of  llu-  Iii(liii-rul)l)er  wbicli  causes  the  movement 
of  the  slide  will  then  be  diniinish.Kl,  in  eonsi^qnenee  I 
of  the  inertia  of  Ihi-;  slide  and  (if  the  sprinu'  also,  if  , 
the  iKtUn  of  atlarhnun!  is  lurned  towards  the  muzzle  | 
of  the  jrnn,  so  that  the  recoil  is  protlueetl  in  a  diree-  | 
tion  the  inverst-  of  the  movement  of  the  slide.  On  I 
the  coutnirv.  it  will  1m.'  augmented  if  the  ui>pan>tus 
is  tunied  in"vers«'ly;  that  is  lo  sjiy,  if  the  iw>int  of  at- 
tachment of  the  sprinir  is  placttl  towards  the  lireech. 
M>  that  the  movenuni  of  the  slide  and  the  recoil 
movement  are  iHilh  directed  the  s;inu'  way.  It  would 
be  tot>  dilhcull  lo  take  into  account  this  disturliin-; 
effect  whose  caase.s  are  complicated,  nntl  it  is  more 
natural  lo  si'ck  to  eliminate  it  altojjelher  by  jrivinj:  to 
the  apparatus  a  suitable  i)osition.  The  idea  naturally 
occurs  to  the  mind  lo  adjust  the  apparatus  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  plane  of  the  table  may  be  normal  to 
the  plane  of  tire;  under  these  conditions  the  slide  is 
iiitbieiiced  in  the  recoil  movement  bv  its  bearing  on 
the  guides,  and  its  inertia  cannot  make  it  modify  di- 
rectly the  tension  of  the  spring  which  intluences  it. 
It  was  under  the.se  conditions  that  the  experiments  of 
2><evers  were  made  in  1874.  and  it  was  also  in  this 
manner  that  the  tracings  reprtxluccil  above  were  ob- 
tained. But  on  applying  the  calculation  to  the  re- 
sults obtained  by  these  tracings,  it  was  easily  seen 
that  the  recoil  liiovement,  in  si>ite  of  the  precaution 
taken  in  adjusting  the  table,  still  disturbed  the  work- 

c 


Fio.5. 

ing  of  the  apparatus  by  retarding  the  movement  of 
the  slide.  This  result  was  evidently  owing  to  the 
friction  caused  l)y  the  pressure  develoiied  normally, 
on  the  guides  of  the  slide,  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
ertia of  this  i)icce.  In  order  to  diminish  this  distiirb- 
ing  effect,  it  is  important  to  increase  as  nuich  as  pos- 
sible the  correspondence  between  the  strain  of  tension 
of  the  India-nibl)er  s])ring  and  the  ma.ss  of  the  slide 
intlucnced;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  this  correspond- 
ence iK-ing  limited  by  the  coiulition  of  making  the 
Btylus  pass  over  the  width  of  the  table  in  a  time 
nearly  equal  to  that  reipiired  by  the  tabic  in  moving 
vertically  o\cr  the  exieni  of  the  free  path  of  the  ap- 
paratus, we  are  not  at  liberty  to  dispose  of  this  ele- 
ment at  pleasure.  The  inertia  of  the  India-rubber 
spring,  which,  notwithstanding  its  small  bulk,  in- 
clines to  take  a  cerl.ain  curvature  through  the  effect 
of  the  recoil,  presj'Uts  also  a  disturbing  element  which 
it  is  utterly  out  of  Ihe  question  to  take  into  accotml. 
It  therefore  is  preferable  to  seek  a  dilTerent  ammge- 
ment  of  the  apparatus  which  eliminates  all  these 
causes  of  error.  Now,  if  we  suppose  the  table  to  be 
placed  parallel  to  the  plane  of  tire,  and  if  we  make 
stationary  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  spring  which 
sets  the  slide  in  motion,  by  tixing.  for  example,  this 
point  of  att.'iehment  on  a  supjKirl  independent  of  Ihe 
slide,  and  iilace<l  near  the  gun.  we  m'c  tluil  the  move- 
ment.of  the  slide  will  i)e  no  longer  altereil  through 
the  effect  of  inertia:  but,  on  Ihe  other  hand,  the  tabic 
being  drawn  in  Ihe  recoil  movement,  while  the  sliclc 


is  displaced  in  space  as  if  there  was  no  rwoil,  the 
tracing  given  by  the  stylus  will  no  longer  be  the  same 
as  that  which  'was  obtained  before;  Ihe  horizontal 
absci.ssius  of  Ihe  curve  traced  on  the  table  will  be,  in 
fact,  I'ach  instant,  the  sum  of  the  jiassages  of  the 
stylus  and  Ihe  displacements  of  the  gun  in  its  recoil 
movement,  if  we  supjiose  the  point  of  attachment  of 
the  spring  jihiced  on  the  side  of  the  muzzle  of  the 
piece,  or  the  difference  of  these  sjimc  (luantities  if  we 
suppose  this  point  placed  on  the  side  of  the  breech. 
It  w  (juld  therefore  Ix'  necc.s.sary  to  know  at  each  in- 
stant the  displacement  due  to  the  recoil  of  the  gim, 
in  order  to  deduce  from  the  curve  traced  the  curve 
that  woidd  have  been  obtained  if  there  had  been  no 
recoil.  Now,  it  is  easy  to  obtain,  on  the  same  a))- 
paralus.  placed  in  this  position,  a  curve  that  would 
sliow  for  each  of  the  positions  of  the  piston  in  its 
vertical  disiilaccinent  the  quantity  that  the  gim  re- 
coiled at  the  corresponding  instant.  It  suffices,  in 
fact,  to  lit  on  the  table  a  styhis  absolutely  stationary 
in  the  space,  that  is  to  say,  sustained  by  a  support  in- 
dependent of  the  gun  and  the  slide,  in  order  that  the 
table  which  becomes  displaced  before  this  stylus,  by 
virtue  of  its  two  combined  movements,  may  receive 
u  new  curve  the  ordinatcs  of  which  will  be  the  pas- 
sages of  the  piston  and  the  abscis.s;is  the  pas.sages  of 
tlu."  gun.  But  as  the  gun  in  recoiling  is  subject  to 
tremulovis  movements  which  might  not  always  per- 
mit the  stylus  lo  rest  in  contact  with  the  table,  and 
which  might  also  change  the  form  of  the  curve,  it  is 
necessjtry  to  desciibe  a  right  line  on  the  table  in  its 
relative  movement  with  the  stationary  stylus;  and  for 
this  purpose  it  is  mounted  on  a  small  slide  which 
slides  between  two  rails  supported  by  the  frame  of 
the  accclerograph.  In  order  to  keep  it  stationary  be- 
tween these  rails  it  nmst  be  secured  by  a  rod  to  a 
horizontal  wooden  cross-piece,  supix)rted  by  two  sta- 
tionary guide-posts,  and  passing  over  Ihe  gun. 

Practically,  in  order  that  the  same  table  may  not 
be  crowded  with  tracings,  two  .similar  tables  are  in- 
stilled on  the  opposite  faces  of  the  cube  pushed  by 
the  piston;  and  the  stationary  stylus,  as  well  as  the 
rails  which  hold  it,  are  placed  on  one  of  the  faces  of 
the  nccelerograph-frame,  while  the  rails  guiding  the 
movable  slide  are  fixed  on  the  other  face.  Fig.  3 
represents  an  accclerograph  ajiparatus  mounted  in 
this  fashion  on  a  14-centimetre  (5. 51 -inch)  gun.  model 
1870.  This  apparatus  is  surmounted  by  an  additional 
weight,  retained  by  a  cord;  and  in  Y  we  see  the  up- 
riglits  which  sustain  the  cross-piece,  U,  to  which 
are  fixed  on  one  side  the  point  of  attachment  of  the 
spring  of  the  movable  slide,  and  on  the  other  side  the 
steel  plate  the  extremity  of  which  bears  the  station- 
ary stylus.  The  movable  slide  presents,  besides,  a 
very  complicated  arrangement,  and  it  remains  to  show 
the  object  of  it.  If  we  retained  the  movable  slide 
arranged  as  formerly,  that  is  to  say,  attached  directly 
to  the  India-rubber  tensi<m-spring,  and  although  we 
have  no  more  fear  of  the  disturbing  effects  owing  to 
the  inertia  of  the  slide  and  the  spring,  in  consequence 
of  the  i)recaution  that  we  have  taken  to  fix  the  point 
of  attachment  of  this  spring  to  Ihe  stationary  cross- 
])ie(e.  it  might  still  happen  that,  imder  the  inlluence 
of  the  concussion  imparted  to  the  gun  at  tiring,  and 
which  makes  the  guide-bars  which  guide  the  slide 
vibrate,  tliese  guide-bars  might  pinch  the  slide  be- 
tween them  .and  release  it  alternately,  thus  preventing 
it  from  taking  the  regidarly  accelerated  movement 
which  the  India-nibber  is  calculate<l  to  impart.  This 
is,  indeed,  wliat  hai>pcned  in  the  first  trials,  and  a 
regular  movement  of  the  slide  was  obtained  at  first 
only  for  a  ^■ery  short  time,  which  cork'sponded  prob- 
ably with  the'  time  emitloyed  by  the  jxiwder  in  de- 
veloping all  its  power  and  forcing  the  projectile  in 
the  bore,  until  Ihe  moment  when*  by  the  effect  of  the 
expansion,  owing  to  Ihe  notable  displacement  of  the 
]>rojeclile,  Ihe  reaction  of  the  siclfs  of  the  piece  causes 
Ihe  first  vibrations  of  Ihe  metal.  The  curve  traced 
on  the  table,  after  a  very  faint  regular  bend,  pre- 
sented all  at  once  a  distinct  protuberance,  denoting  a 


ACCELEB06KAPH3. 


ACCELEBOGBAFHS. 


sudden  retardation  of  the  slide.  In  order  to  obviate 
this  inconvenience,  we  have  formed  the  slide  of  two 
pieces,  the  one  very  lijiht,  bearing  the  stylus  and 
running  in  \ery  solid  giiidcs  fixed  on  the  frame;  the 
other,  much  heavier,  running  in  the  guides  supported 
by  the  wooden  cross-piece  and  consecpiently  fixed  in 
space.  The  two  slides  are  secured  by  a  steel  wire, 
flexible  in  every  sense,  but  inextcnsible,  so  that  the 
small  slide  may  receive,  in  the  direction  of  the  guides, 
a  movement  identical  with  that  of  the  large,  notwith- 
standing the  concussions  of  the  gun,  and  it  is  on  the 
heaWest  slide  that  the  tension-spring  is  fixed  which 
produces  the  movement.  We  apprehend  that,  in  this 
manner,  we  can  irive  sufficient  resistance  to  the  guides 
of  the  small  slide  for  them  to  yield  a  little  imder  the 
effect  of  the  \ibnilions,  and  sutlicient  solidity  to  the 
large  motor  slide  so  that  the  movement  of  this  slide 
cannot  be  sensibly  changed  by  the  feeble  relative 
resistance  which  the  small  "  style-bearing"  slide  can 
oppcse  to  it.  Wc  have  said  that  the  apparatus  thus 
arranged  finnishes  two  curves  on  the  tables  borne  by 
the  opposite  faces  of  the  eulie  pushed  by  the  movable 
piston.  One  of  these  curves,  that  given  by  the  slide 
drawn  1)y  the  India-rubber  spring,  has  its  abscissas 
or  horizontal  coordinates,  which  are,  at  each  instant, 
the  sum  of  the  displacements  of  the  slide  in  the  space 
and  the  horizontal  displacements  of  the  gim  in  its 
recoil  movement;  the  other  has  its  abscissas  equal, 
simply,  to  these  latter  disiilacements.  If  we  put  on 
the  successive  abscissas  of  the  first,  the  values  equal 
to  the  abscissas  of  the  second,  we  obtain,  by  the  dif- 
ference, the  curve  that  would  have  been  traced  if  the 
gun  had  not  recoiled  during  the  vertical  displace- 
ment of  the  pi.ston  of  the  api)aratus;  that  is  to  say, 
the  curve  by  which  the  law  of  the  movement  of  the 
piston  is  made  luiown,  in  the  function  of  the  known 
law  of  the  movement  of  the  slide  working  separatelj', 
and  consequently  in  the  function  of  the  times.  By 
this  known  law  is  deduced,  from  the  second  curve, 
the  law  of  recoil  of  the  gun  in  the  function  of  the 
times.  Although  the  accelerograph  just  described  is 
not  furnished  with  organs  for  registering  the  moment 
of  the  departure  of  the  projectile  from  the  bore,  we 
can,  by  the  aid  of  the  curves  which  it  gives,  estimate 
^vilh  a  degree  of  precision  the  duration  of  the  passage 
in  the  bore  and  deduce  therefrom  the  quant ifj-  which 
the  gun  has  recoiled  while  the  projectile  was  passing 
through  the  bore.  We  know,  in  fact,  that  if  we 
neglect  the  effect  of  the  mass  of  the  powder-gases, 
which,  it  is  true,  introduces  a  certain  cause  of  error, 
we  may  admit  that  the  projectile  and  the  gun,  in- 
cluding its  carriage,  nuist  be  dis|ilaced  in  an  inverse 
direction,  each  instant  in  quantities  inversely  pro- 
portional to  their  respective  mas.ses.  We  may  then, 
knowing  the  disi)laccnienls  of  the  gun,  deduce  there- 
from the  corresponding  displacements  of  the  projec- 
tile and,  consequently,  obtain  the  displacement  of 
the  gun  corresponding  to  the  passage  of  the  projectile 
through  the  bore. 

Electric  irgintir-accelerograph  nminimnfd  hy  vibra- 
tion.— The  reading  of  the  results  obtained  by  means 
of  the  slide-accelerographs  is  long  and  ditticidt.  As 
we  have  said,  it  is  necessary  at  tirst  to  measure,  by 
means  of  the  microscope  with  double  micrometric 
screw,  the  ordinates  of  the  curve  of  "  tarage"  which 
correspond  to  the  absci.s.sas  passed  in  the  times  in- 
creasing by  equal  fractions  (for  example,  by  thou- 
sandths of  a  second),  which  abscissas  are  ascertained 
by  calculation.  If  is  necessary  afterwards,  by  means 
of  the  microscoiH'.  I"  trace  on  the  curve  of  firing  tlie 
ordinates  thus  obtained,  and  to  read  the  correspond- 
ing co-ordinates,  according  to  the  conjugate  perpen- 
dicular axis.  These  readings  must  all  be  made  to 
the  hundredth  of  a  millimetre,  and  we  understand 
how  the  successive  operations  so  delicate  may  cause 
accidental  errors;  in  every  case  it  reduces  the  final 
precision;  it  would  then  be  advantageous  to  find  a 
means  of  mea.suring  the  durations  more  convenient 
and  more  preci.se  in  its  emi>loyment.  The  solution 
■of  this  problem  seemed  to  require  the  employment  of 


vibrating  plates,  inscribing  directly,  on  the  accelero- 
graph-talile,  the  spaces  pas.sed  during  intervals  of 
time,  each  equal  to  the  period  of  vibration  of  the 
plate,  and  thus  we  were  induced,  from  the  first,  as 
we  said  before,  to  place  a  vibrating  plate  on  one  side 
of  the  movable  slide  (Fig.  1).  This  vilirating  plate, 
furnished  with  a  pen  which  rested  on  the  blackened 
table,  was,  before  firing,  diverted  from  its  position  of 
equilibrium  by  means  of  a  screw  mounted  on  a  pro- 
jection of  the  movable  cube,  and  which  barely 
touched  on  the  extremity  of  the  plate,  .so  as  to  de- 
tach it  abruptly,  as  soon  as  the  cube  received  the 
least  displacement.  The  plate  gave  besides  a  great 
number  of  vibrations,  usually  a  thousand  a  second, 
and  it  was  carefully  "  tared"  beforehand  by  means  of 
the  drop-chronograph,  by  a  process  easily  understood 
by  examining  Fig.  3.  A  is  the  vibrating  plate  fixed 
on  one  of  the  guide-posts  of  the  chronograph;  the 
small  turn-l)utton  B  serves  to  keep  it  in  the  state  of 
initial  tension;  if  is  encountered  by  the  falling  mov- 
able weight  and  suddenly  turned  away  by  a  jirojec- 
tion,  C,  on  this  weight.  On  this  is  ti.xcd  a  small 
blackened  table,  D,  so  placed  as  to  be  encountered  in 
its  passage  by  the  \il)rating  pen  which  traces  the  un- 
dulations whose  spacing  measures  the  duration  in  the 
function  of  the  velocity  of  the  drop-weight.     This 


Fio.  6. 

latter  is  easily  deduced  from  the  position  given  to  the 
suspension-hook,  E.  Notwithstanding  these  precau- 
tions, and  although  the  constancy  of  the  usual  vibra- 
tory movement  of  the  plate  could  be  counted  on,  the 
tracings  obtained  could  not  show  with  sufficient  pre- 
cision the  law  of  the  movement  of  the  piston.  The 
velocity  of  the  cube  being,  in  fact,  relatively  weak  at 
the  beginning,  two  or  three  vibrations  might  be  lost 
during  the  time  that  the  screw,  designed  to  bend  the 
vibrating  plate,  was  becoming  detached;  l)csides,  the 
regularity  of  the  first  vibrations  of  the  jilafc  was 
changed" in  consequence  of  the  fact  that  the  initial 
flexion,  which  was  imiiarfed  to  it  by  the  pressure  of 
the  screw  on  its  extremity,  did  not  give  it  the  same 
form  that  it  takes  in  \ibrafing  freely  to  flic  limit  of 
its  und\dations,  so  that  the  first  vilirafions  were  cm- 
ployed  by  it  to  recover  its  natural  state  of  molecular 
equilibrium,  which,  however,  is  very  rapidly  efiected; 
it  was  necessary  then  to  set  aside  these  first  defective 
vibrations,  and  it  is  precisely  the  movement  registered 
by  these  first  vibrations  which  it  is  imi>ortanf  to  know. 
I  On  the.se  two  accounts  it  was  jiroposed  at  first,  as  has 
been  said  already,  to  use  the  tnicing  of  the  vibrating 
plate  only  as  a  counter-register  for  testing  if  the 
1  accelerogfaph-slide  had  worked  pro]>erly;  a  material 
I  disagreement  lietween  the  total  durations  registered 


ACCZLEBOOBAPHS. 


10 


ACCELEBOOBAPHS. 


by  the  two  apparatus  must,  iu  fact,  indicate  if  the 
sfide  had  sustained  an  unusual  imiHilinienl,  which, 
in  certain  cast's,  may  be  produced,  either  by  tlie 
presence  of  pr.iins  of  sjind  in  the  grooves  wliich  guide 
it,  or  even  bv  the  vibniton.-  elleet  of  those  grooves 
under  the  intluence  of  I  lie  firing,  when  the  adjustage 
is  too  carefidly  made,  or  whenthe  rails  are  too  weak 
or  too  weakly  supiiorled  on  the  apjtaratus.  In  order 
to  lessen  the  inei>nvenieuces  pointed  out,  trial  was 
made  of  a  new  motle  of  disconnecting  the  vibrating 
plate,  by  prtxiucing  the  flexion  of  it  by  means  of  a 
jointed  'lever,  its  extremity  acting  on  it  while  a  pro- 
ieition  on  the  movable  cube  was  applied  under  the  [ 
lever,  near  its  point  of  articulation;  thus  the  displace-  ., 
ments  of  the  piston  were  amplitied  and  the  discon- 
nection accelerated,  but  no  remedy  was  presented  for 
the  disturbing  effect  of  the  first  vibrations.  In  order 
to  obtain  more  precise  results  and  to  suppress  entirely 
the  stvle-bearing  slide  moved  by  a  sj^ring,  it  was  pur- 
posed" to  utilize  the  properties"  of  the  small  electro- 
magnetic registers  couslrucled  by  Jlr.  ilarcel-Deprcz, 
the  motion  of  which  is  sutliciently  rapid  to  permit 
their  foUownng  the  vibratory  movements  of  a  tuning- 
fork  electrically  sustained,"  and  giving  as  many  as 
1000  vibrations  per  second. 

Fig.  4  represents  the  arrangement  given  to  Uie  ap- 
paratus in  order  to  adapt  it  for  registering  the  law  of 
recoil  of  the  gun,  and  also  for  measuring  directly  the 
duration  of  "the  trajectory  of  the  projectile  in  the 
bore.  The  usual  accelerogniph-frame  was  retained, 
and  for  registering  the  rear  face  of  the  cube,  B,  was 
arranged  to  receive  a  second  tatile,  in  front  of  which 
ran  the  stylus,  secured  by  an  iuextensible  wire,  I),  at 
a  stationary  point  iu  space.  In  front  of  this  face  of 
the  cube  "was  motmted  a  cylindrical  shaft,  F,  on 
which  two  small  Marcel-Deprez  registers,  GG,  were 
put;  one  of  these  registers  was  placed  in  a  circuit 
passing  through  an  interrupter  fixed  at  the  muzzle  of 
the  piece;  the  other  was  placed  in  a  circuit  passing 
through  an  interrupter-plate  mounted  on  a  fork  elec- 
triealfy  sustjiined  and  ])laced  at  a  distance  from  the 
gun.  When  the  fork  was  set  in  motion  the  current, 
passing  through  the  electro-magnet,  sustained  at  each 
period  a  rupture  and  a  closure,  so  that  the  pen  of  the 
register,  constantly  resting  on  the  table,  took  an  oscil- 
laiory  movement  directed  bj'  that  of  the  fork  and 
strictly  equal  to  it.  The  tracings  of  the  pen  were 
superposed  as  long  as  the  table  remained  stationary; 
but  as  soon  as  the  tal)le  was  displaced,  successive 
tracings  were  obtained,  whose  spacings  indicated  the 
displacements  effected  during  each  period.  The 
fork  was  set  in  motion  a  little  before  tiring  the  gun; 
on  the  shot  leaving,  there  was  found  on  the  table  a 
tracing  left  by  the  register  directed  by  the  fork  and 
which  gives  the  law  of  the  movement  of  the  piston, 
a  signal  given  by  the  second  register  and  which 
marks  the  space  passed  by  the  piston  at  the  moment 
the  projectile  pa.s.scs  from  the  muzzle  of  the  ])iece, 
and  lastly  a  curve  left  by  the  stationary  stylus  and 
•which  shows  the  recoil  of  the  gun  each  instant,  in  the' 
function  of  the  displacenuiits  of  the  piston.  Fig.  5 
represents  the  arrangement  of  the  fork  electrically 
sustained  and  designed  to  direct  the  movements  of  the 
vibrating  register.  On  the  examination  of  this  figure 
we  perceive  that  this  fork.  A.  mounted  on  a  cast-iron 
base,  B,  is  sustained  l>y  means  of  two  electromag- 
nets, C'C,  traverse<l  by  a  si)ecial  cun-ent  and  a  flexible 
plate  oscillating  between  two  sup(X)rting  screws,  one 
a  conductor,  the  other  an  insulator,  arranged  as  has 
been  previously  shown.  This  plate,  D,  is  fixed  on 
one  of  the  branches  of  the  fork;  the  other  branch 
I)ears  symmetrically  a  similar  insulated  plate,  E,  sup- 
ported, when  the  fork  is  at  rest,  against  a  metallic 
screw,  and  separating  from  this  screw  for  an  instant 
at  each  viliralion  of  the  fork.  The  jilatc  is  connected 
by  a  very  fine  flexible  wire  with  a  terminal,  F,  placed 
in  the  special  circuit  of  the  accelerogra])h-register; 
the  supporting  screw,  communicating  with  the  second 
terminal,  F  ,  is  also  placeii  in  this  circuit  which  is 
thus  established  by  the  contact  of  the  jjlate  and  the 


screw,  and  interrupted  on  the  cessation  of  this  con- 
tact. By  turning  the  screw  slowly,  the  duration  of 
the  contact  can  "be  regulated  at  each  period.  The 
terminals,  GG,  serve  to  establish  the  current  which 
sustains  the  movement  of  the  fork,  and  the  circuit 
passes  through  the  handle,  M,  by  which  it  may  be  in- 
terru])led  at  will.  In  the  trials  that  were  made,  tlie 
fork  and  the  batteiies  were  placed  a  short  distance 
from  the  gun,  so  as  to  have  circuits  only  of  small  re- 
sistance; It  was  necessary  to  sustain  the  vibrating 
fork  bj'  means  of  these  small  model  Dclaurier  elements, 
and  four  similar  elements  for  each  of  the  registers. 

Electric  f<frk-itccekrograph. — This  apparatus,  which 
has  l)een  "descriljed.  presented  the  inconvenience  of 
not  giving  subdivisions  of  time  sufficient!}'  small  to 
furnish  with  precision  the  value  of  the  accelerating 
forces  of  the  piston.  Experience  showed,  in  fact, 
that  in  order  to  calculate  with  sufficient  precision  the 
accelerations  obtained  during  such  a  short  space 
which  corresponds  with  the  devcloi^ment  of  the 
maximum  pressure  in  the  bore  of  guns,  even  those  of 
large  calibre,  where  this  time  is  longest,  it  was  neces- 
.sary  to  descend,  in  measuring  the  times,  below  the 
thousj\ndths  of  a  second,  and  perhaps  even  to  reach 
as  far  as  five  thousandths  at  the  least.  Now,  it  was 
practically  impossible  to  make  use  of  an  electric  fork 
directing  a  register  and  giving  more  than  one  thou- 
s;ind  periods  a  second.  A  fork  gi\'ing  1500  periods 
might,  indeed,  be  electrically  sustained,  though  not 
without  difficulties;  but  the  amplitude  of  these  \nbra- 
tions  being  very  small,  it  was  impossible  to  assure 
the  regular  movement  of  the  interrupter-plate,  and 
this  sometimes  missed  its  connection,  which  intro- 
duced irregularities  in  the  movements  of  the  register. 
As  to  this  latter,  the  improvements  effected  by  Mr. 
Deprez  would  have  enabled  it  to  give,  in  case  of  need, 
a  greater  number  of  signals  per  second  than  the  limit 
sought,  and  there  was  no  obstacle  there.  A  new 
trial  was  made  by  emplojing  an  electric  fork  mounted 
directly  on  the  accelerograph.  The  case  and  the  pis- 
ton of  the  accelerograph,  as  well  as  the  table  sustained 
by  the  latter,  retained  the  sjime  arrangements  as  be- 
fore ;  but  the  shaft  which  contained  the  register 
directed  by  an  exterior  fork  received  directly  a  small 
diapason  electrically  sustained  bj'  the  aid  of  an  ar- 
rangement similar  to  that  which  has  been  already 
described;  this  arrangement  is  here  fixed  entirely  on 
a  metal  frame,  which  contains  the  fork  and  which  is 
movalile  with  it  on  the  support-axis,  so  as  to  permit 
the  pen  of  the  table  to  be  brought  nearer  or  separated 
at  will,  without  prejudice  to  the  vibratory  movement. 
As  long  as  Ihe  table  is  stationary,  the  tracings  of  the 
pen  in  motion  are  superposed  and  form  only  one 
mark;  these  tracings  are  separated  and  give  a  sinu- 
soidal curve  as  s(X)n  as  the  table  is  set  in  motion  imder 
the  action  of  the  piston.  A  second  stationary  pen, 
on  the  support-frame,  traces  at  the  same  time  the 
median  path,  whose  successive  intersections  with  the 
sinusoid  will  give  the  spaces  pa.ssed  by  the  table  dur- 
ing Ihe  corresponding  periods.  The  results  obtained 
with  the  forkaccelerograph,  although  superior  to 
those  given  by  the  registering  apparaUis  suiiplied  by 
vibration,  were  not  sufficient,  however,  and  showed 
that  it  Wius  necessarv  to  seek  to  estimate  still  smaller 
intervals  of  time.  "The  electric  supply  of  a  fork  giv- 
ing 2000  periods  per  second  was,  besides,  very  deli- 
cate. Its  initial  movement  was  tedious  to  obtain 
before  each  experiment,  and  it  wiis  rare  that  the 
apparatus  could  be  kept  without  derangement  in  a 
working  state  during  the  whole  continujvnce  of  a 
series.  After  having  sought  without  success  to  solve 
the  difficulty  by  the  emplojment  of  a  contrivance 
which  would  have  given  the  means  of  subdividing, 
into  a  certain  mimber  of  C(|ual  parts,  the  duration  of 
each  iicridd  of  the  fork,  which  might  have  admitted 
of  [ireserving  the  last  arrangement  adojjted,  but  by 
making  use  of  forks  giving  oidy  1000  pciiods,  and 
consequently  ea.sy  to  supply  electrically,  it  was  de- 
cided to  trj-  again  the  employment  of  the  fork  set  in 
vibration  mechanically. 


ACCELEBOHZTEBS. 


11 


ACCELEBOHETEBS. 


Mecliankal  fork-ncfelerogrnph. — We  have  seen  that 
in  order  to  utilize  a  fork,  viln-atinir  mechanically  at 
the  moment  of  firing,  for  rejjistering  the  displace- 
ments of  the  accclerogrnph-pisfon,  it  was  sufficient  to 
procure  the  initial  movement  of  this  fork  a  very  little 
time  before  the  projectile  leaves  the  bore,  so  that,  the 
vibrations  having  had  tiine  to  regulate  themselves 
when  the  piston  sustained  its  tirst  displacement,  the 
origin  and  commencement  of  the  movement  could  be 
registered  without  error.  It  is  necessjiry,  besides, 
tlwt  the  discharge  of  the  gun  should  follow  very 
closely  the  initial  movement  of  the  fork,  because  if 
forks  are  used  givinsr  2000  to  3000  vibrations,  as  those 
which  are  acknowledged  to  be  necessarj-,  these  forks, 
set  in  vibration  by  an  energetic  shock,  preserve  only 
for  a  very  short  time,  scarcely  the  tenth  of  a  second, 
an  amplitude  sufficient  to  give  proper  tracings  for  the 
readings.  Fire  communicated  bj-  electricity  gives, 
evidently,  the  solution  of  the  problem,  for  we  con- 
ceive that  the  mechani!>m  whose  release  will  produce 
the  vibration  might,  in  working,  establish  the  current 
which  will  determine  the  inflammation,  leaving,  be- 
tween these  two  operations,  the  internal  strictly  neces- 
sarj"  to  permit  the  vibrations  of  the  fork  to  regidate 
themselves,  without  losing  too  much  of  their  ampli- 
tude. Fig.  6  represents  the  application  of  this  idea 
to  an  accelerograph  which  is  arranged,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  organ  for  registering  times,  like  those 
which  have  been  previously  described,  and  which 
consequently  permits  of  measuring  also  the  law  of 
the  recoil  of  the  gim.  A  vibrating  fork,  G,  is  simply 
fixed  in  front  of  the  table,  whose  branches  are  each 
furnished  with  a  pen,  m  order  the  more  surely  to  ob- 
tain a  proper  tracing.  A  wedge,  H,  on  the  extremity 
of  a  small,  horizontal-jointed  lever,  can  Ix.-  forced 
between  the  branches  of  the  fork  and  keeps  them 
apart;  it  sullices  to  strike  sharply  on  the  other  branch, 
K,  of  the  lever  in  order  to  disengage  it  and  make  the 
fork  vibrate;  this  latter  then  gives  an  acute  sound 
which  is  perceptible  only  for  a  very  short  time.  This 
shock  may  be  produced  in  the  apparatus  by  the  ex- 
tension of  a  spiral  spring  lodged  in  a  small  cylindrical 
box,  L,  fixed  on  the  side  of  the  case,  and  which  sud- 
denly pushes  a  percussion-lock,  31,  guided  vertically 
through  this  box.  The  apparatus  is  cocked  by  rais- 
ing the  percussion-lock  by  means  of  a  small  handle, 
P,  which  passes  through  a  vertical  groove;  this  bends 
in  the  fonn  of  a  knee  to  form  a  safety-notch.  A  pin, 
N,  is  then  entered  into  a  hole  nomially  made  in  the  i 
spindle,  which  is  an  extension  of  the  percussion-lock,  | 
and  this  latter  is  held  only  by  the  point  of  this  pin, 
when  the  handle  is  moved  back  in  the  groove.  By 
dra\ving  away  this  pin,  by  the  traction  of  a  cortl 
which  is  fixecf  to  it,  the  working  of  the  apparatus  is 
produced.  The  precise  moment  of  inflammation  may  i 
vary  within  certain  limits;  in  order  to  communicate  the 
fire,  the  upper  part  of  the  spindle  of  the  percussion- 
lock,  which  extends  beyond  the  spring-bov,  is  fur- 
nished with  a  metallic  rubber,  R,  which  may  be  fixed 
at  a  variable  height  by  metms  of  a  pressure-screw,  Q, 
and  which  rests  upon  an  insulating  rod  terminated  by 
a  conductor,  S,  at  its  lower  part.  The  metallic  nib- 
berof  one  part  and  the  conductor  of  the  other  arc  put 
in  communication  with  a  firing-batteri'  connecting 
with  the  electric  percussiou-tube  of  the  gim,  or  with 
a  platinum  wire  sunk  in  the  charge,  if  the  trial  is 
made  with  a  closed  vessel.  In  consequence  of  this 
arrangement  the  circuit  is  closed  only  when  the  per- 
cussion-lock, pressed  by  the  spring,  brings  the  rubber 
in  contact  with  the  conductor-plate,  and  this  contact 
is  established  at  a  moment  which  may  vary,  within 
certain  limits,  depending  on  the  moment  when  the 
shock  on  the  end  of  the  iever  produces  the  disconnec- 
tion of  the  fork.  The  closing  of  the  circuit  mav  Ix; 
made  to  precede  the  shock  if  the  retardation  of  in- 
flammation of  the  charge  is  relatively  considerable, 
or,  on  the  contrary,  to  follow  it  if  the  inflammation 
must  be  very  prompt. 

ACCELEKOMETERS.—  Accelerometers    show,    by 
direct  registry,  the  law  of  the  movemeHt  in  the  func- 


tion of  time  of  a  piston  subjected  to  the  action  of 
powder-gases.  It  has  been  seen  in  studying  the  ac- 
celerographs  that  an  additional  weight  placed  on  this 
piston  in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  be  thrown  verti- 
cally without  obstacle,  when  this  latter  is  suddenly 
stopped,  can  show,  by  a  single  ob.servation,  the 
velocity  acquired  by  the  piston  up  to  the  end  of  its 
stroke.  In  fact,  this  weight,  thrown  freely  and  pre- 
serving the  velocity  which  it  had  in  common  with  the 
piston,  will  be  raised  to  a  height,  h,  given  by  the  re- 
lation v''='2gh,  so  that  the  observation  of  the  height  of 
the  vertical  stroke  h  will  show  the  velocity  v.  If  it 
is  admitted  that  the  phenomena  of  the  combustion  of 
the  powder  are  reproduced  identically  in  the  like 
conditions,  and  if  a  series  of  detonations  are  elleeted 
with  a  constant  charge,  but  varying  the  free  stroke 
each  time,  which  will  be  obtained,  for  instance,  by 
lowering  successively  the  stop-screw  W,  in  Fig.  1,  in 
the  article  Accelerogh.^phs,  it  is  evident  that  the 
obsers'ation  of  the  corresponding  heights  of  throw  of 
the  additional  weight  supported  by  the  piston  would 
show  the  succeissive  velocities  acquired  by  this  piston 
according  to  the  gradually  diminishing  paths.  We 
could  then  determine,  by  this  simple  process,  and 
without  a  special  chronometric  organ,  but  on  con- 
dition of  repeating  the  experiments,  the  law  of  move- 
ment imparted  to  the  piston.  Mr.  Marcel-Deprez, 
from  the  first,  proposed  the  emplopnent  of  apparatus 
of  this  kind,  which  appeared  more  easy  to  realize 
than  accelerographs,  and  he  gave  them  the  name  of 
accelerometers.  In  principle,  these  apparatus  are 
composed  of  a  piston  of  a  certain  weight,  s\ibjected 
freely  to  the  action  of  the  powder-gases,  and  for 
which  a  variable  stroke  may  be  allowed,  exactly 
regulated  each  time;  this  piston  must  be  provided, 
moreover,  with  arrangements  for  measuring  the 
velocity  acquired  at  the  end  of  the  stroke.  For 
stiitionary  apparatus,  susceptible  of  being  placed 
vertically,  like  those  which  may  be  installed  on 
eprouvettes,  the  measure  of  the  final  velocity  can  be 
obtained  simply  by  the  ob.servation  of  the  height  of 
the  throw  of  an  additional  weight,  as  has  been  already 
explained.  For  apparatus  designed  to  be  placed  on 
a  gun,  and  which  must  consequently  be  subjected  to 
the  violent  effects  of  recoil,  an  arningement  of  this 
kind  could  not  bp  emi)loyed,  and  Mr.  Marcel-Deprez 
was  obliged,  in  \iew  of  this  particular  case,  to  seek 
another  means  of  measuring  the  velocity.  By  em- 
ploying always  an  additional  mass  Iwrne  by  the 
piston  and  thrown  by  it  with  the  velocity  which  it  is 
sought  to  determine,  he  pointed  out  two  different 
processes,  both  very  simple,  for  obtaining  this  meas- 
ure. In  one  of  the  .systems,  the  weight  thrown, 
guided  by  a  roil  which  passed  through  its  axis,  must 
meet  with  a  constant  re.sistance  which  could  be 
regidated  at  will;  in  this  case,  the  passage  of  the 
weight  on  the  rod  must  be  theoretically  proportional 
to  the  square  of  the  velocity,  or  if  a  constant  antago- 
nistic resistance  could  not  be  absolutely  counted  on,  it 
would  be  necessary,  by  a  previous  "tarage,"  to  de- 
termine the  relation  existing  between  the  observed 
paths  of  the  weight  on  the  rod  and  the  corresponding 
initial  velocities. 

In  the  second  system  proposed  by  Mr.  Marcel-Du- 
prez,  we  must  oppose  to  the  weight  freely  thrown, 
and  always  guided  by  a  central  rod.  a  variable  resist- 
ance, but  one  known  at  each  instant,  as,  for  example, 
that  which  the  compression  of  a  spring  develops;  in 
this  ca.se,  however,  welnay,  for  a  spring  and  a  given 
weight,  determine,  by  a  previous  "  tarage,"  the  rela- 
tion which  connects"  the  initial  velocities  with  the 
paths  necessary  in  order  to  attain  them.  We  can 
also,  by  choosing  springs  susceptible  of  causing  a 
variable  resistance  according  to  a  simple  law,  ascer- 
tain that  a  law  equally  simple  connects  the  velocities 
with  the  paths.  If,  for  example,  we  supiwse  that 
the  energ)'  exerted  by  the  antagonistic  spring  varies 
proportionally  to  the  passages'of  the  weight,  meas- 
ured on  its  le"a\ing  a  fixed  point  situatcil  on  the  tra- 
jectory of  this  latter,  we  can  observe  that  the  paths 


ACCESSIBLE. 


12 


ACCESSORY  MEANS  OF  DEFENCE. 


producing;  Ihc  stopping  of  the  weight  are  rendered 
directly  proportioiiiil  to  the  initial  velocities.  The 
trials  undertakeu  with  the  object  of  reali/ing  the  first 
system  did  not  succinl;  a  sliile  has  not  yet  been  con- 
structed ninnini;  on  a  metallic  rod  on  which  a  deti- 
nite  and  strictly  constant  friction  could  lie  exerted 
over  the  whole  length  of  its  cours<\  If  that  con- 
struction hail  iH'cn  realized,  we  could,  by  letting  the 
rod,  furni.shed  with  its  slide,  fall  vertically  and  from 
incri'asing  heights,  on  an  unchangeable ob.stacle,  have 
obtained  the  paths  of  the  slide  proportional  to  the 
heights  of  fall,  under  the  influence  of  the  shock 
caused  liy  the  sudden  stopping,  since  the  velocities 
acquired  in  the  fall  of  bodies  are  themselves  propor- 
tional to  the  square  roots  of  the  heights  of  fall.     But 

this  result  was  far 
from  being  attained, 
and  notwithstanding 
all  the  care  taken  in 
dressing  and  polish- 
ing the  surfaces  in 
contact,  it  was  .settled 
that  the  friction  de- 
pended on  causes  too 
numerous  and  on  in- 
fluences too  (litlicult 
to  estimate  for  it  to  be 
pos.siblc  to  obtain  re- 
sults sutticiently  regu- 
lar; we  found,  in  fact, 
that  the  adhesion  at 
the  departure  being, 
in  all  cases,  greater 
than  during  the  move- 
ment, the  slide,  after 
having  passed  over  a 
small  space,  with  a 
very  small  velocity, 
afterwards  took  a  ve- 
locity sensibly  gi'cater 
and  a  much  longer 
path  than  was  reason- 
ably expected  and 
without  even  giving 
regular  values.  Under 
these  conditions  we 
must  depend  upon  the 
emplo^iinent  of  the 
spring  to  weaken  the 
velocity  of  the  addi- 
tional weight,  when, 
by  the  arrangement 
of  Ihc  apparatus,  this 
detached  weight  is 
J^  not  left  to  the  action 
of  gravity  alone, 
where  we  must  operate  on  masses  in  motion,  as  in 
the  tiring  of  guns,  or  where  the  locality  does  not  per- 
mit the  installation  of  proper  guides  "for  measuring 
the  vertical  height  of  the  weight.  More  recently  use 
has  been  made  of  vibrating  forks  leaving  on  the  ad- 
ditional mass  thrown  traces  .sufficient  in  number  to 
deterndne  the  value  of  its  initial  velocity.  The  ac- 
celerometers  which  have  been  constructed  may  be 
distinguished  as  weight-accelcrometers,  sjiring-ac- 
celerometers,  and  fork-accelerometers;  the  two  lat- 
ter only  can  be  mounted  on  guns.  Simiilc  acceler- 
ometers  may  also  be  distinguished,  that  is,  those 
which  contain  only  the  organs  designed  for  measur- 
ing the  final  velocity  of  the  jiiston,  and  the  acceler- 
ometers  combined  with  accclerograjjh-organs,  like 
those  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  aliove.  In 
these  latter  the  accelerometcr  arrangement  is  usually 
employed  only  as  a  counter  register  of  the  course  (if 
the  accelerograpb,  and  a  few  conipleniental  details 
will  sullice  to  explain  the  function  of  the  organs  reji- 
resented  by  the  figures  which  we  have  already  apjiro- 
liriale<l  to  these  apparatus.  We  will  give  tiie.se  ex- 
planations directly  and  afterwards  dcsr-rilx-,  more 
in  detail,   the  arrangement   of  the   simple   accclcro- 


gniphs  bj'  referring  to  the  mode  of  their  employ- 
ment. 

The  first  powder-mill  accelcrograjAs  constnicted 
were  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  they  could  be 
iisi-d  as  weight-accelcrometers  by  making  use,  in 
order  to  limit  the  stroke  of  the  movable  piston,  of  a 
screw  by  which  this  stroke  could  Iw  reduced  to  a 
very  small  value  and  graduated  at  will.  The  regis- 
tering of  the  height  of  the  "  cast"  is  obtained  by  ar- 
ranging in  the  axis  of  the  apparatus  a  virtical  rod 
guiiling  the  additional  mass  thrown;  this  rod  is  pro- 
vided with  a  light  slide  of  leather  or  felt,  impelled 
with  a  very  slight  friction  by  tliis  mass  in  its  ascen- 
sional movement.  The  drawing  rei>resents,  in  sec- 
lion,  an  apiiaralus  on  which  an-  |ilaeed  simultane- 
ously two  dilTereut  arrangements  for  measuring  the 
final  velocity  of  the  weight;  one  of  these  arrange- 
ments is,  like  the  preceding,  a  vertical  rod  guiding  a 
slide  impelled  by  the  additional  weight,  which  is 
provided  with  a  Dolx)  ratchet-catch  to  prevent  its 
falling  violently  on  the  piston;  the  other  is  a  spring 
apparatus  consisting  of  a  spiral  .spring  put  on  a  rod 
which  makes  part  of  the  piston  and  jiarticipates  in  all 
its  movements.  The  upper  part  of  tins  spring  is  fixed 
to  the  rod;  its  lower  part  is  terminated  by  a  mass  of 
certain  weight  which  rests  freely  on  the  head  of  the 
piston  and  is  thus  cast  upward,  when  this  latter 
sloi)s,  with  the  vclocit)-  which  is  to  be  determined. 
Thus  this  ma.ss  compresses  the  spring  iintil  its  velocity 
is  terminated,  then  the  spring  in  recoiling  pushes  it 
back  in  its  place.  We  apprehend  that  for  a  given 
spring  and  mass  we  might  by  a  preliminary  tarage 
detenninc  the  quantity  of  the  compression  of  the 
spring  for  the  successively  increasing  velocities,  so 
that  it  may  be  easj'  aftei-wards  to  deduce  from  an  ob- 
served compression  the  value  of  the  velocity  which 
produced  il.  We  shall  see  further  on  how  this  tarage 
may  be  effected.  In  the  apjiaratus  reiiresenlcd  in  the 
drawing,  in  section,  in  order  to  determine  the  quan- 
tity of  the  compression  of  the  spring  in  each  experi- 
ment, there  is  placed  on  the  mass  which  tcrnunates 
the  lower  part  of  the  spring  a  small  slide  forming  a 
vernier,  which  slides  with  a  slight  friction  on  Uie 
central  rod,  which  is  divided  into  millimetres.  This 
slide  is  )iuslied  by  the  mass  in  its  .ascensional  move- 
ment and  aliandoued  bj-  it  when  it  redescends  after 
having  lost  its  velocity.  The  mass  of  the  slide  is  so 
small  that  it  coidd  not  sustain  a  throw  which  would 
push  it  beyond  the  position  which  the  m.-iss  itself  has 
reached,  so  that  the  division  at  which  it  stops  may 
give  the  exact  measure  of  the  compression  of  the 
sjjring.  If  the  place  at  our  disposition  does  not  admit 
of  placing  above  the  ciirouvette  a  vertical  rod  to  guide 
the  weight  thrown,  the  .spring-system  may  suffice, 
which  requires  only  a  small  height,  by  suppressing 
entirely  the  additional  weight  with  ratchet  mecha- 
nism; we  may  also,  in  this  way,  use  a  lighter  pisttm 
and  obtain  greater  velocities  for  smaller  distances. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  we  adopt  the  double  system,  we 
have  the  advantage  of  obtaining,  for  the  measure  of 
the  final  velocity  of  the  piston,  two  values  which 
nmst  correspond.  The  spring  arrangement  may  also 
be  applied  to  accelerographs  mounted  on  a  .gun,  and 
give  also  in  this  case  a  check  measurement  for  the 
final  velocity  of  the  piston.     See  Acalcn/i/rapfiK. 

ACCESSIBLE.— p;asy  of  access  or  apjiroach.  A 
Jilace  or  lnrt  is  said  to  be  (iccoasihle  when  it  can  be 
a|ipr(i:icbeil  with  a  bo.stile  force  bv  land  or  sea. 

ACCESSORY  MEANS  OF  DEFENCE.— The  means 
employed  as  nrriKmn/  usually  consist  of  artificial  ob- 
stacles", so  arranged  as  to  detain  the  enemy  in  a  [Josi- 
tion  wliere  he  will  be  greatly  cut  up  by  the  fire  of 
the  work.  Anything  may  be  regarded  as  an  olistacle 
to  the  enemy  liy  which  his  attention  is  diverted  from 
the  assjuled  to  his  own  situation;  but  no  obstacle  will 
be  of  much  scnice  to  the  ai?sailed  which  is  not  w  ilbiii 
good  striking  distance  of  his  weapons.  The  ]iroi>er 
disjiosition,  therefore,  of  obstacles  is  in  advance  of 
the  ditch  within  short  muskct-range.  Here  they  de- 
\ay  the  assailant  under  fire,  and  give  the  assailed  a 


ACCIDENTAL  LINE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


13 


ACC0TJNT8-CTJEEENT. 


feeling  of  more  security  as  llie  assailant  is  kept  fur- 
ther off.  Marshes,  waier-courses,  wet  ditches,  preci- 
pices, etc.,  may  be  regarded  as  obstacles,  if  they  are 
sufficient  in  themselves  to  stop  the  enemy's  progress. 
But,  however  strong,  they  are  not  solely  to  be  relied 
on;  as  the  strongest  natural  position  may  be  carried 
if  not  \ngilantly  guarded. 

In  placuig  the  ground  around  a  work  in  a  defen- 
sive attitude,  every  means  should  be  taken  to  reduce 
to  the  smallest  pos.sil)le  number  the  points  by  which 
the  enemy  may  approach,  so  that,  by  accumulating 
the  troops  on  the  weak  points,  a  more  vigorous  de- 
fence may  be  made.  In  making  this  arrangement, 
equal  care  should  be  given  to  everything  that,  afford- 
ing a  shelter  to  the  enemy,  would  enable  him  to  ap- 
proach the  work  unexposed  to  its  tires.  To  prevent 
this,  all  hollow  roads,  or  dry  ditches,  which  are  not 
entiladed  by  the  principal  works,  should  be  filleil  up, 
or  else  be  watched  by  a  detachment,  covered  by  an 
advance-work.  All  trees,  underwood,  hedges,  en- 
closures, and  houses,  within  atnnon-range,  should 
be  cut  down  and  levelled,  and  no  stumps  be  al- 
lowed higher  than  two  feet.  Trees  beyond  cannon- 
range  should  not  be  felled;  or  if  felled,  they  should  be 
burnt,  to  prevent  the  enemy's  movements  being  con- 
cealed. If  there  are  approaches  such  as  permanent 
bridges,  fords,  and  roads,  which  may  be  equally  .ser- 
viceable to  the  assailed  and  to  the  enemy,  they  should 
be  guanled  with  peculiar  care,  and  be  exposed  to  the 
enfilading  fire  of  a  work  especially  erected  for  their 
defence.  See  Abatis,  Checatu-de-frise,  Crow's-feet, 
Entanglements,  Praises,  Inundations,  Mines,  Pali- 
sades, SiiiiiU  Pickets,  Stockades,  and  Trous-de-loup. 

ACCIDENTAL  LINE  OF  OPERATIONS.— Lines  of 
operations  are  sometimes  employed,  different  from 
those  proposed  in  the  original  plan  of  campaign.  To 
these  lines  the  term  accidental  is  applied.  It  does  not 
follow  that  their  adoption  is  a  matter  of  accident,  as 
might  be  infeiTed  from  their  name.  They  are  fre- 
quently the  result  of  a  change  in  the  original  plan, 
which  probable  change  was  foreseen  and  provided 
for. 

ACCIDENTAL    OBJECTIVE.  —  Accidental    objec- 
tives are  dependent  upon  the    military  operations 
which  have  for  their  object  the  destruction  or  dis- 
integration of  the  enemy's  forces.     The  po>iition  of 
the  enemy  determines  their  location.     Thus,  if  the 
enemy's   forces  are  greatly  scattered,  or  his  front 
much    extended,   the  central  point  of  his  iiosition  i 
would  be  a  good  objective  point,  since  the  po.ssession  I 
of  it  would  divide  the  encm3-'s  forces,  and  allow  his 
detachments  to  be  attacked  separately.     Or,  if  the 
enemy  hius  his  forces  well  supported,  a  good  objec- 
tive would  be  on  that  flank  the  possession  of  which  | 
would  allow  his  communications  with  his  ba.se  to 
be  threatened.     It  is  well  to  remark  that  the  term  ] 
"point"  generally  used  in  this  connection  is  not  to 
be  considered  merely  in  its  geometrical  sense,  but  is  ! 
used  to  apply  to  the  ol)ject  which  the  army  desires  to 
attain,  whether  it  be  a  position,  i).  place,  a  line,  or 
even  a  section  of  countrv.  ' 

ACCIDENTAL   STRATEGICAL   POINT.  — A  point! 
whose  possession   will  give  an  advantage  over  the 
enemy,  causing  liim  to  tight  at  a  disadvantage,  or  re- 
treat, is  sm  "accidental  strategical  point,"  since  it  is 
frequently  dependent  upon  the  positions  of  the  con-  i 
tending  forces  at  a  particular  time.     It  is  generally  a  ] 
"  decisive  iwint,"  for  its  pos.session  insures  success  i 
for  the  military  operation  with  which  it  was  con- 
nected. 

ACCINTUS. — A  word   in  ancient  times  signifying  | 
the  complete  accoutrements  of  a  soldier. 

ACCOLADE. — The  term  applied  to  the  ceremony 
with  which  a  knight  was  admitted  into  the  Order  of 
Chivalry.  The  Grand-Master,  in  receiving  the  neo- 
phjte,  embraced  him  by  folding  the  arms  round  the 
neck  {fid  coUum). — In  music,  the  accolade  is  the 
couplet  imitins  several  staves,  as  in  part-music. 

ACCORD. — The  conditions  under  which  a  fortress 
or  command  of  tr«ops  is  surrendered.    . 


ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL  OF  THE  ARMY.— An 
officer  in  the  English  service  who  has  the  control  of 
military  tinance.  He  includes  in  his  office  that  of 
Chief  Auditor,  an  amalgamation  with  that  of  Ac- 
countant-General,  which  took  jilace  by  order  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  War  in  1870. 

ACCOUNTS.— The  systematic  record  of  public 
expenditures.  In  the  United  States  service,  all 
officers,  agents,  or  other  persons  wiio  are  charged 
with  the  safe-keeping,  transfer,  or  disbursement  of 
the  public  moneys  keep  an  accurate  entry  of  each 
sum  received,  anil  of  each  payment  or  transfer ;  and 
render  distinct  Accounts  of  the  application  thereof, 
according  to  the  appropriation  under  which  the 
moneys  may  have  been  advanced  to  them.  Every 
officer  or  agent  who,  having  received  public  money 
which  he  is  not  authorized  to  retain  as  salary,  pay, 
or  emolument,  fails  to  render  his  Accounts  "for  the 
same  is  deemed  guilty  of  embezzlement,  and  is  fined 
in  a  sura  equal  to  the  amount  of  the  money  embez- 
zled, and  is  imprisoned  not  less  than  six  months  or 
more  than  ten  years. 

The  following  rules  for  computation  of  time  are 
observed,  when  iireparing  Accounts  for  settlement : 

1.  For  any  full  calendar  month's  service  at  a 
stipulated  monthly  rate  of  comjiensiition  (or  yearly 
rate,  if  paid  in  regular  monthly  or  bimonthly  in- 
stallments), pa.vTnents  are  made"  at  such  stipulated 
rate,  without  regard  to  the  number  of  days  in  that 
month. 

2.  Wlien  service  commences  on  an  intermediate  day 
of  the  month,  30  days  is  assumed  as  the  length  of  the 
month,  whether  the  calendar  length  be  28,  29,  30,  or 
31  days,  and  pay  allowed  accordingly. 

3.  When  the  service  terminates  on  an  intermediate 
day  of  the  month,  the  actual  numljer  of  days  during 
which  service  was  rendered  in  that  calendar  month 
is  allowed  in  payments. 

4.  When  the  service  embraces  two  or  more  months, 
or  parts  of  months,  but  one  fraction  is  made.  Thus, 
from  September  21  to  November  25,  inclusive,  is 
calculated  September  21  to  October  20,  inclusive,  one 
month  ;  from  October  21  to  Xov-ember  20,  inclusive, 
one  month  ;  from  November  21  to  25,  inclusive,  five 
days — making  the  time  allowed  two  months  and  five 
days. 

5.  When  two  fractions  of  months  occur,  both  to- 
gether less  than  a  whole  month,  as  from  August  21 
to  September  10,  the  time  is  determined  thus : 
August  21  to  30,  inclusive  (ignoring  31st),  ten  days  ; 
from  September  1  to  10,  inclusive,  ten  days — making 
the  time  allowed  twenty  days. 

6.  Service  commencing  in  February  is  calculated 
as  though  the  month  contained  30  days,  thus  :  From 
Februarj-  21  to  28  (or  29),  inclusive,  ten  days  ;  but 
wiien  the  service  commences  on  the  last  day  of  Feb- 
ruarj',  only  one  day  is  allowed  in  that  month. 

7.  For  commutation  of  subsistence,  and  for  ser- 
vices of  persons  employed  at  a  per-diem  rate,  pay- 
ment is  made  for  the  actual  number  of  days. 

8.  When  service  is  rendered  from  one  given  date 
to  another,  the  Account  must  state  clearly  whether 
both  dates  are  included. 

The  Accoimts  of  disbursing  officers  of  the  Army 
are  kept  in  the  offices  of  the  Auditors  of  the  Treasury 
by  fiscal  years  ;  therefore  no  Account  Current  should 
contain  mixed  accounts,  and  no  item  should  be 
entered  thereon  unless  it  pertains  to  the  fiscal  year  to 
which  the  funds  are  chargeable,  and  all  accounts 
current,  abstracts,  and  touchers,  including  transfers 
and  refundments,  should  have  noted  in  red  ink  on 
the  face,  as  well  as  indorsed  in  the  brief  on  the  back, 
the  fiscal  year  to  which  the  funds  pertain. 

ACCOUNTS-CURRENT.— Rimning  or  continued  ac- 
counts between  Disbursing  Officers  and  the  Gov- 
ernment Accountant  Officers.  In  the  United  States 
service,  the  law  requires  that  a  separate  account  Ije 
kept  with  each  appropriation  disbursed.  The  forms 
of  Account-Current  and  abstracts  prepare<l  for  this 
puipose  and  approved  by  the  Second  Comptroller  of 


ACCOUTREMENTS. 


14 


ACCOUTBEMENTS. 


the  Treasury  are  used  by  disbursing  officers.  The 
Accoiinl-C'urrcnt  is  made  in  duplicate ;  one  copy, 
accompanied  liy  abstnicls  and  voiicliers  <'(inipklc, 
is  forwarded  to"  the  chief  of  Bureau  within  ten  days 
after  tlie  end  of  the  month  ;  the  other  copy,  also 
accompanied  by  abstracts  and  vouchers,  is  retained 
by  the  oftieer.  "  Fimds  received  from  overpayments 
pre\iously  made  are  entered  on  the  Aecouiitt'urrent 
m  the  proiXT  column.  The  entries  shoidd  show  by 
whom  anil  to  whom  the  overpayments  were  made,  on 
what  account,  and  refer  to  the  "voucher  and  abstract. 
Fiinds  received  on  account  of  oven'avmeiits  made 
from  appropriations  not  now  controlled  by  the  chief 
of  their  Bureau,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  may 
l)e  entered  under  any  head  of  appropriation  on  the 
Account -Current.  All  funds  received  from  .Sides, 
refimdmcnts,  or  miscellaneous  sources,  are  at  once  de- 
posited in  the  nearest  I'nitetl  States  depository  to  the 
credit  of  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  on  account 
of  the  appropriation  to  which  it  belongs,  if  any,  and 
receipts  taken  therefor ;  the  original  rcccijit  is  for- 
warded to  the  chief  of  the  Bureau,  accomi)anied,  if 
possible,  by  information  showing  to  what  partictdar 
appropriation  the  money  belong,  and  for  what  year. 
For  funds  thus  ileposited,  officers  take  credit  on 
their  Account.s-Current.  Accounts-Current  should, 
when  pnicticable,  cover  monthly  periods  only.  They 
may,  however,  if  necessary,  be  stated  at  intermediate 
■dates  when  rendered  to  close  accounts  on  renewal  of 
Ijond,  change  of  station,  or  taking  advantage  of 
leave  of  absence  of  more  than  ten  days.  In  the.se 
■cases  the  officer  must  make  an  actual  bona  fide 
transfer  of  his  entire  balance  of  public  fimds.  The 
Account-Current  must  exhibit  the  rcceilits  and  ex- 
penditures for  the  period  embraced,  and  must  state 
the  place  or  places  where  the  balance  due  the  United 
States  is  deposited.  The  amounts  received  and  dis- 
bursed and  the  balance  on  hand  under  the  several 
appropriations  of  each  fiscal  year  must  be  exhibited. 
In  crediting  drafts  on  the  Account  -  Current  the 
number  of  the  reqii utition ,  as  indicated  on  each  draft, 
is  carefully  noted  in  the  credit  entry. 

The  following  is  a  form  of  Account-Current  used 
in  the  Subsistence  Department : 


and  plate,  cartridge-box  belt  and  plate,  waist-belt  and 
jilate,  gun-sling,  bayonet-scabbard,  and  cap-pouch; 
to  which,  on  a  march,  are  added  the  knapsack,  can- 
teen, and  haversack.  Two  loops  are  attached  to  the 
back  of  the  cartridge-box  for  the  pa.ssiige  of  the  licit, 
which  passes  diagonally  across  the  body  in  front  and 
rear  from  the  left  shoulder  to  the  right  side,  where  it 
passes  beneath  the  waist-belt,  and  is  secured  to  the 
cartridge-box  by  two  buckles.  For  ornament  a  round 
brass  i)late(in  tlie  United  Statesstamped  with  an  eagle) 
is  attached  to  this  belt,  so  sis  to  fall  about  the  centre  of 
the  chest  of  the  wearer.  More  frequently  the  plate 
bears  the  number  of  the  regiment  or  the  letter  of  the 
company.  The  waist-belt,  as  its  name  implies,  ))asses 
around  the  waist,  and  carries  the  bayonet-scabbard 
and  cap-pouch;  it  also  serves  to  keep  the  cartridge-box 
and  belt  in  place  close  to  the  body;  it  is  fastened  by  a 
brass  plate.  The  bayonet-scabbard  is  made  of  black 
bridle-leather;  it  has  a  shape  to  lit  the  bayonet,  and 
is  iirovided  with  a  brass  ferrule  at  its  bottom  for 
ornament  and  protection;  a  leather  loo]),  or  frog,  is 
attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  .scabbard  for  insert- 
ing the  waist-belt.  The  cap-pouch  is  also  made  of 
black  bridle-leather,  and  has  a  flap  and  iimer  cover, 
the  flap  being  fastened  by  a  brass  button.  The  pouch 
is  lined  with  sheepskin  with  the  wool  on,  to  prevent 
the  caps  from  being  jarred  out  and  lost  when  the  flap  is 
not  buttoned.  The  gun-sling  is  of  russet  bag-leather, 
\\  inches  wide  and  46  inches  long;  it  has  a  standing 
loop  at  one  end  and  a  brass  hook  at  the  other,  with  a 
sliding  loop  between.  All  belts  in  the  United  States 
land  serWce  are  black,  and  are  made  either  of  leather 
or  of  a  strong  species  of  felting,  called  buff,  probably 
because  belts  were  formerly  made  of  that  color. 
Until  within  a  few  years  a  separate  belt  was  used  for 
suspending  the  bayonet-scabbard,  passing  over  the 
left  shoulder  and  crossing  the  cartridge-box  belt 
diagonally'  on  the  breast,  which  was  ornamented  with 
a  plate  at  the  cros.sing.  The  ciutridgc-box  belt  has 
sometimes  been  dispensed  with,  particularly  for  rifle- 
men, the  whole  weight  of  the  accoutrements,  with,  in 
this  ca.se,  the  addition  of  a  heavy  sword-bayonet  and 
scabbard,  being  borne  by  the  ■naist-belt,  ■which  of 
course  had  to  be  drawn  very  tight,  forcibly  com- 


The  United  State*,  on  account  of  Stibmtence  of  the  Army,  in  the  month  of  - 


Lieut. 


■  Begiment  of  - 


A.  A.  C.  8. 


,  188  ,  in  account  with 


Dr. 


Cr. 


188 


Dolls.  Cts. 


To  amount  disbursed,  per  Abstract  of  Fur- 
chases 

To  amount  disbursed,  per  Abstract  of  Con- 
tingencies  

To  amount  transferred  to ,  per  receipt 

To  amount  transferred  to ,  per  receipt 


To  balance  due  the  United  States. . 


188  . 


By  balance  per  last  Account-Current 

By  sales  to  nfflcers  for  cash,  per  Abstract. . , 
By  sales  to  enlisted  men  for  casii.  per  Ab 

stract 

By  sales  to  companies,  detachments,  and 

"hospitals,  per  Abstract 

By  sales  to  ,  per  Abstract 

By  sales  of  stores  at  auction,  per  Abstract. . 
By  sales  of  barrels,  boxes,  hides,  etc.,  per 

Abstract 

By  transfer  from ,  per  invoice 

By  transfer  from ,  per  invoice 

By  Treasury  Draft  No. on  War  War- 
rant No.  


Dolls.  Cte. 


I  certify  that  the  above  Account-Current  exhibits  a  true  statement  of  all  moneys  received,  expended,  and  transferred 

by  me  on  account  of  Snhsisti-nce  of  the  Army,  not  heretofore  accounted  for;  and  that  the  balance  of dollars 

and cents  is  due  llie  United  States  by  me,  and  is  deposited  as  follows: 

With  the  Assistant  Treasurer  U.  S.  at  $ 

With  the National  Bank  of  


In  transitu 

In  my  personal  possession,  deposited  In  office  safe  . 

Total 


.  Eeg't  of  - 


.,A.A.C.S. 


ACCOUTREMENTS— ACCOUTERMENTS.— The  de- 

■viccs  by  which  »  soldier  curries  his  arms,  anuntini- 
tion,  etc.  These  vary  in  the  difTcrent  arms  of  the 
ser\'ice  according  •  lo  ilie  exigencies  of  the  case. 
Those  for  infantry  usutdly  consist  of  a  cartridge-box 


pressing  the  abdomen,  and  causing  great  and  un- 
necessary fatigue,  or  even  permanent  injur}'.  This 
arrangement  was.  we  Ix'lieve,  generally  condemned 
by  the  Jledical  Department  and  in  fact,  by  every 
one  who  thought  on  the  subject;  but  as  the  weapon 


ACCUMULATION   OF   POWIR. 


15 


ACCUEACT  OF  FntE. 


above  mentioned  was  in  very  limited  ase,  toward  the 
close  of  the  war  especially,  the  evil  was  not  so  general 
as  it  might  have  been.  The  cartridge-box  for  cavalrj- 
resembles  in  exterior  appearance  that  for  the  infantry, 
but  is  smaller,  and  its  two  loops  are  arranged  so  as  to 
pass  the  sabre-belt  through  them.  Those  used  by  the 
troops  in  the  late  war  were  variously  arransed  in  the 
interior  to  suit  the  supposed  necessities  oi  the  car- 
tridges of  each  particular  kind  of  carbine,  as  Bum- 
side's,  Merrill's,  etc.  The  cavalryman  is  also  pro\'ided 
with  a  small  box  or  pouch  for  revolver-cartridges  and 
a  cap-pouch.  The  sabre-belt,  to  which  all  the  preced- 
ing are  attached,  consists  of  a  waist-belt,  with  two 
brass  rings  for  the  shoulder-strap  and  sabre-slings, 
and  a  brass  loop  sewed  at  one  end  to  receive  the 


plate,  which  is  rectangular  and  coimects  the 
two  ends  of  the  belt  together.  The  accou- 
trements for  horse-artillery  merely  consist 
of  a  pistol.  cartridge-ix)uch,  and  cap-pouch, 
both  similar  to  those  above  described,  and  a 
sabre-belt  which  differs  from  the  cavalry- 
belt  only  in  the  omission  of  the  shoulder- 
strap.  More  than  forty  patents  have  been 
granted  in  the  United  States,  since  the 
commencement  of  the  late  war,  for  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of,  and  in  slinging, 
accoutrements.  The  more  important  of  these  patents 
will  be  noticed  imder  specific  headings.  The  draw- 
ing shows  the  usual  arrangement  and  adjustment  of 
accoutrements.  The  Ordnance  Department  at  present 
issues  the  following  accoutrements  to  United  States 
troops: 

Infantry  Aeeoutremenfs. — Bayonet-scabbard,  leath- 
er; baj'onet-scabbard,  steel;  cartridge-box;  cartridge- 
box  plate;  cartridge-box  Ix'lt;  cartridge-box  belt-plate; 
cartridge-belt,  with  buckle  (belt  of  leather,  covered 
with  webbing,  ■nith  loops  of  webbing),  for  calibre  .4.1; 
gtm-sling;  shoulder  or  sword  belt  for  non-commis- 
sioned officers  or  musicians;  shoulder-belt  plate;  slid- 
ing frogs  for  waist-belts  (for  swords);  waist-belt;  waist- 
belt  plate. 

Catalry  Accoutrements. — Sabre-belts,  buff  leather, 
blacked;  sabre-belts,  grained  leather,  blacked;  .sabre- 
belt    plates;    sabre-knots;    canteens;    canteen-covers; 


carbine-slings,  buff  leather,  blacked;  carbine-slings, 
grained  leather,  blacked;  carbine-sling  swivels;  car- 
bine-cartridge boxes;  carbine-cartridge  pouches;  cart- 
ridge-loops (worn  on  sabre-belt);  haversacks;  pistol- 
holsters,  Smith  &  Wesson's;  pistol-holsters,  Colt's;  pis- 
tol-cartridge pouches;  snap-hooks;  Stuart's  attach- 
ments. 

Sabre-belts  and  sabre-belt  plates  are  issued  as  ac- 
coutrements for  the  artillery.  The  following  direc- 
tions should  be  observed  for  reblacking  the  leather 
parts  of  accoutrements:  Brush  them  with  a  hard 
brush,  to  clean  the  surface;  if  they  are  very  greasy, 
use  a  \\ire  scmteh-brush.  'Then,  with  a  soft  brash  or 
sponge,  apply  the  following  mixture,  viz.:  one  gal- 
lon soft  water,  two  pounds  extract  of  logwood,  half 
a  pound  broken  nutgalls,  boiled  until  the  logwood 
is  dissolved.  When  cold,  add  half  a  pint  of  the 
pyrolignite  of  iron — made  by  dissolving  iron-tilings 
in  pyroligneous  acid,  as  much  as  the  acid  will  take 
up.  The  dye  thus  made  should  be  well  stirred,  and 
then  left  to  settle.  When  clear,  Iwttle  it  free  from 
sediment,  and  keep  it  well  corked  for  use.  Dye  the 
belts  in  the  shade;  then  apply  a  little  sperm  or  olive 
oil,  and  rub  well  with  a  hard  bnish.  Should  any  bad 
spots  appear,  scratch  up  the  surface  ^ith  the  wire 
brush,  and  wet  two  or  three  times  with  a  simple 
decoction  of  gallnuts  or  sumach,  and  again  apply  the 
dye.  Logwood  is  not  essential,  and  a  solution  of 
copperas  mav  be  tised  iastead  of  the  acetate  of  iron. 

ACCUMULATION  OF  POWER.— The  quantity  of 
motion  in  machines  at  the  end  of  aiven  intervals, 
during  which  velocity  has  been  constantly  acceler- 
ated. A  simple  case  is  the  rammer  of  a  pile  driving 
machine,  which  descends  by  force  of  gravity  in  a 
certain  time  and  falls  upon  .some  object.  If  the  ob- 
ject does  not  move,  the  velocities  of  all  the  particles 
in  the  hammer,  which  had  gone  on  increasing  during 
the  descent,  are  destroyed,  and  thus  a  shock  is  pro- 
duced inmiensely  greater  than  that  which  would 
result  from  the  mere  pressure  of  the  hammer.  The 
effect  is  directly  proportional  to  the  mass  in  motion, 
and  to  the  square  of  the  velocity  at  the  instant  of 
impact. 

ACCUMULATOR. — An  apparatus  used  in  working 
hydraulic  cranes  and  other  machines  where  a  steady 
and  powerful  pressure  of  water  is  required.  The  ac- 
cumidator  is  intended  as  a  substitute  for  a  natural 
head,  as  being  more  compact.  Sir  William  Arm- 
strong, in  the  first  applications  he  made  of  this  prin- 
ciple to  hydraulic  cranes,  employed  a  natural  head 
of  water  as  the  motive  agent,  obtaining  the  same  by 
pumping  water  into  tanks  at  an  elevation  of  about 
200  feet:  but  subsequently  he  has  employed  the  ac- 
cumulator, as  offering  the  advantages  of  greatly  in- 
creased capacity  for  pressure,  and  a  less  prime  cost  of 
erection.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a  large  cast-iron 
cylinder,  fitted  with  a  plunger,  which  works  water- 
tight by  means  of  a  gland  and  packing.  To  this 
plunger  is  attached,  by  mear^  of  bolts  and  a  strong 
cast-iron  cross-head,  a  loaded  weight-ca.se.  Thus  a 
pressure  is  obtained  upon  the  water  in  the  cylinder 
equal  to  a  column  of  watef  ISOO  feet  high,  or  660 
pounds  upon  the  square  inch.  As  the  water  is 
pumped  into  the  cylinder  by  the  pumping-eugine, 
the  piston  with  the  weighted  case  rises,  being  guiiled 
by  a  strong  framework,  anil  is  made  to  regulate  the 
amount  of  water  pumped  in  by  actuating  a  throttle- 
valve  in  the  steam-pijie  of  the  pumping-engine,  which 
it  closes  after  having  reached  a  certain  height.  When 
the  cranes,  etc.,  are  in  operation,  the  water  passes 
from  this  cylinder  to  the  pipes  actuating  the  motion 
of  the  cranes,  and  the  weighted  i>lunger  naturally 
descends,  always  keei>iug  up  a  constant  pressure  upon 
the  water:  in  descending,  the  same  causes  the  throttle- 
valve  to  open  again,  and  the  water  is  again  pumix>d 
in. 

ACCURACY  OF  FIRE.— Firing  for  accuracy, 
whether  with  artillery  or  small-arms,  may  involve 
two  entirely  separate  and  distinct  things:  1st.  The 
determination  of  the  personal  skill  of  the  individual 


ACCXrSEI). 


16 


ACIDS. 


using  the  weapon.  2d.  The  (leterminalion  of  tlie 
(lualities  as  reparils  accuracy  of  the  weatKin  itself. 
The  most  coiiiinon  way  of  deteniiining  the  relative 
accuracy  of  jruns  is  to  ascertain  their  nuan  diffirenu» 
uf  ninge  anil  tiu'tm  reduced  dcjltction  for  a  given  mtaii 
range,  and  compare  tliem — that  srun  iK-ing  the  most 
accurate  for  wliicli  the.-^  quantities  arc  smallest. 

An  e.\act  detiuition  of  the  iiceuracy  of  a  gun  is  a 
matter  of  no  little  dilliculty.  Of  two  guns  fired  from 
the  siuiie  place,  the  sjime  numlwr  of  rounds,  at  the 
same  target,  with  their  a.xis  in  the  same  direction, 
that  would  evitiently  l)e  the  more  accurate  which 
planted  its  shot  more  nearly  together.  But  it  is  not 
always  possible  io  test  the  practice  of  guns  under 
precisely  similar  circumstances;  therefore  we  nuist 
.seek  a  ijefmilion  equally  true,  but  admitting,  in  ad- 
dition, more  elasticity  in  its  application.  Upon  re- 
flection ,  it  becomes  evident  that  an  absolutely  accurate 
pun  is  one  with  which,  fired  under  identical  circum- 
stances, the  chance  or  jirobability  of  striking  the  same 
spot  twice  amounts  to  certainty.  Adopting  the  mathe- 
matical notion  of  iirobability.'this  will  be  represented 
by  vniti/ — guns  less  accurate  having  probabilities 
represented  by  fractions.  Such  a  mode,  though  .sug- 
gested, has  not  been  accompanied  by  the  requisite 
tables  to  render  it  of  general  use. 

It  is  easier  to  determine,  from  the  practice  of  the 
gun  it.self,  a  rectangle  with  which  there  would  be  an 
equal  chance  of  any  shot  from  the  cim  striking  or  not 
striking;  or,  if  a  given  immlter  of  shots  were  fired, 
half  the  number  might  be  expected  to  fall  within  the 
area.  The  accuracies  of  two  guns  would  l)e  inversely 
as  these  rectangles  for  the  same  range.  This  luethod 
w!is  proiX)sctl  by  Captain  Xoble,  K.  A.,  who  furnished 
the  following  formula  for  application.  If  a  he  the 
length,  and  b  the  width  of  the  area  or  rectangle  re- 
quired, then 

„  ,  ^       „,,«      sum  of  differences  of  ranges 

a  =  3.12  X  .8453, -. n c i — : 

one  less  than  number  of  ranges 

,    ,       „,.„         sum  of  reduced  deflections 

b  =  3.12  X  .8453, j -. r .Ti  »    .- — • 

one  less  than  number  of  deflections 

The  relative  precision  of  small-anns  is  decided  by 
various  methods.  To  detennine  the  centre  of  impae'l, 
let  the  piece  be  pointed  at  the  centre  of  a  target 
stationed  at  the  required  distance,  and  fired  a  certain 
number  of  times,  and  let  the  positions  of  the  shot- 
holes,  mea.surcd  in  vertical  and  horizontal  directions 
from  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  target,  be  ar- 
ranged as  in  the  following  table: 


No.  of  Shot. 


Distances  from  lower  left-hand  comer,  In  feet. 


Above. 


4.( 


Right. 


10 
4 


7.33 


The  sum  of  all  the  vertical  distances  divided  by 
the  numlKT  of  shots  gives  the  hfight  of  the  centre  of 
impact  above  the  origin.  Similarly  the  sum  of  all 
the  horizontal  distances  divided  by  the  numl)er  of 
shots  gives  the  horizonUil  dktanre  from  the  origin  to 
the  centre  of  impact.  Thus  from  the  above  table  the 
co-ordinates  of  the  centre  of  impact  are  4.67  and  7.33. 
The  co-ordinates  of  the  centre  of  the  target  being  6 
each,  the  centre  of  impact  is  1.33  below  and  1.33  to 
the  right  of  the  centre  of  the  target.  The  co-ordi- 
nates of  the  centre  of  impact  being  known,  the  point 
it.self  is  known,  and  its  distance  from  the  centre  of 
the  target  is  called  the  ahuoliiU'  iidiin  din'tilioii.  This 
is  equal  to  the  souare-root  of  the  sum  of  the  s(|uares 
of  its  \  ertic.'d  ana  horizontal  distances  from  the  centre 
of  the  target.  To  obtain  the  mean  deviation  it  is 
necessary  to  refer  each  shot-hole  to  the  centre  of  im- 


])act  .as  a  new  oriirin  of  co-ordinates,  and  this  is  done 
l)y  taking  the  differences  lietween  each  tabular  dis- 
tance and  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  impact  and 
ailding  them.  The  sum  of  all  the  distances  thus  ob- 
tained in  one  direction  divided  by  the  number  of 
shots  gives  the  mtuii  den'iilioii  or  figure  of  merit.  A 
shorter  rule  may  be  found:  for  if  there  are  m  distances 
greater,  and  «  (listiinces  less  than  the  distance  from 
the  origin  to  the  centre  of  impact,  x,  calling  a  the 
sum  of  the  greater  and  b  the  sum  of  the  less,  we  may 
write 

a  —mxA-nx  —  b     a  —  b-\-(n  —  m)x      „  ^        -. 

= '-^- '—  =fiffureof  merit. 

m-\-n  m-\-n 

In  using  this  formula,  due  care  must  be  paid  to  the 

sign  of  (n  —  »«).     This  method  might  be  iipplied  to 

the  fire  of  cannon  by  reducing  thiT  grazes  to  an  im- 

aginarj'  vertical  target,  the  angles  of  descent  being 

a.ssumcd  equal  for  all  shot  fired  at  the  same  elevation. 

Applying  this  fornuda  to  the  table  given  above,  we 

get  3.11  feet  vertically,  2.22  feet  horizontally,  for  the 

mean  deruition  or  figure  of  merit. 

The  mean  horizontal  error  is  found  by  adding  the 
horizontal  distances  by  which  the  balls  have  missed 
the  centre  of  the  target,  and  dividing  this  sum  by  the 
numlx;r  of  balls;  this  quotient  indicates  how  much 
the  average  of  the  balls  have  missed  horizontally  the 
point  aimed  at.  It  may  be  directly  and  quite  readily 
found  by  using  the  formula  employed  above,  substi- 
tuting for  X  the  horizontal  distance  of  the  centre  of  the 
target  from  the  origin.  Similarly  the  mean  vertical 
error  may  be  found,  by  using  the  same  formula,  with 
the  substitution  for  i  of  the  height  of  the  centre  of 
the  tjirget  above  the  origin.  The  result  shows  e\n 
dently  by  how  much  the  average  of  the  shots  have 
missed  vertically.  To  get  the  absolute  mean  error 
there  are  two  methods.  The  first  is  short  and  simple, 
and  consists  in  calculating  the  hj-pothenuse  of  a  right 
triangle,  in  which  the  other  two  sides  are  the  mean 
horizontal  and  mean  vertical  errors.  The  second, 
which  should  l)e  called  the  calculation  of  the  mean  of 
the  absolute  errors,  consists  in  measuring  for  each  ball 
its  absolute  error,  a  distance  from  the  point  aimed  at, 
and  to  take  the  mean  of  these  absolute  errors  by 
dividing  their  sum  by  the  number  of  balls  fired. 
This  method  is  very  long,  since  to  have  the  absolute 
error  of  each  ball  it  is  necessary  to  square  two  num- 
bers and  then  extract  the  square-root  of  these  sums  as 
the  distance  of  the  jioints  struck  have  been  measured 
ujwn  the  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  passing  through 
the  point  aimed  at.  The  results  are  not  exactly  the 
same;  the  mejin  of  the  absolute  errors  will  be  greater 
than  the  absolute  mean  error. 

ACCUSED. — In  a  military  sense,  the  designation 
of  one  who  is  arraigucil  before  a  Military  Court. 

A-CHEVAL  POSITION.— When  troops  are  arranged 
so  that  a  river  or  highway  pas-ses  through  the  centre 
and  forms  a  pcrpcndicnlar  to  the  front,  they  are  said 
to  be  drawn  up  in  a-c/teral  position.  \Vellington's 
army  at  Waterloo  was  d-cheeal  on  the  road  from 
Charleroi  to  Brussels.  In  cases  where  a  river  forma 
a  perpendicular  to  the  front,  secure  possession  of  a 
bridge  is  nece.s.sary;  otherwise  one  half  of  the  troops 
might  be  routed,  while  the  remainder  stood  idly  as 
spectators. 

ACIDS.^-Chemical  compounds  distinguished  by  the 
property  of  combining  with  b;ises  in  definite  propor- 
tions to  form  salts.  The  most  striking  characteris- 
tics of  acids  are  a  sour  taste  and  the  property  of  red- 
dening vegetable  blues.  They  are  also  mostly  oxi- 
dized bodies;  and  at  one  time  o.xygen  was  thought  to 
be  essential  to  an  acid,  as  the  name  oxygen  (the  acid- 
profluccr)  indicates.  Subsequent  experience  has 
extended  the  definition.  There  is  an  important  class 
of  undoubted  acids  that  contain  no  oxygen;  and  silex 
or  flint,  which,  being  insoluble,  neither  tastes  sour  nor 
reildens  lilnuis-jiaper,  is  lielil  to  be  an  acid  because  it 
combines  with  ba.ses  and  fonns  comiwunds  like  ac- 
knowledged acids.  The  oxygen  aci<ls,  which  are  by 
far  the  most  numerous  clas.s,  are  formed  of  element's 


ACINACIS. 


17 


ACOUSTICS. 


(sulphur,  nitrogen,  cliromium,  etc.)  with  two  or 
more  equivalents  of  oxj'gen.  The  elements  that 
form  the  strongest  aoiils  with  oxygen  are  the  non- 
metallic,  and  most  of  them  have  more  than  one  stage 
of  acid  oxidation.  Thus  sulphur,  with  two  equiva- 
lents of  oxj-gen,  forms  sulphurous  acid,  symbol  SO,; 
with  three  equivalents  it  forms  sulphuric  acid,  sJ^n- 
bol  SO3.  Similarly  arsenic  gives  rise  to  arsenious 
acid  (AsOj)  and  arsenic  acid  (A-sOs).  The  higher 
stage  of  oxidation  forms  the  stronger  and  more  stable 
acid.  All  metals,  except  ar.senic,  that  form  acids 
with  oxygen,  have  also,  at  a  lower  stage  of  oxidation, 
one  or  liibre  oxides.  To  the.se  oxygen  acids  must  t)e 
added  the  organic  acids,  composed  cither  of  carbon 
and  o.xygcn,  as  oxalic  acid  (CjOj),  or  of  these  two 
alonjj  with  hydrogen,  as  acetic  acid  (C.HaO,)  and 
formic  acid  (C'.IIO;,).  There  are  al-so  acids  found  in 
animal  fluids  or  resulting  from  their  decomposition, 
which  contain  nitrogen  in  addition  to  the  three  ele- 
ments above  named;  such  is  uric  acid  (Ci«N4H40„). 
The  hydrogtii  aciiU  are  formed  of  hydrogen  and  a 
radical,  eith,,'r  simple  or  compound.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these,  and  the  type  of  its  class,  is  hydro- 
chloric or  muriatic  acid  (CIH);  others  are  hydnodic 
(IH)  and  hydrocyanic  acids  (XC2H).  As  all  acids, 
however,  even  oxygen  acids,  possess  acid  properties 
— i.e.,  combine  with  bases — only  when  in  combina- 
tion with  water,  a  new  view  of  the  constitution  of 
acids  is  beginning  to  prevail,  which  makes  hvdrogen 
Uie  real  acidifying  element  in  all  acids,  'f  h\is,  in- 
stead of  considering  vitriol  as  a  compound  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  water  (SOj+HO),  the  hvdratc<l  acid 
is  held  to  be  the  real  sulphuric  acid,  and  its  rational 
formida  to  be  (S(JiH).  It  thus  becomes  analogous 
to  hydrochloric  acid  (OIH).  This  \Tew  has  not  only 
the  advantage  of  bringing  all  acids  into  one  claas, 
but  makes  the  theory  of  tlieir  comliinatinn  with  bases 
and  of  their  capacity  of  saturation  uniform  and 
simi>lc, 

ACINACES. — An  ancient  Persian  sword,  short  and 
straight,  ami  worn,  contrary  to  the  Roman  fashion, 
on  the  right  side,  or  sometimes  in  front  of  the  body, 
as  shown  in  the  bas-reliefs  fomid  at  Persepolis. 
Among  the  Persian  nobility  they  were  frequently 
made  of  gold,  being  worn  as  a  baclge  of  distinction. 
The  (icinaccs  was  an  object  of  religious  worship  with 
the  Scvthians  and  others. 

ACIIDES. — A  kind  of  missile  weapon,  in  Roman 
antiquity,  with  a  thong  tixed  to  it  whereby  it  might 
be  drawn  back  again. 

ACOLUTHI. — in  military  antiquity,  ncoluthi  was  a 
title  given  in  the  Grecian  Empire  to  the  Captain  or 
Conunander  of  the  body-guards  appointed  for  the 
security  of  the  Emperor's  Palace. 

ACONITE. — A  poisonous  plant,  whose  extract  was 
nnich  used  by  ancient  races  for  poisoning  arrows. 
The  virulent  hikh  poison  of  India,  equally  fatal  in  its 
efTecIs  whether  introduced  into  wovuids  or  tisken  into 
the  stomach,  is  preiiared  from  the  roots  of  several 
species.  The  aconite  fero.r  of  Nejiaul,  from  which 
nnich  of  it  is  obtained,  has  lieen  identilied  by  Drs. 
Hooker  and  Thompson  with  aconite  iiapelliis.  Two 
other  Himalayan  species,  «<■«// /te  ;)'(////</^'/«  and  am- 
nite  luriduin,  are  equally  employed  in  its  preparation. 
Aconite  album,  or  whitetiowercd  monk's-hood,  a 
native  of  the  Levant,  and  aconite  lyco'ctonum,  yellow- 
flowered  monk's-hood,  or  wolf's-bane,  a  native  of  the 
Alps,  are  not  unfrequent  in  our  flower-gardens. 

ACONTIUM.— In  Grecian  antiquity,  a  kind  of  dart 
or  javelin,  resembling  the  Roman  spiculmn. 

ACOUSTICS.— The  velocity  of  sound  has  been  de- 
termined by  a.scertaining  the  time  intervening  between 
the  flash  and  rejiort  of  a  gun,  as  observed  at  a  given 
distance,  and  dividing  the  distance  by  the  time.  After 
many  experiments  in  various  countries.  Van  der  Kolk 
as.signed  1()!)1  feet  8  inches  per  second,  ■with  a  probable 
error  of  ;i.7  feet,  as  the  velocity  of  sound  in  ilry  air  at 
'4'i°  Fahr.  More  recent  experiments  by  the  Astronomer 
Royal  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  give  lOOti  feet.  To 
this  velocity  may  be  added  1.11  feet  for  each  degree 


Fahr.  But  air  is  not  a  perfect  gas,  and  the  variations 
of  (flastic  force  caused  by  a  wave  of  soimd  passing 
through  it  are  not  unifomi;  so  these  measures,  though 
approximately,  may  not  be  absolutely,  correct.  Fur 
thermore,  the  rapidity  of  transmissicm  depends  upon 
the  loudness  of  the  sound;  and  Captain  Parrj-  found, 
in  the  polar  regions,  that  the  discharge  of  a  cannon 
at  a  distance  of  2i  miles  was  heard  ])erceptibly  .sooner 
than  the  word  ordering  to  fire,  which,  of  course,  pre- 
ceded the  discharge.  There  is  also  a  gradual  falling 
off  in  the  speed  of  sound;  and  Regnault  determined 
that  a  sound  decreased  in  speed  by  2.2  feet  per  second 
in  passing  from  a  distance  of  4()()()  feet  to  one  of  T.WO 
feet.  He  also  found  that  the  velocity  depended  upon 
the  pitch,  the  lower  notes  travelling  faster  than  the 
higher  ones;  thus,  the  fundamental  note  of  a  trumpet 
travels  faster  than  its  harmonies.  Soimd  travels  faster 
in  liquids  than  in  air,  and  fa.ster  in  solids  than  in  li- 
quids. Through  iron,  sound  travels  ten  and  a  half 
times  fa.ster  than  through  air.  Experiments  on  tele- 
graph-wire produce  almost  identical  residts.  Differ- 
ent metals  tran.smit  sound  in  widely  different  degrees. 
Wertheini  a.ssigned  16,822  for  iron  and  4030  for  lead, 
at  a  temperatiue  of  68'  Fahr.  Except  in  a  fert-  cases, 
the  loudness  of  a  sotnid  is  less  as  the  distance  in- 
crea.ses  between  the  source  of  the  sound  and  the  ear. 
In  an  imlimited  and  imiform  mediunt,  the  loudness 
of  the  sound  proceeding  from  a  very  small  sounding 
body  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 
Hut  to  verify  this  fact  it  would  lie  ncces.sary  to  make 
a  test  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  earth's 
surface,  the  car  and  source  of  soimd  being  separated 
by  air  of  constant  densit}-.  As  the  density  of  the 
air  diminishes,  it  woulrl  be  foimd  that  the  loudness 
of  a  sound  at  a  given  distance  would  decrea.se.  The 
decay  of  sound  due  to  this  cause  is  observable  in  the 
rarefied  air  of  high  mountain  regions.  De  Saiissure 
found  that  the  report  of  a  pistol  at  a  great  ele\'atioa 
ajipeared  no  louder  than  would  a  small  cracker  at  a 
lower  level.  But  it  must  be  .stated  that  when  air- 
strata  of  different  den.sities  are  interiiosed  between  the 
sound  and  the  ear  placed  at  a  given  distance,  the  in- 
tensify depends  only  on  the  density  of  the  air  at  the 
source  itself;  whence  it  follows  that  sounds  proceed- 
ing from  the  surface  of  the  earth  may  be  heard  at 
equal  distances  as  distinctly  by  a  person  in  a  floating 
balloon  as  by  one  situated  on  the  surface  itself;  where- 
as any  noise  originating  in  the  balloon  would  Ik'  heard 
at  the  surface  as  faintly  as  if  the  ear  were  placed  in 
the  raretied  air  on  a  level  with  the  balloon.  'I'his  was 
exemi)lified  by  Glaisher,  the  aeronaut,  who  at  an 
elevation  of  2(1,000  feet  heard  with  great  distinctness 
the  whistle  of  a  locomotive  passing  beneath  him. 
The  prolonged  roll  of  thunder,  with  its  manifold  va- 
rieties, is  partly  to  be  a.scribed  to  the  reflection  of  the 
soiuid  by  niiiuntains,  clouds,  etc.,  but  is  mainly  due 
to  the  comparatively  low  rate  of  transmission  thro\igh 
air.  The  exi)lanation  will  be  more  easily  imderstood 
by  noting  the  case  of  a  volley  tireil  by  a  long  line  of 
troops.  A  jierson  at  a  given  pcjint  in  the  line  woidd 
hear  the  souivl  of  the  nearest  musket  first,  and  of  the 
othcis  in  the  order  of  distance,  and  the  effect  would 
be  a  prolonged  roll,  concluded  by  the  musket  most 
remote  from  the  hearer,  though  all  were  tired  at  the 
same  instant;  and  the  roll  would  gradually  decrease 
in  loudness.  If  lie  stood  exactly  oiijiosife  the  centre 
of  the  line,  the  reports  from  either  end  would  reach 
him  simultaneously  and  the  elTcct  woidd  be  more 
nearly  a  loud  crash.  If  the  soldiers  formed  a  circle, 
the  listener  in  the  centre  would  hear  a  single  explo- 
sion, since  the  report  of  every  gun  would  reach  his 
ear  at  the  s;ime  instant,  and  tlie  whole  ixplosion 
would  Ix'  equal  to  that  of  the  sum  of  all  the  separate 
discharges.  By  varj-ing  the  form  of  arranging  the 
troops,  corresponding  variations  in  the  sound  wnuld 
be  produced.  Keep  in  view,  then,  the  fact  that 
flashes  of  lightning  may  be  regsudid  as  rei>rc.senting 
lines  of  troops,  at  the  points  and  along  the  ranks  of 
which  explosions  are  gcneraled  at  the  same  instant  of 
lime;  then  consider  the  variety  of  ilistance  and  posi- 


ACQI7£B£AUX. 


18 


ACTING  SIGNAL  OFFICEK. 


tion  relutive  to  the  electric  dischar^  of  the  listener, 
nud  we  find  no  difficulty  in  accountuijr  for  the  rollin'^ 
jx-als  of  thundtr.  In  a  niouutainous  resion  this  roll- 
ing is  jrreally  augmented  by  reverberations  or  echoes 
from  the  steep  decli\ities. 

ACQUEKEAUX.— A  machine  of  war,  which  was 
luiu'h  used  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  throw  stones. 

ACQUIT.— To  release  or  set  free  from  an  (jbligation, 
accusation,  guilt,  censure,  suspicion,  or  whatever  de- 
volves upon  a  person  as  a  charge  or  duty  ;  as,  the 
Court  <ici/iiitji  the  accused.  This  word  has  also  the 
reflexive  signification  of  to  boar  or  conduct  one's  self ; 
as,  the  soldier  (tcquitltd  himself  well  in  battle. 

ACftUITTANCE-EOLL.— In  the  Uritish  serWce,  a 
docuMuiit  ill  which  is  .shown  the  monthly  settlement 
of  the  accounts  of  a  troop,  battery,  or  company,  and 
to  which  the  signature  of  the  soldier  is  attached, 
countersigned  bv  the  Captain  or  Oltiecr  in  Charge. 

ACRE— ACRE-FIGHT.— An  ohl  duel  fought  by 
AVarriors  with  sword  and  lance  on  the  frontiers  of 
England  and  Scotland.  This  dueling  was  also 
called  Oimp-fg/it. 

ACROBALISTES.— A  name  given  by  the  ancients  to 
warlike  races,  such  as  the  Parthians  and  Armenians, 
who  shot  aiTows  from  a  long  distance. 

ACROPOLIS.— The  highest  point  of  a  city.  Many 
of  the  impnrtant  cities  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor 
"were  protected  by  strongholds  so  named.  The 
acropolis  occupied  a  lofty  position,  commanding  the 


Acropolis  at  Athens. 

city  and  its  environs ;  inaccessible  on  all  sides  exceiit 
one,  which  had,  for  the  most  part,  artificial  defences. 
It  contained  .some  of  the  most  important  public 
building,  esjiecially  temples,  besides  affording  a  last 
refuge  ni  case  of  a  hostile  attack.  The  acropolis, 
like  the  castle  of  the  Middle  Ages,  had  formed  the 
centre  or  nucleus  around  which' the  town  gia(bially 
grew.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of  aiuicnl  iinu'S 
was  that  of  Argos,  w^hose  name,  f.arissa,  iii(li<'ales  its 
Pela-sgic  origin;  that  of  Messenia,  which  liort  the 
name  of  Ithome ;  that  of  Thebes,  called  Cadmea ; 
that  of  Corinth,  known  as  Acro-Corinthus ;  but 
especially  that  of  Atlieiis,  whicli  was  styled  pre- 
cmineiitlv  the  Acropolis. 

ACTING  ASSISTANT  SURGEONS.- Wlicn  it  is  ncc- 
es,sary  to  employ  a  private  physician  in  the  military 
service,  the  Surgeon-General.'the  Medical  Director, 
or,  in  emergencies,  the  Commanding  OHicer  of  a  de- 
tachment may  do  so  by  a  written  contract  at  a  stated 
compensation.  An  Acting  Assistant  Surgeon  receives 
the  (juarters  of  an  Assistant  Surgeon  of  the  rank  of 
First  Lieutenant,  is  furnished  wiili  fuel  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  and  regulations  relating  to  commis- 
sioned ollicers,  and  when  traveling  under  orders,  the 
same  traveling  allowances  as  may  be  i)re.scribed  for 
commissioned  officers  of  the  Army  by  laws  and  regu- 
latioas  in  force  for  the  time;  an(f  when  .serving  west 
of  the  Mississippi  Uiver,  one  daily  ration  in  kind. 
He  further  receives,  at  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
service,  traveling  allowances  as  aforesaid, y;«-  iictiial 
irarel  only,  to  the  i)lacc  of  making  the  contract,  pro- 
vided his  contract  shall  not  have  been  annulled  for 
misconduct  or  neglect  of  duty.    When  a   private 


physician  is  required  to  fumi.sh  medicines,  he  is  al 
lowed  as  compeu-sation  25  to  M  p(>r  cent  on  the  sunv 
paid  for  his  services,  as  may  be  determined  by  the 
Surgeon-General.  In  all  cases,  contracts  are  made 
in  quadruplicate,  two  copies  of  which  are  forward- 
ed, through  the  Meilical  Director,  to  the  Surgeou- 
General  with  the  prescribed  oath  of  office;  one  copy 
lieing  retained  by  the  officer  making  the  contract,  and 
one  copy  by  the  physicijin  contracted  with. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  Contract  with  a  Pri- 
vate Physician  for  service  as  an  Acting  iV,s.sistant  Sur- 
geon, U.  S.  Anny; 

Ttiis  contract,  entered  into  tliis  —  day  of .  IS—,  at 

in  tfie  State*  of ,  between .  of  tlie  I'nited 

States  Arm.v,  and  Dr. ,  of ,  in  tlie  Stutf  of 

.    witntsseth:   That  for  the  consideration  liereinafter 

mentioned  the  said  Dr. promises  nnd  agrees  to 

perform  the  duties  of  a  medical  officer.  uKreeabl.v  to  .\rmy 

Ke;,'ulations.  at [or  elsewhere  U*)l.  [and  to  furnish  the^ 

proper  meilicines  c^)! ;  and  the  said promises  and 

agrees,  on  beiialf  of  the  United  States,  to  pay.  or  causi*  to  be 

paid,  to  the  Sivid  Dr. ,  the  sum  of  dollars 

tor  each  and  every  month  he  shall  continue  t<">  pei-form  the- 
services  above  stattni.  Wlien  on  duty  at  a  post  or  station 
where  there  are  public  (juarters  belon^n^  to  the  United 
States,  he  sliall  receive  tile  (piarters  in  liind  all<iwe(l  Viy  law  to 
an  Assistjint  Surgeon  of  tlie  rnnkof  First  Lieutenant;  when  on 
duty  at  a  post  or  station  where  tliere  are  no  public  quarters, 
he  shall  receive  the  coniiiiutati'.in  tV>r  quartei-s  ulloweti  by  law 
to  an  Assistant  Surgeon  of  the  ranlv  of  Kii-st  Lieutenant:  he 
shall  be  furnisheil  with  fuel  in  aeeordanee  with  the  laws  and 
regulations  relutiii^  lo  eoiiiinissiouetl  ollleers,  and  when  trav- 
eling^ uniler  oriiers.  the  same  traveling;  allowances  prescribed 
for  cominissiinied  ollicers  of  the  Army  by  laws  au<l  regula- 
tions in  force  for  the  time:  and  when  sening  west  of  the 
Mississippi  Kiver  he  shall  receive  one  daily  ration  in  kind. 

[And  if  the  said  Dr. shrill  be  required  to  f  nmisb 

his  medicines,  he  shall  be  coinpens.iteil  therefor  at  the  rate 

of per  cent  on  his  monthly  pa\'.  to  lie  determined  by  the 

Surgeon-iJeneral  (3*).]    And  it  is  furthermore  agreed,  that  at 

the  exijiralion  of  his  term  *tf  service,  the  said  Dr. 

shall  receive  traveUn;;  allowances,  as  aforesaid,  for  actual 
travel  only,  to  the  place  of  mnkiuf,'  tlie  contract:  provided 
said  contract  is  not  annulled  for  miscoiuiucl  or  ne;;lect  of 
duty,  in  which  case  no  travelln^r  allowances  will  be  fiirnishe<l. 
All  of  which  shall  he  ills  full  eouipensation,  and  in  lieu  of  all 
allowances  and  emoluments.  This  contract  to  continue  at 
least if  not  sooner  tenninated  by  the  (ieneral  com- 
manding the  Mllit.ii-y  lijvision  or  Department,  tiie  Medicaf 
Director,  or  the  Sur^'eon-(  ieneral. 

It  is  furthermore  expressly  agreed  and  understood  that,  in 
conformit.v  to  the  requirements  of  Section  3711  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  no  member  of.  or  ilelegate  to.  Congress  shall  be  ad- 
mitted to  any  share  or  part  in  this  contract,  or  to  any  l>eneflt 
to  arise  therefrom. 

In  this  contract  (1*)  (2*)  (8*)  ha^  been  stricken  out. 

[Seal.] 

[Seal.] 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of 


The  accoimts  of  Contract  Physicians  arc  paid  by 
Paymasters,  and  are  made  out  in  the  ordinary  form 
of  an  officer's  pay-account,  \ouchcd  for  by  a  certifi- 
cate thereon  by  the  Commanding  (Ifiicer  that  it  is  cor- 
rect and  according  to  contract,  and  that  the  sernces 
have  been  duly  reiidend.  wliich  certificate  he  does 
not  make  unless  the  contract  has  been  ajiiiroved  by 
the  Medical  Director  of  the  Department  or  by  the 
Surgeon-General.  The  pavracnis  are  made  tinder  the 
same  rules  that  govern  in  the  payment  of  officers  at 
the  same  station.     See  Coiitrad  Siirr/ionn. 

ACTING  SIGNAL  OFFICER.— An  ofiieer  temporarily 
serving  as  a  .Signal  ( )flierr.  W'lieii  an  officer  is  detach- 
ed from  his  regiment  for  Signal  duty,  lie  inimediate- 
Iv  reports  for  orders  to  tlie  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the 
Army,  and  thereafter  is  relieved  from  sucli  detail 
only  by  orders  from  the  Adjutant-General  of  the 
Army.  When  it  is  necessary  to  employ  ollicers  on 
Signal  duty  in  the  field,  they  may  be"  temiiorarily 
assigned  by  ordere  of  the  Dipartnieiit  Commander, 
but  will  not  lie  part  of  the  Deparlnient  Staff.  For 
this  purpose  ollicers  who  liavc  been  regularly  instruct- 
ed by  the  Cliief  Signal  Officer  of  the  .\i'iiiy  are  .se- 
lected if  praeticalile.  The  senior  Acting  Signal  Officer 
of  any  comniand  is  the  Chief  of  theSigiial  P:irties 
serving  in  tliat  comniand.  Orders  and  inslruclions 
affecting  their  duties  are  transmitted  through  him. 
He  is  ri'sponsilile  th;it  his  officers  and  nun  arc  fullv 
instructed  and  properly  perform  their  duties,  ife 
keeps  hunself  iniormetl  of  the  position  of  the  Army 


ACTINOMETEE. 


19 


ADAPTEK. 


and  of  the  enemy,  and,  under  the  instruction  of  the 
(General  Commanding,  establishes  his  stations  to  the 
greatest  advantage.  He  takes  care,  by  inspections 
and  timely  requisitions,  that  his  parties  are  wull  sii]i- 
plied  with  c(iuiiiments.  He  makes  reports  of  his 
operations  in  the  JieUl  fiom  time  to  time  to  the  Gene- 
ral Commanding,  and,  with  his  assent,  forwards  cer- 
tified copies  of  these  reports  to  the  Chief  Signal  Otficcr 
of  the  Army.  He  makes  the  usual  returns  and  monlh- 
!}•  statements,  and  at  the  end  of  each  month  a  report 
to  the  Chief  Signal  Otficcr  of  the  Army  of  the  condi- 
tion of  his  party,  and  all  matters  pertaining  to  its 
duties. 

ACTINOMETEE.— An  instrument  used  in  the  lulx)- 
ratorj-  anil  in  powder-factories  to  measure  the  heat  of 
the  sun's  rays;  at  first  a  common  thermometer,  the 
bulb  blackened  with  nitrate  of  siher;  then  one  with 
a  large  bulb  filled  with  blue  solution  of  ammonia  and 
sulphate  of  copper,  enclosed  in  a  box  with  a  plate- 
glass  top,  the  expansion  of  the  liquid  to  indicate  the 
amount  of  heat.  Prof.  .John  \V.  Draper  of  New  York 
next  discovered  that  ecjual  volumes  of  chlorine  and 
hydrogen  form  chlor-hydric  acid  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  actinic  intensity  of  the  light  and  the  time  of  ex- 
posure. Subsequently  Bunsen  and  Roscoe  hit  upon 
the  Siime  plan.  There  are  other  aclinic  reactions;  as, 
in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  and  oxalic  acid,  the 
gold  precipitates  on  exposure  to  actinic  rays. 

ACTION. — 1.  An  engagement  or  battle  between  op- 
jxising  forces;  or  some  memorable  act  done  by  an 
otticcr,  soldier,  or  detachment.  The  term  is  com- 
monly used  in  artillery  exercise  when  guns  are 
brought  into  or  change  position  with  the  view  of  at- 
tacking an  opposing  object.  2.  In  its  large  and  gen- 
eral sen.se,  a  judicial  proceeding  before  a  competent 
tribunal  for  the  attainment  of  justice;  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  applied  to  pnMcdure,  whether  criminal  or 
ciril.  In  its  more  limited  acceptation,  it  is  used  to 
signify  proceedings  in  the  eitil  courts,  where  it 
means  the  form  prescribed  by  law  for  the  recovery  of 
a  right  or  what  is  one's  due.  No  action  can  be 
maintained  by  a  citizen  against  a  govermiient  without 
the  government's  express  consent;  except  in  rare  spe- 
CRil  cji.ses  no  suit  can  be  brought  by  a  citizen  against  the 
United  States;  relief  must  besought  by  petition  or  in 
the  Court  of  Claims.  State  Courts  do  not  ordinarily 
contest  acts  of  foreign  slates  or  sovereigns  for  any- 
thing done  or  omitted  in  their  public  character.  Here 
negotiation  takes  the  place  of  suit.  Modem  statutes 
have  much  simplified  proceedings  under  this  title,  and 
many  okl  forms  havelH-en  abandoned.  In  New  Vork 
an  effort  lias  been  nia<lc  to  avoid  all  distinctive  forms; 
tliere  every  other  than  a  criminal  is  a  civil  action, 
haWng  no  other  specific  name;  the  design  of  the  code 
being  to  give  by  this  action  every  kind  of  relief 
whicli  can  be  sought  in  civil  causes. 

ACTIVE  SER'VICE.— Duty  against  an  enemy;  oper- 
ations in  bis  jjrtsence.  At  present  nctive  serrke  de- 
notes serving  on  full  pay,  on  the  active  list,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  those  who  are  virtually  retired,  and 
placi(I  on  the  retired  list. 

ACTO — ACTON.— A  kind  of  defensive  tunic,  made 
of  (luiltcd  leather  or  other  strong  material,  fonnerly 
worn  under  the  outer  dress  and  even  under  a  coat  of 
mail. 

ACT  OF  GKACE.— In  Great  Britain,  an  Act  of  Par- 
liament fia-  a  general  and  free  pardon  to  deseilers 
from  the  service  and  others. 

ACTS  OF  HOSTILITY.— Proceedings  of  a  diplomat- 
ic, commercial,  or  military  character,  invohing  a 
state  of  war  between  two  or  more  nations.  This  was 
exemplified  in  1870  in  the  alterc-ation  between  Count 
Bcnedctti,  the  French  anibas.sador,  at  the  Court  of 
Berlin,  and  the  King  of  Prussia  at  the  Kui-saal  of 
Ems.  This  is  an  instance  of  the  first-named  act 
of  hostility.  The  second  is  shown  in  the  case  of  the 
embargo  laid  on  British  shipping  by  the  first  Napo- 
leon after  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  180;J.  The  third 
consists  in  the  invasion  of  a  friendly  territory  or  firing 
on  armed  vessels  of  a  friendly  nation.    A  further  act 


of  hostility  of  a  civil  character  is  the  forcible  deten- 
tion of  the  subjects  of  a  friendly  nation,  which  was 
exemplified  in  the  seizing  of  non-belligerent  British 
suljjects  residing  in  France  in  1803. 

ACTUAEIUS. — A  name  given  by  the  Konums  to 
ofiicers  ( barged  with  the  supplying  of  proWsion-s  to 
troqps. 

AD  ACTED. -A'term  applied  to  stakes  or  piles  driven 
into  the  earth  by  large  malls  shod  with  iron,  as  in  se- 
curin<r  ramparts  or  pontons. 

ADAMS  BREECH-LOADEE.— The  distingviishing 
feature  of  this  invention  is  the  u.se  and  application  of 
a  piston  ftjr  the  purpose  of  loading,  cleaning,  and 
cooling  a  cannon  from  the  breech.  A  rod  passes 
through  the  breech  or  rear  end  of  the  gun  and  is 
fastened  to  a  head  or  metallic  piston,  the  circiunfer- 
ence  of  which  is  equal  to  the  bore  of  the  Ciumon. 
Water  is  ailmitted  at  the  breech  to  fill  the  bore  when 
the  piston  is  forced  towards  the  muzzle.  Mm  the 
bore  is  cleaned  and  cooled,  the  new  cartrtdge  is  at- 
tached to  the  piston  and  drawn  back  to  the  breech, 
in  which  condition  the  gun  is  loaded  and  ready  to  be 
again  discharged. 
"ADAMS  CntTEE.— This  invention  was  made  while 
the  inventor  was  endeavoring  to  make  two  cutters, 
having  exacth"  the  same  dimensions,  for  the  Rodman 
pressure-gauge,  ha\ing  iis  a  model  a  pressure-gauge 
designed  for  use  with  muskets.  The  knife-edge  of  this 
model  was  of  the  usual  pyramidal  form  of  the  Rodman 
Cutter,  and  was  .78  inch  in  length,  llr.  Adams  found 
that  it  w;is  a  mechanical  impossibility  to  so  file  the 
faces  of  this  pyramid  as  to  have  the  two  cutting  or 
indenting  edges  identical  in  form  and  dimensions. 
He  accordingly  conceived  the  idea  of  turning  a  bev- 
eled edge  Willi  a  circular  profile  upon  the  perimeter 
of  a  steel  disk,  as  this  could  be  accurately  done  in  a 
lathe  or  mill,  thus  securing  the  perfect  agreement  of 
all  cutters  taken  from  that  disk,  and  at  the  same  time 
diminishing  l)oth  the  cost  and  time  of  fal)riealion. 
He  took  the  Rodman  Cutter  above  mentioned,  and 
foimd  by  trial  a  circle  which  would  pa.ss  through  the 
three  angular  points  of  the  edge.  This  circle,  whose 
dianieter  he  found  to  Ix'  2.88  inches,  he  assumeil  as  the 
one  which  should  form  the  cutting  edge  of  the  new 
series  of  cutters  to  be  fabricated.  The  steel  disk  was 
.233  inch  thick.  It  was  pierceel  with  a  central  hole  1 
incli  in  diameter  for  convenience  of  adjustment  to  an  ar- 
bor of  a  lathe  or  mill.  The  bevels  \\\K>n  the  two  sides 
were  cifual.  Hence  the  cuttingeilge  itself  is  an  arc  of  a. 
circle  with  a  diameter  equal  to  2.88  inches,  and  is  formed 
by  the  intersection  of  two  right  cones,  turned  bitse  to 
base  (bases  circular),  and  having  a  common  axis.  This 
makes  the  bottom  of  the  cut,  or  indentation  in  the  chop- 
per block,  an  arc  of  a  circle,  and  the  limiting  lines  of 
the  same  indentation  upon  the  surface  of  the  block 
arcs  of  two  equal  hyperliolas.  The  cutter-block  is  rcc- 
tansular  in  shape,  1.18  inches  long,  .74  inch  wide,  and 
.74 Inch  thick.  A  groove  is  planed  in  one  of  the  longer 
sides  .2  inch  deep,  and  sufficiently  wide  to  receive  the 
indentinir  edge.  On  the  opposite  side  is  drilled  a  bole 
.4  inch  deep  and  .5  inch  in  diameter,  for  the  reception 
of  the  larger  end  of  the  piston.  In  Uie  bottom  of  this 
hole  a  smaller  one  is  countersunk  for  a  small  screw 
which  projects  into  the  cuIter-gT(X)ve  and  serves  to 
hold  the  indenting  .segment  in  position  after  insertion. 
This  segment  projects  .3  inch  from  the  cutter-block 
and  is  eng-aged  .2  inch  in  that  block.  See  Buitott, 
Dt/namnmi'ttr.  Circular  Cutter,  and  PreMuro-yaugc. 

ADAFTEE. — A  g\m-metal  bush,  used  when  shells 
having  the  obsolete  Jloorsom-gauge  fuse-hole  are 
fired  with  fuses  which  are  not  adapted  to  this  fuse- 
hole.  The  pattern  adajiter  now  in  use  is  known  as 
the  "G.S.  adapter,"  which  screws  into  the  Jloorsora 
fuse-hole.  There  are  two  distinct  adapters,  one  for 
spherical  shell,  the  other  for  rifled  shell.  V\<  to  the 
vear  1807  all  shells  for  the  larger  rifled  ordnance 
down  to  the  40-pdr.  L.S.  and  the  20  pdr.  S.S.  conunnn 
shell  were  made  with  theMoorstmi  or  naval  fuse-hole. 
Since  then  a'l  new  shells  have  been  lapix-d  with  what 
is  termed  the  G.S.-gauge  fuse-hole,  and  shells  already 


ADASOA. 


20 


ADMINISTRATION. 


in  sen'ice  whicli  bavc  not  this  sizctl  liole  receive  the 
Q.S.  lulaptor.  Tbu  shape  of  the  inside  of  the  adapter 
is  couinil,  the  outside  cylindrical. 

A0AB6A. — A  Sjianisli-MiKirish  targe,  made  of  sujv 
pK-  lealhir,  and  ;W  l)y  S**  inches.  It  was  used  about 
the  close  of  the  sixkrntU  century. 

ADDISCOMBE  SEMINARY.— .:Vn  In.stilution  pear 
Croydon.  Surrey,  Knirland.  for  the  eduoition  of 
youni;  gentlemen  intended  for  the  military  service  of 
the  East  India  Company.  Closed  in  18t!l.  Sec 
C<i<!,f. 

ADIT. — A  nciirly  horizontal  pa.s.ejige  opened  for  the 
purix)se  of  draining  a  mine;  it  serves  ineidenlully  to 
explore  the  nK'k  through  which  it  pa.sscs;  when  tilled 
with  water,  often  used  a.s  a  canal  liy  which  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  mine  may  lie  transported.  Water  raised 
from  a  depth  greater  than  that  reached  by  the  adit  is 
discharged  through  it,  saving  the  cost  of  raising  still 
farther  to  the  top  of  the  shaft.  An  adit  opens  in 
Cornwall  ift  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  extends  inland 
alwut  30  miles,  liraining  the  district  of  Gwennap.  It 
meets  some  shafts  at  the  depth  of  400  feet.  The 
"  Ernest  Aucust "  adit  in  the  Ilartz,  completed  in 
1864,  is  13  miles  long.  The  "Joseph  II."  adit  at 
Schemnitz,  in  llung-ary,  is  12  feet  high,  10  feet  wide, 
extends  12  miles  to  the  valley  of  the  Gran,  and  is  used 
as  a  canal  and  a  railway. 

ADJOURN. — To  suspend  business  for  a  time,  as 
from  one  day  to  another;  said  of  Slilitiiry  Courts. 
Adjaurnmeiit  tciVwut  delay  {sine  die),  indefinite  post- 
ponement. 

ADJUTANT. — As  the  derivation  of  the  word  im- 
plies {iidjiimir,  to  help).  Adjutant  is  llie  title  of  a 
l{e"imental  StafT-officer  who  as.sists  the  Commanding 
Olhcer  of  a  garri.son  or  regiment  in  all  the  details  of 
duty.  He  receives  orders,  and  promulg-.ilcs  them  to 
the  several  companies  ;  he  inspects  escorts  and  guards 
before  proceeding  on  their  duty ;  attends  to  the  drill 
of  recruits,  is  accountable  for  the  keeping  of  the 
regimental  books,  and  ought  to  note  every  infraction 
of  established  rules.  lie  is  accountable  to  the  Com- 
manding Ofticer  for  the  correctness  of  the  regimental 
books,  and  is  bound  to  brinjr  to  his  notice  all  in- 
fraction of  rules  or  orders.  From  the  f(jregoing  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  duties  of  an  Adjutant  are  un- 
remitting. Agreeably  to  the  Queen's  Kcgidations, 
no  officer  is  eligible  for  the  appointment  of  Adjutant 
in  the  British  service  who  has  not  obtained  a  tirst- 
class  certificate  at  the  School  of  Musketry,  imless  the 
regiment  is  on  service  abroad,  and  even  tlien  inider 
certain  restrictions.  An  Adjuiant,  generally  liolding 
the  rank  of  Captain,  is  appointed  to  each  brigade  of 
artillery,  to  divisions  of  artillery  of  two  or  more 
batteries  det;iclied  from  their  heiuhjuarters,  and  as  his 
duties  are  somewhat  dilTerent  to  tJiose  of  a  line  or 
cavalry  regiment,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  detail 
them.  The  duties,  then,  of  an  artillery  brigade  Ad- 
jutant are,  to  a  great  extent,  confined  to  his  ofTice,  as 
the  several  biilteries  composing  his  brigade  are  often 
stationed  far  from  their  headciuarters.  In  his  office 
are  kept  the  books  and  records  of  the  brigade  ;  from 
it  lie  circulates  to  detached  batteries  all  ordei-s  re- 
ceived from  the  Commanding  Officer  and  higher 
authority.  He  jirepares  correspondence  on  (juesiions 
relating  to  the  claims,  services,  enlistments,  dis- 
charges, etc.,  of  the  men  of  his  brigade;  and  when 
acting  as  the  SlafT-offieer  of  the  Hoyal  Artillery  in  the 
division,  he  has  to  prepare  all  local  returns"  which 
are  .suliniittcd  to  tlie  Genend  Officer  Commanding. 
He  has,  liesides,  to  attend  to  the  usual  duties  of  the 
guards,  prisoners,  cnurts-martial.  etc.  As  regards 
drill.  Commanding  Officers  of  batteries  carry  out  or 
work  their  own  flrills  independently,  and  recruits  are 
trained  at  Woolwich,  or  at  the  centers  of  suli-divisions 
of  districts.  The  Adjutant  is  responsil)le  to  the 
<'omman(ling  Officer  for  the  slate  of  exactness  with 
whicli  the  reirinienlal  t)<K)ks  are  kepi,  and  for  the 
correctness  of  llie  duly  rosters.  He  is  to  give  his 
afl<ntion  to  everylhin^'  ,ip|)<rlaining  to  the  discipline 
of  his  brigade,  bringing  to  the  notice  of  the  Com- 


manding Officer  any  irregularity  or  deviation  from 

I  the    estrdilished    rules    and    regulations.      In    fact, 
nolhiiiL'  should  escape  his  attention  and  observation. 
ADJUTANT-GENERAL.— The   principal   organ   of 
file  Coinniander  of  an  Army  in   publishing  orders. 
I  The  same  organ  of  the  Commander  of  a  Division, 
'  Brigade,  Geographical    Division,  or  Department,  is 
I  styled   Assi.stant  Adjutant -General.     In   the   United 
'  States  ser\ice,  the  main  duties  of  the  office  of  Ad- 
I  jutant-General  are  to  publish  orders,  write  out  and 
issue  instruelions,  receive  and  care  for  returns,  keep 
account  of  the  state  of  the  army  and  the  position  of 
forces,  regulate  details  of  the  si>rviee,  carry  on  corre- 
I  spondence,   preserve  order ;    and  in    active  war  to 
]  establish  camps,  supervise  hospitals,  muster  and  in- 
sjiect  troops,   form  Jiarades  and  line  of  battle,  and 
care  for  prisoners  and  deserters.     In  the  Britisli  ser- 
vice the  Adjutant-General  keeps   an  account  of  the 
'  streuglh  of  each  regiment,  dislril>ules  the  orilers  of 
the  (lay  to  the  Brigade-Majoi-s,  and  sees  the  troops 
drawn'up  for  action.     The  Adjiitaiit-Qeneral  of  the 
Forcai  is  an  officer  of  high  rank  at  the  Horse-Guards. 
To  him  all  cominunic;itions  are  addres.sed  regarding 
leave  of  absence,  discharging,  recruiting,  etc.     Be- 
sitles  the  Ailjutant-General  at  Ihe  Horse-Guards,  there 
are    Deputy    and    Assistant    Adjutants-General  for 
special  miiilarv  districts. 

ADJUTANT- GENERAL'S     DEPARTMENT.  —  All 
General   Orders    which    emauale    fidiii    the    Head- 
quarters of  the  Army;  the  orders  of  detail,  of  in- 
struction, of  movement,  and  all  general  regulalions 
for  the  Army,   are    communicated    to    the    troops 
through   the  "office  of  the  Adjutant-General.     The 
!  record   of   all    military   apjiointmeuts,    promotions, 
resignations,  deaths,  and  oilier  casualties  ;  the  registry 
of  all  commissioned  officers ;  the  tilliug  up  and  dis- 
irilmtion  of  their  commi.ssions,  and  the  preparation 
and  issue  of  the  Army  Register,  pertain  to  the  Ad- 
jntant-Generars  Office.     This  Office  is  the  repository 
for  the  records  of  the  War  Department  which  relate 
to  the  personnel  of  the  military  establishment,  and  t<i 
the  military  history  of  every  coinmissioiieil  officer 
and  soldier  of  the  Hegular  and  Volunteer  forces  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States.      In  this  office  the 
recruiting   ser\"ice   is   conducted ;  the   names  of  all 
'  enlisted  soldiers  are  enrolled,  their  enlistments  and 
descriptive    lists   are  entered,   and   all   deaths,  dis- 
charges, desertions,   etc.,  are  recorded;  the  general 
returns  of  the  Army  are  consolidated ;  the  monthly 
returns   of    regiments   and    posts    and  the    muster- 
rolls  of  companies  are  preserved ,  the  inventories  of 
j  the  effects  of.   deceased    oflici'rs    and    soldiers    are 
entered ,  and  the  annual  returns  of  the  militia,  re- 
quired by  law  to  be  submitted  to  Congress,  arc  pre- 
pared.    The  Adjutant-Genenil's  Department,  as  or- 
ganized in  the  I  nited  States  ser\'icc,  consists  of  one 
Adjutant-Genend,  with  the  rank  of  Brigadier-Gen- 
enil ;  two  Assistant  Adjutanl-Generals,  with  the  rank 
of    Colonel ,     four     Lieutenant-Colonels ;    and    ten 
Jlajors;  also,  idiout  four  hundred  enlisted  clerks  and 
I  messengers.     The  officers  are  generally  on  duty  with 
j  General   Officers  who  command    Corps,   Divisions, 
i  De])arlmenls.  etc.     The  apiiointments  to  the  lowest 
'  gi'ade  arc  selected  from  the  Captains  of  the  Armv. 
ADMINISTRATION.— Tbeaim  of  a  system  of  admm- 
islration  is  lo  si'iure  the  performance  of  public  duties, 
I  either  directly,  minislerially,  or  Ihrouixh  the  interven- 
i  tion  of  sub-agenls.     Il  is  exercised  over  individuals 
or  things,  in  civil  mailers,  in  courts  of  law,  in  politi- 
cal iKjdies,  in  the  army  and  in  the  navy,  and  in  gene- 
ral in  iMjiiuinrid!  mailers  of  government.     Adminis- 
j  Iration  coitfists  in  estalilishing  the  ways  and  means  of 
1  public  receipts  and  expenditures;  in  watching  over 
such  employments;  in  lli<'  eolleelion.  care,  and  distri- 
Imtion  of  material  and  money;  and  in  rendering  and 
I  auditing  accounts  of  such  employments.     Army  Ad- 
j  ministration  alsoemliRices  in  war  the  means  by  wliich 
an  anny  is  supported  in  foreign  countries  by  a  General 
in  campaign,  when  without  regular  siip])lies.  without 
I  resorting  to  pillage.    The  wars  of  the  French  Hevolu- 


ADHISSI0K3. 


21 


ADOBES. 


tion  brought  into  use  REQnsmoNS,  a  moderate  kind 
of  marauding,  weighinsr  more  bea^nly  upon  countries 
than  upon  individuals.  Requisitions  are,  however, 
an  uneeitoin  and  unequal  means  of  supply,  and  only  ' 
enable  an  army  to  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  and  ( 
although  practicable  in  offensive  wars,  are  only  jus- 
tifiable in  rapid  movements,  where  time  does  not 
admit  the  emploj-ment  of  more  certain  means  of  sup- 
ply. The  system  is  less  o<liou.s  than  pillage.  Bona- 
parte skillfully  adopted  another  method,  in  harmony 
with  the  spirit  of  wars  of  invasion,  and  al.so  more  re- 
liable as  a  means  of  supixjrt.  He  substituted  himself 
in  place  of  the  supreme  authorities  of  the  invaded 
countrj-,  and  exacted  pecuniary  contributions,  paj-ing, 
or  promisini;  to  pay,  for  all  provisions  and  other  sup- 
plies needed  for  his  army.  Some  writers  think  that 
even  this  mcxlified  systein  can  only  succeed  in  gigan- 
tic operations,  where  tin  armj-  upon  a  new  soil  succes- 
sively gives  reix>sc  to  that  previously  occupied.  Such 
a  system  was,  however,  well  executed  by  Marshal  , 
Suchet  in  Spain,  and  a  similar  system  was  also  ma- 
tured and  published  in  orders  by  General  Scott  while  [ 
in  Mexico.  A  treaty  of  peace,  however,  soon  after 
was  made,  which  put  an  end  to  military-  operations,  ; 
and  the  system  was  therefore  only  jiartiaUy  executed. 
But  with  a  sutticient  army  in  a  fertile  countri,-,  the 
experience  of  the  world  has  shown  that  if  the  iuhabi-  | 
tants  are  protected  from  injuries,  they  will  very  gene-  I 
rally  sell  to  the  best  paj-masters.  It  is  therefore  the 
interest  of  an  invading  army  not  to  interfere  ^^ith  the 
ordinary  avocations  of  citizens,  and  such  is  the  mod- 
ern usage.  Bonaparte  thought  that  an  entire  revolu-  ; 
tion  in  the  habits  and  education  of  the  soldier,  and 
perhaps  also  in  those  of  the  otiicers,  was  essential  to 
the  formation  of  a  veritable  self-subsisting  army. 
Such  an  army  (he  said)  atnnot  exist  witli  present 
ovens,  magazines,  administration,  wagons,  etc.,  etc. 
Such  an  army  will  exist  when,  in  imitation  of  the 
Romans,  the  soldier  shall  receive  his  corn,  shall  per- 
sonally carry  bis  mill  and  cooking  utensils,  cook  bis 
own  bread,  etc.,  etc.,  and  when  the  present  frightful 
paper  admini.stration  has  been  dispensed  with.  He 
added  that  be  had  meditated  upon  all  those  changes, 
but  a  jK'riod  of  profovmd  i)eace  was  neces.siiry  to  put 
them  in  practice.  If  he  bad  been  constrained  to  keep 
a  large  army  in  peace,  he  would  have  emploj'ed  it 
upon  the  public  works,  and  given  it  an  organiztition, 
a  dress,  and  a  mode  of  subsistence  altogether  special. 
If  such  a  scheme  be  practicable,  no  approach  to  it  yet  , 
exists.  The  French  have  made  some  progress  in  de- 
veloping a  system  of  administration  suited  to  a  large 
army,  but  hardly  a  step  in  the  direction  pointed  out 
by  Xapoleon.  The  French  administrative  ser\ice  is 
a  powerful  means  of  mo%Tng  armies  in  unforeseen 
emergencies.  Its  foresight  provides  resources,  and 
the  adversan'  soonest  ready  has  the  greatest  chance 
of  success.  \ot  a  century  since,  the  French  Govern- 
ment required  six  months'  preparation  before  an  army 
could  move;  now,  in  the  language  of  General  La- 
martjue,  "  The  cannon  is  loaded,  and  the  blow  may 
be  given  at  the  same  moment  as  the  manifesto,  and, 
if  necessary,  the  blow  may  precede  it."  Ordinary 
army  administration  consists  in  the  organization  and 
other  means  by  which  various  administrative  duties 
arc  performed,  necessarj-  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  , 
troops,  and  for  all  the  foreseen  demands  of  a  state  of 
war,  includiuL'  l;ibor  and  the  supplies  for  garrisons, 
sieges,  etc.  Such  duties  embrace  subsistence-magn 
zines,  daily  rations,  forage,  dress,  encampments,  bar- 
racks, hospitals,  transportation,  etc.,  etc.,  the  admin- 
istrative duties  of  Engineers,  and  of  the  Ordnance 
Department,  estimates,  accountabihty.  jiayments,  re- 
cruiting, and  in  general  the  receipt  and  proper  appli-  j 
cation  of  monev.  The  Secretary  of  War,  under  the  | 
orders  of  the  President,  is  the  bead  of  militarj-  ad-  , 
ministration  in  the  United  States.  The  object  of 
such  administration  is  to  provide,  through  the  re- 
sources placed  by  law  at  his  disposition,  for  the  con- 
stant wants,  regiJar  or  accidental,  of  all  who  com- 
pose the  army.    Good  administration  embraces   a 


foreknowledge  of  wants,  as  well  as  the  creation,  oper- 
ation, and  watchfulness  of  the  ways  and  means  neces- 
sary to  satisfy  them;  the  payment  of  expenses,  and 
the  settlement  of  accounts.  Army  administration  is 
divided  into  several  branches  determined  by  law. 
These  different  branches  constitute  the  administrative 
service  of  an  army,  the  operations  of  which  should  be 
so  regulated  that  the  Secretary  of  AVar  will  be  always 
informed  of  the  condition  of  each,  and  l)e  able  to  ex- 
ercise, subordinate  to  law,  a  complete  financial  con- 
trol over  each.  The  Adjutant-General  of  the  army 
and  the  heads  of  administrative  corps  have  each  Ix'en 
assigned  a  burotu  in  the  War  Department,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  administrative  duties  with  which  they 
have  lieen  respectively  charged.  Administration  and 
Command  are  distinct.  Administration  is  controlled 
by  the  head  of  an  Executive  Department  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, under  the  orders  of  the  President,  by  means 
of  legally-appointed  administrative  agents,  with  or 
without  rank,  while  Command,  or  the  discipline, 
military  control,  and  direction  of  military  ser\ice  of 
officers  and  soldiers,  can  be  legally  exercised  only  by 
the  military  hierarchy,  at  the  head  of  which  is"  the 
constitutional  Commander-in-Chief  of  thearni)-,  navy, 
and  militia,  followed  by  the  Commander  of  the 
Army,  and  other  military  grades  created  by  Con- 
gress. 

ADMISSIONS.— In  a  military  sense,  the  Judge-Ad- 
vocate is  authorized,  when  he  sees  proper,  to  admit 
what  a  prisoner  expects  to  prove  bj-  absent  witnesses. 

ADOBES. — Unburnt  bricks  made  from  earth  of  a 
loamy  character  containing  about  two  thirds  line 
sand  mixed  intimately  with  one  third  or  less  of 
clayey-  dust  or  sand.  The  adobe  imdcr  the  action  of 
the  svm  becomes  a  compact  mass.  Upon  the  Indian 
frontiers  in  Xew  Mexico,  in  Mexico,  and  in  Central 
America,  adobe  houses  and  adobe  defences  against 
the  Indians  are  common  structures.  An  adobe  eigh- 
teen inches  long,  nine  inches  wide,  and  four  inches 
thick  is  the  best  average  size  for  moulding  and  for 
building.  They  are  sometimes  made  sixteen  inches 
long  and  twelve  inches  wide;  in  such  cases  they  are 
all  laid  as  headers ;  but  with  the  cighteen-inch  adobe 
they  afford  the  means  of  binding  the  wall  strongly  by 
alternating  headers  and  stretchers,  as  in  brick-laying. 
In  the  hot  spring  and  summer  sims  two  or  three  days 
iminlerrupted  diying  is  sufficient  at  the  first;  the 
adolxs  are  then  carefully  turned  up  on  edge,  so  as  to 
expose  the  under  or  still  wet  face  to  the  southern  and 
western  sunshine.  They  s1k)IiU1  t)e  left  in  this  posi- 
tion from  a  week  to  tifieen  days  to  dry  thoroughly, 
when,  if  not  wanted  for  immediate  use,  they  may  be 
stacke<l  on  edge  and  covered  from  the  weather. 
HoiLses  in  New  Mexico  are  seldom  built  over  one 
slorj-  high.  This  enables  the  builder  to  place  on  the 
roof-covering  at  once,  it  nece.s.sarj-.  But  in  all  cases 
intervals  in  the  work  must  be  allowed,  or  the  house 
will  not  only  be  unsafe,  but,  if  inmiediately  occupied, 
damp  and  disjigieeable.  The  inside  plastering  with 
mud  is  most  frequently  done  Ixfore  the  roof  is  cov- 
ere<l  in,  so  as  to  dry  with  the  wall.  If  the  wall  must 
Ix'  left  unfinished  through  the  fall  rains  or  the  winter, 
the  top  of  it  is  covered  with  a  bushy  weed  called 
car/iaiiill/i,  and  this  is  covered  with  earth,  to  exclude 
water  and  protect  it  till  the  ensuing  ye;n'.  If  door 
and  window  frames  are  at  hand,  the  Mexicans  prefer 
to  put  them  in  as  they  build;  but  oftener  they  leave 
g!ips  for  doors  arwl  windows,  unfilled  with  the 
frames,  till  the  whole  is  finished.  The  adolx-s  are 
laid  with  mud  mortar  made  from  the  earth  at  the 
base  of  the  wall;  the  holes  thus  fonned  are  readily 
filled  again  with  the  rubbish  from  the  house  when 
completed.  When  the  wall  is  ready  to  receive  the 
roof-covering,  hea\'y  joists  are  laid,  about  two  feet 
apart,  on  the  top  of  the  walls,  strong  enf)ugh  to  bear 
near  a  foot  of  earth  all  over  the  roof;  the  joists,  as 
they  rest  upon  the  wall,  are  supported  upon  boards, 
or  plates  as  they  are  called,  to  distribute  the  weight 
of  the  roof  and  prevent  the  joists  from  crushing  into 


ASTAHCE. 


22 


ADVANCED-POSTS. 


the  walls.  Acrcss  the  joists,  and  over  the  whole  roof, 
avcmjrinjr  alKrnt  two  inches  in  diameter,  poles  are 
now  pliieiHi,  tlie  largest  on  the  liijiliesi  si(le  of  the 
roof  to  bt'irin  llie  sIojk',  and  on  this  is  placed  a  close 
covering  of  the  cachanilUi,  which  is  aromatic  and 
keeps  out  bua^:  it  is  evergreen,  and  a  plant  of  the 
most  suitable  length  to  till  the  interstices  in  the  poles. 
Small  willow  brush  is  often  used  in  the  absi'nce  of 
cafhaniUii.  The  eartli-covering  of  the  roof  is  now 
put  on,  ex-tending  all  ninnd  tlie  moi  to  the  parapet 
above  the  joists,  which  is  only  one  half  the  width  of 
the  wall  l)elow;  this  brings  the  dirl  roof  to  coverover 
one  hidf  the  width  or  thickness  of  the  wall,  by  which 
leaks  in  the  room  below  are  jjrevented.  An  adobe 
bouse,  if  well  .secured,  is  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler 
in  s\mimer  than  one  of  wood  or  brick.  The  brick 
is  cold  and  damp;  the  adolw  is  dry  and  a  much 
worse  conductor  of  heal — no  furrowing  or  lathing  is 
neces.sary — and  the  rough  inside  can  be  whitewashed 
or  slai>ped  with  plaster.  The  durability  of  adol)e 
walls  is  extraordinary.  The  Pecos  Clmrcjj,  not  far 
from  Santa  Fe,  is  more  than  one  liunBred  years  old; 
its  mud  walls  (adolH')  are  as  tirm  to  this  da.v  as  a  rock, 
and  tliev  cannot  be  less  tlian  lifly  feet  high. 

ADVANCE— ADVANCED.— Aiiy  portion  of  an  army 
which  is  in  front  of  the  rest.  The  term  is  ligura- 
tively  ap]ilied  to  the  promotion  of  officers  and  sol- 
dicr'i. 

ADVANCED  COVERED-WAY.— A  terre  plein  on  the 
exterior  of  the  advanced  ditch,  similar  to  the  first 
covered-way. 

ADVANCED  DITCH.— An  excavation  beyond  the 
glacis  of  the  enceinte,  having  its  surface  on  the  pro- 
longation of  that  slope,  that  an  enemy  may  liud  no 
sheltir  when  in  the  ditcli. 

ADVANCED-GUARD.— To  keep  an  eneiny  in  ig- 
norance of  the  state  of  our  forces  and  tlie  cliaracter 
of  our  position  is  one  of  the  most  indispensable  duties 
in  war.  It  is  in  this  way  tliat  we  oblige  liini  to  take 
every  possible  i)recaution  in  advancing;  forcing  him 
to  feel  his  w<iy,  step  by  step,  and  to  avoid  risking  Ids 
own  safet^v  in  hazarding  those  bold  and  rapid  move- 
ments which,  when  made  against  a  feelile  or  an  un- 
prepared enemv,  lead  to  the  most  brilliant  results. 
This  object  is  elYected  by  placing  between  the  ]iosition 
occupied  by  tlie  main  force  and  tlie  presumed  direc- 
tion of  tlie  enemy  a  body  detached  from  the  main 
force,  but  acting  .always  with  relVrence  to  it,  termed 
an  Admiiced-Giiind.  This  term  is  used  for  any  body 
of  troops  so  separated  from  the  main  body,  whatever 
its  strength  and  composition,  :inil  whether  the  troops 
be  in  position  or  on  a  march.  For  a  large  force  the 
advanced-guard  is  necessarily  composed  of  troo|)s  of 
all  arms;  its  strength  being  "proportioned  to  tb.at  of 
the  main  force;  the  more  or  less  resistance  of  an  in- 
dependent character  it  may  be  required  to  make; 
and  the  greater  or  less  e.xlenl  it  may  be  found  neces- 
sar\-  to  embrace,  by  its  advanced-posts,  on  the  front 
and  flanks,  to  watch  and  anticipate  every  movement 
of  tlie  enemy.  The  i>roi^ortion  of  the  advanced- 
guard  to  the  main  boily  may  vary  from  a  third  to  a 
tifth  of  the  total  force.  In  armies  of  some  strenirlli, 
or  large  mrps  d'uriiue,  particul.trly  when'  tlie  nature 
of  the  country  requires  a  wide  developnieiit  of  ad- 
vanced-posts, the  larger  proportion  is  deiiiaiided;  as 
at  least  one  lliinl  or  even  one  lialf  of  its  strength  will 
be  required  for  the  advanced-post  service.  In  h  small 
force  of  two  or  three  thousand  men,  one  tifth  will 
usually  be  all  that  can  be  well  spared  for  the  same 
pur|K>.ses.  Our  puriiose,  in  all  cases,  should  be  to 
keep  the  eneiiiv  in  a  stale  of  uncerlainty  as  to  our 
actual  force  and  movements;  and  Ihiscan'be  elTecled 
only  by  keeping  {(.nstanlly  between  him  and  our 
mam  IkxIv  a  force  of  sullicieni  strength  to  otTcr  an 
obstinate  resistance,  if  necessary,  to  every  allenipt  he 
may  openly  make  to  gain  information;  "and  even  to 
act  offensively  against  him,  when  occasion  otfers,  so 
as  to  keep  him  in  doubl  as  to  llie  actual  chaiaclcr  and 
number  of  llie  troops  before  him;  the  old  iiiililaiy 
axioni  being  id  ways  kept  in  mind,  that  "  u  iiicvnl  oji- 


portunely  drawn  freqiiently  keejts  another  back  in  iU 
I  sdibbard."  In  all  defensive  iiositions  the  advanced- 
I  guard  and  its  advanced-posts  should  retire  slowly  but 
circumspectly,  so  that  the  main  bodv  may  have  time 
'  to  take  all  its  defensive  measures.  In  the  offensive, 
the  attack  of  the  advanced-guard  should  be  ilecidcd 
and  vigorous;  pressing  upon  the  enemy  at  every 
])oint;  and  leaving  nothing  undone  to  demoralize 
liim,  tiy  the  confusion  which  .so  often  follows  from 
an  impetuous  onset.  Whilst  in  position  the  advanced- 
guard  should  take  advantage  of  the  natural  or  other 
obstacles  on  its  front  and  flanks  which  are  within 
supporting  distance;  to  strengthen  itself,  and  gain 
sui)|Mirts  for  ils  advanced-posts.  In  this  way  il.s  meaiLS 
of  resistance,  whether  acting  offensively  or  otherwise, 
may  be  greall.v  augmented.  Ground  of  this  charac- 
ter taken  uji  by  the  troops  should  not  be  abandoned 
without  very  cogent  rea.sons  for  it;  since,  should  cir- 
cumstances bring  about  a  forward  movement,  it 
might  cost  more  to  regain  what  was  given  up  than 
to  iiave  maintained  it  obstinately  at  lirst.  The  ground 
to  be  taken  u])  by  an  advanced-guard  and  embraced 
■nnthin  its  advanced -posts  should  be  carefully  chosen. 
To  take  position  where  the  movements  of  the  enemy 
can  be  well  watched,  whilst  our  own  troops  are  kejit 
concealed  and  not  liable  to  a  sudden  attack  either  in 
front  or  flank,  are  the  di'sidirnia  in  such  cases.  If, 
in  following  this  guide,  it  should  lead  to  a  develop- 
ment of  advanced-posts  which  would  be  too  weak  at 
any  jxiint  for  a  tolerable  resistance,  there  remains  but 
the  alternative  to  retire  slowly  before  the  enemy, — 
taking  care  that  be  do  not  slip  behind  the  outposts 
and  their  supports. — upon  some  central  point  to  the 
rear,  where  the  advanced-posts,  united  to  the  troojis 
in  reserve,  may  make  a  good  stand,  and  from  which, 
if  the  chances  are  favorable,  lliey  may  advance  upon 
the  enemy  and  make  him  pay  dearly  for  his  temerity. 
In  all  affairs  of  advanced-guards  great  circums|)ecti6n 
is  to  be  shown,  both  liy  the  officer  in  command  of  the 
advanced-guard,  in  throwing  forward  fresh  troops  to 
strengthen  a  jioint  assiiled,  as  well  as  on  the  part  of 
the  General-in-Chief,  in  sustainingtheadvanced-guard 
by  weakening  his  main  body.  These  are  points  that 
cau  only  be  decided  on  the  spot.  The  safer  rule,  in 
all  cases,  is  not  to  weaken  the  main  defence,  or  main 
attack,  bv  detaching  from  it  to  sujiport  a  feeble 
point.  If  the  force  engaged,  under  such  circum- 
stances, does  not  suffice  for  its  own  defence,  it  is  best 
for  it  to  fall  back  in  time  and,  taking  position  with 
the  main  liod.v,  endeavor,  by  their  combined  efforts, 
to  lurn  the  scales  of  victory  in  their  favor.  The 
duties  of  advanced-guards  being  so  much  more  fre- 
quently to  feel  and  occiii\v  an  enemy,  preiianitoni-  to 
some  decisive  blow  by  the  main  body,  than  to  engage 
him  with  a  view  to  follow  up  any  advantage  gained, 
it  follows,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  they  should  be 
composed  of  the  most  efficient  and  active  light  troojis 
at  the  General's  dispo.sal.  Such  troops,  in  the  hands 
of  a  bold,  energetic,  but  prudent  leader,  will  be  the 
right  arm  of  an  army:  prompt  on  all  occasions; 
never  taken  at  fault,  the.v  keep  the  enemy  constantly 
occupied;  harass  him  with  fatiguing  precautions  to 
secure  his  flanks  and  rear;  whilst  tlieir  own  f.irce  is 
keiit  relieved  from  these  annoyances,  and  always  fresh 
for  .■uiv  irri'iil  eiiirrirriicv. 

ADVANCED-LUNETTES.— Works  resembling  bas- 
tions or  ravelins.  Inning  faces  or  flanks.  They  are 
formed  u]X)n  or  beyond  the  glacis. 

ADVANCED-POSTS.- Positions  taken  up  by  a  force 
in  .idvani  e  nf  the  main  body  of  an  army,  and  in  such 
a  situation  that  they  shall  be  within  ea.sy  comniunica- 
tioii  of  it  and  of  one  another.  The  duties  of  the  ad- 
vanced-posts are  the  .same  whether  the  troops  are 
.stationary  or  in  movement.  They  are:  1.  To  keep  a 
good  lookout  for  the  enemy,  and  when  in  his  im- 
mediate ]iresencc  to  take  all  means  to  be  accurately 
informed  of  his  strength,  ])osition,  and  movements; 
2.  Should  the  enemy  advance,  to  lioM  him  in  check 
long  enough  to  give  the  main  Ixxly  anijile  time  to  be 
prepared  lor  his  attack.     By  a  faithful  discharge  of 


ADVAHCED-WOBKS. 


2.'^ 


AEBODTNAHICS. 


these  duries,  ihe  whole  army  can,  at  all  times  and 
under  all  circumstances,  be  kept  in  a  state  of  readi- 
ness for  action  without  subjecting  the  soldier  to  any 
fatigue  beyond  the  ordinary  physical  endurance  of  "a 
well-developed  manhood;  as  but  a  small  portion, 
comparatively,  of  the  force  present  is  required  to 
watch  over  the  safety  of  the  rest,  and  can  therefore 
be  frequently  relieved,  so  that  every  one  may  have 
time  sufficient  for  the  repose  demanded  after  extraor- 
dinary exertions.  Tlie  object  being  to  secure  the 
front  and  tlanks  of  the  jxisition  occupied  by  the 
main  body  from  any  attempt  either  to  rcconnoitcr  or 
attack  it,  the  detachments  which  form  the  advanced- 
posts  must  be  so  distributed  as  to  embrace  all  the 
avenues  by  which  the  enemy  can  approach  the  posi- 
tion. The  system  adopted,  in  most  services,  to  ellect 
this  object  consists  of  two  or  three  concentric  lines 
of  posts,  disposed  in  a  fan-shaped  order.  The  ex- 
terior line,  which  forms  the  Outposts,  embraces  a 
■wide  circumference,  and  by  means  of  a  chain  of 
Sentin^U,  posted  in  advance,  prevents  any  one  from 
penetrating  to  the  rear  between  the  posts  without 
iieing  seen.  The  second  line,  which  is  one  of  Grand- 
Guards,  embraces  a  narrower  circumference  than  the 
line  of  outposts,  occupying  the  more  important*nve- 
nues  from  (he  outposts  to  the  interior,  so  as  to  be  in 
a  position  to  support  the  outposts  in  case  of  necessity, 
and  to  receive  them  if  driven  in.  The  interior  line 
consists  of  several  strong  detachments,  termed  Picket*, 
posted  upon  the  main  avenues  to  the  position.  They 
serve  as  supports  to  the  two  exterior  lines,  upon  which 
they  rally  if  forced  to  retire  Ix'fore  the  enemy.  Be- 
sides these  dispositions  for  security,  Patrols  are  kept 
up  Ix't  ween  the  line  of  posts,  to  keep  the  one  informed 
of  the  stale  of  the  other;  and  also  between  the  out- 
posts and  chain  of  sentinels,  to  see  that  the  duties  of 
the  latter  are  well  performed;  and  to  search  any 
ground  not  brought  well  under  the  eyes  of  the  sen- 
tinels. The  whole,  in  this  way,  forms  a  connected 
system  for  observing  the  enemy  and  for  mutual  sup- 
jiort  in  case  of  attack.  The  ground  taken  up  by  the 
advanced-posts  will  depend  on  the  capabilities  which 
its  natural  features  offer  for  defence;  on  the  number 
and  character  of  the  approaches  it  presents  to  an 
■enemy  for  attacking  the  front  or  Hanks  of  the  position 
occupied  bv  the  main  Ixxiy;  and  upon  the  facilities  it 
may  afford  for  communication  between  the  posts. 
See  O'lt /Mists. 

ADVANCED-WORKS.— AVorks  placed  beyond  the 
covered-ways  of  the  enceinte  and  its  outworks,  but 
connected  with  them  in  a  general  system  of  defence, 
are  termed  adranrtd  and  dttac/ied  trorks.  The  term 
advanced-irorks  is  api)lied  to  such  works  as,  placed 
beyond  the  outworks,  are  still  under  the  fire  of  either 
the  enceinte  or  the  outworks,  so  that  the  ground  in 
advance  of  them  will  be  swept  by  this  tire;  their 
ditches  tlanked  by  it;  and  their  inferior  .so  exposed 
to  it  that,  if  the  work  were  .seized  by  an  open  assault, 
the  a.ssailant  could  be  driven  from  it  by  this  fire. 
Advanced-works  are  placed  in  positions  which  the 
assailant  must  neccssjirily  make  himself  master  of 
before  he  can  apjjroach  nearer  to  the  main  work;  or 
on  poinis  which  overlook  ground  that  cannot  l)e 
swejit  by  the  fire  of  the  enceinte;  and  sometimes  on 
poinis  which,  inaccessible  lo  the  assailant,  give  good 
position  from  which  a  fiank-tire  can  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  ground  over  which  the  a.ssailant  will  be  obliged 
to  make  his  apjiroaches.  Restricted  to  the.se  pur- 
poses, an  advanced-work  may  be  of  great  value  in 
prolonging  the  defence;  and  every  precaution  should 
Ix;  taken  to  secure  it  from  a  surprise,  and  to  give  its 
garrison  a  s;ife  means  of  communication  with  the 
main  work  upon  which  they  can  retire  when  forced 
to  abandon  their  work.  When  there  are  fidl  and 
strong  garrisons,  advanced-works,  by  judicious  com- 
bination with  those  in  their  rear,  may  greatly  enlarge 
the  field  of  action  of  the  garrison,  by  keeping  the  as- 
sailant at  a  distance  and  annoying  him  by  I'requent 
.sorties  in  larnre  boriiis.     See  D>tached-Works. 

ADVANTAGE-GEOUND.— That  ground  which  af- 


fords the  greatest  facility  for  annoyance  or  resist- 

!  ance. 

ADVEESAEY.— A  term  generally  applie<l  to  an 
enemy,  but  strictly  an  opponent  in  single  combat. 

ADVISING  TO  DESEET.— A  crime  punishable  with 
dealh  or  otherwise  as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 
The  Articles  of   War  pro\ide  that   any   officer  or 

I  soldier  who  ad\-ises  or  persuades  any  other  officer  or 
soldier  to  desert  the  serWcc   of  tlie   United   States 

i  shall  in  time  of  war  suffer  dealh  or  such  other  pun- 
ishment as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct,  and  in  time 
of  peace  any  punishment  excepting  death  which  a 

I  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

ADYNATI. — An  ancient  name  for  invalid  soldiers 
receiving  ]>eusions  from  the  public  treasurv. 

I  AEEN. — A  tree  which  grows  in  the  ilaclras  Presi- 
dency at  Coimbatore.     It  is  very  hard,  heavy,  and 

I  durable  underwater.  It  is  .said  to  be  found  "in  all 
the  teak-forests  of  India  and  Burmah.  A  cubic  foot 
of  unseasoned  wood  weighs  from  .seventy  to  seventy- 
three  i>ounds.  It  is  used  in  the  Bombay  Gun-car- 
riage Agency  fbr  shafts,  handspikes,  ;mil  yokes. 

£GID£. — A  name,  according  to  Homer,  for  a  pro- 
tecting covering  woun<l  around  the  left  arm  in  the 
absence  of  a  shield:  used  by  Jupiter,  Minerva,  and 
Apollo. 

£GIS. — The  shield  of  Jupiter,  which  had  been 
fashioned  by  Hephaestus  (Vulcan).  When  .lupiter 
was  angry,  lie  waved  and  shook  the  *gis,  making  a 
sound  like  that  of  a  tempest,  by  which  the  nations 
were  overawed.  The  legis  was  the  .symbol  of  di\-ine 
protection,  and  became,  in  course  of  time,  the  exclu- 
sive attrilmte  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva. 

aiNEATOEES.— In  military  antiquity,  the  musi- 
cians in  an  army,  including  "those  who  sounded  the 
trumpets,  horns,  etc. 

aiRAEITJM  MILITAIEE.— The  war-treasury  of 
liome.  founded  by  Augustus.  In  addition  to  other 
revenues,  the  one-iiuudfedth  part  of  all  merchandise 
sold  in  Rome  was  paid  into  it. 

JEEO. — A  basket  used  by  the  Roman  soldiers  for 
atrrviuL'  earth  to  constnict  fonirieations. 

I  AEEODYNAMICS.— That  branch  of  science  which 
treats  of  air  and  other  gases  in  motion.  It  examines 
first  the  phenomena  of  air  issuing  from  a  vessel, 
which  correspond  in  manv  rcsiu-cts  with  those  of 
water.  Much  depends,  as  in  the  csise  of  water,  upon 
the  nature  of  the  orifice,  whether  a  mere  hole  in  the 
side  of  the  vessel,  or  a  lube  or  adjutage.  Another 
subject  of  aerodynamics  is  the  motion  of  air  in  long 
tubes,  where  the  resistance  of  friction,  etc.,  has  to  be 
a.scertained.  That  resistance  is  found  to  be  nearly  in 
proportion  lo  the  square  of  the  velocity,  to  the  length 
of  the  lulx",  and  inversely  to  its  width.  Aerody- 
namics examines  also  the  velocity  of  air  rushing  into 
a  vacuimi,  of  wind,  etc.  The  instrument  used  for 
the  latter  purpose  is  called  an  anemometer.  Air  is 
found  to  rush  into  a  void  space  at  the  rate  of  from 
1300  to  14(X)  feet  [K'r  second.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant  inquiries  in  aerodynamics  is  the  resistance 

'  offered  to  a  Inxly  moving  in  air,  or — which  is  the 
same  thin.L' — the  ])ressure  exerted  by  air  in  motion 
upon  a  bo<iy  at  rest.  The  law  may  be  staled,  with 
sufficient  accuracy  for  practical  jiurjioses,  as  follows: 
T/i(  nsistancf  or  prtssure  is  propurtioiml  to  tlie  square 
of  the  relociti/.  We  might  conclude  from  rea.son, 
without  experiment,  that  such  would  be  the  case;  for 
if  one  IxkIv  is  moving  through  the  air  four  thnes 
faster  than  another  of  the  s;ime  size,  not  oidy  will  it 
encounter  four  times  as  many  particles  of  air,  Ijut  it 
will  give  each  of  them  four  times  as  great  an  impulse 
or  sh(x-k,  and  thus  encounter  4x4,  or  sixtec'n  times 
as  much  resistance.  This  resist;mce  is  gi-eatly  in- 
creased by  another  circumstance,  especially  with  great 
velocities'.  The  air  in  front  of  the  mo\ihg  body  be- 
comes accumulated  or  condensed,  and  a  partial  or 
even  entire  vacuum  is  formed  behind  it.  With  a 
velocity  of  1700  feet  jwr  second,  for  instance,  the  re- 
sistimee  is  found  to  be  alxmt  three  times  as  great  as 
the  simple  law  of  the  square  of  the  velocity  would 


ASSOKIINOSCOFE. 


24 


AOAVE. 


give.  By  the  operation  of  these  hiws  of  resistance,  a 
heavy  body  let  fall  with  a  parachute  attached  to  it. 
comes,  after  a  certain  time,  to  move  with  a  velocity 
approaching  more  and  more  nearly  to  a  uniform  mo- 
tion. 

AEROKLINOSCOPE.— An  instnuncnt  to  show  differ- 
ences of  iKiroinelric  pressure  at  remote  stations.  It 
consists  of  a  vertical  axis  30  feet  liiirh,  tuniinfr  on  a 
pivot,  oirrying  at  the  lop  a  horizontal  arm.  of  which 
the  inclination  can  he  varied  acc<)r<Ung  to  the  differ- 
ence of  Itiirometric  pressure  at  diffcR-nt  siiUs  of  the 
station;  the  amoiuit  of  dip  being  indicated  by  a  .slid- 
ing rod  held  in  jiosition  by  graded  notches  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  axis,  each  notch  corresponding  with 
one  millimeter  in  i>ressure.  It  is  used  in  the  weather 
service. 

AEROSTATICS.  —  That  bnmch  of  science  which 
treats  of  the  equilibrium  ;ind  pressure  of  air  and  other 
gases,  and  of  the  methods  of  measuring  it  by  the  ba- 
rometer and  other  instruments.  The  expansive  force 
or  pressure  of  atnio-spheric  air  varies  with  lime  and 
place.  In  a  nuilium  condition  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  near  the  sea-level,  barometrical  observations  give 
the  pressure  or  weight  equal  to  that  of  a  colunui  of  mer- 
cury 30  inches  high,  or  of  a  column  of  water  about 
34  feet  high.  Tliis  makes  the  mean  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  nearly  l.T  ltis.  on  every  scjuju'e  inch.  This 
meiui  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  generally  taken  as 
the  tmit  or  measure  of  expansive  or  elastic  forces  gen- 
erally: any  jiarticular  pressure  is  said  to  be  equal  to 
so  many  atmospheres.  Aerostatics  also  investigates 
the  phenomena  of  the  compression  of  gases;  in  other 
words,  the  relation  between  tlie  elasticity  and  the 
density  or  volume  of  a  gas.  According  to  the  law  of 
Jlariotte,  the  expansive  force  of  one  and  the  same 
IxKly  of  giis  is  proportional  to  its  density;  or,  which 
is  the  same  thing,  the  e.^iansive  force  of  a  body  of 
gas  under  different  degrees  of  conjpre.ssiou  varies  in- 
versely ius  the  space  wliich  it  occupies.  If  its  elastic 
force,  at  one  stage,  be  measured  by  oO  lbs.,  when 
compressed  into  half  the  space  that  force  will  be  100 
lbs.  Connected  with  this  is  the  investigation  of  the 
variation  of  density  and  pressure  in  the  several  verti- 
cal strata  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  must  diminish  as  we  a.scend, 
as  part  of  it  is  left  below;  and  it  results  from  Marl- 
otte's  law  that,  at  ditTerent  distances  from  the  earth's 
surface,  increasing  in  arithmetical  progression,  the  at- 
mospheric i)ressure  diminislies  in  geometrical  progres- 
sion. This  principle  furnishes  the  means  of  measuring 
heights  by  the  barometer.  The  elastic  force  of  air 
ancT  other  gases  is  very  much  increased  by  heat,  and 
consequently,  when  allowed,  they  expand.  It  is  foinid 
that  a  rise  of  tem]K'ralure  of  1  of  Falircniieil  causes 
any  gas  to  expand  fl^  of  its  own  bulk;  and  this  ex- 
pansion is  uniform.  If  adding  10  to  the  temiierature 
of  a  body  of  gas  increases  its  biUk  3  cubic  inilies,  an 
addition  of  20'  will  give  an  increase  of  6  inches;  of 
.50',  I.')  inches;  and  so  on.  This  law  was  discovered 
by  Gay-Luss;ic,  and  has  been  verilied  by  subsetiuent 
investig-ators.  Both  it,  however,  and  that  of  .Mariotte, 
can  be  loitki-d  upon  as  only  nearly  true,  and  that 
wilbin  {Tiiiiiii  limits. 

i:KUMNULA. — A  wooden  pole  or  fork,  introduced 
among  the  Honians  by  Consul  JIarius.  Each  soldier 
was  provided  with  one  of  these  poles,  wliieh  had  at- 
tached thereto  a  siiw,  hatchet,  a  s:ick  of  wheat,  and 
baggage.  The  soldier  was  compelled  to  carry  it  on  a 
march. 

AFABUAR. — A  color-lx-arer  of  the  ancient  Ice- 
landers. ICvery  wur-ve.ssel  had  one  of  these  officers 
aboanl,  who  commanded  the  soldiei-s.  The  Aiabuars 
were  selected  for  this  dutv  for  their  liravery. 

AFFAIR. — An  action  or  engagement  not  of  suffl- 
cienl  nia,'nitude  to  Ik'  termed  a  battle,  but  usually  of 
more  inipnrlimce  than  askirmish;  as,  the  affair  of  out- 
post, iir  the  affair  of  rearguard. 

AFFAHER. — To  b(  sicirr  .i  jilace  so  closely  as  to 
Btiini'  llii-  ;;arrisiin  and  inhaliilanls. 

AFFIDAVIT.— In  military  law,  an  oath  duly  sub- 


.scribed  iK'fore  any  ]ierson  authorized  to  administer  it. 
In  the  United  !Sta"tes.  Judges,  .fustices.  Notaries,  Com- 
missioners, and  Coinmissiomtl  Ollicers  have  authority 
of  law  to  take  atliilavits.  All  the  States  appoint  Com- 
missioners in  other  Slates  (residents  of  such  olher)  to 
exercise  the  power.  By  Mew  York  law,  affidavits  may 
be  taken  anywhere  for  usi'  in  New  York,  if  the  ix-rson 
takinsr  is  authorized  at  the  time  and  place  to  do  so. 
Generally  the  aulhoritv  of  foreign  otiicials  to  take 
affldavit.s  nnist  be  certified  or  veritied  in  court.  When 
a  Judge  takes  an  affidavit  in  court  his  signature  must 
be  authenticated.  Ministers  and  Consuls  abroad  have 
power  to  take  affidavits,  and  so  have  British  Consuls 
and  nearlv  all  similar  officers.  No  particular  fonn  of 
affidavit  is  prescrilu'd.  An  affi(la\"it  of  merit  is  one 
made  by  a  defendant,  which  sets  forth  that  he  has 
stated  his  ea.se  to  counsel  and  is  by  him  advised  that 
he  has  a  good  defence  to  the  pending  action  on  its 
merits.  This  is  required  to  protect  plaintiffs  from 
delay  by  frivolous  shows  of  defence,  but  does  not 
always  cffuet  the  purpose. 

AFFIRMATION. — A  substitute  for  swearing,  or 
taking  an  oath.  In  most  of  the  States  a  witness  may, 
at  his  own  ojilion,  either  swear  or  affinn,  and  with 
the*  same  legal  effect.  In  the  act  of  affirming  the 
right  hand  is  raised  while  the  formula  is  .spoken. 
Formerly,  in  England,  no  e\-idence  could  be  given 
except  upon  oath;  but  the  prixilcge  of  making  a  sol- 
emn affirmation,  instead  of  swearing  on  the  Bil)le,  has 
been  extended  to  tjuakers,  Moravians,  and  Separatists 
in  all  eases;  and  to  jiersons  alleging  conscientious  mo- 
lives  in  ci\il  proceedings.  Before  native  Courts-Mar- 
tial in  India,  evidence  is  given  on  solenm  affirmation. 
For  Quakers  and  Mora\"ians  the  formula  is:  "I  do  sol- 
emnl}',  sincerely,  and  Indv  declare  and  affirm."  In 
the  ease  of  Separatists  this  affirmation  further  bears  to 
be  emitted  "  in  the  presence  of  Almighty  (Jod.  "  The 
penalties  of  per.jury  are  imposed  on  those  who  shall  be 
proved  to  have  aftiiTned  falsely.  A  later  statute  h.os 
extended  the  privilege  of  substituting  an  affirmation 
for  an  oath  to  all  persons  who  refuse  to  be  sworn  from 
conscientious  motives — the  Judge  being  satufied  that 
the  moiins  are  roiimentious. 

AFFORCIAMENT.— An  old  term  for  a  fortress  or 
stronixliold:  now  obsolete. 

AFRANCESADOS.— A  name  given  to  the  Spaniards 
who  upleld  llie  oalh  of  allegiance  to  King  Joseph 
Bonaparte;  also  called  Joscphins  (in  the  Peninsular 
War). 

AGA— AGHA.— The  Turkish  title  of  a  superior 
Military  Commander;  also  of  the  higher  officers  of  the 
seraglio. 

AGAVE. — -V  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Aimin/l/ideif.  and  having  a  tubular  perianlh  with 
6-partile  limb,  and  a  triangular,  many -seeded  inferior 
capsule.  Tliev  are  herbaceous  plants,  of  remarkable 
and  beautiful  ajiiHariince.  There  are  a  muulK'r  of 
species,  all  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America. 
Bv  unscientitic  persons  they  are  often  confounded 
with  aloes.  The  agaves  ha\e  either  no  proper  stem, 
or  a  veiT  short  one.  bearing  at  its  summit  a  crowded 
head  of  larire,  tlesliy  leaves,  which  are  spiny  at  the 
margin.  From  the  midst  of  these  shoots  up  the 
straight,  upright  scajx'.  24  to  30  feet  high,  and  at  the 
base  often  1  foot  in  diamelir,  along  which  are  small, 
appres-sid,  lanceolate  bractea",  with  a  tenninal  pani- 
cle, often  bearing  as  many  as  4000  tlowers.  In  South 
America  these  i>lants  often  tlower  in  the  eighth  .vear, 
but  in  our  hothouses  not  until  thev  have  reached  a 
very  advanced  age;  whence  arises  the  srardeneiN'  fable 
of  their  lloweriiig  onlv  once  in  a  hundred  .vears.  After 
flowering,'  the  plant  always  dies  down  to  the  ground, 
but  the  root  coni  inning  to  jive  si'nds  up  new  shoots.  By 
maci-ralion  of  the  leaves,  which  are  5  to  7  feet  lon.ff, 
are  obtained  coarse  fibers,  which  are  used  in  America, 
under  the  name  of  >iiii;/>iei/.  for  the  manufacture  of 
thread,  twine,  ropes,  hammocks,  etc.  This  fiber  is 
also  known  as  pita  flax.  It  i.s  now  jiroduced  to  some 
extent  in  the  sduih  of  Europe.  It  is  not  very  strong 
or  durable,  and  if  exposed  to  moisture  it  soon  decays. 


»      U>iij.1iiiJpEa'»      «  ofOm-nirich       W 


A6EKA. 


25 


AIOBEKO&S. 


The  ancient  Mexicans  employed  it  for  the  preparation 
of  a  coarse  kind  of  paper,  and  tlie  Indians  vise  it  for 
oakum.  The  leaves,  cut  into  slices,  are  used  for 
feeding  eaitle.  A  species  known  as  Agave  mej-icarui 
is  particidarl}"  descrilxd  by  Hutnlx)ldt  upon  account 
of  its  utility.  When  tlie  innermost  leaves  have  been 
torn  out,  a  juice  contin\ics  to  tlow  for  a  year  or  a  year 
and  a  half,  which,  liy  inspissation,  yields  sugar;  and 
which,  when  diluted  with  water  and  subjected  to  four 
or  live  days'  fermentation,  becomes  an  agreeable  but 
intoxicating  drink,  called  pulque,  to  which  the  Mexi- 
can Indians  not  unfrequently  sacrifice  both  fortune 
and  life. 

AGEMA. — A  kind  of  soldier}-,  in  the  ancient  mili- 
tary art,  chiefly  in  the  Macedonian  anny.  The  word 
is  Greek,  and  denotes  vehemence,  to  express  the 
strength  and  eagerness  of  this  corps. 

AGENCY. ^A  certain  proportion  of  money  which  is 
ordered  to  be  subtracted  from  the  pay  and  allowances 
of  the  British  Army  for  trans;icting  the  business  of 
the  several  regiments  etjmprising  it. 

AGENT. — In  the  Uritish  service,  a  person  author- 
ized by  the  government  to  manage  the  monetar}' 
affairs  of  regiments  in  the  army,  as  a  kind  of  military 
banker.  In  early  times,  persons  were  employed  to 
effect  the  purchase  and  sale  of  commissions  in  the 
British  army  (the  only  army  in  which  this  strange 
system  of  purchase  existed),  without  much  reference 
to  honesty  or  litness;  but  to  prevent  pernicious  traf- 
ficking, no  one  wa.s  sifter  1809  permitted  to  manage 
these  tninsactions  except  the  authorized  Army  Agent, 
under  a  heavy  penalty.  The  Agents  were  also  bound 
down  bj'  restrictions,  in  relation  to  any  pecuniary  ad- 
vantage derivable  by  themselves  from  the  sale  and 
piircha-sc.  Their  business,  however,  is  now  confined 
to  the  regular  expenditure  of  governmeht  money. 
Every  regiment  has  an  Agent,  selected  by  the  Colonel, 
and  empowered  bj-  him  to  be  his  representative  in  the 
monetary  arrangements  of  the  Corps.  The  Colonel  is 
respoiisiiile  to  the  Crown  for  the  honestv  of  the  Agent; 
but  the  Agent  is  in  many  ways  reg-arded  a.s  a  ser\-ant  of 
the  public.  When  money  is  wanted  for  the  regular 
expenses  of  the  regiment,  the  Agent  applies  to  the 
War  Office;  whereupon  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War 
issues  an  order  to  the  Paymaster  of  the  forces  to  ad- 
vance the  reepiisite  sum;  the  Paymaster  docs  so,  and 
takes  a  receipt  from  the  Agent.  There  is  an  annual 
settlement  of  accounts  txitween  the  Paymaster  and  the 
Agent,  each  one  paying  or  recei\nng,  according  to  the 
side  on  which  excess  or  deticicncy  may  appear.  The 
Agent  then  distributes  the  pay  and  other  charges  of 
the  regiment.  The  tendency  of  recent  alterations  has 
been  greatly  to  reduce  the  public  functions  of  the 
Agents,  who  now  onlv  receive  £l-'i,000  from  the  State, 
while  in  1S.58  they  "had  £40,000.  The  percentage 
allowed  to  Agents  for  their  trouble  in  pacing  the  full 
pay  of  otlicers  was  allowed  for  by  tlie  St;itc,  and  was 
included  among  the  annual  army  estimates;  but  the 
officer  generally  bore  this  charge  in  relation  to  half- 
pay  and  allowances.  The  Agent  conducted  all  corre- 
spondence, and  sent  all  the  reciuisite  notices  concerning 
paj'  and  pa^inent;  the  Colonel  of  the  regiment  took 
no"  part  in  "the  matter.  The  details  of  the  system 
varitd  considerably  at  different  times,  and  in  difTercnt 
portions  of  the  British  dominions.  Sometimes  the 
Agent  received  twoiience  in  the  pound  on  the  amount 
of  pay;  sometimes  three  halfpence  in  the  pound,  with 
an  addition  vaiying  from  sixpence  to  one  shilling  per 
day  for  each  company  of  infantry  or  troop  of  cavalr\-; 
sometimes  (in  Ireland"  and  in  the  Colonies)  a  lixed  an- 
nual s;dary.  When  the  Colonels  of  regiments  pro- 
vided themen's  clothing,  under  a  system  now  alxin- 
doned,  the  Agents  were  very  intiinatc'ly  mi.xed  up  with 
the  transactions;  but  at  present  the  "duties  of  those 
Agents  are  limited  to  the  following:  applying  monthly 
to  the  War  Office  for  the  money  required  for  each 
regiment;  receiving  that  money;  applying  part  of  it 
to  the  iiayment  of  officers;  disl)ui-sin;:  the  regimental 
paymasters'  bills  for  the  cost  of  the  expenditure:  pav- 
ing s'-ldiers"  remittances  for  the  benefit  of  their  fami- 


lies; settling  the  effects  and  credits  of  soldiers.  Many 
experienced  government  officers  have  recommended 
the  abandonment  of  the  svstcm,  and  the  paying  of  all 
moneys  by  the  War  Office  direct,  as  a  measure  of 
simplitieation  and  economy. 

AGGER. — The  middle  part  of  a  militarj-  road  raised 
into  a  ridge,  with  a  gentle  slope  on  each  side  to  make 
a  drain  for  the  water  and  keep  the  way  dry.  The 
term  also  denotes  a  work  or  fortilication  used  both 
for  the  defence  and  attack  of  towns,  camps,  etc., 
termed  among  the  moderns,  lines.  Agger  is  also 
used  for  a  bank  or  wall  erected  against  the  sea  or 
some  great  river  to  confine  or  keep  it  within  bounds, 
and  called  by  modern  writers  a  sea-wall. 

AGIADES.— A  kind  of  pioneers  in  the  Turkish 
armies,  or  ir'her  field  Engineers,  employed  in  forti- 
fying the  camp,  etc. 

"  AGIEM-CLICH. — A  very  crooked  saber,  rounded 
near  the  point;  an  arm  much  in  use  in  Persia  and 
Turkey. 

AGMEN.— The  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  an 
army  wluii  on  the  march. 

AGMINALIS. — The  ancient  name  given  to  a  horse 
which  carried  liagg-age,  equipments,  etc.,  on  his 
l)aek;  now  termed  paek-horee. 

AGUEKRI. — A  term  frequently  ai)plied  to  an  offi- 
cer or  soldier  who  is  known  to  be  experienced  in  war. 

AIDE-DE-CAMP. — An  officer  who  niiiy  be  regarded 
as  a  kind  of  superior  confidential  attendant  upon  a 
General  in  active  service.  The  Aide-de-Camp  is  the 
organ  of  the  General.  He  carries  all  orders  on  the 
field  of  battle:  these  he  is  to  deliver  in  the  plainest 
terms,  so  as  to  be  distinctly  understood;  and  when  so 
understood,  the  orders  are  to  lie  as  implicitly  obeyed 
as  if  the  General  himself  were  present  and  speaking. 
As  an  example  of  the  importance  of  this  matter  may 
be  adduced  the  brilliant  but  disastrous  light-cavalry 
charge  at  Balaklava  in  the  autunui  of  1H54.  Lord 
Ha.glan  sent  a  message,  partly  verbal  and  partly 
written,  to  the  Earl  of  Lucan  cf)ncerning  a  particu- 
lar piece  of  strategy  at  a  certain  time  and  place;  the 
message  was  misconceived,  and  the  Earl  of  Cardigan 
was  directed  to  make  a  military  movement  perfectly 
hopeless  in  its  character,  resulting  in  a  very  serious 
cavalry  loss;  although  the  incident  iiresented  a  tine 
display  of  heroism  united  vnih  discipline.  An  Aide- 
de-Camp  also  acts  as  Secretary  to  the  General,  and 
assists  him  in  his  correspondence  when  he  has  not 
specifically  a  Military  Secretary.  He  aids  likewise 
in  dispensing  the  courtesies  of  the  General's  house  or 
tent.  Generals  arc  much  accustomed  to  ai)point  their 
sons  or  other  relations  to  this  confidential  post.  Aide- 
de-camps  vaPi'  in  number  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  General  Officer.  In  the  British  service,  before  an 
officer  can  be  appointed  as  Aide-de-Camp,  he  must 
have  been  two  years  with  his  regiment,  and  must 
pass  an  examination.  Aide-de-camiis  are  not  re- 
moved from  the  list  of  their  regiments;  and,  most 
commonlv,  are  Captains.  Besides  these  Aide-de- 
Camps  to  Generals,  the  Queen  has  the  power  to 
appoint  any  numlicr  of  Aidc-de-Camps  to  herself,  in 
her  capacit"y  of  nominal  Head  of  the  Army.  There 
are  no  particular  duties  attached  to  the  office;  but  it 
is  much  sought  after,  both  as  an  honor,  and  as  con- 
ferring on  the  holder  the  rank  of  Colonel  in  the 
Army.  There  arc  six  who  receive  daily  pay  as  Aide- 
de-Camps,  and  who  take  it  in  turn  "to  attend  the 
Queen  on  Slate  Occasions.  In  the  year  187(5  there 
were  no  fewer  than  33  military  Aide-ile-Camps  to  the 
Queen,  of  whom  8  were  Peers  of  the  Kealm;  Vmt 
of  the  ;i;{,  only  19  belonged  to  the  army;  the  rest,  ex- 
cept two  of  the  marines,  Wng  militia  officers,  whose 
appointments  are  purely  hoiiorarv.  In  addition  to 
all  the  above,  there  are"naval  Aide-dc-Camps  to  the 
Queen. 

AID-MAJOR.— The  French  name  for  the  Adjutant 
of  a  Riirinieiit.     It  is  still  in  use. 

AIGREMORE.— A  term  used  by  the  artificer  in  the 
laboratory  to  express  the  charcoal  in  a  state  fitted  for 
the  making  of  powder. 


AIOITILLX. 


26 


AIR-BED  Ain)  PILLOW. 


AIGUILLE. — An  instrunu'iit  us«><l  by  Engineers  to 
piene  ft  nuk  fi)r  the  Kxljrnienl  of  jxiwder,  lus  in  a 
mine,  when  hlnstinj;  or  l)lo\vinir  up  is  Ij  l>e  i'fft>ctt'<l. 

AI6UILLETTE. — A  deronilion,  consisting  of  bul- 
lion fonls  luui  loops,  wliieli  wa.s  formerly  worn  on 
the  right  .shoulder  of  a  General  Ollieer,  but  is  now 
chietly  eonlined  to  rjiHeers  of  the  Life-Guards  and 
Horso-Guarils  in  England,  iiml  to  officers  of  the  Ad- 
jutanlGt-ueral's  Department,  Aide.s-(ie-C'ara|),  and  Ad- 
jiitnnl.s  of  rei^iiuents  in  the  United  Stales  Army.  The 
Aiguillelle,  lu-stead  of  being  iK'rmanently  attached  to 
the  slioulderkni>t,  may  be  maile  separate  so  as  to  be 
attiiched  to  the  coat  underneath  the  knot  by  means  of 
a  strap  or  tongue  pivs.sing  through  the  lower  fastening 
of  the  knot.  Aides-de-Camp  a1id  the  .Military  Secre- 
tary, who  have  increa»ed  nmk,  wear  the  Aiguillettc 
with  the  uniform  of  the  General  Staff.  Aiiles-de- 
Canip  to  Major-  and  Brigjidier-Gcnerals  wear  the 
Aiguillettc  with  the  uniform  of  their  regiments  and 
corps.     See  Shoulder  kn/it». 

AILE. — A  Fri'nch  term  denoting  a  wing  or  flank 
of  an  army  or  fortitication. 

AILETTES. — Apix'udages  to  the  armor  worn  by 
knights  in  the  thirteenth  century.  They  were  some 
times  made  of  leather,  covered  with  a  kind  of  cloth 
calleil  ctirdii,  and  fastened  with  silk  laces.  The  form 
was  .sometimes  circular,  sometimes  pentagonal,  cru- 
ciform, or  lozenge-shaped,  but  more  usually  square. 
Sometimes  they  were  not  larger  than  the  |)alm  of  the 
hand;  in  other  instances  as  large  as  a  shield.  In  most 
instances,  the  Ailettes  were  worn  behind  or  at  the 
side  of  the  shoulders.  Whether  the  purpose  of  these 
api)endiiges  was  as  a  defense  to  the  shoulders  in  war, 
as  an  ensign  or  mark  to  inilicate  to  the  followers  of 
the  knight  his  place  in  the  tield,  or  as  armorial  bear- 
ings, is  not  now  clearly  known;  but  the  lirst  suppo- 
sition is  the  most  probable.  .lUlettes  are  figured  on 
many  effigies,  monumental  brasses,  and  stained  win- 
dows in  cathedrals  and  old  churches. 

AIM. — A  word  of  command  for  bringing  a  masket, 
piece  of  ordnance,  or  any  other  missive  weajion  to 
Its  proper  line  of  direction  with  the  object  intended  to 
be  struck.  To  aim  a  musket,  raise  the  piece  with 
both  hands,  and  support  the  butt  tirmly  against  the 
right  shoulder,  the  left  elbow  down,  the  right  elbow 
as  high  as  the  shoulder,  the  boily  inclining  slightly 
forward;  incline  the  head  upon  the  stock  so  that  the 
right  eye  may  quickly  perceive  the  notch  of  the  rear- 
sight,  "the  front  sight,  and  the  object  aimed  at;  the 
left  eye  closeil,  the  right  thumb  c.\'tended  along  the 
stock,  the  fore.inger  on  the  trigger.  When  recruits 
are  formetl  in  two  ranks,  the  iront-rank  men  lower 
the  right  elbow  slightly,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  aim 
of  the  rear-r.ink  men.  Each  rear  rank  man  in  aiming 
carries  the  right  foot  about  eight  inches  to  the  light, 
toward  tlie  left  heel  of  the  man  next  on  the  nlrht, 
inclinini;  the  upper  part  of  the  Ixxly  forward,  bend- 
mg  slightly  the  right  knee. 

The  meii.  in  squaiLs  of  frcrai  twelve  to  twenty,  are 
first  insirueled  in  the  principles  of  ainuiig,  which  may 
be  taught  in-doors.  To  this  end  a  tarsrel  is  made, 
having  a  black  circle  si.x  inches  in  diaiiietcr  for  the 
center;  exterior  to  it  are  foiu-  concentric  rings,  alter- 
nately white  and  black,  each  ring  from  Iwo  to  four 
inches  wide.  The  target  is  posted  at  various  distances 
from  a  table,  tri|)od,  or  other  support,  on  which  rests 
a  .siuidbag,  the  upper  surface  of  which  should  Ik;  at 
the  height  of  the  shoulder.  In  (he  first  laisons,  a 
small  while  wafer  will  tx-  pasted  over  the  center  of 
tlie  targc-t.  The  wafer  and  s;ind-b;iir  being  arranged, 
the  iiLstructor,  who  is  always  a  commissioned  officer, 
inilenis  the  siuid-bag  sliijbily,  and,  |ila(ing  the  mus- 
ket on  it,  auas  it  accuratelyat  the  target!  lie  then 
rc(|uires  the  men  sefiaralely  to  examine  the  aim,  caus- 
ing them  to  close  the  left  eye.  He  next  deranges  the 
piece  and  cau.ses  the  men  successively  to  direct  it  on 
the  wafer,  verifying  each  aim,  and  "denmging  it  be- 
fore the  next  man  steps  forwanl.  The  instructor 
next  aims  the  piece  alx)ve,  Ix-low,  to  the  right  (jr  left 
of  the  target,  and  requires  the  men  to  stale  the  error 
iuid  cora'tl  it     These  lessons  mv  repeated  at  different 


distances,  the  instructor  cxj^sing  faults  and  requir- 
ing the  men  to  correct  them.  To  aim  at  objects 
Ix'yond  the  voint-bhiiik,  the  instructor  commands: 
(1)  At  three  hundred  (or  m  many)  yards,  ("2)  Aim. 
At  the  lirst  command,  the  men  stize  the  slide  between 
the  thumb  and  forefinger,  open  the  leaf  to  the  front, 
and  move  the  slide  until  the  ujiper  line  coincides  with 
the  distance  marked  on  the  leaf;  the  leaf  is  then 
placed  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  piece.  At 
the  command  aim,  the  men  aim  through  the  notch  in 
the  slide.  an<l  the  front-sight.  After  tiring,  the  leaf 
is  turned  back  to  its  i>roper  position. 

Having  taught  the  jirinciples  of  aiming,  tlie  instruc- 
tor next  imprt'.sscs  upon  the  minds  of  the  men  that 
accuracy  of  lire  depends  on  pulling  the  trigger 
steadily  The  piece  being  in  the  position  of  ready, 
the  instructor  directs  each  man  to  place  the  fore- 
finger on  the  trigger,  so  that  the  second  joint  shall 
touch  the  right  side.  The  trigger  is  pulled  by  a 
steadily-increasing  pressure  of  the  finger  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  piece,  the  breafh  always  being 
held  from  the  commencement  of  the  |iressure  till  the 
hammer  sliikes.  The  men  hanng  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  pressure  necessary  lb  discharge  the 
piece,  are  next  required  to  aim  "it  carefully,  either 
sittina;  or  standing,  and  to  pull  the  trigger.  pre,serving 
the  aW,  keeping  the  right  eye  still  directed  on  the 
object.  If  the  trigger  be  pulled  by  a  convulsive 
motion,  tlie  muzzle  will  be  moved  to  the  right. 
After  learning  to  pull  the  trigger  without  deranging 
the  aim,  the  men  are  taught  to  support  the  recoil  by 
pressing  the  butt  firmly  against  the  shoulder  with  the 
right  hand;  the  left  hand  supjiorls  the  weight  of  the 
piece,  and  steadies  it  in  aiming,  The  trigger  is  pulled 
as  before.  If  the  particular  rifle  carries  higher  or 
lower  than  the  average,  it  must  be  remedied  bj-  aim- 
ing with  a  fine  or  a  coarse  sight.  The  men  are  next 
given  blank  cartridges  to  accustom  them  to  the  noise 
of  the  piece  and  further  confirm  them  in  the  principles 
of  ainiiiur  and  tirins;.     See  Manual  of  Anita,  Fig.  16. 

AIM-FKONTLETT— A  piece  of  wood  hollowed  out 
to  fit  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  so  as  to  make  it  level  with 
the  breech,  formerly  in  use  among  gunners.  Wooden 
front-sights  on  a  similar  principle  are  still  used  on 
board  shij)  in  case  of  emergency,  as  when  an  accident 
occurs  to  the  pro(ier  metal  sights. 

AIHING-DSILL. — A  military  exercise  of  great  im- 
porlaiKe  as  a  ])reliminary  step  in  teaching  mt-n  to  aim 
lii'earms. 

AIMING  -  STAND.— An  instrument  employed  in 
teaching  the  theory  of  aiming  with  a  musket.  It 
usually  consists  of"  a  tripod  with  a  ileviee  mounted 
upon  it  which  holds  the  gun  and  allows  it  to  l>e 
poinl<(l  in  anv  direction. 

AIR-BED  AND  PILLOW.— Air-beds,  now  much 
used  as  a  jiart  of  the  field  equipment,  were  known  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but 
being  made  of  leather  were  very  exiK-nsive.     It  was 


Air-Bed. 
only  after  the  invention  of  air-light  cr  ilacintosh  cloth 
that  it  became  possible  to  use  air  in  this  way  at  a 
moderate  cost.  An  air-bed  as  usually  made  consists 
of  a  sjick  in  the  form  of  a  mattress,  di\ided  into  a 
number  of  compartments,  each  air-tight ;  a  projec- 
tion at  one  end  forms  a  bolster.  Each  compart- 
ment has  a  valve,  through  which  the  air  is  blown 
in  by  a  bellows.  The  advantages  of  such  beds 
in  point  of  cleanliness,  coolnc.s.s,  lightness,  and  elas- 
ticity are  quite  ob\ious.  The\-  are  sjiecially  valu- 
able in  cases  of  sickness  in  thi-  field,  imd  in'adding 
to  the  comforts  of  troops  subjected  to  rapid  move 


AIB-C0HFBES80B. 


27 


AIB-C0MPEES80B. 


jnent'!  with  limited  means  of  transportation.  The 
ail'-pillow  is  another  contrivance  of  the  same  Idnd. 
I{ecently,  vulcanized  In- 
dia-rubber, instead  of 
cloth,  hiis  been  used  in 
the  fabrication  of  such 
articles.  The  chief  draw- 
back to  these  contrivan- 
ces is  the  liability  to 
beinj:  spoiled  by  a  rent 
or  other  injury.  For  use 
in  localities  where  water 
is  jilenliful,  these  articles 
are  constructed  so  as  to  be  tilled  with  water;  but  the 
air-tillinir  is  more  satisfactory  in  all  respect.s 

AIB-COHFRESSOB. — \n  obvious  mode  of  employ- 
ing air  as  a  motive  power  is  to  compress  it  and  then 
apply  it  in  the  manner  of  hi,i;h -pressure  steam.  Al- 
though compressed  air  has  been  used  for  working 
small  engines  in  confined  situations,  such  as  tunnels, 
it  is  not  at  all  likely  that  it  will  ever  come  into  extcn- 


Air-PUlow. 


this  caloric,  which  cannot  be  kept  from  escaping,  is 
practically  a  i>art  of  the  bulk  of  the  air,  it  follows  that 
the  loss  of  power  from  this  cause  will  increase  with  the 
pressure  or  tension  of  the  air.  Kven  were  it  possible- 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  heat  by  covering  the  ves- 
sels and  pipes  with  some  non-<'onducling  substance,  it 
would  not  be  practicable  to  use  the  hot  air  In  thesiime 
way  as  steam  is  us»(l,  becau.se  the  lulnicalius material 
necessary  to  keep  the  piston  and  slide-valves  from 
"  tearing"  wovdd  be  deconip(jsed  by  the  high  tempera- 
ture. In  steaiu-engines  there  is  always  a  small  quantity 
of  water  in  the  cylinders  and  slide-valves,  arising  from 
the  coudens;iiion  of  a  iMirlion  of  the  steam,  and  this 
suffices  to  lubricate  the  jiiston  and  valves.  It  is  well 
known  that  when  steam  is  triijii rlietitid  so  highlj'  as 
to  prevent  a  slight  condens;ition  in  the  cylinder  and 
slide-valves,  they  are  very  rapidly  destroyed.  Air 
rises  in  temperature  when  very  much  c6mpres.sed, 
and  we  cannot  use  it  until  its  temperature  falls;  and 
as  this  in\-olves  a  great  waste  of  power,  it  follows  that 
where  economy  is  of  great  consequeuce,  air  camiot  be 


Burleigh  Air 

sive  use,  owing  to  the  great  waste  of  power  attending 
it.  This  waste  arises  from  two  caasas:  first,  the 
friction  due  to  forcing  the  compressed  air  along  a 
great  length  of  pipe;  and  secoiully,  the  loss  from  the 
uis.sipaliou  of  the  great  heat  wliich  results  from  its 
compression.  If,  say,  100  cubic  feet  of  air  is  com- 
pressed into  1  cubic  foot,  it  will  bec'omc  very  hot,  and 
although  it  is  very  easy  to  keep  in  the  air,  it  is  im- 
possible to  keep  in  the"  heat.  In  spite  of  every  pre- 
caution, the  heat  will  (ind  its  way  through  the  vessel 
in  which  the  air  is  confined,  and  Ihrougli  the  pi|X's  in 
■which  it  is  being  transmitted,  and  Ibis  is  equivalent 
to  a  portion  of  the  air  itself  leaking  out,  Ix-oiiise 
when  the  air  is  permit  led  to  expand  in  working  the 
engine,  it  will  not  attain  the  bulk  it  originally  had  of 
100  cubic  feet.  The  greater  the  original  couiiiression 
of  the  air,  the  hightT  its  temperature  will  rise;  and  as 


Compressor. 

used  as  a  mode  of  transmitting  mechanical  power. 
Indeed,  no  flxiid  can  l)c  economically  used  for  trans- 
mitting jxiwer  for  any  great  distance.  We  liave  ju.st 
seen  that  eompre.s.sed  air  is  very  unsuitable:  steam  is 
even  more  wasteful,  because  it  condenses  into  water  in 
long  pipes.  AVater  itself  loses  much  of  its  force  from 
friction  in  jiassing  through  long  pipes,  unless  they  are 
of  very  large  size;  and  in  ajiiilying  it  to  bydnudic 
cranes,  where  the  weiirht  to  be  raiseil  varies,  great 
waste  of  power  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  cylinder 
in  which  the  ram  works  has  to  Ix-  tilled  every  lime 
the  crane  is  worked  with  water  at  the  full  pivssuri'of 
600  or  700  pounds  to  the  scpiare  inch,  even  when  a 
pres.sure  one  tenth  of  that  amo\uit  would  suffice  to 
raise  the  weight.  In  short,  the  power  actually  used 
in  working  an  hydraulic'  crane  is  always  the  maximum, 
even  when  the  weiAt  to  be  raised  is  a  minimum.     It 


AIS-CYLINDEB. 


28 


AIB-ENOIKE. 


%t*f»  !\»  much  iKiwor  to  lift  a  liun(lrc<lwi'iL'lit  ns  it  docs 
to  lift  a  tmi.  Till'  I'Xirfinu  luuiiliiK'ss  uikI  other  pnit- 
tinil  atlvanlu'Tcs  itossfsst-d  Iiy  the  hvilniulic  cnines 
fcave  a  hirire  liahiiice  iu  their  favor,  notwithstaiuliiij? 
their  waste  of  |K)\ver.  In  horinjr  tlie  Mont  C'enis  tun- 
nel, air  was  eoinpn'ssed  at  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel  by 
the  alninilant  water-power  easily  obtainable  there, 
anil  forced  alonj;  to  the  working  face  ihrouj^h  small 
iron  pipes,  for  working  the  borinjiinachines.  The 
tunnel  through  the  Hoosac  Mountain  in  Mjissiu-husetts 
has  alse)  ticeu  liored  by  compressed  air  working  the 
nx'k-tlrills.  The  drawing  represents  the  liurleigh 
Air-C'ompn'ssor  useil  in  tliat  work.  It  consists  of  a 
steam-engine  connecting  by  means  of  a  crankshaft 
with  two  single-acting  air-pumi)s.  Want  of  space 
will  not  p<Tmit  a  description  of  this  beautiful  machine 
in  detjiil;  nor  is  it  necessary.  It  is  a  compactly  built, 
clost'-working  machine,  whose  lines  of  motion  are  all  the 
same,  and  whose  action  is  such,  and  the  play  of  the 
various  part.s  so  nicely  balance(l,  that  the  strain  upon 
tlicm  i.s  equalized,  counttr.icted,  and  brought  within 
it.«elf.  By  a  nice  adjustment  of  the  cranks  in  their 
relation  to  each  other,  the  greatest  power  of  the  en- 
gine is  applied  at  the  exact  point  of 
greatest  resistance,  so  as  to  produce  the 
best  results  at  the  least  cost.  The  air, 
■when  compn"S.sc<l,  is  taken  into  a 
tank,  or  air-chamlKT,  and  thence  car- 
ried to  any  desired  point  in  pipes,  in 
the  sjmie  manner  that  steam  is  carried. 
Connection  between  the  permanent 
pipes  and  drills  upon  the  carTia":es  is 
made  by  flexible  rubber  pipe,  which  is 
uncoupled  when  the  carriage  is  run 
tnck  for  a  blast.  In  reference  to 
this  machine,  it  may  tx'  added  that 
drilling  by  compressed  air  is  only  one 
of  the  uses  to  which  it  may  be  ap- 
plied, and  to  which  it  will  eventually 
be  made  available:  such  as  llie  ven- 
tilation of  buildings;  transmitting  mes- 
sages, packages,  or  passenger-cars  in 
pneimiatic  tubes;  driving  street-cars; 
or  supplying  a  very  convenient  and 
perfectly  Siife  motor  for  numing  ma- 
chinery. The  feasibility  of  compress- 
ing air  at  any  convenient  point,  and 
conveying  it  in  iron  pii>es  exactly  as 
gas  or  water  is  carried  along  the  streets 
of  our  cities,  to  I)e  tap|)ed  and  used 
wherever  required,  has  alrea<ly  been 
demonstrated,  and  it  cannot  be  doul]led 
that  ere  long  the  plan  will  come  into 
general  use.  It  thus  constitutes  an 
efficient,  handy,  and  safe  power; 
makes  no  dirt  or  obnoxious  gases; 
but,  when  exliausled  into  a  room^  after  doing  its  ■work 
in  the  nuubines,  furnishes  the  most  ample  and  de- 
sirable ventilation.  In  this  manner,  i)ower  may  be 
airried  a  great  distance  at  comparatively  small"  ex- 
pciise.  At  the  IIoosjic  Timnel  the  Burleii:h  Hock- 
Drill  Comp.any  have  carried  it  over  three  miles  with 
no  material  loss  of  power. 

AIR-CYLINDER.— A  pneumatic  buffer  used  in 
America  to  absorb  the  recoil  of  large  gims.  For 
lOinch  Lims,  one  cylinder  is  used  ;  for  IS-incb  gvms, 
two.  They  are  jilaced  between  the  cbas.sis-rails,  to 
which  they  are  firmly  secured  bv  diagonal  braces. 
A  piston  traversing  the  cvlinder'is  attached  to  the 
rear  transom  of  the  top  cafriaire.  When  the  gun  re- 
coils the  piston-head  is  drawn  backwards  in  the 
cylinder,  and  the  recoil  is  absorbed  bv  the  compres- 
sion of  Ihi'  air  behind  it.  Small  hole's  in  the  piston- 
head  allow  the  air  to  slowlv  esc^ipe  while  the  gun  is 
brought  to  re.st.  The  Hydraulic  BulTcr,  liirirclv  used 
abroad,  operates  in  tlie  sjune  way,  water  being  used 
insli  ail  of  air.     See  I'luumatif.  li'iiffcr. 

AIR-DRILL.— A  drill  driven  bv  the  elastic  pics.sure 
of  condensid  air,  and  emploved  in  mining  and 
tunneling.     The  construction  usually  resembles  thu 


reciiirocaling    steam-engine,    compressed    air    being 

substituted  for  the  steam  ;  the  drill  slock  is  attached 

to  the  pishinrod.     See  Piittimatic  Drill. 

AIR-ENGINE.— It  is  a  well-known  law,  applicable 

to  all  tliermo-dynamic  engines,   tlial  (presupposing 

the  merely  mechanical  i)art  of  tlie  machine  to  be  pei- 

fect)  the  heat  converted  into  work   bears  the  s;ime 

proiHirlion  to  the  total  heat  given  to  the  fluid  that  the 

range  of  temperature  liears  to  the  highest  abmluU 

temperature  of  the  fluid.     Thus,  sujiposing  an  engine 

to  receive  steam  at  the  temperature  of  275    F.  and 

discharge  it  at  that  of  120   F.,  the  fraction  of  heal 

,  .  ,    .  .  ,      .„  ,     275  - 120 

which  It  can  convert  into  work  will  be  „-,^,— ;  -7;.- ,  or 

275  +  461 

alxiul  21  iK-r  cent  of  the  total  heat  of  the  fluid.    This 

proportion  would  be,  of  course,  greatly  reduced  in 

practice.'owing  to  imperfeclions  in  the  machinery; 

but  these  being  equally  likely  to  occur  in  all  prime 

movers,   we    need   not    consider    them    here.     The 

U>we»t  limit  of  temperature  available  Ix-ing  prjictiadly 

constant,   flxed  either  by   the    temperature  of    the 

atmosphere    or  that  obtainable    in   a   condenser,  it 

follow  s  that  greater  economy  can  only  be  looked  for 


Fig.  1. 
in  the  direction  of  increase  of  initial  temperature.  In 
ordinary  steam-engines,  in  whirh  the  iiressure  and 
temperature  increase  sinuiltaneously,  the  latter  is 
limited  by  the  former,  which  in  its  ttirn  is  kept,  by 
considerations  of  safety,  comparatively  low.  When, 
however,  xii prrfieated  steam  (steam  to  which  additional 
heat  has  l)een  imparted  ■without  the  corrcsjionding 
addition  of  pressure)  or  heated  air  is  used,  the  tem- 
perature is  limited  only  by  the  power  of  the  metals 
composing  the  machine  to  resist  the  destructive  action 
of  beat,  or  the  chemical  action  of  the  fluid  at  that 
temperature.  Heated  air  possesses  the  advantage 
over  superheated  steam  as  a  motive  power,  that 
with  it  an  explosion,  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word, 
is  rendered  almost  impossible,  and  that,  if  one  were 
to  occur,  it  would  be  comparatively  harmless.  It 
also,  of  course,  enables  the  boiler  to  be  dispensed 
with. 

Air-engines,  in  their  principal  working  parts,  are 
very  similar  to  ordinary  steam-engines.  The  heated 
air  is  introduced  into  a  cylinder,  as  in  Fig.  1,  in 
which  works  a  lightly-fitting  piston,  which  is  thus 
com])elle(l  to  move  up  and  down,  and  transfers  its 
motion  to  a  revolving  shaft  by  means  of  a  piston  and 


&IB-FTTBNACE. 


29 


Ais-omr. 


connecting-rod  in  the  usual  manner.  The  morion  of 
tbc  piston  results  in  all  cases  from  the  expiinsion  of 
the  heated  iiir ;  tlie  air  is  heated  by  means  of  a 
furnace,  is  introduced  below  the  pisto^i,  raises  it,  and 
then  is  allowed  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere.  Air- 
engines  are  almost  invariably  single-acting ;  they  are 
sometimes  worked  simply  by  healed  air,  and  some- 
times with  the  air  which,  having  piissed  through  the 
furnace,  is  mixed  with  all  th(^  gaseous  products  of 
combiLstion.  The  latter  metliod  has  the  immense 
advantage  that  it  utilizes  the  heat  which  would  other- 
wise be  rejected  iiUo  the  chimney.  The  totiil  effi- 
ciency of  tlie  machine  is  thus  increa.sed,  although 
tbc  etliciency  of  llie  engine  proper,  between  the  given 
pair  of  temperatures,  remains  the  sime. 

The  more  heat  carried  away  by  the  discharged 
air  (the  higher  its  temperature,  in  other  words)  the 
smaller  evidently  is,  caleris  paribus,  tlie  range  of 
temperature  of  the  machine,  and  the  less,  therefore  (as 
already  exi^lained),  will  be  it.s  etliciency.  The  dis- 
rinctive  principle  of  the  Jlcssre.  Stirling's  air-engine 
consists  in  utilizing  a  great  part  of  this  wasted  heat, 
and  thus  economizing  fuel.  This  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  "  regenerator,  "  or,  more  properly,  "  econo- 
mizer," consisting  of  a  chamber  tilled  with  metallic 
sieves  of  wire-gauze,   through  which  the  hot  air  is 


"-^^ — -^  - ::   .^ 


Fig.  2. 

made  to  pass o«<(farrf« from  the  cylinder,  after  having 
performed  its  work  on  the  working  jiiston  of  tlic 
engine.  As  much  of  the  heat  of  Ilie  escaping  air  is 
taken  up  by  the  regenerator  and  its  li  mjK  raiiire  tlnis 
reduced,  the  range  of  temperature  of  the  machine  is 
correspondingly  increa.sed.  Tlie  fresh  air  entering 
the  cylinder  for  the  next  stroke  was  compelled  to 
pass  inwards  through  llie  regenerator,  and  abstracted 
from  it  the  heat  left  in  it.  In  ibis  way  it  did  not 
re([uirc  to  receive  so  much  heat  in  the  fmnace  as 
would  otherwise  have  been  the  case,  and  thus  econo- 
mized fuel.  This  method  of  pivveiiling  waste  of  heat 
was  first  discovered  bv  the  Kev.  Dr.  Stirling,  wlio 
obtained  a  patent  for  it  in  1816.  In  working  with 
air  at  the  ordinary  pressure  of  tlie  atmosiihere,  how- 
ever, the  engine  was  found  to  require  to  be  of  large 
dimensions  as  ciimpared  to  a  slenm-engine  of  the 
same  power:  and  in  order  to  obviate  this  objection. 
compres.sed  air  was  used.  Several  other  difficulties 
were  successfully  surmounted  bv  the  JIes.srs.  Stirling, 
and  cventunlly  two  impro\e(l  ingines  were  con- 
structed, one  of  which  was  tested  to  fully  40  horse- 
power. This  latter  engine  did  all  the  work  of  the 
Dundee  Foundry  Company  regularly  for  upwards  of 
three  years,  during  which  period  they  employed  no 
Other  motor.     At  Uie  end  of  this  period  it  was  laid 


aside,  principally  owing  to  the  repeated  failure  of 
one  of  the  heating  vessels. 

Captain  Ericsson,  in  his  attempt  to  introduce  his 
caloric  engine  in  the  ship  which  bore  his  name,  ex- 
perienced precisely  the  s;ime  ditliculties  and  dis- 
appointments, and  tried  nearlj'  the  same  remedies,  as 
the  Mcssi-s.  Stirling.  There  .seems  little  doubt,  how 
ever,  that  he  actually  believed  his  "  regenerator"  was 
to  make  the  same  lieat  do  work  over  and  over  again — 
to  be  a  kind  of  perjietual  motion — and  unrler  these 
circumstances  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  his 
machines  {notwithstanding  some  not  verj'  creditable 
maneuvering  on  tlie  part  of  their  upholilers)  entirely 
failed,  and  that  in  two  years  they  were  replaced  by 
steam-engines.  Air-engines  have  recently  been  con- 
structeil,  in  whicli  the  solar  rays,  concentrated  by 
means  of  au  arrangement  of  mirrors,  are  utilized  as 
the  source  of  heat.  These  have  been  called  Solar 
Engines. 

The  improved  Roper  Engine,  shown  in  section  in 
Fig.  2,  is  regarded  as  a  most  .satisfactory  power  for 
the  light  work  of  the  Arsenal  and  Foundry.  It  is  not 
an  experiment,  but  a  reliable  power  within  the  range 
of  the  sizes  manufactured,  laiilt  in  a  strong  and  sub- 
stantial manner  by  skilled  mechanics,  and  has  [iroved 
by  years  of  constant  use  that  it  reallj-  possesses  the 
advantages  claimed  for  it.  Coal  and  air  are  the 
agencies  employed  in  a  way  which  insures  the  most 
perfect  economy  of  the  former  and  greatest  ex- 
]iansion  of  the  latter.  The  air  ai  the  temperature  of 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  is  drawn  into  the  air- 
pump  and  then  forced  directly  into  the  fire,  which 
biuns  in  an  air-tight  furnace ;  combustion  and  ex- 
pansion ensue,  and  as  a  result  of  the  expansion  of 
the  air  and  gases  produced  by  combustion  a  pressure 
is  olitained  in  the  fire-box,  which  is  admitted  to  the 
cylinder  and  exhausted  through  valves,  as  a  steam- 
pressure  would  be  operated.  The  furnace  is  lined 
with  hea\'>-  fire-brick,  and  as  the  air  is  brought  in 
cont;icl  w  ith  the  fire,  and  not  hot  iron  jjlates,  there 
are  no  healing  siu-faces  to  be  destroyed  by  use. 

During  the  past  few  years  a  number  of  small 
steam-engines  have  been  placed  in  some  of  the 
Arsenals,  being  from  their  low  price  attractive  to 
the  managers.  But  however  small  such  an  engine 
may  be,  or  however  skillfully  made,  the  fact  remains 
that  a  steam-boiler  re(juires  the  constant  attention  of 
an  experienced  man,  and,  as  shown  by  frequent  ex- 
plosions, is  dangerous  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances.  Any  inexperienced  jxTson  can,  with 
a  few  instructions,  lake  care  of  an  air-engine  as  well 
as  the  best  engineer,  and  in  such  a  short  time  that 
his  other  duties  would  .scarcely  be  interfered  with. 
The  wages  of  an  engineer  is  a  large  item  where  a 
small  iimount  of  jiower  is  used,  and  is  in  many  ca.ses 
more  than  the  power  is  actually  worth.  When  this 
sum  is  added  to  tlie  amounts  saved  in  fuel  and  in- 
surance, the  result  will  show  that  an  air-engine  will 
I)ay  for  itself  in  a  very  short  time,  while  the  satisfac- 
tion of  having  a  power  which  is  in  jmy  case  absolutely 
safe  is  a  point  not  to  be  overlooked.  No  water  being 
used  either  to  make  steam  or  condense  air,  the  trouble 
and  expense  of  keeping  ])ipes  in  order  is  avoided,  and 
there  is  no  moisture  about  the  engine  to  cause  rust 
when  not  in  n.sc.  The  exliaust  air  can  be  conducted 
away  in  pipes,  and  used  to  warm  rooms,  heat  japan- 
ninL'-dveiis,  or  other  industrial  uses. 

AIR-FURNACE. — A  foundPi-  term  used  to  signify  a 
fun.ace  having  a  natural  draft,  no  blast. 

AIR-GUN. ^^iVn  instniment  resembling  a  musket, 
used  to  discharge  bullets  or  darts  by  the  force  of 
compres-sed  air  instead  of  gmipowder.  Various  forms 
of  construction  lune  been  adopted.  Tlic  most  usual 
plan  is  to  insert  a  condensing  sj-ringe  in  the  stock  of 
the  gun.  The  piston  of  this  syringe  is  worked  by  an 
apparatus  which  pa.sses  llirough  to  tlie  exterior  of  the 
gim;  and  this  woriiing  causes  a  small  body  of  air  to 
be  condensed  into  a  cliamber.  The  chamber  has  a 
valve  opening  into  the  Ijarrel,  just  beliind  the  place 
where  the  bullet  li  lodwd.    The  mn  is  loaded  from 


AIB-HOIE. 


30 


AIB-METEB. 


the  muzzle,  as  ordinary  muskets  or  fowling-pieces; 
and  there  is  at  tlial  lime  just  1)i'hind  it  a  small  tody 
of  highly  compressed  air.  ready  to  rush  out  at  any 
opening.  This  opportiuiily  is  afforded  by  a  move- 
ment of  the  trigger,  which  opens  the  valve;  the  air 
rushes  forth  with  such  impetuosity  as  to  propel  the 
bullet.  By  a  certain  management  of  the  trigger,  two 
or  three  bullets,  succe.ssi\ely  and  separately  intro- 
ducetl,  can  be  tired  oil — if  tiring  it  can  be  called — by 
one  mass  of  condensed  air.  Another  form  of  Air-gun 
contains  sevend  bullets  in  a  recejitaele  or  channel  ; 
under  the  barrt'l;  by  the  movement  of  a  cock  or  level  ' 
one  of  these  bullets  can  readily  be  shifted  into  the  i 
Iwrrel;  and  thus  several  successive  discharges  can  be 
made  after  one  loading — on  a  principle  somewhat 
analogous  to  that  of  the  revohing  pistol.  Some 
varieties  of  Air-gun  have  the  condensing  syringe  de- 
tached, by  which  means  a  more  powerful  conden.su- 
tion  of  air  may  he  produced;  this  done,  the  air- 
chamber  is  replaced  in  its  proi)er  position  behind  the 
bullet  in  the  barrel.  Those  Air-gims  which  present 
the  external  aiipearance  of  stout  walking-sticks,  and 
are  thcuce  called  Air-Cimes,  have  a  chainlier  witliin 


Air-Gun. 


the  handle  for  containing  condensed  air,  which  can 
be  unscrewed  and  subjecled  to  the  action  of  the  con- 
densing syringe.  One  inventor  has  devised  a  form  of 
Air-gun  with  two  barrels — one  of  small  bore  for  the 
reception  of  the  bullets,  and  another  of  larger  bore  for 
tlie  reservoir  of  condensed  air;  the  condensing  syringe 
being  within  the  stock  of  the  gun.  An  attemiu  has 
more  recently  been  tnade  to  combine  the  action  of 
elastic  springs  with  that  of  compressed  air  in  an  Air- 
gun;  springs  of  gutta-percha,  or  of  vulcanized  India- 
niblier,  are  employed  in  substitution  of  or  in  co-opera- 
tion with  a  condensing  syringe.  No  form  of  Air-gun 
hitherto  made  has  had  power  enough  to  propel  a 
bullet  to  any  considerable  distance,  and  therefore  the 
instrument  is  scarcely  available  in  war;  there  are, 
however,  circumstances  in  which  such  an  arm  may  be 
useful — seeing  that  there  is  no  expense  for  giuipowder, 
no  noise,  no  smoke,  no  vui]ile!is!\nt  odor.  The  Air- 
gun  was  known  in  France  more  than  two  centuries 
ago;  but  the  ancients  were  ac(iuainted  with  some 
kind  of  apparatus,  by  which  air  was  made  to  act  upon 
the  shorter  arm  of  a"  lever,  while  the  larger  arm  im- 
pelled a  bullet.  The  drawing  represents  an  Air-gun, 
operated  in  the  following  mamier:  Place  the  hollow 
of  the  riL'ht  hand  against  the  breech  (B),  the  nuizzle 
(M)  upon  the  lloor  or  against  some  linn  object,  and 
pash  the  barrel  into  the  cylinder  (C)  as  far  as  possible, 
or  until  the  trigirer  catches  the  piston  and  holds  it.  In- 
sert the  dart  or  bullet  well  into  the  barrel  at  the  open- 
ing (A),  and  draw  out  the  banx-l  forward  as  far  as  it 
will  go.  To  make  the  trigirer  jnill  off  easier,  lighten 
the  set-screw  in  it.  To  pull  olT  harder,  loosen  it  a 
little.  Should  the  gun  lo.se  its  force  and  require 
cleaning,  lake  it  apart,  wipe  clean  the  piston  and  in- 
side of  cylinder,  and  return  the  parts  to  their  places 
ns  iK-fore.  If  the  barrel  works  hanl.  or  does  not  slip 
freely,  appiv  a  drop  of  tfihi  oil  aroimd  it  at  the  open- 
ing (A)  and  guard-slot  (G).  See  Qiiackcnbusk  Air- 
gun. 

AIE-HOLE. — 1.  A  hole  or  ca\nly  in  a  gun-casting 
produced  by  bubbles  of  air  in  the  liquid  niil.il;  also,  a 
vent-hole  in  a  moidd  for  casting.  L'.  A  dniught-hole  in 
a  furnace.  It  is  sometimes  guarded  by  a  register,  but 
more  frequently  stopped  by  u  luting  or  plug  of  clay. 


AIRING-STAGE.— A  platform  on  which  jwwdeii 
etc.,  is  dried  liy  exjxjsure  to  sim  and  air. 

AIR-HETER. — An  apparatus  for  measuring  the 
quantity  of  air  passing  along  a  pipe,  or  piiKsiug  into 
or  from  a  chamber.  There  are  various  fonns:  tho 
fan,  rotating  spiral  vane,  expanding  bag,  cylinder  and 
piston,  revohing  partiallv  submergccl  nieter-wheel, 
etc., — all  more  or  less  used  in  Arsc^nals,  Hospitals,  ami 
Lal)oralories.  The  drawing  represents  the  Ca.sella 
Air-meter,  s|iceially  adapted  for  measuring  the  veloc- 
ity of  currents  of  air  pa.ssing  through  mines,  and  the 
ventilating  spaces  of  hospitals  and  other  public  build- 
ings. The  graduations  for  each  instrument  are  ob- 
tained by  actual  ex]ieriment-by  mcaas  of  machinery 
made  for  llic  purpose,  so  that  the  indications  of  all 
are  as  comparable  w  ith.  each  other  as  the  weight  or 
mea-sure  of  ordinary  substances.  The  indications 
are  shown  lij  means  of  the  large  dial  and  hand,  and 
live  smaller  ones,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The 
whole  circumference  of  the  large  dial  is  di\ided  into 
100  parts,  and  represents  the  nunilierof  feet  up  to  100 
traversed  liy  the  current  of  air.  The  five  smaller  dials 
arc  each  divided  into  ten  parts  only,  one  revolution  of 

Si 


each  being  equal  to  ten  of  the  preceding  dial,  and 
representing  lOtX),  10,000,  100,000,  1,000,000,  and 
10,000,000  respectively.  By  means  of  the  large  dial 
the  low  velocity  of  'fifty  feet  per  minute  may  be 
measured,  and  by  the  smaller  ones  continuous  registra- 
tion is  extended  up  to  10,000,000  feet,  or  equal  to 
1893  miles,  being  practically  1)eyond  what  the  most 
extended  observations  can  acipiirc,  w  hilst  jeweUing  in 
the  most  sensitive  parts  insures  the  utmost  delicacy 
of  action.  By  moving  a  small  catch  backwards  or 
forwards  the  "work  is  put  iu  or  out  of  gear  w  ithout 
affecting  the  action  of  the  fans;  this  prevents  the  in- 


Air- !^ieter. 
jurious  effect  of  stopping  them  suddenly,  and  enables 
the  observer  to  begin  or  end  his  observations  to  a 
second.  A  small  handle  with  universal  joint  accom- 
panies the  instrument,  and  may  be  screwed  in  at  the 
ba.sc;  by  putting  a  stick  through  this  it  may  1k'  raised 
or  lowered  to  any  recpiired  height  and  used  in  any 
position.  To  use  the  Air-mcter.Vrile  down  the  posi- 
tion of  all  the  hands.  For  this  purpose  pla<'e  the  in- 
strument before  you,  with  the  0  on  the  outer  circle 
facing  you.    The  first  circle  on  the  left  hand  indicates 


AIE-PUMP. 


31 


AIS-BE8I8TANCE. 


hundreds  of  feet,  the  nest  tliousands,  the  third  tens  of 
tboasamls,  the  fourth  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  tlie 
last  circle  to  the  right  of  I  lie  0  m;uks  millions.  Be- 
gin to  write  down  the  position  of  the  hands  with  the 
million  circle,  and  then  go  round  from  right  to  left, 
always  writing  down  the  lower  of  the  two  numbers 
if  the  hand  is  between  two.  Let  us  say  that  the  hand 
on  the  million  dial  is  at  0,  the  one-hundred-lhousand 
hand  between  2  and  3,  the  ten-thous;md  between  7 
and  y,  the  thousand  between  1  and  2,  the  hundred  at 
5,  and  the  large  hand  which  marks  units  and  lens  at 
73.  The  million  hand  would  Ix;  omitted  as  it  has  not 
reached  1.  and  the  remaining  numbers  would  rim 
271,573.  The  instrument  is  then  put  in  the  current 
to  be  measured,  and  when  removed  after  a  given 
time  is  read  in  the  s:ime  way;  the  first  being  deduct- 
ed from  the  second  reading  gives  the  velocity  (un- 
corrected) in  feet  during  the  time.  A  simple  table 
accompanies  each  Air-meter,  by  means  of  which  (in 
strict  observations)  allowance  may  he  made  for  the 
difference  caused  by  inertia  at  high  and  low  veloci- 
ties.    f>ee  Aiieni'mieti r. 

AIE-FUHF. — An  instnmient  for  removing  the  air 
from  a  vessel.  The  cs.sential  part  is  a  hollow  lirass 
or  glass  cylinder,  iu  which  an  nir-tight  piston  is  made 


rendered  less  than  any  a.ssignablc  quantity;  and  prac- 
tically the  process  is  limited  by  the  elastic  force  of 
the  remaininjr  air  being  no  longer  sufficient  to  open 
the  valves.  The  degree  of  rarefaction  is  indicated 
by  a  'jdiKjf  on  the  iirinciple  of  the  barometer.  By 
means  of  the  partial  vacuum  formed  by  the  air-pump 
a  great  many  interesting  experiments  can  be  per- 
forineil,  illustrating  the  etfect.s  of  atmospheric  pres- 
sure and  other  mechanical  properties  of  ga.ses. — The 
air-pump  was  invented  by  Otto  Guericke,  in  1654; 
and  though  many  improvements  an<l  varieties  of 
structin-e  have  been  since  devised,  the  piinciple  of  all 
is  the  same.  Two  barrels  are  generally  used,  so  as 
to  double  the  effect  of  one  stroke.  In  some  air- 
pumps,  stop-cocks  turned  by  the  hand  take  the  i^lace 
of  valves,  and  in  others  the  entrance  of  the  connect- 
ing tube  into  the  cylinder  is  .so  contrived  that  the 
valve  through  the  piston  is  not  re((uired.  The  air- 
pump  is  used  with  much  frequency  in  the  Laboratory 
and  Arsenal.  That  used  in  connectiou  with  the  den- 
simeter is  of  the  ordinary  construction.  The  jirecau- 
tions  to  be  observed  in  using  the  i)ump  are:  1.  Al- 
ways keep  the  piston-rod  and  pis^Ion  well  oileii.  2. 
Keep  the  cocks,  and  the  coimections  of  the  tube,  air- 
tight. 3.  Screw  down  the  vacuum-gauge  case  se- 
curely Iiefore  commencing  to  e.vhaust.  The 
vacuiun-gauge  will  show  whether  air  is  ad- 
mitted, and  the  leak  may  be  located  by 
the  hissing  sound  made  by  the  air  rushing 
in. 

AIR-RESISTANCE.— This  suh.icct,  with  ref- 
erence to  [irojectiles,  is  of  the  highest  imjiort- 
ance  in  the  science  of  Ballistics.  The  resistance 
increases  in  a  high  ratio  '.vith  the  velocity. 
AVithout  this  resistance  a  musket-ball  would, 
at  an  angle  of  25  ,  be  thrown  seventeen  times 
further  than  with  it.  Hutton's  experiments 
led  him  to  believe  that  the  resistance  of  the 
air  increased  a  little  more  rajiidly  than  the 
square  of  the  velocity.  The  French  experi- 
ments have  led  to  an  expression  invohing  the 
square  and  the  cube  of  the  velocity.  It  is  of 
the  following  form  for  spherical  projectiles: 

p  =  0.0005213  !r  Re' 


Kn^J 


534-5' 


in  which 


Air-Piimp. 
to  move  up  and  down  by  a  rod.  From  the  bottom 
of  the  cylinder  a  connecting  tube  leads  to  the  space 
■which  is  to  be  exhausted,  which  is  usually  I'ormed 
by  placing  a  bell-glass,  called  the  receiver,  with  edges 
groimd  smooth  and  smeared  with  lard,  on  a  flat, 
smooth  plate  or  tal)le.  When  the  piston  is  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  barrel,  and  is  then  drawn  up,  it  lifts  out 
the  air  from  the  liarrel,  and  a  porlion  of  the  air  un- 
der the  receiver,  by  its  own  expansive  force,  pa.sses 
through  the  connecting  tube  and  occupies  the  space 
jbelow  the  piston,  which  woidd  otherwise  be  a  vac- 
uum. The  air  in  the  receiver  and  barrel  is  thus  mre- 
fled.  The  piston  is  now  forced  down,  and  the  effect 
of  this  is  to  close  a  valve  placed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
connecting  tulx-  and  opening  inwards  into  the  barrel. 
The  air  in  the  barrel  is  thus  cut  off  from  returning 
into  the  receiver,  and,  as  it  becomes  condensed,  forces 
up  a  valve  in  the  piston,  which  opens  outwards,  and 
thus  escapes  into  the  atmosphere.  When  the  piston 
reaches  the  bottom  and  begins  to  a.scend  again,  this 
valve  closes;  and  the  same  process  is  repeated  as  at 
the  lii-st  a.scent.  Each  stroke  thus  diminishes  the 
quantity  of  air  in  the  receiver;  but  from  the  nature 
of  the  process  it  is  evident  that  the  exhaustion  can 
never  be  complete.  Even  theoretically  there  must 
always  be  a  portion  left,  though  that  portion  may  be 


p  represents  the  resistance  of  the 
air  in  pounds  weight;  n,  the  ratio  of  the 
circumference  to  the  diameter;  R,  the  dia- 
meter of  the  projectiles  in  feet;  r,  the  velocity 
in  feet  per  second;  and  6,  the  density  of 
the  air  at  the  lime  of  observation.  For  ordinary- 
purposes  .  may  be  taken  as  unity.  For  elonga- 
ted projectiles  the  coefficient  0.000.5213  =  A  is 
replaced  by  0.0003475;  but  in  some  instances  the 
former  coefficient  has  been  found  to  be  the  n^ire 
correct  even  for  elongated  projectiles.  The  resistance 
of  the  air  gives  rise  to  a  ballistic  coefficient  C,  pecu- 
liar to  each  projectile.  This  is  calculated  from  the 
formuliB 

r-lJ^    _2IU) 
2-/  AtR5  "  3  gX' 

in  which  g.  A,  ;r,  R  arc  the  same  as  before;  P, 
weight  of  projectile  in  poimds;  D,  the  density  of  the 
jirojectile;  and  A,  its  apjiropriate  value,  according  as 
the  projectile  is  spherical  or  elongated.  The  coelli- 
cient  C  is  one  of  the  data  required  in  finding  the 
multipliers  B  (a  point),  D,  etc.,  used  in  the  formuhe 
for  the  trajectory  in  the  air.  Colonel  ilajefsky,  of 
the  Russian  artillery,  has  proposed  a  formula  involv- 
ing the  sfjuarc  and  the  fourth  power  <if  the  velocity, 
w  hich  is  said  to  give  residts  even  c'oser  to  practice 
than  the  French  formula-  above  detailed.  The  fol- 
lowing table,  calculated  by  the  formula',  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  amount  of  the  resistance  of  the  air: 


AIB-SHAFT. 


32 


ALBICSNBES, 


BniBTANCB  IK  LSa.  ATOIBOUPOI8 

Velocltr  of  ProjoctUee. 

!M-|Hlr. 
Shot. 

l«-pdr.  Musket '  10-inch 
Shot.     Bullet.  C.Sliell. 

1600  fe«t  

4n 

S43 

ant 

150 
88 
4S 
18 

803 

7 

1400    ••     

31C 
147 
95 
S6 
S8 
11 

5 

a 

3 

1 

0.7 

0.3 

1000     "     

800    •■     

eoo  "   

400    "    

462 

fm 

189 
56 

On  examinintr  the  aVtove,  it  nppoars  that  the  re.sist- 
ance  deiTciusfS  very  rapidly  willi  the  velocity.  lu 
effect,  at  a  velix-ityOf  HlKl  feet  ilie  resiBtanee  is  less 
than  one  tiflh  of  "that  corresponding  to  the  double 
veU)cily  of  KiOO  feel.  •  Comparatively  to  the  a4-pdr. 
nnindshot,  the  resistance  to  the  li-jMlr.,  one  half  its 
weiitht.  is  onlv  ahout  two  thirds  of  the  former;  that 
to  tile  invisket-bullet,  weijrhini;  jj^  of  the  siime round 
shot,  is  1ml  the  liSih  part.  The  Ill-inch  common  shell, 
weifrhinj;  nearly  four  times  as  much,  meets  with  a 
resistance  «  hicli  is  only  three  limes  that  of  the  34-pdr. , 
despile  the  iufeiiorily"  of  its  density.  At  a  velocity 
of  ItilKJ  feet  per  secoiid,  the  resistance  opposed  to  the 
2-J-lwlr.  shot  is  479  Ihs. ,  or  twenty  limes  ils  own  weight ; 
at  a  much  smaller  velocity  of  fiilO  feet  per  second,  the 
rcsislan<-e  to  projectiles  is  slill  in  ))roportion  to  their 
weight;  thus,  nearly  double  for  thei4-pdr.,  more  than 
double  for  the  10-pdr. ,  nearly  len  times  for  the  musket- 
bullet,  anil  nearlv  half  as  great  again  for  the  10-inch 
shell. 

AIR-SHAFT. — A  shaft  in  a  mine,  usually  vertical 
or  nearly  so.  by  which  the  mine  is  ventilated. 

AITCH  PIECE. — In  mining,  the  part  of  a  plunger- 
lift  in  which  the  clacks  are  fixed. 

AKETON. — A  quilted  leathern  jacket  worn  under 
the  armor  of  knights  in  the  thirteenlh  and  fourteenth 
centuries:  also  written  Hacqueton.     See  Gambesnn. 

AKINDSCHI.— A  sort. of  Turkish  cavalry,  employed 
during  the  war  between  the  Turks  and  the  Gerinan 
EiniK'rors. 

ALA. — A  word  signifying  the  wing  of  nn  army; 
also  sometimes  used  to  designate  a  brigade  of  cavalry 
occupying  a  position,  in  battle,  on  eitlier  wing. 

ALACAYS. — A  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a  kind 
of  soldiery,  and  afterwards  to  servants  following  an 
army. 

aLaoE. — A  mounted  guard  of  the  Byzantine  Em- 
perf)rs,  doing  duty  in  the  P;ilace  of  Constanfinople, 
and  defending,  in  case  of  danger,  the  person  of  the 
EmiK-ror. 

ALAIBEG.— A  Turkish  commander  of  regiments  of 
levied  Iroops. 

ALANDA. — The  name  of  a  li'gion  formed  by  Julius 
Ca-sar  from  the  Ixst  warriors  of  the  Gauls. 

ALABES. — The  name  given  by  the  Homans  to  troops 
which  were  placid  on  the  wings  of  an  army.  These 
troops  were  generally  funiisli(<l  by  the  Allies. 

AJ.ARH. — In  miliiary  malkrs,  the  word  alarm  has 
a  more  delined  meaning  than  mere  terror  or  fright. 
An  ;ilanii,  among  soldiers  in  an  army,  is  not  .so  much 
a  daiigiT  as  a  warning  agtiinst  danger.  An  alarm, 
signiliid  by  llie  tiring  of  a  gun  or  ihe  beating  of  a 
dnim,  difinics  to  an  army  or  camp  llml  the  enemy  is 
susp^'ckd  of  iiiliniling  a  sudden  surprisi',  or  that  Ihe 
surprise  has  actually  been  in;idc.  There  is  an  dUinii- 
po»l  In  cam])  or  g.irrison  arrangements,  to  which  the 
irofips  are  directed  to  hsisten  on  any  sudden  alarm 
being  given. 

ALARM  GUN. — A  irun  prepan'd  to  give  an  alarm. 
Fonuirly,  in  Ibe  Briii^h  wrviee,  Ihrce  guns  were 
placed  in  front  of  a  c.imp,  one  hunilrcd  )\i<es  from 
the  arlillery-|M)sls,  ready  In  lie  fired,  as  an  .'dann  lo 
the  Irrwip-i,  in  ease  of  a  sudden  allark  by  Ibe  enemy. 

ALARM  POST.— A  jilace  designated  on  the  arrival 
of  a  force  JMio  a  new  (juarler,  camp,  or  bivouac,  where 
the  men  are  lo  repair  in  case  of  any  sudden  aliirni  by 
day  or  nighl.  The  parade  is  genendly  looked  u|M)n 
as  the  alarm-ixisi;  olHccrs  and  men  .siiould  proceed 
thcrcready  anued,on  the  alarm  l)eing sounded,  should 


no  other  place  be  appointctl.  When  an  army  is  in 
the  Held,  there  are  two  alarm-signals:  1.  For  general 
coneenlration,  on  which  everyb(Mly  acts  according  lo 
inslruclions;  2.  Partial,  when  regiments  reasseiidile 
at  llieir  own  rendezvous.  The  second  alanii-signal 
shouUl  be  frequently  practised,  for  it  is  ven,-  impor- 
tjuil  to  know  how  loiig  it  takes  to  get  the  men  together 
at  any  hour.  It  is  ordered  in  the  Queen's  Regulations 
thai  ;dlhough  a  regiment  or  a  division  may  remain  for 
oidy  a  single  niglu  in  a  quarter,  yit  an  alanu-ijost,  or 
place  of  a.ssembly,  is  invariably  lo  l)e  established  in 
each  regiment,  and  the  Inxips  are  to  Ix?  made  ac- 
qnainled  wilh  ils  ixf-ition,  and  otlicei's  commanding 
regimenls  with  that  of  the  brigade  to  which  they  be- 
long. 

ALAY. — A  Turkish  ceremony  on  the  assembling  of 
the  forces  at  the  breaking  out  of  a  war;  essentially  n 
public  display  of  the  sacred  standard  of  Mohammed, 
which  may  l)c  looked  upon  only  by  Moslems  and 
touched  oiily  by  Emirs.  Once  when  thcslandard  had 
been  shown"  Ihe  rule  was  forgotten,  but  when  remem- 
bered all  the  Christians  who  had  innocently  looked 
at  the  banner  were  slaughtered. 

ALEESIA. — In  antiquity,  a  kind  of  shield;  other- 
wise niori'  frequcnlly  called  diTniiuina. 

ALBIGENSES.— A  name  apjilied  loosely  to  the  "  her- 
etics, "  lielonging  to  various  .'iects,  that  abounded  in  the 
sotilh  of  France  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
cenlury.  The  chief  sect  was  the  Calhari;  but  they 
all  agix'cd  in  renouncing  the  authority  of  the  Poi)es 
and  the  discipline  of  the  Koman  Church.  The  name 
arose  from  the  circiunstance  that  the  district  of  Albi- 
geois  in  Langucdoc — now  in  the  Department  of  Tarn, 
of  which  Albi  is  the  capital — was  the  first  point  against 
which  the  crusade  of  Poiv  Innocent  III.,  1209,  was 
directed.  The  iinmediale  iirctence  of  ihe  crusade  was 
the  murder  of  Ihe  papal  legate  and  inquisitor,  Peter 
of  Ca.stelnau,  who  had  been  commissioned  to  extir- 
pate heresy  in  the  dominions  of  Count  Kaymond  VI. 
of  Toulouse;  but  its  real  object  was  to  rlcprive  the 
Count  of  his  lands,  as  he  had  become  an  object  of 
hatred  from  his  toleration  of  the  heretics.  It  was  in 
vain  lliat  he  had  submitted  to  the  most  humiliating 
penance  and  flagellation  from  Ihe  hands  of  the  legate 
Milo,  and  had  purchased  Ihe  pap.il  absolution  by  great 
sjicritices.  The  legates  Arnold  (Abtot  of  Citeaux) 
and  Milo,  who  directed  the  expedition,  took  bj- storm 
Beziei-s,  the  capital  of  H:iymond's  nephew,  Roger,  and 
massacred  20,000 — some  .s;iy  40,000 — of  the  inhabi- 
tants, Catholics  as  well  as  herclics.  "  Kill  them  nil," 
said  Arnold;  "God  will  know  his  own!"  Simon, 
Count  of  Monlforl,  who  conducted  the  war  under  Ihe 
legates,  jtroceeiled  in  the  sinie  relenlless  way  ^\ith  other 
places  in  the  territories  of  I{;iyniond  and  his  Allies. 

i  Of  the.se,  Roger  of  Beziei-s  died  in  prison,  and  Peter 
1.  of  Aragon  fell  in  battle.  The  coutiuered  lands 
were  given  as  a  reward  to  Simon  of  .Monlforl,  who 
never  came  into  quiet  poss(>ssior,  of  the  gift.  At  the 
siege  of  Toulouse,  lils.  lie  was  killed  by  a  stone,  and 
Counts  l{jiymond  VI.  and  VII.  disputed  the  posses- 
sion of  their  territories  with  his  son.  But  the  papal 
indulgences  drew  fresh  crusiiders  from  every  province 
of  France  to  continue  the  war.  Raymond  VII.  con- 
tinued 10  struggle  bravely  against  the  legates  and 
Louis  VIII.  of  France,  l<i  whom  Monlforl  had  ceded 
bis  jiretensions,  and  wlio  fell  in  Ihe  war  in  1220.  Af- 
ter hundreds  of  lhous:inds  h:id  perished  on  both  .sides, 
a  jieace  was  concludid.  in  1229,  at  which  Raymond 

I  purchased  relief  from  Ihe  ban  of  the  Church  by  im- 
mense sums  of  nionev,  gave  uji  Narbonne  and  several 
lordships  to  Louis  Ix.,  and  had  to  make  his  .son. 
in-law,  Ihe  brother  of  Louis,  heir  of  his  other  pos- 
."^es^ions.    These  provinces,  hiiherto  inde))endenl,  were 

i  thus,  for  the  tirsl  lime,  joined  lo  Ihe  kingdom  of 
Fr;ince;  and  Ihe  Pojjc  sanctioned  Ihe  acquisition  in 

j  order  lo  bind  Louis  more  tirnily  lo  the  papal  chair 
and  induce  him  more  readily  to  admit  the  inquisi- 
tion. The  herclics  were  banded  over  lo  the  prosely- 
tizing   zeal    of   Ihe   Order   of   Dominicans  and   tho 

I  bloody  tribunals  of  the  iuquisiiiou;   and  both  u.scd 


AlBrNI-BRANDLIN  GUN. 


33 


ALSEB. 


their  utmost  power  to  brini;  the  recusant  Albigcnscs 
to  the  stjike,  and  also,  by  intiicting  severe  puuishmetil 
on  the  penitent  converts,  to  inspire  dread  of  incurring 
the  Churcli's  displeasure.  From  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  the  name  of  the  Albigcnscs  gi-aduallj- 
disjippears.  The  renuianis  of  them  took  refuge  in  the 
East,  and  settled  In  ISosnia. 

ALBINI-BRANDLIN  GUN— The  system  of  altera- 
tion which  has  been  adopted  in  the  Belgian  service 
is  known  as  the  Albini-Brandlin.  It  is  peculiarly 
fitted  for  transforming  small-arms  to  breech-loaders, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  tlie  locking  and  firing  ar- 
rangement.s,  closely  resembles  what  is  known  a.s  the 
Springfield  system  of  tliis  country.  The  parts  are 
shown  in  the  drawing.  The  breech-block,  V,  is 
hinged  at  its  forward  end,  and  in  opening  swings  up- 
ward and  forw;ird.  The  recoil  is  taken  on  the  rear 
portion  of  the  receiver  by  the  vertical  part,  x  t.  At 
the  centre  of  this  i>art  is  the  hole,  d  b,  through  which 
pa-sses  the  locking-bolt,  .t  p  s.  This  locking-bolt  is 
jointed  to  the  hanuner,  and  pushed  forward  by  it 
when  the  lock  is  si^rimg  so  as  to  penetrate  the  recess, 
/,  of  the  brceeh-blnck  smd  hold  it  securely  in  yihicQ  at 
the  moment  of  tiring.     At  the  Siime  time  that  the 


Albini-Brandlin  Gun. 


locking-bolt  enters  the  recess  it  strikes  against  the 
head  of  the  firing-pin,  z  s,  the  point  of  which  im- 
pinges ag-ainst  and  explodes  the  primer  of  the  car- 
tridge. As  the  firing-bolt  does  not  lock  the  breech- 
block when  the  hammer  is  at  half  or  full  cock,  the 
spring  catch-pin,  k  [/,  is  provided,  which  penetrates 
the  recess,  t,  and  prevents  the  block  from  getting  loose 
under  ordinary  disturbing  causc.s.  The  firing-pin, 
e  s,  is  i>ro\ided  with  a  spiral  spring  to  push  it  back 
and  keep  its  point  below  the  face  of  the  block  at  all 
times  except  when  pressed  by  the  loeking-lx)lt;  this 
spring  is  kept  in  place  by  the  screw-nut,  »  s.  ?  s.  The 
forward  guard-screw,  a  b  s,  penetrates  into  the  rear 
portion  of  the  receiver,  thereby  securing  the  barrel  to 
the  stock.  The  extr:>ctor  is  formed  of  two  lever- 
disks,  e,  pivoted  to  the  hinge-pin  and  outside  of  the 
ears  of  the  hinge.  Each  disk  is  provided  with  a  hook- 
point,  g,  which  passes  through  a  cut  in  the  receiver 
and  barrel  and  takes  hold  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
head  of  the  cartridge  beneath  the  rim.  When  the 
breech-block  is  thrown  forward  to  open  the  breech, 
its  upper  and  forward  edge  strikes  against  the  short 
arm  of  the  extractor-disks  and  pushes  them  down- 
ward; at  the  same  time  the  opposite  or  long  arm  is 
thrown  to  the  rear,  carrying  with  it  the  cartridge- 
-shell.  To  throw  the  shell  clear  of  the  receiver  the  for- 
ward motion  of  the  breech-block  should  be  verv  quick 
toward  its  close.  This  extractor  is  very  efticient,  in- 
asmuch as  it  gets  a  double  hold  on  the  rim  of  the  ciir- 
triflge-shell.     See  Stiiall-(iriM. 

ALCAIDE— ALCAYDE.— A  Moorish  title,  applied  by- 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  writ  ers  to  a  military  officer  hav- 
ing charge  of  a  fortress,  prison,  or  town.  It  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  Alcalde,  which  indicates  a  civil  oiBccr. 


ALCANTARA.- The  Order  of  Alcantara,  a  relig- 
ious order  of  .Spanish  knighthood,  was  founded  (1156) 
as  a  military  fraternity  for  the 
defense  of  Esti-emaduni  against 
the  Moors.  In  1197  Pope  Ce- 
le.stine  III.  raised  it  to  the  rank 
of  a  religious  order  of  knight- 
hood ;  bestowed  great  privi- 
leges on  it.  and  charged  it  with 
the  defense  of  the  Christian 
fai'th,  and  the  maintenance  of 
eternal  war  with  the  infidel. 
Alphonso  IX.,  having  takea 
the  town  of  Alcantara,  ceded 
it  in  1218  to  the  Order  of  Cala- 
trava ;  but  the  knights  of  this 
order,  imablc  to  hold  it  along 
with  their  other  great  posses- 
sions, yielded  it  to  the  knights 
of  St.  Julian,  who  transferred 
it  to  their  seat,  and  henceforth 
were  known  by  its  name.  At  Or'Jer  of  Alcantara, 
length  the  grand-mastership  of  the  order  wa.s,  by 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  united  to  the  Spanish  crown  in 
1495.  The  order  is  still  richly 
endowed.  The  knights,  who 
follow  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
take  now  only  the  vows  of  obe- 
dience and  "  poverty,  having, 
since  1540,  been  absolved  from 
that  of  celibacy.  A  special 
vow  binds  them  to  defend  the 
immaculate  conception  of  the 
Vugin.  At  their  nomination 
they  must  prove  four  genera- 
tions of  nobility.  For  a  time 
the  knights  of"  Alcantara  ac- 
knowledged the  s\iperiority  of 
the  knights  of  Calatrava,  but 
they  were  latterly  absolved  from 
it.  Both  the  costume,  how- 
ever, and  the  cross  are  still 
the  s;ime,  with  the  exception 
of  the  color,  which  is  green. 
The  crest  of  the  order  is  a  pear- 
tree. 
ALCOHOL. — A  term  of  Arabic  origin,  implying  the 
pure  sjiirit  obtained  by  distillation  from  all  liquids 
which  have  .suffered  the  vinous  fennentatiou.  Alco- 
hol is  transparent,  colorless,  and  infiammuble.  It 
iniites  easily  with  resins,  camiihor,  antimony,  and 
volatile  oils.  It  is  known  as  "  spirits  of  wine."  Its 
specific  gravity  on  becoming  absolute  alcohol  is  from 
.796  to  .800,  and  it  lx)ils  at  176°.  It  is  used  in  the 
preiiaration  of  laboratory  stores,  such  as  fulminate  of 
mercury,  tpiick-inatch,  shell-lac  to  form  varnish  for 
I)erciis.sion-caps,  etc. 

ALDEB. — A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
liHulaceir.  The  genus  consists  entirel)'  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  natives  of  cold  and  temperate  climates;  the 
flowers  in  terminal,  imbricated  catkins,  which  appear 
before  the  leaves;  the  male  and  female  flowers  in 
scpanitc  catkins  on  the  same  jilant;  the  male  or  bar- 
ren catkins  loose,  cylindrical,  pendulous,  having  the 
scales  3-lobed,  and  each  with  three  flowers  whose 
perianth  is  single  and  4-partite;  the  fertile  catkins 
oval,  compact,  having  the  scales  .sub-trifid,  and  each 
with  two  flowers  de.stitute  of  perianth;  styles,  two; 
fruit,  a  compressed  nut  without  wings.  The  com- 
mon alder  is  a  native  of  Britain  and  of  the  northern 
parts  of  Asia  and  America.  It  has  rounilish,  wedge- 
shai>ed  obtuse  leaves,  lobed  at  the  margin  and  ser- 
rated. The  bark,  except  in  very  young  trees,  is 
nearly  black.  It  succeeds  best  in  moist  soils,  and 
helps  to  secure  swampv  river-banks  against  the  effects 
of  floods.  It  attains  a  height  of  30  to  60  feet.  Its 
leaves  are  somcwliat  glutinous.  The  wood  is  of  an 
orange-j'ellow  color,  not  verj- good  for  fuel,  but  af- 
fording one  of  the  best  kinds  of  charcoal  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  upon  which  account  it 


ALDERSHOTT  CAMP. 


34 


ALGEBRA. 


is  often  grown  us  coiipici'-wood.  Great  numbers  of 
small  :il(ler-trees  are  usc'd  in  Sct)tland  for  makiiii; 
staves  fur  Kirnls.  The  wikkI  is  also  eniployeil  liy 
turners  and  joiuei-s;  but  it  is  partieularlv  valuable  on 
iiccouut  of  its  pro|HTly  of  reniainin;;  for  a  long  time  ' 
imder  water  williout  deeay,  and  is  tlierefore  used  for 
tlie  piles  of  bridges,  for  pumps,  sluices,  pilKS,  cogs 
of  mill-wheels,  and  similar  purposes.  i 

ALDEKSHOTT  CAMP.— When  England  imd  France 
deelanii  war  against  Uu.ssia  in  18.j4,  in  relation  to 
Turkish  iifltnirs,  the  liril  isli  army  was  knowu  to  1  le  in  an 
unsiUisfactory  slate;  thirty-nine  years  of  peace  had  al- 
lowed manv  miportant  elements  in  military  organiza- 
tion to  fall  into  a  state  of  iuellieiency.  Among  others, 
the  power  of  acting  well  togi'ther  in  brig;uK>s  and  di- 
\isions  had  scjircely  been  taught  to  the  .soldiers,  who 
liad  been  familiar  with  little  more  than  thetliseipline 
and  tactile  of  Italtalions  and  companies.  To  remedy 
in  part  these  def(<is  was  the  object  held  in  view  in 
establishing  the  Camp  at  Aldcrshott.  It  was  to  be  a 
permanent  camp,  with  barracks  and  huts,  instead  of 
mere  canvas  tents;  and  was  to  Ix-  pro\'ided  with  all 
Uie  appliances  for  a  military  school,  valuable  to  otli-  ' 
cers  as  well  as  to  privates.  A  dre;iry  waste,  on  the 
confines  of  Surrey,  Hants,  and  Berks,  called  Alder-  j 
shott  heath,  was  pur(li;ise<l  bv  the  government  as  the 
locality  for  the  new  camp.  1"he  area  was  7tK)3  acres,  ; 
and  the  purchase'-piice  about  £130,000.  The  spot 
was  deemed  suitable  as  being  distant  from  any  thick-  \ 
\y  inhabited  district;  as  being  within  easy  reach  of 
three  or  four  stations  on  the  Southwestern  and  South- 
eastern nulways;  and  as  being  conveniently  placeil 
for  the  quick  transmission  of  troops  to  any  part  of 
the  southern  coast.  The  camp  was  ready  for  the  re- 
ception of  troops  in  lyii.'i.  At  first,  no  brick  stnic- 
tures  were  attempted.  The  soldiers  were  accommo- 
dated in  wooden  huts,  each  furnishing  living  and 
sleeping  room  for  about  twenty-five  men.  When  the 
camp  was  inaugiu-ated,  in  April  of  the  year  last 
named,  by  a  review  at  which  the  Qiu-en  was  present, 
there  were  18,000  troops,  regulars  and  militia,  tempo- 
rarily stationed  there.  The  huts  for  each  regiment 
were  groupcfl  ajiart,  for  the  better  maintenance  of 
regimental  discipline.  Each  hut  had  a  range  of  iron 
bedsteads  on  either  side,  capable  of  l)eing  doubled  up; 
and  a  long  table  through  the  middle,  in  a  line  with 
two  doors  at  the  ends  of  the  huts.  The  officers'  huts, 
though  of  coiusc  superior  in  construction  and  conve- 
nience, were  as  simple  as  they  could  well  be.  The 
cooking  was  i)erformed  in  hvit.s  especially  .set  apart  ! 
for  that  purpose,  pro\ided  with  eflicient  cooking  ap-  J 
paratus.  The  wooden  huts  have  gradually  been  su- 
perseded by  brick  barracks,  at  a  co.st  of  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  million  sterling.  The  Ba.singstoke  Canal, 
rvmning  directly  across  the  heath,  has  occasioned  a 
division  into  Xorth  Camp  and  South  Camp;  but  each 
of  these  is  susceptible  of  a  good  deal  of  extension. 
Reviews  and  sliam  fights  are  frequently  I'.eld,  at 
tome  of  which  the  Q"'''"D  ^^^  In-en  present,  and 
there  are  various  important  ojierations  carried  on 
daily,  and  knowni  to  very  few  besides  those  imme- 
<iiately  concerned.  There  are  many  square  miles  of 
plain,  heath,  shrub,  morass,  valley,  and  hill  surround-  I 
inir  tlie  camp,  on  which  soldiers,  and  csiiecially  the  I 
militia  regiments,  are  exercised  in  the  various  evolu- 
tions and  strategic  movements  eonnccteil  with  the 
battle-ficjd  and  siege-works.  It  is  no  child's  play;  the 
men  are  often  severely  worked,  and  giiin  a  foreta.ste 
of  some  of  the  fatigues  of  military  life.  On  other 
days  they  are  exercised  in  various  (piiet  duties  of  ' 
tents  and  huts,  barracks  and  kitchens,  intended  to 
teach  them  many  of  the  useful  knacks  in  which 
French  soldiers  are  acknowledged  to  be  more  skilled 
than  the  English.  Different  regiments,  regulars  as 
well  as  militia,  artillery  as  well  as  cavalry  and  infan 
try,  take  it  in  turn  to  experience  camp-life  at  Alder-  ■ 
shot.  There  are  usually  about  from  lO.tKtO  to  1.5,000  ' 
troops  at  the  camp,  comprising  infantry,  cavalry,  ar- 
tillery, and  militia.  The  Authorities  some  years  ago  I 
purchased  or  lenised  a  jwrlion  of  forest-laud"  between  I 


Aldereliott  and  'Winchester;  camping  amingementa 
of  a  temporary  kind  are  made,  and  the  troojis  are 
oei-.isionally  exenised  w ith  a  tough  march  of  a  dozen 
miles.  A  thriving  town  has  spiiing  up  near  the  camp. 
An  unfortunate  circumstance  is  that  the  barracks  have 
bivn  l)uilt  at  the  very  edge  of  the  ground  IK-Ionging 
to  the  government;  lus  a  consequence,  private  six'cu- 
lators  built  bi'Cr-housesand  hauntsof  dissipation  close 
to  the  barracks,  greatly  to  the  demoralization  of  the 
.soldiers;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  buy  u])  lhe.se  ix-ople, 
t)wing  to  the  rise  in  value  of  the  land.  Some  al- 
leviation has  arisen  from  the  operation  of  the  Con- 
tagious Diseases  Acts  of  18t)G  and  1809. 

ALDIONAIEE. — A  sort  of  equerry,  who  in  the 
army  \vas  kejjt  at  the  expense  of  his  master.  Under 
Charlemagne,  the  Aldionairei  were  of  an  inferior 
rank. 

ALEM.— The  imperial  standard  of  the  Turkish 
Empire. 

ALEMDAB. — An  official  who  carries  the  green  ban- 
ner of  Mohammed  when  the  Sultan  assists  in  cere- 
monies of  .solemnity. 

ALERT. — In  militate'  phraseology  an  expression 
made  use  of  to  signify  that  an  outpost  has  been 
threalciicd  or  attacked.  Thus,  "We  have  had  an 
alert,  "  is  a  military  phrase.  A  bugle-sound  is  also 
so  namid,  which  is  given  by  wav  of  warning  to  put 
soldiers  on  their  guard,  and  to  keep  them  vigilant. 
This  warning  is  also  sounded  by  an  outpost  which 
may  Ix'  attacked  in  the  night,  to  give  notice  to  the 
one  that  is  destined  to  support  it.  The  word  is  frc 
quenti y  used  by  old  writers  to  express  a  sudden  alaiiu 
caused  by  a  merely  harassing  attack  of  the  enemy. 

ALEUROMETEE.— An  instrument  invented  about 
1849,  by  JI.  Boland,  a  Parisian  baker,  for  determin- 
ing the  quality  of  the  gluten  in  different  specimens  of 
wiieaten  fiour,  and  their  consequent  adaptation  for 
bread-making.  A  tube  of  about  six  inches  in  length 
is  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which  the  smaller  one, 
about  two  inches  in  length  and  holding  a  given 
amount  of  gluten,  is  screwed  on  to  the  longer  tube, 
which  is  fitted  with  a  piston  having  a  graduated  stem. 
The  apparatus  is  then  exposed  to  a  moderate  degree 
of  heat,  when  the  gluten  expands,  forcing  up  the 
l)iston,  the  amount  of  expansion  being  indicated  by 
the  distance  the  stem  jirofrudes  from  the  tube.  It 
was  found  that  gluten  obtained  from  flour  of  good 
quality  would  expand  to  four  or  five  times  its  original 
bulk,  and  had  the  smell  of  wann  bread,  while  that 
of  bad  flour  became  viscid,  with  a  tendency  to  adhere 
to  the  tube,  and  in  some  instances  emitting  an  un- 
pleasiint  odor.  This  instrument  is  indispensjible  to 
purchasing-officers  of  the  Subsistence  Department. 

ALFERE  —  ALFEREZ.  —  Standard-bearer  ;  ensign  ; 
comet.  The  old  English  term  for  ensign;  if  was  in 
use  in  England  till  the  civil  wars  of  Charles  I. 

ALGEBRA. — A  branch  of  pure  mathematics  much 
used  in  the  solution  of  problems  of  gunnery.  The 
name  is  derivwl  from  the  Arabs,  who  call  the  science 
nl-gehr  iral  mokabaUi — i.e.,  supplementing  and  equal- 
izing— in  reference  to  the  transposition  and  reduction 
of  the  terms  of  an  equation.  Among  the  Italians  in 
early  times  it  was  called  arte  maggiore,  as  having  to 
do  with  the  higher  kinds  of  calculation,  and  still 
offener  riyiila  cic  la  com,  because  the  unknown  quan- 
tity was  denominated  com,  the  "  thing;  "  hence  the 
name  of  eossike  art,  given  to  it  by  early  English 
writers.  The  term  algebraical  is  generally  used  some- 
what vaguely,  to  denote  any  cxpre.s,sion  or  calcvdation 
in  which  signs  are  used  to  "denote  the  operations,  and 
letters  or  other  synilx)ls  are  put  instead  of  numlx'rs. 
But  it  is  p<Thaps  Ix'tter  to  restrict  the  name  algebra  to 
the  doctrine  of  equations.  Literal  arithmetic,  then, 
or  multiplying,  dividing,  etc.,  with  letters  instead  of 
Arabic  ci|ihers,  is  pro]X'rly  only  a  preparation  for 
algebra;  while  analysis,  in  the  widest  sense,  would 
embrace  algebra  as"  its  first  part.  Algebra  it.self  is 
divided  into  two  chief  brinclies.  The  first  treats  of 
e(iualions  involving  unknown  quantities  ha\ii>g  a 
determinate  value;  in  the  other,  called  the  diophan- 


ALGER  BBEECH-LOASEB. 


35 


AIIEN. 


tine  or  indtterminate  analysis,  the  unknown  quanti- 
ties hiive  no  exactly  lixed  values,  but  depend  in  some 
desrrce  u|ion  assumption. 

ALGEB  BREECH-LOADEE.— A  substitute  for  the 
Armstrong  vent-piece,  which  must  be  lifted  out  of  its 
seat.  It  consists  of  a  cross-plug  forming  a  continua- 
tion of  the  bore  when  the  handle  is  vertical,  and 
closes  the  bore,  being  set  up  firmly  by  the  breech- 
screw,  when  the  handle  is  horizontal.  A  suitable 
g-as<-heck  might  be  placed  through  the  hollow  screw, 
m  a  recess  in  the  cross-plug,  by  revol\-ing  the  latter 
throUL'li  half  a  circle. 

AIGHISI-DI-CAEPI  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 
— In  this  system  the  curtain  forms  a  tenaille;  the 
main  ditch  encloses  a  flat  space,  and  the  bastions  are 
small,  having  orillons  and  ca.semated  flanks,  ydth  a 
cavalier  iusiere  the  gorge.     See  Forlijicatioit. 

ALHAMERA. — The  name  given  to  the  fortress 
which  forms  a  sort  of  acropolts  or  citadel  to  the  city 
of  Granada,  and  in  which  stood  the  palace  of  the 
ancient  Moorish  Kings  of  Granada.  The  name  is  a 
corruption  of  the  Arabic  Kaf-'at  al  hamra,  "  the  red 
castle."    It  is  surrounded  by  a  strong  wall,  more  than 


Entrance  to  the  Court  of  the  Lions— Alhambra. 

a  mile  in  circuit,  and  studded  with  towers.  The 
towers  on  the  north  wall,  which  is  defended  by  na- 
ture, were  used  as  residences  connected  with  the 
palace.  One  of  them  contains  the  famous  UaU  of  tlw 
Ambassadors.  The  remains  of  the  Moorish  Palace 
are  called  by  the  Spaniards  the  C'asa  Real.  It  was 
begun  by  Ilinu-1-ahmar,  and  continued  bj'  his  suc- 
cessors, 12-48-1348.  The  portions  still  standing  are 
ranged  round  two  oblong  courts,  one  called  the  Court 
of  the  Fish-p<iii(},  the  other  the  Court  of  tht  Lions. 
They  consist  of  porticos,  pillared  halls,  cool  cham- 
bers, small  gardens,  fountains,  mqpaic  pavemejits,  etc. 
The  lightness  and  elegance  of  the  columns  and  arches, 
and  the  richness  of  the  ornamentation,  are  unsur- 
passed. The  coloring  is  but  little  altered  by  time. 
The  most  characteristic  parts  of  the  Casa  Real  have 
been  reproduced  in  the  "Alhambra  Court"  of  the 
crj'stal  palace  at  Sydenham.  A  great  part  of  the 
ancient  palace  was  removed  to  make  way  for  the 
palace  l)egim  by  Charles  V.,  but  never  finished.  It 
is  long  since  any  part  of  the  Moori.sh  Palace  was  in- 
habited; but  it  is  kept  in  a  state  of  presenation  as  a 
work  of  art,  and  as  a  memorial  of  the  tragic  legend 
of  the  Al)encerra2es. 

ALI  BEY.— A  Colonel  of  Turkish  Cavalry;  also 
the  rank  of  a  District  Commander. 

ALIBI. — A  defence  resorted  to  in  criminal  prose- 
cutions, when  the  party  accused,  in  order  to  prove 
that  he  could  not  have  committed  the  crime  with 
which  he  is  charged,  tenders  e\'idence  to  the  effect  that 
he  was  in  a  different  place  at  the  time  the  offence  was 
committed.     When  true,  there  can  be  no  better  proof 


of  iimocence:  but  as  offering  the  readiest  and  most 
ob\ious  op|X)rtunity  for  false  e\idence,  it  is  always 
regarded  with  suspicion.  In  the  case  of  crimes  the 
place  of  commitling  which  is  immaterial — as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  act  of  fabticating  the  plates,  or  of  throwing 
off  the  spurious  notes,  in  a  case  of  forgery — a  proof 
of  aUhi  is  of  no  avail. 

ALIDADE. — The  movable  arm  of  a  graduated  in- 
strument carrying  sights  or  a  telescope,  by  which  an 
angle  is  measured  from  a  ba.«e-line  observed  through 
the  stationary  or  level  line  of  sights.  It  is  u.sed  in 
plane  tables,  theodolites,  astrolabes,  demi-circles,  and 
numerous  other  angulometers.  Four  varieties  of  the 
Alidade  are  in  common  use.  The  simplest  Alidade 
consists  of  a  brass  rule  or  .straight-edge,  twenty  inches 
long  and  two  to  three  inches  wide,  at  the  ends  of 
which  are  screwed  sight-vanes,  like  those  of  the  ordi- 
nary compass;  the  edge  of  the  ride  being  chamfered 
and  in  line  with  the  slots  of  the  vanes.  To  another 
form  of  simple  Alidade  is  fitted  the  telescopic  sight, 
having  a  level,  clamp  and  tangent,  and  vertical  circle 
reading  to  five  minutes,  attached  to  the  telescope, 
which  is  also  supplied  with  micrometer  wires.  The 
telescope  is  placed  in  line  with  the  straight-edge  as 
before.  Another  style  of  Alidade  is  shown  in  the 
article  "Plane  Table,"  the  brass  rule  being  now  two 
inches  wide,  except  where  it  is  expanded  one  third 
from  the  end  to  i^ceive  the  base  of  the  column. 
The  column  supports  the  telescope  with  its  attach- 
ments, the  vertical  circle  being  divided  on  silver  and 
reading  to  single  minutes.  The  telesco|x;  is  nine 
inches  long,  of  a  power  of  20  diameters,  provided 
with  stadia,  and  adjusted  and  tised  like  that  of  the 
Transit;  it  is  also  in  line  with  the  chamfered  edge  of 
the  rule.  In  another  form  of  x^lidade,  the  telescope 
is  precisely  the  same  as  that  used  on  the  best  Tran- 
sits, being  also  supplied  w  ith  level,  clamp  and  tan- 
gent, vertical  circle  on  silver  reading  to  single  minutes, 
and  micrometer  wires  for  measuring  distances.  It  is 
placed  on  the  brass  rule  precisely  like  that  of  the  one 
last  described,  and  is  adjusted  and  used  in  the  same 
manner.  In  using  tlie  plane  tabic  the  tripod  is  set  up 
firmly,  and  the  table  covered  with  |)aper,  |)laeed  upon 
the  flange  of  the  socket,  and  secured  by  the  screws, 
ee;  the  nut,  rf,  being  now  loosened,  the  table  is  moved 
by  the  pressure  of  the  hand  on  different  part.s  of  the 
board,  until  the  levels  on  the  plate  will  come  into  the 
centre  on  any  part  of  the  table.  The  nut,  (/,  is  then 
screwed  u])  and  the  table  made  firm;  any  i)lace  on 
the  paper  can  then  be  assumed  as  the  starting-point,  its 
position  over  a  given  point  on  the  ground  being  de- 
termined by  the  pliunbing-bar  and  plimimet.  From 
the  given  point  on  the  paper,  sights  can  then  be  taken 
to  different  corners  of  the  field,  and  lines  drawn  on 
i  the  paper  along  the  edge  of  the  Alidade,  .and  thus  a 
miniature  of  the  tract  be  traced  on  the  paper,  the 
I  bearing  of  any  line  being  ascertained  bj'  applying 
I  the  .side  of  the  compass-plate  to  the  edge  of  the  Ali- 
j  dade  placed  on  that  line.  The  table  cim  be  moved 
horizontally  either  by  hand  on  releasing  the  screws, 
\ee,  or  by  a  tangent-screw.  See  Plane  Table  and  T?ie- 
odolitf. 

!  ALIEN. — The  citizen  of  one  State,  when  resident 
in  jmother,  unless  naturalized,  is  an  alien.  The  con- 
dition of  an  alien  does  not  nece.ssjirily  result  from 
foreign  birth.  The  son  of  a  natiu~al-born  or  natu- 
ralized Englishman  is  not  an  alien,  w  herever  he  may 
be  born.  This  privilege  even  extends  to  the  second 
generation  on  the  father's  side;  and  thus  a  man  w  hose 
paternal  grandfather  was  an  Englishman  is  an  Eng- 
lishman himself,  unless  either  his  father  or  grand- 
father be  liable  to  the  penalties  of  felony,  have  been 
attainted  of  treason,  or  be  .serving  in  the  army  of  a 
Prince  at  war  with  England,  ;it  the  periotl  of  his  birth. 
Neither  is  this  privilege  affected  by  the  fact  that  the 
mothers  of  such  persons  were  foreigners.  The  chil- 
dren of  aliens  born  in  England,  except  in  the  case  of 
a  hostile  invasion,  are  natural-born  subjects;  but  the 
children  of  Englishwomen  by  aliens  are  idiens,  unless 
born  within  the  British  doiiiinions.     The  allegiance 


ALIGNUENT. 


36 


ALLEZT7E£a 


due  by  an  iilic-n  or  stranger  to  the  Prince  in  whose 
donlinious  be  resides  is  usually  c-jiUetl  /<«•<//  or  Ujiijxj- 
rary  allfijitmce.  It  diflers  from  niilunil  iiUc^ianee 
chietly  in  this,  that  wluTfiis  natunil  alleirianc-e  is  per- 
IM'lual  and  unalTected  by  chanirc  of  residence,  local 
allfL'iaiKc  (casis  when  the  stmnger  transfers  himself 
to  aiiiiiliiT  kiiiL^Ioni. 

ALIGNMENT.— A  term  used  in  military  tactics, 
equivalent  to  in  linf.  Thus,  the  alii^nmenl  of  a  bat- 
talion Ls  effected  when  the  men  are  dniwn  u|)  in  line; 
the  alignment  of  u  camp  is  a  rectilinear  arraiiftement 
of  the  tents  aca>rdinjr  to  some  prearranircd  plan. 
The  instructor  tirst  teaches  the  recruits  to  align  them- 
selves man  t)y  man,  the  better  to  comprehend  the 
priucipli-s  of  aliinnnenl:  to  this  end,  he  advances  the 
two  men  on  the  right  three  or  more  yards,  and  hav- 
ing ali.snwl  them^  commands:  (1)  By  file,  (2)  Right 
(or  leji),  (3)  Dress,  (4)  Front.  At  the  command, 
dress,  the  recruits  move  up  successively,  in  (|iiick 
time,  shorteinng  the  last  step  so  as  to  find  themselves 
about  six  inches  behind  the  alignment;  each  recruit 
then  moves  on  the  line,  which  must  never  be  psissed, 
taking  steps  of  two  or  three  inches,  casting  his  eyes 
to  the  right  so  as  to  set-  the  coat-buttons  of  the  second 
man  from  him,  keejiing  his  shoulders  square  to  the 
front,  and  touching  with  his  elbow  that  of  the  man 
on  the  right  without  opening  his  arms.  At  the  com- 
mand, front,  given  when  the  rank  is  well  aligned, 
tlie  recruits  cast  their  eyes  to  the  front  and  remain 
firm.  The  recruits  ha\ing  learned  to  align  them- 
selves man  by  man,  the  instructor  next  aligns  the 
squad  by  the  commands,  (li  Right  (or  hft),  (2)  Dress, 
(3)  Front.  At  the  command,  dress,  the  entire  rank, 
except  the  men  established  as  a  basis,  moves  forward, 
and  dresses  up  to  the  line,  as  prc^^o^^sly  explained. 
The  instructor  verities  the  alignment  by  placing  him- 
self outside  the  right  flank,  and  orders  forward  or 
back  such  files  as  may  be  in  rear  or  in  advance  of  the 
line;  this  done,  he  commands,  front.  Alignments  to 
the  rear  are  executed  on  the  same  principles,  the  re- 
cruits .stepping  back  a  little  beyond  the  line,  and  then 
dressing  up,  by  short  steps  of  two  or  three  inches. 
The  comands  are;  (1)  Byjik,  right  (or  left)  hackirard, 
(2)  Drkss,  (3)  Front;  or,  (1)  Right  (ot  left)  backward, 
(2)  DuKss,  1 3)  Front. 

ALKALIES. — The  word  alkali  is  of  Arabic  origin, 
kali  tieing  Iho  name  of  the  plant  from  the  ashes  of 
which  an  alkaline  substance  was  tirst  procured.  The 
name  now  denotes  a  class  of  substances  ha\ing  simi- 
lar properties.  The  alkalies  proper  are  four  in  num- 
ber— potash,  soda,  lithia,  and  ammonia.  The  tirsi 
three  arc  oxides  of  metals;  the  last  is  a  compound  of 
nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and,  being  in  the 
torm  ot  a  gas,  is  called  the  volatile  alkali.  Potash, 
being  largely  present  in  the  ashes  of  plants,  is  called 
the  vegetahle  alkali;  and  soda,  predominating  in  the 
minend  kingdom,  is  designated  the  mineral  alkali. 
The  (ilkaliiie  earths,  as  they  are  called — lime,  magne- 
sia, baryta,  and  strontia — are  distinguished  from  the 
former  by  their  carbonates  not  being  soluble  in  water. 
The  distingnishjug  property  of  alkalies  is  that  of 
turning  vegetable  l)lues  green,  ami  vegetable  yellows 
reddish  brown.  Blues  reddened  by  an  acid" are  re- 
stored by  an  alkali.  The  alkalies  have  great  altinity 
for  acids,  and  combine  with  them,  fonning  sidts,  iii 
which  the  peculiar  qualities  of  both  alkali  and  acid 
are  generally  destroyed;  hence  they  are  s:iid  to  neu- 
tralize one  another!  In  a  pure  state  alkalies  are 
extremely  caustic,  and  act  as  corrosive  poisons.  Com- 
bine<l  with  carljonic  acid,  especially  as  hicarbonates, 
Ihej;  are  used  to  correct  acidity  in"the  stomach;  but 
the  injudicious  and  continui'd  use  of  them  is  attended 
with  great  evil. 

ALLECRET—ALLECEETE.— Light  armor  used  by 
both  cavalry  and  infaiilrv  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
especially  by  tlie  .Swi.ss.  It  consisted  of  a  bieast-pla'te 
and  gussets,  often  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh, 
and  Miinelinus  helow  the  knees. 

ALLECTI  MILITE8.— A  name  given  bv  the  Romans 
to  a  body  of  men  who  were  dmfted  for  military  service. 


ALLEGIANCE.— It  is  but  recently  that  foreign  gov- 
ernments have  come  to  recognize  the  right  of  persons 
to  chan.ire  their  alle.giance  as  well  as  their  residence. 
The  I' tilted  States  afwa.vs  held  it  to  l)e  a  natiinil  right, 
and  our  legislation  so  recognizes  it.  The  dillerence 
wius  strikingly  manifest  in  the  War  of  1H12,  when  the 
Prince  Ke.seiit  proclaimed  that  every  native-l)orn 
Briton  taken  prisoner  while  lighting  for  the  Ameri- 
cans should  hv  sh(jt  for  treiuson,  to  wluch  President 
Madison  replied  that  if  any  naturali7.ed  American  of 
the  United  States  shoukl  siUTer  death  in  such  man- 
ner he  would  execute  two  British  prisoners.  There 
were  no  executions  of  the  sort  which  England  had 
threatened.  Very  recently  the  (piestion  has  been  dis- 
cvissed  as  to  the  "right  of  "a  govermnent  to  subject  to 
military  service  men  who  were  once  its  citizens  but 
were  afterwards  citizens  of  another  country;  and  late 
decisions  tend  to  show  tlial  most  governments  are 
abandoning  the  old  claim,  "once  a  citizen  always  a 
citizen."  For  instance,  Germans  naturalized  in  the 
United  States  on  retuniing  to  Germany  were  formerly 
required  to  enter  the  army;  but  now  they  pleaJl 
American  citizenship,  and  with  success.  Allegiance 
is  often  transferred  en  masse,  as  on  the  treaty  of 
peace  in  1783,  when  Biitish  subjects  who  should  so 
elect  became  Americans;  also,  when  Louisiana  and 
Florida  were  i)urchased  and  Texas  was  aimexed;  no 
inqiury  was  made  about  allegiance,  but  the  offi- 
cial transfer  made  the  Creoles  and  the  Texans  as  com- 
pletely citizens  owing  allegiance  as  though  bom 
vukUt  the  United  States  flag.  The  law  of  Congress, 
Julv,  1868,  very  clearly  sets  forth  the  extent  and  obli- 
gations of  alle.iriance.  The  preamble  states  that  the 
right  of  expatriation  is  natural  and  inherent  in  all 
people  and  indispens;ible  to  the  enjoyment  of  rights 
to  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness;  that, 
recognizing  this  right,  our  government  has  received 
emigrants  from  all  nations  and  given  them  citizenship 
and  protection;  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  public  pciice  that  the  claim  of  foreign  alle- 
giance as  to  such  adoiited  citizens  shoidd  be  promptly 
and  firmly  disavowed;  and  therefore  it  was  enacted 
that  any  declaration,  ojiinion,  order,  or  decision  of 
any  otticer  of  this  government  which  denies,  impairs, 
restricts,  or  cjuestions  the  right  of  expatriation  is  in- 
consistent with  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  gov- 
ernment; that  all  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  while  in  Foreign  Stales,  are  entitled  to,  and 
shall  recei\e  from  this  government,  the  same  protec- 
tion of  person  and  property  that  is  accorded  to  na- 
tive-born citizens  in  like  circumstances.  This  broad 
declaration  of  our  rights  and  duties  was  followed 
in  May,  ISTO,  by  the  tijritish  Parliament  in  an  act  re- 
vising all  British  laws  on  alienage,  expatriation,  and 
naturalization — the  government  for  the  first  time  rec- 
ogiuzing  the  right  of  subjects  to  renounce  allegiance 
t<rthe  Cromi. 

ALLEN  BRAKE. — A  contrivance  for  checking  vio- 
lent recoil.  It  consists  of  a  wooden  wedge,  shod 
with  iron,  attached  to  the  bracket  inunediatel.v  in 
rear  of  the  truck  by  jointed  bars  of  iron,  the  uppc  r  of 
whidi  are  bolted  to  the  bracket,  while  from  the  joint 
another  bar  iiasses  horizontally  through  the  axle-tree 
arm,  forming  the  linch-pin.  The  wedge  rests  upon 
the  ground  in  rear  of  the  truck,  following  it  as  the 
carriage  is  nm  up,  but  on  recoil  the  truck  overtakes 
and  rides  upon  the  wedge.  A  rope-lanyard  isattached 
to  the  wedge  and  an  iron  cleat  upon  the  side  of  the 
carriage,  so  that,  if  it  is  wished  not  to  use  the  brake, 
the  weilge  can  be  secured  so  as  not  to  come  into  action 
on  recoil.     See  Ilrake. 

ALLEZOIR. — A  frame  of  timber  firmly  suspended 
in  the  air  with  strong  cordage,  on  which  is  jilaced  u 
piece  of  ordnance  with  the  muzzle  downwards.  In 
this  situation  the  bore  is  rounded  and  eidarged  by 
means  of  an  instrument  which  has  a  ver*'  shar])  and 
strong  edge  made  to  traverse  the  Ixire  bv  force  of  ma- 
chinery or  horses,  and  in  a  horizontid  direction. 

ALLEZURES.— The  metal  taken  from  cannon  and 
other  gims  by  boring. 


ALIIAOE. 


37 


ALLOT. 


ALLIAGE. — A  term  iised  by  the  French  to  denote 
the  composition  of  metals  used  for  the  fabrlcntion  of  | 
cannon,  mortars,  etc.  i 

ALLIANCE. — In  a  military  sense,  a  treaty  entered 
into  by  Sovireisn  States  for  their  mutual  safety  and  ' 
defence.  In  this  st^use,  alliances  may  be  divided  into 
such  as  are  offensive,  where  the  contracting  pjirties 
oblige  themselves  jointly  to  attack  some  other  power; 
and  into  such  as  are  defensive,  whereby  the  contract-  | 
ing  powers  bind  themselves  to  stand  by  and  defend 
one  another  in  c;ise  of  being  attacked  by  any  other' 
power.  Alliances  are  various!}'  distinguished  accord- 
ing to  their  object,  the  parties  in  them,  etc.  Hence 
we  read  of  equal,  unequal,  triple,  quadruple,  grand, 
offensive,  defensive  alliances,  etc.     See  Treaty. 

ALLIGATI. — A  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  pri-  | 
soners  of  war  and  their  captors.     A  chain  was  at- 
tached to  the  right  wrist  of  the  prisoner  and  the  left  I 
WTist  of  the  warrior  who  captured  him.  I 

ALLOCHTIO. — An  oration  addressed  by  a  Roman  1 


themselves  vdih  baggage-animals  and  equipment  in 
the  tield.  The  term  Alloirance  is  also  applied  to  the 
amount  of  rations,  forage,  etc.,  scr\'ed  out  jx'riodically 
to  anv  one  man  or  to  a  bodv  of  men.  See  AUoirnuetK. 
ALLOWANCE  OF  QUAKTERS.— In  the  United 
States  army,  in  allolnient  of  i|U:irters,  ollicers  have 
choice  according  to  rank,  but  the  Commanding  Offi- 
cer may  direct  the  officers  to  be  lodged  convenient  to 
their  troops.  An  officer  may  select  quarters  occupied 
by  a  junior;  but,  ha\'ing  niade  his  choice,  he  must 
abide  by  it,  and  cannot  again  at  the  post  displace  a 
junior,  unless  himself  displaced  by  a  senior.  The  set 
of  rooms  to  each  quarters  will  "ix;  assigned  by  the 
(.Quartermaster,  under  the  direction  of  the  Command- 
ing OthciT;  attics  are  not  counted  as  rooms.  Officers 
caimotclioose  rooms  in  different  sets  of  quarters.  The 
following  table  shows  the  number  of  rooms,  the 
quantity  of  fuel,  and  the  allowance  or  cooking  and 
heating  stoves  to  be  supplied  for  the  use  of  officers  in 
Public  Quarters  and  BaiTacks: 


Rooms 


Cords  of 

wood  per 

moDtb. 


O 

[=4 


B< 


Increased 

allowance 

from  Sept,  to 

April,  both 

inclusive 


}ror 
quarter?. 


iS  a* 

go  be 


For 
office 


The  General  ("allowed  by  law  for  tjuarters  and  fuel,  $125  per  month). 

The  Lieutenant -General  or  a  Major-General 

A  Brigadier-General  or  Colonel 

A  Lieutenant-Colonel  or  Major 

A  Captain  or  Chaplain 

A  Lieutenant 


9 

.0 

c3 

1 

1 

i 


u 
n 
u 
1 
I 


General  to  his  soldiers  to  animate  them  to  fight,  to 
appea.<e  sedition,  or  to  keep  them  to  their  dutv. 

ALLODIAL.— Independent;  not  feudal.  The  Allo- 
dii  of  the  Romans  were  bodies  of  men  employed  in 
any  emergency,  in  a  manner  similar  to  our  volunteer 
associations. 

ALLONGE.— A  pass  or  thrust  with  a  rapier  or  small 
sword,  frequently  contracted  into  lunge;  also  a  long 
rein  u.sed  in  the  exercising  of  horses. 

ALLOWANCE.— Money  granted  in  addition  to  the 
regular  pay  of  an  officer  or  soldier  for  some  particular 
purpose,  or  to  a  regiment  to  meet  certain  expenses. 
For  instance,  what  is  tenned  ColnnrVt  Alloiranee  is 
granted  to  General  Officers  in  the  British  army  when 
selected  by  the  Commander-in-Chief  to  till  the  post  of 
"Colonel  of  a  Regiment";  this  takes  place  when 
vacancies  by  death  occur.  In  the  Indian  Stalf  Corps 
the  Colonel's  Allowance  is  granted  to  each  officer 
after  a  stated  period,  viz.,  thirtj'-eight  years'  serrice, 

Erovided  he  has  served  twelve  years  in  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-Colonel.  Lodging  Alloitance  is  granted  to 
Officers,  Xon-commissioned  Officers,  and  men,  when 
accommodation  cannot  be  pro\'ided  for  them  in  bar- 
racks; it  includes  fuel  and  light  allowance.  The  two 
latter  allowances  are  granted  to  Officers,  irrespective 
of  Lodging  Allowance.  Agreeably  to  a  late  warrant, 
the  allowance  granted  to  Non-commissioned  Officers 
has  been  fixed  as  follows:  Class  I.,  Is.  9(?.  a  day; 
Cla.ss  II.,  \s.  a  day;  Class  III.,  6rf.  a  day.  A  Non- 
commissioned Officer  on  the  married  roll  continues  to 
receive  lodging,  fuel,  and  light  allowance  for  the 
1)enefit  of  his  wife  and  family  when  he  may  be  in 
hospital  or  temporarily  separated  from  them,  on  ser- 
vice, provided  no  married  soldiers'  quarters  become 
available  for  their  use.  Horse  AW/tranee  is  granted 
to  Officers  when  forage  has  not  been  issued  by  the 
Commissariat.  Contingent  Allowance  is  granted  for 
any  particular  expenditure  pennitted  by  the  regula- 
tions. Serrant^'  Alloirance  is  given  to  certain  Officers 
who  are  not  allowed  soldier-servants.  I^eld  Allow- 
ance is  pas.sed  to  Officers  to  enable  them  to  provide 


ALLOWANCES.— In  the  British  amiy^and  to  vari- 
ous degrees  in  the  armies  of  other  countries — mifitary 
officers,  besides  their  rcognized  pay,  receive  certain 
allowances  for  siJccial  duties  or  when  placed  under 
exceptional  circumstances.  Williout  detailing  the 
actual  amotmt  of  these  allowances,  it  may  be  well  to 
enumerate  the  principal  modes  in  which  they  arise. 
An  officer  commanding  and  paying  a  troop  or  com- 
pany receives  a  contingent  allowance  as  an  indemni- 
fication for  the  expense  of  repairing  arms,  swords, 
and  scabbards;  for  burials;  and  for  the  debts  of 
soldiers  who  become  non-effective.  A  kind  of  general 
average  is  struck  for  the  probable  amount  of  these 
charges.  An  officer  on  duty  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
in  a  situation  entitling  him  to  \x  lodged  at  the  public 
expense,  and  whose  lodging  is  not  other^vise  paid  for 
by  the  ptiblic,  receives  an  allowance  as  "lodging- 
money,"  varj-ing  in  amoimt  according  to  his  rank. 
An  oliicer  marching  with  troops  in  the  United  King- 
dom, on  a  route  determined  by  competent  authority, 
if  unable  to  mess  with  his  regiment  or  detachment  on 
a  particular  day,  receives  an  allowance  in  compensa- 
tion. An  officer  sent  on  permanent  or  temporary  duty 
from  one  jilace  to  another  receives  a  travelling  allow- 
ance of  so  much  per  mile.  An  officer  serving  on  a 
court-martial  receives  an  allowance  of  so  much  per 
day,  besides  a  travelling  allowance  if  the  place  be 
distant.  An  officer  temporarily  detached  on  duty, 
where  he  cannot  join  bis  regimeiual  mess,  has  an 
allowance  for  me.ss-money.  Besides  those  here 
enumerated,  there  are  allowances  for  detention  at 
ports  of  embarkation,  etc.,  and  others  of  a  minor 
kind.     .See  Allownnre  and  Miletige. 

ALLOT. — A  mixture  of  two  or  more  metals,  either 
nalund,  or  produced  artificially  by  melting  them  to- 
gether. The  mixture  has  often  different  properties 
?rom  the  component  metals,  and  Iwars  a  distinct 
name.  Thus,  bell-metal  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and 
tin;  tombak,  of  copper  and  zinc;  bra.ss,  of  copper 
with  a  larger  proportion  of  zinc,  etc.  Alloys  are 
generally  harder  than  the  metals  that  compose  them. 


ALLUMELLE. 


38 


ALTITUDE  AND  AZIMUTH  INSTRUMENT. 


for  alloying    the  precious 
jxissosti   the  ilensily  which 


and  this  L«  the  motive 

metals.      Alloys  seldom   .  .  , 

theor\-  or  calculation  from  the  siiecific  g-nivil v  of  their 
constituciit.s  would  indicate.  Thus,  many  alloys  pos- 
sess a  greater  density  than  the  mean  density  of  their 
constituents,  while  others  have  a  Ic-vs  density.  The 
increase  in  density  of  the  alloy  indicates  that  the 
metals  have  contracted ;  in  other  words,  that  the 
metallic  molecules  have  approached  each  other  more 
closely:  while  the  decrease  in  density  denotes  a 
separation  of  the  molecules  to  greater  dLstanccs  from 
each  other. 

Allots  Alloys 

which    exhibit   a  greater  ]  which  possess  a  less  den- 


dcnsitv  than  the  mean 

sitv 

th 

m    the   mean 

densitv 

of  the  metals 

densitv 

of  the  metals 

composing  them. 

compasing  them. 

Gold     and  zinc. 

Gold 

and  silver. 

"        " 

tin. 

iron. 

4<                   .4 

bismuth, 
antimonv. 

a 

lead, 
copper. 

If                   tl 

cobalt. 

" 

iridium. 

Silver    " 

zinc. 

(( 

nickel. 

"        " 

tin. 

Silver 

copper. 

4(                 (( 

bismuth. 

Iron 

bismuth. 

II                 II 

antimonv. 

" 

antimony. 

Copper  " 

zmc. 

(I 

lead. 

II        II 

tin. 

Tin 

lead. 

i< 

palladium. 

II 

palladium. 

II        II 

bismuth. 

" 

antimony. 

Lead      " 

antimonv. 

Nicke 

" 

silver. 

Platinum 

and    molyb- 

Zinc 

antimonv. 

denum. 

Palladium  and  bismuth. 

The  strength  or  cohesion  of  an  alloy  is  generally 
greater  than  that  of  the  mean  cohesion  of  the  metal's 
contained  therein,  or  even  of  that  of  the  most  co- 
hesive of  its  constituents.  Thus,  the  breaking  weight 
of  a  bar  of  copper  or  tin  (meaning  the  longitudinal 
strain  it  can  bear)  is  verj'  much  lower  than  the  break- 
ing weight  of  a  bar  composed  of  an  alloy  of  tin  and 
copper.     The  following  table  represents  the 

Cohesion  of  Metals. 

Bar  t  in. 
square 
breaks  with 
lbs. 

Malacca  tin 3,211 

Bismuth 3,008 


Bar  1  in.  | 
square 
breaKswithl 
lbs. 

Barbary  copper. . .  .22,.570 
Japan  "  ....22,.570 
English  ^lack  tin.. 20,272 
"  tin-plate...  6,t5.50 
Banca  tin 3,079 


Zinc 2,689 

Antimony 1,060 

Lead 885 


■When  any  two  of  the  above  metals  combine  together, 
thcv  generally — though  not  alwaj-s — yield  an  alloy 
which  is  much  stronger  than  we  should  expect;  thus 
the 

Cohesion  of  Alloys. 

Bar  1  ia. 


10  parts  of  copper  and  1  part  of  tin. 

g  II  ..  J        II 

6  "  "  1     " 

4  II  11  1     I. 

2  II  «  1     « 

1  "  "  1     " 

4  "    Engli.sh  tin  and  1 

4  "    banca      "     "   1 

4 '     "   1 

4  "    English  tin   "   1 

4 1 


8<iuare 
jrields  wi 
lbs 


yields  with 


..32,093 
.36,088 
.44,071 
.3.^,739 
.  1,017 
.      72.') 


lead 10,607 

antimony 13,480 

bismuth 16,693 

zinc 10,2.'>8 

antimony 11,333 

The  power  of  conducting  clectricnl  currents  is  not 
so  great  in  an  allov  as  the  mean  conducting  power  of 
its  comi)onents.  'The  conijKisition  of  the  more  com- 
monly occurring  and  commercially  important  alloys 
is  as  follows:  Plumber's  .solder,  1  tin  and  2  lead; 
soft  solder,  2  tin  and  1  lead;  common  pewter,  4  tin 
and  1  lead;  guunutal,  9  copper  and  1  tin;  bronze,  9 


copper  and  1  tin  and  zinc;  cymbals  and  Chinese 
gongs,  4  copper  and  1  tin;  beri-metal,  3  copper  and 
1  tin;  s|)ecuhmi-metal,  2  copper  and  1  tin:  pot-metal 
or  cock-metal,  2  cojiper  and  1  lead;  gilding-metal,'  16 
copper  and  1  to  IJ  '•"""•  Mannheim  gold— pinchbeck 
or  bath-metal,  16  copper  and  4  zinc;  Bristol  brass,  for 
soldering,  16  coi)per  and  6  zinc;  ordiiiiiry  brass,  for 
ca.sting,  16  copper  and  8  zinc;  Jlunlz  sheathing-metal, 
16  copper  and  lOj  zinc;  spelter-solder  for  copper  and 
iron.  16  copper  and  12  zinc;  spelter-solder  for  bras.s- 
work,  16  copper  and  16  zinc;  Jlosaic  gold,  16  copper 
an(l  16i  zinc;  hardest  silver-solder,  4  silver  and  1 
copper;  hard  silver-solder,  3  silver  and  1  copper;  soft 
silver-solder,  2  silver  and  1  copper;  German  silver, 
100  copper,  60  zinc,  and  40  nickel;  type-metal,  ordi- 
narv,  1.J  lead,  4  antimony,  and  1  tin,  or  14  lead,  .i 
antimony,  and  1  tin — small  types,  4  lead  and  1  anti- 
mony— large  types,  6  lead  and  1  antimon_v;  stereoty))c- 
metjil,  48  lead,  6  antimony,  and  1  tin;  Britannia 
metal,  .W  tin,  4  antimony,  4  bismuth,  and  1  copper. 

ALLUMELLE. — A  thin  and  slender  sword  which 
was  used  in  the  Jliddle  Ages  to  pierce  the  weak 
parts  or  joints  of  annor. 

ALLY. — A  term  implying,  in  a  military  sense,  any 
nation  united  to  another  under  a  treaty  either  offeii- 
sive  or  defensive,  or  both. 

ALMADIE.— A  kind  of  military  canoe  or  small  ves- 
sel, about  2.5  feet  long,  made  of  the  bark  of  a  tree, 
and  used  by  the  negroes  of  Africa.  Almadie  is  also 
the  name  of  a  long  boat  used  at  Calcutta,  often  from 
80  to  100  feet  long,  and  generally  6  or  7  broad;  they 
are  rowed  with  from  10  to  30  oars. 

ALMAN-RI'TETS.— A  sort  of  light  armor  derived 
from  Genuany,  characterized  by  overlapping  plates 
which  were  arranged  to  slide  on  rivets,  by  means  of 
which  flexibility  and  e;ise  of  movement  were  pro- 
moted. 

ALTISCOPE. — An  invention  consisting  of  an  ar- 
rangement of  lenses  and  mirrors  in  a  vertical  telescope- 
tube,  by  means  of  which  a  person  is  able  to  overlook 
objects" intervening  between  himself  and  the  object 
he  desires  to  see.  When  the  sections  of  the  tube  are 
extended,  the  view  is  received  upon  an  upjjer  mirror 
placed  at  an  angle  of  43  ,  and  reflected  thence  down 
the  tube  to  a  lower  mirror,  where  it  is  seen  by  the  ob- 
.server.  The  image  is  magnified  by  lenses  intervening 
between  the  mirrors.  The  telescopic  tubes  are  so 
connected  that  each  in  turn  acts  upon  the  ne.xt  in  the 
series,  as  it  comes  to  the  end  of  its  own  range,  and 
thus  the  desired  elevation  is  arrived  at.  The  means 
of  extension  are  a  winch  and  cords. 

This  contrivance  affords  a  means  for  training  guns 
to  a  given  angle  with  the  axis  of  the  vessel,  or  on  an 
object,  while  the  gunner  remains  beneath  the  deck. 
There  is  at laclied  beneath  the  deck,  to  the  pintle  of 
the  pivoted  gun,  a  graduated  index-plate,  by  which 
its  horizontal  bc;iring  may  be  read.  A  telescopic 
Iu1)e,  with  two  rectangular  bends  and  with  reflecting 
mirrors  at  the  angles,  is  .so  placed  as  to  be  used  from 
beneath  the  deck;  two  of  these  may  be  so  situated  as 
to  form  a  base  of  sufficient  length  to  obtain,  by 
simultaneous  observation,  the  distance  by  triangula- 
tion.  The  uppir  iind  lower  limbs  of  the  telescopic 
tube  are  par.dlel;  the  upper  one  is  presented  towartls 
the  object,  the  other  to  the  eye.  The  image  of  the 
f)bject  after  bein-r  twice  reflected  reaches  the  ej'e  of 
the  oliserver,  wliose  pei-'-on  is  not  exiiosi'd. 

ALTITUDE  AND  AZIMUTH  INSTRUMENT.— Al- 
titude, in  astronomy,  is  the  height  of  a  heavenly  body 
above  the  horizon.  It  is  measured,  not  by  linear  dis- 
tance, but  by  the  angle  which  a  line  drawn  from  the 
eye  to  the  heavenly  body  makes  with  the  horizontal 
line,  or  by  the  arc  of  a  vertical  circle  intercepted  be- 
tween the  body  and  the  horizon.  Altitudes  are  taken 
in  observatories  by  means  of  a  telescope  attached  to  a 
graduated  circle  which  is  fixed  vertically.  The  tele- 
scope being  directed  towards  the  Ixxly  to  be  observed, 
the  angle  which  it  makes  with  the  horizon  is  read  off 
the  graduated  circle.  The  Altitude  thus  observed 
1  must  receive  various  corrections — the  chief  being  for 


ALVJS.. 


39 


ALTTK. 


parallax  and  refraction — in  order  to  get  the  true  Al- 
titude. At  sea,  the  Altitude  is  taken  by  means  of 
a  sextant,  and  then  it  has  further  to  be  corrected  for 
the  dip  of  the  \Tsible  horizon  below  the  true  horizon. 
The  correct  determination  of  Altitudes  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  most  of  the  problems  of  astronomy  and 
navigation. 

The  Azimuth  of  a  heavenly  body  is  the  angle 
measured  along  the  horizon  between  the  North  or 
South  point  and  the  point  where  a  circle,  pas-sing 
through  the  zenith  and  the  body,  cuts  the  horizon. 
The  word  comes  from  the  Arabic,  and  is  said  to  be 


From  Oebbie  &  Bairie's  "  Masterpieces  of  the  U.  S.  International  Exhibition,  1876, 


derived  from  a  word  signifj-ing  a  quarter  of  the 
heavens.  It  is  usual  to  measure  the  Azimuth  we.st- 
ward  from  the  point  most  remote  from  the  elevated 
pole,  beginning  at  0°  and  returning  to  it  at  360°. 
Thus,  in  northern  latitudes,  where  the  north  pole  is 
elevated,  the  Azimuth  is  measured  from  the  south 
point,  so  that  the  east  point,  for  instance,  has  an 
Azimuth  of  270\  Azimuth  circles  are  those  which 
extend  from  zenith  to  nadir,  cutting  the  horizon  at 
right  angles,  or  those  in  which  all  the  points  have  the 
same  Azimutli. 

An  Altitude  and  Azimuth  Instrument  consists 
essentially  of  a  vertical  circle  with  its  telesco|ie  so 
arranged  as  to  be  capable  of  being  turned  round 


horizontally  to  any  point  of  the  compass.  It  thus 
differs  irom  a  Transit  Instrument,  which  is  fixed  in 
the  meridian.  The  drawing  represents  one  of  these 
instruments,  made  by  Fauth  it  Co.,  which  was  on 
exhibition  in  the  International  Exhibition  at  Philadel- 
phia. It  is  of  superior  construction,  and  differs  from 
other  instinments  of  this  class  in  many  important 
particulars.  Although  not  a  "  repejiting  instrument," 
strictly  speaking,  and,  therefore,  not  liable  to  the 
defects  inherent  to  repeaters,  yet  both  the  horizontal 
and  vertical  circles  can  be  shifted  for  position,  so  as 
to  bring  a  different  part  of  the  graduation  under  the 
microscopes.  The  circles 
are  divided  on  silver  into 
five-minute  spaces,  reading 
by  micrometer  microscopes  to 
single  seconds.  The  standards 
radiate  out  from  the  centre, 
and  are  higli  enough  to  let  the 
telescope  swing  through.  The 
pivots  of  the  telescope  axis 
rest  on  agate,  and  are  made  of 
phosphor-bronze;  a  delicate 
striding  level,  reading  to 
seconds,  over  the  pivots,  is  pro- 
vided; illumination  tjirough 
pivots;  the  horizontality  of  the 
microscopes  for  the  vertical 
circle  is  controlled  b}-  a  cham- 
bered level  reading  to  seconds. 
Both  circles  are  entirely  free 
of  clamps  and  tangent  screws, 
these  being  attached  to  a 
collar,  so  as  not  to  produce 
any  strain.  —  See  Tluodolite 
and  Transit  Instrument. 

ALUM. — A  whitish,  astrin- 
gent, saline  substance;  pro- 
perly it  is  a  double  salt,  being 
compo.sed  of  sulphate  of 
potash  and  sulphate  of  alu- 
mina, which,  along  with  a 
certain  proportion  of  water, 
crystallize  together  in  octahe- 
drons or  in  cubes.  Its  foim- 
ula  is  KOSO3  +  A1,0=3S03  + 
24HO.  Alum  is  soluble  in 
eighteen  times  its  weight  of 
cold  water,  and  in  its  own 
weight  of  hot  water.  The 
solution  thus  obtained  has  a 
peculiar  astringent  taste,  and 
is  strongly  acid  to  colored  test- 
papers.  When  heated,  the 
crystals  melt  in  their  water  of 
crystallization  ;  and  when  the 
water  is  completely  driven  off 
by  heat,  I  here  is  left  a  spongy 
white  ma.ss,  called  burnt  or 
anhydrous  alum.  Alum  is 
much  u.sed  as  a  mordant  in 
dyeing.  This  property  it  owes 
to  the  alumina  in  it,  which 
has  a  .strong  attachment  for 
te.xtile  tissues,  and  also  for 
coloring  matters ;  the  alu- 
mina thus  becomes  the  means  of  fixing  the  color 
in  the  cloth.  The  manufacture  of  the  colors  or 
paints  called  lakes  depends  on  this  property  of 
alumina  to  attach  to  itself  certain  coloring  mat- 
tere.  Alum  is  also  used  in  the  preparation  of  leather 
from  skins,  and,  in  medicine,  as  a  powerful  astringent 
for  arresting  bleeding  and  mucous  discharges.  Its 
use  in  the  making  of  bread,  to  gi\e  a  wliite  appear- 
ance and  more  pleasing  consistence  to  bread  made 
from  inditTerent  flour,  is  highly  objectionable.  The 
pota.sh  in  alum  can  be  replaced  partly  or  altogether 
by  soda  or  ammonia ;  the  alumina  by  oxide  of 
chromium  or  sesquioxide  of  manganese ;  or  the  sul- 
phuric acid  by  chromic  acid  or  peroxide  of  iron, 


ALUUIMIUH. 


40 


AMBULANCE. 


without  altering  the  form  of  the  crystals.  There  are 
thus  soiia,  anunouia,  chrome,  etc.,  alums,  forming  a 
genus  of  siilts  of  which  common  alum  is  only  one  of 
the  s|Mcies.  The  more  imiwrtant  members  of  the 
cla.ss.  expressttl  in  symbols,  are  : 

KO{>U,  +  iVl,0,3SOj  +  i4no,  ixitash  alum. 

NaOSO,  +  A1,0,-'S0,  +  ->4Hl),  soiia  alum. 

NH.OSO,  +  Al30j3SOi  + 24110,  ammonia  alum. 

KOSO,  +  Cr,0$SSOs  +  24HO,  chromic  iwtash 
alum. 

Fe()SO,+Al,0,3SO,+a4HO,  ferrous  alum. 

ALUMINIUM.— A  white  metal,  somewhat  resem- 
bling silver,  but  possessing  a  bluish  hue  which  re- 
minds one  of  r.inc.  It  is  very  malleable  and  ductile, 
in  tenacity  it  approaches  iron,  and  it  takes  a  high 
polish.  W'hen  healed  in  a  furnace,  it  fuses,  and  can 
then  Ix'  ca.st  in  moulds  into  ingots.  Exix).sed  to  dry  or 
moist  air,  it  is  imaltenible,  and  does  not  oxidize  as 
lead  and  zinc  do.  Cold  water  has  certainly  no  action 
upon  it,  and  in  the  majority  of  experiments  hot  water 
has  not  sensibly  affected  it.  8iili)liuretled  hydrogen, 
the  gas  which  so  readily  tarnishes  the  silver  in  house- 
holds, forming  a  black  film  on  the  surface,  does  not 
act  on  aliuniniura,  which  is  foimd  to  preserve  its 
appearance  under  all  ordinary  circumstances  as  per- 
fectly as  gold  does.  AVhen  f  usid  and  cast  into  moulds, 
it  is  a  soft  metal  like  pure  silyer,  and  has  a  density  of 
2.5(5 ;  but  when  hammered  or  rolled  it  becomes  as 
hard  as  iron,  and  its  density  increases  to  2.67.  It  is 
therefore  a  veiT  light  metal!  Ijcing  lighter  than  glass, 
and  only  one  fourth  as  hea%-y  as  silver.  This  prop- 
erty was  taken  advantage  of  by  Napoleon  III.,  who 
ordered  the  eagles  siu-mounting  the  standards  of  the 
French  army  to  be  made  of  aluminium  instead  of 
silver ;  and  thus  the  same-sized  eagle  was  reduced  to 
one  fourth  of  its  former  weight.  Aluminium  is  very 
sonorous ;  and  when  a  rod  or  small  bell  made  of  it 
is  struck,  it  gives  out  a  yerj-  sweet,  clear,  ringing 
sound.  Aluminium  forms  with  copper  several 
light;  very  hard,  white  alloj-s ;  also  a  yellow  alloy, 
which,  though  much  lighter  than  gold,  is  very 
similar  to  it  m  color.  By  itself,  aluminium  is  used 
for  jewelry,  small  statuettes,  and  other  works  of  art. 
It  is  also  em|)1oyed  for  the  tubes  of  field-glasses 
Its  bluLsh  color  can  be  whitened  by  hydrofluoric  and 
pho.sphoric  acids,  and  also  by  a  heated  solution  of 
pt)tash.  On  the  whole,  considering  its  valuable  pro- 
perties, this  metal  has  not  received  such  extensive  ap- 
plication in  the  arts  as  might  have  been  expected. 

ALUMINIUM-BEONZE.— An  alloy  of  copper  and 
aluminium,  having  great  strength  and  hardnes-s. 
Hee  ('fiitit'tti'Mttala. 

ALUM-LEATHER.— A  leather  much  used  in  the 
Annory,  tanned  by  a  comixjsilion  of  aliun  and  salt. 
Three  jxitinds  of  .sj\lt  and  four  of  alum  are  used  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty  middle-sized  skins,  which 
are  placed  in  a  tumbling-box  with  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water,  and  treated  in  the  usual  manner.  Alum 
was  first  used  ius  a  tanning  agent  by  the  Saracens. 

ALUBE. — An  old  term  for  the  gutter  or  drain  along 
a  battlement  or  i)arapel  wall. 

AMAZONS. — According  to  a  very  ancient  tradition, 
the  Amazons  were  a  nation  of  women,  who  sufTerecl 
no  men  to  remain  among  them,  but  marched  to  battle 
imder  the  command  of  their  Queen,  and  formed  for 
u  long  time  a  formidable  State.  They  held  occa- 
sional intercourse  with  the  men  of  the  neighboring 
States.  If  boys  were  born  to  them,  they  either  sent 
them  to  their  fathers,  or  killed  them.  But  they 
brought  up  the  girls  for  war,  and  burned  off  thevr 
right  breasts,  that  they  might  not  be  prevented  from 
bending  the  bow.  From  this  custom  they  received 
the  name  of  Amazons;  that  is,  "  breaf<tles,s."  Such 
is  the  ordinary  tale;  the  origin  of  which  is  perhaps  to 
Ik.'  aeeounte<l  for  by  sui>i>osing  that  vagui'  reports,  ex- 
aggerated and  ]K)eticjdly  embellished,  had  reached 
the  Greeks  of  the  peculiar  way  in  wliicli  the  wom<-n 
of  various  Caucasian  districts  liveil,  performing  inili- 
tjirv  iluties  which  elsi-where  devolved  on  husbands, 
and  also  of  the  ntmicroiLS  examples  of  female  hero- 


ism which,  travellers  inform  us,  still  distinguish  the  * 
women  of  that  ri'gion.  In  later  times,  however,  the 
word  Amazon  has  been  supixjsed  to  have  some  con- 
nection w  ith  the  Circa.ssian  word  "  Mazji,"  signifying 
thenuK)n,  as  if  the  myth  of  the  Amazons  had  taken 
its  origin  in  the  worship  of  the  moon,  which  pre- 
vailed on  the  borders  of  Asia.  Three  nations  of 
Amazons  have  been  mentioned  by  the  ancients.  1. 
The  Asiatic  Amazons,  from  whom  the  others  branched 
off.  These  dwelt  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and 
among  the  mountains  of  the  Caucasus,  especially  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  modern  Trebizond,  on  the 
river  Themiodou  (now  Termeh).  Thev  are  .said  to 
have  at  one  lime  subdued  the  whole  of  Asia,  and  to 
have  built  Smyrna,  Ephesus,  Cumas  and  other  cities. 
Their  Queen,  Hipiiolyte,  or,  according  to  others, 
Antiope,  was  killed  by  Hercules,  as  the  ninth  of  the 
lalxirs  imposed  on  him  by  Eurystheus  eonsLsted  in 
taking  from  her  the  shoulder-belt  bestowed  on  her  by 
ikiars.  On  one  of  their  expeditions  the  Amazons  came 
to  Attica,  in  the  time  of  Theseus.  They  also  marched 
imder  the  command  of  their  Queen,  Penthesilea,  to 
a.s.sist  Priam  against  the  Greeks.  Tlicy  even  appear 
upon  the  scene  in  the  lime  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
when  their  Queen,  Thalestris,  paid  him  a  visit,  in 
order  to  become  a  mother  by  the  Conqueror  of  Asia. 
2.  The  Sciplhiim  Amazons,"who,  in  after-times,  mar- 
ried among  the  neighboring  Scrthians,  and  withdrew 
further  into  Sarmatia.  3.  The  African  Amazons, 
who,  under  the  command  of  their  Queen,  Myrina, 
subdued  the  Gorgons  and  Atlantes,  marched  through 
Eg)'pt  and  Arabia,  and  founded  their  capital  on  the 
lake  Tritonis,  but  were  then  annihilated  by  Hercules. 
AMBULANCE. — A  military  term  which  is  some- 
what differently  applied  in  "different  countries.  In 
France,  !Ui  ambulance  is  a  portable  hospital,  cue  of 


'  which  is  attached  to  every  division  of  an  army  in  the 
field,  and  provided  with  all  the  requisites  for  the 
medical  succor  of  sick  and  wounded  tr<K)ps.  Such 
an  ambulance  is  stationed  at  some  spot  removed  from 
immediate  danger;  and  soldiers  are  sedulously  em- 
ployed after  a  battle  in  seeking  out  those  who  have 

I  fallen,  and  conveying  them  to  the  ambulance.     Baron 

i  Larrey,  during  the  great  wars  of  the  first  Napoleon, 
brought  this  de])artment  of  medical  business  to  a  high 
degree  of  efficiency,  and  set  an  exanijile  to  the  rest  of 
Europe.  When  England  engaged  in  war  with  Rus- 
.sia  in  1854.  the  ambulance  arrangements,  like  many 
others  relating  to  the  anny,  were  in  a  very  imperfect 
state.  In  the  English  army,  ambulance,  strictly 
speaking,  means  a  field-hospitid  with  all  its  wagons, 
litters,  tents,  cooking-canteen,  etc. ;  but  sometimes  the 
name  is  applied  to  a  four-wheeled  wagon  or  a  two- 
wheeled  cart  fitted  up  for  the  reception  of  wounded 
men.  When  Lord  Raglan  was  alwiit  to  be  .sent  out 
with  the  anny.  Dr.  Guthrie,  Pn-sideiit  of  the  College 
of  Surgeons,  devised  a  new  form  of  ambulance-cart; 
while  Dr.  Andrew  Smith,  Director  -  General  of  the 
Army  and  Ordnance  Medical  DeparlnienI,  inventctl 
a  new  ambuliiiice-wagon.  In  the  (Julhrie  cart,  the 
badly  wounded  were  laid  on  it  at  full  length,  while 
those  slightly  burl  sjit  in  front  and  rear  and  on  the 
sides.     A  sirctcher  was  slung  from  the  top  for  the  ac- 

I  commodation  of  the  former.     The  back-board  was  let 


AMBULANCE  COBFS. 


41 


AMBUSCADE. 


down  for  cases  requirinjr  amputation.  The  hospital- 
chests  were  lashed  underneath.  After  the  battle  of  the 
Alma,  the  English  were  almost  entirely  destitute  of 
means  for  convening  their  wounded  do«iJ  to  the 
beach;  but  the  French  had  for  this  purpose  a  large 
number  of  enmleti,  .suggested  to  them  by  their  experi- 
ence in  Algeria.  Each  of  these  consists  of  two  ea.sy- 
chairs,  slung,  like  panniers,  across  the  back  of  a  mule, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing  on  page  40.  These  were  espe- 
cially available  along  tracks  where  no  wheel-carriage 
could  pa.ss.  These  cacolets  have  since  been  adopted 
in  the  English  army,  as  well  as  improved  hand-litters, 
wheeleil  litters,  or  barrows,  and  ambulance-wagons  on  a 
more  modem  model  than  those  of  Smith  and  Guthrie, 
but  having  the  same  general  character.  The  Ameri- 
can war,  the  wars  of  1866  and  '70,  and,  above  all,  the 
growth  of  volunteer  aid-societies  under  the  influence 
of  the  Geneva  Convention  of  1866  (which  gave  to  the 
wounded  and  their  attendants  the  pri\nleges  of  ncu- 
trality),  have  largely  developed  the  ambulance  equip- 
ments of  ever)-  European  army.  Evcrv  international 
exhibition  now  contains  an  immense  number  of  de- 
signs for  the  safe  transport  of  the  wounded.  The 
most  remarkable  step  taken  in  this  direction  has  been 
the  organization  of  railway  ambulances.  Trains  of 
carriages  either  built  for  the  purpose,  or  adapted  from 
the  ordinary  rolling-stock,  can  now  be  fitted  up  as 
mo\ing  hospitals,  with  their  stall  of  surgeons  and  at- 
tendants; and  by  means  of  these  railway  ambidances 
the  wounded  can  be  safely  and  rapidly  removed  from 
the  encumbered  field-hospitals  to  the  permanent  hos- 
pitals of  the  great  cities  of  their  own  country.  All 
the  fittings  for  thus  adapting  railway  trains  "to  hos- 
pital purposes  are  now  kept  pcrmanentlj-  in  store  in 
many  of  the  countries  of  the  Continent. 

The  following  are  the  rules  for  a  uniform  system  of 
ambtilances  in  the  annics  of  the  United  States:  The 
Medical  Director,  or  chief  Medical  officer,  of  each 
army  corps  shall,  under  the  control  of  the  Medical 
Director  of  the  army  to  which  such  army  corps  be- 
longs, have  the  direction  and  supervision  of  all  am- 
bulances, medicine  and  other  wagons,  horses,  mules, 
barne.ss,  and  other  fixtures  appertaining  thereto,  and 
of  all  officers  and  men  who  may  be  detailed  or  em- 
ploj-ed  to  assist  him  in  the  management  thereof,  in 
the  army  corps  in  which  he  may  be  .serving.  The 
Commanding  Officer  of  each  army  corps  shall  ditail 
officers  aud  enlisted  men  for  service  In  its  ambulance 
corps  upon  the  following  basis,  viz.:  One  Captain, 
■who  shall  be  Commandant  of  said  ambulance  corps ; 
one  Fii'st  Lieutenant  for  each  division;  one  Second 
Lieutenant  for  each  .brigade;  one  Sergeant  for  each 
regiment;  three  privates  for  each  amliulance,  and 
one  private  for  each  wagon.  The  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers  of  the  ambulance  corps  shall  be 
mounted.  The  officers,  nou-conunissioned  officers, 
and  privates  detailed  for  each  array  corps  shall  be  ex- 
amined by  a  board  of  Medical  officers  of  the  same  as 
to  their  fitness.  Such  as  are  found  to  be  not  qualified 
shall  lie  rejected,  and  others  detailed  in  their  stead. 
There  shall  be  allowed  and  furnished  to  each  army 
corps  two-horse  ambulances,  upon  the  following  basis: 
Three  to  each  regiment  of  Infantry  of  five  hundred 
men  or  more;  two  to  each  regiment  of  Infantry  of 
more  than  two  hundred  and  less  than  five  hundred 
men;  and  one  to  each  regiment  of  Infantry  of  less 
than  two  hundred  men;  two  to  each  regiment  of 
Cavalry  of  five  hundred  men  or  more;  and  one  to  each 
regiment  of  Cavalry  of  less  than  five  hundred  men; 
one  to  each  battery  of  Artillery,  to  which  it  shall  be 
permanently  attached;  to  the  headquarters  of  each 
army  corps,  two  such  ambulances;  and  to  each  divi- 
sion train  of  ambulances  two  army -wagons.  Am- 
bulances shall  be  allowed  and  furnished  upon  the 
same  basis  to  divisions,  brigades,  and  commands  not 
attached  to  any  army  corps.  Each  ambulance  shalt 
be  provided  with  such  number  of  stretchers  and  other 
njipliances  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  Surgeon-Gen- 
eral. 

During  the  late  war  in  America,  much  attention 


was  given  to  the  subject  of  ambtdancCs,  and  many 
forms  were  proposed  pos.ses.sing  merit,  as  was  demon- 
strated by  their  successful  use  in  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870.  The  drawing  shows  a  form  of  am- 
bulance used  in  the  United  States  with  satisfaction. 
The  two  stretchers  shown  are  detjjchable,  and  may 
be  placed  inside  the  wagon  when  moving  over  level 
roads,  or  maj'  be  removed  and  transported  by  men 
when  moving  over  rough  and  rockj'  country,  or  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  take  the  wagons  apart  in 


order  to  get  them  up  or  dowTi  very  steep  places.  The 
stretchers  are  so  constructed  with  hinges  and  hooks 
as  to  be  folded  into  a  verj'  small  space  when  not 
needed,  and  to  permit  the  supports  to  be  used  as 
handles.  In  the  United  States  service,  litters  are 
adopted  or  authorized  by  the  Secrefjiry  of  War,  in 
lieu  of  ambulances,  when  judged  necessary,  under 
such  rules  and  regulations  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the 
Jlcdical  Director  of  each  army  corjis.  See  Guthrie 
Ainhidancecart. 

AMBULANCE  CORPS.  — A  body  of  men  usually 
unknown  in  peace-time,  but  formed  on  the  outbreak 
of  war  to  attend  upon  the  sick  and  wounded.  The 
personnel  of  such  a  body  in  England  would  be  taken 
from  the  Army  Hospital  Corps;  and  the  ambulance 
cariiages  attached  to  the  transport  would  form  the 
niii.t:'n'r!. 

AMBULATOB. — An  instrument,  sometimes  called 
Perambulator,  for  measuring  distances.  The  term 
is  often  erroneously  applied  to  a  velocipede  and  to  a 
traction  engine,  whose  mode  of  propulsion  is  by  oscil- 
lating bars  whose  feet  come  in  contact  with  the 
ground  in  somewhat  similar  manner  to  the  natural 
action  of  the  legs  of  anunals  or  of  man.    See  OdimieUir. 

AMBUSCADE. — In  planning  an  ambuscaile,  we 
should  be  well  acquainted  with  the  enemy's  force, 
ami  the  state  of  discipline  shown  by  it.  The  position 
chosen  for  the  attemjit  must  be  favorable  to  the  con- 
cealment of  troops,  and  if  practicable  it  should  be 
reached  by  night,  every  precaution  being  taken  to  in- 
sure secrecy.  The  best  positions  are  those  where  the 
enemy  is  enclosed  in  a  defile  or  village  and  has  not 
taken  the  proper  precautions  to  secure  himself  from 
an  attack.  By  seizing  the  outlets  of  the  defile  by  in- 
fantry, in  such  cases,  and  making  an  impetuous 
charge  of  cavalry  into  it,  the  enemy  may  be  com- 
pletely routed.  Ambuscades  may  frequently  be  at- 
tempted with  success  in  the  affairs  of  advanced-  and 
rear-guards ;  by  pushing  the  enemy  vigorously  and 
then  falling  back,  if  he  offers  a  strong  resistance,  so 
as  to  drawhim  upon  a  point  wiiere  troops  are  posted 
in  force  to  receive  him.  To  trace  anything  more  than 
a  mere  outline,  as  a  guide  in  operations  of  this  kind, 
which  depend  upon  so  many  fortuitous  circum- 
stances, would  serve  but  little  useful  jiurpose.  An 
active,  intelligent  officer,  with  an  imagination  fertile 
in  the  ex-]X'dients  of  his  profession,  will  seldom  be  at 
a  loss  as  to  his  best  course  when  the  occa.sion  ofTers  ; 
to  one  without  these  qualities,  opportunities  present 
themselves  in  vain.     See  Ambush  and  Surprise. 


AMBUSH. 


42 


AM£8  QVV. 


Sect! 


AMBUSH.— AnoUier  name  for  Aml)uscn(ic.  In 
former  days,  whin  soldiers  fought  hand  to  hand 
more  freii'ueutlv  than  at  present,  Uie  ambush  was 
much  rcsorletl  "to ;  l)ut  the  tactics  of  modern  times 
render  it  less  availalile.  It  was  bv  an  amliiish  on 
the  iMirl  of  the  revolted  Sepoys  that  so  many  Brit- 
ish soldiers  were  killed  anil  wounded  in  thai  adven- 
ture which  Wiis  known,  during  the  wars  of  the  In- 
dian Mutiny,  a-s  the  "  Disjister  at  Arrah,"  in  July, 
18.">7.  An  "ambush  is  neither  an  "attack"  nor  a 
"surpri.sc,"  in  military  language;  it  is  something 
more  sudden  and  unexpected  than  either.  See  Sur- 
prite. 

AM£. — A  French  term,  similar  in  its  import  to  the 
word  dmiiilK-r.  as  applied  to  cannon,  etc. 

AMENDE  HONOKABLE.— In  the  old  aniiies  of 
Frani-e,  this  expression  signitied  an  apology  for  some 
injurj'  done  to  another,  or  sjitisfaction  given  for  an 
offence  committed  ag-ainsi  the  rules 
of  honor  or  military  etiquette,  and 
was  also  applied  to  an  infamous  kind 
of  punishment  inflicted  upon  traitors, 
liarricides,  or  .sjicrilegious  jiersons.  in 
the  following  manner:  The  offender 
being  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the 
hangman — his  shirt  stripped  off,  a 
rope  put  atwut  hLs  neck,  and  a  taper 
in  his  hand — wiis  led  into  the  Court, 
where  he  liegged  pardon  of  God,  the 
Court,  and  hfs  Country.  Sometime^ 
the  punishment  ended  there;  but 
often  it  was  only  a  prelude  to  death 
or  banishment  to  the  galleys.  The 
amende  hoiioraltle  prevails  jet  in  some 
parts  of  Euro|je. 

AMENTAT.E.— A  sort  of  lance  used 
by  the  Komans,  which  had  a  leathern  strap  attached  to 
the  center  of  it. 

AMENTUM. — A  leathern  strap  used  by  the  Romans, 
Greeks,  and  Galicians  to  throw  lances."  It  was  fast- 
eneil  around  the  second  and  third  tingers,  and  a  knot 
was  tied  on  it,  which  at  the  throwing  of  the  lance 
loosened  itself. 

AMEEICAN  BLOCK-HOUSE.— In  the  more  recent 
1)lock-houseserectcd  in  the  United  States  for  the  protec- 
tion of  bridges,  railroad -station-;,  etc.,  the  sides  and  roof 
are  constructed  with  a  double  thickness  of  logs  eight- 
een inches  in  iliameter,  hewn  to  a  face  of  eight  inches 
where  they  are  in  contact.  The  inner  logs  are  placed 
upright,  the  outward  horizontal.  A  space  is  left  in 
the  outward  ca.sing  sufficient  for  the  tire  from  the 
loopholes  made  through  the  inner.  The  horizontal 
logs  alx)ve  the  loop-holes  are  held  up  by  short  up- 
rights, niortisi'd  into  them  and  into  those  just  below. 
The  ceiling  is  covered  with  earth,  as  .shown  in  the 
section,  three  feet  thick  at  the  ridge  and  sloping  to- 
wards the  eavi~i  to  about  six  or  nine  inches,  where  it 
is  confined  by  a  pole-plate.  The  earth  is  protected 
from  the  weather  by  a  lx)ard  roofins.  Tin  or  sheet- 
iron  ventilators  are  made  through  the  roofing  and  ceil- 
ing, and  a  brick  flue  to  receive  the  pipe  of'  the  stove 
used  in  cold  weather.  Some  of  these  structures  are 
built  in  the  fonn  of  across,  consistinsr  of  a  sf|uare  cen- 
tnd  chamber,  twenty-four  feel  on  a  side,  and  of  four 
wings  of  the  s;ime  form  and  dimensions  when  the 
block-hou.se  is  for  cannon.  An  embrasure  is  pierced 
in  each  of  ihe  three  sides  of  each  wing  lo  serve  a  sin- 
gle gun.  The  cheeks  of  the  embra.sures  are  faced 
with  loi.'s,  and  the  mouth  is  secured  bv  a  musket- 
proof  shutter  will)  a  loop-hole  in  it.  The"  embrasures 
are  below  Ihe  level  of  ihe  loop-holes,  allowing  these 
to  he  used  whenever  necessary.  Arrann-ements  for 
magazines  and  store-rof.ms  are"  made  under  the  floor 
of  the  blockhouse  in  Ihe  most  secure  parts.  The  en- 
trance to  the  blockhouse  may  be  either  throutrh  a 
po>leni,  the  bottom  of  which  is  on  the  level  of  that  of 
the  ditch,  a  nimj)  leading  from  this  level  outwards,  a 
iloor  projH'rly  secured,  and  steps,  forming  the  inner 
communications;  or  il  mav  be  arranged  with  a  plank 
thrown  across  the  ditch  on  the  sjime  level  as  the  nat- 


ural ground,  Ihe  enlrance  to  the  door  being  masked 
by  a  double  siockade,  leaving  the  .same  pas-sage-way 
as  that  of  the  doorway.  Loop-holes  in  the  door  and 
sides  of  Ihe  building  sweep  this  passage. 

The  block-hou.se"  is  sometimes  arranged  with  two 
stories,  Ihe  comers  or  the  sides  of  the  upper  storj-  pro- 
jecting over  the  sides  of  the  lower.  Either  of  these 
"melhods  is  sufficient  for  the  defence  of  the  lower 
storv;  but  Ihe  first  is  the  best  to  procure  a  fire  in  the 
direction  of  its  angles.  It  can  only  be  useil,  however, 
as  a  defence  arainsi  infantry.  When  artillery  caimot 
be  brought  to  l)ear  against  the  top  of  the  block-house, 
it  may  Ih?  constructiil  like  an  onimary  Boor,  and  be 
covered  with  nine  or  twelve  inches  of  "earth  to  guard 
agiunst  fire.  The  application  of  wood  lo  the  jiurposcs 
of  defence  is  one  of  panunount  importance  in  our 
country.  A  block-house,  surrounded  by  a  defensive 
stockailc,  is  impregnable  to  the  attack  of  infantry  if 


=:     — 

" 

^     - 

=   — 

—  ' 

= 

r^ 

f"'«y  ' 

l^i^ 

4  J 

■i*»    i''S 

1^ 

P&i'^:i>a*. 

[mb 

Elevation. 

properly  defended,  and  is  therefore  peculiarly  suitable 
to  either  wooded  or  mountainous  positions,  where  a 
tniin  of  tirtillery  cannot  be  taken  williout  great  labor, 
owing  to  the  impediniints  thai  may  be  thrown  in  its 
way,  l)y  rendering  the  roads  impassable  from  olistruc- 
tions  easily  obtained.  In  positions  covered  by  exten- 
sive earthen  works,  such  as  those  that  would  be  re- 
quired for  the  defence  of  the  towns  on  our  seaboard, 
and  which  would  be  occupied  during  a  war,  a  defen- 
sive arrangement  of  the  barnicks  for  the  troops,  so 
that  they  might  serve,  in  case  of  the  main  works  be- 
ing forced,  as  rid  lying-points,  under  cover  of  which 
the  main  body  of  troops  may  retreat  with  sjifety,  is  a 
subject  that  conunends  itself  to  the  serious  attention 
of  the  engineer.  From  the  details  already  entered 
into,  an  efficient  combination  for  this  purpose  will 
suggest  itself  to  the  reader,  without  entering  further 
into  particidars.     See  Btockhouw. 

AMERICAN  FLAG.— On  Ihe  14lh  of  June,  1777,  the 
Continental  Congress  resolved  that  the  Flag  of  the 
United  Colonies  should  show  thirteen  stripes  of  red 
and  white  idlernaling,  to  represent  the  mmiber  of  the 
Colonies,  with  thirteen  stars  in  a  blue  field.  This  be- 
came the  Flag  of  the  United  Slates,  and  a  star  is  added 
for  every  Slate  added  lo  Ihe  Union.  The  width  of  the 
Flag  should  Vie  two  thirds  its  length.  Seven  of  the 
stripes,  beginning  with  the  outermost,  iirc  red.  The 
blue  field,  or  union,  is  square  and  has  Ihe  w  idlh  of 
seven  stripes.  The  United  Stales  Heveniie  Flag  has 
sixteen  vertical  stripes,  alternately  red  and  white,  with 
a  white  union  bearing  the  National  Arms  in  dark  blue. 
See  Ftniji. 

AMES  GUN.— A  wToiightiron  rifled  gim  made  on 
the  liiiilliiii  jirinciple.  Bars  of  WTOught-iron  are  bent 
aroimd  a  mandrel  iind  their  ends  are  welded  so  as  to 
form  rings.  After  turning  them  in  a  lathe,  two  or 
more  of  these  rings  are  fitted  one  within  another  to 
form  a  disk.  These  disks  are  then  welded  in  succes- 
sion to  a  concave  breech-i>ieee.  The  .shape  of  the 
gun  is  that  of  the  Dahlgren.  The  trunnions  are  at- 
tached by  being  screwed  into  the  body  of  the  gtm. 
These  guns  have  shown  remarkable  endurance.  One 
was  fired  16:i0  limes  with  a  :i7-iiotmd  rifle-shot  and  3i 
pounds  of  powder.     The  chambirs  have  shown  some 


AMICUS  CTTEIJE. 


43 


AKNESTT, 


stretching  at  the  welds,  and  with  this  a  weakness  to 
resist  longitudinal  strains.  The  latter  is  effectually 
overcome  by  employing  Dahlgren's  breech-atrap.  See 
Ordnawe. 

AMICUS  CUSI.E. — Counsel,  or  at  least  Amici  Curife 
(Friends  of  the  Court),  are  allowed  to  prisoners  in  all 
cases;  but  no  jx-rson  is  permitted  to  address  the  Court, 
or  interfere  in  any  manner  with  its  proceedings,  ex- 
cept the  parlies  themselves. 

AMMUNITION. — Sometimes  this  name  is  given  to 
cannon  and  mortars,  as  well  as  to  the  pro.jectiles  and 
explosive  substances  employed  with  them;  but  more 
usuallj'  ammunition  is  considered  to  apply  to  the  lat- 
ter— such  as  shot,  shell,  gunpowder,  cartridges,  fuses, 
wads,  grenades.  Muskets,  swords,  bayonets,  antl 
other  small-arms  are  sometimes,  but  improperly,  in- 
cluded under  this  tenn.  The  Royal  Laboratoiy  at 
Woolwich  is  the  place  where  ammunition  is  chietl}' 
prepared  for  the  British  army  and  navy.  The  can- 
non-balls mav  be  cast  at  some  of  the  great  iron  foun- 
dries in  the  S^orth;  the  shells  mav  be  cast  t)r  forged  in 
the  shell-factory  at  "Woolwich;  the  muskets  may  be 
made  at  Birmingham,  and  the  ritles  at  Entield;  the 
bullets  at  the  shot -factories;  the  gunpowder  at  Wal- 
tham  Abbey — and  so  on;  but  the  "  making  uj)"  of  the 
ammunition  is  mostly  conducted  at  the  estal)lishment 
above  mentioned.  In  the  United  States,  ammunition 
is  prepared  at  the  various  Arsenals  and  by  numerous 
private  Manufacturing  Companies.  Bags  of  serge,  in 
enormous  number,  are  cut  out  and  made,  and  tilled 
to  form  the  cartridges  for  large  ordnance.  Bags  or 
tubes  of  paper  are  madetind  tilled  to  constitute  blank 
cartridges  for  small-arms;  while  the  ball-cartridges 
are  enclosed  in  thin  copper  cylinders.  The  tubes  and 
combiLstibles  for  war-rockets  and  fuses  are  also  manu- 
factured. The  cartridges  for  small-arms  (ritles,  mus- 
kets, carbines,  and  pistols)  are  made  in  millions;  since 
it  is  on  those  that  the  main  offensive  operations  of  an 
army  depend.  It  has  been  calculated  by  the  Wool- 
wich Authorities  that  a  British  array  of  (iO.OOO  men, 
comprising  a  fair  average  of  infantry,  cavalry,  artil- 
lery, and  engineers,  ought  to  be  provided  with  no  less 
than  18,000,000  ball-cartridges  for  small-arms,  for  six 
months'  operations.  These  would  require  1000  am- 
munition-wagons and  3600  horses  to  convey  them 
all  at  once.  It  is  therefore  deemed  better  that,  mider 
any  such  circumstances,  there  shouUl  be  established 
eritrepJts  for  suppljing  the  troops  from  time  to  time. 
The  wagons  constructed  for  this  kind  of  serWce  vriU 
carry  20,000  rounds  of  small-arm  ammunition  each; 
the  cartridges  are  packed  in  boxes,  and  the  wagons 
are  drawn  by  four  horses  each.  Several  wagons  are 
organized  into  an  "equipment,"  under  the  charge  of 
a  detachment  of  artillery;  and  there  arc  several  such 
equipments  for  an  army  of  the  magnitude  above  men- 
tioned— one  for  each  division  of  infantry,  a  small  por- 
tion for  the  cavalry,  and  the  rest  in  reserve.  It  has 
been  laid  down  that  an  army  of  60,000  men  ought  to 
have  2,680,000  cartridges  with  them,  besides  those  in 
reserve;  and  that  the  conveyance  of  such  a  quantity, 
with  a  few  forges  and  stores,  would  require  150  am- 
munition-wagons, 830  men,  and  704  horses.  The 
equipment  would  return  to  the  entrepot  for  a  new 
supply  when  needeit.  In  the  Peninsular  War,  and 
at  Waterloo,  the  English  used  two-horse  carts,  carry- 
ing about  10,000  rounils  of  small-arm  ammunition 
each;  but  a  superior  kind  of  wagon  has  been  since 
introduced.  In  the  field,  an  infantry  soldier  usually 
carries  about  60  rounds,  put  in  compartments  in  his 
pouch.  When  the  word  ammimition  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  artillery  matters,  the  "fixed"  ammunition 
comprises  the  loaded  shells,  cartridges,  and  carcasses; 
whereas  the  "imfixed  '  are  the  unfilled  case-shot, 
grape-shot,  and  shell.  During  peace,  the  Woolwich 
laboratory  serves  out  little  less  than  1,000,000  lbs.  of 
gunpowder  annually,  in  ammunition  for  the  army 
and  navy,  for  puriioscs  of  exercising,  saluting,  etc. 
The  chief  kinds  of  anmiunition  will  l)e  found  briefly 
described  under  their  proper  headings.  See  Ammu- 
nition-boxes,   Breaking   up  Ammunition,    Cartridge, 


Center-fire  Metallic-eam  Cartridge,  Field  and  foun- 
tain Ammunition,  Fixed  Ammunition,  Metallic  Am- 
munition for  Small-eirmn,  Paj)er  Ammunition  for 
Snuill-arm.1,  Preserration  of  Ammunition  and  Fire- 
irorku.  Siege  and  Garrison  Ammunition,  Stand  of 
Ammunition,  and  Stnt/tjud  Ammunition. 

AMMUNITION-BOXES.— Packing-bo.xes  for  field- 
ammunition  are  made  of  well-seasoned  stuff  (generally 
white  pine),  1.2.i  inch  thick,  dovetailed  with  the 
tenon  on  the  ends.  The  top  of  the  box  is  fastened 
with  six  2-inch  screws;  the  box  has  two  handles  of  11- 
inch  rope,  attached  to  brackets  at  the  ends.  The 
boxes  are  painted  on  the  outside  different  colors  to 
indicate  the  contents  of  the  box.  Those  containing 
shot  are  painted  olive;  shells,  bUiek;  spherical  cjuse- 
shot,  red;  and  canisters,  a  light  drab.  The  kind  of 
ammunition  is  marked  on  each  end  in  large  white 
letters.  The  place  and  date  of  fabrication  are  marked 
on  the  inside  of  the  cover.  The  boxes  are  packed  as 
follows: 

For  Smooth-bore  Grxs. — Shot,  »pherieal  case  and 
c/inistcrs,  fixed. — Laid  in  two  tiers  across  the  bo.v,  the 
shot  or  canisters  alternating  with  the  cartridges  at  each 
side.  The  shot  or  canisters  of  the  upper  tier  rest  on 
those  of  the  lower  and  not  on  the  cartridges.  Canis- 
ters are  packed  in  the  same  manner,  omitting  the 
strips  of  wood  in  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

For  12-PDU.  MorxTAtN-HOwixzER. — Shells  and 
case-shot,  fixed. — Placed  upright,  tbe  balls  down,  rest- 
ing on  strips  of  wood  as  for  the  other  howitzer. 
Canisters  are  packed  in  the  same  manner,  resting  on 
the  bottom  of  the  box. 

For  Rifled  Grxs. — Shells  and  case-shot. — Placed 
upright,  the  balls  down,  resting  on  strips  of  wood  as 
for  the  howitzer.  The  iron  part  of  the  balls  rests 
against  strips  of  wood  4  inches  wide  and  .25  inch 
thick,  nailed  to  the  side  and  ends  of  the  box  at  the 
bottom,  and  similar  strips  placed  between  the  rows  of 
the  balls  to  prevent  the  soft  metal  cups  from  bearing 
against  the  box  or  against  each  other  and  being 
bruised;  the  cartridges  are  placed  on  top  of  the  pro- 
.iectiles.  Canisters  are  packed  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  case-shot,  omitting  the  strips  of  wood  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box. 

In  all  the  lioxes  the  small  stores  are  placed  in  the 
vacant  spaces  on  top  of  the  ammunition.  A  layer  of 
tow  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  each  box,  and  the 
whole  contents  are  well  packed  in  tow,  filling  the  box 
so  as  to  be  pressed  do^vn  by  the  cover.  About  three 
pounds  of  tow  are  required  for  a  box.  See  Ammuni- 
tion and  Miidi'inn  Am m u nition-box. 

AMMUNITION-CHESTS.— Chests  placed  on  field- 
limbers  and  cais.sons  for  the  transportation  and  safe- 
keeping of  ammunition.  The  limber  has  one  and 
the  caisson  has  three  such  chests,  which  will  seat 
twelve  earmoneers  if  necessary.  The  interior  com- 
partments of  the  ammunition-chests  vary  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  ammunition  with  which  they  are 
loaded, 

AMMUNITION-SHOES.— Shoes  made  for  soldiers 
and  sailors  in  the  British  service,  and  particularly  for 
use  by  those  frequenting  the  magazine,  being  soft  and 
free  from  metal. 

AMMUNITION-WAGON.— A  carriage  employed  for 
the  transportation  of  ammunition.  The  points  essen- 
tial in  the  .general  construction  of  field-artillery  car- 
riages appl.v  equally  in  that  of  the  ammunition-wagon, 
so  far  as  the  traveling  conditions  are  concerned.  It 
need  only  lie  observed  that  the  general  form  of  a  lim- 
ber-carriage can  be  most  effectively  retained  in  the 
ammunition-wagon  by  substituting  a  perch  for  the 
trail  of  the  giui-carriage,  and  furnishing  it  with  an 
eye  in  front  for  an  attachment  to  the  limber-hook. 
Tfhe  arrangement  of  the  ammunition-bo.xes  on  the 
platform  of  the  body  must  be  such  as  to  insure  the 
center  of  gravity  of'  the  entire  load  falling  between 
the  wheels  and  limber-hook,  the  pressure  oil  the  latter 
being  regulated  with  iiarticular  reference  to  stability 
anil  ease  of  draught. 

AMNESTY.— In  act  of  pardon  or  oblivion,  and  tlie 


AHOBCE. 


44 


AHPHITHEATSB. 


effect  of  it  i<  tlmt  the  ciimes  and  offences  agjiinst  the 
State,  siH'cilied  in  the  aet,  are  so  obliterated  that  tliey 
can  never  ajjaiu  be  eharired  asiiinst  the  guilty  parties. 
The  amnesty  may  be  either  absolute  or  qualilied  witli 
cxeeptious.  Instances  of  the  latter  are  to  be  found  in 
ancient  and  modem  history:  thus,  Thntsybulus,  when 
he  overthrew  the  oliirarihy  in  Athens,  caused  an 
amnesty  to  lie  proe'lainied,  from  the  oix-ration  of  which 
the  thirty  tyrants,  wlio  had  formed  the  olijrarchy,  : 
and  some  few  persons  who  had  actetl  imder  them, 
were  cxcludi'd.  Apiin,  Bonaparte,  on  his  return 
from  Elba  in  181"), "issued  a  decree,  which  was  pub- 
lished at  Lyon,  declaring  an  amnesty,  from  the  Ix-ne- 
tiLs  of  which  he  excepted  thirteen  pers^ins  whom  he 
named.  In  the  absence  of  specific  statutes  on  the 
subject,  the  exercise  of  amnesty  in  the  United  Stales 
was  assumed  to  lie  with  the  President.  Washington, 
without  participation  by  Congress,  granted  amnesty, 
or  pardon,  to  persons  who  took  part  in  the  "  Whisky 
Rebellion."  John  Adams  proclaimed  full  pardon  of 
those  eug-aged  in  the  House-tax  Insurrection,  and  , 
Madison\lid  the  sjime  in  the  case  of  the  Barataria 
Pirates.  During  the  Rebellion,  Lincoln  and  Johnson 
issued  four  or  live  proclamations  of  amnesty,  one  of 
the  latest  luing  so  broad  in  its  conditions  that  it  raised 
in  Congress  the  .question  whether  the  President  had 
the  right  to  such  action,  and  the  J  udiciary  Committee  of 
the  Senate,  in  February,  1809,  decided  that  he  had  not. 
Amnesty  is  so  closely  connected  with  "  pardon"  and 
"  reprieve"  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  them.  In 
one  mes.s)ige  President  Lincoln  a.sscrled  his  exclusi\e 
authority  under  the  Constitution,  and  his  independ- 
ence of  Congress  in  respect  to  the  pardoning  power, 
oven  more  emphatically  than  in  the  proclamation.  In 
1862  Congress  had  passed  an  Act  giving  full  power 
to  the  President,  but  he  considered  the  Act  unneces- 
sary, claiming  that  the  Constitution  gave  him  the 
necessary  authority.  Then,  in  1867,  the  Act  of  1862 
was  repealed;  ancf  all  amnesty  proceedings  were  re- 
manded to  their  original  basis  in  the  Second  Artich' 
of  the  Constitution,  until  further  defined  in  later 
amendments.  The  Suiireme  Court  had  decided  in 
the  case  of  Garland  that  for  pardon  the  President's 
power  was  perfect;  yet  that  is  not  held  to  include 
general  amnesty.  But  in  1868  the  Fourteenth  Amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution,  prohibiting  rebels  from 
holding  certain  offices  unless  their  disabilities  should 
first  "be  removed  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each 
House,"  seemed  to  diminish  the  range  of  executive 
authority.  Still,  the  Supreme  Court  has  held  in 
several  cjvses  to  the  absolute  power  of  the  President 
to  grant  amnesty  and  pardon,  and  that  neither  Con- 
gress nor  any  authority  less  than  an  express  change 
of  the  Federal  Constitution  can  reverse,  abridge,  or 
direct  that  power.  The  Court,  through  Chief-Justice 
Cha.se,  says:  "It  is  the  intention  of  the  Constitution 
that  Ciich  of  the  great  co-ordinate  departments  of  the 
government,  the  legi.slative,  the  executive,  and  the 
judicial,  shall  Ik-  in  its  sphere  independent  of  the 
others.  To  the  executive  alone  is  entrusted  the  power 
of  pardon,  and  it  is  granted  without  limit.  Pardon 
includes  amnesty.  It  blots  out  the  offense  jiardoned, 
and  removes  all  it.s  penal  consequences." 

AMOBCE, — .iVn  old  military'  word  for  fine-grained 
jjowdor,  such  as  was  sometimes  used  for  the  piiming  ' 
of  great-.guas,  mortjirs,  and  howitzers;   as  also   foi' 
small-arms,  on  account  of  its  rapid  inflammation.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a  port-fire  or  quick-match.  [ 

AHOBCEB. — A  French  word  meaning  to  decoy, 
aiul  used  in  the  sense  of  making  a  feint  in  order  "to 
deceive  thc>  cncmv  and  draw  him  into  a  snare. 

AMORCOIB.— An  instrument  used  by  the  French 
for  priming  muskets;  also  a  small  copper  lx)x  in  which 
are  placed  the  jiercussion-caps. 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL.— This  central  politico- 
religious  (,'ourt  of  several  Grecian  tribes  was  held 
twice  a  year.  In  spring,  the  members  as.sembled  in 
the  temple  of  Al)ollo,  at  Delphi ;  in  autumn,  in  the 
temple  of  Ceres,  at  the  village  of  Anihela,  near  Ther- 
mopylui.     Their  purpose  was  twofold :  1.  To  deter- 


mine queslmns  of  International  Law  ;  2.  To  preserve 
the  Religious  Institutions  of  the  Greeks.  As  there 
were  many  Amphictyonies  in  the  early  days  of  Greek 
history — of  which,  however,  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant was  that  which  forms  the  subject  of  our  article — 
it  has  generally  been  supjiostd  that  they  originated 
out  of  a  desire  for  social  union,  and  were,  conse- 
quently, a  result  of  the  national  instinct  for  civilize 
tion.  "  I^ike  the  01ymi>ic  games  of  a  later  period, 
their  tendency  was  to  develop  a  spirit  of  brotherhood 
where  it  was  greatly  required.  The  restless  Greek 
intellect,  in  its  application  to  political  life,  had  natu- 
fjUy  an  excessive  and  iierilous  lo\e  of  individualism, 
outof  which  rose  themunerous  strifes  and  animosities 
of  the  various  States.  These  Coimcils,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  calculated  to  exert  a  wholesome  central- 
izing influence.  They  knit  together,  for  a  time,  the 
distracted  tribes  in  a  bond  of  common  interest  and 
piety.  Like  the  Olympic  games,  tco.  they  became 
the  occasion  of  vast  gatherings  of  the  Greek  peoples, 
who  crowded  thither  for  every  variety  of  purpose, 
.sacred  and  secular  ;  and  thus  a  feeling  of  tinity  and 
pure  national  patriotism  was,  temporarily  at  least,  ex- 
cited in  the  popular  mind.  The  special  origin  of  the 
Amphictyonic  Council  or  League  is  unknown,  though 
we  know  that  it  was  composed  of  twelve  tribes.  The 
ancient  writers  differ  in  the  names  of  these ;  but  the 
list  given  bj-  the  orator  ^Eschines,  though  containing 
only  eleven,  is  perhaps  the  .safest  to  adhere  to :  the 
The.s.s;ilians,  Bo?otians,  Dorians,  lonians,  Perrhte- 
bians,  Magnetes,  Locrians,  (Eta>ans,  Phthiols,  Ma- 
lians,  and  Phocians.  Probably  the  remaining  tribe 
was  the  Dolopiaus,  who  are  mentioned  in  other  ac- 
counts. It  has  been  justly  concluded  that  the  great 
preponderance  of  the  northern  tribes,  who  were  of 
the  old  Pelasgic  race,  ])ioves  the  antiquity  of  the 
Council.  It  must  have  been  older  than  the  descent 
of  the  Dorians  u]ion  the  Peloponnesus,  or  the  emi- 
gration of  the  lonians  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor. 
Each  of  the  twelve  tribes  sent  to  the  Amphictyonic 
Council  two  members.  These  twent}-four  Repre- 
sentatives possessed  equal  authority,  although  some  of 
the  tribes  were  ^ery  small  and  hardly  independent. 
They  bound  themselves  by  an  oath  that  "  they  would 
destroy  no  city  of  the  Amphietyons,  nor  cut  off  their 
streams  in  war  or  peace ;  and  if  any  should  do  so, 
they  would  march  against  him  and  destroy  his  cities ; 
and  should  any  ]iillage  the  property  of  the  god,  or  be 
privy  to,  or  plan  anything  against,  what  was  in  hi^ 
temple  at  Deliihi,  they  would  take  vengeance  on  him 
with  hand,  and  foot,  and  voice,  and  all  their  might." 
It  is  only  right  to  state,  what  indeed  most  people 
would  naturally  conclude  for  Ihemsflves,  that  so  ex- 
cellent an  oath  was  very  indifferently  kept.  In  the 
primitive  period  of  Greek  history,  it,  in  all  likelihood, 
exerted  the  beneficial  and  civilizing  influence  of 
which  we  ha\e  sjiokcn ;  but  it  opposed  only  a  feeble 
check  to  the  passions  and  ambition  of  a  more  power- 
ful age.  The  members  at  times  connived  and  even 
took  part  in  many  political  crimes,  and  thus  violated 
their  oalh. 

AMPHITHEATER.— A  sp.acious  building,  generally 
elliptical  in  form,  used  In?  the  Romans  for  exhibiting 
gladiatorial  combats,  figlils  of  wild  beasts,  and  other 
spectacles.  The  Amphitheater  differed  from  a  theater 
for  dramatic  performances  in  this,  that  whereas  the 
theater  had  oidy  a  semicircle  of  seat?  fronting  the 
stage,  the  Amphilhealer  was  entirely  surrounded  by 
them  ;  and  hence  the  name  of  Amphitheater.  Till  "a 
late  period  at  Rome,  these  erections  were  of  wood, 
and  merely  temi>orary,  like  a  modern  race-stand. 
They  seem,  however,  to  have  been  of  enonnous  size, 
as  Tacitus  mentions  one,  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
which  gave  way  and  caused  the  death  or  injury  of 
50,000  spectators.  Amjihitheaters  of  stone  had  begun, 
however,  to  be  erected  at  an  earlier  period  than  this, 
the  first  having  l)een  lnult  at  the  desire  of  Augustus. 
The  Flavian  Am]ihit  heater  at  Rome,  knowuas  the 
C'olosseum,  which  was  begun  by  Vespasian,  and 
finbhed  by  Titus  80  x.d.,  ten  years  after  the  destruc- 


AHFIITUDE. 


45 


ANALYSIS  OF   POWDEB. 


tion  of  Jerusalem,  was  probably  the  largest  stnicture 
of  the  kind,  and  is  fortunately  also  the  best  prc- 
ser\ed.  It  covers  about  five  acres  of  ground,  and  was 
capable  of  containing  87,000  persons.  Its  greatest 
length  is  620  feet,  and  its  greatest  breadth  513.  On 
the  occasion  of  its  dedication  by  Titus,  5000  wild 
beasts  were  slain  in  the  arena,  the  games  having 
lasted  for  nearly  100  days.  The  exterior  is  about  160 
feet  in  height,  and  consists  of  three  rows  of  columns, 
Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  and  above  all  a  row 
of  Corinthian  pilasters.  Between  the  columns  there 
are  arches,  which  form  open  galleries  throughout  the 
whole  building ;  and  between  each  alternate  pilaster 
of  the  upper  tier  there  is  a  window.  There  were 
four  tiers  or  stories  of  seats,  corresponding  to  the  four 
external  stories.  The  first  of  these  is  supposed  to 
have  contained  twentj'-four  rows  of  seats,  and  the 
second  sixteen.  These  are  .separated  by  a  lofty  wall 
from  the  third  story,  which  is  supposed  to  have  con- 
tained the  populace.    The  podium  was  a  kind  of 


Colosseum. 

covered  gallery  surrounding  the  arena,  in  which  the 
Emperor,  the  Senators,  and  Vestal  Virgins  had  their 
seats.  The  building  was  covered  bj'  a  temporary 
awning  or  wooden  roof,  called  relarium,  the  mode 
of  adjusting  and  fastening  which  has  given  rise  to 
many  antiquarian  conjectures.  The  open  space  in 
the  centre  of  the  Amphitheater  was  called  arena,  the 
Latin  word  for  sand,  because  it  was  covered  with 
sand  or  saw-dust  during  the  performances.  The 
taste  for  the  excitement  of  the  Amphitheater  which 
existed  at  Rome  naturally  spread  to  the  provinces, 
and  lar^e  amphitheaters  were  erected  not  only  in  the 
provincial  towns  of  Italy,  as  at  Capua,  Verona, 
Pompeii,  etc. ,  but  at  Aries  and  Nismes,  in  France ; 
and  even  in  England,  at  Cirencester,  Silchester,  and 
Dorchester. 

AMPLITUDE. — In  gimnery,  the  range  of  a  shot,  or 
the  horizontal  right  line,  which  measures  the  distance 
over  which  it  has  passed. 

AMPOULETTE.— A  wooden  cylinder  which  con- 
tains the  fuse  of  a  hoUow  projectile. 

AMPUTATION. — A  surgical  process  of  frequent 
necessity  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  amputation  of  a 
limb  was  in  ancient  times  attended  with  great  danger 
of  the  patient's  djing  during  its  perfonnance,  as 
Surgeons  had  no  efiicient  means  of  restraining  the 
bleeding.  They  rarely  ventured  to  remove  a  larce 
portion  of  a  linib,  and  when  they  did  so  they  cut  m 
the  gangrened  parts,  where  they  knew  the'  vessels 
would  not  bleed  ;  the  smaller  limbs  they  chopped  off 
with  a  mallet  and  chisel ;  and  in  both  ca.ses  had  hot 
irons  at  hand  with  whicli  to  sear  the  raw  surfaces, 
boiling  oil  in  which  to  dip  the  stump,  and  various 
resins,  mosses,  and  fungi,  supposed  to  possess  the 
I>ower  of  arresting  hemorrhage.  Some  tightly  ban- 
daged the  limbs  they  wished  to  remove,  so  that  they 
mortified  and  dropped  off;  and  others  amputated 


with  red-hot  knives,  or  knives  made  of  wood  or  horn 
dipped  in  vitriol.  The  desired  power  of  controling 
the  hemorrhage  was  obtained  by  the  invention  of 
the  tourniquet  in  1674  by  a  French  Surgeon,  Morell. 
The  ancient  Surgeons  endeavored  to  save  a  covering 
of  skin  for  the  sttmip  bj'  having  the  skin  drawn 
upwards  by  an  assistant,  previously  to  using  the 
knife.  In  1679  Lowdham  of  Exeter  suggested  cut- 
ting semicircular  flaps  on  one  or  both  sides  of  a 
limb,  so  as  to  preserve  a  fleshy  cushion  to  cover  the 
end  of  the  bone.  Both  these  methods  are  now  in  use, 
and  are  kno^Ti  as  the  "  circular"  and  the  "flap"  opera- 
tions :  the  latter  is  more  frequently  used  in  this  coun- 
try. A  flap  amputation  is  performed  thus:  The  pa- 
tient being  placed  in  the  most  convenient  position,  an 
assistant  compresses  the  main  artery  of  the  limb  with 
his  thumb,  or  a  tourniquet  is  adjusted  over  it.  An- 
other assistant  supports  the  limb.  The  Surgeon  with 
one  hand  lifts  the  tissues  from  the  bone,  and,  trans- 
fixing them  with  a  long  narrow  knife,  cuts  rapidly 
downwards  and  towards  the  surface  of  the  skin,  form- 
ing a  flap  ;  he  then  repeats  this  on  the  other  side  of 
the  limb.  An  assistant  now  draws  up  these  flaps,  and 
the  knife  is  carried  round  the  bone,  dividing  any 
flesh  still  adhering  to  it:  The  Surgeon  now  saws  the 
Iwne.  He  then,  v\ith  a  small  forceps,  seizes  the  end 
of  the  main  artery,  and  drawing  it  slightlv  from  the 
tissues,  an  assistant  ties  it  with  a  thread.  All  the 
vessels  being  secured,  the  flaps  are  stitched  together 
with  a  needle  and  thread,  and  a  piece  of  wet  lint  is 
laid  over  the  wound.  An  expert  Surgeon  can  remove 
a  limb  thus  in  from  thirty  to  sixty  .seconds. 

AMUSETTE. — A  .stocked  gun  mounted  on  a  ST;\-ivel, 
and  carrying  a  ball  or  charge  of  buck-shot  of  from  8 
to  32  ounces'  weight.  The  amusittt'  invented  by  the 
celebrated  Marshal  Saxe  carried  a  half-pound  leaden 
ball. 

ANABASH. — Expeditious  couriers,  in  anticjuity, 
who  canicd  dispatches  of  great  importance  in  the 
Roman  Wars. 

ANACABA. — A  sort  of  dnim  much  used  by  the 
Oriental  cavalrv  and  mounted  troops. 

ANACLETICUM.— A  particular  blast  of  the  trum- 
pet, in  the  ancient  art  of  war,  whereby  the  fearful 
and  flvinsT  soldiers  were  rallied  to  the  combat. 

ANAL"ySIS  OF  PO'WDEE.— In  the  inspection  of 
gunpowder,  the  following  is  the  usual  process  of 
analyzing:  Pulverize  75  grains,  place  in  a  glass 
beaker  \rith  eight  ounces  of  distilled  water;  stir 
rapidlj'  with  a  glass  rod  ;  when  clear,  test  with  litmus- 
paper  for  acids  and  mth  turmeric  for  alkalies.  Wash 
repeatedly  to  remove  all  the  sulphur  and  charcoal, 
and  examine  the  residuum  \%itli  a  microscope  for 
coarse  particles  of  either  or  foreign  substances.  De- 
termine the  amount  of  moisture  by  placing  45  grains 
of  powder,  ground  fine,  in  a  "watch-crj-stal,  dry 
thoroughly,  and  cover  the  crystal  with  another.  The 
weight  of  dish  and  cover  being  known,  the  loss  of 
weight  due  to  moisture  contained  in  them  is  found. 

Put  the  45  grains  of  dry  powder  in  a  pipette,  hav- 
ing a  wad  of  heated  asbestos  in  the  nan-ow  part ; 
verify  the  weight  of  the  pipette  and  wad  ;  insert  the 
pipette  into  a  hole  in  the  cork  of  a  small  weighed 
flask  ;  treat  the  powder  with  50  c.c.  of  rectified  bisul- 
phide of  carbon,  remove  the  pipette  and  cork,  recork 
the  flask,  and  distil  off  the  bisulphide  of  carbon  for 
future  use.  A  sand-bath  is  used  duiing  distillation, 
which  must  proceed  very  .slowly,  the  flask  being 
raised  abo%"e  the  sand,  which  must  not  become  too 
warm.  The  percentage  of  sulphur  is  calculated  from 
the  weight  thus  obtained.  One  tenth  per  cent  is 
added  to  the  amount  of  sulphur,  as  that  quantity 
generally  remains  in  the  powder  after  the  treatment 
with  the  bisulphide  of  carlwn. 

The  pipette  containing  the  residue  is  fixed  in  a  small 
weighed  flask,  the  ]iortion  above  the  crook  being  wrap- 
ped in  muslin.  The  tube  of  the  flask  is  connected 
with  an  air-pump  by  a  rubber  tube,  and  the  contents 
of  the  pipette  treated  with  40  c.c.  of  distilled  water; 
work  the  piunp  carefully  to  allow  the  water  to  enter 


AKASCHY. 


40. 


ANCHOR-SOCKET. 


the  flask  by  drops ;  to  pi-cvcnt  crvslallizjition  of  tlio 
ilissolviil  niter  in  the  narrow  part  "of  the  pipette,  cold 
water  is  tirst  us»-<l,  then  warm,  and  lastly  hot.  Dreneh 
the  muslin  on  the  pipette  with  water  of  the.sjime  teiu- 
pcniture  as  that  for  dis.solviug  the  niter.  When  the 
tittsk  coMtiiius40  c.c.  of  the  niter  solution,  remove  the 
pipette  and  evainiratc  the  water  on  a  sand-bath,  re- 
moving the  flask  oeciisioiially,  and  cool  as  the  solution 
becomes  s;itunited.  When  the  niter  is  crj-stallized,  it 
is  healeil  until  it  and  the  flask  are  quite  drj- ;  the 
weight  of  the  niter  is  then  tjiken. 

The  aslx-stas  wad  and  a  large  part  of  the  charcoal 
are  puslied  out  of  the  pipette  by  a  wire  into  a  watch- 
gla.ss ;  the  pipette  lUid  watch-glass  and  contents  dried 
and  weighed  ;  the  weight  of  the  pipette,  watch-glass, 
and  al)sestos  being  known,  that  of  the  charcoal  is  ob- 
tained. The  weight  added  to  the  sulphur  is  of  course 
detlucted.     See  Giinjmiriltr  And  Inxjxtlinn  of  Powder. 

ANARCHY. — The  state  of  society  without  any  regu- 
lar goNernment,  when  a  country  i.s  torn  by  the  strife 
of  parlies,  and  no  law  or  authority  remains.  Com- 
plete anarchj-  is  neccssjirily  rare  and  of  short  dura- 
tion; but  conditions  approaching  to  it  often  arise  after 
revolutions  and  gross  abti.ses  in  government:  and  in 
such  ca.<cs  it  is  apt  to  become,  as  in  the  South  Ameri- 
can States,  a  chronic  or  permanent  evil,  attended  with 
constant  national  decay. 

ANCHOR. — An  iron  instrument  composed  of  a  long 
shank,  ha\  ing  a  ring  at  one  end  to  which  the  cable  is 
fasteneil,  and  at  the  other  branching  out  into  two 
arms  or  flukes  tending  upwards  with  hooks  or  edges 
on  each  side;  its  use  in  an  army  equipment  is  to  moor 
transports,  boats,  pontoons,  and  rafts.  It  is  also  a 
good  hold  for  a  capstan.  The  weights  of  anchors  vary 
according  to  the  particular  use  they  are  put  to. 

ANCHOR-BALL. — A  contrivance"  for  siiving  life  in 
casi's  of  shipwreck.  It  consists  of  a  ball  having  sev- 
eral hinged  prongs  fitting  in  slots,  which  are  intended 
to  catch  in  the  rigging  of  a  stranded  vessel.  The 
ball  is  fired  from  a  mortar,  and  carries  a  light  line  by 
which  a  stout  rope  maj'  be  carried  ashore  from  the 
vcssi'l.  The  French  use  a  ball  for  this  purpose  hav- 
ing a  harjxKjn  pa.ssing  through  it,  on  the  rear  end  of 
which  a  line  is  woxmd.  The  term  anc/iorJxill  is  also 
applied  to  a  carcass  or  incendiary  ball  affi.xed  to  a 
gnipnel  by  which  it  is  intended  to  adhere  to  and  fire 
a  vessel. 

ANCHOR-ROCKET.— An  8-centimetcr  rocket  (8""  An- 
kerrakete),  used  bv  the  Germans  for  life-sa\'ing  pur- 
poses, composed  of  a  body,  anchor-head,  base,  rocket- 
stick,  and  chain.  The  case,  or  rocket-lwdy,  is  made 
of  sheet-metal,  .06  inch  in  thickness.  The  anchor-head 
is  made  of  iron.  The  front  end  is  sub-spherical  in 
form,  connected  with  the  convex  curves  of  the  arms 


by  re-entrant  tangent-curved  stirfacps.  The  short 
shank  in  rciir  of  the  lieail  forms  a  cylindrical  tenon 
that  fits  the  front  end  of  the  rocket-ca.se,  to  which  it 
is  secured  by  screws.  The  arms  and  flukes  are  four 
in  munlxr.  The  former  are  triangular-prismoidal  in 
outline,  and  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
The  arms  arc  furnished  with  the  usual  palmate  flukes, 
which  are  well  adapted  for  "  holding."  The  rear  end 
of  the  rocket-case  is  reinforced  on  the  inside  for  1..5 
inch  of  its  length  by  a  cylindrical  iron  ring.  The  latter 
furnishes  a  seat  into  which  the  screws  that  attach  the 


base  are  turned.  The  ba.se  is  tripodal  in  form,  the 
legs  joining  a  cylindrical  ring  at  the  front  end.  The 
conjunction  of  "the  legs,  or  ribs,  at  the  rear  end  forms 
a  seat  into  which  is  .screwed  the  rocket-stick. 

When  prepared  for  use  and  ready  for  packing  the 
rocket-case  is  filled  with  composition  and  the  rear  end 
of  the  case  closinl  with  a  water-proof  cay)  to  iirotect 
the  contents  from  the  efTccts  of  moisture.  This  rap 
is  jilaced  1.3  inch  towarils  the  front  from  the  rear  edge 
of  flic  l)as!il  ring.  A  fuse,  2.7  inches  in  length  and 
..5  inch  in  diameter,  passes  through  the  cap  and  con- 
nects with  the  rocket  composition.  The  projecting 
fuse  is  liable  to  be  broken  off  in  himdling  if  great  care 
is  not  e.\erci.sed,  as  the  operator  will  involuntarily 
thrust  his  hand  between  the  ribs  to  grasj)  the  rocket 
in  picking  it  up  or  carrying  it.  The  fuse  is  steadied 
in  its  iwsilion  by  a  strap  of  laboratory  pai)er  attached 
to  one  of  the  ribs  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  .">  '" 
rocket.     The  fuse  is  coated  w  ith  shell-lac  varnish. 

The  rocket-»^fA',  technically  so  called,  is  a  hollow 
cylindrical  tube  of  sheet-metal,  with  a  diameter  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  wooden  stick  for  the  8'"'  life- 
saving  rocket.  It  is  constructed  by  taking  a  strip  of 
sheet-metal  of  the  necessijry  length  and  width,  curv- 
ing it  and  fastening  the  edges  to.scther  with  twenty* 
three  iron  rivets.  The  front  end  is  filled  with  an 
iron  plug  extended  to  the  front  as  a  frustum  of  a  cone, 
1.125  inch  in  altitude,  from  which  j.rojects  the  male 
.screw,  2.2.5  inches  long,  that  enters  the  ba.se  of  the  rocket 
when  susst-mbled  for  use.  The  rear  cud  is  furnished 
with  an  iron  loop  ha\ing  flattened  arms  that  are 
riveted  to  the  tube.  This  loop  serves  as  the  ix)int  of 
attachment  for  the  rocket-chain.  The  rocket-chain 
is  made  of  the  best  wiought-iron.  The  rocket-case, 
ba.sc,  and  "stick"  form  the  s/iank  of  the  quadripal- 
mate  anchor.  The  usual  anchor  slock  is  absent  in 
this  combination.  The  anchor-rocket,  rocket-stick, 
and  chain  are  all  painted  black. 

The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  and 
weights: 


Total  lengtli  of  8'"  anclior-rocket. . 
Kocket  case: 

Len>;tlt 

Exterior  diameter 

Interior  diameter 

Anclior-head; 

Total  length 

Piameier.  excluding:  arms 

Lengtli  of  tenon-shank 

L)iameter  of  tenon-shank 

Arms: 

Depth  near  shank 

Width  under  side  near  shank. 

Depth  near  Ihike 

^Vidth  under  side  near  fluke... 

Spread  of  (hikes 

Length  of  palms 

Width  of  palms 

Base- ring: 

Length 

Exterior  diameter 

Interior  diameter  

liase: 

T.ilal  length 

Diameter,  front  end 

Diameter,  rear  end 

Length  <»f.  embracing  case 

Depth  of  rihs.  front  end 

Depth  of  ribs,  rear  end 

Width  of  ribs 

Rocket-stick: 

T»»tal  length 

I.rf'ngih  of  sc/ew 

Diameter  of  screw 

Hockel-chain: 

Total  length 

Uing: 

Exterior  diameter 

Interior  diameter 

Links: 

I..ength  

Widlh 

Thickness 

Total  length  of  rocket  and  stick.. 


Average  weight  of  anchor-rocket 

Average  weight  of  rocket-stick  and  chain. 


Inches. 


38.15 


Centi- 


84.19 


20.15 

51.17 

3.22 

8.17 

3.1 

7.87 

6.5 

16.51 

8.85 

8.50 

1.85 

4.69 

8.1 

7.87 

1.4 

3.55 

1.2 

3.04 

0.8 

2.03 

0.8 

2.03 

15.5 

39.36 

3,75 

9.5t 

3.75 

9.51 

1.6 

3.81 

3.1 

7.87 

2.87 

7.28 

9.4 

23.87 

3.75 

9.51 

1.8 

4.57 

1.4 

3.55 

0.75 

1.90 

O.HO 

2.03 

0.40 

1.01 

39.875 

99.96 

2.25 

5.71 

0.875 

2.21 

123.0 

812.41 

1.5 

3.81 

0.7 

1.5 

3.81 

0.75 

1.90 

0.20 

0.5(1 

70.275 

178.47 

Lbs 

Kilos. 

87.875 

16  »S 

9.0 

4.08 

ANCIENT. 


47 


ANEMOHETES. 


The  German  iUichor  and  Life-saving  Rockets  are 
packed  securely  in  tiu-liiietl  boxes.  The  boxes  are 
made  of  hard  pine,  planed  smooth  on  both  sides,  with 
the  corners  dovetailed.  The  bottom,  sides,  and  ends 
are  lined  with  tin.  The  top  is  not  lined  and  is  screwed 
to  the  sides  and  ends.  A  label  ou  the  inside  of  the 
cover  of  the  box  bears  printed  on  its  face  a  list  of  the 
contents  of  the  box  in  the  German  laucuage.  A 
similar  label  is  pasted  on  the  end  of  the  box.  The 
rocket-boxes  are  oiled  •but  not  painted.  Bottom, 
middle,  and  top  clamps  at  each  end  hold  the  rockets 
in  place.  A  strip  of  felt  separates  the  rockets  from 
the  clamps.  See  Chandler  Anchor-shot,  German  Life- 
sating  Rocket,  Life-sacing  Rockets,  Lyle-Emery  Grap- 
ple-shot, and  Rockets. 

ANCIENT. — A  term  formerly  used  to  express  the 
grand  ensign  or  standard  of  an  annv. 

ANCIENT  AND  HONORABLE  ARTILLERY  COM- 
PANY.— The  tirst  regularly  organized  military  com- 
pany in  Amta'ica,  formed  in  1637,  and  copied  from 
the  Honorable  Artillery  Company  of  London,  dating 
from  1537.  The  Boston  Company  was  chartered 
June.  1638,  has  always  been  vigorously  sustained, 
and  is  noted  for  the  eminent  citizens  in  its  member- 
ship. It  has  an  annual  parade,  sermon,  and  dinner, 
formal  and  dignified.  A  third  and  elaborately  illus- 
trated history  of  the  Company  has  been  recently  pub- 
lished. See  Artillery  Corps  and  Honorable  AriilUry 
Company. 

ANCILE. — A  kind  of  shield,  in  antiquity,  which 
fell,  as  pretended,  from  heaven,  in  the  reign  of  Numa 
Pompilius;  at  which  time,  likewise,  a  voice  was  heard 
declaring  that  Rome  would  be  mistress  of  the  world 
as  long  as  she  should  preserve  this  holy  buckler. 

ANCONY. — A  foundry  term  for  a  piece  of  partially 
wrought  liar-iron,  partly  finished  in  the  middle,  but 
unwrought  at  the  ends." 

ANDABATa:.— In  military  antiquity  a  kind  of 
gladiators  who  fought  hoodwinked,  wearing  a  style  of 
hebnet  that  covered  the  eyes  anil  face.  They  fought 
mouuleil  on  horseback,  or  on  chariots. 

ANDREW.— The  Order  of  St.  Andrew,  or  The 
Thistle,  is  a  Scottish  order  of  knighthood,  named 
after  the  Patron  Saint  of 
Scotland.  Nisbet,  with 
pardonable  partiality, 
prefers  it  to  all  other 
orders,  purely  military, 
"  chiefly  for  the  antiqui- 
ty of  it,  which  gives  it 
ip  a  place  and  precedency 
over  all  other  orders 
now  in  l)eing. "  He  then 
proceeds,  after  Bishop 
Lesley,  to  recount  the 
story"  of  the  St.  An- 
drew's cross  having  ap- 
Star  of  the  Order  of  the  Thistle.  Peared  in  heaven  to 
Achaius,  king  of  Scots, 
and  Hungus,  king  of  the  Picts,  as  a  .sign  of  the  vic- 
tory which  they  should  gain  the  following  day  over 
Athelstane,  king  of  England;  and  their  subsequent 
vow,  when  the  prophecy  was  fulfilled,  to  bear  it  on 
their  ensigns  and  banners.  It  is  frequently  said  to 
have  been  recognized  as  an  order  of  kniijhthood  in 
the  reign  of  James  V.,  and,  after  a  periocl  of  abev- 
ance,  to  have  been  revived  by  James  II.  of  Great 
Britain  in  1687.  For  the  actual  facts  of  the  c;ise  see, 
however,  the  article  Thistle.  The  Star  of  the  Order 
of  the  Thistle  is  worn  on  the  left  side.  It  consists  of 
a  St.  Andrew's  Cross  of  .silver  embroiderv,  with  rays 
emanating  from  l)etween  the  points  of  the  cro.ss,  "in 
the  center  of  which  is  a  thistle  of  gold  and  green 
upon  a  field  of  green,  surrounded  by  a  circle  of 
green,  bearing  the  motto  of  the  order  in  golden  char- 
acters. The  badge  or  jewel  is  worn  pendent  to  the 
collar,  or  to  a  dark-gieen  ribbon  over  the  left  shoulder, 
and  tied  under  the  arm.  It  consists  of  a  figure  of  St. 
Andrew  with  th'e  cross  enamelled  and  chased  on  rays 
of  gold;  the  cross  and  feet  resting  upon  the  groimd 


of  enamelled  green.  The  collar  is  of  thistles,  inter- 
mingled with  sprigs  of  rue.  By  a  statute  passed  in 
May,  1827,  the  order  is  to  consist  of  the  Sovereign  and 
sixteen  Knights.  The  letters  K.  T.  are  placed  after 
the  names  of  knights  of  the  order.  The  motto  is 
Nemo  me  impmu  lacesset.  Nisbet,  diHerjug  from  Sir 
George  Mackenzie,  ])refers  lacesset,  as  "  having  more 
of  daring  ,i.nd  gallantry."     See  Thistle. 

ANELACE. — A  short  .sword  of  tlie  fifteenth  century, 
so  called  because  it  was  worn  fastened  to  a  ring,  "it 
had  a  blade  very  broad  at  the  top,  but  gradually 
tapering  towards  the  end  till  it  came  into  a  point  like 
a  tongue,  which  foiTn  seems  to  have  been  copied  from 
the  ancient  pnra-onium. 

ANEMOGRAPH.— An  instrument  u.scd  in  target- 
practice  for  measuring  and  recording  the  direction 
and  force  of  the  wind.     Sec  Anemometer. 

ANEMOMETER.— An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
strength  and  velocity  of  the  wind.  A  simple  anemo- 
meter and  one  mucli  used  in  ballistics  is  the  Robinson 
hemispherical-cup  instrument,  shown  in  Fig.  1.  It 
consists  of  four  hollow  hemispheres  or  cups  fi.xcd  to 
the  ends  of  two  horizontal  iron  rods  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles,  and  supported  on  a  vertical  axis 
which  turns  freely.  The  cups  revolve  with  a  third 
of  the  wind's  velocity,  and  the  instrument  is  so  con- 
structed that  five  huudretl  revolutions  are  made  whilst 
a  mile  of  wind  ptisses  over  it.  The  revolutions  are 
registered  by  a  system  of  wheels  similar  to  those  of 


Fig.  L 

an  ordinary  gas-meter.  The  difference  between  two 
readings  gives  the  number  of  revolutions  pa.ssed  over 
during  the  intervening  time,  from  which  the  miles 
can  be  calculated,  and  the  rate  per  hour. 

Dr.  Robinson  entertained  the  theory  that  the  cups 
(measuring  from  their  center)  revolved  with  one  third 
of  the  wind's  velocity,  and  this  theory  ha\'iug  been 
supported  by  experiment,  allowance  has  been  made 
in  graduating  the  wheels  so  that  the  true  velocity  is 
obtained  by  direct  observation. 

The  first  dial  indicates  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
revolutions  or  miles,  according  to  mode  of  division; 
the  second,  tens  of  thous;mds;  the  third,  thous;mds; 
the  fourth,  hundreds;  and  the  fifth,  tens.  Should  the 
index  point  between  two  figures,  the  lesser  of  the  two 
is  to  be  taken.  Whenever  the  index  of  the  first  dial 
is  found  to  have  passed  zero  (0),  a  cross  or  stiir  is  to  be 
prefixed  to  the  next  reading.  The  number  of  thou- 
sands of  revolutions  made  during  a  month  is  ascer- 
tained by  subtracting  the  first  reading  from  the  last, 
and  prefixing  to  the  figures  thus  obtained  a  figure 
corresponding  to  the  mmiber  of  stars  in  the  column. 
Every  thousand  revolutions  represent  two  miles  of 
wind,  and  the  number  of  miles  which  have  passed 
in  a  month  is  ascertained,  therefore,  by  multiplying 
by  2. 

To  ascertain  the  velocity  of  the  wind  for  a  short 


AKHHOSCOFE. 


48 


ANEROID   BAROMETEB. 


period:  Take  two  rcaUiiip;  of  uU  thf  dials  with  an  in- 
terval of  twelve  minutes.  The  difftrcure  of  these 
readiiiirs,  dividitl  by  ten.  is  the  velocity  of  the  wind 
in  miles  [kt  hour,   l^ressnre-anemometcrs  are  of  very 


Fig.  a. 

great  importance  in  meteorological  observatories.  Of 
these,  the  most  complete  is  that  invented  by  Osier. 
In  this  instrument,  the  force  of  the  wind  is  ascertained 
in  a  ditlercut  way  from  the  hemispherical-cup  anemo- 


Fio.  & 

meter.  A  bra.s,s  plate  one  foot  square  is  suspended  by 
means  of  springs,  and  Ijfing  attached  to  the  vane  of  the 
Instrument,  is  maintained  at  right  angles  to  the  di- 
rection of  the  wind.  This  plate,  by  the  action  of  the 
wind,  is  beaten  hack  upon  the  springs,  and  in  bo  domg 


causes  a  iicncil  to  move  backwards  and  forwards 
on  a  sheet  of  pajier  jilaced  below  it.  This  sheet  of 
pajHT  is  made  to  pas.s  under  the  ]Hncil  in  a  ilirection 
at  right  angles  to  its  oscillation,  and  by  mesms  of 
clock-work  moves  at  a  uniform  rate,  .so  that  the  force 
of  the  wind  at  any  particidar  time  of  thetiay  is  record- 
ed with  perfect  accuracy.  A  ]X'ncil  in  connection 
with  the  vane,  and  moving  in  the  .s;inie  transverse  line 
as  the  former,  records  the  changes  in  the  direction  of 
the  wind;  and  a  third  pencil,  gui<led  by  a  rain-gauee, 
registers  the  (|uantity  of  niin  that  ha-s  fallen,  "fhe 
Lind  anemometer,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  is  verj-  c-onvcnient 
for  rough  purjioses.  It  consists  of  a  gla.ss  siphon, 
with  parallel  limbs,  mounted  upon  a  vertical  rod,  on 
which  it  moves  freely  l)y  the  action  of  the  vane  which 
surmounts  it.  The  upper  part  of  one  of  the  limbs  is 
bent  outwanl  to  the  wind.  Between  the  limbs  is 
a  scale,  graduated  from  0  to  3  in  tenths,  the  zero 
being  in  the  center  of  the  scale.  In  use,  the  tube 
is  tilled  with  water  to  the  zero  of  the  scale,  and  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  w  ind,  by  which  the  water 
is  depressed  in  the  one  limb  and  riiised  in  the  other. 
The  sum  of  the  elevation  and  (lcpres,sion  is  the  height 
of  the  eu'.unui  which  the  wind  is  capable  of  sustain- 
ing. The  Beckley  anemometer,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  a 
motlilication  of  that  of  Robinson.  The  hemispherical 
cups  act  by  a  vertical  a.\is  upon  two  graduated  con- 
centric circles,  the  inner  one  representing  five  miles, 
divided  into  tenths,  and  the  outer  one  having  one 
hundred  di\isions,  each  of  which  is  equivalent  to  five 
miles.  At  the  top  of  the  dial  is  a  tixed  index,  which, 
as  the  toothed  wheel  revolves,  marks  on  the  inner 
circle  the  miles  (up  to  five)  and  the  hundredths  of  miles 
the  wind  has  traveled,  while  a  movable  index,  which 
revolves  with  the  wheel,  indicates  on  the  outer  circle 
the  pas.sagc  of  every  five  miles.  If,  when  placing  the 
instrument,  the  hands  stand  at  0,  the  next  reading  will 
show  the  number  of  miles  the  wind  has  traveled;  but 
should  they  stand  othcnvisc  the  reading  may  be  noted 
anil  deducted  from  the  second  reading,  thus:  Suppose 
the  fixed  index  points  to  2..")  and  the  movable  index 
to  125,  the  reading  after  twelve  hours  may  be  200  on 
the  outer  circle  and  3.0  on  the  inner  circle;  these 
added  together  give  203.  By  deducting  the  previous 
reading,  127.5,  we  have  the  true  reading,  viz.,  75.5 
miles  as  the  distance  traveled  by  the  wind. 

ANEMOSCOPE.— An  instrun"ient  for  showing  the 
course  or  direction  of  the  wind.  It  is  related  that 
Audronicus  Cyrrhestes  built  an  octagonal  tower  at 
Athens,  having  at  each  side  a  statue  of  the  god  to 
whom  the  wind  blowing  from  that  quarter  was  dedi- 
cated; and  in  the  middle  of  the  tower  was  a  small 
spire  having  a  cojiper  Triton,  which,  being  put  in  mo- 
tion by  the  wind,  pointed  to  the  deity  from  whom  it 
proceeded.  The  custom  of  putting  vanes  on  church- 
steeples  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
centurj";  and  as  these  vanes  were  freijuently  made  to 
resemlJlc  a  cock,  the  emblem  of  clerical  vigilance, 
they  received  the  name  of  wealher-cocks.  The 
anemoscope  may  be  combined  with  the  anemometer, 
tints  indicating  "both  the  direction  and  the  force  of  the 
wind.  Latterly  the  anemosco|ic  has  been  made  self- 
reeonliiiL',  and  now  in  most  ob.servatoiies  needs  no 
watching,  every  movement. of  the  wind  being  written 
down;  the  force  or  pressure  and  the  velocity  in  miles 
per  hour  bein.e  also  recorded.  This  is  done  bv  pencils 
which  ])ress  lisihtlv  upon  a  cylinder  coverecl  with  a 
sheet  of  paper  ilivided  into  horizontal  hour-lines,  the 
lines  moving  at  the  rate  of  half  an  inch  an  hotir,  a 
complete  revolution  of  the  cylinder  occuining  twenty- 
four  hours.  Lines  marked  by  the  pencils  show  by 
thiir  relation  to  the  graduated  lines  the  direction  of 
the  w  ind  at  aiiv  mumenl  of  the  day. 

ANEROID  BAROMETER.— An  "instrument  for  in- 
diealing  ainiospherie  i)iessure.  Invented  about  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  was  not  until 
al)out  184K  that  the  difficulties  involved  in  the  con- 
struction of  such  an  instrument  were  overcome,  and 
llie  present  serviceable  form  devised  by  M.  Vidie. 
Since  that  time  the  aneroid  has  continued  substantial- 


&m:BOID   BABOMETER. 


49 


AKEBOID   BABOHETEB. 


iv  the  same;  improvements  beinc  rather  in  the  direc- 
tion of  more  perfect  workmanship  in  its  parts,  and  in 
the  more  perfect  adaptation  of  its  metals,  than  in  any 
change  of  form. 

As"  shown  in  Fig.  1,  the  aneroid  consists  of  a  fiat 
cylindrical  vacuum-box,  the  upper  surface  of  which 
is  corrugated  in  order  that  it  may  yield  more  readily 
to  exteiTial  prcs^iiuc.  The  lower  surface  of  the  va- 
cumn-chamber  is  tirmly  fixed  at  the  center  to  a  strong 
foundation-plale,  whilst  at  the  center  of  the  upper 
surface  is  a  niolallic  pillar,  M,  which  acts  upon  a  pow- 
erful steel  spring,  R.  The  varying  atmospheric  pres- 
sure causes  the  surface  of  the  vacuum-chamber  to  rise 
and  tall:  these  movements  are  transmitted  to  the 
spring,  and  thence  by  two  levers,  I  and  m,  to  a  metal- 
lie  axis,  ;•.  From  the  latter  rises  a  lever,  t,  to  whose 
extremity  a  chain,  s.  is  attached,  which  turns  a  drum 
the  axis  of  which  liears  the  index-needle.  A  firm 
spiral  spring  keeps  the  chain  constantly  in  proper 
tension.  By  this  arrangement  of  multipl>-ing  levers, 
a  very  small  movement  of  the  surface  of  the  vacuum- 


chamber  causes  a  large  deviation  of  the  needle; 


rOf 


an  inch  causing  it  to  move  through  a  space  of  three 
inches.  Compensation  for  temperature  is  effected,  as 
in  chronometers,  by  an  adjustment  of  brass  and  steel 
in  the  main  lever,  by  whose  unequal  expansion  and 
contraction  the  liability  to  eiTor  from  change  of 
temperatui'c   is    overcome.      The  dial  is  graduated 


indispensable;  and  from  its  greater  delieacj-,  he  can 
often  prepare  for  a  change  in  weather  a  considerable 
time  before  the  mercurial  barometer  gives  evidence  of 
an  impending  storm. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  mining  and  surveying  aneroid, 
designed  for  the  purjjose  of  readily  ascertaining  slight 
variations  in  gradients,  levels,  etc.  Besides  extreme 
sensitiveness,  the  speeialtj-  claimed  for  this  instru- 
ment is  an  arrangement  of  "the  scale  of  altitudes  which 
aflmits  of  subdivision  by  a  vernier,  hitherto  imprac- 
ticable, owing  to  the  altitude  scale  in  ordinary-  use  be- 
ing a  grailually  diminishing  one,  to  which  a  vernier 
cannot  be  applieil.  In  the  present  instrument  the 
action  has  l)een  so  adjusted  as  to  give  accurate 
readings  upon  a  regular  scale  of  altituiles,  the  baro- 
metrical scale  of  inches  ha\"ing  been  made  progressive 
so  as  to  alfortl  the  correct  relative  readings  with  the 
scale  of  altitudes.  For  mining  purposes  the  entire 
circle  of  the  dial  is  graduated  to  represent  6  inches  of 
the  mercurial  column,  i.e.,  from  27  inches  to  33. 
This  scale  will  register  about  2000  feet  below  sea-level 
to  4000  feet  abnre;  the  finest  di\'isions,  hundredths  of 
the  altitude  scale,  represent  10-feet  mea.surements, 
which  can  be  again  subdivided  by  the  vernier  scale  to 
single  feet.  Tbe  vernier  scale  is  moved  by  a  rack- 
work  adjustment,  and  a  magnifying-lens  which  ro- 
tates on  the  outer  circumference  of  the  instrument 
facilitates  the  reading  of  minute  quantities.  For  sur- 
face-surveying purposes,  where  it  Ls  not  required  to 
be  used  beloit  sea-level,  the  instrument  is  made  with 
the  scale  divided  from  2.5  to  31  inches,  thus  giving  an 
altitude  scale  of  5000  feet  above  sea-level  only,  and 


arbitrarily  to  correspond  with  the  mercurial  barome- 
ter, after  the  instnmient  is  tested  under  the  air-pump 
to  find  the  range.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  the 
aneroid  can  never  be  used  as  an  independent  standard, 
but  must  be  frequently  compared  with  the  mercurial 
barometer.  When  so  compared,  however,  and  ad- 
justed by  a  mercurial  standard,  the  aneroid  pos.se.sses 
several  advantases  over  the  former.  It  is  extremely 
portable  and  can  be  carried  in  any  way,  or  subjected 
to  any  motion  without  danger  of  disturbance  of  its 
indications.  It  is  not  at  all  liable  to  get  out  of  order; 
is  not  easily  broken;  and  lastly,  it  is  very  much  more 
sensilire  than  the  mercurial  barometer.  The  late  Ad- 
miral Fitzroy,  Mr.  Glaisher  the  aeronaut,  and  many 
other  authorities,  testify  to  the  extreme  .sensibility  of 
the  aneroid;  the  former  jiarticularly  noting  "  its 
quickness  in  showing  the  variations  of  atmospheric 
pressure."  Even  in  observatories,  therefore,  where 
mercurial  standards  are  in  use,  the  aneroid  is  most 
valuable  in  its  capacity  of  giving  earlier  indications 
than  cim  be  obtained  from  the  more  sluggish  mercurial 
columD.  To  the  seaman,  who  has  often  extreme  diffi- 
culty in  using  the  barometer  from  the  pumping  of  the 
mercury  caused  by  the  vessel's  motion,  the  aneroid  is 


Fig.  2. 

with  this  open  scale  and  the  assistance  of  the  vernier 
the  same  minute  readings  can  be  e;isily  taken. 

From  its  portability,  sensitiveness,  and  the  ease  with 
which  approximate  altitudes  may  be  ascertained,  the 
aneroid  barometer  is  very  valuable  to  the  engrineer. 
In  preliminary  surveys  and  reconnoissances  it  has 
been  found  extremely  useful,  and  for  these  purposes 
it  is  largely  employed.  Carrying  one  of  these  little 
instruments,  the  size  of  which  need  not  exceed  two 
or  three  inches  in  diameter,  the  engineer,  riding 
rapidly  over  a  country-,  can  speedily  and  with  ease 
procure  the  data  for  the  determination  of  the  line  of  a 
survey.  Holding  an  aneroid  in  his  hand,  the  traveler 
seated  in  the  railroad-car  can  mark  the  clumges  of 
elevation  as  his  train  moves;  the  mountain-climber 
can  note,  step  b.v  ctep,  his  gain  in  altitude:  and  the 
miner,  with  the  new  mining  aneroid,  can  mea.sure  his 
descent  in  single  feet.  For  h_v-psometrieal  work  it  is 
especially  important  that  the  aneroid  should  l>e  abso- 
lutely accurate;  that  its  compensation  for  effect  of 
temperature  on  the  metallic  works  be  perfect,  and 
that  its  indications  should  lie  identical  with  tho.se  of 
the  mercurial  column.  The  importance  of  coinpen- 
sation,   particularly  for   pocket-aneroids,   is  evident 


&HOAR£B. 


50 


ANOEL-SHOT. 


when  it  is  rcnu'nihoreil  that  the  chiiiij:e  from  a  room 
to  the  cxteriiul  atmos|)hei-e  may  freiiueiilly  involve  a 
iliffereiiee  in  temp»'n\ture  of  fnlm  30  to  50  F.,  a  dif- 
ference which,  without  pro|XT  comix-nsition,  may 
move  tlie  iieetllc  throiiirh  a  space  etjiial  to  one  hnn- 
dretl  or  more  feet.  It  is  alst>  necessary  lliat  the  aneroid 
be  tested  for  corresiKindence  willi  the  mercurial  col- 
umn. For  this  purposi^  there  is  an  api)araliis  specially 
ammired,  hy  which  the  aneroid  and  a  stanilanl  nier- 
curiai  barometer  are  subjected  to  identical  chanjies  of 
atmospheric  pressure.  Side  by  side  the  two  barome- 
ters are  moved  through  the  cntiix;  ninjre  from  nor- 
mal nressure  to  complete  vacuum.  If  the  .scale  of 
the  aneroid  Ix'  accuralcly  diviiled  and  in  accord  with 
the  instrument  itself,  the  needle  will  move  tenth  bv 
tenth  with  the  mercurial  lolumn,  in  perfect  coinci- 
dence. The  be^t  results,  in  all  problems  of  altitude, 
with  the  aneroid  barometer  are  obtained  by  the  use  of 
the  following  table  jirepared  by  Sir  G.  Airy,  late  As- 
tronomer Royid  of  England.  "To  use  this  table  (sir- 
ranged  for  temperature  of  50°  F.),  take  the  read- 
ing in  inches  of  the  barometer  scale  at  the  lower  and 
upper  stations.  Find  in  the  table  the  heights  in  feet 
corresponding  to  the  barometer  readings;  .subtract 
them,  and  the  remsiinder  will  be  the  height  required. 
When  the  mean  tempeniture  is  above  or  below  50  F., 
the  following  correction  must  be  applied:  add  to- 
gether the  temperature  of  the  upper  and  lower  sta- 
rions.  If  the  sum  is  greater  than  100  F.,  iiicreuie  the 
height  by  f^,',,^  part  for  everj-  degree  of  the  e.\ces.s 
above  100';  if  the  sum  is  le.ss  than  100  ,  diministi  the 


height  bv 


part  for  everj*  degree  less  than  100  \ 


The  complete  formula  is 

T  and  t  are  the  observed  temperatures;  IT  and  7i  are 
the  heights  in  feet  taken  from  the  table. 


)■ 


of  time  elaiise.s  I)etween  two  observations,  engineers 
are  now  accustomed  to  u.sc  two  matched  barometers, 
one  of  which  is  kept  in  cami>,  where  observations  are 
taken  at  staled  intervals,  whilst  the  other  is  obser\'ed 
at  corresponding  times  in  the  tield.  A  correction  can 
thus  be  applied  for  atmospheric  o.scillation.  Where 
one  barometer  only  is  u>id,  observations  may  be  made 
repeatedly  and  the  mean  taken:  or  where  it  is  incon- 
venient to  take  the  higher  elevation  more  than  once, 
the  lower  reading  can  be  taken  afttr  a.s  well  as  before 
the  higher,  l)y  which  method  a  partial  correction  ma^' 
be  obtained.     See  Ba roiiuUr  and  Baromctrograph. 

ANGAREB. — A  portable  Ix-dstead  is  a  great  lu.xurv 
in  the  tieUl,  raising  the  sleeper  above  the  damp  soil 
and  the  attacks  of  most  creatures  that  creep  on  it.  In 
tours  where  a  few  luxuries  can  be  carried  it  is  a  veiy 
projier  article  of  baggage.     It  is  essential  where  white 


ants  are  numerous.  A  very  comfortable  bed,  shown 
in  the  drawing,  is  made  on  the  principle  of  a  tennis- 
player's  rac'(i\iet;  being  a  framework  of  wood,  with 
strips  of  raw-hide  lashed  across  it  from  side  to  side 
and  from  end  to  end.  It  is  the  Anijureb  of  Upper 
Eg}-pt,  and  may  be  readily  constructed  in  the  field. 
See  Camp-Ill  (htead. 

ANGARIA. — According  to  ancient  military  writers, 
a  guard  of  soldiers  posted  in  any  place  for  the  security 
of  it.  .iVngaria,  in  e'wW  law,  implies  a  service  by  com- 
pulsion; as,  furnishing  horses  and  wagons  for  convey- 
ing corn  and  other  stores  for  the  army. 


Aneroid.' 

Aneroid,, 

Aneroid, 

1 

Aneroid, 

Aneroid, 

Aneroid, 

Aneroid, 

Aneroid. 

H'ght 
in 

or  Cor- 
reeled   ; 

H^Kht 

or  Cor- 
rect e<l 

Hght 

or  Cor- 
rected 

H'Kht 
in 

or  Cor- 
rected 

H'ght 
iu 

.or  Cor- 
rected 

H'Kht 
in 

or  Cor- 
rected 

«'r 

or  Cor- 
rected 

='r 

or  C'or- 
recti*d 

Feet. 

Barome- 

Feet. 

Barome- 

Feet. 

Barome- 

Feet. 

Barome- 

Feet. 

Barome- 

Feet. 

Bai'ome- 

Feet. 

Barome- 

Feet. 

Bni-cme- 

ter. 

ter. 

ter. 

ter. 

ter. 

ter.      j 

ter. 

ter. 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft- 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

0 

31.000 

1500 

29-310 

3000 

27.709 

4500 

26.282 

6000 

24.875 

7600 

23.543 

9000 

22.282 

10500 

21.089 

50 

30.943 

1550 

29.286 

3C60 

27.718 

4550 

26  2.M 

6050 

24.829 

7550 

23.500 

9050 

22.241 

11550 

21.060 

100 

80.SS6 

1600 

29.233 

3100 

27.667 

4600 

26.186 

6100 

24.784 

7600 

23.457 

9100 

22.200 

10600 

21  012 

150 

30.831) 

1650 

29.179 

!  3150 

27.616 

4650 

28.1.38 

6150 

24.7:i8 

7650 

23.414 

9150 

22.160 

10660 

20.973 

200 

30.773 

170O 

29.128 

3200 

27.566 

4700 

20.090 

6200 

24.693 

7700 

23.371 

9300 

22.119 

10700 

20.935 

250 

80.717 

1750 

29  072 

!  3250 

27.515 

4750 

26.042 

0250 

24.048 

7750 

23.328 

9250 

22.079 

10760 

20.896 

300 

30.6«1 

1800 

29.019 

.  3300 

27.465 

4800 

25.994 

6300 

24.603 

7800 

23.285 

9300 

22  038 

10800 

20.868 

350 

30  cot 

1   1850 

2S.966 

3350 

27.415 

4S.W 

25.917 

6350 

34.557 

7850 

23.242 

9350 

31.998 

10850 

20.820 

400 

30.548 

1900 

28.913 

3400 

27. SW 

4900 

25.899 

6400 

24.512 

7900 

23  200 

9400 

21.957 

10900 

20.782 

450 

30.493 

1950 

28.860 

34.50 

27.314 

49.50 

25.852 

64.50 

24.407 

7950 

23.157 

9450 

21.917 

10960 

20.741 

500 

30  4:)6 

3000 

28  807 

3500 

27.204 

5000 

25.804 

6500 

24.423 

8000 

23.115 

9500 

21.877 

11000 

20.706 

550 

30.3S1 

3050 

28.754 

3550 

27.214 

.5050 

25.757 

6660 

21.378 

8050 

23.072 

9560 

21.837 

11050 

20.668 

600 

30.3-i') 

3100 

28.701 

I  3600 

37.104 

5100 

35.710 

6600 

24. -m 

8100 

23  030 

9600 

21.797 

IIIOO 

20.630 

650 

:so.ati9 

3150 

28.649 

3650 

27.115 

51.50 

25.663 

66.50 

a4,3&'< 

8150 

22.988 

9650 

21.757 

11150 

20.692 

700 

30  314 

3300 

28.596 

1  3700 

27-065 

5300 

25.816 

6700 

24  241 

8300 

22.946 

9700 

21.717 

11200 

20  554 

750 

30.159 

3250 

28.544 

,  3750 

37.015 

.5250 

25  569 

67.50 

34.300 

S3.50 

22.904 

9750 

21.677 

11250 

20.517 

600 

30.103 

3300 

38.491 

3)*00 

20.966 

5.300 

25.522 

0800 

24.155 

S.3tX) 

22  862 

9800 

21.638 

11300 

20.479 

850 

30.lVi,S 

3:150 

28.439 

3850 

36  910 

53.50 

25.475 

6850 

24.111 

8350 

22.820 

9850 

21.598 

11350 

20.441 

900 

39,  an 

3100 

28.387 

3900 

36.867 

MOO 

25.428 

6900 

24.067 

8400 

22.778 

9900 

21.658 

11400 

20. 4  W 

950 

39.  WW 

3450 

28  3-35 

3950 

26.81S 

5450 

25.382 

6950 

24  023 

8450 

22.7.36 

9950 

21.519 

11450 

20  367 

lOOO 

89.NS3  ' 

S.'WO 

2S.283 

4000 

26,769 

5.500 

35.335 

7000 

23  979 

8.5<XI 

22.695 

10000 

21.479 

11500 

20.329 

1050 

39.S3S 

3.550 

38.2:)1 

4050 

20.720 

5550 

2.5.289 

:  7050 

3:1  n:i5 

8550 

23  6.53 

10050 

21.440 

11560 

20.292 

1100 

3'a.774 

3600 

28.180 

4100 

26.671 

5600 

25.242 

7100 

38.891 

8000 

32.611 

10100 

21.401 

11600 

20.255 

1150 

29.719 

3650 

28.128 

4150 

26.633 

5650 

25.196 

7150 

33,847 

8(i50 

32.570 

10150 

21. .361 

11660 

20.218 

laoo 

29.6«o 

3700 

28.076 

4200 

26  573 

5700 

25.150 

7200 

23  803 

8700 

23.539 

10300 

21 .332 

11700 

20.181 

fao 

29  610 

2750 

28.025 

4350 

26.524 

'  .5750 

25.104 

7250 

23  760 

87.50 

22.487 

10350 

31.283 

11750 

20.144 

1300 

29  .'m6 

3800 

27.973 

4300 

26.476 

!  5800 

25.058 

7300 

2.3.710 

880t) 

22.440 

!0:i00 

31.244 

11800 

20.107 

l.'KO 

39.503 

3850 

27.922 

4:j.50 

20.43; 

5850 

25012 

7:J50 

33  673 

8850 

22.405 

io:)50 

21.205 

11850 

20.070 

1400 

39.448 

2900 

27.871 

4400 

38.379 

MKX) 

24. %6 

7400 

21.629 

8900 

22.301 

10400 

21.166 

11900 

20  033 

1450 

39.394 

29.-,0 

27.820 

'  4450 

36  330 

5950 

24.920 

7450 

23  .586 

6950 

22.323 

10450 

21.128 

11950 

19.996 

1500 

29.340 

1 

3000 

27.769 

4500 

36.383 

6000 

24.875 

7500 

23  543 

9000 

23.W83 

10500 

21.089 

12000 

19.959 

It  .should  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  aneroids  vary  in 
their  readings  with  the  position  in  which  they  are 
held,  reading  somewhat  higher  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion with  face  up  than  when  vei-tical.  As  they  are 
tested  and  adjusted  in  a  horizonttd  i«)sition,  it  is  bet- 
ter that  they  should  be  uniformly  read  from  the  hori- 
zontal dial.  Before  a  reading  is  taken,  the  face 
should  b('  tapped  slightly  with  the  linger  to  bring  the 
needle  fairly  into  equilibrium.  As  there  may  be  con- 
siderublc  atmospheric  variation  if  any  groit"  interval 


ANGELIAPHORI. — An  ancient  name  for  the  recon- 
noitring parties  of  the  Grecian  arinv. 

ANGEL-SHOT.— A  shot  formed  of  two  hemispheres 
or  spheres  connected  by  a  chain.  It  was  invented  by 
Admiral  DeWitt,  in  1066,  and  was  formerly  much 
employed  for  carrying  away  rigging  in  naval  actions. 
It  was  sometimes  tired  from  a  cannon  with  two 
slightly  diverging  barrels  united  at  the  breech,  form- 
ing a  single  chamber,  and  discharged  through  a  sin- 
gle vent. 


ANGLE. 


51 


ANGLE  SHEARING-MACHINE. 


ANGLE. — The  opening  or  inclination  of  two  lines 
that  cut  or  meet  one  another.  If  the  lines  are  straight 
the  angle  is  rectilinear.  The  magnitude  of  an  angle 
deiJenus,  not  upon  the  length  of  fhe  lines  or  legs,  but 
upon  the  degree  of  their  opening.  If  the  legs  are 
supposed  closed,  like  a  pair  of  compasses,  and  then 
gradually  opened  till  theyciime  into  one  straight  line, 
they  form  a  series  of  gradually  increasing  angle-s; 
when  half  way  between  shut  and  straight  they  con- 
tain a  rig)d  angle.  Any  angle  less  than  a  right  angle 
is  calleil  atntf,  and  one  greater  is  allied  o'jluse.  An- 
gles are  measured  by  degrees,  of  which  a  right  angle 
contains  90.  The  angle  made  by  two  cui-ved  lines 
(curriliitear)  is  the  same  as  the  angle  made  by  the 
tangents  to  the  two  curves  at  the  point  of  intersection. 
Angles  made  by  planes  with  one  another  can  also  be 
reduced  to  rectilinear  angles.  When  three  or  more 
planes  meet  at  the  same  point,  the  angular  space  in- 
cluded between  lUem  is  called  a  solid  mirjlc.  The  an- 
gles most  frequently  referred  to  in  fortilication,  gun- 
nerj',  etc.,  are:  angle  of  arrival,  angle  of  clearance, 
angle  of  defense,  angle  of  departure,  angle  of  depression, 
angle  of  descent,  angle  of  dish,  angle  of  dispart,  angle 
of  elevation,  angle  of  fall,  angle  of  fire,  angle  of  inci- 
dence, angle  of  inclination,  angle  of  loci:,  angle  of  pro- 
jection, angle  of  reflection,  angle  of  sight,  angle  of  spiral, 
dead  angle,  diminis/ted  angle,  flanked  angle,  interior 
flanking  angle,  re-entering  angle,  salient  angle,  and 
terminal  anqle. 

ANGLE  OF  AREIVAL.— The  angle  included  be- 
tween a  tangent  to  the  trajectory  at  the  crest  of  the 
parapet  and  a  horizontal  line.  Supposing  small  an- 
gles proportional  to  their  tangents,  we  hare  these 
simple  relations:  1.  At  the  same  distance  from  the 
crest,  the  fall  of  the  projectile  is  proportional  to  the  an- 
gle of  arrival ;  2.  For  the  same  angle  of  arriral,  tfie 
fall  of  the  projectile  is  proportional  to  the  distance  from 
the  crest. 

ANGLE  OF  CLEARANCE. — In  gunrery,  the  angle 
of  elevation  obtained  when  the  top  of  the  tangent 
scale  and  dispart  sight  and  the  notch  on  the  muzzle 
are  in  line. 

ANGI-E  OF  DEFENSE.— In  fortification,  the  angle 
formed  by  a  line  of  defense  and  a  flank.  The  angles 
of  defense  should  never  be  less  than  yO  and  never 
more  than  IJO  . 

ANGLE  OF  DEPARTURE.— In  gunnery,  the  actual 
angle  which  the  shot's  path  on  leading  the  muzzle  of 
a  gun  makes  with  the  true  horizon.  This,  when  there 
is  mndage,  may  differ  sensibly  from  the  angle  of  in- 
clination, and  appears  also  to  do  so  in  the  lighter 
rifled  guns,  where  the  shots  are  observed  to  rise,  from 
the  muzzle  being  slightly  thrown  up.  This  rise  is 
cau.sed  from  the  "  jump"  of  the  irun. 

ANGLE  OF  DEPRESSION.— In  gunnerj",  the  angle 
given  to  a  piece  of  ordnuice  when  laid  under  metal, 
or  at  an  aUL'le  below  the  iiorizon. 

ANGLE  OF  DESCENT.— In  gunner)',  the  angle 
which  the  tangent  to  the  trajectory  makes  with  tiie 
horizon  at  the  height  of  the  crest  of  the  parapet  or 
other  object  to  be  cleared.  It  is  rather  less  than  the 
terminal  anirle. 

ANGLE  OF  DISH.— The  measure  of  the  dish  of  a 
wheel,  being  the  angle  made  by  the  spokes  of  the 
wheel  with  tlie  jilane  of  its  face. 

ANGLE  OF  DISPART.— The  number  of  degrees  the 
axis  of  the  bore  would  point  above  the  object  aimed 
at  when  laid  bv  the  surface  of  the  gun. 

ANGLE  OF  ELEVATION.- In  gunnery,  the  angle 
between  the  a.vis  of  the  gun  and  the  visual  line  from 
the  sight  on  the  tangent  scale  to  the  object.  It  has 
no  reference  to  the  horizon  or  to  any  natural  level. 

ANGLE  OF  FALL.— The  angle  which  the  tangent 
makes  at  the  point  of  fall  with"  the  terre-plein.  The 
size  of  this  angle  will  determine  the  kind  of  ricochet. 
It  will  be  grazing  if  the  angle  is  4°  or  less,  and 
phmging  when  it  is  comprised  "between  6'  and  10\ 

ANGLE  OF  FIRE.— In  gunnery,  the  angle  which 
the  axis  of  the  barrel  makes  with  the  horizontal  line; 
lon  account  of  the  balloting  of  the  projectile,  the  angle 


of  fire  is  not  always  equal  to  the  angle  of  departure, 
or  projection. 

ANGLE  OF  INCIDENCE— In  gunnery,  the  angle 
which  the  tangent  lo  the  trajectory  makes  with  the 
actual  surface  struck  at  the  point  of  descent. 

ANGLE  OF  INCLINATION.— In  guimerj-,  the  angle 
which  the  axis  of  the  gun  forms  with  the  true  hori- 
zon, or  the  angle  shown  by  a  correct  spirit-level. 
This  is,  consequently,  the  angle  recorded  when  guns 
are  laid  bv  the  quadrant. 

ANGLE  OF  LOCK.— The  angle  included  between 
the  stock  and  the  plane  of  the  wheel,  when  the  wheel 
touches  the  lock-plate  in  turning.  The  angle  of  lock 
with  the  .5  track  is  a  little  more  than  50'. 

ANGLE  OF  PROJECTION.— In  gunnerj',  the  angle 
which  the  tangent  makes  with  the  horizontal  at  the 
muzzle.     See  Anqlc  of  Dtjxirture. 

ANGLE  OF  REFLECTION.— The  angle  intercepted 
between  the  line  of  direction  of  a  body  reljonnding 
after  it  has  struck  against  another  body,  and  a  per- 
pendicular erected  at  the  point  of  contact. 

ANGLE  OF  SIGHT. — In  gunnery,  the  angle  included 
between  the  line  of  sight  and  line  of  tire.  Angles  of 
sight  are  divided  into  natural  and  artilicial  angles  of 
sight,  corresponding  to  the  natural  and  artificial  lines 
of  sight  which  enclose  them.     See  Pointing. 

ANGLE  OF  SPIRAL.— This  angle,  sometimes  called 
the  angle  of  rifling,  differs  in  different  guns,  de- 
pending principally  on  the  length,  weight,  imd  muz- 
zle-velocities of  the  projectiles  fired  from  them.  It  is 
measured  at  any  point  of  the  groove,  in  guns  rifled 
with  increasing  twist,  by  the  angle  which  a  tangent  to 
the  groove  at  that  point  makes  with  a  line  in  the  bore 
parallel  to  it-s  axis;  and  in  guns  rifled  with  uniform 
tirist,  by  the  angle  which  the  groove  itself  makes 
with  a  line  in  the  bore  parallel  to  its  axis.  In  guns 
rifled  with  increasing  twist,  the  angle  of  spiral  at  the 
muzzle  is  called  the  flnal  angle  of  rifling,  and  that  at 
the  breech  end  of  the  rifling  is  called  the  initial  angle 
of  rifling. 

ANGLE  OF  THE  CENTER.— In  forliflcation,  the 
angle  formed  at  the  center  of  the  polygon  Iiy  lines 
drawn  thence  to  the  points  of  two  adjacent  bastions. 

ANGLE  OF  THE  EPAULE.— In  fortilication,  the 
angle  formed  by  one  face  and  one  flank  of  .the  bas- 
tion. 

ANGLE  OF  THE  FLANK.— In  fortification,  the 
ansle  formed  bv  the  flank  and  curtain. 

ANGLE  OF  THE  LINE  OF  DEFENSE.— In  fortifl- 
cjilion,  that  angle  made  by  the  flank  and  the  line  of 
defense. 

ANGLE  OF  THE  POLYGON.— In  fortification,  the 
angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  sides  of  the  poly- 
gon: it  is  likewise  called  the  polygon  angle. 

ANGLE  OF  THE  TENAILLE.— In  fortification,  the 
angle  made  by  two  lines  tichant, — that  is,  the  faces  of 
the  two  bastions  extended  until  they  meet  in  an  angle 
towards  the  curtain, — and  Is  that  which  always  carries 
its  point  towards  the  outworks. 

ANGLE  OF  TRACTION.— In  draught,  the  angle 
which  the  plane  of  the  traces  makes  with  the  road  on 
which  the  carriage  is  mo%ing.  Artillery  carriages 
ha\ing  sometimes  to  move  over  the  worst  de.'^cription 
of  roads,  the  angle  of  traction  must  be  slightly  in- 
clined upwards,  as  the  vertical  com|X)nent  of  the  pull 
will  then  a.ssist  the  wheels  to  surmount  obstacles;  the 
weight  being  transferred  to  the  shoulders  of  the  horse 
incre;i.smg  the  pressure  of  his  feet  upon  the  ground, 
thus  giving  him  a  firmer  hold,  and  enabling  him  to 
exert  with  ease  a  stronger  pull,  while  the  resistance 
against  which  he  contends  is  at  the  same  time  dimin- 
ished. 

ANGLE  SHEARING-MACHINE.— A  machine  of 
frequent  use  in  the  Armory  and  Foundry.  The  same 
principle  involved  in  lever  shearmg  and  punching 
machines  obtains  in  this  useful  tool.  Angles  which 
have  been  curved  or  bent  before  shearing  mid  while 
resting  on  tresUes  may  be  readily  trimmed.  The 
blades  have  no  shear  given  to  their  edges:  but  by 
punching  the  angle  off  with  a  cut  extending  over  all 


ANGON. 


ANGULAR  BASE  OF  OPERATIONS^ 


parts  of  the  iron  with  a  unifonii  pressure,  the  pieee 
cut  off  Ls  not  l>cut  out  of  sbiipe.  This  is  au  iiiiporlant 
fesitiia-  in  the  machine,  as  it  enables  il  to  be  ust'd  in 
ciitliuj:  up  ancles  to  lenirlh  without  ilistortinjr  the 
enils  eut  olT.  Very  nuieh  more  niiiiil  work  can  be  done 
when  the  plates  are  moved  by  a  spaeiiij:  <le\iie  than 
when  laid  out  with  a  template  and  pa.ssed  Ibmufrh  the 
machine  by  hand;  aecordingly,  dividinir-nuuhines 
can  l)e  adapteil  to  the  shearers  and  |iunebei-s  to  enable 
the  sheets  to  Iw  spaei-)!  mechanically,  makintr  proper 
allowance  for  the  dilTeriMiee  of  diameter  or  circum- 
ference of  o\iler  or  inner  sheds  in  cylindrical  work. 

The  drawinj;  shows  a  Duplex  Angle  Shear,  as  made 
by  \\'illiam  Sellers  «.t  Co.    This  is  a  most  perfectly 


hand   cutting.     The  bars  are  punched  off   at    one 

stroke,  so  as  not  to  distort  the  crop  ends  by  any  .shear- 
ing motion  of  the  blades,  and  the  machine  is  powerful 
enoudi  to  cut  6  inches  by  ()  inches  by  1  inch  angles, 
and  io  make  the  cut  at  any  angle  required  in  bridge 
structures  from  ;{()  included  anirle  to  scpiare.  The 
machine  is  provided  willi  u'uiding  tables  for  the 
angles  to  rest  on,  and  llie  enlire  machine,  carrying 
its"  guiding  tables  with  it,  is  made  to  swing  on  a 
center,  so  that  the  presentation  to  the  madiiue  of  the 
angle  to  be  cut  is  always  in  the  siune  right  line.  This 
arrangement  is  very  economical  of  room,  as  the  irons 
taken  from  the  pile  are  ijresenled  in  line  with  the  jiile. 
the  machine  being  turned  to  the  reijuircd  angle  of 
out,  eillier  to  the  right  or  the  left  hand. 
Pulley  on  the  machine  is  lit!  inches 
diameter,  l".*  inches  face,  and  should 
make  :jUO  revohitions  per  minute.  The 
.  machine  must  be  ]il;iced  under  the 
driving  pidley  of  the  line,  and  the  belt 
is  so  carried  by  guiding  pulleys  on  the 
machine  and  near  to  the  line  driver  as 
■will  permit  the  vibration  of  the  ma- 
chine to  its  required  angle  of  cut.  See 
Ltnr  Slu(triii(i-iii(irliine,  Poieer  Shears, 
and  Shi (triny-ni(tr]iiiie, 

ANGON.— A  bariied  spear  used  by 
many  early  nations.  The  Franks,  in 
the  seventh  ccntinv,  employed  angons 
both  for  thrusting  and  hurling.  The 
staves  were  anued  with  iron,  so  as  to 
leave  but  little  of  the  wood  uncovered  ; 
thelieatl  ha<l  two  barbs.  When  hurleil 
or  thrust  at  an  ojiiionent,  the  head 
of  the  angon  became  ti.xed  in  the  liesh 
by  means"  of  the  barbs.  This  form  of 
spear  was  much  adopted  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  ;uid  other  Teutonic  nations 

ANGUIS.— A  flag  adopted  by  the  Ro- 
mans, which  was  carried  at  the  head 
of  a  cohort  (the  tenth  part  of  a  Roman 
legion,  consisting  of  GUO  men) ;  this 
flag  resembled  a  serpent  in  shape,  and 
was  more  commonlv  called  draco. 

ANGULAR  BASE  OF  OPERATIONS. 
— If  the  base  is  angular,  the  angle  may 
be  towards  the  enemy  or  away  from 
him.  If  it  is  salient,  as  in  the  drawing, 
it  is  plain  au  enemy,  EE,  moving  he- 


Angle  Shearing- Machine. 

contrived  machine,  and  very  effective  in  operation. 
The  great  weight  of  the  machine  is  earned  on  a  set  of 
anti-frielion  rollers.  This  enables  the  machine  to  be 
turned  to  the  required  angle  of  cut,  thus  setting  the 
blades  to  the  angle,  and  not  swinging  the  bars  to  be 
sheared  to  the  same  angle.  This  "is  a  very  important 
matter,  as  invohnng  great  economy  in  armory-room. 
There  are  two  .shearing  slides  to  carry  the  movable 
or  upper  blades,  and  tluvse  are  at  an  angle  of  iX)  to 
each  other,  so  its  to  cut  the  angles  as  they  lie  on  their 
flat  with  one  leg  vertical,  and  to  make  the  cut  at  any 
required  angle  of  oblique  division,  from  aO  angle  to 
90  .  The  nuichine,  as  represented,  is  operated  by  a 
heiivj' crank,  which  works  either  one  of  two  diagonal 
flides  tanking  the  cutting  blades  for  right-  or  leftr 


yond  the  salient  -A,  would  have  his 
conununications  threatened  from  A, 
and  would  also  be  liable  to  a  flank 
attack.  A  base  of  this  form  is  weak  at  the  salient. 
The  smaller  the  angle  at  A,  or  the  farther  this  front 
is  advanced  beyond  IJ  and  C,  the  weaker  will  the 
base  be.  The  .s'alient  must  therefore  be  strengthened, 
and  made  perfectly  safe.  A  ba.se  of  this  form  is, 
however,  more  favorable  for  an  army  acting  on  the 
defensive  than  for  one  acting  offensively.  For  an 
army  acting  within  the  angle  BAC  can  move  from 
one  part  of  the  line  to  another,  to  reinforce  any  part 
of  the  line,  more  quickly  than  one  on  the  exterior 
can.  If  the  base  instead  of  being  .salient  is  drawn 
back  behind  B  and  C,  that  is,  forms  a  re-entrant,  it 
will  be  more  favorable  for  an  army  acting  offensively 
than  for  an  enemy  acting  defensively.  For  an  army 
proceeding  from  u  base  of  this  form  can  threaten  or 


ANGULAE  VELOCITY. 


53 


ANNEALING  FURNACE. 


fieize  the  communications  of  its  opponent  without  ex- 
posing; its  own. 

ANGULAE  VELOCITY.— The  velocity  of  a  body  ro- 
tatinir  round  a  tixed  point,  wliicb  is  measured  by  the 
circular  arc  described  by  any  point  of  the  body  at 
some  unit  of  radial  distance,  usually  one  foot  from  the 
axis  of  rotation.  The  velocity  of  any  particular  point 
of  a  rotatory  body  may  be  found  liy  nudliplying  its 
angular  velocity  by  the  radial  distance  of  tlie  ]ioint 
from  the  axis  of  rotation  ;  and  vke  rer»i,  the  angular 
velocity  may  be  founil  by  dividing  the  velocity  of  any 
known  point  bv  its  radial  distance. 

ANGUSTICLAVE.— A  robe  or  tiuiic  embroidered 
■with  purple  studs  or  knobs,  and  with  narrow  purple 
stripes,  worn  by  Roman  knijrhts.  to  distinsuish  tliem 
from  members  of  the  Senatorial!  order,  who  wore  a 
garment  with  bnmd  stripes,  called  /nliin  daetis. 

ANIME.— A  sort  of  ancient  cuirass,  also  called 
brigawline.  It  was  used  in  Italy  until  the  seventeenth 
century,  under  the  name  of  anima  or  nnimetta. 

ANlbCRATER.— The  highest  military  rank  of  the 
Laeeda'monians ;  one  who  conmianded  the  whole 
anny  during  the  al)scnce  of  the  king. 

ANIPPUS.— A  name  commonly  applied  to  the  light 
cavalry  of  the  Grecians. 

ANISOCYCLE. — An  ancient  machine  of  a  spiral 
form,  like  the  spring  of  a  watch,  used  for  throwing 
arrows  to  a  great  distance. 

ANJON.— An  ancient  battle-a.xe  frequently  em- 
ployed for  missile  purposes. 

ANNALS. — A  species  of  military  history,  'wherein 
events  are  related  in  the  chronological  order  in  which 
Ihey  hapjiened.  They  differ  froiii  a  perfect  history  in 
being  merely  a  relation  of  what  passes  every  year,  as 
a  journal  is  of  what  passes  every  day. 

ANNAMALLY. — The  name  of  a  forest  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  India,  which  yields  good  teak  timber ;  the 
wood  is  made  use  of  for  ordnance  purposes  in  the 
iladras  Prcsidenev. 

ANNATINa:.— transport-ships  (.so  called  by  Julius 
Ca'sar)  in  which  were  transported  provisions,"  etc.,  to 
nrmies  and  tleets.     Also  calli-d  ('(irhitir. 

ANNE. — The  Order  of  St.  Anne  was  originally 
established  in  Holstein,  and  carried  with  the  Princes 
of  that  country  into  Ku.ssia.  It  was  made  a  Russian 
Order  in  Kitli,  and  is  now  widelv  ditlused. 

ANNEALING.— When  steel, "  after  ha\'ing  been 
raiseil  to  a  very  high  temperature,  is  suddenly  cooled 
by  immersing  it  in  pure  water,  brine,  or  mercury,  it 
becomes  excessively  hard  and  brittle,  and  while  in 
this  condition  eaniiot  be  worked  in  anv  way.  To 
remedy  this  difflcidty,  the  steel  is  reiieateil,  and 
allowed  to  cool  very  gradually,  by  which  process  it 
regains  the  properties  of  softness  and  malleability. 
This  process  of  heating  and  slow  cooling  is  called  An- 
nenlin;;.  Care  must  lie  taken  not  to  overheat  the  steel, 
as  that  injures  the  metal  by  burning  out  some  of  the 
carbon.  The  steel  is  cooled  in  various  substances, 
such  as  powilered  lime,  sand,  cast-iron  borings,  dry 
saw-dust,  or  warm  ashes;  the  .sole  object  being  to 
make  the  cooling  as  slow  as  possilile,  and  also  to  pro- 
feet  the  steel  from  the  air.  In  the  annealing  of  ca.st- 
iron  the  heat  recpiires  to  be  kcjit  uji  much  longer  than 
with  steel,  ;uul  the  iron  must  be  well  supported  to 
prevent  lis  warpiuic  or  lireaking.  AVlien  annealed  it 
is  nuieh  more  uniform  in  temper,  and  less  liable  to 
alter  its  figure  by  any  subsequent  exposure  to  a 
moderate  heat. 

This  property  of  becoming  soft  and  mallealile  on 
^bcing  heated  .and  slowly  cooled  is  common  to  nearly 
all  metals.  Copper  being  the  most  marked  exception. 
In  working  this  metal  the  opposite  course  has  to  be 
pursued ;  that  is,  it  is  made  softer  and  more  flexible 
by  plunging  it  when  redhol  into  cold  water.  When 
it  is  required  rerjj  soft  and  the  surface  clean,  a  small 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  is  mixed  with  the  water. 
The  tetnpering  of  steel  is  really  a  process  of  anneal- 
ing. The  steel  is  placed  in  an  oil-bath,  or  surrounded 
by  a  metallic  mixture  which  has  a  low  fusins-point ; 
and  according  to  the  temperature  to  which  it"  is  sub- 


jected, a  steel  with  various  degrees  of  softness  and 
strength  is  obtained.  Parke's  table  of  metallic  mix- 
tures capable  of  being  used  in  the  tempering  or  an- 
nealing of  instruments  made  from  steel  is  as  follows : 

Alloy. 

' ■ 1  Fusing- 

Lead.           Tin.  poiut  "  F. 

Lancets 7  parts       4  parts  430 

Razors 8     '*           4     "  44s 

Penknives 8i    "           4     "  450 

large 10     "            4     "  470 

Scissors,  shears 14     "           4     "  490 

Axes,  plane-irons 19     "           4     **  590 

Talile-knives 30      ••            4      '•  530 

Watcli-spi'ings,  swords 48     '•           4     ••  550 

Large  springs,  augers 100     "           4     "  558 

The  theory  of  annealing  is  verj-  imperfectly  under- 
stootl.  A  certain  rearrangement 'of  the  atoms  of  the 
glass  or  metal  no  doubt  takes  place,  and  an  absorption 
of  heat  occurs.  It  is  possible  that  as  the  crystalline 
structure  is  indicative  of  brittleness,  and  the  tibrou-s 
texture  characteristic  of  strength,  that  the  pass;ige  of 
glass  or  metal  from  a  brittle  t"o  a  nou-l)rittle  material 
may  be  due  to  the  development  of  a  fibrous  structure, 
■where  a  crystalline  one  was  originally  present.  See 
St-eel  and  Teinperinr/. 

ANNEALING  FURNACE.— A  furnace  employed  at 
Arsenals  f(ir  annealing  copper  or  brass  shells,  cannon- 
primer  tulles,  etc.  The  Annealing  Furnace  in  use  at 
Frankford  Arsenal  consists  of  the  furnace  proper,  con- 
structed of  boiler-iron,  lined  with  tire-lirick,  and 
arranged  with  flue  and  cold  blast  for  draught  and  heat ; 
of  an  annealing  retort,  cylindrical  in  shape,  with 
closed  ends  of  hemispheiical  form.  From  these  ends 
project  trunnions  which  revolve  on  friction  rolls  at- 
t;K-hed  to  the  furnace.  The  left  tmnnion,  looking 
toward  the  furnace,  is  hollow,  and  subserves  several 
useful  ]iuri)oses.  It  is  a  iiecp-hole  for  obser\ing 
the  degree  of  heat  to  which  the  charge  is  being 
raised,  an  outlet  for  the  smoke  into  which  the  oil 
on  the  shells  is  converted,  a  means  of  obtaining 
samples  for  test,  and  of  emptying  the  charge  wheii 
sufficiently  annealed.     The  annealing  accomplished 


Annealing  Furnace. 

in  this  tight-jointed  receptacle  possesses  several  ad- 
vantages over  the  old  jilan.  In  the  latter  the  cylin- 
drical vessel  used  was  pierced  ■(vith  holes  and  revolved 
with  its  charge  o\er  a  charcoal  Are.  The  surface  of 
the  shells  became  considerably  oxidized  from  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosjihere  and  took  u])  some  dirt,  as 
ashes  from  exterior  surroundings,  during  the  Jirocess. 
By  the  new  ])l;m  the  charge  is  i)rotected  from  the 
direct  action  of  the  tire,  and  the  gases  and  smoke 
generated  and  exi)anded  inside  the  retort  flow  out 
through  the  hollow  trunnion.  By  the  old  method 
charcoal  was  neees.s;u'v  as  a  f\iel  to  guard  against  the 
sulphur  and  other  gases  which  would  be  generated 
from  burning  anihi-acite  coal.  Anthracite  coal  is  used 
with  the  new  retort,  and  the  shells  are  annealed  with 
less  oxidation  of  their  surfaces,  and  consequently  re- 
quire less  pickling  anil  cause  less  wear  upon  mar 


ANNEAU  D'OR. 


54 


ANTHRACITF. 


chiner)'  and  tools  in  the  continued  process  of  drawing. 
Ten  lluuisiiiui  sliells  ortliirly  tliousjind  cannon-prin\er 
tulx's  is  a  full  chiirire  fur  iIil'  retort.  A  cnuie  lakes 
Ihe  retort  fniin  the  funiaee  and  deposits  it  upon  a 
cnidle  from  wliieh  it  is  readily  emptied.  The  retort 
with  full  ihari^^'  \vuit;hs  al«iut  tioO  pounds.  The  fur- 
nace has  a  biniied  wrouLilit-iron  cover,  which  is  lowered 
over  the  retort  durini;  the  oi)eration  of  annealing  ami 
raised  when  the  retort  is  removed ;  also  a  himred  j 
tluc,  which  tits  into  an  openim:  in  the  cover  conneet- 
ing  it  with  the  draft.  The  drawing  on  the  preceding 
page  shows  the  general  construction  and  operation  of 
the  furnace. 

ANNEAU  DOR. — A  gold  ring.  In  accordance  with 
the  example  nt  the  ancients,  Francis  1.  of  France  in- 
stituted a  military  recompense  in  the  shajic  of  au 
aniuau  for  all  who  distinguished  themselves  in  any 
militarv  enterprise. 

ANNULAR-BIT. — A  boring-bit  which  cuts  a  circular 
chiinnil,  but  does  not  ruui  the  central  portion.  WacLs 
and  other  articles  in  the  armory  are  made  by  a  tool  of 
this  kind. 

ANNUNCIADA.— 1.  The  Religious  Ordvr  of  the 
Heavenly  Annunciation,  or  of  the  Xuns  of  tlie  Annun- 
ciation of  -Mary,  was  instituted  by  Victoria  Fornare 
at  Genoa  in  lOf<2,  after  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
All  the  convents  of  the  order  in  France,  Germany, 
and  the  Xelheilands  have  disiipjK'ared  since  the  French 
Revolution.  Some  still  exist  in  Italy.  2.  Another 
Order  of  the  Annunciation,  or  of  Xuns  of  Mary's  an- 
nouncement or  the  ten  virtues,  was  endowed  l)y  John 
of  Valois  at  Rourges  in  l.'iOl,  after  its  sejKiratioD  from 
Louis  XII.  In  l.jl-t  it  was  placed  under  the  authori- 
ty of  the  Fninciscans.  This  order,  which  extended 
to  tifty  convents  for  the  reception  of  poor  gentle- 
women, was  broken  up  at  the  Revolution.  3.  The' 
Order  of  Knights  of  the  Annunciation  in  Savoy,  ordine 
suprema  dell'  annnnciala, 
known  originally  as  the 
order  of  the  neck-chain, 
or  collar,  was  in^li^uted  in 
1300  by  Amadeus  VI., 
Duke  of  Savoy.  It  re- 
ceived statutes  from  Am- 
adeus VIII.  in  1409;  was 
renewed  in  1.518  under 
tlie  name  ef  the  Holy  An- 
nimeiation;  and  in  1720 
was  raised  by  Victor 
Amadeus  to  be  the  tirst 
order  of  the  kingdom  of 
Savoy.  The  King  is  always  Grand  ilaster.  The 
knights,  who,  since  1720,  arc  not  limited  in  number, 
must  be  of  high  rank,  and  already  admitted  to  the 
Orders  of  St.  Mauritius  and  .St.  Lazarus.  They  com- 
pose only  one  cla.ss.  The  decoration  is  a  gold  medal, 
on  which  is  represented  the  ^Annunciation,  surrounded 
by  love-knf)ts.  It  is  usually  worn  suspended  by  a 
simple  jiold  chain;  but  the  iiroper  collar  or  chain  of 
the  order  is  composed  alternately  of  love-knots 
and  roses.  On  the  roses  arc  engraved  the  let- 
ters F  E  R  T,  which  some  interpret  FortUudo 
ejus  lihodum  tcnuit,  in  allusion  to  the  defense  of 
Rhodes  by  Amadeus  I.,  and  which  others  hold  to 
signify  Fnipjw*.  inlrtn.  rompeH  iwm.  Since  1080  the 
knights  wear  on  the  left  breast  a  star  embroidered  in 
gold.  The  four  supreme  ollicers  of  the  order — the 
Chancellor  (always  a  Bishop  or  Archbisho])),  the  Sec- 
retary (usually  the  Jlinister  of  Foreign  AJfairs),  the 
Almoner  (u.sually  the  King's  First  Almoner),  and  the 
Treasurer — wear  the  decoration  round  the  neck,  sus- 
pended bv  a  sky-blue  riblxjn,  accompanied  by  a  star 
on  the  left  breast. 

AN8JE— AN8E.— The  handles  of  certain  kinds  of 
ancient  orduam-e.  Small  |>ieees  of  light  weight  in 
tended  to  be  movcrd  from  place  to  place  by  hand, 
such  as  life-sjiving  guns,  are  provided  with  aiiMe. 
These  handles,  especially  in  some  foreign  cannon,  are 
cast  ill  llie  li'nn  nl  ilolpliins  and  .serpents. 
AN8PESSADE.— A  term  originally  used   to  denote 


Star  of  tlie  Onier  of  the  An- 
nunciation. 


dismounted  horsemen  who  were  obliged  to  serve 
temporarilv  in  the  infantry,  and  who  bi-oke  off  the 
lops  of  their  lances  so  as  to  reduce  their  length  to  that 
of  the  halberds  of  the  sergeants.  Also,  a  non-com- 
missioned othcer  who  acts  subordinate  to  a  corporal ; 
a  lance-corporal. 

ANTECESSOEES— ANTECURSORES.—  Light  cav- 
alrv  of  the  Unmans,  which  formed  Ihe  advanceilguard 
of  an  army  while  on  Ihe  march. 

ANTE-MURAL. — In  fortification,  an  outwork  con- 
sisting iif  a  high  strong  wall  with  turret.s,  for  the  de- 
fense of  a  gate. 

ANTEPILANI. — Soldiers  of  a  Roman  legion  who 
composed  the  fust  and  second  ranks  in  line  of  battle, 
and  who  were  accordingly  placed  in  front  of  the 
third  rank.  The  tirst  rank  was  called  haatati, 
the  second  priiieipea,  and  the  third  pilani  or 
triarii. 

ANTESIGNANI.— A  name  given  to  the  soldiers  of 
the  Roman  army  who  protected  the  coloi-s,  etc. ;  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities  they  were  Ihe  hnslati  or 
prinri/iia,  and  ;iccu!\ling  to  otheis  they  were  a  select 
detachment  consisting  of  picked  soldici'S. 

ANTESTATURE.— "a  small  intrcnchnicnt  or  work 
formed  of  palisades  or  siicks  of  earth. 

ANTHONY.— 'I'he  military  order  of  the  Knights  of 
St.  Anilionv  was  instituted  by  Albert,  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia, Holland,  and  Zealand,"  when  he  designed  to 
make  war  against  the  Turks  in  1382.  The  knights 
wore  a  collar  of  gold  made  in  the  form  of  a  hermit's 
girdle,  from  which  hung  a  stick  like  a  crutch,  with  a 
little  bell,  as  they  are  represented  in  St.  Anthony's 
pictures. 

ANTHRACITE.— A  mineral  substance  of  the  nature 
of  coal,  but  consisting  of  carbon  with  a  minimum 
ainoimt  of  hydrogen.  It  is  of  a  black  color,  con- 
choidal  fracture,  and  imperfectly  metallic  luster 
(hence  called  r/hnice-coa\).  It  burns  slowly  and  with- 
out flame,  and  hence  is  sometimes  called  blind-coal. 
Its  vegetalile  origin  cannot  be  doubted.  AVhcre  strata 
of  common  coal  have  been  broken  through  by  trap- 
dikes,  the  coal  next  the  trap  is  found  to  be  anthracite, 
with  a  gradual  transition  into  the  ordinary  state; 
hence  geologists  look  upon  anthracite  as  natural  coke, 
formed  by  heat  or  other  process  from  ordinary  coal. 
Anthracite  is  used  as  fuel  like  coke.  It  is  apjilied  in 
many  places  to  Ihe  burning  of  lime  and  bricks,  the 
reduction  of  iron,  etc.  Iloccurs  cxten.sively  in  Ire- 
land, and  in  some  of  the  coal-fields  of  England.  Scot- 
land, and  the  Conlinen;  of  Europe;  but  on  the  largest 
saile  in  the  United  Slates. 

In  1776,  anthracite  from  near  Wilkcsbarre,  Penn., 
was  fioated  down  the  Susquehanna  to  Carlisle,  and 
was  used  in  the  Goveriuiient  Arsenal.  In  1.S03,  100 
tons  were  brought  from  Summit  Hill  to  I'hiladel- 
phia,  and  were  .sold  to  the  City  (Toveriiment  for  use 
in  the  piuuping-works,  but  the  eiigiiieei's  did  not 
know  how  to  burn  il,  and  it  was  broken  up  to  gravel 
the  walks  in  the  yards.  In  1S12  two  ark-loads  were 
sold  at  the  falls  of  the  Schuylkill  at  |21  l)er  ton.  A. 
morning  was  wasted  in  futile  attempts  to  burn  this 
coal,  and  at  noon  Ihe  workmen  and  their  employer, 
discouraged  at  their  ill-luck,  shut  up  the  furnace  and 
Went  to  dinner.  On  their  return  they  were  astonished 
to  find  a  roaring  fire,  the  furnace-doors  re<l-hol,  and 
the  furnace  itself  in  danger  of  melting.  From  that 
day  dates  the  successful  use  of  anthracite  in  America. 
Tlie  development  of  this  interest  is  shown  m  the  fol- 
lowing table:  , 

Anthracite  is  the  purest  form  of  natural  carbon  ex- 
cept the  di.iiii'iud.  Tlic  c.irbim  v.iries  from  '.)')  per 
cent,  in  specimens  picked  from  die  best  veins,  toSOor 
85  per  cent.  Coal  containing  less  than  80  per  cent  of 
carlion  is  not  clas.scd  as  anthracite.  The  volatile  mat- 
ter present  is  water,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nilro^n; 
the  a.sh  contains  oxide  of  iron,  iron  pyrites,  silica, 
alumina,  lime,  etc.  Pennsylvania  anthracites  have 
usually  xVi  to  1)4  jkt  cent  of  carbon,  li  to  7  per  cent 
of  volatile  matter,  and  1}  to  7  Jier  cent  of  ash;  tha 


ANTI-COREOSIOK. 


00 


AFABEJO. 


Years. 

Wtomii.g  Rkoios. 
Luzerne  aod  Sullivan  Cos. 

Lehigh  Regios. 

Cirbon,  Columbia,  and 

Luzerne  Cos. 

ScBi-vxKiLL  Region. 

Schuylkill.   Nortliuuilier- 

laud.  Columbia.  Dauphin. 

and  Lebanon  Coi>. 

All  the  Re- 
gions. 

Shipments. 

Total  prod't. 

Shipmente.    Total  prod't. 

Shipments. 

Total  prodr.  Total  prod't. 

10.000 

16.800 

146.760 

862.635 

3.151.846 

7.279.543 

]3..3'JO.0(IO 

""25.110 

221.023 

781.050 

1.628.:ill 

1.9i9..'-)23 

4.550.0OO 

3.000 

29,110 

265.230 

920.009 

1.879.071 

2.313.989 

4.S25,000 

"78,293 
454,518 
1.650,101 
3,-H8.708 
5.65.3.8*5 
9.125.000 

In  1829  

7.<m 

122.800 

732,910 

2.731.236 

6.068.369 

12.575.000 

87.29.3 
545.446 
1,942,16,8 
3,979,809 
6,782.146 
9,670,000 

133  203 

18.39 

1819 

1859 

9.010.726 
16,375,678 
27,825,000 

1869 

1879 

153,863.765 

172,944,369 

:i.5S0.C96 

80.087.227 

154.090,548 

174.3o6.-236 

427,987,882 

density-  varies  from  1.4  to  LG^i.  Anthnrite  was  de- 
rive J  irom  Ijitumiuous  coal  by  heat  actiiijruuder  great 
pressure-,  and  probably  eaased  by  pre.ssure  in"  the 
geological  changes  which  threw  the  anthracite  regions, 
as  in  ea.stern  Pennsylvania,  into  great  mountain-waves. 
The  heat  drove  off  all  volatile  matters  which  it  would 
develop  from  the  bituminous  coal ,  and  loft  the  more 
stable  m-iterial  behind  as  a  natural  coke,  differing 
from  artilicial  coke  only  in  it.s  superior  density.  The 
loss  of  vegetable  matter  by  decomposition  in  the  for- 
mation of  bituminous  coal  is  estimated  at  about  three 
fifths  of  the  material,  and  in  the  production  of  an- 
thracite at  about  three  fourths 


the  added  compression 
leaves  the  resulting  bulk  about  one  tifth  or  one  eighth 
the  original  mass.     It  follows,  then,  that  to  produce  a  i  table: 

The  Area  axd  Co>'texts  dj  Coal  of  the  Anthracite  Basins  of  Penxstltakia. 


vein  of  imthracite  30  feet  thick,  '.J40  feet  of  vegetable 
matter  must  have  existed.  The  coal-fk-posits,  as 
found  in  the  anthhicite  formation  near  Pottsville  in 
the  Schuylkill  valley,  include  15  groups,  with  30 
beds  or  veins  more  than  '2  feet  thick,  and  20  seams 
less  than  2  feet.  The  thickest,  or  mammoth  vein,  is  a 
single  bed  from  20  to  70  feet  thick,  in  some  places 
di\ided  into  three  layers  by  seams  of  slate.  About  four 
fifths  of  the  present'  production  of  anthracite  comes 
from  this  vein.  The  aggregate  thickness  of  the  coal- 
veins  at  this  point  is  113  feet,  of  which  80  feet  may  be 
profitably  mined. 

The  possibilities  of  the  production  of  anthracite 
in  America  may  be   gathered    from  the  following 


Field. 


Area. 


Square 
miles. 


Acres. 


Feet  of 
coal. 


QoiSTiTY  OF  Coal. 


I  Per 

Per  A.,  I  Total  quantity,    cent, 
tons.     I  tons. 


Wvoming.. 

Lenigh 

Schuylkill. 


Total. 


186 
43M 
215 


118,300 
88,000 
137.500 


19 
aOH 


34.580 
36.833 
43.500 


4.097.730.000 
1.03O.  1-30.000 
6.-i56.-2.iO.0OO 


99 
55 


sriH 


284,000 


Hii 


116,935 


11..384.100.000 


Field. 


Tons  sold  to  end 

of  1877. 


Tons    mined,   in 
eluding  waste. 


Tons  remaining. 


Per 
cent. 


Tons  available, 
allowing  waste. 


Per 
cent. 


Wyoming. 

Lehigh 

Schuylkill. 


151,473,872 
72,422,-227 
137.776,238 


60  per  ct.  waste. 

378.689.680 
65  per  ct.  waste. 

-206,910.302 
65  per  ct.  waste. 

430,766,703 


3,719.040,320 

833,-209,698 

5.805.483,897 


Total . 


381.0r4.3K 


1.0:S6.-366.685 


10.347.733,315 


S6 


100 


50  per  ct.  w-aste. 

1.839.5-20.160 
60  per  ct.  w-aste. 
3-29.-283.879  2 
60  per  ct.  waste. 

2..322.193.318.8 


41 

7 
52 


4.510,997,338 


See  Coal  and  Ojk'e. 

ANTI-COEEOSION.— A  lacker  formerly  applied  to 
iron  tnivci-sir.g-|iliitf(:iiiis,  gun-carriages,  and  the  out- 
side of  guns.  It  has  been  superseded  by  Pulford's 
magnetic  paint. 

ANTIMONY. — A  metal  of  a  gray  or  leaden  color, 
and  very  brittle.  It  is  found  in  mines  with  galena, 
or  the  sulphuret  of  lead,  from  which  it  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished, the  antimony  occurring  in  fine  streaky 
fibrous  crystalline  mas,ses  of  a  radiated  texture, 
whereas  sulphuret  of  lead  is  of  a  snuioth,  shiny,  lami- 
nated nature.  Antimony  is  found  in  Cornwall, 
France,  Spain,  Boi-neo,  Nepal,  the  Straits,  and  Siam, 
and  is  commonly  a.ssocialed  with  iron,  zinc,  quartz, 
silver,  sulphate  of  baryta,  and  carbonate  of  zinc.  It 
fusi's  at  alxiut  800  Fahr.,  and  volatilizes  very  per- 
ceptibly at  a  somewhat  higher  temperature.  It  is  one 
of  the  ingredients  used  in  the  detonating  composition 
of  friction-tubes,  and  stars  for  signal-rockets.  When 
mixed  with  lead,  it  has  the  property  of  hardening  bul- 
lets. Sulphide  of  antimony  enters  into  those  compo- 
sitions employed  to  give  a  strong  light.  It  is  particu- 
larly well  suited  for  that  purpejse,  for  being  decom- 
posed at  a  comparatively,  low  temperature,  the  metal 
is  set  free  and  disseminated  through  the  flame  in  a 
state  of  incandescence,  causing  the  intensity  of  the 
light  to  be  considerable:  moreover,  the  heated  parti- 
cles, coming  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  are 
thereby  oxidized,  forming  a  white  smoke  which  is 
ven'  favorable  to  the  reflection  of  light. 


ANTUSTEIONES.— A  body-guard  of  the  Kings  or 
Chiefs  of  the  ancient  Germans,  which  was  composed 
of  volunteers. 

ANVIL. — 1.  An  iron  block,  with  a  smooth,  flat 
steel  face,  on  which  malleable  metals  are  hammered 
and  shaped.  Anvils  are  of  all  sizes,  from  the  tiny 
articles  used  by  watchmakers  to  the  immense  ma.sscs 
for  trip-hammer  work  in  great  iron-foundries.  The 
common  an\-il  of  blacksmiths  has  a  cone  or  horn  at 
one  end,  and  a  socket  for  a  chisel  in  the  other.  The 
best  anvils  are  made  of  cast-iron,  faced  with  steel,  the 
steel  iK'imr  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  mould  and  the 
iron  poured  upon  it.  2.  The  resisting  cone,  plate,  or  bar 
against  which  the  fulminate  in  a  metallic  cartridge  is 
exploded.  3.  An  archaism  for  the  handle  or  hilt  of 
a  sword.  ANo.  a  small  pennon  on  theend  of  a  lance. 
APAREJO.— The  pack-saddle  used  in  the  American 
military  ser\-ice.  It  consists  of  a  strong  leather  sack, 
about  two  feet  wide  and  from  55  to  60  inches  long, 
according  to  the  girth  of  the  animal.  -X.  seam  run- 
ning from  the  front  to  the  rear  of  the  aparejo  divides 
it  into  two  equal  jiarts,  each  of  which  is  composeel  of 

,  a  double  layer  of  hide,  with  sufficient  .space  between 
to  introduce  a  suitable  stutflng  of  hay.  gnLss,  moss, 
fiber,  etc.  These  side  flaps,  when  f.istened  together 
at  the  top,  fonn  a  ridge  within  which  the  back-bone 
of  the  animal  rests  free  from  friction  or  pressure.  On 
the  inside  of  each  flap  is  left  a  circular  hole  through 

1  which  the  stuffing  material  can  at  any  time  be  reached. 


APASEJOCINCHA. 


56 


APPASTI8. 


The  cnrffiil  jiacker  should  keep  thi;  stiilliii!;  evenly 
distributed,  or  so  as  to  vary  with  the  conforiuatiou  of 
the  Imek  of  the  particular  animal,  as  portions  of  it 
are  constantly  shifting  and  workiuir  up  into  lumps, 
in  consetiuenee  of  the  travel.  The  drawings  show 
the  interior  and  exterior  of  the  ajtarejo.  To  gel  up 
the  aparejo,  or  to  give  it  evenness  and  stilTness,  small 
ash,  rose,  or  willow  sprouts  from  ^  to  J  of  an  inch  in 


/. 

— — 

i               JtiLsidp. 

1 1  o 

N 

■  -  -— — 

::^ 

) y-::::::::::::::::: 

24  inches. 

ff  i/tdes.                24  inrAes. 

;  iV-OTU.  : 

1 

0      o      o      o    0      o 

;    &vir.    '; 

o     o     o    o     o    o 

Outside 

Fig.  1. 

diameter,  and  as  long  as  possible  -n-ithout  springing 
(any  tough  and  elastic  wood  will  answer),  are  placed 
inside  of  it  and  at  equal  distances  apart — about  2 
inches.  On  the  inside  of  these,  and  towanis  the  ani- 
mal, coarse  grass  or  hay  (such  as  is  light  and  tough 
anil  will  not  break  up)  is  placed  layer  after  lajer  un- 
til the  sides  are  as  full  as  possible.  The  corners 
should  be  stuffed  as  hard  as  possible  by  means  of  a 
sharp  stick.    Serious  trouble  is  often  experienced  on 


FiQ.  2. 

long  and  toilsome  marches  from  loss  of  tie.sh,  caus- 
ing the  aparejo  to  tit  badly  and  cause  a  sore'back. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  tJi  make  gooil  all  deficien- 
cies in  the  slulfing,  and  when  the  aparejo  is  too  larire 
to  be  adapted  to  a  thin  animal  bv  slutting,  a  portion 
should  be  cut  out  of  the  center.  Straw  ]iaiN  are  use- 
ful  for  protecting  the  hips  and  withers  when  placed 


under  the  cinches  of  tho.so  animals  carrying  rough 
loatls.  \Vhen  the  aparejo  is  stuffed  it  shoidd  be  put 
on  the  animal  for  which  it  is  intended,  and  the  crup- 
l>er  adjusted.  Fig.  2  represents  the  animal  siiddled 
with  the  crupper  in  ])roper  position.  The  shajie  of 
the  ajiarejo  enables  all  loads  to  Ije  nicely  balanced, 
(^ne  hundred  pounds  on  one  side  may  be  made  to 
ride  with  fifty  pounds  on  the  other  without  straining 
the  animal.  It  presents  much  more  surface  for 
jire.ssurc  to  the  animal  than  any  other  fonu  of 
pack-sjiddle.  The  lower  corhtrs  secure  the 
lash-ro]>e  and  jtreveut  it  slipjiing  when  on  the 
road.  By  removing  the  hay  or  stufling  from  the 
sides  a  sore  back  ma\'  be  easily  remedied,  and  by 
pro]X'rly  adjusting  the  tilling,  the  ajiarejo  may 
be  made  to  perfectly  lit  a  Ijadly  .shaix-d  back. 
These  may  be  cited  as  some  of  its  advantages. 
See  Piickiiiq. 

APAREj'O-CINCHA.— A  girth  made  of  hide 
or  strong  canvas,  about  six  feet  long  and  twenty 
inches  w  ide,  and  folded  so  as  to  bring  the  edges 
in  the  centre  of  the  cincha.  A  semicircle  of 
strong  leather  pierced  with  several  holes  is 
stitched  on  one  end,  and  two  loops  of  strong 
leather  on  the  other.  See  Jlammer-cluth  and 
Packing. 

AF£X. — The  tip,  point,  or  summit  of  any- 
thing. The  Romans  .so  named  the  crest  ofa 
helmet,  or  the  part  whereon  the  horse-hair  plume 
was  attached. 

APHEACTI.— In  the  ancient  military  art,  open 
vessels,  ^viihout  decks  or  hatches,  furnished  only 
at  head  and  stern  with  cross-planks,  whereon  the 
men  stood  to  fight. 
APOBATES. — A  name  given  by  the  ancients  to 
warriors  who  fought  mounted  on  chariots;  they  were 
also  called  Aiakibata  or  Parahales;  they  were  gen- 
endly  leaders  who  fought  in  this  manner.  Their 
armor  and  arms  consisted  of  helmet,  breast-armor, 
lance,  ja\elin,  sword,  and  shield.  These  warriors 
occasionally  alighted  from  the  chariots  to  attack  their 
aiUersaiies  on  toot. 

APOLOGY. — In  a  military  point  of  view,  an  apology 
maile  and  accepted  debars  the  otlicer  who  accepts 
from  bringing  forward  the  matter  as  a  substantive 
accusation.  The  law  declares  that  no  officer  or  sol- 
dier shall  use  any  reproachful  or  i)ro\(>king  .speeches 
or  gestures  to  another.  Any  officer  who  so  offends 
shall  be  put  in  arrest.  Any  soldier  who  so  offends 
shall  be  confined,  and  required  to  a.sk  pardon  of  the 
party  offended,  in  the  presence  of  his  Command- 
ing Officer. 

APOMAQtJE. — A  word,  among  the  Grecians, 
signifyiiii;  tlicise  soldiers  who  were  disquali- 
fied lor  niilitary  service  from  physical  disa- 
bility or  otlit-r  causes. 

APOMECOMETEK.— An  instrument  used  for 
measiu'ing  heights,  constructed  in  accordance 
with  the  iirinciples  which  govern  the  sextant, 
\\-/.. :  As  the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection 
are  always  equal,  the  rays  of  an  ol)ject  being 
thrown  on  the  plane  of  one  mirror  are  from 
that  rellected  to  the  i>lane  of  another  nurror, 
thereby  making  both  extremes  of  the  vertical 
height  coincide  exactly  at  the  same  point  on 
the  horizon-gla.ss,  so  that  by  measuring  the 
ba.sc-line  we  obtain  a  result  equal  to  the  al- 
titude. The  eye  of  the  observer  when  in  po- 
sition will  be  at  the  lower  end  of  the  hypo- 
ihenusc,  tmd  the  summit  of  the  object  at 
ihe  other.  Keeping  the  line  of  \ision, 
which  forms  the  base,  exactly  horizontal, 
the  observer  approaches  the  object  till  the 
images  coincide,  when  the  ba.se  will  agree  in 
length  with  the  peqiendicular,  and  the  measured 
lanirth  of  the  former  will  cive  the  height  of  the 
latter. 

APPAKEILIES.— In  fortification,  those  slopes  tiiat 
lead  to  the  platfonn  of  the  liaslion. 
APPASTIS. — A  war  tax  which  was  Ie\ied  in  ancient 


APPEAL. 


57 


APPOINTING  POWEE. 


times  upon  the  inhabitants  of  conquered  countries. 
Also  kncwn  as  Pactis. 

KWZIlL. — Any  ofticer  or  soldier  who  may  think 
himself  wion;:ed  liy  his  Colonel  or  the  Commanding 
Officer  of  his  regiment,  and  after  due  application  to 
hira  is  refused  redress,  may  appeal  to  the  next  higher 
commander,  who  is  to  examine  into  said  complaint 
and  take  proper  measures  for  redressing  the  wTong 
complained  of,  and  transmit,  as  soon  as  possilile,  to 
the  Dcjiartment  of  War  a  true  statement  of  such 
complaint,  with  the  proceedings  had  thereon.  If  any 
inferior  otiicer  or  soldier  shall  think  himself  wn)nge<l 
by  his  Captain,  or  other  officer,  he  is  to  complain 
thereof  to  the  Commanding  Oflicer  of  the  regiment, 
who  is  required  to  summon  a  Regimental  Coiirt-ilar 
tia!  for  doing  justice  to  the  complainant;  from  which 
R(v:;imental  Court-Martial  either  party  may,  if  he 
thiidis  himself  still  aggrieved,  appeal  to  a  General 
Court-Martial.  But  if  upon  a  .second  hearing  the  ap 
peal  .shall  appear  vexatious  and  groundless,  the  per 
son  so  appealing  shall  bo  punished  at  the  discretion 
of  the  said  Court-ilartial. 

The  wrongs  here  alluded  to  have  reference  chiefly 
to  matters  of  accounts  between  the  Captain,  or  Com- 
mander of  the  company,  and  the  soldier,  relating  to 
clothing  ami  other  supplies,  as  well  as  to  pay;  and 
the  Regimental  Court,  in  examining  into  such  trans 
actions,  may  be  considered  more  as  a  Court  of  Inquiry 
than  a  Court  Martial,  or  it  maybe  \-iewed  as  an  Arbi- 
tration Board,  called  on  to  adjust  and  settle  dilTer 
ences  arising  in  the  scltlcments  of  accounts  between 
the  Captain  and  his  men.  One  reason  why  a  power 
of  appeal  is  <leclared  to  be  a  matter  of  absolutu  right 
to  inferior  oHicers  or  soldiers  complaining  of  being 
wronged  by  their  officers  doubtless  is,  that  a  Regi- 
mental or  Garrison  Court-Martial  has  not  the  power  of 
inflicting  any  punishment  ou  Commissioned  Officers. 
It  can  do  no  more  than  express  its  opinion  that  the 
comijlaint  is  just,  or  the  conti-ar}',  and,  where  it  is 
practicable  and  proper,  relieve  the  sufferer  as  to  any 
existing  grievance;  but  the  injiuT  complained  of, 
however  rtairrant,  nnist  still  have  remained  unre- 
dressed, as  far  as  punishment  is  concerned,  if  an  ap- 
peal to  a  Cicneral  Ccuirt-JIartial  had  not  been  declared 
to  be  a  matter  of  right  to  the  part)'  aggrieved. 

APPEL. — A  smart  stroke  with  tlie  lilade  by  a  fencer, 
on  the  sword  of  his  antagonist  on  the  opposite  side  to 
that  which  he  engaged,  genemlly  accompanied  wixh. 
a  stamp  of  the  foot,  and  used  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
curing an  opening. 

APPOINT. — To  fix  by  a  decree,  order,  command, 
resolve,  decision,  or  mutual  agreement.  In  the 
United  States  the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  appoints  and  commissions 
all  Commissioned  Officers  of  the  Anny.  Appoint- 
ments to  the  rank  of  General  Officer  are  made  by  se- 
lection from  the  Army.  xVll  vacancies  in  the  grade 
of  Second  Lieutenant  are  filled  b)'  appointment  from 
the  graduates  of  the  Military  Academy,  so  long  as 
any  such  remain  in  service  unassigned;  and  any  va- 
cancies thereafter  remaining  are  filled  by  promotion  of 
meritorious  Non  commissioned  Officers  of  the  Army. 
Vacancies  remaining  after  exhausting  the  two  classes 
named  are  filled  b)'  appointment  of  persons  in  c\\\\ 
life.  But  appointments  of  ci\i!ians,  except  such  as 
are  regular  graduates  of  the  ^Military  Acadcnn-  who 
have  been  honoial)ly  discharged  from  the  ser\-ice,are 
made  in  time  of  i>eiice  only  when  more  vacancies  ex 
ist  in  the  Army  than  will  be  required  in  the  assign- 
ment of  the  ne.xt  graduating  cla.ss.  To  insure  the  sa- 
lection  of  proper  CandidattK  for  Promotion  from  the 
grades  of  Xon  commissioned  Officer,  Company  Com- 
manders report  to  their  Regimental  Commanders,  by 
the  first  of  Februari-  in  each  year,  such  as,  in  their 
opinion,  by  education,  conduct,  and  ser\"ices,  seem  to 
merit  advancement,  and  who  have  served  not  less 
than  two  years  in  the  Army.  The  reports  set  forth  a 
description  of  the  candidate,  his  length  of  serWce  as 
Non-commi.ssioned  Officer  and  as  Priv.ate  Soldier,  his 
character  as  to  fidelity  and  sobriety;  his  age,  physical 


qualifications,  and  mental  abilities;  the  extent  to 
which  his  talents  have  been  cultivated,  and  his  fitness 
generally  to  discharge  the  duties  of  a  Commissioned 
Ofiicer  "  If  recommended  ou  account  of  meritorious 
services,  the  particular  .services  referred  to  are  stated 
in  detail.  A  qiuilified  Board  is  annually  a.ssembled 
to  make  a  iirelirainarj'  examination  into  the  claims 
and  (qualifications  of  such  Non-commissioned  Officers, 
and  the  report  of  this  Board  is  forwaided  to  the  Seo 
retary  of  AVar. 

Whenever  the  public  service  may  require  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  ci\ilian  to  the  Army,  a  Board  of  Offi 
eers  is  instituted,  before  which  the  candidate  is 
authorized  b}-  the  Secretary  of  War  to  appear  for 
examination  into  his  physical  abilil_v,  moral  charac- 
ter, attainments,  and  general  fitness  for  the  service. 
As^i  rule,  promotions  of  Xon-connnissioned  Officers  to 
the  rank  of  Second  Lieutenant  will  not  be  made  if  the 
candidate  is  under  twenty -one  or  over  thirty  years  of 
age,  nor  if  the  candidate  at  the  time  of  his  ajipoint- 
ment  is  married.  The  limits  of  age  in  cases  of  ci\-il- 
ian  candidates  are  twenty  and  thirty  years.  3Icrito- 
rious  Xon -commissioned  Officers  of  the  Anny  recom- 
mended for  appointment  receive  a  certificate  to  that 
effect  from  the  Adjutant-General  of  the  Army,  and  are 
known  in  the  scrxice  as  "Candidates  for  Promotion," 
and  have  the  title  of  "  Candidate"  prefi.xed  to  thatlof 
their  rank  on  all  rolls,  returns,  orders,  and  correspon- 
dence. They  are  entitled  to  wear  on  each  sleeve  of 
their  coat  a  singlestripe  of  gilt  lace,  Init  are  entitled  to 
this  privilege  so  long  only  as  they  maintain  the  spe- 
cially honorable  position  of  "Candidate."  The  priv- 
ileges of  a  candidate  terminate  with  the  calendar  year 
next  succeeding  that  in  which  he  receives  his  "  Certi- 
ficate," unless  his  recommendation  is  continued  by 
the  succeeding  Boards  of  Examination.  Candidates 
who  become  ineligible  by  reason  of  over-ago  are  en- 
titled to  wear  the  candidates'  stripe  on  the  left  sleeve 
only,  so  long  as  they  maintain  the  same  standing  and 
good  conduct  as  Xon-commissioned  Officers  in  the 
sen'ice  as  at  their  examination.  "Candidates"  who 
think  themselves  wronged  in  the  loss  of  that  position 
have  a  right  to  trial  by  General  Court-Martial  on  aj)- 
pcal,  within  two  months,  to  the  Department  Com- 
mander; and  no  Xon-commissioned  Officer,  while  hold- 
ing the  privileges  of  a  "  Candidate,"  can  be  brought 
before  a  Field  officers'  Court,  or  a  Garrison  or  Regi- 
mental Court-Martial.  All  vacancies  in  established 
regiments  and  corps  to  the  rank  of  Colonel  are  filled 
by  promotion  according  to  seniorit\',  except  in  case 
of  dis;\bility  or  other  incompetency.  Pi'omotions  to 
the  rank  of  Captain  are  made  rcgimentally;  to  Major 
and  Lieutenant -Colonel  and  Colonel,  according  to  the 
arm,  as  Infantry.  Artillery,  etc.;  and  in  the  Staff  De- 
jiartments,  and"  in  the  Engineers  and  Ordnance,  ac- 
cording to  Coqis.  .Suspension  from  rank  prevents  an 
officer's  promotion  to  a  higher  grade,  but  will  not 
otherwise  i)rejudico  his  relative  advancement  by 
seidority  in  tlie  grade  occupied  for  the  time  being. 
See  PriHiintion. 

APPOINTE.— This  word  was  applicable  to  French 
soldiers  only  during  the  old  monarchy  of  France,  and 
meant  a  man  who  for  his  service  and  extraordinary 
bravery  received  more  than  common  pay.  There 
were  likemse  instances  in  which  officers  were  dis- 
tinguished bv  beintr  stvled  Offi'vrs  AppointfS. 

APPOINTING  PO'WTER.— it  lias  been  contended  by 
advocates  of  executive  <lisc:\.'u  m  that  anny  appoint- 
ments are  embraced  in  the  power  granted  to  the 
President  in  the  second  section  of  the  Conslitulion,  to 
nominate  and,  bv  and  -n-ith  the  ad\ice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate,  appoint  "all  other  oflicers  of  the 
United  States  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for  and  which  may  be  estab- 
lished by  law.  But  the  Congress  may,  by  law.  vest 
the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as  they  think 
proper  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  Courts  of  Law, 
or  in  the  Heads  of  Departments.  "  If  due  regard, 
however,  be  paid  to  the  worils,  "  irhost  npiMintiinnts 
are  not  herein  otherwise  2>rovided  for,"  the  pretension 


APPOINTMENT. 


58 


APRON, 


set  up  in  favor  of  executive  iwwcr  will  receive  no 
support  from  the  terms  of  the  Ctmstitution.  The 
powers  gniiiled  to  t'on^ess  to  ni/jff  ami  support 
iirraies,  ami  to  make  all  niUs  for  the  gortrnmiitl  and 
ngulalion  of  tlie  laiul  ami  naval  forces,  are  necessa- 
rily so  comprehensive  in  character  as  to  embrace  all 
means  which  Conjrn'ss,  accoriliug  to  circumstances, 
may  deem  proper  and  necessary  in  order  to  raise 
armies,  or  to  ifovern  them  when  raised.  Hules  of  ap- 
pointment to  ofllce,  rules  of  promotion — another  form 
of  app<iintnunl— and  all  rules  whatever  in  relation  to 
the  land  and  naval  forces,  s;ive  the  aiipointnunt  of 
the  CommiUider-in-Chief  of  those  united  forces,  who 
is  designated  by  the  fonstitution,  are  hence  within 
the  competency  of  Consrress. 

It  is  true  that  this  i;reat  power  vested  in  Coniri'ess 
has  been  exercised  by  them,  in  most  cases,  by  skiving 
to  the  President  a  large  discretion  in  appointments 
nnd  other  matters  connected  with  the  army.  I5ut  the 
principle  itself — that  supreme  command  is  vested  in 
Cona^ress — has  been  often  a.ssertcd  in  our  military  leg- 
islation. Contemporaneously  with  the  foundation  of 
the  government  laws  have  been  passed  giving  to  gen- 
eral and  other  ollirers  the  right  of  apiioinimem  to 
certain  offices;  in  other  cases  the  President  has  been 
confined  in  his  selection  to  classes  designated  by  law; 
again,  rules  have  been  made  by  Congress  for  the 
promotion  of  ollicers,  and  in  1S46  an  anny  of  vol- 
unteers was  raised  by  Congress,  the  officers  "of  which 
Congress  direct(?d  .should  be  appointed  according  to 
the  laws  of  the  States  in  which  the  troops  were  raised, 
excepting  the  General  Ollicers,  who  were  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and  the  Senate — a  clear 
recognition  that  the  trofips  tlius  raised  were  United 
States  trooi^  and  not  militia.     See  Appoint. 

APPOINTMENT.— Office,  rank,  or  emploj-mcnt. 
Also,  the  equipment,  ordnance,  f  urnitiu-e,  and  ncces- 
sarv  articles  of  an  iu-mv. 

APPOINTMENTS.— the  militarj'  accouterments  of 
officers  or  soldiers,  such  as  belts,  sashes,  swords,  etc. 
In  the  English  .service  the  iip]iomtm<'iit,im  the  mounted 
branch  consist  of  accouterments,  saddle,  etc.,  making, 
with  the  Xon-commi&sioned  Officer,  a  total  weight  for 
the  horse  to  caiTV  of  alx)ut  18  stone. 

APPOINTON.— A  sort  of  poniard  which  was  exten- 
sively used  in  ancient  times. 

APPREHEND. — In  a  military  sense,  the  seizing  or 
confining  of  any  person;  as,  to' apprehend  a  deserter, 
etc. 

APPRENTI. — Formerly  in  the  Frcncli  service  there 
Were  appreiiti  or  soldiers  among  the  arlillerv,  who 
served  for  less  pay  than  the  regular  artillerymen, 
until  they  became  perfect  in  their  profession,"when 
they  were  admitted  to  such  vacancies  as  occurred  in 
their  respective  bnmches. 

APPROACH.— The  route  by  which  a  fortified  place 
or  military  position  can  be  approached  by  an  attack- 
ing force. 

APPROACHES.— The  sviccessors  of  Vauban  fol- 
lowed up,  as  far  as  iiracticable,  the  methodical  stages 
in  conducting  the  attack  founded  upon  his  long  exjK'- 
rience,  and  which  consisted  in  a  single  or  a  double 
connected  attack;  approaching  the  points  assiiiled  by 
as  many  lines  of  commimicalion,  directed  upon  them, 
ns  circumstances  seemed  to  demand,  and  protecting 
these  approaches  l)y  three  continuous  main  lines  of 
trenches,  termed  the  parallels,  and  several  portionsof  ' 
parallels,  termed  denii  jiandlels,  placed  between  the 
second  and  third  parallels,  all  of  them  so  placed  ns  to 
be  in  good  tactical  relations  to  each  other. 

The  approaches  were  visually  run  in  zigzag  direc- 
tions towards  the  si\lienls  of  the  defences,  crossim: 
the  lines  of  the  capitals  of  tliese  sjdients;  the  front  of 
each  approach  gnulually  contracting  as  it  was  ad- 
vanced towards  the  .-^dient;  and  each  bovau  of  the 
approach  receinng  such  a  direction  as  niit  to  expose 
it  to  an  entilading  tire  from  any  jioint  of  the  defences 
within  cannon-range.  The  drawing  shf)ws  the  jiro- 
file  of  the  apprr)ach.  In  addition  to  the  communica- 
tions between  the  parallels,  two  or  more  lines  of  ap- 


proaches were  mm,  from  the  positions  selected  for  the 
depots  of  the  trenches,  to  jioints  of  the  first  pandlel 
convenient  for  the  supplies  for  this  and  the  other  lines 
of  wt)rks.  These  were  also  usually  run  in  the  direction 
of  the  capitjds  of  some  two  or  more  of  the  sidients. 

Besides  giving  the  boyaux  directions  imfavorable 
to  an  enfilading  fire  from  the  defences,  each  one  is 
extended  some  ten  or  twelve  yards  back,  to  the  rear 
of  the  one  behind  it,  so  that  shoidd  the  besieged  en- 
deavor to  take  up  a  temporar\-  i)osi(ion.  exterior  to 
his  maui  defences,  each  boyau  would  still  be  covered 
by  the  portion  of  the  one  in  advance  of  it  run  to  the 
rear,  not  only  from  an  enfilading  but  from  any  sUmt 
reverse  views,  except  from  poinds  so  far  beyond  the 
defences  as  to  make  their  temporary  occupation  very 
perilous  to  the  besieged,  from  their  exposiu-e  to  open 
assaults. 

The  positions  given  to  the  approaches  along  the 
c;ipitals  are  not  obligatory;  but  will  generaliy  be 
foimd  to  offer  more  advantages  than  any'olhei"  that 


The  Profile  of  the  Approach. 

could  be  given  them  on  ground  entirely  unobstnicted. 
In  the  first  place,  the  capitals  are  the  shortest  lines 
from  the  parallels  to  the  salients  of  the  defences.  In 
the  secontl,  by  running  the  boyaux  across  the  capitals, 
and  gradually  diniinisliing  the  extent  of  their  front, 
the  entire  approach  will  be  belter  flanked  by  the  fire 
of  the  parallel  in  its  rear;  will  be  in  a  iw.sirion  to  re- 
ceive but  little  if  smy  of  the  fire  which  is  delivered 
from  the  two  faces  of  the  salient  upon  which  it  is  rim; 
will  be  out  of  the  line  of  fire  of  the  batleries  enfilad- 
ing these  two  faces;  and  will  usually  be  in  the  most 
favorable  position  to  defile  each  boyau  from  the  fire 
of  the  besieged. 

The  front  occupied  by  each  a]>proach  will  depend 
upon  the  length  given  to  each  boyau.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  boyairx  shoidd  not  receive  a  greater  length 
than  100  yards,  in  order  not  to  expose  too  long  a  line 
to  tempt  the  besieged  to  enfilade  it,  and  the  approach 
may  be  started  at  the  first  parallel  with  a  front  of  60 
yards,  which  .should  be  gradually  narrowetl,  so  as  to 
have  a  front  of  about  30  yards  at  the  position  of  the 
third  pnndlel. 

APPROPRIATIONS.— Annual  appropriations,  origi- 
nating in  the  Lower  House  of  Congress,  are  made  for 
the  support  of  the  United  States  army.  The  Eng- 
lish army  is  raised  by  the  Queen,  and  maintained  by 
annual  apiiroiiriations  l)y  Parliament;  the  system  for 
the  support  of  armies  is  much  the  same  throughout 
Europe.  In  the  Uniteil  Stales  the  term  appropria- 
tion is  also  used  by  Post  and  Kegimental  Coimcils  of 
Administration  in  the  expenditure  of  funds. 

APPUI. — A  staj-  or  supiwrt.  In  military  tactics, 
Xhe  }xnnU  (Vappuiare  such  parts  of  Ihe  field  of  battle 
as  are  suited  to  give  support  or  shelter.  As  the  wings 
of  an  anny  (like  the  extreme  sides  of  a  chess-board) 
are  the  weakest  points  of  resistance  to  attack,  they 
especially  reipiire  support  or  protection,  and  are 
placed,  when  it  is  jKissible,  in  localities  which  serve 
to  obstruct  the  attacking  forces.  Lakes,  morasses, 
woods,  streams,  and  steep  decli^^ties  may  thus  servf 
as  p)in  t»  d'appii  i. 

APRON. — This  word  is  employed  both  in  military 
and  in  shipping  affairs.  The  apron  of  a  cannon  is  a 
piece  of  sheet-lead  which  covei-s  tlie  toueh-hole.  lied  by 
two  pieces  of  white  rope.  In  ship-buiMing,  the  apron 
is  a  piece  of  curved  linilier  fixed  behind  the  lowei 
part  of  the  stem  and  just  above  the  foremost  end  of 
the  keel;  its  chief  use  is  to  fortify  tlu'  stem  and  con 
ncct  it  more  firmly  with  the  keel. "  The  name  of  aproD 
is  also  given  to  the  i>lank-flooring  raised  at  the  en 


AftUEDUCT. 


59 


ABCH. 


trance  of  a  dock,  a  little  higher  than  the  bottom,  to 
fonii  an  iibutnu'iit  asainst  wliich  the  gates  may  shut. 

AftUEDUCT. — Au  artiticial  course"  or  channel  by 
which  water  is  conveyed  along  an  inclined  plain. 
When  an  aquetluct  is  carried  across  a  valKy  it  is 
usually  raised  on  arches,  and  where  elevated  ground 
or  hills  intervene  a  passage  is  cut,  or,  if  ncces-sarj',  a 
tunnel  bored  for  it.  Aqueducts  were  not  imknown  to 
the  Greets;  but  there  are  no  remains  of  those  which 
they  constructed,  and  the  brief  notices  of  them  by 
Pausanias,  Herodotus,  and  others  do  not  enable  us  to 
form  any  distinct  notion  of  their  chanicter.  The 
aqueducts  of  the  Romans  were  amongst  the  most 
magniticent  of  their  works,  and  the  noble  supply  of 
water  whieli  modern  Rome  ilerives  from  the  three  now 
in  use,  of  which  two  are  ancient,  gives  the  stranger  a 
very  vivid  conception  of  the  vast  scale  on  which  the 
ancient  city  must  have  been  pro\ided  with  one  of  the 
most  important  appliances  of  civilization  and  refine- 
ment. wliLH  nine  were  employed  to  pour  water  into 
its  baths  and  fountains. 

AftUILA.— The  principal    standard    of  a    Roman 
legion.      The  standard  of  Romulus  is  said  to  have 
consisted  of  a  handful  of  hay,  straw,  or  fern,  aftixed 
to  a  pole  or  spear;  whence  the  company  of  .soldiers  I 
who  served  under  it  was  called  Manipulus.     This  [ 
primitive  standard  was  soon  superseded  by  the  figures  i 
of  animals.     In  104  B.C.  the  Eagle  was  permanently 
adopted:  it  was  made  of  silver  or  bronze,  and  was 
represented  with  expanded  wings. 

AQUILIFER. — A  name  given"" by  the  Romans  to  the 
officers  who  carried  the  Eagles  of  the  lesions. 

ARBALEST— ARBLAST—ARCUBALEST.—xV  wea- 
pon much  in  use  during  the  feudal  times.  Its  recog- 
nized position  among  militaiy  arms  may  be  dated 
from  about  the  period  of  Richard  I.  The  smaller 
kinds  of  arbalest  were  bent  by  pressing  the  hand  on  a 
small  steel  lerer  called  the""goat's  foot;"  but  the 
larger  kinds  were  bent  by  placing  the  foot  in  a  looj)  or 
stirrup  at  the  end  of  the  central  shaft,  and  drawing 
the  cord  upwards  with  the  hand.  At  a  later  period 
the  bow  was  made  very  strong,  often  of  steel;  in  this 
form  it  required  a  mechanical  contrivance,  called  a 
"moulinet."  to  liend  it.  Sometimes  ordinary  arrows 
■were  used  with  the  arbalest,  but  more  usually  arrows 
of  a  shorter  and  stouter  kind,  called  "  canials"  or 
"quarrels,"  were  employed;  these  had  a  four-sided 


Arbalest. 

pyramidal  form  of  head.  Occasionally  stones  and 
leaden  balls  were  shot  from  the  larger  arbalests.  The 
Arbalestiers,  or  Cross-bowmen,  carried  a  quiver  with 
fil'ty  arrows  as  an  armament  in  some  of  the  battles  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  They  were  an  essential  com- 
ponent of  armies  of  that  period,  taking  up  their  posi- 
tion in  the  van  of  the  battle  array;  some  were  mounted, 
some  on  foot,  and  they  occ;t.sionally  wore  armor.  The 
supi'ly  of  arrows  or  quarrels  was  carried  after  them  to 
the  battle-tield  in  carts.  The  arbalest  continued  to  be 
a  favorite  weapon  in  England  throughout  the  thir- 
teenth century;  but  in  the  fourteenth  it  gave  way  to 
the  long-bow,  which  was  found  to  be  a  more  con- 
venient weapon  in  battle. 

ARBALESTINA. — In  the  military  system  of  the 
iliddle  Ages,  the  arbalestina  was  a  small  window  or 
wicket  through  which  the  Cross-bowmen  shot  their 
quarrels  or  arrows  at  an  enemy  besieging  a  fortified 
place. 

AKBALETRIEE  D'UNE  GALEEE.— That  part  of  a 
galley  where  the  Cross-bowmen  were  placed  during  an 
engtigenient. 

ARBRIER.— A  short  bow  adjusted  to  a  staff,  and 
fixed  at  right  angles  to  it,  near  one  extremity.  It  was 
the  Arblaat  in  its  elementarj'  form. 


ABC. — Any  part  of  a  curved  line.  The  straight 
line  joining  the  ends  of  an  arc  is  its  chord,  which  is 
always  less  than  the  arc  itself.  Arcs  of  circles  are 
siiiiihtr  when  they  subtend  equal  angles  at  the  centers 
of  their  respective  circles;  and  if  similar  arcs  belong 
to  ciiual  circles,  the  arcs  themselves  are  eqiuil.  The 
length  of  an  arc  is  readily  foimd  if  the  angle  which  it 
subtends  at  the  center  of  the  circle  is  known,  and  also 
the  length  of  the  whole  circumference.  Let  the  whole 
circumference  be  100,  and  the  angle  of  an  arc  50", 
the  length  of  the  arc  is 

360'  :  50'  :  :  100  :  -^^^  =  14  nearly. 

ARC  A  JALET. — A  small  cross-bow,  used  in  ancient 
times  to  throw  bullets,  etc. 

ARCH.^An  arrangement  of  bricks,  stone.s,  or  other 
materials  over  an  open  space,  by  which  they  are  made 
not  only  to  support  each  other  by  nuitual  pressure, 
Init  to  sustain  a  superincumbent  weight.  We  have 
the  excellent  authority  of  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  for  stat- 
ing that  the  arch  was  "known  to,  and  used  by,  the  an- 
cient Egyptians;  and  that  the  Assyrians  were  acquaint- 
ed with  its  jmnciples  is  placed  beyond  doubt  by  the 
arched  gateways  so  frequently  represented  in  their 
bass-reliefs.  The  arch  is  generally  sujiposed  to  have 
been  unknown  to  the  Greeks— a"  sujiposition  which 
becomes  very  improliable  if  we  hold  it  to  be  proved 
that  it  was  used  by  nations  with  whose  works  they 
must  have  been  familiar.  But  that  the  Greeks  did 
not  employ  it  generally  in  their  architectural  struc- 
tures is  certain;  and  as  it  is  not  less  certain  that  the 
Romans  did,  it  is  to  the  latter  people  that  the  nations 
of  modern  Euro|5e  are  indebted  for  their  acquaintance 
with  its  great  utility.  The  introduction  of  the  arch 
by  the  Ronums  gradually  effected  a  complete  revolu- 
tion in  the  architectural  forms  which  they  borrowed 
from  the  Greeks.  The  predominance  of  horizontal 
lines  gave  way  by  degrees,  till,  a.s  the  Romanesque 
pa.ssed"  into  the  Gothic'style,  it  was  superseded  by  the 
segments  of  a  circle,  placed  generally  more  or  less 
in  a  perpendicular  direction.  In  its  earliest  applica- 
tion by  the  Romans,  the  arch  did  not  spring  from  the 


Triumphal  Arch  of  Constantino  at  Rome. 

entablature  of  the  columns,  but  was  generally  placed 
behind  them,  and  rested  upon  separate  imjiosts.  Sub- 
sequ(Mitlv  this  arrangement  was  departed  from,  and 
the  areh'assumed  the  position  which  it  has  since  re- 
tained above  the  columns;  sometimes  having  an  en- 
tablature interpo.sed,  and  sometimes  rising  directly 
from  the  capital  of  the  cohmm  or  pier,  as  in  the  Ro- 
manesciue.  Before  mentioning  very  briefly  the  ilif- 
ferent  forms  of  the  arch,  it  seems  na"tural  to  refer  to 
a  veiy  simjile  structure,  frequently  met  with  in  those 
early" edifices  in  our  own  coimtry  which  we  are  in  the 
habit  of  designating  as  Saxon.  It  consists  of  two 
stones,  their  lower  ends  resting  on  rude  piers,  their 
tops  leaning  asrsiinst  each  other,  and  thus  forming 
two  sides  of  a  'tri:uisle,  which  is  capable  of  supix)rt- 
ins  a  modentte  supciincumbent  weight.  The  me- 
chanical principles  on  which  the  arch  depends, 
thouu-h  here  very  imperfectly  employed,  seem  suffi- 
ciently called  into  play  to  suggest  their  more  exten- 
sive application;  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  out  of 
this  rude  construction  the  arch,  in  its  later  and  more 


AKCHZKS. 


60 


ARCHEBS. 


elaborate  forms,  mi<:bt  liavc  ilevcloped  itself  amonijst 
ourselves  witlumt  liiiils  from  fon-isrii  soiiiees.  Of  ilie 
areb  itself,  tlie  fulkiwiim'  viiri;ili<>ns  of  form  iii:iv  he 
eiiumeniliil:  the  semieirilc.  the  t^irnionl,  the  ellipst', 
which  were  tlii'  only  loniis  iiiiployeil  l>y  the  an- 
cients, ami  which  alone  were  known  in  mediieval 
architecture  up  to  the  time  at  which  the  pointed  arch 
was  introcluixil.  Of  tlu-*.  the  stilteil  arch  aiul  the 
borseshoearcli  are  moilitications,  in  l)olh  of  which  the 
center  or  (xiint  from  which  the  arch  is  <lcs<TitK-d  is 
above  the  line  nf  the  impost,  but  in  the  former  of 
which  the  moulilini.'s  arc  continueil  downwards  verli- 
odly;  whilst  in  the  latter  they  are  slightly  inclined 
inwards,  or  the  curve  is  prolonged  till  it  meets  the 
impost.  The  horseshoe-arch  belongs  peculiarly  to 
Anibian  architecture,  not  only  from  its  having  origi- 
natetl  simultaneously  with  tlie  faith  of  the  Prophet, 
but /rom  its  continuing  to  be  used  exclusively  by  his 
followers.  Next  in  iK)int  of  time,  though  far  .sur- 
pa.ssing  all  the  others  in  beauty  aiul  variety,  is  the 
pointed  arch,  the  origin  of  which  is  still  a  sub- 
ject of  anticiuarian  controversy.  The  greater  or 
less  aeuteness  of  the  pointed  arch  depends  on  the  po-  i 
silion  of  the  two  center  points  from  which  its  curved 
sides  arc  described.  Of  the  foil-arches,  or  arches  in 
which  the  forms  of  a  leaf  are  imitated,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  trefoil,  the  ciuqucfoil,  and  the  jiolyfoil,  the 
latter  being  met  with  in  Arabian  and  Homanescjue  1 
buildings.  At  a  later  period  of  Gothic  architecture, 
with  the  decorated  style,  the  ogee  arch  was  intro- 
duced, and  the  Tudor  or  four-cornered  arch  appeared 
about  the  commencement  of  the  iJcrjiendicular  style. 
AVhen  tirst  introduceil,  the  projwrtions  of  this  arch 
were  bolil  and  effective;  but  it  was  gradually  de- 
pressed till  the  principle  of  the  arch  was  lost,  aiid  its 
very  form  was  again  nieigcd  lirst  in  two  and  then  in 
one  flat  stone  or  lintel  over  an  opening.  With  the 
last  form  of  the  Tudor  arch  we  thus  reach  almost  the 
point  of  dejiarlure  in  the  construction  of  the  arch,  and 
complete  our  enumeration  of  its  forms.  The  sides 
of  an  arch  are  termed  hatinchea  or  Jlanks,  and  its 
highest  part  is  called  the  eroirn.  The  wedge-shaped 
stones,  bricks,  or  other  materials  cf  which  an  arch  is 
constructed  are  cjilled  Tous»nrs ;  the  uppermost  one 
of  all  is  callcil  the  keystone;  the  lowest,  whith  is  placed 
immediately  over  the  impost,  the  spriiigir,  or  spring- 
ing-stone;  the  under  or  lower  side  of  the  voussoirs,  the 
iiitmdoa;  the  ui>iH;r  side,  the  e.tiru(!os  or  baek: 
Arc'hes  are  variously  constructed  and  employed  in 
military  architecture" 

ABCHEES. — Archers  are  soldiers  whose  weapons 
are  the  bow  and  arrow.     Atnong  the  ancients  special- 
ly eminent  in  this  mode  of  warfare,  we  may  particu- 
larize the  Thracians,  Cretans,  Parthians,  aiid  Numi- 
dians;  among  the  moderns,  the  Arabians,  Germans, 
and  Saracens.     The  Emiieror  Frederick  II.  employed 
Saracenic  archers  with  great  effect  in  his  Lombard 
campaign;  and  to  them  is  ascribed  the  Wetorv  at  t'or- 
tenuova  in  \-iii7.     The  archers  belonged  to  the  light 
troops,  and  their  ijrovincc  was  to  open  the  battle.  ' 
The  Emperor  Leo  c-spi-cially  lauded  the  dexleritv  of 
the  Arabian  archers.     In  later  aires  the  bow  came  to  ' 
be  employed  in  Kngland,  where  the  archers  wore  liu'ht 
armor,  a  .short  sworil,  and  a  ((uivcr  with  tweutvor 
more  arrows.     At  tirst  these  archers  fousiht  in  small  ' 
groups;  in  later  years,  in  larire  mas-scs.     At  the  battle 
of  Cressy  they  formed  in  divisions  of  4000  men,  200 
in  line  and  4(MJ  deep.     The  archers  decided  the  fate 
of  the  day   in   s<-veral   battles— such  as  Crcssv   and 
Poitiers    (i:i.".fl),   Airincourt    (1415),   Crevaut    (1423),  ' 
Verneuil  (1424),  lual  Koveniav  (1429).     The  French 
archers  never  C(|ualk-d  the   KiiL'lish.    in  spile  o{  the 
Piiins  diaries  VI.  and  Charies  VII.  t(Mik  with  them. 
The  latter  org-ani/.ed  in  144H  the   FninenrcherK,  to 
which  corps  every  (larisli  had  to  cimtribute  one  man; 
but  this  measure  was  attended  ^^^th  so  little  success  ' 
that  the  king  Wius  induced   to  take  Scottish  archers  ' 
into  his  i)ay,  to  make  any  liead  asrainst  the  English.  ! 
'Hie   French   anhers    wiVe   a    coat    of   buffalo-hide 
lined  with  sip, ml-  linen,  and  were  accompanied  bv  | 


shield-bearers.  In  this  manner  '2000  hovnwen  with 
their  shield-liearers  fought  under  the  Count  de  Foix  at 
the  siege  of  Bayoime  iii  1451.  The  archers  miiver- 
sjiUv  belongeil  to  the  cliU-  of  the  troops,  and  received 
higlier  |>ay  than  the  rest.  At  one  period  the  arbalest, 
or  cro.ss-lKnv,  wits  more  in  favor  than  tlie  long-bow. 
Long  after  the  discovery  of  gun])owder  we  tind  the 
bow  and  arrow  still  used;  as,  for  example,  at  the  siege 
of  Capua  in  1500,  and  the  siege  of  Peinelmrg  in  1502. 
Xay.even  in  1572  Queen  Eliziibeth  iiromised  to  place 
at  the  disiK).s;il  of  Charles  IX.  GOlK)  men,  of  whom  the 
half  were  archers.  In  a  treatiseon  martial  dis<ipline, 
by  Ralph  Smithe,  written  in  the  time  of  tJueenKliza- 
lieth,  we  h;ive  a  picture  of  the  English  archer  two 
centuries  after  Chaucer's  time:  "  Captens  and  officers 
should  lie  skilful  of  that  most  noble  weapon  the  long- 
bow; and  to  see  that  their  soldiers,  according  to  the^r 
draught  and  strength,  have  good  bo wes,  well  nocked, 
well  strynged,  everie  strynge  whippe  in  their  uocke, 
and  in  the  niiddes  rubbed  with  wax  bni.ser,  and  shnt- 
ting-glove,  some  spare  strj-ngcs  trymed  as  aforesjiid; 
every  man  one  shefe  of  arrows,  with  a  case  of  leather 
defensible  agiiinst  the  rayne,  and  in  the  same  four- 
and-twenty  arrowes,  whereof  eight  of  them  should  be 
lighter  than  the  residue,  to  gall  or  a.stonyethe  enemyc 
with  the  liailshot  of  light  arrowes  Ix'forc  they  shall 
come  within  the  danger  of  their  harquebus  shot.  Let 
every  man  have  a  brigandine  or  a  little  coat  of  plate, 
a  skull  or  hufkyu,  a  maule  of  leade  of  Jive  foote  in 
lengthe,  and  a  ]iike.  and  the  same  hanging  by  his 
girdle  with  a  hook  and  a  dagger."    Among  the  Asi- 


Archenr  .Apparatus. 

atic  Turks,  the  Persians,  the  Tartars,  and  other  na- 
tions of  the -East,  as  well  as  the  American  Indians, 
the  bow  and  arrow  are  still  used  as  weapons  of  war. 
In  Europe  they  arc  nearly  abandoned  for  military 
purposes. 

Although  archers  arc  still  included  among  the 
fighting-men  of  barbarousaiid  semi-barbarous  nations, 
archery  is  now  nothing  more  than  a  pastime,  encour- 
aged by  Archery  Clubs  or  Societies.  In  this  sen,se, 
however,  archery  is  experiencing  a  revival,  being 
healthful  as  an  outdoor  exercise,  even  if  no  further 
useful.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  archery  was 
much  patronized  by  the  Court,  Tothill  Fields  being  the 
chief  .scene  of  e.\ercise.  After  his  reign  archery  fell 
into  desuetude  for  about  a  century.  In  1776,  a  Mr. 
Aston  revived  archery  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lon- 
don; and  very  shoHly  there  were  several  Toxopholite 
or  Archery  Societies  formed.  The  system  surWved 
till  1793,  when  another  period  of  inactivity  super- 
vencil,  lasting  till  IH14.  In  this  last-named  year  arch- 
eiy  was  revived  in  Yorkshire,  and  has  since  gone  on 
extending  every  year.  A  recommendation  to  the 
sixirt  is  that  ladies  can  lake  iiait  in  il — one  of  the  few 
open-air  pastimes  of  which  this  can  be  Siiid.  In  the 
modern  exercise  of  archery  thee  are  several  varieties 
of  contests  between  the  antagonistic  parlies;  but  the 
usual  variety  is  target-shootiiiL'.  In  archery -matches 
a  numlK-r  of  prizes  are  generally  awarded,  the  princi- 
pal being  for  the  greatest  iiumlie:-  of  arrows  shot  into 


AECHGAYE. 


61 


ARCHIBALD  WHEEL. 


any  part  of  the  target,  and  for  the  nearest  approach 
to  the  exact  center.  The  target  has  a  gold  spot  in  the 
center,  a  red  ring  around  this,  then  a 
hlue  ring,  then  a  bhick,  and  outside  of 
all  a  white  ring  bordered  with  green. 
The  merit  of  the  shooting  consists  in  a 
near  approach  to  the  exact  center,  or 
"  gold. "  Two  target.s  are  generally  used 
in  a  match,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  field, 
each  by  one  party.  The  apparatus  most- 
ly usecl  at  these  archery -meetings  is:  1, 
tie  bow,  varying  in  weight  according  to 
the  strength  of  ^he  person  who  is  to  use 
it;  2,  the  arrow;  3,  the  quiver,  a  tin 
case  for  holding  arrows  not  immediately 
in  use;  4,  the  pouch;  o,  the  belt  forliolil 
ing  the  arrows  actually  in  use.  The 
tassel  of  the  belt  serves  to  clean  the 
arrows  when  dasty.  6,  the  brace, 
buckled  round  the  left  arm,  to  protect 
it  from  being  hurt  by  the  .string  when 
shooting;  7,  the  shooting-glove,  formed 
to  protect  the  three  lingers  used  in 
drawing  the  string.  Besides  these  ar 
tides  and  the  target,  archers  are  some- 
times provided  ^\ilh  a  large  case  called 
an  ' '  ascham ,"  fitted  up  with  the  necessary 
drawers  and  compartments  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  bow,  arrows,  string,  and  other 
neccs-sary  accouterments.  In  archery -competition  the 
total  number  and  value  of  each  person's  hits  are  regis- 
tered on  a  scoring-card.  The  shots  are  usually  pvuic- 
tured  on  a  card  with  a  pin,  as  being  preferable  to 
pencil  or  ink-marks;  and  the  mode  of  ascerttuuiug  the 
value  of  the  hits,  which  is  increased  in  projiortinu  as 
they  reach  the  center,  will  be  seen  by  tiie  following 
example: 


tion  at  the  center  and  rim,  and  clearly  exhibits  the 

joints  and  the  position  of  bolts.     The  size  of  the 


Names. 

Gold. 

Red.  1  Blue. 

Black,  jwhite. 

Total.  1  Value. 

A 

. 

1 

u. 

1. 

119 

B 

1-26 

1      ••■ 

•1   •  •  ■  • 

90 

It  appears  by  the  card  that  A  has  3  in  the  gold,  4 
in  the  red,  6  in  the  inner  white,  10  in  the  black,  and 
13  in  the  outer  white,  making  a  total  of  3o.  The  real 
value  of  thcic  is  ascertained  by  multiplying  the  hits 
in  the  gold  by  9;  in  the  red  by  7;  in  the  blue  by  5;  in 
the  black  by  li;  and  by  leaving  without  alteration  the 
number  in  the  white  or  outer.  By  this  process  it  will 
appear  that  As  numbers,  according  to  the  rahn'  of 
each  circle,  amount  to  119,  and  B's  to  90;  hence 
A  is  the  winner  by  39.  But  A's  tottil  might  have 
been  less  than  B's,  and  still  he  might  have  been  the 
winner,  proviiling  the  shots  had  lain  more  towards 
the  gold  than  B's.  As  an  instance  of  the  skill  wiiich 
long  and  careful  practice  may  insure,  >[r.  Horace  A. 
Fonl,  who  has  written  an  excellent  work  on  archers', 
on  one  occasion,  out  of  144  shots,  made  143  hits — 765 
score;  on  another,  144  shots,  137  hits — 809  score;  and 
on  another,  70  shots,  75  hits — 555  score. 

AECH-GAYE.— A  lance  used  by  the  Gauls  and 
Franks,  which  consisted  of  a  sharp-pointed  piece  of 
iron  attached  to  a  light  wooden  handle.  Also  known 
as  Lmife-f/ai/e. 

ARCHIBALD  -WHEEL.— An  iron  -  hubbed  wheel 
used  on  the  wagons  and  gun-carriages  of  the  United 
States  army.  The  wheel  is  noted  for  its  strength, 
endurance,  and  independence  of  climatic  changes. 
Fig.  1  represents  a  lateral  section  of  the  hub  of  this 
wheel,  exposing  the  axle,  bolts,  and  the  method  of 
construction.  A  is  the  axle;  B,  the  back  of  the  hub, 
which  is  also  the  axle-box;  C,  the  front  or  loose 
flange;  DD,  the  bolts  through  spokes  and  flanges; 
EE,  the  spokes;  F,  the  brass  cap;  G,  the  axle-hut; 
a  small  screw  at  the  outer  extremity,  is  removed 
when  oiling  the  axle.    Fig.  3  shows  the  construc- 


spokes  in  these  wheels  is,  as  a  iiile,  the  same  as  the 
diameter  of  the  axle.  In  case  of  accident,  the  wheel 
may  be  readily  repaired,  its  construction  being  so 


Fig. 


simple.    Duplicate  spokes,  hubs  or  boxes,  and  axles 
should,  if    practicable,  be  kept    on    hand    for    the 
purposes  of  repair. 
To  replace  a  box  and  that  portion  of  the  hub  at- 


A.BCHIBALD  WHEEL. 


02 


ARCHIBALD  WHEEL. 


Fio.  3. 


tached:  Unscrew  and  remove  the  front  hub-ljand, 
take  off  the  hub-nuts,  and  the  box  will  easily  drive 
out.  The  new  box  Ls  as  easily  put  on  again,  after 
which  screw  on  the  front  hub-band.  The  tire  Ije- 
ing  on  will  hold   the  wood   part  so  that  it  cannot 


move  while  the  hub  is  being  taken  off.     This  bub  or 
box  is  as  tinn  and    true  on   the  wheel   as  was  the 
first  one.     The  change  can  be  made  by  anybod}',  an(l 
in  a  few  moments. 
To  repair  a  spoke:  Take  off  the  tire  and  felloe  on 


&BCHIIALS  WHEEL. 


63 


ABCHIBALD  WHEEL. 


the  injured  spoke  (and  in  taking  off  this  felloe  it 
is  not  ueces.sary  on  account  of  the  peculiar  dowel 
used  to  start  off  any  other  felloe),  take  out  only  the 
bolt  that  pa-sses  through  the  injured  spoke,  saw  off 
this  spoke  as  close  to  the  hub  as  possible,  and  bore 
or  dig  out  the  .spoke,  drive  in  the  duplicjito  spoke  as 
far  as  possible,  and  arrange  the  tenon  at  the  felloe 
so  that  the  tire  may  press  the  spoke  about  '  inch  farllier 
into  the  hub,  and  after  the  tire  is  on  put  in  the  hub- 
bolt. 

The  followini^  is  the  approximate  weight  per  set  of 
each  size  and  style  of  bed  of  axles  fitted  for  Archi 
bald  Wheels,  with  beds  long  enough  to  weld  up  4 
feet  6  between  axle-collars  (shorter  beds  will  weigh 
less,  and  longer  beds  more) : 


SIZE. 

DRAWN 

PLATFORM. 

SQUARE. 

i\4  inch. 

65  U>S 

82  lbs. 

90  lbs. 

jH    " 

80    •• 

95    " 

105     " 

95    " 

115    " 

125    " 

113    '• 

135    " 

145     " 

2        •• 

135    " 

150    " 

165     " 

155    " 

185    " 

190    " 

2M    ;; 

175    " 

305     " 

210    " 

315    " 

2.55     " 

360    •• 

oa^     •* 

255     " 

310     " 

315    " 

3        " 

3iO    " 

375     " 

.•i90    " 

It  is  noticeable  how  much  less  these  weigh  than  the 
same  style  of  axles  irit/i  bares  for  wood-hub  wheels. 

The  drawing  on  the  opposite  page  shows  the  ma- 
chine with  which  this  wheel  is  manufactured,  and  a 
reference  to  same  will  assist  in  a  i)erfecl  understand- 
ing of  the  structure  and  endurance  of  the  wheel. 
The  machine  acts  to  force  into  close  contact  the  flat 
surfaces  of  the  spokes  at  their  inner  ends,  and  thus 
compact  them,  so  that  their  faces  fonn  true  circular 
planes,  upon  which  the  inner  faces  of  the  bub-flanges 
rest  It  will  be  seen  from  the  cut  here  printed,  rep- 
resenting the  machine,  that  it  occupies  two  consecu- 
tive floors,  A  strong  circular  plate  of  cast-iron, 
about  seven  feet  in  diameter,  having  its  upper  sur- 
face faced  off  true,  is  placed  horizontally  level  with 
the  floor  of  the  shop.  Arranged  at  equ?'.  distances 
around  its  outer  edge  are  a  number  of  levers,  B, 
equal  to  the  number  of  spnkes  to  be  set  in  the  wheel, — 
sixteen  in  this  case, — having  their  fulcrums  securely 
bolted  to  the  plate.  The  long  arms  of  the  lever  radi- 
ate from  the  plate  about  three  feet  all  around;  the 
short  arms  are  formed  into  cams  or  rolling  inclines, 
acting  upon  sliding  pins  of  cast-iron,  which  move 
freely  in  a  radial  direction,  in  guides  formed  in  the 
fulcrum-blocks.  When  the  long  arms  of  the  levers 
are  raised,  the  sliding  pins  are  pressed  outward  by  a 
spring,  until  they  bear  upon  the  cam-shaped  short 
arms  of  the  levers  at  the  point  nearest  the  fulcrum  or 
center  of  motion  of  the  lever.  When  the  long  arms 
of  the  levers  are  lowered,  their  sliding-pins  are  forced 
inward  by  the  cams,  and  unite  in  pressing  inward  the 
wheel  properly  placed  in  their  embrace.  The  levers 
are  all  actuated  with  rapidity,  uniformity,  and  cer- 
tainty, by  means  of  wrought-iron  rods,  C,  extending 
downward  from  the  ends  of  the  levers,  converging  to 
a  vertical  column,  D,  under  the  center  of  the  plate, 
much  as  the  braces  of  an  umbrella  extend  downward 
from  the  ribs  to  the  stick.  A  screw  is  cut  upon  the 
central  column,  D;  and  a  nut,  E,  answering  to  the 
slide  upon  an  umbrella-stick,  raises  or  lowers  all  the 
levers  at  once  with  great  facility  and  with  any  re- 
quired power.  Motion  is  given  to  the  nut  by  means 
of  beveled  gears,  and  open  and  cross  belts  with  fast 
and  loose  pulleys,  so  arranged  that,  at  the  upward 
an<l  downward  "limits,  the  belts  are  thrown  automati- 
cally upon  the  loose  pulleys,  and  the  motion  of  the 
nut  and  levers  stopped.  Any  required  motion,  either 
up  or  down  within  the  range  of  the  screw,  can  be  ob- 
tained with  great  delicacy  and  convenience  bj-  a  ship- 
per, F,  actuated  by  a  shipping-rod,  G.  The  felloes 
and  spokes,  ha\ing  been  perfectlj'  shaped  and  com- 


pletely finished  by  machinery,  are  first  put  together 
by  dri\ing  the  sjjokes  into  the  felloe  or  rim,  one  at  a 
time  ;  the  felloe  being  held  firmly  by  a  vi.se,  H, 
sjjecially  constructed  to  prevent  s|)l"itting  of  the  fel- 
loe or  twisting  of  the  spoke,  so  that  an  exact  fit  is  ob- 
tained at  this  important  point.  The  felloes  with  their 
spokes  are  then  placed  in  the  press,  when  the  perfection 
of  the  fitting  is  shown  by  the  perfect  joint  made  by 
the  spokes  when  they  meet  in  tlie  circle,  to  be  curved 
and  embraced  by  the  hub,  and  by  the  coincidence  of 
the  half-holes  in  the  contiguous  sides  of  the  spokes, 
A,  which  together  form  the  holes  for  the  eight  bolts 
that  are  finally  to  hold  the  hub -plates  together. 
TemporaiT  bub-plates,  I, — one  above  and  one  below, 
— with  a  powerful  screw  in  their  center,  liold  the 
ends  of  all  the  spokes  tridy  in  the  plane  of  the  cir- 
cular ijlate  while  undergoing  the  pressure  of  the  le- 
vers. The  extent  of  this  pressure  is  a.seertained  by 
marking  carefully  with  a  sharp  iiencil  around  the 
circumference  of  the  upper  temporary  hub-jilate  after 
the  spokes  have  been  brought  to  a  close,  firm  joint; 
and  then  the  pressure  is  put  on  till  the  joint  of  the 
felloes  closes  up  firmly.  Another  similar  mark  be- 
ing made,  upon  removal  of  the  temporary  hub-plate, 
it  is  found  that  a  space  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  is 
made  between  the  two  pencil-marks — a  reduction  in 
diameter  of  half  an  inch.  Now,  as  the  difference  in 
circumference  corresponding  to  a  difference  in  diam- 
eter of  half  an  inch  is  1..5708  inches,  this  divided  by 
16  (the  number  of  spokes)  gives  .098  of  an  inch, 
or siihstantudly  one  tenth  of  an  inch,  as  the  Uiieral  com- 
pression of  each  spoke.  This  is  by  no  means  the  limit, 
but  is  regarded  sufficient  to  secure  the  spokes  against 
being  loosened  by  shrinkage  in  any  climate,  antl  this 
pressure  is  what  gives  this  wheel  its  enormous 
strength  and  durability.  The  hub,  00,  is  firmly 
bolted  together  while  the  wheel  is  in  the  press,  and 
holds  the  spokes  securely,  the  bolts  fitting  snugly  in 
both  spoke  and  hub.  The  felloes  spring  apart  a  little 
when  taken  from  the  press,  but  only  a  little;  and  the 
tire  easily  makes  that  all  firm  again. 

So  great  is  the  facility  with  which  this  machme  is 
operated,  that  one  man  with  an  assistant  easily  puts 
together  a  set  per  hour,  including  the  time  of  adjust- 
ing machinery  for  the  difference  in  diameter  of  the 
wheels. 

The  great  point  in  this  wheel,  made  in  this  man- 
ner, is  the  thorough  compactness  of  the  hub-ends  of 
the  spokes,  though  the  other  ends  of  the  sjjokes  and 
the  joints  in  the  felloes  receive  scarcely  less  benefit. 
By  observing  an  old  wheel  it  will  be  .seen  that  the 
sjiokes  are  bedded  into  the  felloes  and  hub.  This  is 
done  by  degrees,  and  is  unavoidable  in  wheels  made 
in  the  usual  way.  The  only  way  to  keep  such  a 
wheel  together  is  to  reset  the  tire,  so  as  to  take  up  the 
looseness  caused  by  the  .slow  crushing  and  grinding 
process.  This  is  all  prevented  in  the  Archibaltl 
process  of  manufacture,  by  putting  on  a  pressure  at 
every  joint  of  more  than  ten  times  the  amount  the 
wheel  will  e\er  be  called  upon  to  sustain  in  actual 
use,  and  at  a  time  when  the  wheel  is  so  held  as  to  re- 
ceive this  pressure  without  possible  injury  to  it.  One 
tenth  of  this  pressure  from  a  tire  would  ruin  the 
wheel,  but  the  tire  when  properly  put  on  will  hold  all 
this  pressure  and  remain  on  tight  until  worn  out. 
The  hvd)  holds  all  the  pressure  of  the  spokes  within 
it  independently  of  the  tire.  Wheels  made  by  this 
method  are  perfectly  round  and  true.  The  pressure 
distributed  about  the  rim  can  be  varied  from  zero  to 
one  hundred  tons,  if  required.  There  are  reasons 
whj'  iron-hubbed  wheels  made  in  this  manner  should 
be  far  superior  to  wheels  with  wooden  hubs.  The 
spokes  cannot  crush  into  the  hub.  as  they  will  ilo  into 
wooden-hubs  whether  driven  full  size  into  a  ver.v 
large  hub,  as  was  the  practice  fifty  years  since,  or,  as 
at  i)resent,  into  a  smaller  hub,  the  spokes  having  ten- 
ons and  shoulders.  With  wooden  hubs  the  spokes  are 
weakened  just  where  they  need  the  greatest  strength; 
while  in  the  iron-hubbed  wheel  the  spokes  are  more 
than  twice  as  large  at  the  hub  as  a  wooden-hub 


ASCHITONNEBEE. 


64 


ARMAMENT. 


wheel  of  correspondiujr  size.  A  wliccl  made  on  this 
pliin  will  not  shrink,  anil  iis  the  bii.s*'s  of  the  sixikcs 
are  as  tirnily  compressed  airiiinst  each  other  ii-s  it  is 
]Kissiljle  for  wooil  lo  lie,  and  held  hy  uietallic  tlansres 
lirmiy  boiled  tojri'ther,  it  is  apparent  that  such  a 
wheel  possesses  the  advunliige  of  the  most  pi'rfect 
liKlhoil  of  iciM-lnirtion  yet  devised.     See  W/ieil. 

ARCHITONNERRE.— A  machine  made  of  copi>er, 
which  threw  iron  bullets  with  great  force  ami  noise; 
it  was  used  in  ancient  times,  and  was  the  invention  of 
Archimedes. 

ARCHITRAVE.— The  master-beam,  or  chief  sup- 
p<.)rter,  in  any  pari  of  a  subterraneous  forlitication. 

ARCO. — a"  metal  composed  of  TO  parts  of  pure  cop- 
per, ','7  parts  of  zinc,  and  3  parts  of  lead.  It  is  used 
for  the  brass-work  of  small-arms. 

AREA. — A  term  in  malhemalies  meaning  quantity 
of  «(i r/iitr.  The  calculation  of  areas,  or  mensuration 
of  surfaces,  is  t)ne  of  the  ultimate  objects  of  geometry-. 
The  measuring  luiit  is  a  sijuare  inch,  a  square  foot, 
etc.,  ac-cording  to  the  unit  of  length.  As  a  figure  is 
thus  measured  by  finding  an  equivalent  for  its  sur- 
face in  ngiians,  the  process  is  sometimes  called  the 
qiKulmture  of  the  figure.  In  a  military  sense,  arm  is 
the  superficial  contents  of  anj'  rampart  or  other  work 
of  a  fortilication. 

AREOMETER.— An  instrument,  called  also  Ilydro- 
meter,  which  is  allowed  to  float  fieely  in  liquids  to 
determine  their  specific  gravity  or  that  of  solid  iKjdics. 
The  delicacy  of  the  instrument  depends  on  the  dis- 
tance of  the  divisions  on  the  scale,  or  on  the  thinness 
of  the  stem  compared  with  the  bulbs.  An  instniment 
possessing  this  advantage  cannot  be  made  to  serve 
both  for  liquids  heavier  and  lighter  than  water,  for 
the  stem  would  be  of  an  inconvenient  length;  and 
it  is  usual  to  construct  two  Areometers — one  marked 
with  the  water-point  at  the  top  anil  the  scale  (Uscending 
to  .JO,  for  fluids  heavier  than  water;  and  the  other  with 
the  water-point  at  the  liottora  and  the  scale  ascend- 
ing to  150,  for  fluids  lighter  than  water.  The  scale 
is  generally  marked  on  a  slip  of  paper,  which  is  fixed 
inside  the  stem.  t)n  some  Areometers  the  divi- 
sions are  not  at  equal  ilistances,  but  are  so  drawn  as 
to  give  at  once,  without  table  or  calculation,  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  rtuid  in  which  they  are  pUiced. 
Although  very  desirable,  in  practice  they  do  not 
possess  the  accuracy  of  the  Areometer  with  equally- 
divided  scales,  becau.se  the  graduation  of  them  is  at- 
tended with  considerable  dillicully.  No  fonn  of 
Areometer  can  be  made  to  determine  specific  gravi- 
ties with  perfect  accuracy,  and  such  instriuuents  arc 
only  useful  where  a  ready  and  good  approximation  is 
all  that  is  needed.  They  are,  in  consequence,  em- 
ployed chiefly  to  ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
various  liquors  and  solutions  wliich  occur  in  the  arts 
and  manufactiires,  anil  very  frequently  they  are  gni- 
duated  with  reference  to  sjiecial  li(iuids,  as  spirits, 
wine,  milk,  lirine,  etc.  The  alcoholometer  or  l.ydro- 
meter  of  Sikes  is  an  instnunent  of  this  latter  descrip- 
tion, and  is  in  genend  use  in  the  excise  for  estimating 
the  strength  of  spirits.  The  peculiar  feature  of  Areo- 
meters with  weights  is  that,  instead  of  a  scale,  they 
have  only  one  mark  on  the  stem,  to  which  the  Areo- 
meter is  in  all  cases  sunk.  One  of  the 
-_,<—-  t)est -known  instruments  of  this  kind  is  the 
11  L  j  Areometer  of  Nichol.son.  It  consists  of  a 
i  °f^  1  '"""**  tube,  BC,  alx)Ut  1  inch  in  diameter, 
I  T  \  dosed  above  and  Ix'low  by  conical  ends, 
to  the  upixT  of  which  a  wire  is  fixed, 
( .irrying  on  the  top  of  it  a  cup.  A,  cap- 
able of  containing  the  weights;  and  to 
the  lower  a  hook  is  atlached.  from 
which  hangs  the  cup,  I).  The  lower 
)iart  of  the  cup.  1),  is  also  ])rovided  with 
a  hook,  and  the  whole  instniment  is  kept 
vertical,  partly  by  the  weight  of  the  cup 
and  partly  by  the  weight  of  the  ball,  E, 
suspended  from  it.  (»n  the  wire,  a  notch, 
W,  is  made,  to  serve  as  the  mark  or 
or  lixed  point  to  which  the  Areometer  is  sunk.     The 


specific  gravities  of  liquids  are  determined  by  Nichol- 
son's Areometer  in  the  following  way:  The  weight  of 
the  ^Vreometer  it.self  is  first  ascertained — let  it  lie  in  a 
given  case  2(X)0  gniins;  it  is  then  iiul  into  water  at 
'  the  tempemture  of  (50  V. .  and  weights  (say  oOO  gnuns) 
put  in,  till  it  is  sunk  to  \V.  It  is  now  removed  to  the 
1  liquid  under  examination;  and  if  the  weight  reijuircd 
I  to  sink  the  instrument  now  to  the  standard -point  be 
only  100  grains,  we  have  the  sjiecific  gravity  of  the 
liquid  equal  to  fjoo.  "r  Is-  I"  '"''''  fluids  the  Siime 
volume  has  been  displaced,  and  that  is  in  each  ca.se 
1  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  Areometer;  but  the  weight 
I  of  the  Areometer  in  the  second  case  was  2000  +  100, 
and  in  the  fonncr  2000  +  500;  hence  the  above  result. 
Nicholson's  Areometer  is  seldom  used  for  finding  the 
specific  gravity  of  fluids;  its  use'  is  almost  entirely 
restricted  to  ascertaining  that  of  small  solid  su1)>lauces. 
The  following  example  will  show  how  this  is  done: 
If  in  the  cup  of  the  Areometer  already  mentioned, 
when  placed  in  water,  the  solid  be  put,  and  only  440 
grains  be  then  necessary  to  bring  the  instrument  to 
AV,  60  grains  is  manifestly  the  weight  of  the  solid, 
because  .500  grains  were  needed  without  it  to  do  the 
same  thing.  The  solid  is  next  placed  in  the  lower 
cup,  D,  and  if  400  grains  are  now  needeil  to  sink  to 
the  standard-point,  the  solid  has  thus  lost  20  grains  of 
its  weight  by  being  immersed  in  the  water.  Accord- 
ing to  the  principles  of  Archimedes,  these  20  grains 
are  also  the  weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  that 
of  the  solitl;  so  the  specific  gravity  of  the  solid  is  Sj), 
or  3.  By  reversing  the  cup,  I),  which  is  furnished 
with  perforations,  to  allow  free  passiigc  to  the  air, 
and  attaching  the  weight,  E,  to  the  handle  of  it,  the 
specific  gravity  of  substances  lighter  than  water  may 
also  be  determined  by  this  instrument.  The  other 
forms  of  weight-arcomctei-s  are  those  of  Fahrenheit, 
Tralles,  and  Charles.  See  Hydrometer  and  Specific 
G  rarity. 

AREOSCOPE. — An  instrument  used  for  analyzing 
the  air  of  barracks,  hospitals,  etc.  It  is  principally 
emplo\'ed  by  the  English  3Iedical  Corps. 

ARES. — The  god  of  war  in  Greek  mythology,  and 
corresjionding  to  the  Roman  Mars. 

ARGENT.— The  French  word  for  silver;  always 
used  in  English  Heraldry  to  signify  that  metid.  In 
eugra%'ing  shields  it  is  left  white. 

AEGOULET.  —  An  ancient  dragoon.  Also  an  in- 
ferior sort  of  musket  made  at  Liege  for  trading  with 
the  negroes. 

ARIES. — The  battering-ram.  so  called  because  the 
metallic  head  was  .sometimes  fashioned  like  the  head 
of  a  ram.  As  a  means  of  battering  walls  it  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Artemanes  of  Calzomeue,  a 
Greek  architect,  about  441  B.C.  It  is  described  by 
Josephus,  who  states  that  it  was  sometimes  sujiportcd 
on  the  shouldei"s  of  men  who  advanced  on  a  run;  at 
other  times  it  was  slung  from  a  frame,  and  operated 
by  ropes.  Philip  of  M;icedon  is  said  to  have  been  tlie 
first  to  place  the  frame  on  wheels,  at  the  siege  of 
Byzantium.  Plutarch  informs  us  that  Mark  Anton)', 
in  the  Parthian  war,  made  use  of  an  aries  80  feet  long. 
Vitrvnius  sajs  they  were  sometimes  106  to  120  feet  in 
length. 

ARM. — 1.  An  instrument  of  warfare;  a  weapon  of 
offence  or  defence.  2.  Any  particular  divsiription  or 
ela.ss  of  troo|is.  The  Artillery,  the  Cavalry,  the  In- 
fantrj',  and  the  Engineers  are  each  an  arm  of  the  ser- 
vice. The  word  used  figuratively  denotes  power.  3. 
That  portion  of  an  axletree  about  which  the  wheel 
revolves.     See  AxU tree-arm. 

ARMAMENT. — All  arrangements  made  for  the  de- 
fence, with  iiiuskclry  aiul  artillery,  tielong  to  what  is 
termed  the  artuanont.  The  annament  with  mus- 
ketry is  complete  when  the  banquette  and  the  interior 
and  superior  slo]>es  are  properly  arr.inged  to  enable 
the  soldier  to  deliver  his  fire  with  elTcct,  and  to 
mount  on  the  parapet  to  meet  the  enemy  with  the 
bavonet.  For  this  last  ])urpose  stout  pickets  may  be 
dnven  into  the  interior  slope,  about  midway  from  the 
bottom  and  three  feel  apart,  or  a  narrow  plank  may  be 


AKMAMENTARY. 


65 


ARMED  WHIP. 


laid  aloug  this  slope.  The  amiamcnt  with  artillery 
is,  ill  like  mnniicr,  comjilote  when  snitaMe  means  are 
taken  to  allow  the  gvuis  to  tire  over  the  parapet  or 
throuirU  openings  made  in  it,  and  when  all  the  re- 
quired aeeessories  are  provided  for  the  service  of  the 
guns.  The  armament  with  artillery  is  a  subject  of 
great  imiiortance,  because  it  is  not  equally  adapted  to 
nil  classes  of  works.  E.xperienee  has  demonstrated 
that  the  most  efficient  way  of  employing  arlillery  is 
iu  ]>rolectinff  the  colUHeral  salients  by  a  well-directed 
flank-  ^md  cross-lire  which  shall  not  leave  untouched 
a  single  foot  of  grountl  within  its  range  over  which 
the  enemy  must  approach.  It  has,  moreover,  shown 
that  a  work  with  a  weak  proSle  affords  but  litlle 
security  to  artillery  within  it;  for  artillery  eaun<it  de- 
fentl  itself,  and  such  a  work  can  be  too  easily  ciuTied 
by  assaidt  to  offer  any  hope  of  keeping  the  enemy  at 
a  ilistance  long  enough  to  allow  the  artillerv  to  pro- 
duce its  full  etfcct.  The  proper  positions  for  arlillery 
are  on  the  flanks  and  sdients  of  a  work,  because  from 
these  i>oinls  the  salients  aro  best  protected  and  the 
approaches  best  swept;  and  the  guns  should  be  col- 
lected at  these  points  in  batteries  of  several  pieces,  for 
experience  has  shown  that  it  is  only  by  opening  a 
heavy,  well-sustained  Sre  on  the  enemy's  colunrns 
that  an  efficient  check  can  be  given  to  them.  If  oidy 
a  few  tiles  are  taken  off,  or  the  shot  passes  over  the 
men.  it  rather  inspires  the  enemy  with  conlidencc  in 
his  safety,  and  with  contempt  for  the  defences. 

When,  in  the  defence  of  a  work,  from  the  indica- 
tions without  there  is  no  longer  any  donbt  respecting 
the  real  point  of  attack  selected,  all  the  disposalile 
artillery  will  be  brought  forward  and  placed  in  bar- 
bette, in  the  best  positions  on  this  jKiint  and  the  col- 
lateral works  for  sweeping  the  ground  over  which 
the  trenches  must  be  pushed.  In  the  mean  time  em- 
brasures, platforms,  and  traverses  should  be  prepared 
on  the  most  suitable  positions,  to  place  the  artillery 
under  shelter  from  the  enHlading  batteries  so  soon  as 
they  are  ready  to  open  lire.  Every  disposable  gun, 
except  the  reserve  pieces,  should,  both  at  this  time 
and  whilst  the  besiegers'  batteries  are  still  incomplete, 
be  idaced  in  positions  to  bear  upon  the  points  occu- 
pied by  them,  with  mortars  of  long  range  placed 
wherever  they  will  be  well  masked  and  can  throw 
their  shells  with  the  most  effect  against  these  points. 
The  traverses,  to  cover  from  en!ilaile  views,  should 
be  shot-proof  g-abionades,  and  be  placed  so  far  apart 
only  as  to  allow  the  least  room  for  two  guns  be- 
tween them.  The  tcrre-pleins  of  the  barbettes  should 
be  cut  down  and  their  parapets  somewhat  raised,  to 
admit  of  eiubrasures  for  the  guns  along  them.  The 
tire  of  the  defences  should  be  concentrated  on  a  few 
of  the  principal  batteries  rather  than  scattered  over 
all,  because,  by  delaying  the  progress  of  these,  the 
others,  if  the  besiegers  act  prudently,  will  not  open 
their  tire  until  all  are  ready. 

AEMAMENTARY.  — A  tcnn  sometimes  employed 
to  denote  an  armoiy,  magazine,  or  arsenal. 

ARMA  SHOT. — An  expression  meaning  to  roll  rope- 
yarns  aliout  a  cross-bar  shot  in  order  to  facilitate  ram- 
ming it  home,  and  also  to  prevent  the  ends  catching 
any  accidental  inequalities  in  the  bore. 

ARMATURA.— In  ancient  military  history,  the  fixed 
and  established  military  exercises  of  the  Romans. 
Under  this  heading  is  understood  the  throwing  of  the 
spear,  javelin,  shooting  with  bows  and  arrows,  etc. 
Armatura  was  also  an  appellation  given  to  the  sol- 
diers who  were  light-armed;  as,  also,  a  name  given  to 
the  soldiers  in  the  Emperor's  retinue. 

ARMATURE. — 1.  Armor  worn  or  used  for  the  pro- 
tection and  defence  of  the  body.  "3.  The  term  arma- 
ture is  applieil  to  the  luecesof  soft  iron  that  are  placed 
at  the  extremities  or  poles  of  magnets  to  preseiwe  their 
magnetic  power.  When  magnets  are  allowed  to  re- 
main any  length  of  time  without  such  appendages,  in 
consequence  of  the  liisturbing  influence  of  terrestrial 
magnetism  they  lose  considerably  in  strength;  but 
when  they  are  provided  with  them  their  magnetism 
is  kept  in  a  state  of  constant  activity,  and  "thereby 


shielded  from  this  disturbance.  The  reason  of  this 
is  found  iu  two  facts  well  knowni  in  the  science  of 
magnetism;  viz.,  that  when  a  piece  of  soft  iron  is 
brought  iiuo  contact  with  the  extremity  of  a  magnet 
it  is  itself  induced  to  becoine  magnetic,  iind  that  the 
unlike  poles  of  two  different  maghet.s  powerfully  at- 
tract each  other.  Referring  to  the  figure,  the  north 
pole,  X,  of  the  horseshoe-magnet,  KHS,  acting  on 
the  armature,  .<«,  induces  it  to  be- 
come a  magnet,  ha\ing  its  south 
pole,  s,  next  to  N,  and  its  north 
pole,  71,  at  the  opposite  extremity. 
The  pole,  S,  by  virtue  of  its  mag- 
netic affinity  powerfully  attracts 
the  north  pole,  n,  thus  formed,  anil 
adds  its  own  inilueing  influence  to 
heighten  the  magnetic  ccndition 
pre%iously  uulueed  iu  the  armature 
by  the  Jioie,  X.  The  armature,  from 
the  combined  action  of  both  poles 
of  the  horseshoe -magnet,  is  thus 
converted  into  a  powerful  magnet, 
with  its  poles  lying  in  an  opposite 
direction  to  that  of  the  primary 
poles.  The  original  magnet  is,  in  conscciuence, 
Inought  into  contact  with  one  of  its  own  nuiking, 
the  exact  counterpart  of  itself — a  condition  highly 
favorable  to  the  maintenance  of  its  strength.  It  is 
due  to  the  s;ime  mutual  attractions  that  a  much  larger 
weight  can  be  suspended  from  the  armature  thus 
placed  than  what  the  single  poles  can  together  sus- 
tain. Bar-magnets  may  be  armed  iu  the  same  way 
by  laying  them  at  some  distance  parallel  to  each 
oilier,  with  their  imlikc  poles  towards  the  same  parts, 
and  then  connecting  their  extremities  by  two  |)ieces 
of  soft  iron.  When  a  magnet,  such  as  a  compass- 
needle,  is  free  to  take  up  the  position  required  by  the 
magnetism  of  the  earth,  the  earth  itself  plays  the  part 
of  an  armature. 

AKM-CHEST.— A  portable  locker  for  holding  arms, 
and  alfortUng  a  ready  supply  of  pistols,  musket.s,  or 
(.ihcr  weapons.  Also'  used  in  the  military  service  for 
the  transportation  of  rifles,  revolvers,  etc. 

ASME  BLANCHE.— Literally,  white  arm.  Arms 
used  in  hand-to-hand  conflicts,  such  as  swords,  bayo- 
nets, foils,  etc. 

ARME  COURTOISE.— An  arm  used  in  tilts  or  tour- 
naments during  the  Jliddlc  Ages.  It  was  a  kind  of 
sword  with  a  ring  or  knot  placed  at  the  tip  of  the 
blade  to  prevent  it  causimr  a  dangerous  wound. 

ARMED  EECONNOISSANCE.  —  Reconnois-sances 
made  in  the  neighborhood  of  an  enemy  require  to  be 
done  imder  the  protection  of  a  projicr  detachment, 
the  strength  and  composition  of  which  ■\\ill  depend  on 
the  object  to  be  attained.  If  the  oliject  be  to  gain 
secretly  a  knowledge  of  the  enemy's  whereabouts  and 
strength,  then  a  detachment  of  light  cavalry,  con- 
ducted by  a  trusty  guide  through  circuitous  by- 
ways, and  mo\iiig  with  celerity',  but  with  proper  pre- 
cautions against  falling  into  an  ambush  or  having  its 
retreat  cut  off,  is  usually  resorted  to.  The  details  for 
this  will  be  found  tmder  the  head  Patrols.  When 
an  enemy's  position  is  to  be  reconnoitred  with  a  view 
to  force  him  to  show  his  hand,  by  causing  him  to  call 
out  all  his  troops,  then  a  large  detachment  of  all 
arms,  adecjuate  to  the  task  of  pressing  the  enemy 
vigorously,  and  also  of  withdrawing  with  sjifety  when 
pressed  in  turn,  must  be  thrown  forward.  Under  the 
shelter  of  either  of  these  forces,  the  officer  charged 
with  the  reconnoissance  takes  the  bcwt  tiioment  and 
best  point  of  view  for  carefully  ascertaining  the  dis- 
positions made  by  the  enemy.  A  good  time  will  be 
at  early  dawn,  when  troops,  in  most  ser\ices,  are  all 
made  io  stand  to  their  arms.  The  points  which  the 
officer  must  exhibit  most  attention  in  finding  out  are 
those  oceu]iied  by  the  liatteries,  and  all  those  in  any 
wav  intrenched.    See  Fi</<i-K(rriceiiTn\  HiTuniMismnee. 

ARMED  'WHIP.— A  kind  of  hand-flail  or  knout, 
with  three,  four,  or  six  chains.  This  weapon  is  fre- 
quently called  Scorpion. 


ARMES  DE  JET. 


66 


ARHOB. 


ABHES  DE  JET.  — Missive  wcaixius ;  offensive  arms 
or  iiistriiiiiems  which  act  li_v  iiropiilsion,  whether  l)y 
the  force  of  jxuvder.  sleam.  wind,  or  niecliaiiism. 

AHMET.— A  helinet  or  headpiece  eoiisistius  of  a 
plolmlar  iron  eaji,  whidi  spreads  ont  witli  a  hirge 
hollowed  pmjeelion  over  llie  back  of  the  neck,  and  in 
front  has  a  piece  formed  like  part  of  a  bowl,  so  as  to 
cover  the  month  and  chin. 

ABMGAUNT.— That  which  is  worn  out  by  military 
SlTviee  :  as,  an  annpmnt  steed,  etc. 

ABM -GUAHDS.— Hollow  plates  of  metal  to  be  buck- 
led over  the  mail,  and  adjusted  to  the  outer  surface 
of  the  upper  arm  autl  to  the  front  of  the  lower  arm, 
which  bore  the  appropriate  name  of  arm-guards  or 
gardes-ljras. 

ABMIGEB.— Formerly  an  armor-bearer,  as  of  a 
kuiirhl  ;  an  esquire  who  bore  his  shield  and  rendered 
other  services.  In  later  use.  one  next  in  degree  to  a 
kiii^'ht.  and  entitled  to  a  coat  of  arms. 

ARMILAUSA.— A  military  uniform  coat  woni  by 
the  Uom.iiis  over  their  armor. 

ABMILUDIA. — A  name  given  by  the  Komans  to 
the  exercises  of  arms,  and  also  applied  to  the  day  on 
which  these  exercises  look  ]ilace. 

ARMimSTRIUM.— The  name  given  by  the  Romans 
to  a  military  festival  whi<-h  took  place  on  the  lyth  of 
October  annually.  After  review,  the  .soldiers  offered 
up  .sacrifices  for  the  success  of  the  Homan  arms. 

ABMISTICE.— A  cessation  of  acti%'e  hostilities  for  a 
period  agreed  upon  between  belligerents.  It  must  be 
agreed  upon  in  writing,  and  duly  ratified  bj'  the  high- 
est authorities  of  the  contending  jiarties.  If  an  ar- 
mistice be  declared,  without  conditions,  it  extends  no 
further  than  to  require  a  total  cessation  of  hostilities 
along  the  front  of  both  belligerents.  If  conditions  be 
agreed  upon,  they  shoidd  be  clearly  expressed,  and 
must  be  rigidly  adhered  to  by  both  parties.  If  either 
party  violates  any  express  condition,  the  armistice 
may  be  declared  null  and  void  by  the  other.  An 
armistice  may  be  general,  and  valid  for  all  points  and 
lines  of  the  belligerents ;  or  special,  that  is,  referring 
to  certain  troops  or  certain  localities  only.  An  armis- 
tice mjjy  be  concluded  for  a  definite  time  ;  or  for  an 
indefinite  time,  during  which  either  belligerent  maj' 
resume  hostilities  on  giving  the  notice  agreed  upon  to 
the  other.  The  motives  which  induce  the  one  or  the 
other  belligerent  to  conclude  an  annistice,  whether  it 
be  ex^x•eted  to  be  jireliminary  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  or 
to  jirepare  during  the  armistice  for  a  more  vigorous 
prosecution  of  the  war,  does  in  no  wa)'  affect  the 
character  of  the  sirmistice  itself.  An  armistice  is 
binding  upon  the  belligerents  from  the  day  of  the 
agreed  commencement ;  but  the  officers  of  the  armies 
are  responsible  from  the  day  only  when  they  receive 
official  information  of  its  existence.  Commanding 
Olficers  have  the  right  to  conclude  armistices  biinling 
on  the  district  over  which  their  command  extends, 
but  such  annistice  is  subject  to  the  ratification  of  the 
superior  authority,  and  ceases  .so  soon  as  it  is  made 
known  to  the  enemy  that  the  annistice  is  not  ratified, 
even  if  a  certain  time  for  the  elapsing  between  giving 
notice  of  cessation  and  the  resumption  of  hostilities 
should  have  been  stipulated  for.  It  is  incumbent 
n\n>n  the  contracting  parties  of  an  armistice  to  stipulate 
what  intercourse  of  iiersons  or  trallic  between  the 
inhabitants  of  the  territories  occupied  by  the  hostile 
armies  shall  be  allowed,  if  any.  If  nothing  is  stipu- 
lated, the  intercourse  remains  suspended,  as  during 
actual  hostilities.  An  armistice  is  not  a  jiartial  or  a 
temporary  peace ;  it  is  only  the  suspension  of  mili- 
tary o|)erations  to  the  extent  agreed  upon  by  the 
parties.  When  an  armistice  is  concluded  between  a 
fortified  i)lace  and  the  army  besieging  it,  it  is  agreed 
by  all  the  authorities  on  this  subject  that  the  besieger 
mu.st  cease  all  extension,  perfection,  or  advance  of 
his  attacking  works,  as  much  .so  as  from  attacks 
by  main  force.  But  as  there  is  a  diirerence  of 
0])inion  among  martial  jurists  whether  the  besieged 
have  the  right  to  repair  Ijicaches  or  to  erect  new 
works  of    defence  within  the    place  during  an   ar- 


mistice, this  point  should  be  determined  by  express 
agreement  between  the  parties.  So  soon  as  a  capitula- 
tion is  .signed,  the  capilulator  has  no  right  to  demolish, 
destroy,  or  injure  the  works,  arms,  stores,  or  aimnu- 
nitiou  in  his  posses.sion,  during  the  time  which 
elapses  between  the  signing  and  the  execution  of  the 
capitulation,  unless  otherwise  stipulated  in  the  same. 
When  an  armistice  is  clearly  broken  by  one  of  the 
parlies,  the  other  ]5arty  is  released  from  all  obligation 
to  observe  it.  Prisoners  taken  in  the  act  of  breaking 
an  annistice  must  be  treated  as  prisoners  of  war,  the 
officer  alone  being  resi>onsible  who  gives  the  order  for 
such  a  violation  of  an  armistice.  The  highest  author- 
ity of  the  belligerent  aggrieved  may  demand  redress 
for  the  infraction  of  an  armistice.  Belligerents 
sometimes  conclude  an  armistice  while  their  plenii>o- 
tentiaries  are  met  to  discuss  the  eonditit)ns  of  a  treaty 
of  peace:  but  pleni|)Otentiaries  may  meet  without  a 
preliminary  armistice ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  war  is 
carried  on  without  any  abatement.  See  Capitiikilion 
and   'J'nii'i. 

ABMLET. — A  protecting  sleeve  of  leather  or  metal 
worn  on  the  forearm,  and  used  as  a  shield  for  the 
arm  or  as  a  covering  for  that  jiortion  of  the  cotit- 
sleeve 

ARMOR— ARMOUB.— A  general  name  for  the  ap- 
paratus for  ]iersonal  defence,  as  contradistinguished 
from  arms  or  weapons  of  offence.  Little  of  it  is  worn 
by  soldiers  at  the  present  day,  seeing  that  hand-to- 
hand  confiicts,  in  w  hich  it  is  especially  .serviceable, 
are  rather  exceptional  in  modern  warfare.  It  was  be- 
fore the  invention  of  gunjiowder  that  armor — often 
called  in  England  by  the  name  of  /lar/iess — was 
especially  used.  All  the  ancieiU  nations  who  occupy 
a  place  in  history  were  accustomed  to  adopt  one  or 
other  of  the  defensive  clothing  or  imiilements  which 
collectively  come  under  the  denomination  of  armor. 
Leather  armor  was  sometimes  worn;  but  brass,  iron, 
and  other  metals  were  preferred.  Some  of  the  more 
luxurious  leaders  had  much  silver  and  gold  in  their 
armor.  In  the  Bible,  shields,  helmets,  breast jilates, 
and  greaves  are  meiUioned  among  the  articles  of 
armor  borne  or  worn  by  the  Israelites  and  their  op- 
ponents. The  classical  writers — Homer,  Xenophon. 
Herodotus,  Livy,  Tacitus,  Varro,  etc. — sujiply  abun- 
dant evidence  of  the  use  of  annor  among  the  nations 
concerning  whom  they  wrote.  It  is  believed  that  the 
earlv  Britons  bore  little  or  no  other  armor  than  shields. 
The  Anglo-Saxons  were  more  fully  jiro^ided.  At 
different  times  before  the  Norman  Conquest  they  aji- 
pear  to  have  had  four-cornered  helmets;  loricie  made 
of   leather;   scale-armor;    leathern    helmets;   wooden 

j  shields  covered  with  leather;  sheep-skin  shields:  coni- 
cal caps  or  helmets  of  metal;  pectorals  or  neck-guards; 

I  breast-guards  of  undressed  hide;  flat-ringed  annor; 
byrnes  or   tunics  of  overlaiiiiing  pieces  of  leather; 

I  close-fitting  cuirasses  of  leather,  and  sometimes  of 
strong  linen;  leg-guards  of  twisted  woollen  cloth; 
shields  of  various  sizes,  from  half  a  yard  to  a  yard 
and  a  half  in  length;  and  casques  having  more  or  less 
resemblance  to  the  anciciU  helmets.  When  the  Danes 
were  in  Britain  they  had  at  first  no  other  annor  than 
leathern  neck-pieces,  which  descended  .some  way  over 

]  the  shoulders  and  chest;  and  greaves  or  shin-pieces  for 
the  legs.  In  the  time  of  Canute  or  Kmite,  however, 
they  adojileil  a  kind  of  armor  which  Sir  Saiiuiel 
jMeyrick  su|iposes  them  to  have  borrowed  from  the 
Norsemen  or  Norwegians.  It  comprised  a  tunic,  with 
a  hood  and  long  sleeves;  pantaloons  which  covered 
feet  as  well  as  legs;  and  sugar-loaf-shaped  helmets  or 
skull-caps,  with  attached  pieces  which  hid  nearly  the 
whole  face  exce))t  the  eyes.  All  these  were  probably 
made  of  leather;  but  most  of  the  surfaces  were 
strengthened  by  macles  or  masclcs,  a  perforated  net- 
work of  steel. 

With  William  the  Conqueror  came  in  the  kinds  of 
armor  which  were  at  that  time  prev.alent  among  the 
kiuglits  and  soldiers  of  the  Continent  of  Europe,  and 
which  became  afterwards  more  or  less  combined  with 
the  armor  previously  known  in  England.     William 


ABMOK-BEAREB. 


67 


ARMORED   DEFENSES. 


liirasclf  occasionally  wore  a  hauberk  of  ring-armor. 
This  kind  of  annor  was  much  worn  during  his 
reign,  the  rings  lu'ing  usua!l_v  attached  to  a  founda- 
tion of  leather.  One  curious  variety  of  ring-armor. 
called  tlie  haubergeon,  had  the  tunic  and  breeches  all 
in  one  piece.  The  helmets  were  generally  conical, 
with  a  nasal  or  nose-guard  descending  from  the  front. 
A  distinct  ring-armor,  caUed  hose,  was  often  worn  on 
the  legs.  The  shield  was  generally  kite-shaped,  unlike 
the  oval  shield  carried  bj-  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Gradual 
changes  in  these  various  portions  of  armor  were  made 
between  the  reigns  of  William,  Rufus  and  John. 
Under  Henry  III.,  wc  find  stitched  and  padded 
hauberks  and  chau.sses,  called  "ou%Tages  de  pour- 
pointerie";  suits  of  ring-armor;  greaves  or  shin-pieces 
of  steel;  poleyns  or  knee-guards;  vambraccs  or  arm- 
guards;  jacks,  jaques,  or  jackets,  made  of  leather. 


Suit  of  Armor, 
presented  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian  to  Henry  VIII. 

and  worn  over  the  ring-armor;  interlaced  ring-armor 
of  oriental  invention,  not  requiring  to  be  stitched  to 
an.v  garment  or  foundation;  helmets,  visors,  and  skull- 
caps of  various  forms;  and  chanfrons,  or  armor  for 
the  head  and  face  of  horses.  During  Edward  III.'s 
reign  iron  plate-armor  was  much  ased  bj'  troopers,  in 
the  various  forms  of  helmet,  Ijreastplate,  gauntlet,  and 
greaves.  In  the  fourteenth  century  chain-mail  fell  into 
disuse,  and  was  succeeded  liy  plate-armor;  this  last- 
named  kind  became  more  and  more  complicated,  and 
reached  its  greatest  pitch  of  elaboration  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  III.  During  the  times  of  Henry  VII.  and 
Till,  the  armor  was  .sometimes  fluted,  often  elabo- 
rately engraved,  and  even  damascened  or  inlaid  with 
gold.  Under  James  I.  the  knightly  ideas  of  the  feudal 
times  gave  way,  and  the  use  of  armor  declined;  a 
knight  armed  cap-<i-pie  was  a  rarity.  Charles  I.  tried 
to  re\'ive  its  use,  but  he  had  few  followers;  and  the 
days  of  Cromwell  mav  be  regarded  as  the  last  in  which 
armor  was  worn  to  any  considerable  extent  by  the 
regular  soldiers.  Helmets  and  cuirasises  are  still  worn 
by  the  three  regiments  of  Household  Cavalrs'  (Life- 
guards and  Horse-Guards),  but  more  for  show  than  for 
service. 

ARMOR-BEARER.— One  who  carries  the  armor  of 
another;  an  Armi;rer;  an  Esquire. 

ARMORED  DEFENSES.— The  first  time  that  a  rifled 
gun  was  fired  at  armor  for  land-works  was  in  1800, 
when  an  80-pdr.  Armstrong  gun  fired  ^\Tought-iron  fiat- 
headed  shot,  and  a  40-pdr.  fired  cast-iron  shot,  at  two 
iron  embrasures  (8  inches  and  10  inches  thick)  fixed  in 
a  masonry -work  at  Shoeburyness.  This  trial  brought 
out  the  advantages  arising  from  the  use  of  iron  for 
strengthening  works,  and  the  disadvantage  of  ha\ing 
splayed  sides  in  an  iron  embrasure.  From  that  time 
esperiment.s  against  armor  followed  each  other  rapidly. 
In  1861  comparative  trials  were  made  between 
wrought-iron  armor-plates  backed  with  rigid  ma- 
terials, such  as  cast-iron  and  granite,  and  similar 
plates  backed  with  limber,  cork,  India-rubl)er,  layers 
of  wire,  and  other  substances.  From  these  it  was 
gathered  that  while  the  hard  materials  improved  the 
resisting  power  of  the  armor,  they  led  to  its  being 
more  injured  by  cracking  and  to  the  giving  way  of 
iastenings.    Other  trials  were  made  with  wroughtr 


iron  plates  inclined  to  the  horizon  at  various  angles, 
from  which  it  was  concluded  that  a  mass  of  armor 
placed  ujiright  will  offer  as  much  resistance  as  the 
sjune  mass  dis|)()sed  at  any  inclination  so  as  to  cove'  the 
same  vertical  area.  Even  icool  was  exjierimented  ujKjn 
as  to  its  power  of  resisting  cannon-shot.  Xext.  s<inie 
shields,  6  inches  and  10  inches  thick,  composed  main- 
ly of  boiler-plates  i  inch  thick,  riveted  and  .screwed 
together,  gave  very  indifferent  results;  and  two  other 
heavier  casemate-.shields,  of  very  opposite  construc- 
tion, made  of  massive  slabs  of  rolled  iron,  laid  one  in 
front  of  the  other,  and  crossing  at  right  angles,  with 
lead  between  them,  were  tried,  in  18(J2-3,  with  good 
results.  In  the  Warrior  target,  composed  of  4i  inches 
of  rolled-iron  plates  on  17  inches  of  wood,  backed  by  a 
thin  iron  skin,  we  see  the  advantage  of  timber  backing, 
the  weakness  of  joints  in  armor,  and  the  disadvantage 
of  joining  armor-plates  to  each  other  by  means  of 
tongues  and  grooves  on  their  edges.  In  other  of 
these  ship's  targets  the  question  of  providing  a  com- 
pound backing  of  wood  and  iron  insteatl  of  wood 
alone  is  practically  solved  in  favor  of  the  former,  and 
the  disadvantage  of  doing  away  with  qll  wood  in  the 
backing  is  also  proved.  Up  to  1863,  the  heaviest  gun 
used  in  exiieriment  was  a  lOi-mch  rifled  gun,  throw- 
ing a  cylindrical  shot  of  about  300  lbs. ,  T\ilh  a  muzzle- 
velocity  of  about  1320  f.-s.  There  were  also  a  7-inch 
Whitworth  (130-pdr.)and  a  large  13-inch  smooth-bore 
Ilorsfall  gun.  But  shortly  afterwards  a  23-ton  gun 
of  13.3  inches'  caliber,  capable  of  piercing  a  ship's  side 
stronger  than  that  of  the  Wairior  at  two  miles'  range 
with  a  shot  of  600  lbs.,  called  for  a  corresponding  ad- 
vance in  the  strength  of  armored  structures,  ^'on- 
sequentl}-  H.Jf.S.  Hercules  was  protected  with  9-inch 
armor  at  her  water-line;  and  a  target  representing  her 
at  this  part,  with  a  very  massive  backing  of  teak  and 
iron  .stringers,  ribs,  and  skin,  afforded  effective 
resistance  to  the  gun  above  referred  to  at  700  yards 
range,  and  would  have  done  so  at  much  shorter 
ranges.  This  trial  showed  the  advantage  of  giving 
depth  or  thickness  to  shot-resisting  structures.  A 
method  of  holding  on  armor-plates  by  continuous 
irons  turned  over  their  edges  instead  of  by  bolts  was 
also  tried,  but  there  were  objections  to  it. 

Turning  again  more  particularly  to  the  protection 
of  land-works,  the  following  exiierience  was  gained 
about  this  time — that  is,  in  1865.  Two  complete  ma- 
sonry casemates,  with  ports  in  iron  shields,  were  built 
at  Shoeburj-ness.  The  masonry  was  14  feet  thick,  con- 
sisting, generally,  of  a  face  of  6  to  8  feet  of  stone,  with 
brick-work  behind  it,  and  the  side  walls  and  vaulting 
of  the  casemates  were  of  brick.  The  shield  of  one  was 
a  compoimd  structure  12  feet  long,  8  feet  high,  anil, 
altogether,  21  inches  thick  (including  7  inches  of 
wood);  that  of  the  other  was  made  out  of  a  solid  rolled- 
iron  plate  7  feet  high,  6  feet  wide,  and  13+  inches  thick. 
After  the  mounting,  working,  and  firing  of  a  23-tou 
and  a  13-ton  gun  in  the  casemates,  as  well  as  on  the 
roofs,  had  proved  the  work  to  be  suitable  in  arrange- 
ment for  such  guns,  the  front  of  the  work  was  attacked 
by  a  batterj'  of  7-ineh,  8-inch,  9.22-inch,  and  10-inch 
guns,  at  ranges  of  600  and  1000  j-ards,  firing  steel  and 
cast-iron  shot,  some  with  hemispherical  and  some 
with  elliptical  heads.  The  general  result  of  this  trial 
was  that  after  33  hits  the  work  began  to  become  un- 
tenable, after  54  hits  its  fire  would  have  been  virtually 
silenced,  and  after  86  hits,  of  which  22  were  on  iron, 
the  masonr)'  front  was  destroyed,  but  the  shields  still 
afforded  a  fair  amount  of  protection.  The  aggregate 
of  all  the  blows  delivered  came  to  200,000  foot-tons,  of 
which  52,000  were  on  iron.  Among  many  other 
trials  that  took  place  alwut  this  time  were  those  which 
brought  out  the  excellent  qualities  of  chilled  cast-iron 
for  battering  projectiles,  as  proposed  by  CajUain  (now 
Sir  W.)  Palliser,  and  also  the  advantages  of  the  pointed 
(ogival)  over  the  l)lunt  (hemispherical)  head.  For 
these  experiments  iron  annor,  placed  both  directly 
and  o))liquely  to  the  line  of  fire,  was  used;  chilled 
iron,  in  consequence  of  these  results,  almost  entirely 
superseded  steel  for  battering  projectiles,  for  a  time  at 


ABHOS£D   DEFENSES. 


68 


AEHORED   DEFENSES. 


least.  Next  in  onlcr  came  a  scries  of  trials  of  plates 
of  steel,  iiiulof  steel  ami  iron  eoinl)ineci;  some  were 
of  thin  layers  of  steel  and  iron  weUleil  tojfcther,  others 
of  sundwiehes  of  sleel  between  rolled  iron,  olhers  of 
faces  of  steel  welded  to  Iron,  and  others  of  steel  and 
iron  in  reverse  order  to  this;  lint  none  of  these  com- 
peted sneeessfully  with  a  simple  soft  rolled-iron  phile 
in  resistinir  ehilled-iron  >hot.  !>(mie  plates  made 
entirely  of  steel  were  tried  about  this  time,  as  they 
had  been  also  years  before,  l)ut  none  of  them  stood  at 
all  well.  The  dillievilly  of  treating  sleel  iu  large 
ina.sses,  and  es|X(ially  of  weldin'T  these  masses  of 
sleel  and  iron  together,  had  evidently  not  been  mr.s- 
tered  up  lo  this  time.  In  consequence  of  the  grov.- 
inn;  jiowers  of  battering-ordnance,  it  now  became 
evident  that  land-works  would  re(|uiie  walls  of  con- 
sidtnible  lhi(knes.ses  of  armor;  but  there  were  two 
main  reasons  why  very  thick  armor-iilates  should  not 
be  used  in  them."  In  the  tirst  place,  the  manufacture 
of  a  very  thick  plate  is  not  so  complete  as  that  of  one 
of  modenite  thickness,  or  at  least  to  make  it  as  com- 
plete would  involve  an  enormous  increase  of  co.st  in 
plant  and  manufacture;  and  next,  the  thicker  the 
plates  the  deeper  the  joints  must  be.  and  therefore  the 
more  points  of  undue  weakness  will  the  armor  ])re- 
sent.  It  therefore  became  important  to  see  whether 
the  required  protection  could  not  be  gained  without 
the  use  of  very  thick  plates.  Against  doing  this  was 
the  prevailing  opinion,  based  chiefly  on  theoretical 
considerations,  that  a  single  plate  of  given  thickness 
would  offer  something  like  twice  the  coniliined  resist- 
ance of  two  plates  each  of  half  that  thicliness,  or 
about  three  times  the  resistance  of  three  plates,  mak- 
ing up  the  sjime  total  thickness,  and  so  on.  This  view- 
was  entirely  disputed  liy  those  who  had  to  ileal  with 
these  questions  otMcially. 

In  1871  two  targets  representing  portions  of  the 
walls  of  ships'  turrtts  were  tried  at  Shoeburyness. 
The  one  was  protected  by  single  14-inch  plates,  the 
other  by  two  thicknesses  of  armor,  8-inch  and  (i-inch 
respectively,  with  9  inches  of  timlier  between  them.  In 
other  respects  the  targets  were  similar.  After  receiv- 
ing the  same  amount  of  battering  the  armor  of  both 
was  taken  off,  and  the  effect  upon  the  inner  skin  of 
the  two-plate  target  was  unmistakably  less  than  that 
on  the  single-plate  slniclnre.  It  may  also  be  men- 
tioned that,  more  recently  still,  a  structure  composed 
of  three  thicknesses  of  6i  inches  of  iron  proved  rather 
superior  to  a  solid  IGi-inch  plate  in  stopping  the  818-lb. 
shot  of  the  service  38-ton  gun,  striking  with  a  velocity 
of  aljout  141.5  f.-s.  To  settle  the  best  proportions, 
quantify,  and  best  nature  of  material  to  Ijc  inferposeil 
between  armor-plates,  a  series  of  careful  exiicriments 
was  set  on  foot,  and  the  result  was  that  a  uniform 
spacing  of  alnait  5  inches  (to  be  slighilv  modified 
under  certain  circumsfances)  between  tne  different 
plates  in  all  sfructures  was  decided  upon;  and  also, 
although  an  iron  concrete,  made  liy  workinir  up  to- 
gether cast-iron  borings,  asphall,  liifiuuen,  anil  pitch, 
gave  the  best  result,  mainly  on  account  of  its  great 
weight,  yet  brick-work  in  "asphalt.  I'ortlaml-cemenf 
concrete,  and  hard  wood  proved  so  satisfactory  that 
these  materials  have  been  adopted,  as  circumsiances 
required,  in  all  armored  walls.  It  may  be  well  to 
mention  here  a  very  rcmarka1)le  result  "that  was  ob- 
tiiined  in  the  course  of  the  early  trials  with  plate- 
iipon-plate  sfrucfures.  When  V()id  spaces  were  left 
between  the  jilati's  of  these  sirnctnres  it  was  found 
that  the  heads  of  Ihe  Palliser  shells  collaliscd  coni- 
I)lelely  under  the  work  fhey  had  fo  do  in  penefrafing 
them,  and,  naturally,  the  effect  jiroduced  u|)on  the 
target  was  thereby  very  much  reduced.  In  one  case 
a  chilled  shot  from  the  8S-(on  gun,  which  was  capa- 
ble of  i)iercing  litj  inches  of  armor,  was  found  stick- 
ing in  a  finely  divided  state  airainst  a  lO-inch  idate 
after  having  i)assid  through  oidy  a  4  in<li  jilale  a  few- 
feet  in  front  of  if;  and  on  another  occasion,  a  4*-inch 
l)latc,  set  up  18  inches  in  front  of  a  masonry" wall, 
with  a  void  space  between  them,  so  far  reduced  fhe 
effect  of  a  chilled  cast-iron  projectile  from  the  38-ton 


gun,  at  50  yards,  that  it  broke  up  on  first  striking  the 
jrranite,  and  was  afterwards  ilug  out  in  pieces  at  ii 
depth  of  only  about  3  feet  ti  inches  from  the  original 
front  of  fhe  masomy.  Hepcated  and  well-iironouneed 
instances  of  this  utfer  desfruclion  of  chilled  projec- 
files  from  this  cause  have  been  gained  and  carefully 
investigated,  with  a  view  fo  fuming  flu-  principle  to 
some  account  in  defence-works;  bin  parfly  on  account 
of  certain  dilliculfies  of  detail,  and  mainly  on  account 
of  fhe  action  nof  being  produced  lai  steel  projectiles, 
fhe  idea  of  using  void  spacing  in  practice  has  been 
marly  given  up.  The  ne.xf  trials  on  a  large  scale 
were  those  of  18ti8,  at  Shoeburyness.  In  fhe.se,  a 
casemate  having  a  front  of  22  feit  by  14  feet,  reiire- 
senfing  a  portion  of  the  iron  fort  which  was  then  in 
course  of  construction  for  fhe  position  behind  Plym- 
outh breakwater  fort,  stood  37  rounds  from  the  12-inch 
gun  of  2.")  tons,  charge  76  lbs.  pellet-pow-der,  the  10- 
inch  gun  of  18  tons,  charge  60  lbs.  H.  L.  G. ,  and  the 
l.")-inch  Hodman  gun  of  19  Ions,  charge  100  lbs. 
American  (equivalent  fo  83J  lbs.  English)  powder,  at 
200  yards'  range;  and  alfhough  if  was  of  course  con- 
siileialily  damaged  i>y  this  fire,  if  w-as,  at  fhe  end  of 
if.pronomiccd  fo  be  defensible.  This  trial  led  fo  s<-me 
important  additions  being  made  fo  fhe  front  wall  of 
file  fort  itself  as  it  went  on.  The  roof  also  of  this 
casemate  was  tested  by  fhe  lire  of  13-inch  mortars  at 
1000  yards,  but  fhey  jirovctl  quite  iiowerle.ss  against 
it.  Only  a  few  shells,  howeycr.sfnick  if  out  of  nearly 
300  rounds.  Ailjoining  ihis  casemate  was  another 
embodying  several  kinds  of  cellular  consti-uclion  in 
its  iron  front,  with  fhe  object  of  comparing  fhe  re- 
sistance of  moderately  thick  solid  (ilates  with  that  of 
thinner  front  plates  su]iporfed  l)y  cellular  compound 
backing;  but  in  no  instance  did  fhe  latter  conslrvic- 
tlon  prove  itself  sujierior  fo  fhe  other.  This  result 
was  borne  (nit  liy  the  trial  of  another  shield  in  1868. 
The  support  giyen  fo  armor  by  massive  piers  of 
masonry  and  concrete,  cased  in  thick  boiler-plate, 
proved  very  satisfactoi-j-. 

If  may  be  w-ell  here  fo  notice  briefly  fhe  matter  of 
holding  on  armor-plafes,  on  which  so  nnich  of  course 
depends,  and  we  may  begin  by  sjiying  that  of  fhe  iii- 
numerable  contrivances-  for  this  object  nothing  has 
been  found  equal  fo  that  of  a  simple  screwed  wroughf- 
iron  liolt  fitted  with  nuls.  The  sleps  by  which  the 
]ii-esenf  pattern  of  armor-lwlt  for  forlificalions  has 
been  arrived  at  maybe  thus  described:  At  firsl  a  bolt 
with  a  dee])  V-shapeil  screw-thread  was  used,  but  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  trials  a  .shallow  round-cut 
thread  was  sulisfifufed  for  this  with  great  advantage. 
Also  a  gradual  and  slight  cone  was  ado])|ed  in  lieu  of 
fhe  abruiif  and  spreading  cone  used  at  first  in  the 
heads  of  these  bolls.  IS'e.vf,  8ir  W.  Palliser's  valu- 
able suggestion  that  part  of  the  shank  or  stem  of  an 
armor-bolt  should  l)c  reduced  lo  fhe  lesser  diameter 
of  fhe  thread  led  fo  an  immense  iinproveiuenf,  and 
this  has  been  since  extended  fo  the  whole  length  of 
the  stem,  leaving  Ihe  thread  a  jilus  or  raised  fjiread, 
thus  facilitating  fhe  extension  of  fhe  niaferi.d  of  fhe 
bolt  throughout  its  whole  length  instead  of  locally  in 
short  lenglbs.  Then  C'alitain  English  projKised,  first, 
the  rounding  of  fhe  bearing  siu-face  of  a  common 
hexagon  mif,  and  affenvard  the  use  of  a  spherical 
nut  seated  in  a  cup-shaped  hole  in  the  armor  or  in  a 
.special  Clipped  washer;  with  these  imiirovemcnfs  and 
that  of  fhe  enlargemcnf  of  the  holes  through  which 
the  bolt  lies  to  pass  (all  of  which  have  for  their  object 
fhe  relief  of  the  bolt  from  cross-strains,  and  the  inser- 
tion of  a  due  in'oportion  of  elastic  material  fo  be 
squeezed  wh<-n  the  bcilf  is  put  under  tension)  all  diffi- 
culfies  with  bolls  have  disapiieared.  and  instead  of 
their  being  sources  of  weakness  they  really,  in  most 
cases,  give  assistance  to  fhe  armor.  The  special 
washers  are  of  fhe  following  make:  First,  a  circular 
wa.sher  is  ni;ide  by  coiling  and  welding  a  l)ar  li  inch 
by  i  inch,  and  this  is  cu))pe<l  to  suit  the  .sjiherical  nut 
of  the  bolt.  To  slreiigllien  Ihis  piul  :in  outer  coil  of 
unwelded  bar  of  about  fhe  same  section  is  screwed 
around  it;  as  this  outer  coil  has  to  expand  after  the- 


AEMOKED    DEFENSES. 


69 


ARMORED   DEFENSES. 


inner  coil  may  have  given  way,  and  as  in  doing  so  it 
would  naturally  umsind  it.self  and  open  out,  this 
tendency  to  separation  has  been  met  by  making  the 
thiead  by  which  this  outer  coil  is  screwed  on  to  the 
inner  of  quicker  pitch  tlian  that  of  its  own  coils,  and 
thus  as  it  unwinds  it  actually  becomes  more  and  more 
tightly  squeezed  together. 

AH  other  trials  of  this  period  may  now  be  passed 
over  until  we  come  to  that  of  the  casemate-shield  set 
up  at  Shoeburyness  in  1870,  which  embodied  all  the 
c.K])erience  gained  from  tlie  previous  twelve  jx'ars  of 
c.vperinient.  The  guns  used  were  the  12-inch  of  25 
tons,  the  10-inch  of  IH  tons,  the  9-incli  Whitworth 
gun  of  14i  tons,  and  tlic  l.>mch  Rodman  of  19  tons, 
at  200  yards.  Some  rounds  were  tired  obliquel}',  but 
most  of  them  were  fired  direct  at  the  face  of  the 
shield.  The  shield,  which  presented  a  front  of  13 
feet  by  8  feet,  received  17  blows,  equivalent  to 
90,000  foot  tuns,  and,  except  in  one  or  two  mat- 
ters of  detail  which  were  svLsceptilile  of  easy  im- 
provement, it  stood  the  trial  remarkably  well,  and 
proved  that  it  posses.sed  a  great  margin  of  strength 
for  these  and  even  more  powerful  guns.  In  1873  a 
plate-upon-plate  target,  rcijreseuting  17  inches  of 
armor  altogether,  slo]iped  a  Palliser  shot  fired  direct 
at  it  from  the  35-ton  12-inch  gim  with  110  lbs.  of  P. 
powder;  and  a  similar  target  with  13  inches  of  armor 
stopped  a  shot  from  the  same  gun,  striking  it  at  an 
angle  of  60°  with  its  face.  In  1861  the  ciqiola  of  the 
Trasty  was  tried  off  Sheerness.  It  was  in  the  form 
of  a  truncated  cone,  covered  with  4.V  inches  of  armor, 
and  resisted  fairlj"  well  the  guns  of  those  days.  The 
cupola  was  not  damaged  in  its  machinery  throughout 
the  trial.  Next,  in  1806,  one  of  the  turrets  of  the 
Royal  Sovereign,  carrying  armor  in  thickness  5*  to 
10  inches,  was  tried  at  Spithead  with  the  12i-ton  gnns 
of  H.M.S.  Bellerophon.  The  tuiTct  was  a  good  deal 
injured,  but  the  turning  machineiy  remained  in 
working  order.  In  1872  the  turret  of  the  Glatton 
was  tried  at  Portland  with  the  fire  of  a  12-inch  25-ton 
gun  of  II. M.S.  Hotspur,  at  200  yards'  range.  The 
armor  was  14  inches  thick,  and  it  received  two  Pal- 
liser shots,  fired  with  85-;b.  charges,  one  of  which 
grazed  first  on  the  glacis.  There  was  some  damage 
done  inside  the  tuiTet,  but  the  goat,  rabbit,  and  fovil 
which  had  been  placed  inside  were  unharmed,  and 
the  turret  turned  freely  after  the  trial.  In  1870-1-2 
some  lengthened  trials  were  made  with  shot  and  shell 
impinging  upon  ship's  decks,  which  gave  some  de- 
cided residts,  namely,  that  a  iS-inch  mortar  shell  at 
4200  yards'  range  would  go  easily  througli  a  strong 
ship's  deck  covered  with  i  ;-incli  plating  and  4i-inch 
wood  planking,  and  that  at  2800  yards  it  would  go 
through  it  if  covered  with  1-inch  plating;  that  9-inch 
lice  shell  from  the  12-ton  gun  striking  at  an  angle  of 
8  is  too  much  for  a  similar  deck  covered  with  1<- 
inch  plating  at  short  range,  but  the  same  deck  will 
just  turn  a  9-inch  «/iot  at  fhe  same  angle.  Also,  that 
a  strong  deck  covered  with  3-inch  plating  and  4  inches 
of  oak  was  only  just  proof  against  10-inch  shells  fired 
with  battering  charges  from  the  IS-ton  gim  and  strik- 
ing at  an  angle  of  10'.  The  rule  that  roughly  held 
good  a  few  years  back,  that  battering  gims  could  not 
at  the  shortest  range  do  more  than  pierce  iron  armor- 
plaies  equal  in  thickness  to  their  own  caliber,  lias 
been  quite  upset  in  the  last  year  or  two  by  practice 
from  the  new  hmg  guns,  with  bores  of  23  and  more 
calibers  in  length.  Thus  a  6-inch  gun  of  less  than  4 
tons'  weight,  ;-rnd  an  8-inch  gun  of  less  thau  12  tons, 
have  pierced  within  an  inch  of  double  their  caliber  in 
thickness  of  solid  iron  plate;  and  calculations  tend  to 
show  that  the  long  B.  L.  guns  of  9.2-inch  of  18  tons, 
the  10.4-inch  of  3(i  tons,  and  the  12-inch  of  43  tons' 
weight  achieve  fully  as  much  as  this. 

Speaking  generally,  the  service-gims  were  always 
capable  of  doing  somewhat  more  than  is  indicated  by 
the  old  rule  above  mentioned,  and  if  with  the  im- 
proved powders  of  the  present  day  their  charges  can 
with  safety  be  increased  to  the  extent  which  we 
belie'V'e  has  been  proix»sed  for  them — as,  for  instance, 


90  lbs.  P^  for  the  10-inch  18-ton  gun,  110  lbs.  P-  for 
the  11-inch  25-ton  gun,  and  160  lbs.  P-  for  the  12i- 
inch  38-ton  gun — then  these  guns  will  be  nearly  if 
not  quite  able  to  pierce  at  short  range  a  thickness  of 
solid  iron  equal  to  li  times  their  caliber.  While  upon 
this  subject,  we  may  say  that  no  great  advance  has 
been  made  in  late  years  toward  determining  a  /mr  for 
the  resistance  of  armor,  nor  do  we  think  that  lor 
practical  pm|X)se.s — whatever  may  be  the  ca.se  from 
a  scientific  jioint  of  \iew — much  good  will  come  of 
inquiry  in  this  direction.  The  conditions  and  effects 
are  altogether  too  variable  and  unceilain  for  the  con- 
struction of  mathematical  formula;.  For  instance,  in 
recent  practice,  under  apparently  similar  conditions 
of  projectiles  and  plates,  there  has  been  an  imac- 
coimted-for  variation  of  effect  of  something  like  5  per 
cent  plus  or  minus.  But  we  can,  by  buildiug  upon 
results  obtained  with  one  gim,  say  within  a  little 
what  another  gun  will  do,  and  so  construct  tables  of 
penetrations  for  all  velocities,  or,  in  other  words,  for 
all  ranges.  Thas,  with  the  average  service  condi- 
tions of  weight  and  length  of  battering  projectiles,  a 
shell  of  goocl  cjuality  with  a  velocity  between  1050  to 
11.50  f.-s7  will  pierce  solid  iron  equal  in  thickness  to 
its  own  caliber;  with  a  velocity  between  1500  and 
1650  it  will  pierce  iron  of  a  thickness  equal  to  one 
and  a  half  times  its  calilicr;  and  with  a  velocity  be- 
tween 2000  and  2200  it  will  pierce  solid  iron  equal  in 
thickness  to  double  its  caliljer.  To  obtain  the  latter 
degree  of  perforation  at  the  muzzles  of  the  latest  guns 
the  powder-charges  must,  we  believe,  be  equal  to  at 
least  one  half  the  weight  of  the  shot.  At  GfuTe,  in 
1876,  a  Whitworth  35-tou  gun  of  12-inch  (maximum) 
caliber,  fired  with  120  Ibs^P.  powder,  is  reported  to 
have  sent  a  fiat-headed  steel  shell  of  808  lbs.  through 
two  8-lnch  plates;  but  the  experience  with  flat  heads 
would  not  lead  us  to  exjiect  so  much  effect  upon  a 
well-constructed  two-plate  target  of  this  thickness. 
In  1877  a  target  composed  of  four  8-inch  rolled-iron 
plates,  with  layers  of  5  inches  of  teak  between  them, 
was  set  up  at  Shoeburvncss  for  the  trial  of  the  80-ton 
gun  of  the  pattern  made  for  H.M.S.  Inflex-ible  and 
for  the  turret  on  Dover  Pier.  Two  rounds  were  fired 
— one  befiire  and  one  after  the  gun  had  been  cham- 
bered. The  Palliser  projectiles  weighed  1700  lbs. 
The  range  was  120  yards.  In  the  one  case  the  shot 
was  fired  with  370  lbs.  P-  powder,  and  struck  with  a 
velocity  of  1495  f.-s.  and  total  energy  of  26,400  foot- 
tons;  in  the  other,  425  His.  P-  powder  gave  a  striking 
velocity  of  1585  f.-s.,  and  an  energy  of  nearly  30,000 
foot-tons.  In  neither  case  was  the" target  perforated, 
though  as  the  shot  hail  got  their  noses  an  inch  or  two 
into  "the  back  plate,  it  was  a  good  deal  cracked  and 
bulged  behind.  Had  (be  plates  been  7  inches  instead 
of  8  inches  thick,  probably  the  last  shot,  at  any  rate, 
vv'ould  have  got  through. 

In  1869  a  chilled  crst-iron  casemate  front,  egg- 
shaped  (thickness  of  metal  about  the  port  27  inches), 
underwent  a  considerable  trial,  at  Tegel,  with  72- 
pdrs.  and  96-pdrs.,  and  it  stood  fairly  well.  The 
indents  were  very  .slight,  but  the  material,  as  usual, 
was  extremely  brittle,  and,  to  adopt  the  expressive 
lamruage  of  a'report  quoted  in  the  professional  papers 
of  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.S.  Anny,  it  was  "pretty 
well  cracked  up."  "  The  next  trial  of  chilled  cast-iron 
armor  was  at  JIagdebvug,  in  1874,  against  a  very 
massive  rounded  target  made  by  Grlison,  and  al- 
though, both  from  the  form  of  tlie  structure  and  the 
hardness  of  the  material,  individual  shot  were  very 
effectuallv  turned  off  it,  yet  repeated  blows  caused 
serious  injury.  Still,  the  Germans  and  Belgians  have 
adopted  this"  mode  of  const rvicti<»n  for  liolh  shields 
and  turrets — especially  for  a  number  of  21""  and  28"" 
breech-loading  muzzre-pivolinir  guns  ft)r  the  defense 
of  the  mouths  of  rivers.  Si  .me  of  the  other  European 
Powers  also  are  usins  it,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
for  both  inland  and  coast  fortresses.  The  chief  ad- 
vantaire  of  this  material  is  I'lat  it  can  be  made  of  any 
shapeT  and  therefore  roimded  and  sloping  surfaces 
can  be  presented  to  the  shot;  and  it  affords  also  a 


ARMORED    DEFENSES. 


70 


ARMORED    DEFENSES, 


certain  facility  for  varying  at  will  the  thickness  of 
the  metal  in  the  ililTereut  parts  of  a  wall. 

As  early  as  in  18.")!)  armor-plates  of  milil  steel  and 
steely  iron,  anil  iron  anil  steel  eonibineil,  and  various 
kinds  of  steel  plates  tempered  in  oil  and  water,  had 
lieen  tried,  siud  all  failed  in  a  preater  or  less  degree 
when  they  came  to  stand  the  test  of  sliul-hlows.  So 
tile  matter  of  steel  armor  rested  until  the  Italians,  in 
18T(),  iKjldly  re-openeil  the  question  liy  seltinjj  up  two 
armor-iilates  (made  by  M.  Schneider,  of  Creusot)  of 
soft  forged  steel  21J  inches  thick,  for  trial  at  Spezia. 
The  plates  were  about  1 1  feet  long  and  4  feet  7  iuilics 
wide,  antl  they  were  backed  with  massive  oak,  cover- 
ing a  strong  iron  skin  well  sujiportcd  in  rear.  For 
comparison  with  these,  three  iron  ])lalesof  nearly  the 
same  dimensions  as  the  steel  jilates,  and  similarly 
supported,  were  tried  at  the  Siuue  lime,  as  well  as  two 
plale-iipou-plate  targets,  each  consisting  of  iron  plates 
11.8  inches  and  9.8  inches  thick,  with  V2  inches  of 
wooil  between  them  and  backing  of  timber  anil  iron 
behind  them.  We  must  also  mention  two  targets 
composed  of  8-iiich  wroughl-iron  (ilates  backed  by 
blocks  of  chilled  cast-iron  of  "  Gregoriiii"  metal,  14 
inches  thick.  In  one  of  these  the  chilled  blocks 
touched  the  front  armor,  in  the  other  13  inches  of 
wood  were  interposed.  In  all  the  targets  there  was 
the  same  total  thickness  of  4  feet  4  inches,  made  tip 
of  about  22  inches  of  armor  and  ;{()  inches  of  timber 
and  skin.  The  general  resull  of  the  trial  was  this: 
One  steel  plate  was  a  good  deal  cracked,  and  had  ils 
enil  knocked  away  by  two  blows  from  a  lO-inch  and 
one  from  an  ll-inch  gun,  throwing  chilled  cast-iron 
projectiles;  and  the  fimrth  roimd  from  the  100-ton 
gun  with  a  2000-11).  chilled  cast-iron  projectile,  strik- 
ing with  a  velocity  of  1.500  f.-s.  and  a  muzzle-energy 
of  31,000  foot-tons,  dashed  the  plate  to  pieces,  though 
it  apparently  could  not  (piite  perforate  it.  The  other 
thick  steel  iilale  was  completely  demolished  by  a 
single  round  from  the  same  100-lon  gun.  The  lliick 
wrought-iron  plate  made  in  England  was  much  less 
injured  generally  by  the  lighleV  guns  than  was  the 
steel  plate,  though  the  indents  in  it  were  deeper;  but 
the  100-tou  gun  sent  ils  shot  Ihrongh  all  the  iron 
plates,  and  also  broke  them  in  two.  TLc  "  plale-upon- 
plale"  targets  did  not  do  so  well  as  the  solid  plates, 
and  the  targets  with  the  chilled-iron  backings  entirely 
succumbed  lo  a  single  blow  on  each  front  the  10(5- 
ton  gun.  The  results  of  the  trial  were  seriously  in- 
validated by  the  narrowness  of  the  plates  used, — a 
width  of  4  feet  7  inches  l)eing  altogether  too  little  for 
a.plale  which  is  to  receive  a  iT-inch  .shot,  and  on  this 
account  these  costly  and  claliorate  trials  at  Spezia 
Lave  afforded  much"  less  useful  information  than  they 
oudit  to  have  given.  The  brittleness  of  the  steel, 
and  ils  cousequciu  incajiacity  for  resi.stance  lo  re- 
jieated  blows,  is  a  striking  feature  of  these  trials;  the 
failine  of  the  plale-upon-iilate  targets,  through  their 
being  a  bad  imitation  of  our  construction,  is  another; 
the  utter  collapse  of  the  target  with  Ibe  chilled-iron 
blocks  is  a  third;  and  the  defective  plan  of  holding 
armor  by  .screwing  lx)lts  into  t'.)e  backs  of  plates  is  a 
fourth.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  also,  that  these  trials 
did  not  give  us  a  more  exact  measure  of  Ihe  armor- 
piercing  power  of  Ihe  100-ton  gun,  which  was  a 
counterpart  of  the  four  which  were  to  be  mounted  at 
Gibraltar  and  Malta.  In  1879  the  Italians  ai^ain  ex- 
perimented at  Spezia  upon  thick  steel  plali's\  This 
lime  Ihe  i)lales  were  ni  arly  28  inches  thick,  and  were 
entirely  cased  in  1-inch  i)rale  boxes,  which  dispensed 
with  boiling.  They  were  narrow  i)lales,  as  before 
(4  feet  7  inches  wule  and  9  feet  lomr),  wei;ibl  ab<ait 
20  tons  each ;  but  these  plates  were  so  ul  lerl  v  dest  royed 
by  a  single  namd  e;icli  from  chilled-iron  o"r  steel  pro- 
jectiles from  the  lOOion  gun  tiring  .").")0  lbs.  of  Fossano 
l>owder,  that  Ihe  trials  had  to  be  disconlimied  with- 
out telling  nuieh  mmc  than  was  known  before.  The 
forged-steel  projectile  made  by  Wbitworlh  seems  lo 
have  i)enelrated  Ihe  deepest  (21.().")  inches)  and  re- 
mained enliri',  but  il  was  somewhat  set  up. 

Perhaps  the  shortest  way  of  giving  an  account  of 


the  manufacture  of  rolled-iron  armor  will  be  to  say 
how  some  one  plale  in  particular  has  been  made,  anil 
we  will  select  for  this  purpose  one  of  the  heaviest 
ever  produced.  This  was  one  of  the  8-inch  plates 
made  for  the  target  to  test  Ihe  80-ton  gun  at  Slioe- 
buryness.  Its  tiuished  dimensions  were:  length,  18 
feet;  width,  10  feet;  and  ils  weight  23  toiLs.  For  its 
mauufaclurc  1170  slabs,  30  inches  long,  12  inches 
wide,  and  1  inch  thick,  were  made  from  the  puddled 
ball  and  bar.  These  were  piled,  fuinaced,  and  rolleil 
into  (i.j  plates  about  !>  feet  scjuare  and  from  1  inch  to 
li  inch  thick,  called  small  molds.  These,  again, 
were  piled  and  rolled  inlo  (luarter-molds,  and  the 
Huarter-molds  inlo  annor-iilale  molds,  and  the  iiile 
for  the  l.-ist  rolling  was  made  up  of  three  molds  about 
10  feet  sijuarc,  two  of  7-iiiih  and  one  of  3-inch  thick- 
ness. As  they  enlerid  the  furnace  for  this  last  heat- 
ing the\'  Aveighed  about  3.5  tons;  as  tTicy  came  out 
after  about  twelve  hours  they  weighed  3U  tons.  They 
were  rolled  down  in  the  last  rolling  from  17  inches  lo 
8  inches;. so  that  in  a  certain  sense  this  plale  may  be 
said  to  have  bten  made  by  rolling  a  column  of  iron 
nearly  100  feet  high  down  to  one  of  only  8  inches 
high.  The  tibrous  character  of  a  jilate  depends 
largely  upon  the  amount  of  reduction  in  Ihe  last  roll- 
ing. The  rolls  are  plain  cast  cylinders;  lho.se  used 
in  Ihe  present  case  are  about  3  feet  in  diameter,  12 
feet  long,  and  each  one  of  the  jiair  weighs  nearly  20 
t(/ns.  They  are  driven  by  very  powerful  steam 
machinery,  and  made  to  reverse  their  rumiing,  so 
that  the  "plates  are  sent  through  one  way  and  then 
back  again,  and  so  on,  the  rolls  being  brought  nearer 
together  each  lime  until  the  plate  is  brought  down  to 
Ihe  required  thickness.  The  siiecitic  graAity  of  a 
good  iron  armor-plate  is  about  7.62.5.  Armor-plate 
iron  is  not  made  for  very  high  tensile  slrenglh,  but 
it  is  essential  that  it  shoidd  draw  out  well,  and  re- 
duce in  cross-section  some  20  or  30  ])er  cent  before 
breaking.  As  regards  chilled  cast-iron  there  is  not 
nuich  to  be  .said  further  than  that  Herr  Gri'ison.  the 
lirincipal  manufacturer  of  il,  runs  his  blocks  for  for- 
titicalions  direct  from  cupolas  inlo  sand-molds,  chill- 
ing the  faies  which  are  to  form  Ihe  fronts  of  Ihe 
blocks  against  ma^sses  of  cast-iron.  Some  of  Ihe 
chills  are  twice  the  weight  of  Ihe  casting  itself;  the 
chill  generally  extends  two  or  three  inches  into  the 
metal.  Single  blocks  have  been  used  as  heavy  as  ol) 
tons.  The  cost  of  these  Ijlocks  may  be  taken  as 
rather  more  than  half  the  cost  of  wrought-iron  aniior- 
I'lates  per  ton,  but  then  the  cast-iron  has  to  be  usi-d 
in  masses  more  than  twice  the  thickness  of  Ihe 
wrought-iron  whith  would  give  the  same  protection. 
All  Ihe  most  successful  compound  plates  have  been 
made  of  ordinaiy  annor-plalc,  iron  faced  with  Bes- 
.senier  steel.  Of  course  an  i(|ually  or  even  better  face 
might  be  given  by  u.sing  crucible  steel,  but  the  cost 
and  difficulty  attending  the  use  of  this  kind  of  steel 
would  be  enormous.  In  fact,  it  may  be  truly  Siiid 
that  but  for  Ihe  Bes.scraer  and  31arlin-Siemens  pro- 
cesses it  would  have  been  ]iractically  out  of  Ihe  ques- 
tion lo  make  compound  ])lales  at  all.  The  most 
simple  and  elTective  process  of  m.'mufaeture  of  these 
plates  is  as  follows:  First,  a  rolled-iron  armor-plate  of 
Ihe  usual  quality  is  made,  and  on  il  is  laifl  round  ils 
edges  a  wriaigiit-iion  frame,  the  thickness  of  Ihe 
armor-plate  and  Ihe  depth  of  the  frame  depending 
upon  the  thickness  required  in  Ihe  finished  plale. 
The  plate  and  frame  are  then  placed  in  an  ordinary 
plate-healing  furnace,  and  when  at  a  welding  beat 
Ihey  are  brought  out  an<l  molten  steel  made  by  the 
Bessemer  process  is  pcjureil  out  of  large  ladles  on  to 
Ihe  surface  of  the  plate  up  to  the  brim  of  the  frame. 
The  mass  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  is  afterward 
re-heated  and  rolled  down  into  an  armor-plate  of  the 
desired  Ihiekness.  The  edue  of  wrought-iron  is  after- 
ward planed  off.  Instead  of  having  a  sinqjle  frame 
round  the  edges  of  Ihe  plale  it  has  been  pro|)osed  to 
sulidivide  the  surface  inlo  sijuares,  as  those  of  a  chess- 
board, in  order  that  by  breaking  the  continuity  of 
the  steel  the  cracks  caused  by  ^hot-blows  may  be 


AKMOEES. 


71 


ABMOEER'S   GAUGES. 


stopped  short,  and  with  the  same  object  it  has  been 
proposed  to  subdivide  the  steel  by  tine  cuts  across  its 
face.  The  successful  union  of  the  steel  ami  iron 
masses  in  these  plates  is  verj-  marked.  A  complete 
fusion  seems  to  take  place,  and  the  natures  of  the  two 
metals  so  far  intermingle  that  it  is  sometimes  hard  to 
fix  upon  an  exact  linewhere  the  steel  ends  and  the 
iron  begins. 

The  drawing  represents  the  turret  for  two  80-ton 
ffims  at  the  extremity  of  the  Admiralty  Pier  at  Dover. 
The  work  to  carry  this  turret  consists  of  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  outerend  of  the  pier.  The  foundations 
arc  laid  at  a  depth  of  about  7  fathoms 'below  low- 
water  mark,  anil  the  guns  are  at  a  level  of  about  33 
feet  above  high  water.  The  structure,  therefore, 
from  the  bed  of  the  sea  to  the  guns  is  about  9.5  feet 
high.  Speaking  in  general  terms,  the  turret  consists 
first  of  a  live  ring  and  rollers  of  steel  running  on  a 
path  of  steel  laidon  a  massive  cylinder  of  masonry. 


depressed  to  an  angle  of  14  for  loading,  which  is 
done  under  the  glacis  by  steam  gear.  The  turret  is 
turned  by  a  pinion,  the  vertical  shaft  shown  working 
into  a  large  ring  ■\\ith  steel  trundles  secured  to  the 
framework,  the  "power  being  given  by  a  set  of  main 
engines  capable  of  working  up  to  300  h.-p.,  and 
auxiliary  engines  of  4.5  or  50  h.-p.  For  the  working 
and  loading^>f  the  gims  there  will  be  another  engine 
of  about  30  h.-p.  AH  the  engines  and  the  boilers  are 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  batVcry,  some  30  feet  below 
the  guns.  The  magazines  are  at  nearly  the  same 
level  as  the  engiues,~and  the  shell-stores  at  a  higher 
level.  There  is  a  system  of  communication  by  signal 
and  speaking  from"  the  gun-ehamber  to  the  engine- 
room.  an<l  throughout  the  battery. 

ARMOBER.— The  old  meaning  of  this  word  has 
nearly  passed  away  with  the  system  to  which  it  be- 
loni^Jd.  The  armor-smiths,  or  makers  of  armor,  were 
among  the  most  skilful  workers  in  metal  durmg  the 


Turret  for  two  80-ton  Guns. 


On  this  live  ring  runs  a  structure  of  iron  framework 
of  the  form  shown  in  the  diagram,  weighing  alxuit 
240  tons.  This  framework  contains  the  gun-chamber, 
which  is  protected  by  three  thicknesses  of  T-inch  ar- 
mor with  two  intermediate  thicknesses  of  2-inch 
plates,  making  together  a  weight  of  about  460  tons. 
If  to  these  weights  be  added  that  of  the  guns,  car- 
riages, and  the  slides  on  which  they  stand,  the  total 
running  weight  will  be  alwut  89.5  tons.  This  will 
throw  upon  each  of  the  32  rollers  of  the  live  ring  a 
pre-isure  due  to  alxiut  38  tons.  The  outside  diameter 
of  the  turret  is  37  feet,  its  internal  iliameter  is  32  feet, 
the  interior  height  of  the  gun-chaml)er  is  8  feet  8 
inches,  the  height  of  the  turret-armor  is  9  feet.  It 
will  l)e  seen  that  a  massive  central  casting  is  first  held 
firmly  tlown  to  the  masonry,  and  that  inside  this  there 
is  a  thick  cylinder  of  hammered  Bessemer  steel  sur- 
rmmding  tiie  built-up  wrought-iron  cylinder  wliich 
forms  the  center  of  the  turret  framework.  AVe  draw 
attention  to  this  part  because,  of  course,  the  shock  of 
blows  on  the  turret-walls,  or,  more  strictly  speaking, 
the  unal)>.orlied  part  of  it,  ultimately  comes  to  this 
part,  aiul  it  has  received  special  consideration  on  that 
account.  The  framework  is  generally  of  wrought- 
iron.  The  roof  of  the  turret  is  of  strong  splinter- 
proof  construction.  Over  each  gun  there  is  a  part  of 
it  which  is  removalile  to  admit  of  its  being  got  in  and 
out,  and  a  part  is  made  of  open  Ijars  to  allow  a  cur- 
rent of  air  to  clear  otf  any  smoke  that  may  enter  the 
turret.  The  gmi-porls  admit  of  7'  of  elevation  and 
2  of  depression;  the  turret  is  capable  of  all-round 
fire.  The  glacis  outside  the  turret  is  supported  by  a 
ring  of  armor-plates  on  edge,  5  inches  and  3  inches 
thick,  on  a  strong  circle  of  2-inch  platinir.  The 
muzzles  of  the  guns  are  brought  inside  the  turret  and 


feudal  times;  but  their  trade  afterwards  fell  away.  In 
the  year  1690  the  workmen-armorers  of  London,  in  a 
petition  to  Parliament,  complained  that  their  trade  was 
well-niL'h  ruined.  Armorei-s.  in  a  somewhat  <lilTerent 
.sense  of  the  word,  belong  to  the  British  army  and  navy 
at  the  present  time.  There  are  armorers  to  everj'  regi- 
ment, not  to  make  armor,  but  to  repair  arms.  There 
is  one  to  each  troop  of  cavalry,  and  one  to  each  com- 
pany of  infantry.  The  armorer  is  paiil  one  penny  per 
month  for  taking  to  pieces  and  cleaning  the  lock  of 
each  soldier's  musket.  There  is  also  a  regular  tariff 
of  prices  for  every  minute  detail  of  repair  in  the  stock, 
lock,  or  barrel  of  muskets,  pistols,  carliines.  and  rifies, 
and  ill  bayonets  and  ramrods.  A  school  for  training 
armorer-sergeants  has  recently  been  established  in 
London  to  supply  one  such  artificer  to  each  battalion, 
who  shall  have  "a  certain  degree  of  control  over  the 
ten  or  twelve  company-armorers  in  the  battalion.  On 
shipboard  the  armorer  is  a  warrant -officer,  who  has 
charge  of  all  the  muskets,  pistols,  cutlasses,  boarding- 
pikes,  etc.,  which  he  is  expected  to  keep  clean  and  in 
ready  order.  He  is  a.ssisted  by  a  subordinate  called 
the  "armorer's  mate;"  and  both  are  skilled  in  the 
general  routine  of  smith's  work. 

ARMORER'S   GAUGES.— For  verifying  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  various  parts  of  small-arnis  are  tenijiletsof 
various  sizes  and   shapes,  rings,  and   cylindrical   or 
conical  sauses  for  interior  dimensions.      Two  hun- 
dred are  embraced  in  a  complete  set  f<ir  the  various 
;irms  made  at  the  Xational  ArmoPi-,  of  which  alxiut 
78   are    used    for  the   Springfield    rifle   alone.      Of 
these,  the  odibtr-gatige  measures  the  diameter  of  the 
:  bore.     The  dimeugion-gauges  show  the  length  of  the 
I  barrel  and  its  diameter  at  various  distances,  the  value 
I  in  inches  and  parts  being  measured  by  the  caliper- 


ABMORIAL. 


ARMOR-PIERCING   PROJECTILES. 


gauge.  Other  jriiuges  measure  the  proper  dimeusioiis 
of  the  bretfb-stTew  ami  its  thread,  and  those  of  the 
couuter-bt)re  i>f  the  barrel  which  receives  it;  otheis, 
agiiiii,  the  form,  illiiieiisious,  and  position  of  the 
sights.  A  separate  gjiuge  is  required  for  the  lock- 
plate,  and  for  each  separate  part  of  which  the  lock 
is  comiwsed;  as  the  maiiiDiminj-gaiigt,  Dnir-yauye, 
britiU-gauije,  tHinhhrgauijt,  /uimnier-gaiigt;  etc.;  also, 
piiijres  for  the  various  dimensions  of  the  stock,  of  the 
bayonet,  and  of  each  of  the  appenilagcs  which  ac- 
cohipany  the  gini.  Including  the  jrauges  requiivd  for 
inspecting  the  various  carbines  and  pistols  made  by 
dillerciit  firms  in  the  United  States,  the  numlxT  wiil 
exctrd  II II HI, 

ARMORIAL. — Belonging  to  armor,  or  to  the  arms  or 
csculilicciM  of  a  faniilv. 

ARMOR  piercing"  PROJECTILES.— Projectiles  in- 
tended for  practice  at  objects  composed  of  wood,  ma- 
sonry, or  earth  are  mside  of  cast-iron;  but,  since  the 
introduction  of  iron  for  the  defence  of  ships  and  for- 
tifications, a  material  possessing  greater  hardness  than 
oriiiiiary  cast-iron  is  required  to  overcome  the  resist- 
ance op|)osed  by  thick  wrought-iron  plates.  Both 
clong!ited  and  spherical  projectiles  for  use  against 
armor  should  Ix-  of  the  hardest  and  toughest  material 
possililc.  The  power  of  a  inojectile  to  stand  up  to  its 
work  anil  deliver  its  full  blow  on  the  target  dcpcmls 
on  the  s/iape  as  much  as  on  the  gualitg  of  the  metal  of 
which  it  is  composed. 

The  resistance  of  the  plate,  neglecting  friction,  acts 
as  a  normal  to  each  point  of  the  surface  of  contact  of 
a  spherical  projectile;  thus,  in  Fig.  1  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  portion  of  such  a  projectile  included  between 
A  and  B,  which  we  may  term  the  zone  of  compres- 
sion, is  subject  to  a  crushing  pressure  towards  the 
centre,  O,  but  it  may  be  said  to  be  under  no  tensile 
strain.  AVhile  the  posterior  portion  of  the  projectile 
is  suddenly  checked  by  it  in  the  form  of  a  wedge, 
when  a  portion  of  the  work  stored  \\\>  in  it  (the  aniomit 
depending  on  the  tensile  strength  of  the  material  of 
the  iirojcctilc)  is  impressed  on  the  target  through  the 
front  portion,  AOB,  while  the  remainder  is  carried 
off  improfitably  in  the  fragments  into  which  the  pos- 
terior portion  breaks.  On  examining  the  projectile 
after  impact,  a  part  very  nearly  corresponding  to 
AOB  in  form  will  be  found  intact  (Fig.  i)  withthe 
fractured  surface  scored  and  polishetl,  while  the  re- 
mainder will  be  dispersed  in  small  fragments.  We 
know  that  any  casting  fractures  most  easily  in  the 
direction  of  a  normal  to  its  s\u-face,  the  crystals  set- 
tling themselves  so  as  to  form  lines  on  this  "direction. 
Theoretically,   the  portion    represented   by   Fig.   1 


Fio.  1. 

ought  to  be  smaller  as  the  penetration  is  less — except 
in  the  ca.se  of  the  entire  I)low  Ijcinir  too  small  to  over- 
come the  tensile  sIrtnLrtli  of  the  metal  in  the  manner 
described:  when  the  projectile  w<aild  onlv  split  ir- 
regularly, or,  in  an  (Xtrciiie  case,  remain  entire.  In  all 
instances  ol)viously  a  great  amount  of  the  work  stored 
up  in  the  projictiie  is  wasted;  not  that  actu.div  em- 
ployed in  breakini:  it,  for  such  work  is  clearly  the  re- 
sult of  the  reaction   from   the  tiirunt.  l)ut  whatever 


ix>wer  remains  stored  up  in  the  fragments  after  they 
sever  themselves  from  the  mass  of  the  projectile. 
Since  it  is  im|X)ssililc  to  jiredict  what  part  of  a  sphe- 
rical projectile  tired  from  a  smooth-bore  gun  will 
come  in  contact  with  the  target  on  impact,  it  isneces- 
sjuy  that  the  material  should  be  such  as  will  offer  the 
greatest  union  of  hardness,  crushing  strength,  and 
tenacity;  therefore'  steel  has  been  resorted  to  in  seime 
instance's,  and  may  be  regarelcel  as  the  culminating 
point  of  dcveliipmciit  of  the  smooth-bore  projectile's. 
The  Mat-ended  form  of  t  longuhd  projectiles  possesses 
a  peculiar  advantage  as  regards  the  projectile,  and 
another  as  concerns  the  plate.  As  to  the  projectiles, 
it  may  be  seen  (Fig.  2)  that  in  direct  impact  the  whole 
of  the  resistance  ot  the  target  acts  in  lines  parallel  to 
the  projectile's  axis,  which  direction  is  the  most  favor- 
able to  the  i>rojectile  retaining  its  mass  ami  delivering 
its  full  blow  on  the  target;  and,  again,  if  the  target  is 
to  be  punched  by  actual  shearing,  the  flat  head  is  the 
form  Ix'St  adapted  to  effect  it.  The  flat  head  would 
probably  be  best  in  the  case  of  du-ect  tiring  against 
plates  composed  of  hard  iron,  for  it  is  easj'  teT  con- 
ceive of  a  hard  material  offering  very  great  resistance 
to  the  forcing  open  of  a  pointed  head,  which  might 


^=s= 


Kio.  S. 

be  punched  by  the  clean  shearing  of  a  flat-headed 
lirojectile.  The  jjower  given  l)y  rotation  of  keeping 
the  same  jjortiou  of  a  projectile  presented  to  the  front 
is  of  peculiar  \alue  in  punching  annor-plates;  it  en- 
ables the  head  of  a  jirojectile  to  be  made  of  any  de- 
sired form,  while  the  jjower  of  reducing  the  calibre 
of  a  projectile  m  proportion  to  its  weight,  which  is 
perhaps  the  principal  advantage  obtaineel  by  rifling, 
is  also  most  important  here,  the  depth  of  penetration 
being  in  inverse  inoportioii  to  the  circumference.  In 
shells,  however,  this  stability  of  the  axis  of  rotation 
tells  more  fully,  for  it  enables  every  part  of  the  pro- 
jectile to  be  made  of  such  projiortious  as  will  give 
the  maximum  power  at  the  moment  of  impact.  The 
walls  of  an  cloug-atcd  shell  being  chiefly  subjecteel  to 
a  longitudinal  strain,  an  interior  hollow  may  be  made 
without  entailing  the  great  weakness  existiiig  in  sphe- 
rical shells  as  comiiared  with  .soliil  shot.  Hence  it 
follows  that  while  smooth-bore  shells  have  seldom  or 
never  been  tired  at  armor,  rifled  shells  have  proved 
vcrv  successful. 

1  here  are  two  causes  which  contribute  to  give 
shells  iK'Ctiliar  power  against  iron  jilates.  The  Jirsl 
is  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  weaken  the  head  of  a 
she'll  by  making  a  fuse-hole  in  it;  because  no  fuse  is 
re(|uired,  the  heat  generated  on  the  impact  of  a  pro- 
jectile against  the  armor  being  sullicient  to  fire  the 
bursting-rtiarge.  To  such  an  extent  is  light  as  well 
as  heat  generated,  that  on  firing  at  a  target  after  dark 
a  pale  flash  is  seen  to  follow  the  impact.  The  second 
cause  that  operates  to  favor  the  action  of  shells  is 
the  fact  that  when  the  shell  has  penetrated  to  a  depth 
of  even  a  few  inches  l)efore  ru]ituie  occurs,  the  sides 
are  supjiorted  by  lh<'  armor  around  them,  and  the  ex- 
l)losi(ai,  being  confineil  at  the  siiles,  acts  to  the  front 
with  greatly  increased  force. 

In  a  conical  head  the  normal  pressures  throughout 
fonn  a  zone  of  compression  acting  as  a  wedge  towarels 
the  body  of  the  projectile,  whose  angle  is  the  supple- 
ment of  that  of  the  cone  of  the  head.  This  is  better 
th;in  that  formed  in  the  spherical  head,  because  the 
angle  is  less  acute,   and   because  the  apex  of  the 


ABHOB-PLAT£S. 


AEM0E-PLATE8. 


wedge,  instead  of  being  a  fixed  point  throughout  (the 
center  of  the  sphere),  moves  along  the  axis  of  the  pro- 

i'ectile  as  it  enters  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  target. 
n  the  ogival  head  (Fig.  3)  it  will  oasil_v  be  seen  how 
much  superior  is  the  action.  In  this  the  wedge  is  at 
the  commencement  slightly  acute,  but  then  the  resist- 
ance acts  on  a  small  surface  and  is  comparatively 
small,  and  the  angle  increases,  (ill,  at  the  junction  of 
head  and  body,  it  becomes  180',  or  a  straight  line,  so 
that  we  then  have  the  body  of  the  projectile  in  much 
liie  Siime  condition  as  the  flat-headed  bolt  dri^ing  be- 
fore it  an  ogival  wedge,  which  opens  the  armor  by 


Fig.  3. 

wedging  rather  than  by  clipping  or  punching.  It  is 
possible,  no  doubt,  to  conceive  of  a  material  that 
might  be  sheared  by  the  flat  projectile  more  easily 
than  opened  by  the  ogival ;  but  it  would  be  to  contra- 
dict the  results  of  experience  to  say  that  plate-iron 
was  such  a  substance;  and  as  the  softer  and  more 
plastic  natiu'es  of  plate-iron  have  been  found  to  hold 
their  bolts  the  best,  and  staml  the  longest,  and  so 
have  been  univei'sally  adopted,  the  ogival  has  become 
obviously  the  coiTect  form  of  head. 

The  effect  oi  hardening  projectiles  is  probably 
much  greater  than  is  generally  supposed;  that  is,  the 
amount  of  work  gained  is  much  greater  than  the  in- 
crease of  strength  of  the  projectile.  It  is  well  known 
that  a  very  small  force  nuiy  under  certain  circum- 
stances determine  the  performance  or  non-perform- 
ance of  a  very  large  amount  of  work.  In  like  man- 
ner a  very  slight  addition  to  the  rigidity  of  a  projec- 
tile, by "  hardening  or  otherwise,  may  detei-mine 
whether  a  very  large  amount  of  work  shall  be  wasted 
upon  the  projectile  or  expended  upon  the  plate.  An- 
other means  of  increasing  the  work  done  upon  the 
armor-plate  in  comparison  with  that  done  upon  the 
projectile  is  by  increasing  the  velocity  of  the  latter. 
That  is,  a  projectile  mo\'ing  at  a  low  velocity  may  be 
smasheil  up  or  flattened  against  the  plate,  while  the 
same  projectile  fired  at  a  higher  velocity  may  go 
through  the  same  plate  almost  uninjured.  On  this 
princii)le  a  lead  shot  may  be  fired  through  an 
iron  plate,  or  a  tallow  candle  through  a  pine 
board. 

Late  trials  have  shown  a  superiority  of  steel  pro- 
jectiles over  those  made  of  chilled  cast-iron;  and  al- 
though the  former  are  somewhat  more  expensive  than 
the  latter,  on  the  principle  that  the  best  is  at  the  same 
time  the  cheapest,  it  would  be  misplaced  economy  to 
leave  any  means  unavailed  of  to  increase  the  penetrat- 
ing power  of  projectiles.  The  quality  of  chilled  pro- 
jectiles, from  the  nature  of  their  manufacture,  is 
nece.ssirily  uni'eliable;  whereas  tliis  is  not  the  case 
with  hammered  cast-steel,  or  at  least  not  to  the  same 
extent  by  far,  even  when  large  mas.scs  are  produced, 
and  the  ditiiculty  of  manufacture  increases  with  the 
calibre.  The  most  essential  difference  in  the  be- 
havior of  steel  and  chilled  projectiles  on  striking  the 
target  consisLs  in  the  reaction  on  the  projectile  show- 
ing itself  in  the  latter  bv  breaking  up,  while  the 
former  art^  only  set  up.  As  the  breaking  up  of  the 
chilled  shells  may  take  place  before  the  bursting- 
charge  comes  into  operation,  whereby  the   rending 


effect  is  considerably  prejudiced,  this  material  ap- 
pears far  less  adapted  for  shells  than  steel.  The  su- 
])eriority  of  steel  in  this  respect  is  still  further  in- 
crea.sed  by  the  fact  that  the  steel  shell  can  have 
thinner  walls,  consequently  a  larger  chamber,  and 
can  thus  hold  a  larger  liursting-charge  than  the 
chilled  metal. — See  Artitor-platis  and  Projectiles. 

ARMOR-PLATES.  — Armor -plates  are  made  of 
wrought-iron,  steel,  wrought-iron  and  steel  com- 
bined, and  east-iron.  Wrought-iron  has  been  foun<l 
a  suitalile  material  for  use  as  armor,  owing  to  its 
strength,  toughness,  and  malleability.  Such  plates 
have  been  so  perfected  that  they  do  not  break  uji, 
but  are  penetrated  by  displacement  or  crowding  aside 
of  the  material  in  the  path  of  the  shot.  Iron  plates 
are  either  made  of  a  single  solid  plate  or  of  several 
iron  plates,  interlined  with  some  more  elastic  mate- 
rial. The  former  are  called  solid  plates,  and  the 
latter  laminated  plates.  As  the  result  of  many  ex- 
periments the  following  conclu.sious  have  been  ar- 
rived at  rcsi^ecting  armor -plates  of  wrought-iron: 
1st.  The  plates  should  be  of  soft,  tough  iron,  and,  to 
secure  these  (jualities,  should  be  free  from  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  and  carton.  2d.  Plates  made  of  boiler- 
iron  riveted  or  screwed  together  do  not  give  satisfac- 
tory results.  3d.  Plates  made  up  of  se\Feral  distinct 
plates  bolted^ogether  are  foimd  to  comjiare  favora- 
bly with  single  .solid  plates  of  equal  thickness.  If 
the  separate  layers  be  well  held  together,  each  is 
forced  against  the  one  next  behind  it,  and  a  continu- 
ous resistance  is  offered  to  the  shot  during  its  passage 
through  the  mass.  If  the  plates  are  separated  by 
layei-jTof  teak,  such  a  shield  stands  the  racking  action 
of  projectiles  better  than  the  solid  plate,  owing  to  its 
more  elastic  nature.  4th.  The  support  given  by  a 
rigid  backing,  such  as  cast-iron  or  granite,  improves 
the  resisting  power  of  the  armor,  but  leads  to  its  be- 
ing injured  in  a  greater  degree  by  cracking,  and  the 
giving  way  of  fastenings,  oth.  The  resistance  of  a 
plate  to  perforation  is  materially  increased  by  a  back- 
ing of  oak  or  leak,  or  a  compound  backing  of  wood 
and  iron.  A  backing  of  concrete  has  also  been  found 
suitable.  Such  an  elastic  backing  strains  the  fasten- 
ings much  less  than  a  rigid  one.  6th.  A  single  solid 
plate  has  the  disadvantage,  when  compared  \vith  the 
laminated,  of  deeper  joints,  causing  points  of  undue 
weakness.  Its  manufacture  is  also  more  difficult,  and 
will  not  be  so  complete  as  that  of  laminated  plates 
without  great  increase  of  lalxir  and  expense.  In  la- 
minated jjlates.  the  surfaces  of  the  plates  should  not 
be  in  contact,  but  should  be  separated  by  some  thick- 
ness of  a  softer  and  more  elastic  material,  such  as 
teak,  to  prevent  their  breaking  under  heavy  blows. 
7th.  Rolled  plates  are  superior  to  those  made  by  ham- 
mering. 8th.  The  joints  of  armor  are  jioints  of  weak- 
ness, and  it  is  disadvantageous  to  join  plates  b)' 
tongues  and  grooves  on  their  edges.  They  are  best 
held  together  by  wTought-iron  bolts,  secured  by  sphe- 
rical nuts  seated  in  a  cnp-shaped  hole  in  the  armor. 
The  stem  of  the  bolt  is  of  less  diameter  than  the  ends, 
leaving  a  plus  thread.  The  bolt  thus  tends  to  .stretch 
throughout  its  entire  length,  rather  than  pull  out  of 
the  mit.  The  enlargemeiit  of  the  holes  through  which 
the  Ixilt  passes  relieves  it  from  cross-strains.  Bolts  of 
this  kind  rather  add  to  the  strength  of  armor.  With 
steel  or  steel-faced  armor,  however,  where  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  outer  surface  should  be  unbroken,  the 
bolts  are  screwed  into  the  back  of  the  plate  and  nutted 
up  behind.  9th.  An  inner  iron  skin  is  of  great  ad- 
vantage, adding  solidity  to  the  backing,  and  prevent- 
ing the  pa.ssjige  of  many  splinters. 

Steel  armor-plates  possess  some  decided  advantages 
over  those  of  wrought-iron,  viz.,  greater  absolute  te- 
nacity, more  perfect  homogeneity  of  structure,  and 
greater  resistance  to  penetration.  The  disadvantage 
of  steel  is  that,  owing  to  its  crystalline  structure,  it 
is  liable  to  crack  under  repeated  blows.  Steel  armor- 
plates  have  been  constructed  to  successfully  resist  the 
heaviest  gun  yet  made  (1884).  In  the  defensive  arma- 
ment of  vessels  the  main  object  is  to  keep  out  projec- 


ABHORT. 


74 


AKM8. 


tiles;  and  since  under  ortlinaiy  conditions  it  would 
Ih?  improbablo  that  the  plates  would  be  n-quircd  to 
rcwivi^  sivinil  Mows  in  the  Siunc  sjiot,  i(  liiis  Iki'h 
deemed  ad\  i^^ible  to  substitute  for  wrought-iron  either 
steel  or  a  combination  of  steel  and  wroughtiron  as  a 
protection  apiiust  the  heaviest  guns.  Such  a  plate 
would  arri'sl  the  projectile,  although  it  might  be  , 
rackeil  to  pieces  by  long-sustained  tire.  The  advan-  i 
tage  of  wrouirht-iVon  over  steel  is  that  the  effect  of  | 
a  blow  is  localizeil,  the  jirojectile  causing  simply  a 
jierforation  or  indentation,  the  plate  as  a  whole  re- 
maining intact.  With  steel  intense  molecular  action 
is  set  up  by  impact,  cracks  appear  radiating  from  the 
point  struck,  and  continue  to  develop  for  some  time 
after  impact.  Thus,  though  a  steel  plate  may  not  Ix; 
perforated,  it  may  be  considerably  shattered.  To 
combine  the  greater  toughness  of  wroughtiron  with 
the  greater  hanhiess  and  resistance  of  steel,  com- 
pound plates  have  been  introduced.  These  consist 
of  a  wroughtiron  foundation-plate  with  a  steel  face, 
the  steel  being  run  on  the  iron  plate  in  a  molten 
state:  the  whole  is  then  rolled  down  to  about  half  its 
original  thickness.  A  modification  of  this  is  to  have 
a  rolled-steel  face-plate  attached  to  the  foundation- 
plate  by  molten  steel,  the  object  being  to  secure  a 
well-rolled  face.  The  object  of  weldini'  the  steel  on 
the  iron  is,  not  to  prevent  the  steel  froiiJ%racking,  but 
to  prevent  the  fissures  from  extending  through  the 
entire  plate,  and  the  iron  is  intended  to  hold  the  sleel 
in  its  place  after  being  broken,  and  prevent  its  falling 
off.  IJolh  chilled-iron  and  steel  projectiles  are  broken 
up  against  these  plates,  and  no  experiments  yet  made 
have  succeeded  in  destroying  the  cohesion  of  the  steel 
face  to  the  iron  backing.  By  the  employment  of 
either  steel  or  compound  plates,  instead  of  iron,  there 
is  a  considerable  Siiving  of  weight.  In  the  more  re- 
cent experiments  (1882)  the  hammered  steel  plate  of 
Schneider  it  Co.  (siiid  to  contain  about  0.45  per  cent 
of  carb(in)  has  been  found  to  compare  most  favorably 
with  eomixiiind  plates.  The  surface  of  this  steel  jilate 
was  chilled  in  oil  to  the  depth  of  six  inches,  and  it 
had  been  hammered  down  from  a  thickness  of  7  feet 
to  18.9  inches.  Chilled  cast-iron  has  been  extensively 
employed  in  land-batteries  for  the  defense  of  harbors 
anil  mouths  of  rivers.  Its  advantages  are  compara- 
tive cheapness,  great  hardness,  and  the  facility  with 
which  it  can  be  made  into  any  shape,  thus  presenting 
rounded  or  sloping  surfaces  to  the  shot.  The  main 
disatlvantage  of  chilled  cast-iron  is  its  brittleness,  and 
though,  due  to  the  form  and  hardness  of  the  armor,  it 
can  successfully  resist  a  single  blow,  repeated  shocks 
crack  it  to  pieces.  The  Grilson  system  of  protecting 
sea-coast  gims  is  an  example  of  the  application  of 
this  kind  of  annor.  The  turrets  are  egg-shaped  to 
deflect  the  shot,  the  thickness  of  metal  bemg  27  inches 
at  the  end)rasures.  Thick  coverings  of  earth  protect 
the  annor  to  some  extent.  These  turrets  can  be 
adapted  to  muzzle-pivoted  breech-loading  gims.  See 
Ariiinnil  Ihf(iiSi«,  Ducking,  Punclii/ig,  and  Ilnehing. 
ABHOBT. — A  t)uilding  specially  iirovided  in  Arse- 
nals for  the  depiisit  and  preservation  of  small-arms. 
An  Armory  should  be  very  dry  and  well  ventilated. 
In  a  damp  climate  a  "  dry  room"  would  l)e  a  desira- 
ble adjimct,  f(jr,  with  every  care  and  attention,  rust 
will  make  its  aiijiearance  if  the  outir  air  is  not  ex- 
cluded. The  repair  of  the  anns  in  Armories  is  usu- 
ally carried  out  by  civilian  armorers.  The  name  is 
also  often  applied  to  a  collection  of  ancient  annor 
and  weapons — such  as  those  in  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don, in  Sir  Samuel  Meyrick's  Mansion  at  Goothich 
Court  on  the  Wye,  and   in  AVarwiek  Castle.     See 

Arm  lull. 

ABM  BACK. — A  frame  or  fitting  for  tne  stowage  of 
arms.  It  is  usually  vertical,  out  of  harm's  way,  and  in 
readiness  for  immediate  use.  In  the  conveyance  of 
troops  bv  sea,  arm-racks  fonn  a  ]iarl  of  the  proper  ac- 
commoiLition.  Thev  are  also  used  in  the  barrack- 
rooms.  Captain  F.  ll.  I'liipps,  of  the  United  Stales 
Ordnance  Diparlmeiit.  has  siiggeslcd  the  following 
description  of  Ann-rack  holding  twenty  giuis: 


Top. — Made  of  two  1-inch  white-pine  lx)ar(ls,  glued 
together,  cros.sing  grain  of  wood.  Diameter  of  top, 
13  inches.  Top  cut  to  receive 
twenty  ritlcs.  The  guns  are 
held  in  jilace  and  secureil  by  a 
strap  of  iron  1  inch  wide,  leather- 
toveivil,  hinged,  and  seeuri'd  on 
opposite  side  by  pailloik;  hinge 
ami  padlock  -  fastening  securetl 
by  irons,  as  shown  iulhe  draw- 
iiig 


pme 

glued  together,  crossing  gT-ain. 

Twenty  triangular-shaped  p.ar- 

titions  of  i«)plar.  1  finches  wide     .    .  _  .. 

at  base  by  4j  inches  long,  sep-     h  9 

arale  butts  of  rifles.     A  band    r  T]  7\ 

of  sheet -iron   li   inches  wide,   J'  U 1 

secured  by  screws,  whose  heails  '■'  '  " 

are  filed  to  prevent  removal,  surrounds  the  upper 
part  of  ba.sc,  the  top  being  flush  with  the  top  of  parti- 
tion. Four  round  pieces  of  white  pine,  li. inches  in 
diameter  and  3  feet  11  inches  in  length  (total),  con- 
nect top  and  bottom  of  frame.  A  roci  of  iron,  |-ineb 
diameter,  v\ith  square  head  at  top  and  threaded  for 
mit  at  bottom,  binds  the  whole  together.  In  lieu  of 
the  four  wooden  posts  and  iron  rod  a  single  one  of 
gas-pipe  might  he  substituted.  The  distance  Ix'tween 
the  to|)  and  bottom  is  such  that  the  upper  band  of 
rifle  just  touches  the  imder  side  of  top;  and  all  is  so 
arranged  that,  without  removing  the  padlock  and 
turning  back  the  straps,  no  ritie  cjin  be  removed. 
The  three  iron  feet  which  support  the  whole  can  be 
screwed  to  the  floor  of  the  barracks. 

Racks  for  carbines  are  similarly  constructed,  differ- 
ing only  in  height  and  in  the  arraiyrement  of  top. 
which,  instead  of  being  cut  entirely  through  to  re- 
ceive the  barrel,  is  cut  to  the  depth  of  only  J  inch  to 
receive  the  muzzle  of  the  carbine.  This  rack  is 
almost  identical  with  the  one  suggested  by  ^lajor 
Comly;  the  principle  is  the  same,  but  it  is  stronger, 
and  its  cost  reduced  about  one  fourth. 

ABMS. — 1.  Instruments  of  different  forms  and 
natures,  for  attack  and  defense.  The  manufacture 
of  arms  is  of  very  ancient  date,  co<val  'vith  the 
world.  Necessity  drove  men  to  make  them,  either  in 
defense  of  themselves  against  wild  animals  or  against 
their  enemies.  The  first  arms  of  offense  appear  to 
have  been  made  of  wood,  such  as  clubs.  Arms  of 
stone,  bone,  and  brass  succeeded  clubs.  Subse- 
((Ueiitly  a  variety  of  arms  of  iron  and  steel  was  intro- 
duced which  comiirised  the  spear,  the  lance,  the 
hatchet,  the  battle-ax,  the  bow,  and  several  others; 
and  though  these  arms  were  in  many  instances  rude 
and  unwiekly,  the  treatment  of  iron  seems  to  have 
been  well  known;  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  great 
skill  was  slK)wn,  as  the  blades  of  Damascus  testify, 
and  which  were  famed  throughout  the  world.  In 
India  the  tcmix ring  of  steel  was  well  known  from  a 
very  early  dale.  The  arms  of  the  present  day  in  the 
British  service  vary  according  to  tlie  branch  of  the 
army  in  which  they  are  usi'd.  In  the  infantry,  the 
converted  Enfield  (Snider)  rifle  was  for  .some  tiinethc 
general  arm  of  the  service,  but  has  been  superseded 
by  the  Martiiii-IIeniy  rifle.  In  the  cavalry,  the 
sword,  lance.  carl)ine!  and  pistol  fonn  the  anns  of 
that  branch,  the  dragoon  guards,  dragoons,  and  hus- 
siu-s  being  e(|uipped  with  the  carbine  and  sword,  the 
lancers  with  the  lance  and  jiislol.  In  the  artillery,  in 
addition  to  the  guns  of  a  balicry.  the  following  arms 
are  provided:  for  a  battery  of  horse-artillery,  a  swonl 
to  each  man  of  ;dl  ranks,  and  twelve  carbines  for  sen- 
try duties;  for  a  battery  of  field-iUlillery,  a  sword  to 
each  non-commissioned  officer,  ;uliticer,  or  trumpeter, 
and  to  all  gunners  a  sword-bayonet,  with  llie  addition 
of  twelve  carbines  for  sentry  ilulies.      IIe;ivy  field- 


GO 

o 


pj 
O 


5 

.a! 


ABHS  OF  PRECISION. 


75 


ABMS  POET. 


batteries  are  similarly  equipped.  Garri.son-batteries, 
all  ranks,  except  trumpeters,  are  furnished  with  a 
complete  stand  of  arms,  the  trumpeters  (ami  artiticers, 
if  any)  havin:^  a  sword-bayonet. 

Arms  may  be  divided  into  two  great  clas,ses — those 
that  act  by  means  of  gunpowder,  and  those  that  do 
not.  Of  arms  that  act  otherwise  tbiUi  by  explosion, 
the  greater  part  have  been  in  use  from  the  earliest 
times;  they  include  the  bow  and  arrow,  sling,  pike, 
spear,  lance,  d:u-t,  javelin,  dagger,  ax,  mace,  spiked 
or  knotted  club,  scythe  for  chariots,  dirk,  bayonet, 
sworil,  cutlass,  etc.,  together  with  such  artillery  as 
the  ballista,  catapulta,  and  battering-ram.  Weapons 
depending  on  the  use  of  gunpowder  are  of  two  kinds 
— those  that  ciui  be  held  in  the  hand,  and  those  that 
are  too  heavy  to  be  portable  In  the  tirst  class  we 
find  the  names  of  the  hand-Citnnon,  hand-gun,  arque- 
l)us,  haijuebuts,  demi-haquc,  matchlock,  wheel-lock, 
tirelock,  currier,  snap-hauuce,  caliver,  esdopette,  pc- 
tronel,  dragon,  hand-mortar,  dag,  tricker-lock,  car- 
bine, fusil,  fowling-piece,  blunderbuss,  pistol,  musket 
or  musquet,  musketoon,  rifle,  etc.  In  the  second 
eliiss,  more  itsuallj-  included  under  the  name  of  artil- 
lery, we  find  the  spiingel,  war-wolf,  bombard,  cart- 
of-war,  culverin,  demi-culverin,  serpentine,  falcon, 
siiker,  cannon,  howitzer,  petard,  cannonade,  mortar, 
rifled  cannon,  war-rockets,  etc.  The  more  important 
of  these  are  briefly  noticed  under  the  proper  headings. 
It  is  needless,  perhaps,  to  add  that  tiine  tenths  of  these 
are  utterly  obsolete. 

2.  Arms,  Armorial  Bearings,  or  Easigns,  are  the 
names  given  to  such  devices  as  when  painted  on  a 
shield  form  a  coat.  These  terms  in  pojuilar  speech 
include  all  the  accompaniments  of  a  shield,  viz.,  the 
crest,  helmet,  and,  where  such  exist,  the  supporters, 
etc.     See  HinihJni. 

ARMS  OF  PRECISION.— Rifled  arms  of  all  natures. 
These  arms  have  a  longer  range  and  a  more  accurate 
and  rapid  fire  than  that  derived  from  the  old  smooth- 
bore weapons.  The  introduction  of  rifled  small-arms 
of  the  present  form,  \iz.,  breech-loaders,  only  dates 
back  as  far  as  1864,  when  in  the  unequal  struggle  be- 
tween Prussia  and  the  Danes  the  former  first  used  the 
needle-gun.  This  called  the  attention  of  the  Euro- 
pean Powci-s  to  the  value  of  breech-loading  rifles. 
The  further  value  of  such  arms  was  again  recognized 

Effect  of  Artillery  Fire  on  Lines  of  Troops:  0-pdr.  and  16- 
p*tr.  M.  L.  R.  Guns;  line  of  targets  45  feet  long  by  9  feet 
high. 


Range. 


Nature  of  Amrcsmox. 


1500    yards. 

3000 

2500       "     . 

3000 


i  Common  shell. 
(  Shrapnel 

(  Common  "     . 

}  Shrapnel  "     . 

Common  "     . 

Shrapnel  " 

Common  " 

Shrapnel 


Total 

Hrrs. 

9-pdr.  16-pdr. 

■16          36 

93 

345 

26 

:M 

75 

276 

24 

36 

106 

131 

13           32 

66 

105 

Front  of  a  company  of  50  files,  34  yards  long  by  5  feet  6 
inches  hi{.-h. 

Front  of  a  double  company  of  1  file,  63  yards  long  by  5 
feet  6  inches  high. 

Effect  of  Infantry  Fire,  with  the  Snider  Rifle,  at  the  Regula- 
tion Targets,  and  the  Proportional  Effect  on  Bodies  of 
Troops  in  different  Formations  at  various  Distances. 


SIare  aiueo  at. 


\  In  line 

Battalion     -  Quarter-column 

f  Double  company  J-coUimu . . 

1  Battalion  \  Quarter-company    . .    

*  (  Double  company  ^-column . . 

Double  company  -1 '"  '''"'  •-•••••■ 

^     ■'  I  Company  j-columu... 

^  In  line 

Company  -  Half-company  column 

'  Column  of  sections 

Reeulaeion  targets.  300  vds..  6  ft.  X  4  ft. ;  1 
500  yds.,  6  ft,  ;■,  6  ft. :"  SOO  yds.,  6  ft.  X  - 
8ft ( 


Ranges. 


200       500      800 
yds.     yds.     yds. 


96. 

99.81 

99.63 

99.41 

99.23 

95.89 


9.1.77 
99.1 

98.82 

90. 


98.05 
97.73 
97.09 
96.1S 
79.93 
93.99 
79.:i6 
95.50 
94.17 

61 


59. 

95.86 

96.07 

93.8> 

91. s« 

.57.79 

87.32 

.56.57 

90.59 

87.57 


in  the  war  of  1866  between  Prus.sia  and  Austria,  whea 
the  latter  power  met  the  former  with  only  muzzle- 
loaders;  the  result  is  well  known  to  history — the 
superiority  and  rapidity  of  the  Prussian  fire  was 
marked.  From  this  period  the  value  of  breech-load- 
ers may  be  said  to  have  been  recognized.  France 
produced  her  Chas.sepot,  and  England  the  converted 
Enfield,  known  as  the  Snider,  ultimately  the  Martini- 
Henrj-;  and  now  all  the  Continental  Annies  are  armed, 
with  breech-loaders.  Colonel  Hamley,  in  his  "  Oper- 
ations of  War,"  ilescribes  the  change  rifles  and  rifled 
guns  have  brought  about  in  the  tactics  of  armies.  No 
longer  is  the  old  formation  of  battalion-columns  re- 
sorted to — tleep  columns  offering  too  good  a  mark  for 
the  enemy.  The  Prussians,  therefore,  during  the  war 
of  1870,  finding  such  formations  no  longer  .safe,  di- 
minished the  size  of  their  columns  in  order  that  the 
fire  of  the  enemy  might  prove  less  destructive  both  in 
front  and  depth,  besides  giving  a  lietter  opportunity 
of  taking  advantage  of  the  natural  cover  which  aver- 
age ground  iillordS  to  small  bodies.  The  tables  show 
the  result  of  iiractice  made  with  rifled  fleld-guns  and 
rifled  small -arms;  thus  giving  the  reader  an  idea  of 
the  precision  and  disjistrous  effects  of  rifled  arms. 

ARMS  OF  SERVICE.— An  arm  of  service  may  be  de- 
fined to  be  "a  union  of  combatants  having  the  s;mie 
mode  of  action."  There  are  foiu-  of  these  amis  in 
modern  armies,  viz.,  Infantrj-,  Cavalry,  Artillery, 
and  Engineers.  These  four  arms  fonn  the  principal 
part  of  a  mobilized  army,  ;md  as  they,  or  their  repre- 
.sentatives,  are  always  formed  into  a  line  of  battle  to 
resist  the  attack  of  an  enemy,  or  to  make  an  attack, 
they  are  generally  known  as  the  "  Line  of  the  Army" 
or  "Troops  of  the  Line,"  to  distinguish  them  from 
other  bodies  of  men  who  form  parts  of  an  army. 
These  arms  are  subdi%'ided  into  fractions,  for  the 
purpose  of  instmction  and  of  supply.  The  unit  for 
instruction  and  the  unit  for  supply  raaj'  be  the  same 
or  different.  The  unit  of  supply,  as  a  general  nile,  is 
constant,  and  is  also  usually  the  unit  of  instruction 
in  discipline.  The  unit  of  instiiiction  in  tactics  will 
depend  upon  circumstances,  and  upon  the  kind  of 
movements  which  the  commander  desires  to  make. 
The  common  unit  for  the  four  arms,  for  supplying 
the  men's  wants  and  for  instruction  in  discipline,  is 
the  '■  Company."  This  unit  receives,  at  other  times, 
other  names,  depending  ujjon  circumstances.  For 
instance,  a  battery  of  artillery  is  the  same  as  company; 
the  term  squndroii  of  cavalry  frequently  means  a  com- 
pany, etc. 

ARMS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.— Paleways  of 
thirteen  pieces,  argent  and  gules;  a  chief,  azure;  the 
escutcheon  on  the  breast  of 
the  American  eagle  displayed, 
proper,  holding  in  his  dexter  > 
talon  an  olive-branch,  and  in 
his  sinister  a  bundle  of  thirteen 
arrows,  all  proper;  and  in  his 
beak  a  scroll,  inscribed  with 
this     motto :     "  e     plcribus 

UNITM." 

For  the  erest :  over  the  head 
of  the  eagle,  which  appears 
above  the  escutcheon,  a  glory 
breaking  through  a  cloud,  prop- 
er, and  surroimding  thirteen  stars,  forming  a  constel- 
lation, argent,  and  on  an  azure  field. 

ARMS  PORT.— A  position  in  the  Manual  of  Arms, 
executed  as  follows:  Being  at  a  carry,  the  instructor 
commands:  (1)  .Irrn*,  (2)  Port.  Throw  the  piece  di- 
agonally across  the  tH)dy,  the  lock  to  the  front;  grasp 
it  smartly  at  the  same  instant  with  both  hands,  the 
right  at  the  small  of  the  stock,  the  left  at  the  lower 
band,  the  barrel  sloping  upward  and  cros.sing  opposite 
the  point  of  the  left  shoulder,  the  butt  proportionately 
lowered.  The  palm  of  the  right  hand  is  above,  and 
that  of  the  left  under,  the  piece,  the  nails  of  Initji  hand;, 
next  the  body,  lo  which  the  elbows  are  closeil.  The 
position  of  arms  port  may  l)e  taken  in  advancing  to 
an  attack.     It  is  likewise  used  by  sentinels  in  receiv- 


^^lt*';<^,^^ 


ARMSTRONG   SUNS. 


76 


ARMSTRONG   GUNS. 


bag  or  holding  communicntions.  In  challengiiiir,  and 
rcceiWnp  the  countcrsiirn,  si-nlincls  taku  ihu  iH).sitiou 
.of  c/iar;/e  bai/'nitts.  il7  Oirn/,  (2)  Ahms.  Hcsuine 
"the  cari-y  Avi'th  the  right  haud.  (Twoi.  DiDp  the 
Ufl  haiii'l  bv  ihi-  side.  See  MaiiiKil  of  Arms,  Fig  10. 
ARMSTRONG  GUNS.— The  built-up  gun  cou.sirue- 
tiou  of  Great  Britain,  the  germ  of  whieh  is  to  be 
found  in  the  eniled  welded  system  of  Sir  AVilliaiu 
Armstrong,  introtiueed  to  the  artillery  world  in  1852 
in  the  form  of  a  breeeh-loading  cauiion,  but  pa.ssing 
from  that  date  through  numerous  and  important 
changes,  especially  the  thiekening  of  the  eoils  and  the 
introduction  of  tempered  steel  lining  tulxs,  is  the  one 
which  is  still  adhered  to,  in  it.s  genenil  principles,  by 
the  ordnance  constructors,  both  ])ublic  and  private, 
of  the  English  nation  The  failure  of  the  Armstrong 
breeeh-loading  guns,  and  the  subsequent  introduc- 
tion of  muzzle-loading  cannon  in  lieu  thereof,  in 
1869.  did  not  change,  however,  one  of  the  es.sential 
features  of  the  present  coustniction — the  employment 
of  coiled  welded  wrouglit-iron  sections — but  led  to 
the  moditied  form  of  their  production  known  as  the 
Frascr  system,  and  the  introduction  of  comparatively 
thin  oil-tempered  steel  tubes  for  the  interior  lining. 
The  most  prominent  guns  produced  under  this  new 
system,  which  tirst  attracted  universiil  attention  on 
account  of  their  great  comparative  power,  were  the 
25-,  35-,  and  3S-ton  guns;  but  these,  as  is  well  known, 
■were  fjuickly  superseded  by  the  16-inch  80-ton  gun, 
and  it,  in  its  turn,  by  the  largest  of,  as  yet,  con- 
structed ordnance — the  100-ton  guns  of  the  Ann- 
strong  model,  shown  in  section  in  the  drawing. 


the  nearest  approach  to  it  is  far  from  perfect,  and 
theoretical  advantages  have  to  give  way  largely  to  prac- 
tical considerations  of  nianufact\ne.  Again,  we  may 
arrive  at  a  similar  result  by  em))loying  metals  varying 
in  elasticity  or  in  tenacity  for  the  several  ]iarts,  those 
possessing  the  largest  amount  of  strength  constituting, 
of  course,  the  inner  ])ortions,  so  that  where  the  gi'cal- 
est  stress  is  felt  it  will  Ik-  borne  by  the  stronger  ma- 
terial. These  two  methods  are  sometimes  called  re- 
spectively those  of  initial  tmsion  anil  of  ruryitig 
etiUHU'ritici.  They  may  be,  ami  freciuently  are,  both 
emi)loyed  in  the  mauufactur<'  of  a  gun,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  so-called  AVoolw  icli  guns  " 

The  longitudinal  strain  is  ])roridcd  for  by  the  thick 
solid-bottomed  .steel  lulx',  and  the  breech-plug  .screwid 
into  the  wrought-iron  coiletl  tube,  sui)erimiiosing  the 
inner  tube,  brings  into  play  (in  the  latest  model)  the 
strength  resulting  from  locking  the  lube  and  (jthcr 
parts  together.  The  construction,  bricHy.  we  know 
is  a  steel  tube,  over  which  is  shrunk  coiled  wrought- 
iron  tubes;  the  majority  of  the  larger  calibers,  e.\cel)t 
the  100-ton  gun,  having  only  two  layers  of  wrought- 
iron  tubes;  the  latter  more  ]ierfcctly  brings  into  use 
the  principles  of  initial  tension,'  by  having  the 
wrought-iron  casing  subdi\nded  into  three  instead  of 
two  jiarts.  On  theoretical  considerations,  the  large 
number  of  coils  employed  in  the  original  Annstrong 
construction  enabled  the  designers  more  perfectly  to 
carry  out  the  idea  of  initial  tensions  by  shrinkage; 
j'ct  its  expcnsiveness  led  to  its  abandoimient,  and  the 
substitution  of  larger  and,  in  consequence,  fewer  coils; 
thus  more  imperfectly  applying  the  piinciples  which 


Armstrong  Gun. 


The  theoretical  consideration  that  the  ratio  of  the 
capacities  for  work  of  two  tubes  is  only  n]iproxi- 
niati\ely  directly  as  their  thicknesses,  or,  generally 
speaking,  that  a  thin  tube  has  more  relative  strength 
than  a  thick  one  to  withstand  interior  bursting  .strains, 
is  the  essence  of  the  theory  of  the  built-up  guns  of 
the  English  model,  and  it  is  practically  carried  out 
in  their  present  constructions;  the  inference  to  be 
drawn  being  that  a  homogeneous  structure,  having  no 
subdivisions  in  its  walls,  does  not  bring  into  play  the 
full  .strength  of  the  entire  thickness  while  imder  stress; 
and  that  "guns  constructed  homogeneously,  however 
thick,  cannot  long  sustain  jiressurcs  exceeding  the 
ten.sile  strength  of  the  metal  employed.  Sanctioning 
the  soundness  of  the  theory  that  only  by  built-up  con- 
structions the  most  powcrfid  jmd  yet  relialile  gims 
can  be  produced,  the  next  point  for  consideration  is 
the  arrangement  of  the  dilTerent  nu-tals  entering  into 
the  fabrication,  so  that  the  stronger  metal  (steel)  shall 
form  the  walls  surrounding  the  bore,  and  that  the 
superimposed  layers  of  wrought-iron  shall  be  so  placed 
on  that  each  ])arl,  from  the  bore  to  the  exterior, 
shall  be,  as  far  as  pos.sible,  under  strain  in  accordance 
with  its  capacity  for  work,  considered  in  reference  to 
tangential  strains.  The  F.nglish  aulhoritics  state: 
"This  object  we  may  obl.iin  by  emjiloving  a  single 
metal  for  the  several  portions,  and  so  disjjosing  the 
various  layers  over  each  other  that  the  iimer  layers  or 
tubes  are  compressed  by  those  outside  them,  while  the 
e.xterior  tubes  are  at  the  sante  time  \>u\  into  a  state  of 
tension,  the  inner  layers  being  thus  strengthened  at 
the  expense  of  the  outer  portions  of  tlii^  metal.  In 
this  case  we  obtain  the  whole  strength  of  all  the  lay- 
ers except  a  jiart  of  that  of  the  outer  and  unsujiported 
ring  It  must  not,  however,  be  for  one  moment  siuv 
posed  that  this  theoretical  perfection  is  ever  reached; 


it  was  sought  to  follow  as  the  true  ones  in  making 
gims.  Although  economy,  the  object  of  the  change, 
was  attained,  yet  it  is  doubtful,  from  the  large  masses 
employed,  if  the  result  is  more  than  a  very  rough  a]i- 
proximation  to  the  assertetl  theories  of  construction. 
The  broad  differences  in  the  physical  properties  of 
wTought-iron  and  steel,  i.e.,  differences  in  elasticity 
and  ductility  and  tensile  strength,  render  problematic 
cal  the  jxi-fect  co-operation  of  the  two  metals,  under 
rtjMiitid  strains  such  as  obtain  in  the  use  of  guns;  and 
it  would  seem  that  the  more  elastic  and  less  extensi- 
ble steel,  in  imparting  its  stress  to  the  adjacent  iron 
n'peait'd/i/,  woidd  eitlarge  the  latter  by  degrees,  .so 
that  eventually  it  would  form  but  an  imperfect  sup- 
port to  the  former,  which  wouM  in  that  case  more  or 
less  bear,  in  the  system,  the  burden  of  the  work  in 
resisting  tangential  strains;  and  that  its  rupture  under 
severer  treatment  would  be  finally  the  resul;.  The 
manner  in  which  this  system  in  niamifacture  is  prae 
tically  carried  out  needs  only,  in  view  of  the  full  de 
scripiion  printed  for  public  use,  be  but  generally 
stated. 

The  ttibcs  are  generally  of  Firth's  production,  and 
are  furnished  under  contract  to  the  Woolwich  Arsenal. 
They  are  solid  ingots  which  are  first  roughly  bored 
and  turned,  and  tbeif  ten)pered  in  rape-oil.  The 
jiickets  or  coils,  shnmk  over  the  steel  tube,  in  the 
heaviest  natures,  range  in  number  according  to  the 
length  of  the  gim.  Generally  two  layers  of  coils 
cover  the  breech  ]iart,  all  assembkd  in  accordai;ce 
with  the  princiiile  of  initial  tension.  The  details  of 
construction  are  fidly  given  in  English  text-books, 
and  need  r.ot  be  alluded  to  here.  The  lOO-ton  gun — 
the  latest  Engli.sh  nnizzleloading  construction — gen 
erally  speaking,  differs  from  inferior  calibers  by  the 
large  number  of  shoulders  provided  on  the  steel  tube. 


ASHSTRONG  GUNS. 


77 


AEMSTEONG  GUNS. 


the  latter  being  made  in  two  parts,  united  together 
by  a  wrought-iron  exterior  band,  and  in  the  greater 
number  of  subdivisions  of  the  jacliets,  or  rather  that 
the  bauds  are  relatively'  narrower  tlian  on  other  fab- 
rications; besides,  three  layers  obtain  at  breech,  ren- 
dering it  a  more  thoroughly  built-up  gun  construc- 
tion. "  Pour  of  these  giins— made  by  Sir  William 
Armstrong  &  Co.,  Newcastle-on-Tyne — now  form 
part  of  the  arraameut  of  Great  Britain  and  her  Colo- 
nies, and  now  await  their  emplacements  to  be  pre- 
pared for  them  at  Malta  and  Gibraltar.  Wc  are  in- 
formed that  "guns  have  already  been  designed  and 
could  be  readily  made  at  Woolwich  which  would  sur- 
pass the  latter  flDK-tongun]  in  power  toas  great  an  ex- 
tent as  they  themselves  surpassthe  ii8-ton  ser\ice-gun." 

The  English  Government  establishment,  however, 
has  not  produced  any  muzzle-loading  constructions 
higlier  than  the  .SO-ton  g\m,  a  gun,  from  the  large 
facilities  and  perfected  machinery  of  W^oolwich,  giving 
us  the  best  exhibit  of  the  Armstj-ong-Fraser  system. 
That  no  recent  attempts,  however,  to  introduce  "higher 
natiu'es  of  muzzle-loading  guns  have  been  made  is 
fully  justified  by  the  important  developments  of 
Krupp's  exiJeriments  at  Meppen  in  August,  1S79,  and 
by  the  disasters  occurring  on  board  the  English  iron- 
clad the  "  Thunderer'  in  the  same  year;  the  first  calling 
attention  to  the  presumed  superiority  of  breech-load- 
ing guns — since  accorded — in  affording  less  exposure 
to  men;  reiluced  size  of  embrasures,  securing  greater 
rapidity  of  tire;  increased  length  of  bore,  and  hence 
greater  power;  anil  also  affording  greater  facilities 
for  bore  examinations,  and  permitting  an  ease  in  load- 
ing not  afforded  in  long-bored  muzzle-loading  guns; 
and  the  latter  exhibiting  the  dangers  arising  from  the 
possibilities  of  double  charging,  and  the  cumbcrsome- 
ness  and  complications  of  loading  de\nces  necessary 
for  the  use  of  muzzle-loading  guns,  more  especially 
in  the  naval  service,  where  economy  of  space  is  a  mat- 
ter of  vital  im|iortance.  Although  the  developments 
at  Meppen  anil  the  Thunderer  misfortune  only  oc- 
curred a  few  years  ago,  yet  such  was  the  moral  effect 
that  imme<liate  steps  were  instituted  to  develop  breech- 
loading  guns  of  12-inch  caliber  and  lower  natures. 

Tlie  principal  dimensions  of  the  Woolwich  and 
Elswick  gims  are  as  follows: 


Woolwich. 


Total  leugfth  of  gun  without  carrier.in. 

Calilier  " 

Bore: 

In  calibers " 

In  inches ** 

Total  capacity cubic  " 

Chamber: 

Diameter '* 

Length " 

Capacity cubic  " 

Piameter  in  rear  opening *' 

Rifling: 

Twist  in  calibers 

Length in. 

Number  of  grooves " 


10. 


26 

318 

S.O.'iT 

15  5 
,58.3.5 
120 


Elswick. 


13, 


26 
312  2 
«,T34 

14.3 
ST.  43 
1T8 
12.4 


220  .30 
50 


These  con.structions  (of  the  .same  caliber,  12-inch) 
ditfer  very  little  from  each  other  in  their  main  fea- 
tures, such  as  mode  of  construction,  principal  dimen- 
sions, breech  fermeture,  and  length  of  bore,  the  only 
important  variations  being  in  the  lengths  and  diame- 
ters of  chambers,  and  their  capacities;  the  Elsnick 
gun  ha%'ing  a  less  diameter  and  a  greater  length  for 
this  partoJ  the  bore,  and  also  a  greater  capaeity  than 
the  Woolwich  pattern;  this  latter  feature  increasing 
the  air-space  in  the  chamber  of  the  former  over  the 
latter  when  eqtial  charges  are  used.  It  also,  for  tlie 
sjime  diameter  of  the  exterior,  gives  a  stronger  gun 
(both  using  the  same  metals)  in  its  walls.  A  tabu- 
lated statement  of  these  points  of  difference  may  be 
here  inserted: 


Pon-der-chamber. 
Elswick: 

Length in.         86.25 

Diameter "  14.3 

Capacity.. cubic  "   13,178 


Powder-chamber. 

R    fr    F  ' 

Length  in.         58.35 

Diameter  ..  .  .  "  16.5 

Capacity,  cubic  "   10,120 


The  Woolwich  authorities  have  established  17.1 
tons  per  square  inch  as  the  senice-limit  for  pressures, 
yet  Armstrong  for  his  constructions  reaches  2.5  tons 
per  square  inch,  iuid  in  his  lO.l.i-inch  wire  gun  a 
pressure  of  34  tons  per  .scjuare  inch  has  obtained. 
Cast-iron  alone,  or  cast-iron  in  combination  with 
wrought,  or  with  wrought-iron  and  steel,  or  with  steel 
alone,  in  guns  for,  say,  one  calil)er  and  a  half  thick- 
ness of  walls,  cannot  endure  the  diambering,  and  in 
consequence  the  increa.sed  charges,  which  construc- 
tions made  of  stc-el  aloue,  or  steel  in  combination  with 
wrought-iron,  can  sustain;  and  hence  any  plan  using 
the  inferior  metal  looking  to  a  rividry  with  the  supe- 
rior modern  constructions  which  ignore  the  use  of 
cast-iron  would  l)e  a  risk  too  hazardous  to  assume, 
and  when  the  pressures  reach,  in  guns  using  cast-iron, 
a  limit  of,  .say,  not  exceeding  3.5, OfW  to  37,000  pounds 
for  a  gun  one  and  one  half  calibers  thick,  the  .service- 
limit  should  be  regarded  as  reached,  and  the  charges 
and  chambering  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  keep 
within  these  limits,  which  should  be  established  as  the 
limits  of  safety. 

In  steel  guns  a  little  less  than  one  caliber  is  re.crardcd 
as  sufficient  thickness  of  walls;  and  a  caliber  and  one 
quarter,  about,  is  used  over  the  chambers  of  the  43- 
ton  guns  composed  of  steel  and  wrought-iron.  In 
steel-tubed  guns,  surrounded  by  a  wire  and  a  part 
steel  and  part  wrought-iron  jacket,  the  thickness  of 
walls  given  over  the  chamber  is  but  eighty-five  one- 
hundredths  of  a  caliber.  These  figures  illustrate  the 
vast  difference  in  the  eyes  of  European  gun  construc- 
tors between  the  use  of  pure  steel  and  the  combina- 
tion of  steel  and  wrought-iron,  and  more  especially 
in  any  construction  in  which  cast-iron  jjlays  a  promi- 
nent "part.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  independent  of 
the  recognized  fact  of  the  inferiority  of  cast-iron  in 
strength,  that  the  important  element  of  weight  would 
become  largely  a  factor  for  consideration  in  jud.iring 
of  constructions  using  this  metal,  either  alone  or  in 
combin;ition  with  ofhci-s.  In  fact,  as  much  power 
can  be  secured  from  a  43-ton  (12-inch)  gun  (steel  and 
iron)  as  from  a  12-inch  55-  to  60-ton  gun  (built-up)  of 
cast-iron  and  steel. 

In  a  44-ton  (13-inch)  wire  gun  we  have  the  remark- 
able exhibit  of  a  yield  of  27,460  foot-tons  muzzle- 
energy,  or,  saj',  637  foot-tons  per  ton  of  metal.  The 
cast-iron  and  steel  constructions  (60  tons)  alluiled 
to  above  only  give  359  foot-tons  per  ton  of  metal. 
The  10.15-inch  wire  gun  recently  constructed  has 
been  tested,  and  the  distinction  between  it  and  the 
last-mentioned  gun  is  more  pronounced  in  favor  of 
wire  than  the  13-inch:  the  resulting  muzzle-energy 
gi\-ing  760  foot-tons  per  ton  of  metal.  The  pressures 
are  relatively  higher  in  attaining  these  results,  yet  the 
strength  of  the  combination  is  believed  to  warrant  a 
large  increase  over  the  ordinarj-  standard  pressure 
adopted  for  the  guns  of  the  English  service.  Admit- 
ting that  about  27,600  foot-tons  muzzle-energy  can  be 
attained  with  a  13-inch  of  a  weight  of,  say,  44  tons- 
(wire),  we  find  tliat  it  takes  50  per  centum  more 
weight  (60  tons)  in  a  gun  (12-inch)  using  cast-iron  to 
attain  a  much  less  muzzle-energy  corres]ionding  to 
the  difference  in  calibers.  The  force  of  this  testi- 
mony regarding  weight  is  evidently,  as  far  as  it  goes, 
against  the  use  of  cast-iron;  and  when  we  consider 
the  question  of  its  emplojTuenf,  pure  and  simple,  this 
objection  of  increased  weight  necessary  in  the  struc- 
ture becomes  a  subject  of  the  first  itiiportance,  and 
one  alone  which  at  the  threshold  of  the  consideration 
of  the  problem  of  gim  construction  should  lead  us  to 
doubt  if  it  shoidd  be  employed  at  all  if  we  desire  to 
attain  a  high  standard  in  power  and  endurance  in  our 
future  heavy  ordnance  armaments. 

Independent  of  strength  and  increased 'weight,  cast- 
iron  guns  of  heavy  natures  require  a  cumbersome  and 
expensive  plant,  consisting  of  deep  pits,  large  fur- 
naces, powerful  cranes,  and  heavy  and  powerful 
lathes,  etc.,  whereas  in  the  built-up  .steel,  and  .steel 
and  WTOught-iron  systems,  also  wire  guns,  the  numer- 
ous parts  which  go  to  make  up  the  whole  can,  from 


ARMSTKONG  PEBCUSSION-FUSE. 


78 


ASHT. 


their  companitivc  lightness,  l>e  hamlleii  in  thedifTor- 
ent  operations  of  construction  with  far  greater  case 
and  less  expense  thiui  obtain  in  the  production  of  ho- 
mojicneous  masses  consisting  of  but  one  piece,  as 
found  in  systems  where  east-iron  enters  either  solely 
or  largely  into  the  fabrications.  On  the  score  of 
economy,  it  nuiy  be  doubtful  if  any  material  advan 
luge  results  in  the  use  of  cast-iron.  Eugli.sh  models 
cost  abtiut  14  cents  per  pound.  To  gain  equal  powers 
we  woulil  require,  according  to  the  ideas  of  construc- 
tors in  cast-iron,  at  least  a  (iO-tou  gun  to  jxjrfonn  the 
siunc  work  as  a  43-ton  gun  of  steel  and  wrought-iron. 
If  we  estimate  cast-iron  at  12  cents  jjer  pound,  we 
have  a  cost  of  :|1(),128  for  a  pure  cjLst-iron  gun  of  6t) 
tons;  and  admitting  14  cents  per  pound  for  wrought- 
jron  and  steel,  we  have  a  cost  for  a  43-tou  gun  of 
^i:{.4S4.8t).  If  a  net  prolit  of  '2'>  per  centum  for 
manufacturers  is  added  to  this  latter  tigure,  which  is 
government  cost,  we  have  even  then  a  less  expensive 
construction  than  pure  cjwt-iron  in  that  country.  See 
Umlt-ttp  ^iii/is  and  fJnfmntre. 

ARMSTRONG  PERCUSSION  -  FUSE.— This  fuse  is 
nseil  with  lireech-loading  rilled  guns, and  is  placed  be- 
low a  time-iuse  or  i>lug  which  closes  the  top  of  the 
shell.  It  consists  of  IJiree  part.s — body,  iwllct,  and 
guard.  The  boily  is  made  of  gun-metal,  and  is  cast 
with  a  bottom  through  which  a  tire-ho!e  is  drilled,  and 
primed  with  a  ]ierforatcd  iiellet  of  mealed  powder, 
l)rotected  by  a  brass  washer.  The  top,  which  is 
fitted  in,  hiis  a  steel  point  projecting  down  from  it.s 
center,  and  four  holes  through  it  closed  by  a  thin 
brass  washer;  these  holes  were  intended  to  allow  of 
the  tlanie  from  a  time-fuse  pa.s.sing  into  the  pellet  and 
so  isiuiling  the  charge  before  impact.  The  body  has 
a  rim  round  it  at  the  top  to  prevent  its  being  placed 
in  tlie  shell  head  downiwards.  The  pellet  (equal  parts 
of  leail  and  tin)  has  four  pro.iections  or  feathers  out- 
side, two  rather  hiirher  than  the  others.  It  is  driven 
with  composition  like  a  tube,  but  has  a  percussion- 
caji  at  the  top,  protected  by  a  thin  brass  disk,  which 
can  be  pierced  if  driven  on  to  the  steel  point  above  by 
a  violent  shock;  the  cap  has  three  holes  at  the  bottom 
for  the  passage  of  the  flame  from  it  to  the  composi- 
tion below.  The  guard  is  supported  in  the  ujiper 
part  of  the  body  on  the  feathers  of  the  pellet,  prevent- 
ing any  forward  movement  of  the  latter.  On  impact, 
I)assing  the  guard,  the  pellet  continues  its  forward 
motion;  the  cap,  striking  on  the  steel  point,  is  fired; 
the  flame  ignites  the  composition  in  the  pellet,  blows 
out  the  waslier  of  the  fire-hole  in  the  Ijottom  of  the 
fuse,  passes  into  the  shell  and  explodes  it.  See  Fuxe. 
ARMSTRONG  PROJECTILE.  —  But  one  kind  of 
projectile  is  used  in  the  Armstrong  breech-loading 
guns  for  the  field-service,  and  this  is  .so  constructed  as 
to  act  as  a  shot,  shell,  or  case-shf)!, 
at  pleasure.  It  consists,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  of  a  very  thin  ca.st-iron 
shell,  snugly  inclosing  forty -two 
segment-shaped  pieces  of  cast-iron 
(B  B),  liuilt  up  so  as  to  form  a  cylin- 
drical ea\'ity  in  the  center  (D),  which 
contains  the  bursting-char,geand  the 
concussion-fuse.  The  exterior  of  the 
shell  is  thinly  coaled  with  lead  (C  ('), 
which  is  applied  by  placing  the  shell 
in  a  mold  and  po\u'ing  it  in  in  a  melt- 
ed state.  The  lead  is  also  allowed  to 
percolate  among  the  segments,  so  as 
to  (ill  up  the  interstices,  the  central 
ca\ity  being  kcjjt  open  by  the  inser- 
tion of  a  steel  core.  In  this  stale  the 
projectile  is  so  compact  that  it  may 
be  fired  without  injury;  while  itsre- 
sist.ance  to  a  l)ursting-chargc  is  so 
small  that  less  than  one  otmce  of 
powiler  is  required  tobui-st  it.  When 
the  projectile  is  to  Ix'  fired  as  a  shot, 
it  requires  no  preparation;  but  the 
expediency  of  using  it  otherwise  than  as  a  shell  is 
■doubted. 


Fio.  1. 


To  make  it  available  as  a  shell,  the  bursting-tube, 
the  concussion-  and  time-fu-ses,  are  all  to  lie  inserted; 
the  bursting- tube  entering  first,  and  the  timefuse 
being  screwed  in  at  the  ajiex.  If  the  tinie-fusi'  In.' 
correctly  adjusted,  the  shell  will  burst  when  il  reaches 
within  a  few  yards  of  the  object;  or,  failing  in  this, 
it  will  burst  l)y  the  coucussion-fu.se  when  il  strikes 
the  object  or  grazes  the  groiuul  near  it.  If  it  be  re- 
tjuired  to  act  as  a  canister-shot  upon  lui  enemy  close 
to  the  gun,  the  regulation  of  the  timefuse  niust  be 
turned  to  llie  zero  of  the  scale,  aiul  then  the  shell  will 
bui'st  on  leaving  the  gun.  The  explosion  of  one  of 
lhe.se  shells  in  a  closeil  chamber,  where  the  pieces 
could  be  collcclcd,  resulted  in  the  following  number 
of  fragments:  100  pieces  of  cast-iron,  90  ])ieces  of 
lead,  and  12  pieces  of  fuse,  etc. — making  in  all  217 
pieces. 

The  Armstrong  jirojectiles  for  the  muzzle-loading 
guns  have  rows  of  brass  or  copper  studs  projecting 
from  their  sides  to  fit  into 
the  .irrooves  of  llic  gun, 
which  are  constructed  on 
thi' fill II n t  princi])le.  Fi,;:.  2 
represents  a  10 -inch  Arm- 
strong .shell  for  penetrating 
arnior-i)lates;  It  is  made  of 
wrought-iron  or  low  steel, 
with  very  thick  sides.  There 
is  no  fuse,  the  explosion  re- 
sulting from  the  heal  gen- 
erated by  the  impact,  and 
the  crushing  in  of  the  thin 
caj)  which  closes  the  mouth 
of  the  powder-chamber.  The 
sides  and  bottom  of  the  shell  Fio.  2. 

being  thick  enough  to  resist 

crushing  by  the  impact,  and  also  to  resist  the  ex- 
plosive force  of  the  bursting-charge,  its  effect  will, 
after  jienelralion,  be  expended  on  the  backing  of  the 
armor,  or  the  decks  which  the  annor  is  intended  to 
screen.  Such  projectiles  are  called  "  blind  shells." 
See  Pirijediles. 

ARMY. — An  army  may  be  defined  as  an  armed 
force  imdcr  regiflar  military  organization,  employed 
for  purposes  of  national  offense  or  defense.  It  may 
comjirise  the  whole  military  men  employed  by  the 
state,  or  only  a  jiortion  under  a  particular  com- 
mander. Wiien  an  armed  force  is  under  no  con- 
stitulid  authority,  and  imperfect  in  its  organization 
and  discipline,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  worthj'  of  the 
name  of  an  army,  and  may  be  little  better  than  a 
horde  of  banditti.'  Of  this  nature  are  the  flibush  ring 
expeditions  in  which  certain  portions  of  the  citizens 
of  the  I'nited  States  frequently  engage.  Through 
long  ages  of  experience,  the  principles  of  mililarj-  or- 
ganization, and  the  laws  to  which  armies  are  spe- 
cially amenable,  have  gradually  reached  a  hi.irh  ilegree 
of  perfection.  The  iirimitive  wars  among  barbarous 
jHople  are  always  stealthy,  depending  on  the  forest 
and  the  wilderness  for  llieir  tactics,  and  considered 
successful  if  an  enemy  can  be  attacked  iniawares, 
despoiled,  and  carried  "into  slavery.  After  a  time, 
war  advances  to  the  position  of  an  art,  and  is  con- 
d\icled  by  men  who  have  received  a  certain  training. 
An  army  becomes  an  instrument  not  only  for  van- 
qiushing  enemies,  but  for  seizing  countries.  Even 
then  the  highest  ijosilion  of  an  army  is  not  reached; 
for  the  defense  of  a  country  requires  more  military 
skill,  i)eiha))s,  and  a  better  organization  of  troops, 
than  an  attack. 

Ancient  Akmies. 

Egnptiiins. — The  most  extraordinary  conqm^ror 
among  the  Egyptians,  Sesostris,  or  Hhamses,  lived 
sixteen  centuries  before  the  Christian  Era;  and  al- 
though the  evidence  for  his  deeds  of  valor  is  very 
fjuestionable,  tlure  is  rea.son  to  believe  that  the  or- 
ganization of  his  army  can  be  jiretty  accurately 
traced.  Ilis  father,  Anicnophis,  laid  the  foundation 
for  the  military  glory  of  Sesostris.     When  the  latter 


ABMY. 


r9 


ABUT. 


was  bom,  Amenophis  caused  all  the  male  children 
who  -nere  bom  ou  the  same  day  as  his  son  to  be  set 
apart  as  a  special  body,  to  be  reared  for  a  military 
life;  they  were  taught  everj-thing  that  could  strengthen 
their  bodies,  increase  their  courage,  and  develop  their 
sldll  as  combatants  and  leaders;  and  were  to  consider 
themselves  boimd  as  the  chosen  dependents  or  com- 
panions of  the  young  Prince.  In  due  time  Sesostris 
became  king  of  Egj-pt;  and  then  he  formed  a  sort  of 
militia,  distributed  as  military  colonists,  each  soldier 
having  a  portion  of  land  to  maintain  himself  and  his 
family.  When  this  militia  had  been  drilled  to  mili- 
tiry  efficiency,  Sesostris  headed  them  as  an  anny  for 
military  conquest  in  Asia,  and  placed  the  chosen 
band  above  mentioned  as  officers  over  the  different 
sections  of  the  arm}-.  Persians. — In  the  great  days  of 
the  Persian  Empire,  the  flower  of  the  army  consisted 
of  cavalrv  who  were  ilistinguished  for  their  bravery 
and  impetuosity  of  attack.  The  infantrj'  were  little 
better  than  an  anned  mob.  The  war-chariots,  too, 
though  calculated  to  strike  terror  when  dashing  into 
hostile  ranks,  were  available  onlj'  on  level  ground. 
As  to  the  numbers  of  men  composing  the  great  Per- 
sian army,  the  statements  are  too  wild  to  be  trust- 
worthy. Allowing  for  all  exaggeration,  however,  it 
Js  certain  that  the  Persian  armies  were  very  large. 
AVhen  Darius  was  opposed  to  Alexander  the  Great, 
his  army  was  set  down  at  various  numlx;rs — from 
750,000  to  1,000,000  men.  The  king  was  in  the 
center,  surrounded  by  his  courtiers  and  body-guard; 
the  Persians  and  Susians  were  on  the  left;  the  Syrians 
and  Assyrians  on  the  right.  The  foot-soldiers,  form- 
ing the  bulk  of  the  anny,  and  armed  with  pikes, 
axes,  and  maces,  were  formed  in  dee])  squares  or 
masses;  the  horsemen  were  in  the  intervals  between 
the  squares,  and  on  the  right  and  left  flanks;  and  the 
chariots  and  elephants  in  front.  Lafedanionians. — 
The  Greeks  Introduced  many  important  changes  in 
armies  both  in  the  organization  and  in  the  maneuvers. 
Ever}-  man,  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  country-  at 
least,  was  more  or  less  a  soldier,  inured  to  a  hard  life, 
taught  to  bear  arms,  and  expected  to  light  when 
called  upon.  The  leading  men  in  each  State  paid  at- 
tention to  organization  and  tactics  in  a  way  never 
before  seen.  It  was  not  a  standing  army',  but  a  sort 
of  national  militia,  that  gained  Marathon,  Plataa, 
and  Jlycitle.  So  far  as  concerned  the  arrangement  of 
armies,  the  Lacediemonians  invented  the  phalanx,  a 
particular  mode  of  grouping  foot  -  soldiers.  This 
phalanx  consisted  of  eight  ranks,  one  behind  another; 
the  front  and  rear  ranks  being  composed  of  picked 
men,  and  the  intermediate  ranks  of  less  tried  soldiers. 
The  number  of  men  in  each  rank  depended  on  the 
available  resources  of  the  commander.  These  men 
were  mostly  armed  with  spears,  short  swords,  and 
shields.  Athitiium. — The  Athenians  made  a  greater 
number  of  distinctions  than  the  Lacedffmoniaas  in 
the  different  kinds  of  troops  forming  their  anny. 
They  had  hea\"y  infantry,  constituting  the  men  for 
the  phalanx,  and  anned  with  spears,  daggers,  corse- 
lets, and  shields;  light  infantry,  employed  in  skir- 
mishes and  in  covering  the  phaian.x,  and  armed  mth 
light  javelins  and  shields;  a  sort  of  irregular  infantr)-, 
who,  with  javelins,  bows  and  arrows,  and  slings, 
harassed  the  enemy  in  march,  and  performed  other 
services  analogous  in  some  degree  to  those  of  sharp- 
sliooters  in  a  modern  army.  It  is  recorded  that  Jlil- 
tiades,  the  Athenian  hero  at  Marathon,  invented  the 
"  double-quick  march,"  to  increase  the  momentum  of 
a  phalanx  when  rushing  on  the  enemy.  Macedo- 
nians.— Philip  of  >Iaccdon,  the  father  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  having  the  sagacity  to  see  that  he  could 
not  vanquish  his  neighbors  so  long  as  he  adopted  the 
sjime  formation  and  tactics  as  themselves,  set  about 
inventing  something  new.  He  resolved  to  have  a 
standing  army  instead  of  a  militia;  to  have  at  com- 
mand a  set  of  men  whose  trade  was  fighting,  instead 
of  citizens  who  were  traders  and  soldiers  by  turn. 
As  a  further  change,  he  made  the  phalanx  "deeper 
.and  more  massive  than  it  had  been  among  the  Lace- 


diemonians. He  brou^'ht  into  use  the  Macedonian 
l)ike,  a  formidable  weapon  twenty-four  feet  in  length. 
With  a  iihalanx  sixteen  nmks  iii  depth,  four  rows  of 
men  could  present  the  points  of  their  long  pikes  pro- 
truding in  front  of  the  front-rank,  forming  a  bristling 
anay  of  steel  terrible  to  encounter.  Besides  these 
heavy  infantry,  there  were  light  troops  marshaled 
into  smaller  l)odies  for  more  aciive  maneuvers.  Philip 
organized  three  kinds  of  cavalry — heav}-,  anned  with 
pikes,  and  defended  by  cuirasses  of  iron-mail;  light, 
armed  with  lances;  and  irregular.  Thebans. — This 
nation  introduced  the  army'formation  of  columns 
much  deeper  than  broad,  or  having  more  men  in  file 
than  in  rank.  A  new  kind  of  tactics  was  introduced 
in  accordance  with  this  formation;  the  movement 
being  intended  to  pierce  the  enemy's  line  at  some  one 
l)oint,  and  throw  them  into  confusion.  lionians. — 
These  aljle  waniors  initiated  changes  in  amiy  matters 
which  hail  a  ^ride-spread  influence  on  the  nations  of 
the  ci\ilized  world.  About  the  period  200  B.C.,  every 
Roman,  from  the  age  of  seventeen  to  forty-six,  was 
liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  as  a  soldier;  tlie 
younger  men  were  preferred;  but  all  were  available 
up  to  the  middle  time  of  life.  They  went  through  a 
very  severe  drilling  and  discipline,  "to  fit  them  alike 
for  marching,  fighting,  camping,  working,  c;irrying, 
and  other  active  duties.  Ever)-  year  the  Senate  de- 
creed the  formation  of  legions,  or  army  corps,  deput- 
ing this  duty  to  the  Consul  or  Praetor.  Magistrates 
sent  up  the  names  of  eligible  men,  and  Tribimes 
selected  a  certain  number  from  this  list.  The  Roman 
legion,  in  its  best  days,  had  many  excellent  military 
qualities — great  facility  of  movement;  a  power  of 
presen-ing  orilcr  of  battle  unimpaired;  a  quick  rally- 
ing-power  when  forced  to  give  way;  a  readiness  to 
adapt  itself  to  varj-ing  circumstances  on  the  field  of 
battle;  a  fonnidable  impetuosity  in  attack;  and  a 
power  of  figliting  the  enemy  even  while  retreating. 
The  hea\-j'  infantry  were  armed  with  javelins,  heavy 
darts,  pikes,  and  swords;  the  lighter  troops  with 
bows  and  arrows,  slings,  and  light  javelins;  while 
the  defensive  armor  comprised  shields,  cuirasses,  hel- 
mets, and  greaves.  Those  ancient  nations  which  h;id 
no  distinctive  features  in  their  armies  need  not  be 
noticed  here. 

3IEDI.EVAL  AbMIES. 

The  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire  marked  the 
dividing-point  between  ancient  and  mediteval  times 
in  military  matters,  as  well  as  in  otlier  things  that 
concern  the  ex-istence  of  nations.  The  barbarians 
and  semi-barbarians  who  attacked  on  all  sides  the 
once  mighty  but  now  degenerate  Empire  gradually 
gained  possession  of  the  vast  regions  which  had  com- 
posed it.  The  mode  in  which  these  conquests  were 
made  gave  rise  to  the  feudal  system.  What  all  had 
aided  to  acquire  by  conquest,  all  demanded  to  share 
in  proportiotLs  more  or  less  equal.  Hence  arose  a 
division  of  the  conquered  territory;  lands  were  held 
from  the  Chief  by  feudal  tenure,  almost  in  independent 
sovereignty.  When  European  kingdoms  were  gradu- 
ally fonnetl  out  of  the  wrecks  of  the  Empire,  the  mili- 
tary arrangements  put  on  a  peculiar  form.  The  king 
could  not  maintain  a  standing  army,  for  his  Barons 
or  feudal  chieftains  were  jealous  of  allomng  him  too 
much  power.  He  could  only  strengthen  himself  by 
obtaining  their  aid  on  certsiin  terms,  or  by  allowing 
them  to  weaken  themselves  in  intestine  broils,  to 
which  they  had  always  much  proneness.  Each 
Baron  had  a  small  army  composed  of  his  own  militii^ 
or  retainers,  available  for  battle  at  short  notice.  The 
contests  of  tliese  small  armies,  sometimes  combined 
and  sometimes  isolated,  make  up  the  greater  part  of 
the  wars  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Of  military  tactics  or 
strateg}-,  there  was  very  little;  the  campaigns  were 
desultory  and  indecisive;  and  the  battles  were  gained 
more  by  individual  valor  than  by  any  well-concerted 
plan.  One  great  exception  to  this  milit^irr  feudality 
was  furnished  by  the  Cmsades.  So  far  as  concerns 
armies,  however,  in  their  organization  and  discipline. 


ARH7. 


80 


ABKT. 


these  expeditions  effectetl  but  little.  Tlir  military 
foix'es  whicU  went  to  the  Holy  Laud  were  little  better 
than  armed  uiobs,  upheld  by  fanatieism,  but  not  at 
all  1)V  science  or  discipline.  Numbei-s  and  individ- 
ual bravery  were  left  to  do  the  work,  combination 
and  forethought  beinii  disregarded.  A  much  greater 
motive  power  for  change,  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
was  the  invention  of  guniwwder.  When  men  could 
fight  at  a  greater  distance  than  before,  and  on  a  sys- 
tem which  brought  mechanism  to  llie  aid  of  valor, 
everything  connected  with  the  military  art  under- 
went a  revolution.  Historically,  however,  this  great 
change  was  not  very  apparent  until  after  the  period 
usually  denominated  the  Middle  Ages.  The  art  of 
making  gotxl  cainu)n  and  hand-guns  grew  up  gradu- 
ally, like  other  arts;  and  armies  long  continued  to 
depend  principally  on  the  older  weapons — spears, 
darts,  arrows,  axes,  maces,  swords,  and  daggers.  Dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  the  chief  armies  were  those  maintained  by 
the  Spaniards  and  the  .Moors  on  one  European  battle- 
ground, by  the  English  and  the  French  on  another, 
and  by  the  several  Italian  republics  on  a  third.  In 
those  armies  the  cavalrv  were  regarded  as  the  chief 
arm.  The  knights  and  their  horses  alike  were  fre- 
quently covered  'nnlh  plate-  or  chain-armor;  and  the 
offensive  weapons  were  lances,  swords,  daggers,  and 
battle-axes.  A  kind  of  light  cavalry  was  sometimes 
formed  of  archers  on  smaller  horses.  As  to  army 
formation,  there  wa.s  still  little  that  could  deserve  the 
name;  there  was  no  particular  order  of  battle;  each 
Knight  sought  how  he  covdd  best  distinguish  himself 
by  personal  valor;  and  to  each  was  usually  attached 
an  Esquire,  abetting  him  as  a  second  during  the  con- 
test, bometimes  it  even  happened  that  the  fate  of  a 
battle  was  allowed  to  depend  on  a  combat  between 
two  Knights.  No  attempt  was  made  imtil  towards 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  to  embody  a  sys- 
tem of  tactics  and  maneuvers  for  cavalry;  and  even 
that  attempt  was  of  the  most  primitive  kind.  Xor 
was  it  far  othervvise  with  the  foot-soldiers;  they  were 
gradually  becoming  acquainted  with  the  use  of  fire- 
arms; but,  midway  as  it  were  between  two  systems, 
they  observed  neither  completely;  and  the  anny  in 
which  they  served  presented  very  little  definite  or- 
ganization. 

Modern  Abmies. 

The  formation  of  Standing  Armies  may  be  said  to 
have  introduced  the  modern  milit«ry  system.  'When 
the  remarkable  ex]iloit  of  Jeanne  d'Arc  (Joan  of  Are) 
had  enabled  Charles  VII.  to  check  the  \-ictorious 
progress  of  the  English  in  France,  he  set  about  re- 
modeling his  anny.  By  gradual  changes,  and  amid 
great  difiiculty,  he  converted  his  ill-governed  forces 
mto  a  disciplined  standing  army.  During  the  reign 
of  his  son,  Charles  VIII.  (14S3-98),  the  consequences 
of  this  change  made  their  appearance.  Charles  con- 
ducted a  well-appointed  .nrniy  into  Italy  (1494),  in 
support  of  some  pretensions  which  be  had  to  the 
throne  of  Naples.  The  change  made  by  Charles 
VII.  was  not  simply  that  of  substituting  a  compact 
standing  army  for  an  ill-organized  medley  of  feudal 
troops  and  of  mercenaries;  feudalism  itself  gave  way 
under  the  intlueiice  of  this  combined  with  other  re- 
forming agencies.  80  far  as  concerned  the  actual 
formation  and  discipline  of  the  standing  army  above 
noticed,  a  few  changes  were  from  time  to  time  intro- 
duced: pistols  and  carbines  were  given  to  the  cavalry; 
cuirasses  were  worn  l)y  the  lieavv  troopers;  and  new 
evolutions  were  introduced.  "During  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  (1618-48),  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Wal- 
lenstein  adopted  opposite  modes  of  dealing  with 
ma.sses  of  infantry:  the  former  spread  them  out  to  a 
great  width,  and  only  six  ranks  in  depth;  whereas  the 
latter  adopted  a  narrower  front,  with  a  depth  of 
twenty  to  thirty  ranks.  Frederick  the  Great,  in  the 
next  centun,',  introduced  a  most  complicated  system 
of  tactics  and  drilling;  insomuch  that  when  he 
could  maneuver,  he  nearly  always  won  his  battles; 


but  when  the  result  depended  on  bold  and  unex- 
pected onslaughts,  he  was  more  frequently  a  loser 
than  a  wimier.  The  great  military  leader  in  the 
early  part  of  the  i)resent  century,  N'apoleon  Bona- 
parte, made  a  larger  use  than  any  previous  European 
general  of  the  methiKl  of  moving  masses  of  troops 
with  great  celerity,  beating  the  enemy  in  detail  be- 
fore they  could  combine  in  one  spot.  "  It  is  desirable 
to  present,  in  the  most  condensed  form,  a  few  statis- 
tics of  the  actual  armies  of  Euro|'e;  leaving  to  other 
articles  all  details  concerning  sjiecial  armies. 

Fniiux. — A  law  passed  in  1873  enacts  that  every 
Frenchman,  with  a  few  sjjecified  exceptions,  is  liable 
to  personal  service  in  the  anny,  and  forbids  substitu- 
tion. Every  Frenchman  not  declared  unfit  for  mili- 
tary service,  or  sjx'cially  exem|>ted  therefrom,  nuist 
be  f(jr  five  years  in  the  active  aniiy  (composed  of 
those  who  have  reached  the  age  of  twenty  years),  for 
four  years  in  the  reserve  of  the  active  aiiny,  for  five 
years  in  the  tenitorial  army,  and  for  .six  years  in  the 
reserve  of  the  territorial  army.  By  the  law  of  July 
24,  1873,  France  is  divided,  for  militarj-  purposes, 
into  eighteen  regions,  each  occupied  by  a  corjis 
d'armee,  containing  two  di\isions  of  infantry,  one 
brigade  of  cavalry,  one  of  artillery,  one  battalion  of 
engineers,  one  squadron  of  the  military  train.  When 
the  present  reorganization  is  comiileted,  the  aclire 
army  will  be  composeil  of  l.'iG  regiments  of  infantry 
(line,  light.  Zouaves,  Algerian  tirailleurs,  etc.),  25 
single  battalions,  and  298  companies  (depots,  etc.): 
making  in  all,  for  the  infantry,  279,986  men;  of 
cavalry,  67  regiments  in  PVancc,  3  in  Algiers,  13 
depots  of  these  regiments,  and  a  Cavalry  School,  com- 
prising 67,888  men;  artillery,  40  regiments  and  17 
companies,  with  58,096  men;  engineers,  4  regiments, 
liaN-ing  13,551  men;  of  the  military  train,  11,486  men; 
in  all,  for  the  active  anny,  441,007.  On  the  war- 
footing  this  number  would  1^  increased  to  1,104,735, 
without  taking  account  of  sanitarj-  corps,  gendarmes, 
etc.  Including  the  territorud  arniy,  its  reserve  force, 
and  the  reserves  of  the  active  armv,  the  total  military 
force  of  France  is  2,505,000.  The  Budget  of  1876 
provided  for  490,321  men,  including  gendarmes,  etc. 

Oermani/. — By  the  Imperial  Constitution,  April  16, 
1871,  the  Prussian  obligation  to  serve  in  the  army  is 
extended  to  the  who'.e  Empire.  Every  German  c.i]ia- 
ble  of  bearing  arms  is  bound  to  be  in  the  standing 
army  for  seven  years,  as  a  rule  from  the  end  of  his 
twentieth  to  the  beginning  of  his  twenty-eighth  year. 
Of  the  seven  years,  three  must  be  in  active  .sefnce, 
and  four  in  the  reserve.  Then  he  must  serve  for  five 
years  in  the  landwehr.  The  whole  of  the  land  forces 
of  the  Empire  form  a  united  army,  all  the  troops 
being  bound  unconditionally  to  obey  the  Emperor  in 
warand  peace.  The  army  of  the  German  Empire 
consists  of  eighteen  corps  d'armee;  viz.,  the  corps 
d'armeeof  the  guard,  thirteen  Prussian  corjis  d'armee 
(Nos.  I. -XL,  XIV. — comprising  the  troops  of  Baden 
— and  XV.),  the  corps  d'armeeof  Saxony  (XII.),  of 
Wurtemberg  (XIII. ),  two  of  Bavaria  (I.  and  ID,  and 
the  division  of  Hesse.  In  time  of  peace  the  German 
anny  has:  (1)  of  infantiy,  146  regiments  of  the  line, 
2fi  iKittalions  of  chasseurs,  with  4687  commissioneil 
and  non-commissioned  officers  of  the  landwehr, 
amomifing  to  274. 71 1  men ;  (2)  of  cavalry,  93  regiments, 
containinir  65.513  men;  (3)  of  artillery,  35  regiments  of 
mounted,  13  of  foot  artillery,  having  45,439  men;  (4) 
of  engineers,  19  battalions,  9568  men.  In  all,  with  2056 
staff  oflicers,  military  train,  etc.,  17,036  officers, 
401,6.59  men.  On  the  war-footing,  this  force  is  in- 
creased by  the  following  additions:  field -troops, 
16,976,  oflicers,  676,486  men;  depot-troops,  4431  offi- 
cers, 245,793  nu-n;  garrison  -  troops,  9599  oflicers, 
3.54,247  men.  Total  of  the  German  army  in  time  of 
war:  31,006  oflicers  and  1,276,526  men,  with  287,746 
horses.  The  maximum  number  of  troops  employed 
by  Germany  in  the  war  with  France  was  1,350,787 
men  and  263,735  horses. 

AiiKfrid. — The  militarj-  forces  of  the  Austro-IIun- 
garian  Empire  are  divided  into  the  standing  army. 


AEMY   ADMINISTRATION. 


81 


ARMY  CORPS. 


the  lantlwclir,  and  the  lanilsturm.  Subjects  of  the 
Empire  are  universally  liable  to  service.  The  term 
of  service  is  ten  years,  three  of  which  the  soUlier 
must  spend  in  aciive  service,  beiiijc  afterwards  en- 
roUeil  for  seven  years  in  the  army  of  reserve.  He  is 
still  further  liable  to  serve  two  years  in  the  landwehr. 
The  regimenls  if  the  standiug  army  are  tuuler  the 
coutrorof  the  Jlinister  of  War  for  the  Empire,  while 
the  landwehr  is  controlled  by  the  Austrian  and 
Hnnjrariaii  .Ministers  of  National  Defense.  The 
EmpL-ror-King  is  the  supreme  chief  of  the  whole  of  the 
military  and  tuival  forces  of  the  Empire.  The  Aus- 
trian infantry  constitutes  «0  regiments  of  the  line, 
with  14S,480"  men;  the  chasseurs,  40  battalions,  with 
21,4.">1  men  ;  of  the  cavalry  there  are  41  ngiments 
(dragoons,  hussars,  lancers)," 43,9'J3  men;  of  artillery, 
13  regiments  of  Held  -  artillery  and  13  battalions  of 
fortress-artillery— in  all,  28,69.5  men.  The  engineers 
and  pioneers  make  three  regiments,  8898  men.  The 
sanitary  troops  and  military  train  have  .")T48  men. 
The  ntiscellaneous  establishments  (schools,  maga- 
zines, etc.)  number  2.j,174.  In  all,  for  the  active 
army  in  time  of  peace,  284,43.5  (of  whom  253, .513  arc 
combatants).  On  the  war-footing  these  mnnbers  arc 
thus  augmented:  infantry,  485,680;  fhasseurs,  .59,340; 
cavalry.  .58,671;  artillery,  70,614;  engineers,  24,.502; 
Mnitary  troops  and  military  train,  4.5,727.  Then  the 
Austrian  lan<hvelir  (infantry,  chasseurs,  and  cavalry) 
comprises  3()6U  men  in  peace,  145,045  in  war;  and 
the  Hungarian  lan<hvehr  ithe  Houveds)  13,591  in 
peace  and  206,707  in  war.  The  total  of  the  Aus- 
trian militarv  forces  in  peace-time  is  therefore  301,- 
695;  in  war,  "1,137,401. 

lii/sxiii. — According  to  a  law  of  militarj-  reorgani- 
zation, the  Russian  forces  are  to  1)e  raised  by  annual 
conscription,  to  which  all  are  liable  who  have  com 
pleted  their  twenty-Srst  year  and  are  not  physically 
incapacitated.  Substitution  is  prohibited.  The  period 
of  ser\ice  is  fifteen  years — six  in  active  ser\nce  and 
nine  in  the  reserve.  The  Russian  military  forces  are 
comjiosed  of  regidar  ond  irregular  troops.  The 
regular  troops  comprise  164  regiments  of  infantry, 
2.81,012  men;  cavalry,  .52  regiments.  42,444  men; 
artillery,  33,021  men;  engineers,  9819  men;  train, 
4617  men.  Total  of  field-troops  in  time  of  peace, 
370,913.  In  war  as  follows:  infantry,  568.2.53  men; 
cavalrv,  47,379;  artillerv,  40,846;  eiisineers,  13,306; 
train,  "21.329— total,  69l",113.  With  local  and  other 
troops  (in  fortresses,  etc.),  and  reserve  troops,  the 
Russian  army  in  Europe  amounts,  on  the  peace-foot- 
ing, to  19,103  officers  and  508,674  men;  in  war,  22,- 
87i  officers  and  879,755  men.  The  army  of  the 
Caucasus  amounts  in  peace  to  125,643;  in  war,  to 
167,841.  The  army  of  Turkestan  to  22,906;  of 
Siberia,  from  25,000  to  27,000.  Besides  some  thou- 
sand troops  as  gendarmes  and  in  various  military  es- 
tablishments, there  is  a  grand  total  for  the  regular 
Russian  army  of  33,000  officers  and  733.000  meii;  on 
the  war  footing,  39,380  officers  and  1,213,2.59  men. 
In  ;iddition  there  are  the  irregular  troops,  comprising 
abcnit  190.000  men,  chiefly  cavalry. 

Denmark. — AM  able-bodied  young  men  twenty-one 
years  of  age  are  liable  to  .serve  eight  years  in  the  reg- 
ular army  of  Denmark  and  eight  years  in  the  reserve. 
Denmark  has  thirty-one  battalions  of  infantry  (guards. 
line,  reserve),  comprising  26,750  men;  five  regiments 
of  cavalrv,  with  2122  men;  two  regiments  and  two 
battalions  of  artillery,  with  6523  men;  two  battalions 
of  engineers,  with  580  men.  The  total,  line  and  re- 
serve, is  1031  officers,  35,975  men;  on  the  war-foot- 
ing, .52,656  men. 

ifwe^en  and  Norwai/. — There  are  five  classes  of 
soldiers  in  Sv.-eden;  the  enlisted  troops,  the  national 
militia  (indelta),  the  conscription  troops  (bevaering  or 
landvaern).  the  militia  of  Gothland.  ;md  the  volun- 
teers. Of  the  soldiers  of  the  line  there  is  a  total  of 
35,640  men;  of  the  reserve  (landvaern).  86,101;  of 
the  Gothland  militia  and  volunteers,  1.50,830.  Nor- 
way has  an  army  of  its  own,  divided  into  the  troops 
of  the  line,  with  reserve,  military  train,  the  landvaern. 


the  civic  guards,  and  the  landstorm.  The  troops  of 
the  line  are  12,000  in  lime  of  peace;  in  time  of  war 
not  more  than  18,000  without  the  assent  of  the  Storth- 
ing. 

Holland. — The  anny  of  the  Netherlands  is  formed 
partly  by  conscription  and  partly  by  enlistment;  and 
there  is  besides  a  militia.  The  European  army  has, 
of  infantry,  n22officei's  and  43.690  men;  eavali-y,  184 
officers  and  431.S  men;  engineers,  1035  men;  artillery, 
421  officers  and  10,610  men.  With  the  staff,  etc.,  the 
total  force  is  62,068  otlicers  and  men.  There  is  be- 
sides in  the  East  Indies  a  force  of  27,659  officers  and 
men. 

Belgium. — The  standing  army  is  formed  by  con 
scription.  Substitution  is  pennitted.  The  legal 
period  of  service  is  eight  years.  Belgium  has  7t,000 
infantry  (16  regiments),  8848  cavalrj'  (7  regiments  and 
2  squadrons),  14,513  artillery  (6  regiments),  2486 
engineers.     In  all,  and  without  officers,  99,847. 

Ttali/. — The  Sardinian  law  of  conscription  forms 
the  basis  of  the  Italian  militarv  system.  The  infantry 
of  the  line  under  arms  on  the  peace-footing  ninnlier 
86,017;  the  bersadieri,  16,818;  depots,  li..560;  the 
cavalry,  18,449;  the  artillery,  19.732;  engineers,  3027; 
carbineers,  20,915;  administrative  troops,  etc.,  7047, — 
giving  a  total  of  183,205.  On  the  war-footing,  these 
several  forces  are  so  increased  as  to  give  a  total  of 
•541.575;  and  with  the  addition  of  "the  provincial 
militia,  74:3,6.56. 

Spain. — The  army  of  Spain  was  reorganized  in  1868 
after  the  model  of  that  of  France.  The  active  army 
has  60,000  infantrv,  9000  cavalrv,  2500 epgineers,  anil 
8500  artillery,  making  a  total  of  80,000  men.  The 
reserves  increase  this  mnnber  to  216.000.  There  is  be- 
sides an  army  of  54.500  in  Ctdia,  9400  in  Porto  Rico, 
and  of  9000  in  the  Philippines. 

Switzerlantl. — The  federal  armvhas  1269  endneers, 
8401  artillery,  1942  cavalry,  60i-8  tirailleuis,'  65,991 
infantry,  and  364  of  a  sanitary  corps.  In  all,  84,045. 
There  are,  besides,  of  the  reserves,  51,102;  the  land- 
wehr, 65,562, — si\ing  a  total  available  military  force 
of  201, .578. 

Tiirhtj. — In  1871  the  Turkish  regular  army  had 
infantry' to  the  number  of  72.000;  cavalry,  9000;"  artil- 
lery, 9.^00;  engineers,  1600;  with  1200  miscellaneous 
troops  amounting  to  93,31)0.  Before  the  war  of  1877 
it  was  proposed  that  by  1878  the  regular  army  sliould 
be  increased  to  152^000.  The  irregulars  (Ba.slii- 
bazouks,  Spahis,  etc.)  are  about  70,000.  And  the 
contingents  which  the  Dependent  States  are  bound 
to  furnish  are  severallv:  Upper  Albania,  10,000;  Bos- 
nia, 30,000;  Egypt.  l.i.OOO;  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  4000. 

AH  the  various  matters  relating  to  the  formation, 
organization,  discipline,  arms,  equipments,  duties, 
and  tactics  of  arnues,  will  be  found  succinctly  treated 
under  appro|iriate  headings.  Sec  British  Army,  East 
Inilia  Arm'i.  and   Uit'tfd  Stales  Army. 

ARMY  ADMINISTRATION.  — The  whole  of  the 
operations  connected  with  the  raising,  clothing,  pay- 
ing, maintaining,  antl  controlling  of  the  British  army 
are  included  in  the  term  Army  Administration.  They 
are  distinct  matters  from  military  command  and  dis- 
cipline. The  Sovereign  has  the  supreme  command  of 
the  British  army;  but  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War 
is  her  responsible  representative  in  all  that  concerns 
administration — the  Commander-in-Chief  being  her 
representative  in  matters  relating  to  military  command 
and  disr-ipline.  The  Secretary  is  the  org-an  throutrh 
whom  the  w ishes  of  the  Sovereign  are  reconciled  w  ith 
the  wishes  and  intentions  of  Parliament.  Until  the 
war  with  Russia  in  1854,  the  Administrative  Depart- 
ments were  much  scattered;  their  defective  orgiiniza- 
lion  led  in  great  part  to  the  miseries  suffered  by  the 
Bintish  troops  in  the  Crimea;  but  now  they  aie  all 
consolidated  under  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War. 

ARMY  CORPS. — When  an  anny  is  very  large,  three 
or  four  di\isions  are  joined  together  and  form  an 
Ann//  Corps.  The  officer  commanding  an  army  corps 
should  be  of  a  higher  grade  than  he  who  commands 
a  division.     This" grade,  in  the  U.  S.  army,  would  be 


ABMY  ESTIMATES. 


82 


ABHT  MUTUAL-AID  ASSOCIATION. 


that  of  LieuUnant-Oeneral.  An  army  con's  is  most 
gfiicrally  comiX)swl  of  all  arms  of  se'rnce,  and  is,  to 
all  intents  and  purposes,  an  anny  complete  in  itself. 
Two  or  more  army  corps,  or  armies,  would  be  under 
the  command  of  the  lienernl,  or  of  a  "  Gencral-in- 
C/iitf."  It  is  to  Ix'  observed  that  the  functions  of 
Greneral  Officers  are  to  command  armies,  or  fractions  of 
an  army  greater  thim  a  regiment,  when  mobilized. 
In  time  of  ix-aec,  when  the  regiments  arc  not  fornud 
into  brigades  or  ilivisions,  but  arc  distributed  over 
dLstricts  of  country,  the  function  of  the  General  is  to 
commiuid  the  trc>o|)s  in  these  districts,  which  are  then 
designated  by  the  terms  "  military  ilcpartments."  See 
Corps  d'Arm-i. 

ARMY  ESTIMATES.— In  the  spring  of  every  year, 
the  BrilisU  Government  ha\ing  formed  a  plan  con- 
cerning the  extent  and  appliances  of  the  military  force 
for  thiit  year,  the  War  Office  .sends  to  the  Treasury  a 
series  of  accounts  .setting  forth  the  probable  cost  of 
everything  required.  The  accounts  arc  called  the 
Anny  Estimates.  If  they  are  approved  by  the  Treas- 
ury, the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  adverts  to  these, 
along  with  other  estimates,  in  his  annual  "financial 
statement,"  made  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  his 
capacity  as  Guardian  of  the  Public  Pui-se.  In  prcpar- 
injj  the  Aruij'  Estimates  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
■W  ar  applies  to  the  heads  of  aU  the  deijartmcnls  mider 
him  for  detailed  accounts  of  their  probable  require- 
ments. Another  functionary  then  incorporates  and 
adjusts  these  into  a  whole;  they  are  submitted  to  the 
Treasury;  and,  if  approved,  are  presented  to  the  House 
as  the  Army  Estimates.  Should  the  Commons  grant 
the  money,  the  Accountant-General  of  the  War  Office 
makes  the  requisite  drafts  or  demands  from  time  to 
time ;  and  the  Treasury  authorizes  the  Paymaster- 
General  of  the  forces  to  honor  these  drafts.  The 
money  itself  is  in  the  Bunk  of  England;  this  estab- 
lishment receives  a  certain  aimual  sum  from  the  gov- 
ernment for  managing  such  financial  matters. 

The  Anny  Estimates  are  drawn  up  in  conformity 
with  a  model  which  differs  little  from  year  to  year. 
There  are  certain  great  headings,  each  comprising 
many  minor  di\asions,  viz.:  1.  Regular  forces  (4 
votes);  2.  Auxiliary  and  resen-e  forces  (4  votes);  3. 
Ordnance  establishments  and  manufactures,  and  pur- 
chases of  stores  (4  votes);  4.  Works  and  buildings 
0)arracks,  fortifications,  etc.);  5.  Educational  estab- 
lishments (schools,  libraries,  etc.);  6.  Administration 
of  the  army;  7.  Non-effective  services  (half-pay,  retir- 
ing allowances,  pensions,  etc.).  The  various  items 
arc  more  or  less  sifted  by  the  House  of  Commons; 
and  any  one  or  more  of  them  can  be  refused  alto- 

f  ether,  or  granted  in  diminished  amount.  The  Army 
istiraates  for  1879-80,  which  may  be  cited  here  as  an 
illustrative  example,  refer  to  the  period  from  April  1, 
1879,  to  March  31,  1880.  The  total  nimiber  of  men, 
including  the  staff  of  tlic  militia  forces,  on  the  home 
and  colonial  establishment  of  the  army,  and  exclusive 
of  those  serving  in  India,  was  13o,625.  The  total 
number  serving  in  India  was  62,653,  which  are 
charged  against  the  Indian  Treasury.  The  horses 
were  26,218,  of  which  10,830  were  for'indian  ser\ice. 
Without  going  into  any  detiuls,  we  will  simplj'  give 
the  amounts  mider  the  six  great  headings: 

1.  Resiilar  fnrces-pay  and  allowances £4.944.200 

2.  Aiixiliar)-  anil  reserve  forces 1,258,500 

3.  Ordnance    services    (provisions,    clothing, 

arms,  storesi 6,5.31.000 

4.  Works  and  building 853,300 

5.  Various  senices  (education,  administration, 

etc.  1    . .     483,900 

6.  Non-effective  services 2,625,800 

£15,645,700 

Similar  annual  estimates  are  made  for  the  support  of 
ncarlv  all  nthor  nrmics  of  the  world. 

ARMY  FRONT.— The  great  majority'  of  the  tactical 
formations  for  infantry  proposed  are  practically  use- 
less because  of  an  improper  connection  iK'tween  the 
total  number  of  infantry  in  the  army,  the  number  of 
infantry  there  should  be  to  each  pace  of  front,  and 


the  nonnal  order  in  which  the  infantry  will  move 

under  lire.  Let  A  =  the  total  number  of  infantry  in 
an  ;irmy;  F,  the  numlxr  of  nu  n  in  the  front  line"  P, 
the  number  of  |)aces  in  that  front  line;  »«,  the  number 
of  infantry  which  late  cx|)erience  shows  there  ought 
to  be  to  each  pace  of  the  front;  and  2n,  the  number 
of  jiaces  in  the  nonnal  interval  Ixtween  skinnishcrs 
(front  rank  men)  when  mo%ing  under  tire,  ;i  being  the 
conse(iucnt  interval  Ixtween  skirmishers,  when"  the 
front  ami  rear  ranks  are  on  the  same  line,  in  one  rank. 
Then 

mP  =  A;    and    P  =  n  (F  -  1); 

,  _         A+WiB 

whence  F  =  — ■ . 

mn 

Since  m,  n,  and  in  n  are  always  insignificant  in  com- 
parison to  A,  F,  and  P,  practically  speaking 


P=^ 

ni 


and    F: 


Suppose  the  army  in  the  field  consists  of  45,000  in- 
fantry; from  the  above,  it  appears  that  its  front 
should  be  12,000  paces  (nearly  6  miles)  in  extent,  and 
should  be  occupied  l)y  4000  men.  In  this  case  in  has 
been  taken  as  5  and  n  as  3,  iiraclically  a  useful  inter- 
val. Such  brief  and  iniictieal  rules'as  these  will  at 
once  enable  officers  in  time  of  war  to  so  place  their 
troops  and  make  such  dispo.sition  of  divisions,  bri- 
gades, etc.,  in  any  position,  as  lo  act  offensively  or 
defensively  and,  at  the  same  time,  hold  in  haml  troops 
to  turn  the  enemy's  flank,  or  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  tuniing  his  ov\-n.  Nothing  definite  can  be  laid 
do^^■n  as  to  the  distance  between  the  different  lines  of 
skirmishers,  supports,  etc.,  as  everything  depends  on 
the  nature  of  the  giound. 

ARMY  HOSPITAL  CORPS.— A  body  of  men  re- 
cruited from  the  ranks  of  the  English  army  for  the 
purpose  of  looking  after  the  sick  and  wounded,  and 
for  carrying  out  such  instructions  as  maj-  be  given  to 
them  by  the  Medical  Officers  with  reference  to  diet 
and  treatment,  and  in  administering  of  medicines 
ordered,  and  giving  such  necessary  attendance  as  the 
sick  require.  The  men  act  as  bakers  and  cooks,  and 
perform  all  duties  which  render  them  useful  to  the 
patients. 

ARMY  HYGIENE.— In  the  En^'lish  army,  a  branch 
of  the  Sledical  Department  having  for  it.s  object  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  army,  whether  in  quarters 
or  in  the  field. 

ARMY  LIST. — The  name  of  a  publication  issued 
monthly  by  authority  of  the  War  Office.     It  contains 
the  names  of  all  Commissioned  Officers  in  the  British 
Army.     Then  come  the  General  and  Field  Officers  of 
the  dying-out  Indian  Anny.     Next  Uie  names  of  all 
Officers  who  hold  niilitarj'  honors  or  Staff  Aii]X)int- 
ments.     The  bulk  of  the  work,  however,  is  taken  up 
•with  an   enumeration   of  all   the  regiments  in   the 
Queen's  Anny,  and  all  the  Officers  in  each  regiment, 
arranged  according  to  the  numerical  rank  of  the  regi- 
ments.    To  this  are  added  lists  of  the  Officers  of  the 
Rifle  Brigade,  Colonial  Coips,  Royal  Artillery,  Royal 
Engineers,  Royal  3Iarines,  Control,  and  Amiv  Medi- 
cal Department;   and  of  Officers  retired  on  full-jiay 
and  on  half-pay.      Next   follow  the  Officers  of  the 
Militia,   Yeomanrj',    and  Volunteers;  and  then    the 
Militia  and  Volunteer  Officers  of  the  several  Colonics. 
A  fidl   index,   an    obituary,  a   list  of    tlie  ch;uiges 
gazetted  during  the    past   month,  and   of   the  new 
regulations,  complete   the  work.     A  larger  work  of 
similar  but  non-official   character,  Hart's  Armi/  List, 
by  a  more  condensed   arrangement  of  type  gives  all 
the  information  contained  in  the  oflicial  list  and  much 
in  addition. 

ARMY  MUTUAL-AID  ASSOCIATION.— A  Mutual- 
Benefit  Society  of  otlicers  of  the  I'niled  States  army, 
organized  January  13,  1879.  Its  object  is  to  aid  the 
families  of  the  deceased  members  in  a  prompt,  sim- 
ple, and  substantial  manner.  Any  person  actually 
holding  a  commission  in  the  army  may  become  a 
member  of  this  Association,  provided  he  is  trader  fifty 


i 


ABMY  MUTUAL-AID  ASSOCIATION. 


83 


AEMY  MUTUAL-AID  ASSOCIATION. 


years  of  age,  can  procure  a  surgeon's  certificate  of 
good  health,  and  is  unobjectionable  to  the  executive 
committee.  The  initiation-fee  is  an  amount  equal  to  a 
half-dollar  for  each  full  year  which  the  candidate 
shall  have  completed  on  admission.  For  the  purposes 
of  a.ssessment,  on  the  first  of  January  of  each  year  the 
members  are  distributed  into  nine  classes,  according 
to  their  respective  ages  (iletcrmined  by  the  last  pre- 
ceding birthday)  at  date  of  cla.ssitication,  and  the  as- 
sessment of  the  members  of  the  several  classes  is  as 
follows: 

Class.  Assessment. 

1.  Under  thirl  V  years $8  00 

2.  Thirty  to  tliirty-flve  years 2  50 

3.  Thirty-Hve  to  forty  years 3  00 

4.  Forty  to  forty -tlve  years  3  50 

6.  Forty-five  to  fifty  years 4  00 

6.  Fifty  to  flfty-Hve  years 4  50 

7.  Fifty-five  to  si.\ty  years 5  00 

8.  Sixty  to  sixty-five  years 5  50 

9.  All  over  sixty-five  years  6  80 

The  officers  of  the  As.sociation  consist  of  a  President, 
a  Vice-president,  and  a  Secretary,  who  is  also  Treas- 
urer; all  of  whom  are  elected  from  the  members,  by  bal- 
lot, at  an  annual  meeting,  and  hold  their  offices  for  two 
years  and  until  their  successors  are  qualified.  At  all 
of  the  meetings  of  this  Association,  ten  members,  rep- 
resenting a  majority  of  the  whole  number,  constitute 
a  quorum  for  business.  There  is  an  Executive  Com- 
mittee, consisting  of  the  President,  Vice-president,  and 
Secretary,  and  of  two  other  members,  elected  at  the 
annual  meetings,  and  holding  their  offices  for  one 
year  and  until  their  successors  are  qualified.  A  ma- 
jority of  the  Executive  Committee  constitute  a  quorum 
for  business.  The  Executive  Committee  has  general 
supernsion  over  the  affairs  of  the  Association;  passes 
upon  all  applications  for  membership;  prescribes 
forms;  audits  all  claims  and  accounts,  and  decides 
all  questions  that  may  arise  in  connection  therewith; 
and  directs  the  Treasurer  to  draw  his  drafts  for  all 
payments.  They  attend  generally  to  the  government 
and  financial  affairs  of  the  Association,  and  have 
power  to  fill  all  vacancies  in  the  Committee  until  the 
succeeding  election.  Thej'  meet  on  the  first  Mon- 
day of  each  month,  or  oftener  upon  the  call  of  the 
President.  The  Executive  Committee  is  also  empow- 
ered, during  the  lifetime  of  a  member,  to  revoke  or 
annul  his  certificate  of  membership,  if  it  should  be 
made  apparent  that  the  same  was  issued  upon  a  pal- 
pable mistake  or  omission  in  the  declaration  of  the 
applicant,  or  upon  an  insufficient  inquiry  l)y  the  Med- 
ical Examiner  as  to  the  condition  of  his  health  at  the 
time  of  his  application.  The  Executive  Committee 
also  have  power  to  terminate  the  membership  of  any 
officer  who  may  be  dropped  from  the  arnij-  for  de- 
sertion, dismissed  liy  sentence  of  Court-Martial,  or 
who  resigns  to  avoid  trial  by  Court-Martial ;  and  the 
Committee  have  the  further  power  to  require,  as  the 
condition  of  continued  membership,  a  new  and  thor- 
ough medical  examination  by  a  Medical  Officer  of  the 
army  in  the  case  of  anj'  one  who  the  Committee  ma}' 
have  good  reason  to  believe  shall  have  become  ad- 
dieted  to  habits  of  intemperance  or  immorality  calcu- 
lated to  seriously  impair  his  risk.  The  Executive 
Committee  may  at  any  time,  in  the  name  of  the  Asso- 
ciation, take  measures  to  procure  incorporation  for  it, 
or  jietition  Congress  for  such  legislation  as  would  in 
their  judgment  facilitate  the  collection  of  the  Assess- 
ments, and  the  custody  and  disbursement  of  the  funds 
of  the  Association,  through  the  Pay  Department  of  the 
army  and  the  Treasury,  or  otherwise,  as  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Executive  Committee  maj'  seem  most  ex- 
pedient. Upon  the  death  of  a  member  the  Treasurer, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Executive  Committee,  with- 
draws from  the  credit  of  each  member  in  the  special 
reserve  fund  the  amount  of  one  a.ssessment  upon  him, 
or  when  necessary  levy  an  extra  as.sessnient,  and  the 
money  thus  obtained  is  disposerl  of  as  follows:  The 
Treasurer,  with  the  least  possible  delay,  pays  to  the 
beneficiary  or  beneficiaries  the  net  benefit,  which  is  so 
much  of  such  aggregate  assessment,  after  deducting 


five  per  centum  for  expenses,  as  shall  not  exceed  a 
maximum  of  either  twenty-five  hundred  dollars  or  a 
total  of  three  dollars  per  capita  of  the  membership 
when  the  death  occurs.  Any  surplus  acquired  from 
one  aggregate  assessment  so  taken  or  levied  upon  a 
death  in  excess  of  these  limitations  is  accunmlated  in 
the  general  reserve  fund  until  the  same  shall  be  suffi- 
cient to  pay  a  future  benefit,  when  no  assessment  is 
appropriated  or  levied  therefor;  but  such  surplus,  or 
so  much  as  may  be  necessary,  is  applied  to  such  bene- 
fit, and  the  remainder,  if  any,  carried  forward  for  a 
lilie  purpose.  No  benefit  is  jjayable  by  this  Associa- 
tion upon  the  suicide  of  any  member  who  has  not 
been  a  member  in  good  standing  for  more  than  one 
year,  imlcss  the  Executive  Committee  shall  be  fully 
convinced  that  such  suicide  was  induced  by  insanity. 
In  case  of  any  one  who,  having  been  a  member,  aiid 
having  paid  all  his  assessments  and  dues  for  more 
than  one  year,  shall  have  committed  suicide,  the  fact 
of  insanity  shall  be  presumed  in  the  absence  of  con- 
vincing evidence  to  the  contrary.  The  decision  of 
the  Executive  Committee  entered  upon  the  minutes  of 
their  meeting  is,  however,  finally  binding  upon  all 
concerned  in  every  case.  An)-  member  may  change 
the  person  or  persons  designated  as  beneficiaries  by 
filing  with  the  Secretary  a  certificate  setting  forth  the 
fact.  Assignments  of  the  benefit  to  others  than  wid- 
ows, children,  or  other  relatives  are  not,  however, 
to  be  encour.aged,  and  will  not  be  accepted  unless  ap- 
proved by  the  E.xecutive  Committee.  The  meetings  of 
the  Association  are  held  at  Washington,  D.  C.  The 
annual  meetings  aie  held  on  the  second  Tuesday  in 
January  of  each  year,  at  which  time  the  Executive 
Committee  audit  "the  accoimts  of  the  Treasurer,  and 
submit  a  report  of  the  transactions  of  the  Association 
for  the  preceding  year.  The  proceedings  of  these 
meetings,  accompanied  by  the  reports  and  a  list 
of  the  members,  are  promptly  published  for  the  in- 
fonnation  of  the  Association.  Special  meetings  are 
called  upon  the  vvTitten  request  of  ten  or  more  mem- 
bers, and  at  all  meetings  the  absent  members  may 
be  represented  by  proxj',  in  writing,  given  to  those 
attending.  In  order  that  members  may  have  timely 
notice  of  the  numerical  strength  of  the  Association, 
and  be  informed  of  the  basis  upon  which  the  num- 
ber of  assessments  for  each  yc9.v  is  computed,  the 
Executive  Committee  cause  to  be  published  in  the  two 
military  newspapers  which  have  the  largest  army  cir- 
culation, as  early  in  the  beginning  of  each  year  as 
practicatjle,  a  notice  which  gives  the  total  member- 
ship of  January  1st,  and  the  number  of  a.ssessments 
payable  by  each  member. 

It  is  proposed  that  additional  groups,  not  exceed- 
ing two,  may  be  formed  whenever  one  hundred  mem- 
bers of  the  Parent- Association  (having  signified  their 
desire  to  join  the  same)  have  been  duly  accepted  by 
the  Executive  Committee.  Of  the  additional  groups 
authorized  to  be  formed,  the  first  group  formed  is 
designated  and  known  a.s  Group  B,  and  the  second  as 
Group  C.  For  purposes  of  assessment  members  of 
Groups  B  and  C  are  separately  classified,  and  the  as 
sessment  of  members  is  as  follows: 

Class.  Assessment. 

1.  Under  thirty  years S4  00 

2.  Thirty  to  thirtv-flve  years 5  00 

3.  Thirtv-five  to  forty  years 6  00 

4.  Forty  to  forty-five  years 7  00 

5.  Forty-five  to  fifty  years 8  00 

6.  Fifty  to  fifty-five  years 9  00 

7.  Fittv-flve  to  sixty  years  10  00 

8.  Sixty  to  sixty -five  years 11  00 

9.  Sixty-flve  to  seventy  years 12  00 

10.  Seventy  years  and  upwards 13  00 

The  fimds  of  the  Parent-Association  are  not  in  any 
case  whatever,  or  in  any  manner,  either  temporarily 
or  otherwise,  applicable  to  or  to  be  used  in  the  payment 
of  the  expenses  or  liabilities  of  the  groups;  and  the 
expenses,  liabilities,  and  benefits  of  Grou|is  B  and  C 
are  borne  by  the  members  thereof  respectivel.v,  and 
the  records,"  accounts,  and  funds  of  each  group  are 
kept  separate  and  distinct,  and  in  no  case  are  the 


AEMY  OF  OBSERVATION. 


Si 


ABMT  OBOANIZATION. 


funds  pcTtaiuing  to  one  group  applied  to  or  used  in 
pajnuent  of  the  expenses,  luibilities,  or  benefits  of  any 
other  group.  The  membi-rsUip,  classes,  and  assess- 
ments, January  1,  IS*!,  wea'  as  follows: 

Class.  Memtx'rsliip.    Ass.'ssments.  Amount. 

1  ...  105  S-'  00  $iIO  00 

a  131  •->  50  3-'r  50 

3              133  3  00  3U9  l« 

4 a02  S  50  TOT  00 

6        167  4  00  608  00 

6 90  4  50  405  UO 

7  38  5  00  140  00 

8';;; is  550  ssoo 

sTJ  ?a.9J4  50 

ARMY  OF  OBSERVATION.— The  question  of  mov- 
ing out  to  meet  a  relieving  array  involves,  f lequeutly, 
the  question  of  raising  the  siege.  If  the  besieging 
army  is  strong  enough  to  permit  it,  a  force  is  usually 
detacheil  to  watch  the  movements  of  the  relie\ing 
army,  while  the  main  body  remains  prosecuting  the 
siege  operations.  This  iletaclied  boily  is  known  as 
an  "Army  of  Observation.  No  important  siege  should 
be  undertaken  where  there  is  danger  from  a  heavy 
succoring  force  from  without,  unless  the  besieging 
force  is  "of  sufiicient  strength  not  only  to  keep  the 
garrison  within  their  works  whilst  the  ordinary  siege 
operations  are  pushed  forward,  but  to  detach  a  force 
of  sufficient  strength  to  observe  the  movements  of  any 
body  that  may  seem  large  enough  to  threaten  the  be- 
sieging force  and  to  holil  it  in  check  long  enough,  if 
attacked,  to  concentrate  the  entire  force  on  some 
favorable  defensive  position. 

AEMY  ORGANIZATION.— Napoleon,  at  the  period 
of  the  preparations  for  his  descent  upon  England, 
had  a  moment  of  leisure  which  he  could  bestow  upon 
his  military  organization.  Then,  for  the  first  time,  it 
is  believed,  was  introduced  a  systenuitie  organization 
of  grand  masses,  tenuetl  Army  Corjis;  each  one  com- 
prising within  itself  all  the  elements  of  a  complete 
ann}-,"and  apt  for  any  emergency.  Since  then  this 
has  served  as  a  t\ije  io  France  and  other  European 
States  in  their  organization.  An  army  is  now  com- 
posed of  one  or  more  army  corjis,  made  up  of  infan- 
try and  cavalry;  an  artillery  equipage,  comprising 
several  batteries;  several  artillery  parks  of  reserve; 
with  a  grand  one  to  which  is  attached  a  biidge-train. 
Each  army  corps  consists  of  one  or  more  Divisions; 
each  division  of  several  Brigades;  the  brigade  com- 
prising two  Regiments.  Two  batteries  of  foot-artil- 
lery, of  si.K  pieces  each,  are  attached  to  each  infantry 
division;  and  one  of  horse-artillery,  of  the  stuiie 
strength,  to  each  division  of  heavj-  cavaliy.  Besides, 
for  each  army  corps  of  infantr}-  there  is  a  reserve  of 
several  batteries;  and  a  few  served  by  foot-artillery. 
In  some  cases,  one  of  the  batteries  of  reserve  is  served 
by  the  horse-artillery.  A  company  of  engineer  troops, 
tenned  Suppers,  is  generally  attached  to  each  infantry 
division;  and  to  each  infantry  army  corps  a  brigade 
of  light  cavalry,  with  a  comjiauy  of  Poidnniers, 
which  has  charge  of  the  bridge-train.  In  France, 
each  brigade  is  commanded  by  a  Murcchal  ck  Camp, 
a  grade  corresixinding  to  our  Brigadier-General ;  each 
division  by  a  Lkutenant-Oenerai,  which  corresponds 
to  our  Major-General;  and  an  army  coqjs  by  a  Mare- 
chnl  de  /<>•««<;«'.  The  particidar  organization  of  the 
General  Staff,  and  the  iliffereiit  arms  of  ser\ice,  would 
lead  to  details  of  no  importance  here.  The  propor- 
tion, however,  of  each  ;irm  of  an  army  to  the  others 
is  a  subject  of  great  interest,  as  upon  tiiis  depends,  in 
a  great  degree,  the  more  or  less  of  e,\cellcnce  in  the 
military  institutions  of  a  State.  The  infantry,  from  its 
powers  of  endurance,  il.s  capabilities  for  battle  in  all 
kinds  of  ground,  and  its  independence  of  those  casual- 
tics  by  which  the  other  arms  may  be  completely 
paralyzed,  is  placed  as  the ./t>«<  rtrw  ,•  and  upon  it  is 
basctf  the  strength  of  all  the  others.  It  generally  forms 
about  four  fifthi  of  the  entire  force.  In  all  i5l:Ues 
where  the  militarj'  art  is  justly  appreciated  the  cav- 
alrj'  arm  is  placed  in  the  simnd  rmik  to  the  infantry. 
To  it  an  army  is  often  indebted  for  turning  the  scales 


of  victory-,  and  giving  a  decisive  character  to  the 
issue.  To  it,  the  iut'aiUry,  when  e.\hau.sted  by  fa- 
tigue, or  broken,  often  owes  its  safety,  and  through 
the  re.s|iite  gained  by  its  charges  finds  time  to  breathe 
and  re-form.  Without  it,  much  of  advaiue(i-po.st 
duty,  patrols,  and  detachment  service  reiiuiring  great 
celerity  would  be  but  badly  performed.  But  the 
arm  of  cavalry  by  it.self  can  ellect  but  little,  and,  in 
many  circumstances,  does  not  suflice  even  for  its  own 
safety.  The  smallest  obstacles  are  sutfieient  to  render 
it  powerless;  it  can  neither  attack  nor  hold  a  post 
without  the  aid  of  inf;intry;  and  at  night  is  alarmed, 
and  justly  so,  at  every  phantom.  The  iirojiortion 
borne  by  the  cavuliy  to  the  infantry  should  vary  with 
the  features  of  the  s<.at  of  war;  being  greater  in  a 
champagne  than  in  a  broken  or  mountaincniscoimtry. 
The  proi)ortion  of  om- fourth  of  the  infaiUry  for  the 
first,  and  one  xLvth  for  the  last,  is  generally  admitted 
by  received  militaiy  authority  as  the  best.  The  ar- 
tilleiT  is  ])laced  third  in  rniik  among  the  anus.  Its 
duties  are  to  support  and  cover  the  other  arms;  keep 
the  enemy  from  approaching  too  near;  hold  him  in 
check  when  he  advances;  and  prevent  him  from 
(lebouchiiifi  at  particular  points.  To  perform  these 
duties  it  is  considered  that  an  allowance  of  one  piece 
for  each  thousand  men  of  the  other  anns,  and  one  in 
reserve,  forms  the  proper  quota  of  this  arm.  It  is  to 
be  remarked,  however,  that  this  proportion  supposes 
the  other  arms  in  an  excellent  state  of  organization 
and  discipline.  In  the  contrarj'  case,  the  quota  of 
artillery  must  be  increased;  for  it  inspires  poor  troops 
with  confidence,  as  they  rely  upon  it  to  keep  off  the 
enemy,  and  to  cover  tlieir  retreat.  But  here  arises 
another  disadvantage,  as  artillery  is  uticiiy  incapable 
of  defending  itself,  and  therefore,  when  present  in  an 
over-proportion,  it  nutst  necessarily  sustain  great 
losses  in  guns  and  the  other  matiriel.  The  arm  of 
engineering,  although  requiring  more  science  and  a 
higher  gi'ade  of  talent  for  its  duties  than  any  other, 
takes  the  last  place  in  tactical  considerations.  To  it  is 
intrusted  all  that  pertains  to  ojiposing  passive  obstacles 
to  an  enemy's  advance,  and  rcmo\ing  those  which  he 
may  have  raised.  To  it  is  assigned  that  most  difficult 
of  all  tasks  to  the  soldier,  patient  endurance  of  manu.-il 
toil,  and  a  disregard  of  everything  InU  the  work  in 
hand,  whilst  exposed  to  the  enemy's  fire.  The  pro- 
portion of  engineer  troops  will  depend  in  a  great 
measure  upon  the  character  of  the  operations  imder- 
taken;  being  most  in  sieges,  and  least  in  those  <lepend- 
iug  mainlj'  on  maneuvers.  In  the  French  ser\ice 
the  engineers  are  one  half  the  strength  of  the  artillcrj' 
— a  large  number,  but  rendered  necessary  by  the  pecu- 
liar military  position  of  that  coimtry.  The  troops 
which  compose  the  three  princiiial  arms  are  generally 
subdivided  into  two  classes, /«(((•// and  lii/ht ;  partly 
arising  from  the  nature  of  their  weapons,  and  jxirtly 
from  their  destination  on  the  field  of  battle.  This 
subdivision  is  less  marked  in  the  infantry  than  in  that 
of  the  other  arms;  for  although  in  most  foreign 
armies  a  portion  of  the  mfantiT  caiTics  a  sal)er 
with  the  musket,  still  this  additional  weapon  is  of 
rather  questionable  utility;  for  the  musket  is  the  one 
which,  under  all  circumstances  of  attack  and  defense, 
will  be  resorted  to.  All  infantry  now  receive  the 
same  instruction;  but  whether  a  portion  of  it  ought 
not  to  be  reserved  esjiecially  for  the  duties  consigned 
to  light  troops  is  still  a  dispute<l  point.  One  thing  is 
certain,  that  perfection  is  more  easily  reached  by  con- 
fining the  indivi<hial  to  one  branch  of  his  art  than  by 
requiring  him  to  make  himself  conver.sant  with  the 
whole.  Still  it  might  be  often  found  inconvenient, 
at  the  least,  if  infantry  were  not  able  to  perform  all  the 
fimctions  required  of  it.  The  .service  of  light  infantry 
often  demands  great  individual  address,  intelligence, 
and  well-develo)ied  physical  ])owers — a  combiuntion 
of  (pialilies  not  easily  found,  and  seldom,  indeed,  with- 
out careful  habitual  training.  Whereas,  in  infantry 
of  the  line,  the  ((ualities  of  the  individual  are  of  less 
importance,  as  results  here  depend  almost  solely  upon 
the  action  of  the  mass.    The  habitual  order  of  battle- 


AEMY  KEGISTEE. 


85 


AEMY  EEGTTLATIONS. 


of  light  infantry  is  the  dispersed  order ;  and  whether 
acting  oirensivclv  or  defensively,  it  depends  for  its 
results  upon  the  effect  of  its  tire,  resortinLT  to  the  close 
order,  iiiid  usinjc  the  bayonet  only  exceptionally.  As 
each  individual,  although  immediately  supported  by 
his  own  tile-closer,  and  those  on  his  right  and  left,  is 
still  often  thrown  upon  his  own  re-ources,  being 
obliged  to  take  cover  where  he  can  most  conveniently 
find  it,  he  must  be  a  good  marksman,  cool,  deliberate, 
and  circumspect;  since  it  may  become  necessjiry  to 
keep  an  enemy  occui)icd  hours  and  even  days  to- 
gether, pressing  on  him  at  one  moment  and  yielding 
to  him  the  next,  or  hold  with  tenacity,  and  disputing 
inch  by  inch  some  particular  point,  as  it  may  suit  the 
views  of  the  General  in  command.  In  infantry  of  the 
line,  as  success  depends  uijou  the  action  of  the  mass, 
ensemble,  coolness,  and  determuialion  should  charac- 
terize all  its  movements,  whether  it  delivers  its  fire  in 
line,  forms  In  column  to  attack  with  the  bayonet,  or 
throws  itself  into  square,  to  await  the  charge  of  the 
enemy's  cavalry.  The  duties  of  light  infantry  are  to 
open  an  engagement,  and,  after  it  is  fairly  got  imder 
■way,  to  keep  it  going;  tiu-ning  it  to  advantjige  if  suc- 
cessful, otherwise  breaking  it  off.  In  it.s  relations  to 
the  infantry  of  the  line,  it  should  cover  the  flanks  of 
the  latter;  clear  the  way  for  its  advance  by  rooting 
the  enemy  out  of  all  covers,  and  then  holding  them 
if  requisite.  Upon  it  devolves  all  advanced-post,  de- 
tachment, and  advanced-  and  rear-guard  ser\ice.  To 
the  infantry  of  the  line  is  confitlcd  everything  where 
firmness  is  the  essential  requisite;  as  the  attack  or  de- 
fense of  kej'-points,  the  formation  of  all  supports  and 
re.serves,  whether  on  the  field  or  in  the  attack  and 
defense  of  posts.  There  is  a  third  class  of  infantry, 
termed  rifltiiwn,  which  does  not  form  a  part  proper 
of  the  arm  of  infantry;  partaking,  when  properly 
constituted,  more  of  the  character  of  partisan  than  of 
regular  troops;  being  chosen  only  from  that  jiortion 
of  a  population  whose  habits  lead  them  to  a  daily  use 
of  fire-arms  and  give  them  an  unerring  aim.  As  an 
auxiliary  in  the  defense  of  particular  localities,  where 
they  are  secure  from  the  attack  of  the  bayonet,  or  of 
cavalrj-,  and  can  deliver  their  fire  with  that  delibera- 
tion winch  their  weapon  demands,  rifiemen  will  often 
be  found  invaluable;  as  nothing  is  more  dreaded  by 
troops  generally  than  this  lurking  and  often  in\'isible 
foe,  whose  whereabouts  is  only  divined  by  the  de- 
struction he  deals  around  him.  In  cavalry,  the  dis- 
tinction between  heavy  and  light  is  more  strongly 
marked,  and  the  functions  of  each  more  clearly  de- 
fined than  in  infantry.  The  cuirasskrs,  from  their 
defensive  armor  and  hi ;ny  s;iber,  which  in  both  man 
and  horse  adl  for  great  physical  jiowers,  constitute 
tlie  true  heavy  cavalrj".  The  dnigimns  and  hnitsiirs 
Ijelong  to  the  light,  and  the  landers  indifferently  per- 
form the  functions  of  either.  The  most  essential 
qualit}'  of  all  cavalry,  which  distinguishes  it  from  all 
other  arms,  ami  gives  it  the  faculty  of  taking  an  enemy 
frequently  at  disjidvantage,  is  that  of  celerity.  If  to 
this  the  rider  unites  boldness,  and  even,  when  called 
for,  recklessness,  it  makes  of  this  arm  a  truly  fearful 
cue.  Cavafry.  to  attain  its  ends,  should  unite  several 
e.s.sential  conditions;  horses  and  weapons  in  good  con- 
dition; sutficient  depth  of  ground  both  in  front  and 
rear  to  g-ather  speed  for  the  charge,  or  space  for  rally- 
ing; to  be  led  boldly  but  skillfully  into  action;  have 
its  fiauks  covered  against  a  surprise;  ami  be  followed 
by  a  support,  or  reserve,  to  cover  the  retreat,  or  se- 
cure from  the  effects  of  confusion  the  line  charging, 
if  brought  up  imexpectedly  by  the  enemy.  As  the 
functions  of  liea\-y  cavalry  are  to  bear  down  all  op- 
position and  iiresent  an  impa.ssiible  wall  to  the  ene- 
my's efforts,  its  duties  are  confined  to  the  battle-field; 
there,  placed  in  the  reserve,  it  is  held  in  hand  until 
the  decisive  moment  arrives,  when  it  is  launched 
forth  to  deal  a  blow  from  which  the  enemy  hopelessly 
struggles  to  ri'cover,  either  to  achieve  viclory  or  to 
fend  off  utter  defeat.  To  light  cavalry  are  intrusted 
the  important  duties  of  securimr  from  surprise  the 
flimksof  the  heavy;  to  watch  over  the  safety  of  horse- 


artillery,  and  to  perform  the  ser\ices  required  of  them 
by  infantry  di\isions,  and  those  of  detachment  service 
in  general.  The  artillery,  which  hatl  for  a  lon^  pe- 
riod, and  even  still,  preserves  the  character  of  emment 
respectaljilitv.  hasof  late  years  begun  to  infuse  a  dash 
of  the  dare-ckvil  spirit  of  the  cavalier  into  its  ranks. 
If  it  has  not  yet  taken  to  charging  literally,  it  has,  on 
some  recent  occasions,  shown  a  well-considered  reck- 
lessness of  obstacles  and  dangers,  fully  borne  out  by 
justly  deserved  success.  The  distinction  between 
light  and  heavy  in  this  arm  ari.ses  not  only  from  the 
difference  of  caliber  in  thi'  pieces,  but  also  in  a  differ- 
ence of  their  tactical  ai)i)licatiou.  The  heavy  field- 
caliber  is  reserved  for  batteries  in  position,  and  is  sel- 
dom shifted  during  the  action.  The  light  field-cali- 
ber are  served  either  by  foot-  or  horse-artillery,  and 
follow  the  movements  of  the  other  arms.  Improve- 
ments both  in  the  iimU'riii  and  the  tactics  of  artillery 
have  lieen  very  marked  within  late  years.  Formerly, 
considered  only  in  the  light  of  an  au.xiliary  on  the 
battle-field,  artillery  now  aspires,  and  with  indispu- 
table claims,  to  the  rank  of  a  piincipal  ann.  The 
tactical  applications  of  artillery  on  the  field  deijend 
on  the  caliber.  To  the  heavy  are  assigned  tlie  duties 
of  occupying  positions  for  strengthening  the  weak 
points  of  the  field  of  battle;  for  securing  the  retreat 
oftheaiTuy;  for  defending  all  objects  whose  jiosses- 
sion  might  be  of  importance  to  the  enemy,  as  villages, 
defiles,  etc.;  and  for  overturning  all  passive  olistacles 
that  cover  the  enemy,  or  arrest  the  progress  of  the 
other  arms.  The  light  pieces,  served  by  foot-artillery, 
follow  the  movements  of  the  infantry;  covering  the 
flanks  of  its  position,  preparing  the  way  for  its  onset, 
and  arresting  that  of  the  enemy.  It  is  of  this  that 
the  principal  part  of  the  artillery  in  reserve  is  com- 
posed. The  horee-artillery  is  held  in  hand  for  de- 
cisive moments.  When  launched  forth,  its  arrival 
and  execution  should  be  uuex|iected  and  instanta- 
neous. Ready  to  repair  all  disasters  and  partial  re- 
verses, it,  at  one  moment,  temporaiily  replaces  a  bat- 
tery of  foot,  and  at  the  next  is  on  another  point  of 
the  field,  to  force  back  an  enemy's  column.  In  pre- 
liaring  the  attacks  of  cavalry,  this  arm  is  often  indis- 
pensable and  always  invaluable;  l)rought  with  rapid- 
ity in  front  of  a  line,  or  opiwsile  to  squares  of  infan- 
try, within  the  range  of  canister,  its  well-directed 
tire,  in  a  few  discharges,  opens  a  gap,  or  so  shakes 
the  entire  mass  that  the  cavalier  finds  but  a  feeble 
obstacle  where,  without  this  aid.  he  would  in  vain 
have  exhausted  all  his  powers.     See  Army. 

AEMY  EEGISTEE.— The  official  list  of  the  United 
States  army,  iiublished  annually,  showing  the  jiosi- 
tion.  rank,  and  duties  of  ollieers,  regiments,  com- 
panies, etc.,  with  the  primiotious  and  casualties  dur- 
in<r  the  precedinir  twelve  months. 

AEMY  EEGULATIONS.— A  book  .-o  called,  pnb- 
lished  in  the  name  of  the  President  of  the  United 
.States  "for  the  government  of  all  concerned."  The 
Constitution  pro\-ides  that  "Congress  shall  have 
power  to  make  rules^  for  the  go\'ernment  and  rff/nlii- 
tion  of  the  land  and  naval  forces."  The  only  Acts 
of  Congress  in  force  authorizing  the  President  to 
make  regulations  better  defining  the  powers  and 
duties  of  offieei's  are  contained  in  the  5th  section  of 
the  Act  of  March  ;i,  1813,  and  the  9lh  section  of  the 
Act  approved  April  26,  1816.  The  first  of  these  acts 
is  an  act  for  the  better  organization  of  the  General 
Staff  of  the  array,  and  the  second  relates  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  last  section,  concerning  forage  and 
private  servants)  to  the  same  subject.  By  the  5th 
section  of  the  Act  of  1813  it  is  provided,  "That  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  of  the  War  Dei)art- 
ment,  and  he  is  hereby  authorized,  to  prepare  gener-al 
regulations  better  defining  and  prescribing  the  re- 
spective d;ilies  and  powers  of  the  several  officers  in  the 
Adjutant-General,  Inspector-General,  Quartcrmaster- 
Genend,  and  Commissiry  of  Ordnance  Deparlmints,  of 
the  Topographicid  Engineers,  of  the  Aides  of  Generals, 
and  generally  of  the  General  and  Regimental  Staff; 
w^hich  regulations,  when  approved  by  the  President  of 


AEMY  KESERVE. 


86 


ABHT  WORK  CORPS. 


the  Unitc<l  Slntcs,  shall  be  a'speetod  nnd  obeyed  until 
altered  or  revoked  by  the  siime  autliorily.  And  the 
said  gi'nenil  reijulation?;,  thus  prepareil  and  approved, 
shall  be  laid  before  Congress  at  their  next  session." 

Remarking  here  that  the  regulations  to  be  pre- 
pared and  approved  refer  oiity  to  the  powers  and 
duties  of  the  otlicers  of  the  several  Stall  Departments 
enumerated  in  the  Aet.  it  follows  that  no  other  regu- 
lations made  by  the  President  can  derive  any  force 
whiitever  from  this  Aet.  Tlie  9lh  section  of  the  Act 
of  isiti  therefore  only  continued  this  then  e.visting 
power  of  the  President  in  providing  "  That  the  several 
otfieers  of  the  Stalf  shall  respectively  receive  the  pay 
and  emoluments,  and  retain  all  the  privileges,  .secured 
to  the  Stair  of  the  army  by  the  Act  of  Jlarch  3,  1813, 
and  not  incompatible  with  the  pro\Tsions  of  this  Act; 
and  that  the  regulations  in  force  before  the  reduction 
of  the  army  be  recognized,  as  far  as  the  same  shall 
be  found  api>licable  to  the  service;  subject,  however, 
to  such  alterations  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may 
adopt,  with  the  approbation  of  the  President."  It 
would  seem,  therefore,  that  whatever  may  be  con- 
t;uned  in  the  President's  army  regulations  "of  a  legis- 
lative character  concerning  officers  of  the  army  not 
belonging  to  »5taff  Departments  must,  if  valid,  be  a 
legitimate  deduction  from  some  positive  law,  or  de- 
pend for  its  legality  upon  the  exercise  of  authority 
delegated  to  the  constitutional  Commander-in-Chief  or 
other  -Military  Commander,  in  the  rules  made  by  Con- 
gress for  the  government  of  the  armj'.  Congress  has 
delegated  to  the  President  authority  to  prescribe  the 
uniform  of  the  army;  authority  to  establish  the 
ration;  and  besides  the  aiithority  given  by  law  to 
other  Military  Commanders,  he  also  has  been  autho- 
rized to  relieve,  in  special  cases,  an  inetficient  Military 
Commimder  from  duty  with  any  command;  to  assign 
any  senior  to  duty  with  mixed  corps,  so  that  the  com- 
mand may  fall  by  law  on  such  senior  in  rank;  to 
limit  the  discretion  of  Comnwnding  Officers  in  special 
cases,  in  regard  to  what  is  needful  for  the  ser\-iee; 
and  hence  also  he  has  been  given  authority  to  carve 
out  siiecial  commands  from  general  commands  in 
particular  cases.  These  are  all-important  functions, 
but  they  do  not  authorize  special  eniiiit  to  be  made 
general  rules,  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the 
lines  of  separation  between  regulations  and  the  orders 
of  the  Commander-in-Chief  have  not  been  kept  dis- 
tinct. 

ARMY  RESERVE.— A  force,  under  the  present 
organization  of  the  Hritish  anny,  composed  of  men 
who  have  enlisted  for  twelve  years,  a  portion  of  which 
service,  viz..  six  and  not  less  than  three  years,  must 
be  passed  with  the  colors,  the  residue  being  spent  in 
the  reserve.  This  condition  of  serWce  is  known  as 
"  short  ser\ice."  Other  soldiers  arc  eligiljle  to  enter 
the  reserve  force,  viz. .  those  who  have  exceeded  the 
first  term  of  their  engagement,  say  men  after  thirteen 
or  ffiurteen  years'  service,  and  who  do  not  exceed 
thirty-four  years  in  age.  I'nder  the  system  which 
now  obtains,  a  considerable  reserve  force  may  be  ex- 
pected to  be  formed,  and  it  is  estimated  that  with  an 
army  of  180. (X)0  men.  of  whom  three  fourths  are  to 
serve  only  six  years  with  the  colors,  there  will  accrue 
by  1882  a  largo  reserve  of  trained  men,  all  under 
thirty-two  years  of  age. 

Tlie  Army  Enlistment  Act  of  1867  formed  a  body  of 
men  called  ihe  enrolled  pensioners  and  others  into  two 
classes:  First  class,  not  exceeding  20,01)0  men,  liable 
for  service  anywhere,  and  consisting  of  men  who  are 
ser\ing  or  have  served  in  the  army,  and  whose  .service 
does  not  exceed  first  term  of  enlistment.  Second  class, 
not  exceeding  30.000,  liable  for  service  in  the  United 
Kingdom  only,  consisting  of  persons  already  enrolled, 
out-pensioners.  The  Act  of  1870  has  ni(")dilied  Ihe 
above,  and  the  result  has  Ijecn  that  enrollment  for 
second  class,  except  for  pensioners,  has  been  sus- 
penfled.  (Second  cla.ss  therefore  consists  entirely  of  en- 
rolled pensioners,  who  are  called  out  for  twelve  days 
annually,  under  S.  O.  of  Pensioners,  and  numlier 
about  15,000.)     Enrollment  in  the  first  class  is  en- 


couraged, and  men  are  eligible  to  enter  this  class  up 
to  the  age  of  thirty-four;  the  retaining  fee  amounts 
to  t'G  JKT  annum  (but  no  claim  to  future  pension), 
and  all  men  enlisted  under  short  service  arc  to  be 
pa.ssed  into  this  class,  w'ho  will  ultimately  be  the 
reserve  of  the  standing  arm}'. 

ARMY  SCHOOLS.— The  colleges,  academies,  and 
schools  relating  to  military  matters  may  be  grouped 
into  three  cla.sses — those  intended  to  increase  the 
military'  efficiency  of  the  officers  and  men;  those  for 
impartmg  military  know  ledge  to  jjersons  not  yet  in 
military  .service;  and  those  which  bear  relation  to  the 
ordinary  school-tuition  of  soldiers  of  the  rar.ks  and 
their  children.  The  principal  of  tho.se  in  the  first 
group  are  the  Uoyal  Military  College  at  Sandhurst, 
the  Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich,  the  School 
of  Instruction  at  Chatham,  the  Department  of  Artil- 
lery Studies  at  Woolwich,  the  School  of  Artillery  at 
Shoebuiy,  the  School  of  Musketry  at  llythe,  the  Royal 
Artillery  Institution  at  AVoolwich,  and  the  United 
States  Artillery  School.  The  chief  among  the  second 
group  are  the  Royal  Military  Asylum  (better  known 
as  the  Duke  of  York's  School),  the  Regimental 
Schools,  the  Garrison  Schools,  and  the  United  States 
Military  Academy.  Chelsea  College  or  Hospital  is 
an  Asylum  for  veterans,  not  a  school  of  instruction. 
Most  of  these  educational  establishments  will  be 
found  most  briefly  described  in  this  work,  either 
under  the  names  of  the  places  w  here  they  e.xist,  or  of 
the  arm  of  the  service  to  which  tliev  belong. 

ARMY  SERVICE  CORPS.— A  l)raneh  of  the  Control 
Department,  in  England,  officered  from  the  Supply 
and  Transport  Sub-department.  The  officers  of  this 
corps  rank  as  follows:  Commissary-Major,  Deputy 
Comnus.sary-Cai)tain,  xissistant  Commissarv-Lieuten- 
ant.  The  corps  consists  of  clerks,  tradesmen,  me- 
chanics, skilled  laborers,  drivers,  etc.,  who  are  re- 
quired for  the  various  duties  connected  with  the 
supply,  store,  |iay,  and  transport  service. 

ARMY  'WAGON.— A  wagon  designed  for  the  use  of 
foot-soldiers  on  the  plains,  and  so  constructed  that  the 
men  can  quickly  jump  off  the  seats  when  attacked, 
and  spring  back  again  at  once.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  wagons  for  stores  and  ammunition. 

ARMY  'WORK  CORPS.— When  the  British  generals 
engaged  in  the  Crimean  War,  in  the  latter  months  of 
18.>t,  kne^v  that  the  siege-army  would  need  to  winter 
outside  Sebtstopol,  grave  dilficulties  were  presented 
to  their  notice.  The  distance  from  the  landing-place 
at  Bulaklava  to  the  front  of  the  siege-camp  was  not 
less  than  eight  miles;  and  the  only  road  was  a  mud- 
track,  almost  impassable  in  w  ct  weather.  How  to  get 
the  heavy  guns,  the  shot  ami  shell,  the  provisions  and 
the  general  stores  up  to  the  front  was  a  question  not 
eas}-  of  solution.  The  British  soldiers  were  too  few 
even  for  the  ordinary  military  duties,  and  yet  they 
were  called  upon  for  services  of  an  extra  and  arduous 
nature.  When  these  facts  became  known  in  England, 
a  suggestion  was  made  that  an  "  Army  \Vork  (^'orjis" 
should  be  formed,  to  consist  of  strong  and  efficient 
railway  excavators.  Cornish  miners,  and  well-sinkers; 
that  these  should  liave  with  them  all  the  tools  and 
appliances  for  making  roads  and  digging  wells;  and 
that  they  should  be  accompanied  by  traveling  work- 
shops and  skilled  artisans,  to  eiTeet  that  which  might 
require  more  skill  than  physical  lalKir.  The  inunedi- 
ate  necessities  of  I.,orcl  Raglan,  in  regard  to  bringing 
up  supplies,  were  met  Ijy  the  construction  of  a  rail- 
way from  Balaklava  to  the  heights  outside  SebastoiK)!, 
by  special  contract  with  Messrs.  Peto  6c  Brassey;  but 
the  large  amount  of  bodily  labor  continually  needed 
for  various  services  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Army 
Work  Corps.  The  raising  and  organization  of  this 
force  were  intrusifd  to  Sir  .loscph  Paxton.  As  soon 
as  he  had  obtained  1000  efficient  men  he  sent  them 
out;  and  their  value  was  so  soon  felt  by  Lord  Raglan 
that  other  detachments  gradually  followed,  u.ail  the 
corps  compriscil  'ATM)  men  in  Ihe  latter  months  of 
1855.  The  men  were  jiaid  well  and  they  worked  • 
well;  and  as  their  engagement  related   only  to  the 


AENAOtJTS. 


87 


ARKEST  IN  OBDER  OF  TRIAL. 


special  duties  connected  with  the  sieKecamp,  the 
country  was  not  s;iddled  with  any  burden  after  the 
need  for  these  services  had  ceased.  They  did  not  re- 
quire to  be  drilled  for  their  duties,  lilce  sappers;  and 
they  were  ready  for  work  at  once,  as  artisans  or 
laborers.  There  were  some  cases  of  disagreement 
between  the  men  and  their  employers,  after  the  whole 
of  the  British  had  returned  from  the  Crimea,  in  a 
matter  of  wages  due;  but  this  was  a  question  of  de- 
tail, and  did  not  affect  the  usefulness  of  the  corps. 
The  experience  gained  has  been  valuable,  as  showing 
in  what  way,  under  special  circumstances,  ordinary 
workmen  and  laborers  may  be  employed  as  assistants 
to  a  militarv  force 

ARNAOUTS  — AENOTJTS.— A  corps  of  Ureclan 
militia  organized  during  the  war  of  Russia  against 
the  Porte  in  1769. 

ARftTTEBUS.— The  first  form  of  hand-gun  which 
could  fairly  be  compared  with  the  modern  musket. 
Those  (if  earlier  date  were  tired  by  applying  a  match 
by  hand  to  the  touch-hole;  but  about  the  time  of  the 
battle  of  ^Morat,  in  1476,  giuis  were  used  having  a  con- 
trivance suggested  by  tlie  trigger  of  the  arljalest  or 
cross-bow,  l)y  which  the  burning  match  could  l)e  ap- 
plied with  more  quickness  and  certainty.  Such  a  gun 
was  the  arquebus.  Many  of  Ihe  Yeomen  of  the  Guard 
were  armed  with  this  weapon,  on  the  first  fcrraa- 
tion  of  that  corps  in  Hs.j.  The  anpiebus  being 
tired  from  the  chest,  with  the  butt  in  a  right  line 
with  the  barrel,  it  w;is  diflieult  to  brhiir  the  eye 
down  low  enough  to  take  good  aim;  l)ut  the  Ger- 
mans soon  introduced  an  improvement  by  giving 
a  hooked  form  to  the  butt,  which  elevated  "the  bar- 
rel; and  the  arquebus  then 
obtained  the  name  of  the 
haqiubiit.  Fre(juently  wx'M- 
ten  Arqucbuse,  Harquebus, 
and  Hiirqiichiise. 

ARQUEBUSADE.— Shot  of 
an  artiuebus.  Also  distilled 
water  from  a  variety  of  aro- 
matic plants,  as  rosemary, 
millefoil,  etc.,  applied  to  a 
bruise  or  wound;  .so  called 
because  it  was  originally  used 
as  a  vulnerary  in  gun-shot 
wounds. 

ARQUEBUSIERS.— Soldiers 
armed  with  the  arqueljus  and 
haquelnU.  The  former  were 
common  in  the  English  army 
in  the  time  of  Richard  III. , 

Arquebusier.  *^[j'f"^''   ^'^   *'''''   °^   "'^"■■•'' 

ARRAY.— Order  of  battle,  as  an  anny  in  battle 
itiTiiji;  disposition  in  regular  lines. 

ARRAYER. — A  title  given  to  certain  military  officers 
in  England  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
There  were  two  of  tlieni  in  each  county,  sometimes 
called  Commissaries  of  Musters.  Their  duties  were 
set  forth  in  an  ordinance  of  Henry  V..  from  the 
terms  of  which  it  ajipears  that  the  Arrayers  were 
Army  Inspectors,  or,  rather,  Militia  Inspectors,  and 
in  some  sense  precursors  to  the  modem  Lord-Lieu- 
tenant of  Counties. 

ARREST. — 1.  A  French  word,  similar  in  its  import 
to  the  Latin  word  Ritlnticuhiiii.  It  consisted  of  a 
small  piece  of  steel  or  iron  which  was  formerly  used 
in  the  construction  of  tire-arms  to  prevent  the  piece 
going  off.  A  familiar  phrase  among  military  men 
m  France  is,  Cepixtokt  e.it  en  arret. — "  This  pistol  is 
in  arrest,"  or  "  is  stopped." 

2.  The  temporary  confinement  of  officers  in  bar- 
racks, quarters,  or  tents,  pending  trial  by  Court- 
Jlartial,  or  the  consideration  of  their  imputed  offenses 
previous  to  deciding  whether  they  shall  or  shall  not 
be  tried.  Private  soldiers  are  usually  jilaced  \mder 
guard,  and  non-commissioned  officers  are  placed  in 
arrest  in  quarters.  None  but  Commanding  (.)lBcers 
have  power  to  place  officers  under  arrest,  except  for 


otTenfcs  expres-sly  designated  in  the  Twenty-fourth 
Article  of  War.  Officers  are  not  put  in  arrest  for  light 
offenses.  For  these  the  censure  of  the  Commaudmg 
Officer  will,  in  most  cases,  answer  the  purpos<'s  of 
discipline.  An  officer  in  aiTest  may,  at  the  tliscretion 
of  his  Commanding  Officer,  have  larger  limits  assigned 
him  than  his  tent  or  quarters,  on  written  application 
to  that  effect.  Close  confinement  is  not  to  be  resorted 
to  unless  under  circumstances  of  an  aggravated  char- 
acter. In  ordinarj-  cases,  and  where  inconvenience  to 
the  service  would  result  from  it,  a  Medical  Officer  is 
not  put  in  arrest  until  the  Court-Martial  for  his  trial 
convenes.  The  arrest  of  an  officer  or  the  confinement 
of  a  soldier  is  reported  to  his  immediate  Conmiander 
as  soon  as  practicable.  All  prisoners  under  guard, 
without  written  charges,  are  released  by  the  Officer  of 
the  Day  at  guard-moimting,  unless  orders  to  the  con- 
trary be  given  by  the  Commanding  Officer.  On  a 
march,  Field-officers  and  Xou-commissioncd  Staff- 
officers  in  arrest  follow  in  rear  of  their  respective  regi- 
ments. Company  officers  and  Non-commissioned 
officers  in  ;  rrest  follow  in  the  rear  of  their  respective 
companies,  unless  otherwise  specially  ordered.  An 
officer  under  arrest  does  not  wear  a  sword,  or  visit  offi- 
cially his  Commanding  or  other  Superior  Officer,  unless 
sent  for.  In  case  of  official  business  he  makes  known 
his  object  in  writing.  Whenever  officers  are  ordered 
in  arrest,  oi'  for  trial,  from  their  proper  stations  to  other 
military  posts,  they  may,  during  the  time  they  remain 
at  such  posts  under  arrest,  awaiting  trial  or  sentence, 
be  allowed  to  occupy  public  quarters  provided  there 
arc  any  vacant  that  can  be  assigned  to  them  w  ithout 
infringing  upon  the  rights  of  other  officers  regularly 
stationed  on  duty  at  the  post.  Under  these  circum- 
stances they  forfeit  any  and  all  claims  they  may  have 
hafl  to  quarters  in  kind,  or  commutation  therefor  else- 
where.    See  ii'>tfi  Artii-I,'  nf  Vuir. 

ARRESTE  OF  THE  GLACIS.— In  fortification,  the 
junetinuof  the  talus  wliich  is  formed  at  all  the  angles. 

ARREST  IN  ORDER  OF  TRIAL.— Before  an  officer 
or  soldier,  or  other  person  subject  to  military  law, 
can  be  brought  to  trial,  he  must  be  charged  with 
some  crime  or  offense  against  the  Rules  and  Articles  of 
War,  and  placed  in  arrest.  The  Articles  of  War  direct 
that  whenever  any  officer  shall  be  charged  %\ith  a 
crime,  he  shall  be  arrested  and  confined  in  his  bar- 
racks, quarters  or  tent,  and  deprived  of  his  sword  by 
the  Commanding  Oflicer.  And  that  "  Non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  soldiers,  charged  \vith  crimes,  shall 
be  confined  until  tried  by  a  Court-Martial,  or  released 
by  proper  authority."  The  arrest  of  an  officer  is  gen- 
erally executed  through  a  Staff-Officer;  by  an  Adjutant, 
if  ordered  liy  the  Commanding  Officer  of  a  regiment; 
or  by  an  officer  of  the  General  Staff,  if  ordered  by  a 
Superior  Officer;  and  sometimes  by  Ihe  officer  with 
whom  the  arrest  originates.  On  being  placed  in 
arrest,  an  officer  resigns  his  sword.  If  this  form  be 
sometimes  omitted,  the  custom  is  invariably  ob- 
served of  an  officer  in  arrest  not  wearing  a  sword. 
By  the  custom  of  the  army,  it  is  usual,  except  in 
capital  cases,  to  allow  an  officer  in  arrest  the  limits 
of  the  garrison  or  even  greater  limits,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  Commanding  Officer,  who  regulates  his 
conduct  by  the  dictates  of  propriety  and  lunuanily. 
A  Non-comunssioned  officer  or  soldier  is  confined  m 
charge  of  a  guard;  but,  by  the  custom  of  the  serWce, 
the  Non-commissioned  Staff  and  Sergeants  may  be 
simply  arrested.  The  Articlesof  Wardeclare  "that  no 
officer  or  soldier  who  shall  be  put  in  arrest  or  imprison- 
ment .shall  continue  in  his  confinement  more  than  eight 
days,  or  until  such  time  as  a  t'otu-t-Martial  can  be  con- 
veniently assembled."  The  latter  part  of  this  clause 
evidently  allows  a  latitude  which  is  cajiable  of  being 
abused;  bin,  as  in  a  free  country  there  is  no  wrong 
without  a  remedy,  an  action  miglil  be  brought  against 
the  offender  in  a  Civil  Court,  if  the  mode  of  redress 
for  all  officers  and  soldiers  who  conceive  themselves 
iniured  bv  their  Commanding  Officer  lie  not  sufficient. 

It  is  declared  by  the  Articles  of  War  that  "  no  officer 
commanding  a  guard,  or  Provost-marshal,  shall  re- 


ARRICK  PROJECTILE. 


88 


ARROW-POISONS. 


fuse  to  receive  or  keep  any  prisoner  commiltcd^o  bis 
charge  by  any  officer  beloiiirinjr  to  the  forces  of  the 
United  Slates:  pro\ide<i,  the  officer  committing  shall, 
at  the  same  time,  deliver  an  account  in  writing, 
signed  by  himself,  of  the  crime  with  which  the  said 
prisoner  is  charged  ;"  and  it  is  iilso  deciared  that 
••  no  officer  commanding  a  guard,  or  Provost-marshal, 
shall  presume  to  relea.se  any  prisoner  committed  to 
his  charge  without  proper  authority  for  so  doing, 
nor  shall  he  sutler  any  person  to  escape,  on  the  pen- 
alty i)f  Ix'ing  punished  for  it  by  the  sentence  of  a 
Court-Martial.  Kvery  officer  or  Provost-marshal  to 
who.se  charge  prisoners  shall  be  committed  shall, 
within  tweun-four  hours  after  such  commitment,  or 
as  soon  as  he  shall  be  relieved  from  his  guard,  make 
report  in  writing,  to  the  Commanding  Officer,  of  their 
names,  their  crimes,  and  the  names  of  the  officers 
who  committed  them,  on  the  penalt.y  of  being  pun- 
ished for  disolicdience  or  neglect,  at  the  discretion  of 
a  Court-Martial."  Thus  the  liberty  of  the  citizen  un- 
der military  law,  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  the  ends 
of  justice,  seems  to  be  guarded  with  precautious  little 
inferior  to  those  which  secure  personal  lilxily  under 
the  civil  laws  of  the  State.  The  penalty  of  an  officer's 
lireaking  his  arrest,  or  leaving  his  contincmcnt  before 
he  is  set  at  liberty  by  his  Commanding  OfUcer,  or  by 
a  Superior  Officer,  is  declared  to  be  cashiering  I>y  sen- 
tence of  a  General  Court-Mailial.  A  Court-Martial  has 
no  control  over  the  nature  of  the  arrest  of  a  prisoner, 
except  as  to  his  personal  freedom  in  Court;  the  Court 
cannot,  even  to  facilitate  his  defense,  interfere  to 
cause  a  close  arrest  to  be  enlarged.  The  officer  in 
command  is  alone  responsible  for  the  prisoners  under 
his  charge.  Individuals  placed  in  an-est  may  be  re- 
leased, without  being  brought  before  a  Court- jiartial. 
by  the  authority  ordering  the  arrest  or  by  superior 
authority.  It  is  not  obligatory  on  the  Commander 
to  place  an  officer  in  arrest  on  ajiiilicatiou  to  that 
effect  from  an  officer  under  his  command.  He  will 
exercise  a  sound  discretion  on  the  subject.  But  in 
all  applications  for  redress  of  supposed  grievances  in- 
flicted by  a  Superior  it  will  be  his  duty,  in  case  he 
shall  not  deem  it  i^ropcr  to  order  an  investigation,  to 
give  his  reasons,  in  writing,  for  declining  to  act;  these 
reasons,  if  not  satisfactory,  the  complaining  party 
may,  should  he  think  fit  so"  to  do,  forward  to  the  next 
Common  Superior,  together  with  a  copy  of  his  appli- 
cation for  redress.  An  officer  has  no  right  to  demand 
a  Coui-t-JIartial,  either  on  himself  or  on  others;  the 
General-in-Chief  or  officer  competent  to  order  a  Court 
being  the  judge  of  its  necessity  or  projiriety.  Nor 
has  any  officer  who  may  have  been  placed  in  arrest 
any  right  to  demand  a  trial,  or  to  persist  in  consider- 
ing himself  tmder  arrest,  after  he  shall  have  been  re- 
leased by  proper  authority.  An  officer  under  arrest 
will  not  inake  a  visit  of  etiquette  to  the  Commanding 
Officer  or  other  Superior  Officer,  or  call  on  him,  unless 
sent  for;  and  in  ease  of  business,  lie  will  make  known 
his  oliject  in  writinL'.  It  is  considered  indecorous  in 
an  nlliicr  in  arn-^l  to  ajipear  at  public  places. 

ARRICK  PROJECTILE.— This  projectile  consists 
of  a  cast-iron  liody  ha\ing  a  conical  base,  to  which  is 
attached  a  sabot  combined  of  .ai  annular  key  and  a 
concave  and  convex  disk.  Upon  discharge,  the  ring 
is  flattened  out  against  the  base  of  the  ijrojeetile,  and 


\    fT 


V^ 


Arrick  Projectile. 


tflkes  the  impression  of  the  grooves,  communicating 
rotation  to  the  projectile;  at  the  same  time  the  annu- 
lar key  is  driven  forward  upon  the  base,  filling  the 
space  iK'tween  the  ]irojeeti[e  and  the  lands,  and  is 
claimed  to  center  the  base  of  the  projectile.  The 
sabot  is  prevented  from  turning  on  the  projectile  by 


a  series  of  flanges  cast  on  the  base,  which  fit  into 
rece.s.ses  on  the  sabot,  and  from  stripping  I>v  means  of 
a  strong  bolt  screwed  into  the  base  of  the  shot.  See 
A'.r;xi  iiiiing  Prujeetiks. 

ARROW.— 1.  In  fortification,  a  work  placed  at  the 
.salient  angles  of  the  gliicis,  communicating  with  the 
covered-way.  2.  A  missile  weapon  of  defense, 
straight,  slender,  pointed,  and  barbed,  to  be  ^ot  with 
a  bow.     See  ,!;•<■/(( /•.». 

ARROW-POISONS.— The  ingredients  selected  for 
the  preparation  of  toxic  compounds  vary  greatly  in 
different  localities,  vegetal  jjoisons  iiredominatiug  in 
the  warmer  regions,  while  the  organic  are  preferred 
in  the  colder  latitudes.  This  is  attributable  to  the 
fact  that  poisonous  plants  are  scarce  in  the  northern 
portions  of  the  continents,  and  that  organic  poisons  de- 
teriorate rapidlv  in  the  tropics.  There  are  numerous 
instances  also  in  which  the  alleged  poison  is  of  the 
most  harmless  natiue,  the  belief  in  its  potency  being 
based  mainly  ujion  the  amount  of  dancing  and  devil- 
try performed  liy  an  awe-inspiring  Shaman.  The 
first  grouii,  to  which  reference  will  fie  made,  consists 
of  three  poisons  preimred  by  the  Moqui  of  Arizona. 
The  first  of  these  is  called  Tiki  le-li-wi — ])oison-oint- 
ment.  Poison  given  internally  to  cause  death, 
whether  in  powder  or  li<iui(l,  has  no  <lefinite  name 
beyond  its  being  "  bad  medicine."  The  "  poison-oint- 
ment" is  prepared  in  thi-^  wise:  A  rattlesnake  is  tor- 
mented until  it  biles  itself,  when  the  Priest  of  the 
"  Snake  Order"  dli)s  the  arrow-point,  as  well  as  a 
short  portion  of  the  shaft,  into  the  blood  obtained 
from  tlie  serpent.  It  is  stateil  that  a  wound  from 
such  an  arrow  will  cause  death  in  from  three  to  four 
days  under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  in  a  nuich 
shorter  time  if  the  victim  has  been  fasting  for  a  day 
or  two,  a  condition  in  which  an  Indian  is  frequently 
found  even  in  times  of  peace.  The  second  variety  is 
l)repiired  from  the  hmnble-bee,  which,  after  being 
maddened  by  being  disturbed  in  the  nest  and  struck 
at  by  withes  and  branches,  is  killed.  The  insects 
are  then  gathered  and  crushed  in  a  primitive  stone 
mortar,  where  the  mass  is  thoroughly  macerated,  after 
which  the  arrows  are  anointed  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  ])receding.  Wounds  are  not  liable  to  cause 
dangerous  results,  although  they  become  exceedinglj' 
inflamed  and  very  painful,  the  effects  being  attril)ut- 
able  to  the  presence  of  formic  acid.  The  third  ^  ariety 
is  (Prepared  by  crushing  a  number  of  large  red  ants — 
a  variety  found  all  over  the  northern  elevated  area.s — 
iu  a  siniilar  manner  as  the  preceding,  and  in  which 
the  ;irrows  are  dipped.  This  poison  is  not  necessjirily 
a  fatal  one,  though  instances  have  been  given  on  "  In- 
dian authority."  The  Indians  state  that  if  a  man  be 
wounded  wilii  an  arrow  freshly  poisoned  he  will  be 
debilitated  (after  the  first  symptoms  of  excitement  are 
o\er),  from  which  he  may  rot  recover  for  several 
weeks  or  perhaps  a  month.  The  last  two  substance 
7ii;iy  1)C  prepared  by  any  one  of  the  tril)e,  as  they  are 
used  in  hunting,  but  the  first  named  is  prepared  only, 
as  has  been  stated,  by  tlie  Priest  of  Tlie  Snake  Order, 
and  is  used  in  warfare  with  neighboring  Indians  only. 
The  Apaches,  occui\ving  the  habitable  areas  of  Ari- 
zona, immediately  south  of  the  3Ioqui  Pueblos,  |)re- 
l>are  a  poison  composed  of  the  venom  of  the  rattle- 
snake mixed  with  the  decomposed  liver  of  a  deer  or 
:intel(>iie.  A  rattlesnake  is  searched  for  at  one  of  the 
lir:irie-dog  towns,  and  when  discovered  is  si'cured 
to  the  ground  by  means  of  a  forked  stick  so  as  to  pre- 
vent its  escape  and  yet  not  to  injure  it.  An  as.sistant 
then  pierces  a  deer's  liver,  which  has  been  i)rociueil 
for  the  pur]Kise,  and  upon  inserting  a  short  pole, 
thrusts  it  towanl  the  serpent,  who  repeatedly  buries 
its  fangs.  In  this  manner  the  venom  is  secured,  and 
when  the  snake  refuses  to  bile  ;(gain  it  is  destroyed. 
The  liver  is  then  placed  upon  a  t;dl.  uitright  pole, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  deeom|iose.  after  which  it  i~ 
crushed  in  a  small  dish,  when  the  arrows  are  dijiped 
into  the  mass  and  allowed  to  dry.  Poisoned  arrows 
are  carried  in  double  quivers,  and  tied  together  with 
a  black  band  or  piece  of  cloth  to  distinguish  them 


AEBOW-WOOD. 


89 


ABS£NAL 


from  hannk'ss  ones.  Serpent-venom  is  employed  by 
tlie  Siris  of  western  Sonora.  After  a  small  excava- 
tion has  Ijcen  niaile  in  the  ground  a  cow's  liver  is  in- 
troduced together  with  centipedes,  scorpions,  and  a 
rattlesn:dic.  After  teasing  these  creatuies  for  a  while 
with  the  hope  that  the  liver  might  receive  most  of 
the  venom  discharged  during  tlieir  an^y  struggles,  it 
is  remove<l  and  crushed  into  a  jelly,  mto  which  the 
aiTows  are  dipped. 

Apache  anows  which  have  been  properly  besmeared 
with  poison  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  ordi- 
nary weapons  by  the  dark  reddish-brown  coating  over 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  sliaft  immediately  back  of 
the  arrow-head.  The  latter  also  presents  the  same 
appearance  at  times,  though  were  this  tlie  only  por- 
tion to  which  poison  had  been  applied  there  would 
be  dillicul'y  in  identification,  as  the  arrow-point-;  are 
generally  secured  to  the  end  of  the  shaft  by  the  liberal 
application  of  mesquite-gum,  after  whicli  the  sinew- 
threads  are  apjilied  for  greater  security.  The  Sho- 
shone and  Bannock  Indians  of  western  Xevada  pre- 
pare poison  in  the  following  manner:  An  antelope 
or  a  deer  is  entrapped  or  caught  by  wounding  it,  when 
a  rattlesnake  is  brought  and  made  to  bite  it.  The  an- 
imal is  immediately  killed  ami  the  blood  collected  in 
a  vessel  procured  for  tlie  purpose.  Into  this  the  ar- 
rows are  dipped  and  afterward  allowed  to  dry,  when 
they  are  ready  for  u-se.  It  is  probable  that  the  snake- 
venom  exerts  no  influence  in  this  instance,  as  the 
amount  absorbed  into  the  system  of  the  animal  be- 
tween tlie  moments  of  being  bitten  and  killed  would 
be  very  slight  indeed.  The  Pah-Utcs,  just  south  of 
the  Shoshones,  remove  the  heart  of  a  large  mammal 
and  place  it  into  a  corresponding  cavity  in  the  ground. 
Rattlesnake-fangs,  with  the  poison-sacs,  are  then 
ground  into  a  pulp,  with  a  horned  toad  or  two,  which 
mass  is  then  emptied  into  the  cavity  of  the  heart  and 
allowed  to  decompose.  The  whole  mass  is  said  to  dry 
into  a  tough  ma.ss  resembling  caoutchouc.  This  is 
linally  cut  into  small  pieces.  In  poisons  prepared  by 
the  combination  of  serpent-venom  and  decomposed 
organic  matter  it  is  not  positively  known  which,  if 
not  both,  of  the  substances  acts  as  the  to.xic  agent. 
Cases  thus  far  observed  or  recorded  have  resulted  in 
septicemia  and  death.  One  in  particular,  a  mere 
scratch  upon  the  shoulder-blade,  died  in  great  misery 
in  less  th  in  a  week,  though  not  before  the  flesh  had 
literally  dropped  from  the  back  as  far  down  as  the 
hips.  It  is  probable  that  the  septic  poison  of  the  or- 
ganic matter  remains  active  lor  a  greater  period  of 
time  than  the  serpent-venom,  being  favored  by  imme- 
diate dr_\ing  in  the  drier  atmosphere  of  the  extreme 
western  plateaus.  Dr.  S.  Wier  Jlitchell's  experiments 
do  not  demonstrate  to  what  length  of  time  serpent- 
venom  may  be  kept  in  a  dried  state  and  retain  its  \iru- 
lence.  Tlie  active  principle  (crotaline)  may  remain 
active  under  favorable  conditions  for  an  indefinite 
length  of  time,  but  then  the  symptoms  would  be  ex- 
hibited in  a  manner  strikingly  similar  to  those  after  a 
fresh  wound  inflicted  by  the  serpent,  which  thus  far 
has  not  been  obscn-ed.  Professor  F.  V.  Hayden  and 
Colonel  James  Stevenson  have  both  observed  the 
Blackfeet  and  Assiniboine  Indians  procure  the  pure 
serpent-venom  by  causing  a  secured  snake  to  bite  a 
clean  piece  of  bark.  The  arrows  were  applied  di- 
rectly to  this  without  the  admi.xture  of  any  other  sub- 
stitnces.  Curious  suixirstitions  exist  in  connection 
with  this  strange  custom  among  various  tribes.  An 
intelligent  SisseTon  Dakota  states  that  his  father  had 
been  a  great  Shaman  in  his  time  and  knew  all  the 
"  secrets  of  the  plants."  He  had  a  poison  which,  if 
rublK'd  upon  a  bullet,  would  cause  the  bullet  to  strike 
the  desired  object  if  the  gun  was  merely  held  in  the 
direction  without  regard  to  accurate  aim.  Though, 
if  the  hunter  had  once  raised  his  weapon  and  failed 
to  shoot,  the  biUlet  would  Ije  worthless  unless  agjiin 
handed  to  the  Shaman.  Another  mode  of  preparing 
bullets  was  by  drilling  small  holes  into  them  with  the 
point  of  a  kiiife,  into  which  was  spread  a  paste  made 
of  the  bark-scrapings  of  the  cactus  (Opuutia  Jfissouri- 


ense).  The  Pitt  River  Indians  prei>arc,  at  times,  a 
mixture  of  the  juice  of  the  wild  parsnip  and  the  de- 
composed liver  of  a  dead  dog.  This  is  also  prac- 
ticed by  neighboring  tribes  in  California,  although 
the  custom  appears  to  have  originated  with  the  fonner, 
as  far  as  can  be  ascertained  at  this  day.  Among  the 
southern  Esquimaux  the  bodj-  of  a  dead  whaler  is  cut 
into  small  pieces  and  distributed  among  his  friends 
who  are  of  the  siuiie  profession,  each  of  whom,  after 
rubbing  the  iwint  of  his  lance  upon  it,  dries  and  pre- 
serves his  piece  as  a  sort  of  talisman.  The  Kiatera- 
mut,  a  tribe  of  the  s;ime  stock,  Iwlieve  that  to  be  suc- 
cessful in  whale-hunting  the  body  of  a  whaler  must 
be  procured  by  murdering  him,  when  the  fatty  por- 
tions are  removed  from  the  body  and  boiled,  carefully 
skimming  off  such  fragments  as  may  form  a  scum, 
which  are  then  allowed  to  become  putrid.  The  points 
of  the  weapons  are  grca.H'd  wirh  this  sub.stance,  which 
is  considered  to  give  them  unfailing  success  in  hunt- 
ing, both  afloat  and  on  shore.  Numerous  substances 
of  a  questionable  character  are  found  in  all  trilws,  but 
their  elficacy,  in  the  ca.ses  for  which  they  are  recom- 
mended, can  never  be  ascertained,  as  an  Indian  will 
not  admit  a  failure  so  long  as  he  can  escape  detection. 

ARROW-WOOD.— A  speciesof  Vibiirnum,  from  the 
long  straight  stems  of  which  the  Indians  dwelling  be- 
twc'en  the  Jlississippi  and  the  Pacific  make  their 
arrows. 

ARSENAL. — The  name  given  to  a  great  militaiy 
or  naval  repository,  where  the  munitions  of  war  are 
to  some  extent  manufactured,  but  more  particularly 
stored  until  required  for  use.  Every  dockyard,  every 
magazine,  every  armory,  is  to  some  extent  an  Arse- 
nal ;  and  therefore  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  not 
quite  definite.  In  France,  the  chief  Arsenals  are  at 
Cherbourg,  Brest,  and  Toulon.  In  England,  al- 
though Deptford  is  a  considerable  storehouse  for 
navaT  clothing  and  provisions,  and  Weedon  and  the 
Tower  great  repositories  for  military  stores,  the  only 
establishment  vast  enough  to  deserve  the  name  of 
Arsenal  is  at  Woolwich.  This  is  truly  a  remarkable 
and  important  place.  In  the  spring  of  1859,  when 
war  was  raging  in  Italy  lietwecn  the  French  and 
Sardinians  on  one  side,  and  the  Austrians  on  the 
other,  and  when  an  uneasy  feeling  pervaded  the 
whole  countiTi-,  there  were  for  a  short  time  more 
than  10,000  men  employed  in  Woohvich  Arsenal. 
There  were  at  that  time  nearly  12,000  pieces  of 
iron  ordnance  in  store,  of  wliich  7000  were  of 
modern  make  and  of  heavy  caliber.  This  store  was 
supplementary  to  that  which  is  always  kept  at  the 
dockyards  of  "Woolwich,  Chatham,  Slicerness,  Ports- 
mouth, Plymouth,  and  Pembroke.  There  were  re- 
sources at  "the  Arsenal  for  bringing  forward,  fitting, 
and  issuing  these  reserve  guns  at  the  rate  of  200  per 
week,  or  double  this  number  on  an  emergency:  and 
many  hundreds  were  within  a  brief  period  shi|iped 
thence,  to  strengthen  the  forts  in  the  Jlcditenauean, 
in  the  Colonies,  and  around  the  coasts.  All  the  shot 
and  shell  used  down  to  the  ix?riod  of  the  Crimean 
War  were  ordered  of  private  makers:  but  the  charge 
was  so  enormous  during  the  early  months  of  that  war 
that  the  government  resolved  to"try  the  manufacture 
at  Woolwich:  this  was  done,  witli  a  very  manifest 
saving  of  expense.  It  has  been  calculated  that  the 
Arsenal,  when  at  full  work,  could  produce  large  shot 
and  .shell  with  six  times  the  rapidity  with  wliich 
those  missiles  were  used  by  the  British  outside  Se- 
bastopol  during  the  eleven  months'  siege.  These  ob- 
servations do  not  ajiply  to  rifles  or  muskets;  none  of 
these  weapons  are  mad"e  at  Woolwich.  There  have 
been  times,  however,  during  the  year  18o9,  when 
nearlv  a  hundred  million  rifle-bullets  were  in  store  at 
the  Arsenal.  The  Arsenal  is  di\ided  into  two  great 
sections,  of  which  the  one  is  the  depot  for  the  storage 
of  arms  and  all  military  equipments,  whether  for 
land  or  naval  service:  tlie  other  being  occupied  by 
the  manufacturing  departments.  The  latter  com- 
prise the  Gun  Factories,  where  all  cannon  are  made; 
the  Carriage  Departments,  for  gun-carriages  and  all 


AB8ENIC. 


90 


ARTESIAN  WELLS. 


means  of  tmnsport;  and  the  Laboratory,  whence 
come  all  cartridges,  shot,  shell,  bullets,  and  warlike 
weaixins. 

In  the  Uniteil  States,  Armories  and  Arsenals  were 
not  estjiblished  until  after  the  Revolutionary  War; 
but  powder  was  manufactured  in  Virginia  in  1776. 
General  Washington  chose  Springtield.  Mass.,  in 
1777,  as  a  suitable  location  tor  an  Arsenal,  and  small- 
arms  were  raanutactured  l>efore  1787:  an  Arsenal  was 
also  built  ill  Carlisle,  Pa.,  about  the  s;ime  time.  The 
erection  of  an  ^Vrniory  was  begiui  at  Harper's  Ferry  in 
1795,  and  Congress  onlered  three  or  lour  more  to  be 
built  in  the  same  vear,  still  more  in  1808,  and  agstin 
after  the  War  of  1812,  Congress  adopted  the  plan  of 
lia\ing  an  Arsenal  in  each  State.  In  1847  the  United 
Stales  ha<l  'i  Armories  and  17  Arsenals;  in  1860, 
23  in  all,  9  of  which  were  enlarged  during  our 
Civil  War,  the  Springtield  Armory  alone  having  ca- 
pacity to  complete  1000  muskets  per  day.  The  iate 
General  Hwlman,  in  connection  with  the  Ordnance 
Department,  made  great  improvements  in  the  art  of 
casting  cannon  cooled  from  within,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  mammoth  grain  powder  for  use  in  large  guns 
is  due  to  him.  Recently  it  has  l)cen  decided  to  con- 
centrate all  manufacture  of  arms  in  three  or  four 
places,  where  all  the  regular  operations  are  to  be 
carried  on. 

The  Arsenals  and  Armories  now  established  are  as 
follows,  to  wit:  Beuicia  Arsenal,  Benicia,  Cal.; 
Kennebec  Arsenal,  Augusta,  Me.;  Watertown  Arse- 
nal, Watertown,  ila-ss.T  Fort  Union  Arsenal,  X.  JI.; 
Springtield  Armory,  Springtield,  Mass.;  AVatervliet 
Arsenal.  West  Troy,  N.  Y.;  Indianapolis  Arsenal, 
Ind. :  Xew'  York  Xrsenal,  Governor's  Island,  New 
York  Harbor;  Pikesnlle  ^U-senal,  Pikesville,  JId. ; 
Rock  Island  Arsenal,  111.;  Franktord  Arsenal,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. ;  San  Antonio  Arsenal,  Tex. ;  Washing- 
ton Arsenal,  Washintgon,  D.  C. ;  Fort  Monroe  Arsenal, 
Old  Point  Comfort,  Va.;  Augusta  Arsenal,  Augusta, 
Ga.;  Jefferson  Barracks  Arsenal,  Mo.;  Vancouver 
Arsenal,  Vancouver,  W.  T. ;  Allegheny  Arsenal.  Pitts- 
burg, Pa. 

The  principal  manufacturing  operations  of  the 
Ordnance  Department  arc  now  performed  at  the  fol- 
lowing Arsenals,  to  wit:  Watt'i'town,  engaged  in  the 
production  of  sea-coast  carriages  and  projectiles  for 
lieavy  guns;  Springfield  Armory,  in  the  manufacture 
of  small-arms;  Watcrvliet,  in' the  manufacture  of 
leather-work;  Frankford  Arsenal,  in  small-arm  am- 
munition; and  Fort  Monroe  Arsenal,  in  sea -coast  car- 
riages and  on  experimental  duties.  The  remaining 
Arsenals  are  either  engaged  in  small  repairs  or  arc 
simply  storage-depots  for  the  care  and  preservation, 
issue  "and  receipt,  of  ordnance  and  ordnance-stores. 
It  is  believed  that,  except  small-arras  and  small-arm 
ammunition,  the  more  important  ordnance  and  ord- 
nance-stores, more  especially  those  for  field  and  siege 
artillery,  and  those  to  be  provided  for  the  use  of  our 
sea-coast  defenses,  such  as  cannon,  heavy  sea-coast 
carriages,  projectiles,  an<l  ammunition,  and  other 
stores  and  appliances  for  their  service  and  maneuver, 
also  harness  and  the  more  elaborate  articles  of  leather- 
work,  should  all  be  made  at  one  grand  Arsenal  of 
Construction.     Sec  Ariimry. 

AESENIC— The  name  applied  in  popular  language 
to  a  well-known  poisonous  substance,  arsenious  acid; 
but.  strit-tly  speaking,  the  term  is  restricted  to  the 
metal,  of  which  the  symlxil  is  As  and  the  equivalent  is 
75.0.  The  metal  arsenic  is  rarely  foimd  free  in  nature, 
but  in  a  state  of  combination  it  occurs  largely. 
The  metal  is  generally  jirciiared  from  arsenious  acid 
(AsOi)  by  mixing  it  with  iis  own  weight  of  charcoal, 
placing  the  mixture  in  a  well-covered  crucible,  and 
subjecting  the  whole  to  heat,  when  the  metal  set  free 
by  the  charcoal  rises,  and  condenses  in  the  upper  part 
or  cover  of  the  crucible.  Metallic  arsenic  is  very 
brittle,  can  easily  be  reduced  to  powder  by  hammer- 
ing, or  even  pounding  in  a  mortar;  and  when  a  fresh- 
ly "cut  surface  is  examined,  it  |)resents  u  brilliant  dark 
ateel-gray  luster,  which,   however,  readily  tarnishes 


on  exposure  to  the  air.  Tlie  met;il,  as  such,  is  not  con- 
sidered poisonous;  but  when  introduced  into  the 
animal  system,  it  is  there  faintly  acted  upon  by  the 
juices,  and  in  part  dissolved,  at  "the  siune  time  exhibit- 
nig  poisonous  properties.  When  heated  in  the  open  air, 
it  burns  with  a  peculiar  bluish  liame,  and  emits  a 
characteristic  alliaceous  odor.  The  only  use  to  which 
the  metal  ai-scnic  isajiplied  in  thciirls  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  leaden  shot  of  the  various  .sizes,  when  its 
presence  in  small  quantity  in  the  lead  renders  the  lat- 
ter much  more  brittle  than  it  ordinarily  is.  Of  all  the 
eomiiounds  of  arsenic  the  most  important  is  the  one 
already  alluded  to,  viz.,  arsenious  acid,  which  is  an 
oxide  of  arsenic.  With  sidi)liur,  arsenic  forms  two 
iin|iortaut  compoimds:  realyar  (AsSji,  a  red,  trans- 
parent, and  brittle  substance,  wliich  is  emjiloyed  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  .signal-liirht  called  White  Iiulitiii 
Fire;  and  orpimcnt  (AsSai  or  kinf/'n  i/il/oir,  n  cheap 
pigment  of  a  yellow  color.  With  hydrogen,  arsenic 
forms  arseniuretted  hydrogen  (AsHs),  a  very  poison- 
ous iras. 

ARTESIAN  ■WELLS.— The  Artesian  Well  so  fre- 
quenlly  sunk  by  the  Jlilitarj'  Engineer  has  of  late 
been  the  subject  of  .several  .special  re])orts  from  the 
office  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  United  States  Army. 
Usually  they  are  perpendicular  borings  into  the 
ground,  through  which  water  rises,  from  various 
depths,  according  to  circumstances,  above  the  surface 
of  the  soil.  The  possibility  of  obtaining  water  in  this 
way  in  a  particular  district  depends  on  its  geological 
structure.  All  rocks  contain  more  or  less  water. 
Arenaceous  rocks  receive  water  mechanically,  and  ac- 
cording to  their  compactness  and  purity  part  with  a 
larger  or  .smaller  proportion  of  it.  A  cubic  yard  of 
pure  sea-sand  can  contain,  in  addition  to  the  quantity 
of  drj-  sand  which  occupies  that  space,  about  one 
third  of  its  bulk  of  water.  It  would  part  with  near- 
ly the  whole  of  this  into  a  well  sunk  in  it,  and  regu- 
larly pumped  from.  Chalk  and  -j'.her  rocks,  com- 
pascd  of  fine  particles,  closely  compacted  together, 
contain  as  large  a  proportion  of  water.  From  the  ex- 
istence, however,  of  numerous  crevices  in  chalk 
through  which  the  water  freely  flows,  and  from  the 
general  presence  of  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than 
the  porous  I'ock  is  able  to  retain,  wells  sunk  in  chalk 
often  yield  water.  There  is  yet  a  third  class  of  rocks, 
which  are  perfectly  impervious  to  water :  such  are 
clays,  which  arc  absolutely  retentive,  neither  allowing 
water  to  be  obtained  from  them  nor  to  pa.ss  through 
them.  When  such  rocks  occur  in  basins  in  alterqat- 
ing  layers,  and  in  such  order  that  pernous  beds  are 
inserted  between  imper\nous  ones,  it  ise\ident  that  if 
a  perforation  is  made  through  the  retentive  barrier- 
bed  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  basin,  the  water  con- 
tained in  the  water-logged  strata  will  rise  through  the 
bore  to  a  height  depending  upon  the  jiressure  of  water 
which  has  accumulated  in  the  confined  skiping  sjiace 
between  the  two  inipeiwious  beds.  Theie  is  a  luim- 
ber  of  porous  beds  composing  the  cretaceous  meas- 
ures, resting  on  the  impervious  gault,  and  these, 
again,  are  covered  by  the  equallj-  impervious  series 
ot  the  London  clay,  which  form  the  strata  on  the 
surface,  and  extenil  to  a  considerable  deiitli.  The 
edges  of  the  clialk-lieds  are  largely  exiiosi'il  in  the 
higher  grounds  around  London;  the  water  falling 
on  the  whole  area  of  these  exposed  edges,  sinks  into 
the  more  or  less  porous  cretaceous  beds,  and  would, 
in  coui'se  of  time,  by  continued  accessions,  till  up 
the  basin,  were  it  not  prevented  by  the  clay  above. 
By  driving  a  liore  through  this  superior  bed.  the 
inferior  waterlogged  strata  are  reached,  and  the 
subterranean  water  rises  to  the  siu'face.  and  tiows 
continuously,  by  means  of  hydrostatic  pressure. 
Many  such  Wells  exist  in  London  and  its  vicinity; 
those  which  form  the  ornamental  foinitains  in  Trafal- 
gar  Scjuare  descend  into  the  upper  chalk  to  a  depth 
of  393  feet.  The  most  famous  Artesian  Well,  per- 
haps, is  that  of  Grenelle.  in  the  out.skirt.s  of  Paris, 
where  the  water  is  brought  from  the  gault  at  a  depth 
of  1798  feet. 


AETESIAK  WELLS. 


91 


ARTESIAN  WELLS 


In  California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  and  other  Western 
Stat&s,  wells  are  largely  used  for  irrigation,  and  for 
supplying  water  at  ililitar)'  Posts,  inasmuch  as  there 
are  no  rain.s,  during  certain  seasons,  in  those  localities. 
There  are  over  1000  of  these  wells  in  California  alone, 
most  of  which  are  tio-n-ing.  Since  1855,  there  have 
been  76  flowing  wells  sunk  in  the  Desert  of  Sahara, 
Africa,  yielding  over  18,000,000  gallons  of  water  daily. 
Since  tlien,  a  beautiful  oasis  has  lieen  formed  around 
each  well,  liter.iil/  "making  the  desert  to  blossom  as  a 
rose." 

In  1851  London  had  ^\j-tesian  Wells  that  supplied 
over  l-.>,000,000  gallons  of  water  daily.  The  well  at 
Trafalsrar  Sqtiare,  393  feet  deep,  is  said  to  yield  600,- 
000  gallons  of  water  per  day.  One  at  the  Grovemment 
Works  in  Orange  Street  yields  a  larger  amount. 
Hughes  writes  that  a  well  at  Woolwich,  580  feet  deep, 
j.islds  1,400,000  imperial  gallons  in  24  hours,  and  an- 
other near  Loudon,  oijly  171  feet  deep,  yields  nearly 
2,500,000  gallons  per  dav.  Wells  in  tlie  counts*  of 
Kent,  near  London,  in  1867  furnished  7,000,000" g'll- 
lons  per  day,  which  was  distributed  to  34,504  hotises 
with  a  population  of  240,000.  In  the  vear  18.54,  the 
"BootleWell"  in  Liverpool  yielded  "1,100,000  gal- 
lons in  24  hours. 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  a  few  of  the  most 
noted  deep  wells: 


Wells. 

Fin- 
ished. 

Depth 

in 
feet. 

Capacity 
gallons 
per  day. 

1841 
1860 
1850 

1875 
1880 

1.792 
2.000 

1.8781^ 
4.170 
8.199 
3.843m; 
8.0ti«  ' 
1.900 
440 

6.30 

438 

206 

1,110 

35 

500.000 

Passev,  France  

a  R^uinon 

1  s  i 

Spermberg.  Prussia 

Belcher's  Sugar-house.  St.  Louis 
Insane  Asylum.  St.  Louis 

Near  Lake  Charles.  Louisiana. . . 

93,600 

Charleston,  South  Carolina 

New  Orleans.  Louisiana 

United  States  Mint.  Philadelphia 
Continental  Hotel.  Phila.lelphia. 

Citv  of  Waukegan.  Illinois 

National  Rubber  Co.,  Bristol  R.  I. 

90,000 

73,000 

300,000 

300,000 

The  Pierce  Well-Excavator  Company,  Xew  York, 
are  the  contractors  with  the  United   State*  Govorn- 


socket  of  a  new  pattern.  A  double  reamer  is  some- 
times used  with  the  drilling-machine,  for  straigliten- 
ing  crooked  holes,  but  the  rtamer  shown  in  Fig.  2 
is  most  commonly  used  for  trimming  a  flat  liole  and 
making  it  round  and  straight.  Fig.  3  represents  a 
wedge  or  club  bit,  also  used  for  drilling  hard  rock. 
The  Z-ltit,  Fig.  4,  is  a  combined  wedge  bit,  reamer 
and  double  reamer,  and  with  it  all  the  different  kinds 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


of  work  can  be  done,  i.e.,  drilling  rock,  earth  or  sand, 
and  crooked  or  flat  boles  can  be  made  straight  and 
round  with  it.  The  rods  break  in  drilling,  and  for 
raising  the  portions  broken  off  various  ingenious  de 
vices,  known  as  slip-socketx,  horn-sockets,  jnn-tmckets, 
grabs,  rojie-spears,  ro]>e-knire^,  rope-grtibs,  boot-jacks, 
etc.,  have  been  contrived.  The  dip-mcket,  shown  in 
Fig.  5,  and  the  grabs,  shown  in  Fig.  6,  are  most  com- 
monly u.sed  as  tishing-tools  for  recovering  bits,  drill- 
ing-tools, bars  of  iron,  or  other  things  that  might  acci- 
dentally or  carelessly  l)e  dropped  or  lost  in  the  drilled 
hole.  The  success  of  an  Artesian  Well  depends  much 
upon  the  proper  selection  of  pipe  for  the  well-tubing. 
Heavy  lap-welded  wrought-iron  pipe,  /j  inch  thick, 
with  screw  and  collar  connections,  is  best  adapted 
to  Artesian  Well  work.  This  pipe  is  used  to  drive 
throui:li  sanil,  clay,  i>r  other  earth  formations  tmtil 


ment,  and  are  at  present  sinking  a  deep  well  at  Da-  I 
vid's  Island,  New  York  Harbor.     After  noticing  the 
important  details  of  the  well-boring  machinery,  we 
^^^ll  Virieliy  describe  the  manner  in  which  this  Com-  j 
pany  drills  an  Artesian  Well.     Before  designing  and 
intro<lucing  their  highly  improved  machinery,  Arte- 
.aian  Wells  in  this  country  were  sunk  with  what  is^ 
termed  walkiug-ljeam    machines — that  is,  such   ma- T 
chines  as  have  been  and  are  now  used  in  the  oil  rc- 


solid  rock  is  reached;  the  drilling  is  then  continued 
in  the  rock,  no  pipe  being  required.  ^Vll  other  pipe, 
usually  ^  inch  thick,  is  "used  for  casing  wells  after 
they  have  been  drilled  to  the  required  depth  and  it  is 
necessary  to  case  off  salt  or  mineral  waters.  Fig.  7. 
shows  a"  cement  or  lerra-cotta  pipe  or  tile  that  is 
used  in  bored  wells.  These  pipes  are  one  to  two 
inches  thick,  and  can  be  had  in  almost  all  countries 
from  2  to  30  inches  in  diameter.     For  bored  vella  8 


Fio.  6. 


gions  of  Pennsylvania  for  drilling  oil-wells.  Such  an 
apparatus  weighs  from  15  to  20  tons.  The  derrick  is 
usually  built  72  feet  high.  An  engine  and  boiler  of 
about  15  to  20  horse-power  is  requiretl  to  operate  such 
a  machine.  The  derrick  must  be  built  and  taken 
down  for  every  well.  Setting  up  a  walldug-beam 
machine  and  getting  ready  to  work  requires  the  labor 
of  four  men  from  two  to  tAree  weeks  to  build  the 
tower,  set  the  engine  and  boiler,  and  get  ready  for 
work. 
In  the    following  drawing.  Fig.  1   shows  a  rope- 


to  12  inches  internal  diameter  is  preferable.  The 
joints  can  be  made  water-tight  by  using  hydraulic 
cement,  antl  by  this  means  brackish  or  surface  water 
and  foul  drainage  can  be  entirely  avoided ,  which  is 
of  vast  importance  in  most  places,  often  preventing 
sickness  and  many  fatal  diseases.  Fig.  8  represents 
a  style  of  pimcheil,  rolled  and  titled  sheets  of  iron, 
that  can  be  used  to  advantage  for  well-casing,  water- 
pipes,  and  many  other  i)urpo.ses.  Thus  is  a  desirable 
style  when  transportation  is  an  object,  as  the  piping 
can,  in  all  sizes  of  common  or  ^vanized  iron,  be 


ASTE8IAN  WILLS. 


92 


ARTXSIAN  WELLS. 


nested  ami  packed  very  close,  in  rolls  weigliins;  from 
100  to  3(K)  pounds,  and"  fitted  eitlier  with  tliinse^  sleeve 
and  nipple,  or  lug  slip  joints.  Wlieu  it  is  desired  to 
use  wood  easing  for  drilk'd  wells  it  is  well  to  make 
tlie  strips  quite  narrow,  and  if  the  casing  is  to  Ik- 
driven  verj-  hard  it  will  facilitate  the  work  by  putting 
n  hoop  around   the   bottom  or  making  a  sheet-iron 


the  jack.  Care  must  be  taken  to  set  the  drill-jack 
so  that  when  the  drill,  etc.,  are  hung  up  on  the 
machine  they  will  hang  parallel  with  the  mast.  Use 
the  longest  piece  of  tumbling  rod  on  the  ground  ne.xt 
to  thehoi-sc-power.  This  can  lie  laid  over  two  stakes 
driven  in  the  ground  crosswise,  thus:  X,  or  on  a 
block  of  wood  near  the  center  joint.     This  lies  about 


band,  4  or  (j  inches  wide,  and  riveting  it  around  the 
bottom  section  to  prevent  jamming  or  spreading. 

In  drilling  the  well,  we  will  suppose  the  earth 
above  the  rock  to  e<|u;d  or  exceed  50  feet.  Having 
located  the  site,  set  the  drill-jafk  and  horsepower  in 
pijsitioii,  as  shown  in  the  accompanyir.ir  engraving. 
The  horse-power  may  be   used   ou   either   side  of 


four  inches  from  the  ground.  Before  attaching  the 
horses  the  bull-wheel  should  be  turned  overwitli  the 
cogs  upward,  and  every  cog  on  the  large  bull-\\  heel 
ing  should  be  rubbed  full  of  soft  tallow  or  common 
a.xle-grease.  Stake  the  horse-power  down  very  linn 
and  solid,  attach  the  hoi-ses  to  the  horse-power,  and 
walk  them  aroimd  it  for  half  an  hour,  or  until  they 
get  accustomed  to  the  motion  of  the  jiower  and  to 
walking  in  a  circle.  Isext  attach  the  tumbling-rods, 
start  the  horses  very  slow  and  steady  until  thev  get 
used  to  the  revolving  of  the  tinnbling-rods  and  the 
main  shaft  of  the  machine,  then  pass  ihe  diill-rope  from 
the  .sj.ool  down  under  the  roller  at  the  foot  of  the  mast, 
then  through  the  pulley  of  the  dri'l-lever,  then  over 
the  top  ot  mast-pulley  and  down  to  the  ground. 
Screw    the    Z-bit    into    the    auger-stem,    to    which 


Fig,  1. 


Via.  8. 


also  screw  the  rope-socket,  tie  the  end  of  the  rope  very 
securely  into  the  rope-.socket,  ])lace  the  crank  on  the 
ratchet-wheel  shaft,  and  wind  tlie  tools  u])  so  they  will 
swing  above  the  ground.  Oil  every  jniUey,  join-iial,  or 
bearing  abo\it  the  machine,  where  there  is  any  fric- 
tion; also  every  link  in  the  winding-chain.  The  pul- 
ley in  Ihe  mast  head  and  the  pinion-wheels  of  the 
lor.se-power  should  be  well  oiled  every  two  or  three 
hours.  When  the  well  is  to  l)e  drilled  through  earth, 
throw  out  alxnit  one  foot  in  depth  wilh  a  shovel.  If 
the  ground  is  frozen  this  can  be  done  with  a  drill, 
the  same  as  if  rock.  Throw  two  buckets  of  water  iu 
the  hole.  Put  the  swiveleil  pulley  on  Ihe  drill-lever 
at  the  hole  nearest  to  Ihe  from  of  ihe  machine,  .so  as 
to  get  the  shortest  stroke  in  starling.  Lei  the  horses 
walk  aroimd  slowly  and  steadily  at  tirst,  then  push 
the  lever-catch  shifter  at  the  left-hand  side  of  Ihe  bot- 
tom of  the  machine.  This  will  release  the  drill-lever, 
and  Ihe  drill  will  work  up  and  down. 

Theman  in  charge  of  the  machine  must  turn  the 
drill  aroun<l  about  one  tiflh  of  a  revolution  every 
stroke.  As  Ihi-  drill  chcips  the  clay  or  earth,  ancl 
ndxes  il  into  the  cDnsislency  of  mush  or  soft  mud, 
the  drill  can  be  lowered  gradually  by  raising  the  pawl 
of  the  ratchet-wheel.     Let   the  ratchet-wheel   move 


ARTICLES  OF  WAR. 


93 


ARTICLES  OF  WAR. 


one  notch  at  a  time,  as  one  notch  of  tlie  ratchet-wheel 
allows  the  tirill  to  settle  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch. 
After  tlic  drill  has  workeil  down  about  two  feet, 
the  lever-catch  shifter  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
machine  is  then  raised  and  drawn  forwanl  with  the 
left  foot.  This  causes  the  catch  to  hold  the  diill- 
lever  do^l^n,  and  the  churning  motion  of  the  drill  is 
stopped.  Then  throw  the  clutch-lever  (on  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  jack)  outward  from  the  machine; 
this  throws  the  clutch  in  gear,  and  the  drilling-tools 
are  raised  from  the  well.  When  the  tuol-;  are  raised 
to  a  proper  height  and  out  of  the  hole,  throw  the 
clutch  out  ami  let  a  .Siuid-pump  down  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  liole,  and  churn  up  and  down  very  qiuckly, 
about  four  inches,  twenty  times.  This  will  fill  the 
sand-pump.  Then  bear  down  on  the  belt-tightener 
and  the  machine  will  raise  the  Siind-pum]]  out.  Re- 
peat this  two  or  three  times,  then  throw  in  two  more 
buckets  of  water.  Let  the  drill  down  in  the  hole  by 
raising  the  pawl  of  the  ratchet-wheel  tip  hard  against 
the  rim  of  the  ratchet-wheel,  to  let  the  ratchet-wheel 
turn  by  friction  against  the  arm  of  the  pawl.  This 
lets  the  drill  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  Then 
continue  the  churning  of  the  drill  as  before.  Every 
time  the  hole  is  sand-pumped  more  water  should  be 
thrown  in.  After  a  depth  of  ten  feet  is  drilled,  four 
feet  in  depth  of  water  ma)'  be  kept  in  the  hole. 

The  drilling  may  be  continued  in  this  manner 
imtil  the  rock,  gravel,  or  quicksand  is  reached.  If 
the  latter  (ills  the  hole  a.s  fa.st  as  taken  out,  a  tube  can 
be  made  out  of  boards  6  inches  in 
diameter  for  very  short  distances, 
or  piping  can  be  used,  where  the 
depth  of  gravel ,  etc. ,  above  the  rock 
is  more  than  25  feet.  This  is  placed 
in  the  drilled  hole,  and  driven 
down  through  the  stratum  of  sand 
or  gravel  bj-  using  the  auger-stem 
(or  drill-rod)  for  ;i  driver.  A  hole 
7  or  8  inches  in  diameter  can  be 
easily  drilled  in  earth  with  a  6-inch 
Z-bit,  by  using  plenty  of  water  and 
swaWng  the  drill-rope  a  little  each 
way  as  the  drill  makes  its  down- 
ward stroke.  When  the  rock  is 
reached  the  hole  can  be  cleaned 
otit  with  the  sand-pump,  and  the 
hcile  is  of  proper  size  to  guide  the 
tocils  in  drilling  the  rock.  The 
drilling  can  then  be  continued  to 
any  required  djpth,  care  being 
taken  to  keep  the  bit  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  smaller  than  the  internal 
diameter  of  the  pipe.  The  process 
of  drilling  in  solid  rock  is  very 
simple,  care  only  being  taken  to 
keep  the  drill-bit  full  size,  not  feed- 
ing the  drill  down  too  fast,  keeping 
the  rope  tight,  and  drilling  on  what 
is  called  tLie  "spring  of  the  rope," 
thus  making  a  straight  hole.  Have 
3  to  6  feet  of  water  in  the  hole  while  drilling,  turn 
the  drill  si.\  to  eight  times  in  one  direction,  about  one 
fifth  of  a  revolution  each  stroke,  then  backward  to 
cause  the  drill  to  cut  a  round  hole. 

In  drilling  wells  for  water,  where  5  to  10  bar- 
rels of  water  per  day  is  recpiired,  it  is  usually  neces- 
Siirj-  to  continue  the  drilling  tmtil  there  is  from  10  to 
20  feet  of  water  in  the  drillecl  hole.  If  oO  or  100  barrels 
of  water  per  day  is  needed,  usually  a  depth  of  30  or  40 
feet  of  water  will  furnish  the  required  amount.  The 
capacity  of  the  well  can  be  tested  with  the  machine 
any  time  by  the  use  of  the  sand-|iump,  as  it  can  bo 
filled  and  emptied  three  to  four  times  per  minute;  it 
holds  from  three  to  five  gallons  of  water,  and  a  con- 
tinued use  of  same  for  one  or  two  hours  will  show 
the  capacity  of  well.  If  it  rims  into  the  well  as  fast  as 
taken  out,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  continue  the 
drilling  any  farther.  For  prospecting  for  mineral, 
oil,  or  coal,  the  drilling  may  be  continued  if  there 


Fig.  9. 


should  be  100  to  500  feet  of  water  in  the  hole.  The 
drilling  is  done  the  siime  as  if  there  was  no  water, 
with  the  advantage  that  it  is  not  neces.sary  to  throw 
any  in  the  hole.  The  sand-pump  works  the  same 
in  a  great  depth  of  water  as  it  would  if  there  was  but 
6  feet  of  water.  If  it  is  desired  or  necessary  to  make 
the  well  as  economically  as  possible,  "pipe  can 
be  used,  made  of  sheet-iron  about  ,',;  inch  in  thick- 
ness, a  half-inch  smaller  than  the  drilleil  hole.  This 
usually  costs,  or  can  be  made,  for  20  cents  or  30  cents 
per  foot.  This  pipe  is  used  by  placing  it  in  the  hole, 
so  the  bottom  end  of  it  will  come  about  4  feet  below 
the  bottom  of  the  hea\'y  pipe  that  wa.s  first  used.  If 
it  is  necessary  to  shut  off  sand,  the  bottom  end  of  this 
pipe  may  be  flanged  outward  a  little,  and  a  few 
buckets  of  cement  thrown  down  outside  of  the  pipe, 
which  settles  around  the  pipe  above  the  flange,  and 
the  result  is  that  a  water-tight  connection  is  made 
with  the  rock.  This  effectually  shuts  off  all  surface- 
water  or  sand.  The  drilling  can  be  commenced  in 
the  bottom  of  an  old  well,  without  removing  the 
stones,  or  interfering  with  the  walls,  or  getting  into 
the  well,  in  which  ca.se  a  common  scjuare  wood  box. 
6  inches  inside,  can  be  used  in  the  bottom  of  an  old 
well  for  a  guide  to  start  the  tools  straight.  If  this 
machine  is  used,  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  an  excava- 
tor or  boring  tools  in  earth  above  the  rock,  as  this 
machine  will  drill  in  earth  as  rapidly  as  boring  can 
be  done  with  the  excavator  or  borer. 

An  enlarged  view  of  the  well-auger  inventetl  and 
used  by  the  Pierce  ^^'ell-Excavator  Company  is 
shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  most  practical  size  is  12  to 
IT  inches  in  diameter,  and  ^ilh  reamer  attachment 
will  bore  a  24-  to  30-inch  hole.  The  peculiar  shape 
and  construction  of  this  patent  borer  enables  it  to 
bore  through  frozen  ground,  hard-[ian,  ^.  "^late,  as 
well  as  clay  and  gravel.  Side-draught  is  impossible. 
The  cutters  penetrate  with  a  draw-cut,  making  a 
straight  hole.  The  outer  corners  of  the  cutters  being 
farthest  from  the  center,  no  friction  can  come  upon  the 
sides  of  the  borer.  The  pods  or  barrel  of  the  auger 
being  2  inches  less  in  diameter  than  the  cutters,  air 
and  water  pass  I)ehind  them,  avoifling  suction  when 
raising  the  borer  from  the  well.  This  borer  has  all 
the  combined  advantages  of  a  claj'-  and  boulder- 
auger,  as  it  will  take  up  stones  half  as  large  as  the 
diameter  of  the  hole,  and  wellj  can  be  put  in  without 
the  aid  of  other  tools  or  attachments  for  boring.  All 
of  the  above  points  are  essential  in  a  successful  well- 
boring  tool.  Before  the  invention  of  these  augers, 
borers  were  made  for  the  same  purpose,  constructed 
in  such  a  manner  that  when  fillecl  with  earth  the  hole 
was  entirely  filled,  and  they  could  not  be  withdrawn 
without  great  suction,  as  the  air  and  water  could  not 
pass  below  the  auger  when  withdrawing  it  from  the 
hole.  Pijies  and  tubes  have  been  used  for  air-pas- 
sages in  earth-borers,  but  they  were  failures,  as  they 
became  cloirfrt.il  with  mud.     See  WtU-horinfi. 

ARTICLES  OF  WAR.— There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  prerogative  to  command  and  reuulatc  the  whole 
military  force  of  the  kingdom,  whether  consisting  of 
the  feudal  tenants,  or  of  the  militia,  or  of  paid  troops, 
resided  in  the  Crown  of  England.  Nevertheless  the 
power  of  the  Sovereign  was  restricted  by  a  provision 
that  he  should  exercise  his  military  jurisdiction  only 
"  according  to  the  laws  and  usages  of  the  realm."  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  however.  Parliament  as- 
serted authority  over  military  matters  by  passing  an 
act  for  the  government  of  the  army;  various  offenses, 
its  losing,  selling,  or  fraudulently  exchanging  horses 
or  armor;  desertion;  detaining  the  pay  of  soldiers; 
and  taking  rewards  for  granting  them  discharges, 
were  put  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Civil  Magis- 
trate. It  was  also  pro%-ided  that  the  Act  should  be 
read  once  a  month  by  every  Field-Ofiicer  to  the  sol- 
diers under  his  command,  and  once  a  (piarter  by  the 
Grovernor  or  Captain  of  evcrj'  garrison  or  fortress. 
At  this  period,  however,  there  was  no  standing  army, 
the  feudal  system  was  still  in  force,  every  man  in  the 
reahn  was  more  or  less  a  soldier;  military  law  was  ac- 


ARTICLES  OF  WAB. 


94 


AKTICLES  OF  WAH. 


cordindv  restricted  to  such  persons  as  were  actually 
serving  in  the  field,  the  process  of  ciWl  judicature 
being  obviously  inapplicable  to  their  case— but  di- 
rectly the  soldier  ceiLsed  to  belong  to  the  force  in 
actual  campaign,  the  civil  jwwer  stepped  in  and 
claimed  cognizjuice  of  his  offenses. 

Until  the  Civil  War  in  the  reign  of  Charles  i.,  it  is 
probalile  that  no  regular  permanent  Code  of  Rules  or 
Articles  for  enforcing  military  discipline  was  in  exist- 
ence; the  ruling  authority  had  promulgated  its  orders 
for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army  i-.s  oc- 
casion rtHiuired.  Each  war,  each  expedition,  had  its 
own  edict,  which  fell  into  disuse  again  uimn  the  dis- 
banding of  the  army,  which  inevitably  followed  the 
ccssjitiou  of  hostilities.  The  experience  of  ages  and 
the  precedents  of  former  wars,  therefore,  enabled  the 
authorities  to  frame  a-sufticiently  comprehensive  code 
in  ca.se  of  need;  accordingly,  soon  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  the  neces.sities  of  the  case  compelled 
the  Parliament  to  enact  Ordinances  or  Articles  of  War. 
The  tirst  complete  "  iMwesand  Ordiiutufes  of  Warre" 
(as  he  called  them)  were  issued  by  Essex,  the  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  Parliamentary  Army  in  1642. 
These  Articles  are  remarkable  and  interesting,  as  un- 
doubtedly forming  the  groundwork  of  those  now  in 
use.  Two  years  after  the  publication  of  Essex's  Ordi- 
nances, on  the  marching  of  the  Scottish  army  into 
England,  soon  after  the  ratitication  of  the  solemn 
league  and  covenant,  "  Articles  of  War"  were  issued 
for  its  government.  These  Articles,  although  very 
dis-similar  to  those  of  Essex,  considering  that  both 
were  in  force  in  the  Siiine  kinadom  at  the  same  time, 
and  were  applicable  to  armies  fighting  on  the  Siune  side, 
nevertheless  treat  mainly  of  the  same  offenses.  The 
form  of  judicature  established  consisted  of  two 
Courts  of  Justice,  called  "  Councils  of  War,"  the  one 
superior  and  the  other  inferior.  The  Superior  Court, 
also  called  the  "Court  of  War,"  took  cognizance  of 
the  more  serious  offenses,  and  likewise  heard  appeals 
from  the  decision  of  the  Lower  Court,  called  the 
"llartial  Court."  No  trace  of  the  constitution  of 
these  Courts  is  now  to  be  found  except  that  "the 
Judges  were  sworn  to  do  justice."  Within  a  few 
months  of  the  promulgation  of  the  latter  (August, 
1644),  the  .Siime  Parliament  that  was  the  author  of  the 
petition  of  right  pas,scd  an  ordinance  estal)lishing  a 
system  of  martial  law,  apiilicable  not  only  to  soldiers, 
but  to  all  persons  alike.  By  this  Ordinance,  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  C'a])tain-(ieneral  of  the  parliainenlary  forces, 
together  with  lifly-six  others  named  therein  (among 
whom  were  peers,  members  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, gentry,  and  officers  of  tlie  army),  were  consti- 
tuted "  Conimissioners,"  and  any  twelve  of  them  au- 
thorized to  hear  and  determine  all  such  causes  as 
"belong  to  military  cosrnizance,"  according  to  the 
Articles  mentioneii  in  the  Ordinance,  and  to  proceed 
to  the  trial,  condemnation,  and  execution  of  all  offen- 
ders agaiast  the  .sjiid  Articles,  and  to  inflict  upon  them 
such  punishment,  either  by  death  or  otherwise,  corjx>- 
rally,  as  the  said  Commissioners,  or  the  major  part  of 
them  then  present,  should  judge  to  appertain  to  jus- 
tice, according  to  the  measure  of  the  offense.  Under 
cover  of  this  ordinance,  which,  after  one  refusal  liy 
the  peers,  was  subseijuently  renewed,  Parlianieiit 
proceeded  to  issue  a  variety  of  orders  for  the  conduct 
of  the  war  and  the  retrulationof  the  army;  and  many 
persons  were  tried  by  Court-Martial  and  executeil. 
After  the  expiration  of  this  last  ordinance,  the  abso- 
lute executive  power,  in  all  matters  of  military  law, 
fell  into  the  hamls  of  Cromwell,  who  claimed  it  as 
his  right,  in  virtue  of  his  office  of  General  in  (liicf. 
"The  General."  says  Whitlocke,  "sent  his  order  to 
several  garrisons  to  bold  Courts  Martial  for  the  punish- 
ment of  soldiers  olTeniling against  the  Articles  of  War; 
provided  that  if  any  be  sentenced  to  lose  life  or  limb, 
then  they  transmit  to  the  Judge-Advocate  the  ex- 
aminations and  proceedings  of  the  Court-Martial, 
that  the  (Jeitrnil'ii  pleasure  may  be  known  thereon." 
On  one  occasion,  deeming  it  necessary,  for  the  s;ike  of 
'discipline,  to  make  an  immediate  example,  Cromwell 


seized  several  officers  with  his  own  hand,  called  a 
Court-Martial  on  the  field,  condemned  them  to  death, 
and  shot  one  forthwith  at  the  head  of  his  regiment. 
It  will  iluis  Ix'  seen  that  the  administration  of  mar- 
tial law  was  almost  invariably  in  the  hands  of  the 
most  considemiile  power  in  the  State — it  alternated 
between  King  and  Parliament,  and  between  Parlia- 
ment and  Dictator,  as  each  became  uppermost  in  the 
realm.  Vn  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  the  army, 
with  the  exception  of  about  five  thousand  men,  con- 
sisting of  General  Monk's  regiment  called  "the 
Coldstream,"  the  first  regiment  of  foot,  the  roval  reg- 
iment of  Horse-Guards,  called  the  "  Oxford  Ijluesr" 
and  a  few  other  regiments,  was  disbanded.  The 
force  kept  on  foot  was  the  first  permanent  military 
force,  or  "  Standing  Army,"  known  in  England;  and 
from  it  the  present  anny  dates  its  origin. 

A  statute  [lassed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. ,  enti- 
tled "An  Act  for  ordering  the  forces  in  the  several 
counties  of  this  kingdom^"  recites  that,  "within  all 
his  Majesty's  realms  and  dominions,  the  sole  and  su- 
preme power,  government,  command,  and  disposi. 
tion  of  the  militia,  and  of  all  forces  by  .sea  and  land, 
and  of  all  forts  and  places  of  strength  is,  an<l  by  the 
laws  of  England  ever  was,  the  undoubted  right  of  his 
Slajesfy,  and  his  royal  predecessors,  kings  and 
queens  of  England."  With  the  exception  of  some 
slight  encroachment  on  the  part  of  the  Crown,  ami 
protests  on  the  part  of  the  Parliament,  matters  re- 
mained in  very  much  the  same  state  till  the  Revolu- 
tion, at  which  period  military  law  assinned  a  perma- 
nent and  definite  form,  as  it  now  exists.  The  only 
allusions  to  the  military  jiowcr  of  the  Crown,  in  the 
Bill  of  Rights,  are,  "that  the  raising  and  keeping  of  a 
standing  army  in  time  of  peace,  irithmit  consent  of 
Ptirliament,  is  contraiy  to  law;"  and  that  "subjects, 
if  Protestants,  may  have  arms  for  their  defense,  suit- 
able to  their  conilition,  and  as  allowed  by  law.  " 
In  the  first  year,  however,  of  the  reign  of  William 
and  Mary,  British  regiments,  jealous  of  the  supjiosed 
preference  shown  by  William  for  his  Dutch  troojis, 
mutined  at  Ipswich.  The  king  supjircssed  the  mu- 
tiny with  a  strong  hand,  at  the  same  time  communi- 
cating the  event  to  Parliament.  Parliament,  anxious 
to  devise  mesms  for  the  convenient  application  of  a 
code  of  laws  for  the  regulation  and  management  of 
the  anny,  and  at  the  same  time  determined  to  place  a 
check  ujion  the  exercise  of  the  military  power  of  the 
King,  jiassed.  on  the  3d  April.  10S9,  for  a  period  of 
six  months  only,  the  first  Mutiny  Act,  the  preamble 
of  which  is  as  follows:  "Whereas,  the  raising  or 
kee])ing  a  standing  army  within  this  kingdome,  in 
time  of  peace,  unlesse  it  be  with  the  consent  of  Par- 
lyamenf,  is  against  law;  and  whereas  it  is  judged  nec- 
essary, by  their  majestyes  and  this  present  paiiya- 
nient  that,  during  this  time  of  warr.  severall  of  ilie 
forces  which  arc  now  on  foote  should  be  continued 
and  others  raised,  for  the  .safety  of  the  kingdome, 
for  the  common  defence  of  the  Protestant  religion, 
and  for  the  reducing  of  Ireland.  And  whereas  no 
man  can  be  prejudged  of  life  or  limb,  or  subjected  to 
any  kinde  of  jiunishment  liy  niartiall  law,  or  in  any 
other  manner  than  by  the  judgment  of  his  peeres,  and 
according  to  tlie  knowne  and  established  lawes  of 
this  realine;  yet,  nevertheless,  it  being  requisite  for 
retaining  sucli  forces  as  are  or  shall  fie  raised  dur- 
ing this  exigence  of  affaires  in  their  duty,  that  an  ex- 
act discipline  be  observed;  and  that  .soldiers  who 
shall  mutiny  or  stirr  up  sedition,  or  who  .shall  desert 
their  majestye's  service,  be  brought  to  more  exem- 
plary anil  s]ieedy  punishment  than  the  usual  formes 
of  law  will  allow."  The  Act  provides  for  tlieassem- 
bliui:  and  constitution  of  Courts-Martial,  for  the  oath 
of  members,  for  the  punishment  of  desertion,  mulinv, 
sedition,  false  musters,  etc.;  for  the  regulation  of  bil- 
lets; and  is  ordered  to  be  read  at  the  head  of  e\ery 
regiment,  troop,  or  comjiany,  at  every  muster,  "that 
noe  soldier  may  pretend  ignorance."  No  power  is, 
however,  reserved  to  the  Sovereign  to  make  Articles 
of  War.    This  Act  was  renewed  soon  after  its  expira- 


ABTICLES  OF  WAR. 


95 


ABTICLES  OF  WAS. 


tion;  and  with  Uie  exception  of  aliout  three  years  only, 
\iz.,  from  10th  April,  1698,  to  20th  February,  170"l, 
has  been  annually  re-enactefl  (with  many  alterations 
and  amendments)  ever  since. 

Under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  Con- 
aress  onlj'  can  make  rules  of  goyemment  and  regula- 
tion for  the  land  forces,  and  those  rules,  commonly 
called  Articles  of  War.  were  originally  borrowed 
jointly  from  the  English  Mutiny  Act  annually  passed 
by  Parliament,  and  their  Articles  of  War  e-itablished 
by  the  king.  The  existing  Articles  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  army  of  the  United  States,  enacted  April 
10,  1806,  are  substantially  the  same  as  those  origi- 
nally borrowed  July  30,  1775,  and  enlarged  by  the 
old  Congreas  from  the  same  sources,  September  20, 
1776.  The  Act  consists  of  but  three  sections.  The 
first  declares:  "The  following  shall  be  the  Rules 
and  Articles  by  which  the  armies  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  governed;"  and  gives  one  hundred  and 
one  articles,  all  noticed  in  these  pages.  Each  Article 
is  confined,  in  express  terms,  to  the  persons  compos- 
ing the  army.  The  second  section  contams  the  only 
exception  in  the  cases  as  follows:  "  In  time  of  war, 
all  persons  not  citizens  of,  or  owing  allegiance  to, 
the  United  States  of  America  who  shall  be  found 
lurking,  as  spies,  in  or  about  the  fortifications  or  en- 
campments of  the  annies  of  the  United  States,  or  any 
of  them,  shall  suffer  death,  according  to  the  hno  and 
•usage  of  nations,  by  sentence  of  a  General  Court-ilar- 
tial."  The  third  section  merely  repeals  the  previ- 
ous Act  for  governing  the  army.  The  Articles  of 
War,  therefore,  are,  and  under  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  can  be,  nothing  more  than  a  code 
for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army.  Or, 
in  other  words,  within  the  United  States  these  Arti- 
cles are  ' '  a  system  of  rules  superadded  to  the  common 
law  for  regulating  the  citizen  in  his  character  of  a 
soldier, "  and  applicable  to  no  other  citizens.  Beyond 
the  United  States  another  code  is  essential ;  for  al- 
though armies  take  with  them  the  Rules  and  Articles 
of  War,  and  the  custom  of  war  in  like  cases,  in  a 
foreign  country  the  .soldier  must  be  tried  \r;  some 
tribunal  for  offen.ses  which  at  home  would  be  pun- 
ishable by  the  ordinary  courts  of  law.  It  is  impo.ssi- 
ble  to  subject  him  to  any  foreign  dominion,  and 
hence,  in  the  absence  of  rules  made  b.y  Congress  for 
the  government  of  the  army  under  such  circumstances, 
the  will  of  the  Commander  of  the  Troops,  ex  necessitate 
rei,  takes  the  place  of  law,  and  the  declaration  of  his 
will  is  called  ilartial  Law.  The  most  casual  reader  of 
our  Articles  of  War  will  be  struck  by  the  fact  that 
whereas  the  Mutiny  Act  of  Great  Britain  is  annually 
subjected  to  the  supervision  of  Parliament,  and  al- 
tered or  modified  according  to  circumstances,  yet  the 
Rules  and  Articles  of  War  pa.ssed  in  1806  have  re- 
mained upon  our  statute-Vwok  from  that  day  to  the 
present  without  any  general  revision.  Another  fact 
equally  important  is  that  while  the  king  of  Great 
Britain  not  onlj-  commands  but  gocerns  fhe  British 
army,  and  therefore  modifies  the  government  of  the 
army  at  his  pleasiue,  the  President  of  the  Unitetl 
States  is  simply  the  Commander  of  our  army,  under 
such  rules  for  raising,  supporting,  governing,  and 
regulating  it  as  Congress  may  appoint.  The  neces- 
sity of  attention  to  the  military  establishment  on  the 
part  of  Congress  is  therefore  manifest,  and  it  is  most 
earnestly  to  Ix.'  hoped  that,  in  their  wisdom,  they  will, 
at  some  early  day,  fulfill  their  constitutional  obligations 
of  raising,  governing,  and  regulating  armies:  1.  By 
establishing'  a  system  of  reci-uiting  which  will  bring 
into  the  ranks  soldiers  who  will  make  good  officers; 

2.  By  pro\nding  that  all  commissioned  otlicers  shall 
be  appointed  from  enlisted  soldiers,  or  from  military 
academies,  and  making  rules  precisely  regulating  the 
manner  in  which  such  appointments  "shall  be  made; 

3.  In  making  rules  for  a  system  of  promotion  partly 
by  seniority  and  partly  by  merit;  4.  In  passing  other 
remunerative  laws,  such  as  prize-money,  field-allow- 
ances, indenmification  for  losses,  etc.:  5.  In  accu- 
rately defining  the  powers,  rights,  and  duties  of  all 


oflicers  and  soldiers;  6.  In  providing  remedies  for 
wrongs,  including  appeals  to  federal  civil  courts,  to 
determine  the  true  exposition  of  militarj'  laws  in  dis- 
pute; and  7.  In  revising  the  penal  code,  and  better 
adapting  it  to  a  system  of  government  which  will  pro- 
vide rewards  for  good  conduct,  and  not  simply  i)un- 
ishments  for  bad. 

The  Armies  of  the  United  States  are  governed  by 
the  following  Rules  and  Articles.  The  word  otflcer, 
as  used  therein,  is  understood  to  designate  commis- 
sioned officers;  the  word  soldier  is  understood  to  in- 
clude non-commissioned  officers,  musicians,  artificers, 
and  privates,  and  other  enlisted  men,  ai;d  the  convic- 
tions mx^ntioned  therein  are  understood  to  be  convic- 
tions by  Court- Martial. 

Aktici-e  1.  Every  officer  now  in  the  Army  of  the 
United  States  shall,  within  six  months  from  the  pass- 
ing of  this  Act,  and  every  officer  hereafter  appointed 
shall,  before  he  enters  ujwn  the  duties  of  his  office, 
subscribe  these  Rules  and  Articles. 

Art.  2.  These  Rules  and  Articles  shall  be  read  to 
every  enlisted  man  at  the  time  of,  or  within  six  days 
after,  his  enlistment,  and  he  shall  thereupon  take  an 
oath  or  affirmation,  in  the  following  form:  "  I,  A.  B., 
do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  bear  tnie 
faith  and  allesiance  to  the  United  States  of  America; 
that  I  will  serve  them  honestly  and  faithfully  against 
all  their  enemies  whomsoever;  and  that  I  will  obey 
the  orders  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  orders  of  the  officers  appointed  over  me,  accord- 
ing to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War."  This  oath  may 
be  taken  before  anj-  commissioned  officer  of  the  army. 

Art.  8.  Every  officer  who  knowingly  eidists  or 
musters  into  the  military  service  anj-  minor  over  the 
age  of  sixteen  years  without  the  wTitten  consent  of 
his  parents  or  guardians,  or  any  minor  under  the  age 
of  sixteen  years,  or  any  insane  or  intoxicated  persons, 
or  any  deserter  from  "the  military  or  naval  serWce  of 
the  United  States,  or  any  person  who  has  been  con- 
victed of  any  infamous  criminsil  offense,  shall,  upon 
conviction,  lie  dismissed  from  the  service,  or  suffer 
such  other  pimishment  as  the  Court-Martial  may 
direct. 

Art.  4.  Xo  enlisted  man,  duly  sworn,  shall  be 
discharged  from  the  serWce  without  a  discaarge  in 
writing,  signed  by  a  field-officer  of  the  regiment  to 
which  he  belongs,  or  by  the  commanding  officer 
when  no  field-officer  is  present;  and  no  discharge 
shall  be  given  to  any  enlisted  man  before  his  term  of 
service  h^s  exijired,  except  by  order  of  the  President, 
the  Secrctarj-  of  War,  the  commanding  oflicer  of  a 
department,  "or  by  sentence  of  a  General  Court- JIariial. 

Art.  5.  Any  officer  who  knowinglj-  musters  as  a 
soldier  a  person  who  is  not  a  soldier  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  knowingly  making  a  false  miister,  and 
punished  accordingly. 

Art.  6.  Any  oflicer  who  takes  money,  or  other 
thing,  by  way  "of  gratification,  on  mustering  any  regi- 
ment, troop^  battery,  or  company,  or  on  signing 
muster-rolls,  shall  be  dismis.sed  from  the  service,  and 
shall  thereby  be  disabled  to  hold  any  ofiice  or  em- 
ploTOieut  inthe  service  of  the  United  States. 

Art.  7.  Every  officer  commanding  a  regiment,  an 
independent  tro"op,  batterj-,  or  company,  or  a  g-arri- 
.son,  shall,  in  tlie  beginning  of  every  month,  transmit 
through  the  proper  channels,  to  the  Department  of 
War,  an  exact  return  of  the  same,  specifying  the 
names  of  the  ofticers  then  absent  from  their  posts, 
with  the  reasons  for  and  the  time  of  their  absence. 
And  any  officer  who,  through  neglect  or  design,  omits 
to  send  "such  returns  shiill,  on  conviction  thereof,  be 
punished  as  a  Court-JIartial  may  direct. 

Art.  8.  Every  officer  who  knowingly  makes  a  false 
return  to  the  Department  of  War,  or  to  any  of  his 
superior  officers  authorized  to  call  for  such  returns, 
of  the  stjite  of  the  regiment,  troop  or  company,  or 
g-arrison  under  his  command;  or  of  the  arms,  am- 
munition, clothing,  or  other  stores  thereunto  belong- 
ing, shall,  on  conviction  thereof  before  a  Court- 
Jlartial,  be  cashiered. 


ARTICLES  OF  WAB. 


96 


ARTICLES  OF  WAB. 


Art.  9.  All  iniMic  stores  taken  frotii  the  euemy 
shall  l>e  seeureil  lor  the  service  of  the  United  States; 
and  for  ue.L'lect  thereof  the  commanding  ofHcer  shall 
be  aiiswerahle. 

AuT.  Ul.  Everj-  officer  comniandiiis;  a  troop,  bat- 
tery, or  company  is  charged  with  the  arms,  accouter- 
ments,  amminiition,  clothhisr,  or  other  military  stores 
belonirini;  to  his  ccminiuiul,  and  is  accoimlalile  to  his 
Colonel  in  case  of  their  being  lost,  spoiled,  or  damaged 
otherwise  than  by  unavoidable  accident,  or  on  actual 
service. 

Art.  11.  Every  officer  commanding  a  regiment,  or 
an  independent  troop,  battery,  or  company,  not  in  the 
tield.  may,  wlien  actually  quartered  with  such  com- 
mand, grant  furloughs  to  the  enlisteel  men,  in  such 
nmnliers  and  for  such  time  as  he  shall  deem  con- 
sistent with  the  good  of  the  service.  Every  officer 
commanding  a  regiment,  or  au  independent  troop, 
battery,  or  comi)any,  in  the  tield,  may  grant  furloughs 
not  exceeding  thirty  days  at  one  time,  to  five  per 
centinn  of  the  eidisted  men,  for  good  conduct  in  the 
line  t)f  duty,  but  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  com- 
mander of  the  forces  of  which  said  enlisted  men  form 
a  pari.  Every  compiiny  olticer  of  a  regimcMt,  com- 
manding any  troop,  battery,  or  company  not  in  the 
field,  or  conimandiug  in  aiiy  garrison,  fort,  post,  or 
barrack,  may,  in  the  absence  of  his  tield-officer,  grant 
furloughs  to  the  eidisied  men  for  a  time  not  exceed- 
ing twenty  days  in  six  months,  and  i.ot  to  more  than 
two  persons  to  be  absent  at  the  siuue  time. 

Art.  12.  At  everj-  muster  of  a  regiment,  troop, 
battery,  or  company,  the  conmianding  officer  thereof 
shall  give  to  the  mustering  officer  certificates,  signed 
by  himself,  stating  how  long  absent  officers  have^Jeen 
absent  and  the  reasons  of  their  alisence.  And  the 
commanding  olticer  of  every  troop,  battery,  or  com- 
pany shall  give  like  cerliticates,  stating  how  long 
absent  non-commissioned  officers  and  private  soldiers 
have  been  absent  and  the  reasons  of  their  absence. 
Such  reasons  and  time  of  absence  shall  be  inserted  in 
the  muster-rolls  opjiosite  the  names  of  the  respective 
absent  officers  and  soldiers,  and  the  certificates,  to- 
gether with  the  muster-rolls,  shall  be  transmitted  liy 
the  mustering  officer  to  the  Department  of  War,  as 
speedily  a.s  the  distance  of  the  place  and  muster  will 
admit. 

Art.  13.  Every  officer  who  signs  a  false  certificate 
relating  to  the  ai)seuce  or  pay  of  an  officer  or  soldier 
shall  be  dismissed  from  the  ser\ice. 

Art.  14.  Any  officer  who  knowingly  makes  a  fal.se 
muster  of  man  or  horse,  or  who  signs,  or  directs,  or 
allows  the  signing  of  any  master-roll  knowing  the 
same  to  contain  a  false  muster,  shall,  upon  proof 
thereof  by  two  witnesses,  before  a  Court-Martial,  be 
dismissed  from  the  ser\-ice,  and  shall  thereby  be  dis- 
able<l  to  liold  .my  office  or  employment  in  the  .service 
of  the  United  States. 

Art.  1~).  Any  officer  who,  willfully  or  through 
nejilect.  suffers  to  be  lost,  spoiled,  or  "damaged  any 
military  stores  belonging  to  the  United  States  shall 
make  good  the  lo.ss  or  damage,  and  be  dismissed  from 
the  ser\ice. 

Art.  16.  Any  enlisted  man  who  sells,  or  willfully 
or  throuiih  neglect  wastes,  the  ammunition  delivered 
out  to  him  shall  be  punished  as  a  Court-.Martial  mav 
direct. 

Art.  17.  Any  soldier  who  sells  or.  through  neglect, 
loses  or  spoils  his  horse,  anns.  clothing,  or  accouter- 
ments.  shall  suffer  such  stoppages,  not  exceeding  one 
half  of  his  current  iiay,  as  a  Court-Martial  mav  deem 
sufficient  for  repairing  the  loss  or  dama'.'c,  arid  shall 
be  punished  by  confinement  or  -luch  other  corjioral 
punishment  as  the  Court  may  direct. 

Art.  1H.  Anv  officer  eominanding  in  anv  garrison, 
fort,  or  barracks  of  the  United  Slates  who.  for  his 
private  advantage,  lays  any  duty  or  imposition  upon, 
or  is  interested  in,  the  sale  of  any  \ictuals,  liquors,  or 
other  necessaries  of  lif(;  brought  into  such  giuaison, 
fort,  or  Iwrracks  for  the  use  of  the  soldiers,  shall  be 
dismissed  from  the  service. 


Art.  19.  Any  officer  who  uses  contemptuous  or 
disrespectful  words  against  the  President,  the  Vice- 
President,  the  Congress  of  the  Uinted  Stjites,  or  the 
Chief  Magistrate  or  legislature  of  any  of  the  United 
States  in  which  he  is  quartered,  shall  be  tlismissed 
from  the  service,  or  otherwise  janiished,  as  a 
Court-Martial  may  direct.  Anv  soldier  who  so 
offends  shall  be  punished  as  a  Court  Martial  may 
tlirect. 

Art.  20.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  behaves  him- 
self with  disrespect  toward  his  Commanding  Officer 
shall  be  punished  as  a  Courl-Marlial  may  direct. 

Art.  21.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who,  on  any  jire- 
fense  whatsoever,  strikes  his  Superior  Officer,  or 
ih'aws  or  lift.s  up  any  weaiion,  ov  offers  any  violence 
against  him,  being  in  the  execution  of  his  office,  or 
disobeys  any  lawful  command  of  his  Suiierior  Officer, 
shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a 
Coiu-t-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  22.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  begins,  excites, 
causes,  or  joins  in  any  nuitiny  or  sedition,  in  any 
troop,  battery,  company,  party,  post,  detachment,  or 
guard,  shall  suffer  de:ith.  or  such  other  punishment 
as  a  Court-Martial  may  dirf'ct. 

Art.  23.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who,  being  pres- 
ent at  any  nmtiny  or  sedition,  does  not  use  his  ut- 
most endeavor  to  suppress  the  same,  or,  having 
knowledge  of  any  intended  mutiny  or  sedition, 
docs  not,  without  delay,  give  information  thereof 
to  his  Commanding  Officer,  shall  sidTer  death,  or 
such  other  punishment  as  a  Court-Martial  may  di- 
rect. 

Aht.  24.  All  officers,  of  what  condition  soever, 
have  power  to  part  and  quell  all  quarrels,  frays,  and 
disorders,  whether  among  persons  belonging  to  his 
own  or  to  another  corps,  regiment,  troop,  battery,  or 
company,  and  to  order  officers  into  arrest,  and  non- 
commissionetl  officers  and  soldiers  into  confinement, 
who  take  part  in  the  same,  until  their  proper  Sujierior 
Officer  is  ac<iuaiuted  therewith.  And  whosoever, 
being  so  ordered,  refuses  to  obey  such  officer  or  non- 
commissioned officer,  or  draws  a  weajjon  upon  him 
shall  be  punished  as  a  Court-JIartial  may  direct. 

Art.  25.  No  officer  or  soldier  shall  use  any  re- 
proachful or  provoking  sjieeches  or  gestures  to  an- 
other. Any  officer  who  so  offends  shall  be  put  in  ar- 
rest. Any  soldier  who  so  offends  shall  lie  confined, 
and  required  to  ask  jiardon  of  the  party  offended,  in 
the  presence  of  his  Commanding  Ofiicer. 

Art.  26.  No  officer  or  soldier  shall  send  a  chal- 
lenge to  another  officer  or  soldier  to  fight  a  duel,  or 
accept  a  challenge  so  .sent.  Any  officer  who  so  of- 
fends shall  be  dismissed  from  the  service.  Any  sol 
dier  who  so  offends  shall  suffer  such  corporal  piinish- 
mcnt  as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  27.  An.y  officer  or  nonconunissioned  officer, 
commanding  a  guard,  who,  knowingly  and  willingly, 
suffers  any  "person  to  go  forth  to  fight  a  duel,  shall 
be  punished  as  a  challenger;  and  all  seconds  or  pro- 
moters of  duels,  and  carriers  of  challenges  to  Sght 
duels,  shall  be  deemed  principals,  and  punished  ac- 
cordingly. It  shall  be  the  duty  of  any  officer  com- 
manding an  army,  regiment,  troo]),  l)alterj-,  com- 
pany, post,  or  detachment,  who  knows  or  has  reason 
to  believe  that  a  challenge  has  been  criven  or  ac- 
cepted bv  anv  officer  or  enlisted  luan  under  his  com- 
mand, inimediately  to  arrest  the  offender  and  bring 
him  to  tiial. 

Art.  28.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  upbraids  an- 
other officer  or  ".soldier  for  refusing  a  challenge  shall 
himself  be  punished  as  :i  challenger;  and  all  officers 
and  .".oldiers  are  hereby  discharged  from  any  disgrace 
or  oianion  of  disiidvantage  which  might  arise  from 
their  having  refused  to  accept  challenges,  as  they 
will  onlv  have  acted  in  obedience  to  the  law,  and 
have  clone  their  duty  as  good  soldiers,  who  subject 
themselves  to  discijiline. 

Art.  29.  An\'  officer  who  thinks  himself  wronged 
bv  the  commanding  officerof  his  regiment,  and,  upon 
diie  application  to"  such  commander,  is  refused  re- 


AKTICLES  OF  WAR. 


97 


ARTICLES  OF  WAR 


dress,  may  complain  to  the  General  commanding  in  the 
State  or  Territory  where  such  re^ment  is  stationed. 
The  general  shall  examine  into  ssiid  complaint  ami 
take  proper  measures  for  redressing  the  wrong  com- 
jilained  of;  and  he  shall,  as  soon  as  possible,  trans- 
mit to  the  Department  of  War  a  true  statement  of 
such  complaint,  with  the  proceedings  had  thereon. 

Art.  30.  ^Vny  soMier  who  thinks  himself  wronged 
by  any  ollieer  may  complain  to  the  commanding  offi- 
cer of  his  regimeiit,  who  shall  summon  a  Regimental 
Court-Martial  for  the  doing  of  justice  to  the  complain- 
ant. Either  parly  may  ajipeal  from  such  Regimental 
Court-Martial  to  a  General  Court-Martial;  but  if,  upon 
such  second  hearing,  the  appeal  appears  to  be  ground- 
less and  \e.\atious,  the  party  appealing  shall  be  ptm- 
ished  at  the  discretion  of  s:nd  General  Couri-Martial. 

Art.  31.  Any  oflicer  or  soldier  who  lies  out  of  his 
quarters,  garrison,  or  camp,  withtxit  leave  from  his 
sui>erior  officer,  shall  be  punished  as  a  Court-JIartial 
may  direct. 

Art.  32.  Any  .soldier  who  absents  himself  from  his 
troop,  battery,  company,  or  detachment,  without 
leave  from  his  Commanding  Officer,  shall  be  punished 
as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  33.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  fails,  ex- 
cept when  prevented  by  sickness  or  other  necessity, 
to  repair,  at  the  fixed  time,  to  the  place  of  parade, 
e.'cercise,  or  other  rendezvous  appointed  by  his  Com- 
manding Officer,  or  goes  from  the  same,  without 
leave  from  his  Commanding  Officer,  before  he  is  dis- 
missed or  relieved,  shall  belsunished  as  a  Court-Mar- 
tial  may  direct. 

Art."  34.  Any  soldier  who  is  found  one  mile 
from  camp,  without  leave  in  writing  from  his  Com- 
manding Officer,  shall  be  punished  as  a  Coiut-Martial 
may  direct. 

Art.  35.  Any  soldier  who  fails  to  retire  to  his 
q\iarters  or  tent  at  the  beating  of  retreat  shall  be  pun- 
isheil  according  to  the  nature  of  his  offense. 

Art.  3G.  No  soldier  belonging  to  any  regiment, 
troop,  battery,  or  company  shall  hire  another  to  do 
his  dutj'  for  him,  or  be  excused  from  duty,  except 
in  CJises  of  sickness,  dis;ibility,  or  leave  of  absence. 
Every  such  soldier  found  guilty  of  hiring  his  duty, 
and  the  persou  so  hired  to  do  another's  duty,  shall  be 
punished  as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  37.  Every  non-commissioned  officer  who  con- 
nives at  such  hiring  of  duty  shall  be  reduced.  Every 
officer  who  knows  and  allows  such  practices  shall  be 
punishetl  as  a  Court-ilarlial  may  direct. 

Art.  38.  Any  offioer  who  is  found  drimk  on  his 
guard,  party,  or  other  duty  shall  be  dismissed  from 
the  service.  Any  soldier  who  so  offends  shall  suffer 
such  punishment  as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  39.  Any  sentinel  who  is  found  sleepuig  upon 
his  post,  or  who  leaves  it  before  he  is  regularly  re- 
lieved, shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as 
a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  40.  Any  otiicer  or  soldier  wlio  ciuits  his  guard, 
platoon,  or  di\ision  without  leave  from  his  Superior 
Officer,  except  in  case  of  urgent  necessity,  shall  be  pun- 
ished as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  41.  Any  officer  who,  by  any  means  whatso- 
ever, ocaisions  false  alarms  in  camp,  garrison,  or 
quarter*,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment 
as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  42.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  misbehaves 
himself  before  the  enemy,  runs  away,  or  shamefully 
abandons  anj-  fort,  post,  or  guard,  which  he  is  com- 
manded to  defend,  or  speaks  words  inducing  others 
to  do  the  like,  or  casts  away  his  arms  or  ammunition, 
or  <iuits  his  post  or  colors  to  plunder  or  pillage,  shall 
suffer  death,  or  such  other  pimishment  as  a  Court- 
Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  43.  If  any  commander  of  any  garrbon,  fort- 
ress, or  post  is  compelled  by  the  officers  and  soldiers 
under  his  command  to  give  up  to  the  enemy  or  to 
abandon  it,  the  officers  or  soldiers  so  offending  shall 
suffer  death,  or  such  other  pimishment  as  a  Courl- 
Martial  may  direct. 


Art.  44.  Any  person  belonging  to  the  armies  of 
the  United  States  who  makes  known  the  watchword 
to  any  person  not  entitled  to  receive  it,  according  to 
the  rules  and  discipline  of  war,  or  presumes  to  give 
a  parole  or  watchword  differr'nt  from  that  which  he 
received,  shall  suffer  death,  or  sucL  other  punish- 
ment as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  4-").  Whosoever  relieves  the  enemj-  with 
money,  vietuals,  or  ammunition,  or  knowingly  har- 
bors or  protects  an  eneni}',  shall  suffer  death,  or  such 
other  pimishment  as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  4(5.  Whosoever  holds  correspondence  with, 
or  gives  intelligence  to,  the  enemy,  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  shaU  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punish- 
ment !is  a  Court- Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  47.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who,  ha\ing  re- 
ceived pay,  or  having  been  duly  enlisted  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States,  deserts  the  same,  shall,  in 
time  of  war,  suffer  ileath,  or  such  other  punishment 
as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct ;  and  in  time  of  peace, 
any  punishment,  excepting  death,  which  a  Court- 
Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  48.  Every  soldier  who  deserts  the  service  of 
the  United  States  shall  \x  liable  to  serve  for  such 
period  as  shall,  with  the  time  he  may  have  served 
pre\"ious  to  his  desertion,  amount  to  the  full  term  of 
Ids  enlistment;  and  such  soldier  shall  be  tried  by  a 
Court-Martial  and  punished,  although  the  tenn  of 
his  enlistment  may  have  elapsed  pre\ious  to  his  Iwing 
apprehended  and  tried. 

Art.  49.  Any  officer  who,  having  tendered  his 
resignation,  quits  his  post  or  proper  duties  without 
leave,  and  with  intent  to  remain  permanently  absent 
therefrom,  prior  to  due  notice  of  the  acceptance  of 
the  same,  shall  be  deemed  and  punished  as  a  de- 
serter. 

Art.  50.  Xo  non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier 
shall  enlist  himself  in  any  other  regiment,  troop,  or 
company  mthout  a  regular  discharge  from  the  regi- 
ment, troop,  or  company  in  which  he  last  sen'ed,  on 
penalty  of  being  reputed  a  deserter,  and  suffering 
accordingly.  And  in  case  anj'  officer  shall  know- 
ingly receive  and  entertain  such  non-conunissioned 
officer  or  soldier,  or  shall  not.  after  his  being  dis- 
covered to  be  a  deserter,  immediately  confine  him 
and  give  notice  thereof  co  the  corjis  in  which  he  last 
.served,  the  s;iid  officer  shall,  by  a  Coiirt-JIartial,  be 
cashiered. 

Art.  51.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  advises  or 
persuades  any  other  officer  or  soldier  to  desert  the 
service  of  the  United  States  shall,  in  time  of  war, 
suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  Court- 
Martial  niiiy  direct;  and  in  time  of  peace,  any  punish- 
ment, excepting  death,  which  a  Court-Martial  may 
direct. 

Art.  52.  It  is  earnestly  recommended  to  all  officers 
and  soldiers  diligently  to  attend  divine  serWce.  Any 
officer  who  behaves  indecently  or  irre\  jrently  at  any 
place  of  divine  worship  shall  be  brought  bofore  a 
General  Court-ilartial,  there  to  be  publicly  and 
severely  reprimanded  liy  the  President  thereof.  Any 
soldier  who  so  offends  shall,  for  his  first  offense,  for- 
feit one  sixth  of  a  dollar;  for  each  further  offense  he 
shall  forfeit  a  like  sum,  and  shall  beconfinol  twenty- 
four  houi-s.  The  monej'  so  forfeited  shall  be  de- 
ducted from  his  next  pay,  and  shall  be  applied,  by 
the  Captain  or  senior  officer  of  his  troop,  l)attery,  or 
company,  to  the  use  of  the  sick  soldiers  of  the  same. 

Art.  53.  Any  officer  who  uses  any  profane  oath 
or  execration  shall,  for  each  offense,  forfeit  and  pay 
one  dollar.  Any  soldier  who  so  offends  shall  incur 
the  penalties  pro\ided  in  the  preceiling  Article;  and 
all  moneys  forfeited  for  such  offenses  shall  be  ap- 
plied as  therein  provided. 

Art.  54.  Everj'  officer  commanding  in  quarters, 
garrison,  or  on  the  march  shall  keep  good  onler,  and, 
to  the  utmost  of  his  power,  redress  all  abuses  or  dis- 
orders which  may  be  committed  by  any  officer  or 
soldier  under  his  command  ;  and  if,"  upon  complaint 
made  to  him  of  officers  or  soldiers  beating  or  other- 


&BTICLES  OF  WAB. 


98 


ABTICLES  OF  WAB. 


wise  ill-treating  any  person,  disturbing  fairs,  or  mar- 
kets, or  coininitting  any  kind  of  riot,  to  the  disquiet- 
ing of  the  citiz.ens  of  tlic  United  States,  he  refuses  or 
omits  to  si-e  justice  ilone  to  the  offender,  and  repara- 
'ion  made  to  the  party  injured,  so  far  as  jtart  of  the 
offender's  pay  shall  go  toward  such  reparation,  he 
shall  be  dismissed  from  the  service,  or  otherwise 
ptinished  its  a  Court-Martini  may  direct. 

Akt.  '>'i.  All  otlicers  and  soldiers  are  to  behave 
themselves  orderly  in  quarters  and  on  the  march ; 
and  whoever  commits  any  waste  or  spoil,  either  in 
walks  or  trees,  parks,  warrens,  lish-ponds,  houses, 
gardens,  grain-tieMs,  inclosurcs,  or  meatlows,  or 
maliciously  destroys  any  property  wliatsoever  belong- 
ing to  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  (unless  by 
order  of  a  General  OtHcer  commanding  a  separate 
army  in  the  field),  shall,  besides  such  penalties  as  he 
may  be  liable  to  by  law,  be  punished  as  a  Court-Mar- 
tial  ma.v  direct. 

Akt.  56.  Any  offlcer  or  soldier  who  ooes  violence 
to  any  person  bringing  provisions  or  other  nccessjiries 
to  the  camp,  garrison,  or  ipiarters  of  the  forces  of  the 
United  States  in  foreign  parts  shall  suffer  death,  or 
such  other  punishment  as  a  Court-JIartial  may  direct. 

Akt.  57.  Whosoever,  belonging  to  the  Armies  of 
the  United  States  in  foreign  parts,  or  at  any  place 
within  the  United  States  or  their  Territories  during 
rebellion  against  the  supreme  authoritj'  of  the  United 
States,  forces  a  safeguard,  shall  suffer  death. 

Art.  58.  In  time  of  war,  insurrection,  or  rebel- 
lion, larceny,  robbery,  burglary,  arson,  mayhem, 
manslaughter,  murder,  as.sault  and  battery  with  an 
intent  to  kill,  wounding,  by  shooting  or  stabbing, 
with  an  intent  to  commit  murder,  rape,  or  assault 
and  battery  with  an  intent  to  commit  rape,  shall  be 
punishable  by  the  sentence  of  a  General  Court-Martial, 
when  committed  by  persons  in  the  militarj'  service  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  punishment  in  any  such 
case  shall  not  Ix-  less  than  the  pimishment  pro\ided 
for  the  like  offense  by  the  laws  of  the  State,  Terri- 
tory, or  District  in  which  such  offense  may  have  been 
committed. 

Abt.  59.  When  any  officer  or  soldier  is  accused  of 
a  capital  crime,  or  of  any  offense  against  the  person 
or  property  of  anj-  citizen  of  any  of  the  United  States, 
wiiich  is  punishable  by  the  laws  of  the  land,  the 
commanding  officer,  and  the  officers  of  the  regiment, 
troop,  battery,  company,  or  detachment  to  which  the 
person  so  accused  belongs,  are  required,  except  in 
time  of  war,  upon  application  duly  made  by  or  in 
behalf  of  the  party  injured,  to  use"  their  utmost  en- 
deavors to  deliver  him  over  to  the  ci\il  magistrate, 
and  to  aid  the  officers  of  justice  in  aiiprehcnding  and 
securing  him,  in  order  to  biing  him  to  trial.  If, 
upon  such  application,  any  offlcer  refuses  or  willfully 
neglects,  except  in  time  of  war,  to  deliver  over  such 
accused  person  to  the  civil  magistrates,  or  to  aid  the 
officers  of  justice  in  apprehending  him,  he  shall  be 
dismissed  from  the  ser\ice. 

Akt.  60.  Any  person  in  the  military  service  of  the 
United  States  who  makes  or  cau.scs  to  be  made  any 
claim  against  the  United  States,  or  anv  officer  thereof, 
knowin;:  such  claim  to  be  false  or  fraudulent ;  or 

AVho  presents  or  causes  to  be  presented  to  any  per- 
son in  the  ci\il  or  military  service  thereof,  for  ap- 
proval or  payment,  any  claim  against  the  United 
States  or  any  offlcer  thereof,  knowing  such  claim  to 
be  false  or  fraudulent  ;  or 

Who  enters  iiUo  anv  agreement  or  conspiracy  to 
defraud  the  United  States  by  obtaining,  or  aiding 
others  to  obtain,  the  allowance  or  payment  of  any 
false  or  fraudulent  claim  ;  or 

Who.  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aiding  others 
to  ol)tain,  the  approval,  allowance,  or  pavment  of  any 
claim  against  the  United  States  or  jigaiiist  any  officer 
thereof,  makes  or  uses,  or  procures  or  ad\"ises  the 
making  or  use  of,  any  writing  or  other  pajier,  know- 
ing the  same  to  contain  any  false  or  fraudulent  state- 
ment ;  or 

Who,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aiding  others 


to  obtain,  the  approval,  allowance,  or  payment  of 
any  claim  agaiast  the  United  Slates  or  any  officer 
thereof,  makes,  or  procures  or  ad\ises  the  making  of, 
any  oath  to  any  fact  or  to  any  writing  or  other  paper, 
knowing  such  oath  to  be  falsi' ;  or 

Who,  for  the  imrposeof  obtaining,  or  aiding  others 
to  obtain,  the  ajjproval,  allowance,  or  pajTiient  of  any 
claim  against  the  United  States  or  any  officer  thereof, 
forges  or  counterfeits,  or  proctires  or  "advises  the  forg- 
ing or  counterfeiting  of,  any  signature  upon  any 
writing  or  other  paper,  or  uses  or  procures  or  ad\ises 
the  use  of,  any  such  signature,  knowing  the  sjmie  to 
be  forged  or  counterfeited;  or 

Who,  ha\ing  charge,  possession,  custody,  or  con- 
trol of  any  money  or  other  projierty  of  the  United 
States,  furnished  or  intended  for  the  military  service 
thereof,  knowingly  delivers,  or  causes  to  be  deliver- 
ed, to  any  person  having  authority  to  receive  the 
same,  any  amount  thereof  less  than  that  for  which  he 
receives  a  eertiticate  or  receipt;  or 

Who,  being  authorized  to  make  or  deliver  any  paper 
certifying  the  receijit  of  any  property  of  the  "United 
States,  furnished  or  intended  for  the  militarj-  service 
thereof,  makes,  or  delivers  to  any  person,  such  writing, 
without  ha\ing  full  knowledge  of  the  truth  of  the 
statements  therein  contained,  and  with  intent  to  de- 
fraud the  United  States;  or 

Who  steals,  embezzles,  Iciowingly  and  willfully 
misappropriates,  a]ii  lies  to  his  own  use  or  benefit,  or 
wrongfully  or  knowingly  sells  or  disposes  of  any 
ordnance,  arms,  equiimients,  ammunition,  clothing, 
subsistence-stores,  money,  or  other  propertj'  of  the 
United  States,  furnished  or  intended  for  the  military 
service  thereof;  or 

Who  knowingly  purchases,  or  receives  in  pledge 
for  any  obligation  or  indebtedness,  from  any  .soldier, 
officer,  or  other  person  who  is  a  part  of  or  employed 
in  said  forces  or  senice,  any  ordnance,  arms,  equip- 
ments, ammunition,  clothing,  subsistence-stores,  or 
other  property  of  the  United  States,  such  soldier, 
offlcer,  or  other  person  not  having  lawful  right  to  sell 
or  pledge  the  same, — 

Shall,  on  conviction  thereof,  be  punished  by  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  by  such  other  punishment  as  a 
Court-iSIartial  may  adjudge.  And  if  anj-  ]>crson, 
being  guilty  of  any  of  the  offen.ses  aforesaid  while 
in  the  militar}-  service  of  the  United  States,  receives 
his  discharge  or  is  dismissed  from  the  service,  he 
shall  continue  to  be  liable  to  be  arrested  and  held  for 
tiial  and  sentence  by  a  Court-Martial,  in  the  same 
manner  and  to  the  same  extent  as  if  he  had  not  re- 
ceived such  discharge  nor  been  dismissed. 

Akt.  61.  Any  officer  who  is  con\icted  of  conduct 
unbecoming  an  offlcer  and  a  gentleman  shall  l)e  dis- 
missed from  the  service. 

Art.  62.  All  crimes  not  capital,  and  all  disorders 
and  neglects,  which  offlcers  and  soldiers  may  be 
guilty  of,  to  the  jirejudice  of  good  order  antl  military 
discipline,  though  not  mentioned  in  the  foregoing 
Articles  of  War,  are  to  be  taken  cognizance  of  by  a 
General  or  a  KegimciUal  Garrison,  or  Field-Offlcers' 
Coiirt-^Martial,  according  to  the  nature  and  degree  of 
the  offense,  and  punished  at  the  discR'tion  of  such 
Court. 

Art.  63.  Al\  retainers  to  the  camp,  and  all  persons 
serving  with  the  Armies  of  the  United  States  in  the 
field,  though  not  enlisted  soldiers,  are  to  be  subject  to 
orders,  according  to  the  nilcs  and  discipline  of  war. 

Art.  64.  The  offlcers  and  soldiers  of  any  troops, 
whether  militia  or  others,  mustered  and  in  jiay  of  the 
Uiuted  States,  shall,  at  all  times  and  in  all  places,  be 
governed  by  tlie  Articles  of  War,  and  shall  be  subject 
to  be  tried  by  Courts-JIartial. 

Art.  65.  Offlcers  charged  with  crime  shall  be  ar- 
rested and  be  conlined  in  their  barracks,  quarters,  or 
tents,  and  be  deprived  of  tlieir  swords  by  the  Com- 
manding Officer.  And  any  officer  who  leaves  his  con- 
lincmcnt  before  he  is  set  at  liberty  by  his  Commanding 
Officer  shall  be  dismissed  from  the  service. 

Art.  66.  Soldiers  charged  with  crimes  shall  be 


AETICLES  OF  WAK. 


99 


ASTICLES  OF  WAB- 


confined  until  tried  by  Coiirt-JIartial  or  released  by 
proper  authority. 

Art.  67.  No  provost-marshal,  or  officer  command- 
ing a  guard,  shall  refuse  to  receive  or  keep  any 
pri-soner  committed  to  his  charge  by  an  officer  belong- 
ing to  the  forces  of  the  United  States;  provided  the 
officer  committing  shall,  at  the  Siime  lime,  deliver  an 
account  in  writing,  signed  by  himself,  of  the  crime 
charged  ag-ainst  the  prisoner. 

Akt.  68.  Every  officer  to  whose  charge  a  prisoner 
is  committed  shall,  within  twenty-four  hours  after 
such  commitment,  or  as  soon  as  he  is  relieved  from 
his  guard,  rejiort  in  crating,  to  the  Commanding 
Officer,  the  name  of  such  prisoner,  the  crime  charged 
against  him,  and  the  name  of  the  officer  committing 
him;  and  if  he  fails  to  make  such  report,  he  shall  be 
punished  a.s  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  69.  Any  officer  wlio  presumes,  without  proper 
authority,  to  release  any  prisoner  committed  to  his 
charge,  or  suffers  any  prisoner  so  committed  to  e-scape, 
shall  be  punished  as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

Art.  70.  No  officer  or  soldier  put  in  arrest  shall  be 
continued  in  continemeut  more  than  eight  days,  or 
until  such  time  as  a  Court-Martial  can  be  assembled. 

Art.  71.  When  an  officer  is  put  in  arrest  for  the 
purpose  of  trial,  except  at  remote  militarj'  posts  or 
stations,  the  officer  by  whose  order  he  is  arrested  shall 
see  that  a  copy  of  the  charges  on  which  he  is  to  be 
tried  is  served  upon  him  within  eight  days  after  his 
arrest,  and  that  he  is  brought  to  trial  ^ntliin  ten  days 
thereafter,  unless  the  necessities  of  the  service  prevent 
such  trial;  and  then  he  shall  lie  brought  to  trial  within 
thirty  days  after  the  expiration  of  s;iid  ten  days.  If 
a  copy  of  the  charges  be  not  served,  or  the  .arrested 
officer  l)e  not  brought  to  trial,  as  herein  required,  the 
arrest  sliall  cease.  But  officers  released  from  arrest, 
under  the  provisions  of  this  Article,  may  be  tried, 
whenever  the  exigencies  of  the  senice  shall  permit, 
within  twelve  months  after  such  release  from  arrest. 

Art.  72.  Any  General  Officer,  commanding  the 
Army  of  the  United  States,  a  separate  army,  or  a 
separate  department,  shall  be  competent  to  appoint 
a  General  Court-Martial,  either  in  time  of  peace  or  in 
time  of  war.  But  when  any  such  commander  is  the 
accuser  or  pro.secutor  of  any  officer  under  his  com- 
mand, the  Court  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President, 
and  its  proceedings  and  sentence  shall  be  sent  directly 
to  the  Secretary  of  War,  by  whom  they  shall  be  laid 
liefore  the  President,  for  lus  approval  or  orr'ers  in  the 
case. 

Art.  73.  In  time  of  war  the  commanaer  of  a 
division,  or  of  a  separate  brigade  of  troops,  shall  be 
competent  to  appoint  a  General  Court-Martial.  But 
when  such  commander  is  the  accuser  or  prosecutor 
of  any  person  under  his  command,  the  Court  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  next  higher  commander. 

Art.  74.  Officers  who  may  appoint  a  Court-Martial 
shall  be  competent  to  appoint  a  Judge- Advocate  for 
the  same. 

Art.  75.  General  Courts-Martial  may  consist  of  any 
number  of  officers  from  five  to  thirteen,  inclusive; 
but  they  shall  not  consist  of  less  than  thirteen  when 
that  number  can  be  convened  without  manifest  injury 
to  the  service. 

Art.  76.  When  the  requisite  number  of  officers  to 
form  a  General  Court-Martial  is  not  present  in  .any 
post  or  detachment,  the  Commanding  Officer  shall,  in 
cases  which  reiiuire  the  cognizance  of  such  a  Court, 
report  to  the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  Department, 
who  shall  thereupon  order  a  Court  to  be  a.sscmbled 
at  the  nearest  post  or  department  at  which  there  may 
be  such  a  requisite  number  of  officers,  aud  .shall  order 
the  party  accused,  with  necessary  witnesses,  to  be 
transported  to  the  place  where  the  said  Court  shall  be 
assembled. 

Art.  77.  Officers  of  the  Re^lar  Army  shall  not  be 
competent  to  sit  on  Courts->I;irtial  to  trj'  the  officers 
or  soldiers  of  other  forces,  except  as  provided  in 
Article  78. 

Art.  78.  Officers  of  the  Marine  Corps,  detached 


for  service  with  the  Army  by  order  of  the  President, 
may  be  associated  with  officers  of  the  Regular  Army 
on  Courts-Martial  for  the  trial  of  offenders  belonging 
to  the  Regular  Army,  or  to  forces  of  the  Marine 
Corps  so  detached ;  and  in  such  cases  the  orders  of 
the  senior  officer  of  either  corps,  who  may  be  present 
and  duly  autliorized,  shall  be  obeyed. 

Art.  79.  Officers  shall  be  tried  only  by  General 
Courts-Martial ;  and  no  officer  .shall,  when  it  can  be 
avoided,  lie  tried  by  officers  inferior  to  him  in  rank. 

Art.  80.  In  time  of  war  a  field-officer  ma}'  be  de- 
tailed in  every  regiment,  to  trj'  .soldiers  thereof  for 
offenses  not  ca]>ital ;  and  no  soldier,  serving  with  his 
regiment,  shall  be  tried  bv  a  Regimental  or  Garrison 
Court-Martial  when  a  field-officer  of  his  regiment  may 
be  so  detailed. 

Art.  81.  Everj-  officer  commanding  a  regiment  or 
corps  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  Article  80, 
be  competent  to  appoint,  for  his  own  regiment  or 
corps,  Courts-Martial,  consisting  of  three  officers,  to 
try  ofjfenses  not  capital. 

Art.  82.  Every  officer  commanding  a  garrison, 
fort,  or  other  place,  where  the  troops  consist  of  dif- 
ferent corps,  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  Article 
80,  be  competent  to  Appoint,  for  such  Garrison  or 
other  place,  Courts-Martial,  con.sisting  of  three  officers, 
to  try  offenses  not  capital. 

Art.  83.  Regimental  and  Garrison  Courts-Martial, 
and  field-officers  detailed  to  try  offenders,  shall  not 
have  power  to  try  capital  cases  or  commissioned 
officers,  or  to  inflict  a  fine  exceeding  one  month's 
pay,  or  to  imprison  or  put  to  hard  labor  any  non- 
commissioned officer  or  soldier  for  a  longer  time 
than  one  month. 

Art.  84.  The  Judge- Advocate  shall  administer  to 
each  member  of  the  court,  before  they  proceed  upon 
any  trial,  the  following  oath,  which  shall  also  be 
taken  by  all  members  of  regimental  and  garrison 
courts-martial:  "You,  A.  B.,  do  swear  that  you  vdW 
well  and  truly  try  and  determine,  according  to  evi- 
dence, the  matter  now  before  you,  between  the  United 
States  of  America  and  the  prisoner  to  be  tried,  and 
that  you  v.-i\\  duly  administer  .jusrice,  without  par 
tiality,  favor,  or  affection,  according  to  the  provisions 
of  the  Rules  and  Articles  for  the  government  of  the 
Armies  of  the  United  States,  and  if  any  doubt  should 
arise,  not  explained  by  said  Articles,  then  according 
to  your  conscience,  the  best  of  your  imderstanding, 
anil  the  custom  of  war  in  like  cases;  and  you  do 
further  swear  that  you  will  not  divulge  the  sentence 
of  the  Court  until  it  shall  be  published  by  the  proper 
authority;  neither  will  you  disclose  or  discover  the 
vote  or  opinion  of  any  particular  memljer  of  the 
Court-JIartial,  unless  required  to  give  c\idence  there- 
of, as  a  witness,  by  a  Court  of  Justice,  in  a  due  course 
of  law.     So  help  you  God." 

Art.  8.5.  When  the  oath  has  been  administered  to 
the  members  of  a  Court-Martial,  the  President  of  the 
Court  shall  administer  to  the  Judge-Advocate,  or  per- 
son officiating  as  such,  an  oath  in  the  following  fonn: 
"  You,  A.  B.,  do  swear  that  you  will  not  disclose  or 
discover  the  vote  or  opinion  of  any  iiarticular  member 
of  the  Court-Martial,  unless  required  to  give  evidence 
thereof,  as  a  witness,  by  a  Court  of  Justice,  in  due 
course  of  law;  nor  divulge  the  sentence  of  the  Court 
to  any  hut  the  proper  authority,  until  it  shall  be  duly 
disclosed  by  the  same.     So  help  you  God." 

Art.  86.  A  Court-Martial  may  punish,  at  discre- 
tion, any  person  who  uses  any  menacing  words, 
signs,  or  gestures  in  its  presence,  or  who  disturbs  its 
proceedings  by  any  riot  or  disorder. 

Art.  87.  All  members  of  a  Court-JIartial  are  to  be- 
have with  decency  and  calnmess. 

Art.  88.  Members  of  a  Court-Martial  may  be 
challenged  by  a  prisoner,  but  only  for  cause  stated 
to  the  Court.  "The  Court  shall  detciinine  the  relevancy 
and  validity  thereof,  and  shall  not  receive  a  challenge 
to  more  than  one  member  at  a  time. 

Art.  89.  When  a  piisoner,  arraigned  liefore  a  Gen- 
eral Court-Martial,  from  obstinacy  and  deliberate  de- 


ARTICLES  OF  WAE. 


100 


ARTICLES  OF  WA^ 


sign  stands  mute,  or  answers  foreigu  to  the  purpose, 
tbe  Court  may  proceed  to  trial  and  judgment,  as  if 
the  jirisoner  had  pleaded  not  guilty. 

AliT.  UO.  The  .liidiie- Advocate,  or  some  person  de- 
puted tiy  him.  or  liy  the  General  or  otticer  command- 
ing the  Army,  deliiehment.  or  gamson,  shall  prose- 
cute in  the  name  of  the  United  States;  but  when  the 
prisonei-  has  made  his  plea,  he  shall  so  far  consider 
himsell'  counsel  Utv  the  prisoner  as  to  object  to  any 
lewling  question  to  any  of  the  witnesses,  and  to  any 
question  to  the  prisoner,  the  answer  to  which  miglJt 
tend  to  criminate  himself. 

Aut.  91.  The  depositions  of  witnesses  residing  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  State,  Territory,  or  District  in 
winch  any  Military  Court  may  be  ordered  to  sit,  if 
taken  on  reasonable  notice  to  the  oiiposite  party  and 
duly  aulhenticaletl,  may  be  read  in  evidence  before 
such  Court  in  cases  not  capital. 

Aut.  i)'i.  All  i>ersons  ax  ho  give  evidence  before  a 
court-marlial  shall  be  examined  on  oath,  or  affirma- 
tion, in  the  following  form:  '■  You  swear  (or  affirm) 
that  the  evidence  you  shall  give,  in  the  ca.se  now  in 
hearing,  shall  be  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and 
nothing  but  the  truth.     So  help  you  God." 

Abt.  93.  A  Co\irt-3Iartial  shall,  for  reasonable 
catise,  grant  a  contiiuiance  to  cither  party,  for  such  a 
time,  and  as  often,  as  may  appear  to  be  jiist:  Pnnided, 
That  if  the  prisoner  be  in  close  contiuemeut,  the  trial 
shall  not  be  delayed  for  a  ]ieriod  longer  than  si.My  days. 

Art.  94.  Proceeding-s  qf  trials  shall  be  carried  on 
only  between  the  hours  of  eight  in  the  morning  and 
three  in  the  afternoon,  e.\ceiiting  in  ca.ses  which,  in 
the  ojiinion  of  the  officer  appointing  the  Court,  require 
immediate  example. 

Aut.  g.j.  Members  of  a  Court-Martial,  in  giving 
their  votes,  shall  begin  with  the  yoimgest  in  com- 
mission. 

Art.  96.  No  person  shall  be  sentenced  to  suffer 
death  except  bv  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the 
members  of  a  General  Coin1-Martial,  and  in  the  cases 
herein  expressly  mentioned. 

Art.  97.  No  person  in  tbe  military  service  shall, 
under  the  sentence  of  a  Conrt-Martial,  be  punished  by 
conlinement  in  a  penitentiary  imless  the  offense  of 
which  he  may  be  convicted  would,  by  .some  statute 
of  the  United  States,  or  l)y  some  statute  of  the  State, 
Territory,  or  District  in  which  such  oflense  may  be 
committed,  or  by  the  common  laws  as  the  same  ex- 
ists in  such  State,  Territory,  or  District,  subject  such 
convict  to  such  punishment. 

Art.  98.  No  person  in  the  military  service  shall  be 
punished  by  flogging,  or  by  bfixnding,  marking,  or 
tattooing  on  the  body. 

Art.  99.  No  officer  shall  be  discharged  or  dis- 
missed from  the  service  except  by  order  of  the 
President,  or  by  sentence  of  a  General  Court-JIartial; 
and  ill  time  of  peace  no  officer  shall  be  dismissed  ex- 
cept in  pursiumce  of  the  sentence  of  a  Court-Martial, 
or  ill  mitigation  thereof. 

Art.  IUO.  When  an  officer  is  dismissed  from  the 
service  for  cowardice  or  fraud,  the  sentence  shall 
further  direct  that  the  crime,  punishnient.  name,  and 
place  of  alKidc  of  the  delinciuenl  shall  be  published  in 
the  newsiiapcrs  in  and  about  the  camp,  and  in  the 
State  from  which  the  olfcnder  came,  or  where  he 
usually  resides;  and  after  such  imblication  it  .shall  be 
scandalous  for  an  officer  to  associate  with  him. 

Art.  101 .  When  a  Court-Martial  suspends  an  officer 
from  command,  it  may  also  suspend  his  jiay  and 
emoluments  for  the  sjinie  time,  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  his  offense. 

Art.  102.  No  person  shall  be  tried  a  second  time 
for  the  same  offense. 

Art.  103.  No  person  shall  be  liable  to  be  tried  and 
punished  by  a  General  Court-^NFartial  for  an  offense 
which  ap))ears  to  have  becncomniillcd  iikhc  than  two 
years  before  the  issuing  of  the  order  for  such  trial, 
unless,  by  rea.soii  of  having  absented  himself,  or  of 
some  other  manifest  impediment,  he  shall  not  have 
been  amenable  to  justice  within  that  period. 


Art.  104.  No  sentence  of  a  Court-Martial  shall  be 
carried  into  execution  until  the  whole  proceedings 
shall  have  been  apjiroved  by  the  otticer  ordering  the 
Court,  or  by  the  officer  commanding  for  the  time 
being. 

Art.  10.5.  No  sentence  of  a  Court-Martial  inflicting 
the  iiunishmeut  of  death  shall  be  carried  into  execu- 
tion until  it  shall  have  been  contirmed  by  the  Presi- 
dent; except  in  the  cases  of  persons  convicted,  in  time 
of  war,  as  spies,  mutineci's,  deserters,  or  murderers, 
and  in  the  cases  of  guerrilla  marauders  convicted,  in 
time  of  war,  of  robbery,  burghiry,  arson,  rape,  as.siull 
with  intent  to  commit  rjipe,  or  of  violation  of  the 
laws  and  customs  of  war;  and  in  such  accepted  cases 
the  sentence  of  death  may  be  carrieil  into  execution 
ujion  contirmation  by  the  Commanding  General  in  the 
Field,  or  the  Commander  of  the  Department,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

Art.  106.  In  time  of  peace  no  sentence  of  a  Court- 
Martial  directing  the  dismissal  of  an  officer  shall  be 
carried  into  execution  until  it  shall  have  been  con- 
tinued by  the  President. 

Art.  107.  Nosentenceofa  Court-Martial  appointed 
by  the  commander  of  a  division  or  of  a  sejiarate 
brigade  of  troops,  directing  the  dismiss;il  of  an  officer, 
shall  be  canied  into  execution  until  it  shall  have 
been  continued  by  the  General  commanding  the  Anny 
in  the  Field  to  which  the  division  or  brigade  belongs. 

Art.  108.  No  sentence  of  a  Court-Martial,  either  in 
time  of  peace  or  in  time  of  war,  respecting  a  General 
Officer,  shall  be  caiTied  into  execution  until  it  shall 
have  been  contirmed  by  the  President. 

Art.  109.  All  sentences  of  a  CourtiMartial  may  be 
continued  and  carried  into  execution  by  the  otticer 
ordering  the  Court,  or  by  the  officer  commanding  for 
the  time  being,  where  continuation  by  the  President, 
or  by  the  Commanding  General  in  the  Field,  or  Com- 
mander of  the  Department,  is  not  required  by  these 
Articles. 

Art.  110.  No  sentence  of  a  Field-Officer  detailed  to 
trj'  soldiers  of  his  regiment  shall  be  carried  into 
execution  until  the  whole  proceedings  shall  have  been 
appfoved  by  the  Brigade  Commander,  or,  in  case  there 
be  no  Brigade  Commander,  by  the  Commanding  OtK- 
cer  of  the  post. 

Art.  111.  Any  officer  who  has  authoiiiv  to  carry 
into  execution  the  sentence  of  death  or  of  dismi.s,sjd 
of  an  officer  may  suspend  the  siime  until  the  pleasure 
of  the  President  shall  be  known;  and  in  such  ca.se 
he  shall  immediately  transmit  to  the  President  a  coi^y 
of  the  order  of  sus]iension,  together  with  a  copy  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  Court. 

Art.  11"2.  Every  officer  who  is  aulhorized  to  order 
a  General  Court -^larlial  shall  have  power  to  pardon 
or  mitigate  any  iiunishnient  ailjudged  by  it,  except 
the  punishment  of  death  or  of  dismissal  of  an  officer. 
Every  officer  commanding  a  regiment  or  garrison 
in  w  hich  a  Regimental  or  Garrison  Court -Martial  may 
be  held  shall  have  power  to  jiardon  or  mitigate  any 
punishment  which  such  Court  may  adjudge. 

Art.  113.  Every  -Judge-Advocate,  or  person  acting 
as  such,  at  any  General  Court-Martial,  shall,  with  as 
much  expedition  as  the  tipporlunity  of  time  and  dis- 
tance of  place  may  permit,  forward  the  original  pro- 
ceedings and  sentence  of  such  Court  to  the  Judge- 
Advocate-Geueral  of  the  Army,  in  whose  office  they 
sh;dl  be  carefully  preserved. 

Art.  114.  Every  party  tried  by  a  Genend  Court- 
Martial  shall,  ujion  demand  thereof,  made  by  him.self 
or  by  any  person  in  his  behalf,  be  entitled  to  a  copy 
of  tlie  proceedings  and  sentence  of  such  Court. 

AitT.  11.5.  A  Court  of  Inquiry  lo  examine  into  the 
nature  of  any  transaction  of,  or  accus;itioii  or  iinpu- 
talioii  against,  any  officer  or  soldier,  may  be  ordered 
by  the  I'lvsideiit  or  by  any  CnMiiuaiidiiig  Officer;  but, 
as  Courts  of  Iiuiuiry  may  lie  iicrvcrleil  lo  dishonorable 
inirposes,  and  may  be  employed,  in  the  handsof  weak 
and  envious  Comniandaiils,  as  engines  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  military  merit,  they  shall  never  be  ortiered  by 
any  Commanding  Officer,  except  upon  a  demand  by 


ABTIFICE. 


101 


ARTIFICIAL  LIUBS. 


the  ofBcer  or  soldier  whose  conduct  is  to  be  inquired 
of. 

Art.  116.  A  Court  of  Inquiry  shall  consist  of  one 
or  more  officers,  not  exceeding:  {hrcc,  and  a  Recorder, 
to  reduce  the  proceedings  and  e\idencc  to  writing. 

Art.  117.  The  Recorder  of  a  Court  of  Inquiry  shall 
administer  to  the  memhei's  the  following  oath:  "You 
shall  well  and  truly  examine  and  inquire,  according 
to  the  evidence,  into  the  mailer  now  before  you, 
without  partiality,  favor,  affection,  prejudice,  or  hope 
of  reward:  so  help  you  God."  After  which  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Court  sliall  administer  to  the  Recorder  the 
following  oath:  "  You,  A.  B.,  do  swear  that  you  will, 
according  to  your  best  abilities,  accuratelj'  and  im- 
partially record  the  proceedings  of  the  Court  and  the 
evidence  to  be  given  in  the  case  in  hearing:  so  help 
you  God." 

Art.  118.  A  Court  of  Inquiry,  and  the  Recorder 
thereof,  shall  have  the  s;inie  power  to  summon  and 
examine  ^^■^tnes.ses  as  is  given  to  Courts-Martial  and 
the  Judge- Advocates  thereof.  Such  witnesses  shall 
take  the  s;ime  oath  which  is  taken  by  witnesses  lief  ore 
Courts-Martial,  and  the  party  accused  shall  be  permit- 
ted to  examine  and  cross-examine  them,  so  as  fully  to 
investigate  the  circumstances  in  question. 

Art.  119.  A  Court  of  Inquiry  shall  not  give  an 
opinion  on  the  merits  of  the  case  inquired  of  imless 
specially  ordered  to  do  so. 

Art.  120.  The  proceedings  of  a  Court  of  Inquiry 
must  be  authenticated  by  the  signatures  of  the  Re- 
corder and  the  President  thereof,  and  delivered  to  the 
Commanding  Officer. 

Art.  121.  The  jiroceedings  of  a  Court  of  Inquir}' 
may  be  admitted  as  evidence  by  a  Court-Martial,  in 
cases  not  capital,  nor  extending  to  the  dismis.sal  of  an 
officer.  Procidul,  That  the  circumstances  are  such 
that  oral  testimony  cannot  be  obtained. 

Akt.  122.  If,  upon  marches,  guards,  or  in  quar- 
ters, different  Corps  of  the  Army  happen  to  join  or  do 
duty  together,  the  officer  highest  in  rank  of  the  Line 
of  the  Army,  Marine  Corps,  or  Militia,  by  commis- 
sion, there  on  duly  or  in  quarters,  shall  oonimand  the 
whole,  and  give  ordei-s  for  what  is  needful  to  the  ser- 
vice, unless  otherwise  specially  directed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, according  to  the  nature  of  the  case. 

Art.  123.  In  all  matters  relating  to  the  rank,  du- 
ties, and  rights  of  officers,  the  same  rules  and  regula- 
tions shall  apply  to  officers  of  the  Regular  Army  and 
to  volunteers  commissioned  in,  or  mustered  into,  said 
sernce,  under  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  for  a  lim- 
ited period. 

Art.  124.  Officers  of  the  militia  of  the  several 
Slates,  when  called  into  the  ser\ice  of  the  United 
States,  shall  on  all  detachments,  Courts-ilartial,  and 
other  duty  wherein  they  may  l)e  employed  in  con- 
jimction  with  the  regular  or  volunteer  forces  of  the 
United  States,  take  rank  next  after  all  officers  of  th(5 
like  grade  in  sjiid  regular  or  volunteer  forces,  not- 
withstanding the  commissions  of  such  mililia  officers 
may  Ix;  older  than  the  commissions  of  the  s;»id  offi- 
cers of  the  regular  or  voltmteer  forces  of  the  United 
States. 

Art.  125.  In  ca.se  of  the  death  of  any  officer,  the 
Major  of  his  regiment,  or  the  officer  doing  the 
Major's  duty,  or  the  second  officer  in  command  at 
any  post  or  g-arrison,  as  the  case  may  be,  shall  im- 
mediately secure  all  his  effects  then  in  camp  or  quar- 
ters, and  shall  make,  and  transmit  to  the  otiice  of  the 
Department  of  War,  an  inventor}-  thereof. 

Art.  126.  In  case  of  the  death  fo  any  soldier,  the 
Commanding  Officer  of  his  troop,  battery,  or  com- 
pany shall  immediately  secure  all  his  effects  then  in 
camp  or  tjuarters,  and  shall,  in  the  presence  of  two 
other  officers,  make  an  inventory  thereof,  which  he 
shall  transmit  to  the  office  of  the  Department  of  War. 

Art.  127.  Officers  charged  wilh  the  care  of  the 
effects  of  decea.sed  officers  or  soldiers  shall  account 
for  and  deliver  the  same,  or  the  proceeds  thereof,  to 
the  legal  representatives  of  such  deceased  officers  or 
soldiers.     And  no  officer  so  charged  shall   be  per- 


mitted to  quit  the  regiment  or  post  tmtil  he  has  de- 
posited in  the  hands  of  the  Commanding  Officer  all 
the  effects  of  such  deceased  officers  or  soldiers  not  so 
accounted  for  and  delivered. 

Art.  128.  The  foregoing  Articles  shall  be  read  and 
published  once  in  everj'  six  months,  to  every  garrison, 
regiment,  troop,  or  company  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  and  shall  be  duly  observeil  apd  olxjyed 
by  all  officers  and  soldiei-s  in  said  service. 

All  persons  who,  iu  time  of  war,  or  of  rebellion 
against  the  supreme  authority  of  the  United  States, 
are  found  lurking  or  acting  as  spies,  in  or  alx)Ut  any 
of  the  fortiacations,  posts,  quarters,  or  encampments 
of  any  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States,  or  else- 
where, are  triable  by  a  General  Court -Martial,  or  by  a 
Military  Commission,  and  on  con\-ict  ion  thereof  suiler 
death. ' 

ARTIFICE. — Among  the  French,  a  tcnn  vmder- 
stood  as  comprehending  everything  which  enters  the 
composition  of  fire-works,  as  the  sulphur,  saltpeter, 
charcoal,  etc.     See  Fire-work^. 

ARTIFICER.— 1.  One  who  makes  fire-works,  or 
works  in  the  artillery  laboratory  and  prepares  the 
shells,  fuses,  grenades,  etc.  2.  A  military  mechanic, 
such  as  a  carpenter,  blacksmith,  or  mason. 

ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS.— From  the  days  of  the  Ger- 
man knight  Gijtz  von  Berlichiugen,  artificial  arms 
have  been  made  which  have  been  marvels  of  ingenu- 
ity. Even  the  arm  of  that  famous  knight,  still  on 
exhibition  in  a  Gorman  museum,  is  a  jiiecc  of  mechan- 
ism so  intricate  in  the  combination  of  its  motions  as  to 
have  been  without  a  rival  for  nearly  five  hundred 
years.  All  modem  improvements  belong  to  the 
present  decade. 

The  tendency  of  the  manufacturers — modem  as 
well  as  ancient — has  been  to  make  an  arm  wiXh 
every  motion  of  the  natural;  iu  this  they  have  suc- 
ceeded—that is,  so  far  as  patterning  after  G5tz  and 
liroducing  an  article  very  primitive  in  its  construc- 
tion, too  complicated  to  be  durable  and  too  intricate 
to  be  serviceable.  Until  man  becomes  capable  of  com- 
bining art  with  nature  and  harmonizing  the  artificial 
memljer  with  the  nervous  system,  in  short,  giring  it 
life,  he  will  fail  in  supplying  the  loss  in  all  its  detail. 
Anj- amount  of  machinery  will  not  accomjilish  it;  and 
the  more  complication  he  has,  the  more  distant  begets 
from  the  most  useful  substitute.  A  glance  at  the 
anatomy  of  the  human  arm  reveals  it  as  a  marvel  of 
mechanism.  What  a  combination  of  movements, 
and  what  unlimited  control  man  has  over  itl  Each 
finger  has  its  three  joints,  with  every  joint  under  con- 
trol. The  hand  has  its  wrist,  enabling  it  to  conform 
to  any  angle.  The  forearm  has  the  ulna  and  the 
radius,  enabling  the  hand  to  rotate.  Withal,  what 
marvelous  strength  each  finger  and  joint  commands, 
all  operated  by  sinews  and  muscles,  each  joint  sup- 
plied -n-ith  cushions  and  a  lubricating  sac,  whose 
function  it  is  to  reduce  friction  to  the  minimum. 
The  parts  of  this  wonderful  machine  are  hinged  to- 
gether with  such  nicety  that  the  engraver  is  enabled 
to  etch  the  finest  plate,"  or  the  brawny  smith  to  wield 
the  heaviest  sledge. 

Does  the  reader  think  that  the  hand  alone  does  this 
variety  of  work? — Operates  voluntarily  by  an  intelli- 
gence of  its  o\\'n?  Sever  the  brachial  nerve,  and  we 
will  have  a  member  as  dead  and  limpsy  as  an  empty 
coat-sleeve.  Remove  the  arm  from  the  Ixxly  and 
irritate  the  nerves  or  contract  tlie  muscles,  and  we 
will  have  a  motion  as  awkward  and  spasmodic  as  may 
be  observed  in  an  ai-tificial  arm  with  jointed  fingere. 
nence  all  the  dexterous  movements  we  observe  in 
the  nomial  hand  depend  upon  some  power  outside 
of  itself,  and  that  power  is  the  mind.  If  we  look  a 
little  deeper  ui  the  physiologj-  of  the  natuml  arm  and 
hand  we  will  observe  "that  nature  has  made  a  curious 
pro\-ision  for  one  of  its  failings.  Every  joint  suffers 
wear  from  attrition,  and  were  it  not  for  this  provision 
they  would  soon  become  loose  and  rattle  as  bad  as  a 
worn-out  gudgeon.  Not  a  drop  of  blood  flows  through 
the  avenues  of  the  hand  that  docs  not  carry  with  it 


ASTIFICIAL  LIMBS. 


102 


ARTIFICIAL  LIMSS. 


fresh  material  to  supply  the  wasted  parts.  From 
the  first  iK'at  of  the  heart  of  the  child  not  yet  born, 
until  man  has  ceased  to  lie  an  animate  beinij,  this 
human  repair-shop  is  in  active  operation  and  knows 
no  rest.  This  cui-sory  glance  at  tlie  natural  arm 
will  fix  in  the  mind  three  facts:  tirst,  that  ihe  hand 
is  a  delicate  piece  of  mechanism  of  great  strength; 
second,  that  it  is  in  concert  with  and  operjiteil  by  the 
hTUnan  will;  and  third,  that  it  suffers  wear,  but  is 
constantly  undergoing  repairs  by  the  action  of  the 
circulatory  system. 

With  these  facts  well  impressed,  we  maj'  make  a 
comparison  with  the  arliticial  arm.  What  a  disparity! 
It  ainnut  be  connecte<l  with  the  miud,  nor  with  the 
heart.  If  the  joints  of  tlie  lingers  are  made  strong 
enough  to  ■vrithstand  a  small  proportion  of  the  strain 
of  the  natural  hand,  it  must  necessarily  be  made  too 


The  Marks  Rubber  Hand. 


heavy  for  endurance.  If  the  springs  are  made  stiff 
enough  to  have  a  grasping  power  of  a  pound,  the 
exertion  to  operate  them  is  fatiguing  and  reudere 
them  impracticable. 

Nothing  has  tended  so  much  to  the  very  highest 
development  of  artificial  arms  and  hands  as  an 
accident  which  happened  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century  ago  to  the  celebrated  French  tenor  M.  Roger, 
who  lost  his  right  arm  above  the  elbow.  It  was 
necessary  for  his  future  appearance  on  the  stage  that 
he  should  have  an  artificial  limb  which  would  ser\e 
the  purposes  of  histrionic  action  and  peniiit  him  to 
grasp  a  sword  and  draw  it  from  its  scabbard.  Such 
a  contrivauce  was  invented  in  184.5  by  Van  Petersen 
a  Prussian  mechanician,  and  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences  commissioned  MM.  Gambey,  Payer,  Vel- 
peau,  and  Magendie  to  report  \ipon  it.  For  "a  history 
of  the  nature  of  the  limb,  the  reaJer  is  referred  to  the 


Fig.  2.— Applications  of  the  Marks  Hand. 

report  which  appeared  in  the  Comptfs  Roidus  for  that  | 
date.  The  apparatus,  which  weighs  less  than  18 
ounces,  was  tested  upon  a  soldier  who  had  lost  both 
arms.  By  its  aid  he  was  enabled  to  |)ick  up  a  i)en,  take 
hold  of  a  leaf  of  paper,  etc.;  and  the  old  man's  joy 
•luring  the  e.xperimenl  was  so  great  that  the  Academy 
presented  him  with  a  pair  of  llie.se  arms.  Van  Peter- 
sen's conceptions  have  been  extended  and  improved  by 
Messrs.  Charriere,  the  celebrated  surgical  mechanics 
of  Paris,  aided  by  M.  lluguicr,  the  well-known 
surgeon.  A  very  marvelous  iirm  has  also  been 
almost  simultaneously  constructed  by  M.  Bechard, 
which,  by  means  of  a  single  point  of  traction,  placed 
in  pronation,  executes  tirst  the  movement  of  supina- 
tion, next  in  succession  the  extension  of  the  fingers 


and  abduction  of  the  thumb:  the  hand  is  then  wide 
open. 

In  1863,  Mr.  A.  A.  JIarks,  an  American  of  varied  ex- 
perience, invented  the  rubber  hand  (Fig.  IJ,  which  was 
attached  to  the  forearm  by  means  of  a  spuidle  held  in 
position  by  a  set-screw,  easily  delachiil  and  replaced 
by  a  hook,  fork,  knife,  or  brush.  The  fingers  were 
of  soft,  elastic  rubber,  molded  to  a  graceful  shape 
and  yielding  to  i)ressure.  Its  advantages  were  its 
naturalness  in  appearance  anil  to  the  touch,  and  its 
great  durability.  It  might  fall  or  strike  anything 
without  breaking  or  impairing  it.  These  "advan- 
tages alone  commended  it  to  favor,  and  many  of 
them  were  made.  In  the  course  of  time  an  improve- 
ment was  suggested^that  of  making  the  fingers 
ductile,  so  that  they  might  be  made  to  assume  differ- 
ent positions;  by  the  assistance  of  the  opposite  hand, 
or  by  pressing  the  hand  against  any  hard 
surface,  the  fingers  may  be  placed  in  any 
desired  position,  each  one  giving  the  hanil 
a  new  appearance;  thus  obviating  the  mo- 
notony of  the  old  style,  and  making  it  more 
pleasing  to  the  wearing  and  less  observable 
to  the  inquisitive.  The  fingers,  when  bent, 
will  hold  a  valise  or  package  of  considerable 
weight,  or  hold  the  reins  of  a  horse  in  driving. 
Fig.  3  represents  the  manner  in  which 
the  hand  is  now  attached  to  the  fore-arm; 
also  the  attaclirocnt  in  the  lalni  of  hand 
for  holding  various  useful  articles.  It  may 
be  thus  described:  The  hand  is  held  to  the 
forearm  by  inserting  the  spindle,  D,  in  the 
socket,  E;  it  is"  then  locked  by  a  spring.  The 
hand  in  this  position  has  a  lotaiy  motion.  A  knife, 
fork,  brush,  or  hook  can  lie  inserted  in  the  palm.  The 
knife  or  fork  will  enable  the  wearer  to  feed  himself 
without  exhibiting  his  loss;  the  liook  to  carry  heavy 
weights  and  perform  lalxirious  work;  the  brush  will 
enable  the  wearer  to  wash  his  opposite  hand.  By 
pressing  on  the  button,  A,  these  articles  may  be  re- 
leased; by  pressing  on  the  button,  C,  Ihe  hand  can  be 
detached,  and  any  of  the  articles  above  named  may  be 
used  in  the  socket  without  the  hand.  The  hook  in  this 
po.sition  is  the  most  u.seful  appendage;  it  is  thereby 
brought  nearer  to  the  stump,  and,  consequently,  under 
greater  control.  By  it  as  mucli  weight  can  be  carried  as 
the  patient's  shoulder  will  endure;  shoveling,  hauling, 
and  an  infinite  variety  of  heavy  work  can  be  done. 
If  the  patient  has  suffered  an  amputation  close  to  the 
body,' or  if  his  hsmd  is  unjointed  at  the  wrist,  it  is 
more  desirable,  for  obvious  reasons, 
to  dispense  with  the  wrist-attachment 
and  depend  on  the  palm-attachment 
entirely  for  holding  these  articles. 

Fig.  3  represents  an  arm  and  hand 
for  amputation  below  the  elbow. 
The  hand  is  dre-ssed  with  a  glove 
(which  is  always  to  be  worn),  hold- 
ing a  pen  in  the  act  of  writing. 
Tliis  has  been  regarded  as  a  won- 
derful accomplishment,  when,  really, 
it  is  less  dittieult  than  many  ser\nces 
the  hand  is  capable  of  performing. 
The  joints  at  the  ellww  are  of 
leather,  thus  affording  a  rotary  mo- 
tion to  the  forearm  which  cannot  be  had  T\-ith"  steel 
joints. 

Fig.  4  represents  an  artificial  arm  for  amputa- 
tion above  the  elliow.  The  joint  is  adjustable,  and 
can  be  tightened  or  loosened  as  the  patient  desires. 
The  arm  is  held  to  the  jxrson  by  straps  or  suspended 
passing  over  and  under  the  opixisite  shoulder.  The 
elbow-joint  is  ojierated  by  a  leather  cord  attached  to 
the  forearm  and  iiassing  through  Ihe  upper  arm,  and 
att.aeheil  by  a  buckle  to  the  suspender.  By  urginif  Ihe 
shiiuMcr  forward  this  cord  is  drawn  upon  and  the 
fon-inn  brought  to  any  desired  angle.  It  is  thus  seen 
that  the  anil  and  hand  are  simple  in  their  construc- 
tion, practical  in  their  application,  light,  strong,  and 
durable. 


ABTIFICIAL  1IM3S. 


103 


ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS. 


Artificial  legs,  having  fewer  requirements  to  per- 
form than  artificial  arms,  are  comparatively  simple 
in  structure.     The  ordinary  Backet-leg,  iu  coromon 


Fig.  3. — Arm  and  Hand  for  Amputation  l>elow  tlie  Klbow. 

tise  amongst  the  poorer  classes,  consists  of  a  hollow 
sheath  or  bucket,  accuratelj-  conformed  to  the  shape 


Fi;^-  4. — Arm  for  Amputation  above  the  Elbow. 

of  the  stimip,  and  having — in  lieu  of  the  more  sym- 
metric proportions  of  the  leg— a  "pin"  placed  at  its 


j  mended  when  expense  is  an  object,  as  it  really  fultilb 
all  the  conditions  excepting  external  similitude  em- 
,  braced  by  a  better  piece  ot  mechanism.  It  is  like- 
wise occasionally  employed  with 
benefit  by  tliose  patients  who, 
from  lack  of  contidence,  prefer 
learning  the  use  of  an  artificial 
leg  by  tii-st  practicing  with  the 
commonest  substitute.  As,  when 
the  body  rests  on  a  single  leg, 
the  center  of  gravity  pas.ses 
through  the  tuberosity  of  the 
ischium,  it  is  essential  that  the 
bucket  should  be  so  maile  as  to 
have  its  sole  point  of  liearing 
against  this  part  of  tlie  pelvis. 
Of  the  more  complicated  forms  of  artificial  leg, 
four  are  especially  jwpular.  The  first  of  these  is  of 
English  origin,  and,  owing  to  its  having  been  adopted 
by  the  late  Marquis  of  Anglesea,  is  known  as  the 
Anijhueii-leg.  For  a  description  of  it  the  reailer  is 
referred  to  Gray's  work  on  "  Artificial  Limbs,  "  one  of 
the  firm  of  Graj'S  having  been  the  constructor  of  the 
legs  used  by  the  Marquis.  This  was  for  a  long  time 
the  fa.shionable  artificial  leg.  The  second  leg  worthy 
of  notice  is  that  invented  by  an  American  named 
Palmer,  and  called  the  Paliiur-hg.  From  its  light- 
ness and  the  greater  ease  of  walking  with  it,  it  has 
long  superseded  the  Anglesea  leg  in  America.  In 
thethird  of  these  legs,  also  invented  in  America  and 
known  as  the  Bly-leg,  the  principal  faults  of  the  two 
other  legs  have  been  completely  overcome.  The  ad- 
vantages of  this  leg  are  thus  simimed  up:  (1)  Adap- 
tation to  all  amputations  either  above  or  Ijelow  the 
knee.  ("2)  Rotation  and  lateral  action  of  the  ankle- 
joint.  (3)  Power  on  the  part  of  the  patient  to  walk 
with  ease  on  any  surface  however  irregular,  as,  owing 
to  the  motion  of  the  ankle-joint,  the  sole  of  the  foot 
readily  accommodates  itself  to  the  uneveimess  of  the 
ground,  which  is  an  advantage  never  before  possessed 
by  any  artificial  limb.  (4)  The  ankle-joint  is  rendered 


A  B 

Fig.  5.— The  Marks  Rubber  Legs. 

lower  end  to  insure  connection  between  it  and  the  |  perfectly    indestructible 
ground.     This  form  of  leg  is  strongly  to  be  recom- 


^ by  ordinary  wear,   owing 

to  its  center  being  composed  of  a  glass  ball  resting 


ARTIFICIAL  LINE  OF  SIGHT. 


104 


ARTIFICIAL  POINT-BLANK. 


in  a  cup  of  vulcanite.  (.5)  The  action  of  the  ankle- 
joint  i.s  iroate<l  by  tivc  tendons,  arninged  in  accord- 
ance with  the  (losiiion  assigned  to  them  in  a  natural 
leg.  These  tendons  are  capable  of  being  rendered 
tight  or  loose  in  a  few  instants,  so  that  the  wearer  of 
the  leg  has  the  power  of  adjusting  with  precision  the 
exact  degree  of  tension  from  which  he  finds  the 
greatest  comfort  in  walking,  and  also  of  giving  the 
foot  any  position  most  pleasing  to  the  eye.  (6) 
There  is"a  self-acting  spring  in  the  knee-joint,  urgmg 
the  leg  forward  in  walking,  and  imparting  automatic 
motion,  thus  avoiding  tlie  kast  trouble  to  the  jiatienl, 
who  linds  the  leg  literally  and  not  metaphorically 
walk  by  itself,  u)  At  the  knee-joint  there  is  a 
mechanical  arrangement  representing  the  crucial  liga- 
ment.s,  and  affording  natural  action  to  fliat  articula- 
tion by  which  all  shock  to  the  stump  in  walking  is 
avoided.  The  fourth  of  the.se  legs,  contrived  bv  ilr. 
Marks,  the  inventor  of  the  i-ubber  hand  already  de- 
scribeil,  not  oidy  posses.ses  all  the  valuable  I'eatiu'es  of 
the  other  legs,  iiut  has  novel  points  of  value  in  addi- 
tion. lndia"rubl)er  is  largel)'  used  in  its  eonsl ruction. 
In  the  drawing  (Fig  '>),  A  represents  a  full-length  leg 
standing  erect,  to  be  applied  in  all  cases  where  amputa- 
tion occurs  above  the  knee-joint.  B  represents  a  leg 
to  be  applied  where  the  leg  has  been  amputated  below 
the  knee-joint  and  the  stump  is  flexible  enough  and 
sufficiently  long  to  enalile  the  wearer  to  use  it  in 
walking.  It  also  represents  the  leg  with  the  heel 
compressed,  and  in  its  position  after  taking  the  step 
and  when  lirmly  i>lanted  on  the  ground.  C  is  termed 
a  knee-bearing  leg.  It  is  to  be  applied  where  amjiu- 
tation  takes  place  below  the  knee,  and  where  the 
stump  is  too  short  or  contracted  at  right  angles,  so  the 
knee-joint  cannot  be  used  iu  walking.  This  figure 
represents  the  leg  slightly  bent  at  the  Ivuee,  and 
bearing  well  upon  the  toe,  as  in  the  act  of  lifting  it  to 
take  the  ne.xt  advance-step. 

The  accompan}-ing  drawing  (Fig.  6)  shows  the 
India-rubljer  foot  before  being  applied  to  the  leg. 
This  rubber  foot  constitutes  the  main  feature  in  tlie 


Fig.  C— Tlie  Marks  Rubber  Foot. 

legs  shown  in  the  figures.  It  is  made  mostly  of  India- 
rubber  of  a  very  spongy,  light,  and  elastic  character. 
A  piece  of  willow  wood,  nearly  tilling  the  rubber  heel 
at  the  top,  or  surface,  where  the  leg  rests,  runs  down 
about  one  fourth  of  the  distance  towards  the  lower  part 
of  the  heel:  also  forward  and  downwards  to  the  joint 
at  the  ball  of  the  foot.  This  ]iiece  of  wood  is  the 
base  upon  whifli  the  foot  is  built,  and  is  also  the 
medium  wli(nl>y  the  foot  is  joined  lirmly  to  the  leg. 
"The  leg  itself  is  made  of  light,  tough  willow  in  all 
cases,  except  the  thigh-piece  shown  in  B,  and  the 
front  part  of  the  thiixli-piece  in  C  both  of  which  are 
made  of  leallK-r.  The  entire  leg  and  foot  are  covered 
with  tine  Iniekskin,  neatly  coated  with  a  lifelike, 
waterproof  finish,  making  it  both  light  and  strong. 
It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  no  movable  ankle-joints 
in  these  limbs,  the  necessity  for  which  beimr  entirely 
obviated  by  the  Elastie  Hubber  Foot,  which  gives  all 
the  motion  reiiuired  in  walking,  and  also  the  ease, 
fimme.ss,  elasticity,  and  reliance  absolutely  neces- 
sary in  a  perfect  artitieird  leg.  The  r\ibl)er  foot  also 
gives  all  the  required  lateral  motion  to  the  foot  when 
stepping  n|)on  sidelini;-  or  uneven  ground.  This  leg 
dispenses  with  all  machinery  of  whatever  charactei, 
and  has  been  in  use  by  the  Government,  for  officers, 
soldiers,  and  seamen  who  lose  their  limbs  in  service, 
for  the  last  twenty  years,  giving  great  satisfaction. 


Fig.  7  gives  a  rear  view  of  the  knee-joint  of  the 
leg,  A.  The  T-joint  is  fastened  to  the  upper 
part  or  thigh-piece  of  the  leg,  and  the  gudgeons 
of  the  T  are  held  in  ailjustable,  oblique  bo.xes, 
whit:h  are  eivsily  set  at  any 
time  by  the  screws  passing 
through  the  caps  into  the 
main  leg,  so  as  to  keep  the 
joint  to  work  tight  ami  still, 
yet  free  and  perfectly  flexi- 
ble, the  small  projecting  bar 
attached  to  the  T  with  the 
button-shaped  ball  operating 
upon  the  s|ural  spring,  so  as 
to  throw  the  foot  forward 
when  bent  in  walking,  and 
.so  as  to  hold  the  foot  under 
when  bent  at  right  angles  in 
a  sitting  position. 

In  cases  of  arrested  devel- 
opment of  the  lower  limbs, 
short-legged  i)ersons  may  be  made  of  the  ordinary 
height  by  the  use  of  two  artificial  feet  placed  twelve 
or  more  inches  below  the  true  feet,  and  attached  to 
the  legs  by  means  of  metallic  rods,  jointed  at  the  knee 
and  ankle. 

Other  parts  not  entitled  to  be  called  limbs  can  also 
be  replaced  by  mechanical  art — such  as  the  nose,  lips, 
cars,  palate, "  cheek,  and  eye.  In  the  present  ad- 
vanced state  of  plastic  surgery,  deficiencies  of  the 
nose,  lips,  and  palate  can  usually  be  remedied  by  an 
oix-rafion;  cases,  however,  may  occur  where  an  arti- 
ficial organ  is  required.  Artificial  ears  are  moulded 
of  silver,  painted  the  natural  color,  and  fixed  in 
their  place  by  a  spring  over  the  vertex  of  the  head. 
Loss  of  an  eye  causes  sad  disfigurement;  but  the 
artificial  eyes  of  Bois.sonneau,  which  have  been  shown 
in  all  the  recent  public  exhibitions,  completely  throw 
all  others  iu  the  shade,  and  cannot  be  detected  with 
out  the  closest  inspection. 

In  the  United  States  service  every  officer,  non- 
commissioneil  officer,  enlisted  or  hired  man,  of  the 
land  or  naval  forces  of  the  United  States,  who  in  the 
line  of  his  duty  as  such,  or  through  disease  contracted 
iti  the  service  as  such,  loses  a  limb  or  the  use  of  a 
limb,  receives  once  every  five  years  an  artificial  limb 
or  appliance,  or  commutation  therefor,  as  be  shall 
elect,  under  such  regulations  as  the  Surgeon-General 
of  the  Army  may  prescribe;  and  the  period  of  five 
years  shall  be  held  to  commence  with  the  filing  of 
the  first  application  after  the  seventeenth  day  of 
June,  in  the  year  1870.  The  money  value  allowed  as 
eonnnutatiou  is — for  legs  $75;  for  arms,  feet,  and  appa- 
ratus for  resection,  |oO  each.  Necessary  transpor- 
tation to  have  artificial  limbs  fitted  is  furnished  by 
the  Quartermaster-General  of  the  Anuy,  the  cost  of 
which  is  refunded  out  of  any  money  appropriated  for 
the  purchase  of  artificial  limbs. 

ARTIFICIAL  LINE  OF  SIGHT.— In  gunnery,  the 
right  line  from  llie  eye  to  the  object  to  be  hit,  passing 
fhrouirh  llie  front  an<l  rear  siiiiifs. 

ARTIFICIAL  POINT-BLANK,  — Point-blank  and 
point-blank  i-aiige  are  terms  foi'inerly  supposed  to  pos- 
sess great  importance  in  gunnery.  The  point-blank 
is  the  point  at  which  the  line  of  sight  inferseets  the 
trajectory  the  second  time;  or.  more  practically  speak- 
ing, it  isthal  point  which,  being  aimed  at,  is  struck 
by  the  projectile.  The  iKilnml  luiiiit-blnuk  corresponds 
to  the  iHttiinil  line  ofxir//<l  when  this  line  is  horizontal, 
and  the  distance  of  tliis  point  from  the  nmzzle  is 
called  theiioint-blank  range.  Anartifciul  joiiit-ilank 
is  one  eorresi>on(liim'  to  an  nrtijicidl  liiw  nf  air/ht. 

To  hit  an  object  within  the  point-blaidi,  the  piece 
is  aimed  below  it.  To  hit  an  object  beyond  the  jioint- 
blank,  the  muzzle  has  to  be  raised,  which  is  effected 
by  elevating  the  notch  on  the  rear-sight  along  a  verti- 
cid  leaf,  on  wliieh  are  graduated  distances.  In  this 
manner  artificial  point-blanks  (corresponding  to  the 
artificial  lines  of  sight)  are  established,  the  piece  being 
aimed  as  when  at  point-blank.     See  Point-blank. 


AETILLEET. 


105 


ABTILLEET 


ASTILLEEY.— The  history  of  artillery  may  lae  said 
to  (late  from  the  discovery  of  gimpowder,  which  is 
popularly  attributed  to  Roger  Bacmi  and  Barthold 
Schwarz,  two  Monks  of  the  thirteenth  ccnturj',  al- 
though a  mixture  of  niter,  chiircoal,  and  sulphur  was 
used  for  explosive  purposes  hy  the  Chinese  during  the 
ninth  century.  Its  introduction  into  European  war- 
fare is  due  to  the  Moors,  for  mention  is  made  of  artil- 
lery at  Cordova  in  1280.  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Castile 
took  Gibraltar  with  artillerj-  in  130S),  and  caimon  were 
used  at  the  sieges  of  Baza,  Martos,  and  Alicante. 
This  arm  soon  became  known  throughout  Europe. 
The  French  availed  themselves  of  it  at  the  siege  of 
Puy  Guillaimie  in  1338,  and  the  English  had  Ihree 
small  guns  at  the  battle  of  Crecy  in  1346.  In  the 
French  War  of  Independence  agaiiLst  the  En<;Ush,  artil- 
lery was  mucli  >ised;  and  in  1428  Joan  of  Arc  is  said 
to  have  pointed  the  aims  herself.  The  guns  of  the 
fourteenth  century  were  of  the  rudest  design;  in  the 
tifteenth  century  Charles  VIII.  of  France  used  an  im- 
proved artillery  in  his  Italian  campaigns,  and  to  this 
arm  also  Louis  XII.  largely  owed  his  success  in  Italy. 
Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England  did  much 
for  its  advancement.  During  the  sixteenth  century 
l)ni.ss  guns  and  cast-iron  projectiles  were  adopted 
throughout  Europe,  while  Tartaglia  in  Italy  made 
great  improvements  in  gunnery  and  invented  the  gun- 
ner's quadrant.  During  the  latter  part  of  this  century 
case-shot,  the  German  hagelku/jel,  was  invented,  and 
shells  were  fired  from  mortars.  The  first  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century  forms  an  era  in  the  history  of  artil- 
lery. Henry  IV.  of  France  was  among  the  first  to 
recognize  its  coming  Importance,  and  occupied  him- 
.self  diligently  with  its  improvement.  Maurice  and 
Henry  Frederick  of  Nassau  made  much  advancement 
in  it,  but  it  was  under  the  great  Swedish  warrior,  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  that  artillery  first  began  to  take  its 
true  position  on  the  battle-field.  He  attached  two  guns 
to  each  regiment,  and  may,  therefore,  be  said  to  be  the 
father  of  the  battalion  system  of  guns;  he  proved  its 
utility  in  the  celelirated  "Thirty  Tears'  War.  During 
his  life  he  did  much  to  forward  the  science  of  artillery, 
increasing  its  mobility  and  its  rapidity  of  fire,  and  rais- 
inir  the  proportion  of  guns  to  over  six  for  lOOO  men. 
In^ngland  the  Laboratory  at  Woolwich  was  established 
in  1672,  and  a  reorg-anlzation  of  the  artillerj'  took 
place  in  1682  under  Ihe  Master-General  Lord  Dart- 
mouth. Louis  XIV.  established  a  special  artillery 
force,  raised  in  1(171  a  regiment  for  artillery  duty,  and 
in  1690  founded  the  first  artillery  schools.  The  in- 
ventions of  the  elevating-screw,  the  prolongs,  and  the 
priming-tube  filled  with  powder,  were  made  during 
his  reign.  The  Prussian  artillerj-  was  very  backward 
during  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  ccnturj-,  and 
Frederick  the  Great  did  not  at  first  place  much  value 
upon  its  services.  Although  it  contributed  much  to 
Frederick's  victorj-  at  Rossliach,  it  was  usuallj'  no 
niiitch  for  the  well-handled  Austrian  guns,  which  fact 
impressed  him  with  the  importance  of  gi\nng  more  at- 
tention to  this  branch.  He  therefore  raised  the  pro- 
portion of  guns,  and  established  horse-artillery  in 
1759. 

After  the  Sevcii  Years'  War  the  Austrians  recog- 
nized the  importance  of  the  artillerj-  in  modem  w-ar- 
fare,  and  P^nnce  Liehtenstein  was  commissioned  to 
reorgani7.e  it.  The  experience  of  Frederick's  wars 
was  best  utilized  by  France,  and  under  Gribeauval,  in 
1765,  great  reforms  in  the  French  artillerj-  were  com- 
menced. This  officer  had  been  sent  to  Austria  during 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  had  held  command  under 
Prince  Liehtenstein.  Struck  with  the  improvements 
effected  in  Austria,  he  strove  on  his  return  to  build  up 
a  complete  system,  as  to  both  persons  and  materiel, 
making  a  separate  provision  for  field,  siege,  garrison, 
and  coast  artillery.  At  first  his  refornis  met  great 
opposition,  but  in  1776  he  became  First  Inspector- 
General  of  Artillerj',  and  was  able  to  carrj-  through 
his  improvements.  The  French  horse-artillery  dates 
from  1791,  and  the  last  step  in  the  complete  organiza- 
tion of  the  field-artillery  was  made  in  1800,  w-hen  the 


establishment  of  a  Driver's  Corps  (of  soldiers)  put  an 
end  to  the  old  system  of  horsing  by  contract.  Napoleon, 
who  was  a  great  artillery  otfieer^  introduced  the  tacti- 
cal combination  with  brilliant  success.  To  his  wars 
we  first  look  for  instances  of  the  important  effects 
produced  by  this  arm  in  that  concentration  of  fire 
which  m  those  days  was  produced  onlj-  by  massing 
guns.  Napoleon  III.  made  artillery  a  special  subject 
of  study;  and  the  great  treatise  upon  it,  commenced 
and  mainly  written  by  him,  is  a  standard  w-ork  on  the 
subject.  Since  the  "war  of  1870-71,  in  which  the 
French  artillery  proved  it.self  far  inferior  to  the  Ger- 
man, the  French  have  been  activelj-  engaged  in  ex- 
periments with  a  \-iew  to  the  introduction  of  superior 
guns,  and  have  incre;tsed  their  force  of  artillery  by 
120  batteries.  Similar  progress  has  been  made  by  the 
other  great  European  Powers  during  this  cenfurv. 
The  British  artillery  had  greatly  deteriorated  duriii" 
the  eighteenth  ecntury,  and  w;is  hot  up  to  the  standard 
of  other  countries,  but  horseartillerv  was  formed  in 
1793,  and  a  Driver's  Corps  introduced  the  following 
year.  At  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  Prussian  artillerj- was  powerful  rather  than  mobile; 
but  after  the  dis;isters  of  1806-7  this  defect  w;us  reme- 
died, and  in  1816  further  improvement  was  made. 
In  1872  the  German  artillerj'  was  reorganized,  the 
field-artillery  of  each  armj'  corps  being  augmented  to 
17  batteries,  and  dinded  into  two  regiments.  The 
Austrian  artillerj'  has  alwavs  been  pre-eminent  both 
in  the  excellence  of  its  materiel  and  in  tactical  hand- 
ling on  the  field.  In  1859  rifled  guns  were  intro- 
duced, and  in  1861  gun-cotton  was  substituted  for 
gimijowder,  but  was  soon  aftenvards  abandoned. 
Russia  won  special  distinction  in  the  Naiwleonic  wars 
by  the  power  and  good  service  of  its  artillery,  and  has 
continued  to  give  great  attention  to  this  arm.  Hav- 
ing adopted  the  breech-loading  system  of  Prussia. 
Russia  has  increased  its  field-artillery  from  three  to 
four  batteries  per  division,  with  thirty -eight  batteries 
of  mitrailleuses  added. 

Gtcneral  William  F.  Barry  was  the  organizer  of  the 
artillerj-  of  the  Union  armies  during  the  Rebellion. 
The  aggreg-ate  of  field-guns  was  atout  15,000,  ■with 
40,000  horses  and  48,000  men.  The  number  of  gvuis 
of  position  used  in  field-works  or  intrenched  lines  dur- 
ing that  war  was  1200,  served  by  about  22,000  men. 
There  are  at  present  in  the  Regidar  Army  of  the  United 
States  5  regiments  of  artillery,  w-ith  284  officers  and 
2321  enlisted  men.  The  personal  armament  of  an 
artilleryinan  of  the  mounted  batteries,  whether  field 
or  siege,  is  a  pistol  and  salx;r  for  the  sergeants, 
trumpeters,  and  drivers;  and  a  stiber  onlj'  for  each 
cannoneer.  Those  .serving  in  the  sea-coast  fortifica- 
tions have  a  rifie-musket  and  the  full  equipment  of  an 
infantrj-  soldier.  The  matr-riel  of  a  mounted  battery 
of  the  U.  S.  field-artillery  when  on  a  war-footing  is  "6 
guns,  6  caissons,  1  battery-wagon,  1  traveling-forge, 
and  112  horses;  on  a  peace-footing  it  is  6  guns,  6  cais- 
sons, and  80  horses.  The  ammunition  of  a  field -bat- 
tery for  active  service  in  war  is  400  rounds  per  gun. 
The  organization  of  a  siege-battery  in  the  U.  S.  serrice 
is  4  guns,  1  battery -wagon,  1  traveling-forge,  and  60 
horses.  The  ammunition  for  the  siege-battery  is  250 
rounds  per  gun.  The  breeeh-loading  principle  was 
adopted  in  a  clumsy  waj'  at  the  very  outset  of  cannon 
constniction.  John  Owen  first  ea.st  brass  cannon  in 
England  in  1535,  and  a  year  or  two  later  they  were 
manufactured  in  Scotland;  but  no  long  gims  for  firing 
hollow  projectiles  at  long  range  by  direct  fire  were 
known  until  Colonel  Bomford.of  the  I'.  S.  Ordnance 
Department,  invented  a  cannon  in  1812  called  a  "Co- 
lUmbiad,"  which  proved  very  successful.  Iron  in 
some  fonn  is  the  sole  metal  in  "use  for  heavj' artillerj'; 
cast-iron  is  used  for  smooth-bore  guns  and  for  rifled 
guns  in  the  United  Slates.  Palliser  invented  a  gun 
with  a  steel  interior  tube,  strengthened  by  an  exterior 
casting  of  iron;  and  his  sjstem  became  very  popidar 
in  England;  but  the  inventions  of  Sir  William  Arm- 
strong] improved  by  those  of  Fraser,  proved  far  supe- 
rior, and  have  been  generallj-  adopted.     Russia,  Ger- 


ABTILLEBT  COLOBS. 


106 


ABTILLEBT  COBFS. 


many,  and  other  nations  have  adopted  the  Krupp 
system  ^\^th  heavy  forgiugs  of  steel  injjots. 
"  The  defense  of  war-ships  with  iron  armor  has 
causi-d  an  iucrc-.ise  in  the  size,  weight,  and  ealilK'rs 
of  scit-coust  and  naval  cannon,  and  the  whole  method 
of  gun-construction  has  been  altered.  Armstrong- 
was  the  first  in  England  to  sec  the  necessity  of  a 
change,  and  his  methixl  was  improveil  l)y  Whilworth, 
Fntscr,  Palliser,  Blakely.and  others.  Fnmcis  Krupp 
of  Essen,  Prussia,  is  the  inventor  of  a  new  method 
which  proved  so  successful  that  it  has  been  introduced 
in  Grcrmiiny,  Russia,  Austria,  Belgium,  and  Spain. 
The  body  of  the  gun  is  fabricated  from  a  solid  ingot 
cf  low  steel  worked  under  heavy  steel  Immmci-s,  and 
is  strengthened  by  three  or  more  steel  tubes  shrunk 
upon  the  central  tube  of  the  gun,  the  last  ring,  or 
tulx'  inclosing  the  breech,  being  forged  in  one  piece 
with  the  trunnions,  without  a  weld.  The  rings  have 
various  lengths,  and  the  gun  is  diminished  in  thick- 
ness towards  the  muz/le,  not  by  tapering,  but  liy  be- 
ing turnc<i  with  concentric  steps  of  diminished  heights. 
Krupp  makes  all  his  projectiles  and  gim-carriages  of 
steel.  In  the  United  Stales,  Rodman,  Dahlgren,  and 
Parrott  have  devoted  themselves  to  the  art  of  gun- 
construction.  The  Rodman  gun  is  of  cast-iron;  it  is 
cast  hollow  and  cooled  from  the  inside,  the  exterior 
being  in  the  mean  time  kept  from  rapid  cooling  by 
liresbuilt  around  the  gun  in  the  ca.sting-pit.  The 
Dahlgren  gun  is  of  iron  cast  solid,  imd  cooled  from 
the  e.vterior,  very  thick  at  the  breech  up  to  the  tnm- 
nions,  then  diminishing  in  thickness  to  the  muzzle. 
The  Parrott  gun,  like  the  Rodman,  is  of  cast-iron, 
cast  hollow,  cot)letl  from  the  inside,  and  strengtliened 
about  the  chamber  by  an  exterior  tube  of  wrought- 
iron  bars  spirally  coiled  and  shrunk  on.  It  has  been 
suggt'Sted  that  a  Rotlmangun  lined  with  wroughtiron 
on  Palliser's  system  would  prove  a  highly  effective 
weapon. 

The  manner  of  placing  artillery  and  its  cmplojTncnt 
must  be  regulated  by  its  relative  importance,  under 
given  circumstances,  with  respect  to  the  action  of  the 
other  arms.  In  the  defensive,  the  principal  jiart  is 
usually  assigned  to  the  artillery;  and  the  positions 
taken  up  by  the  other  arms  will,  therefore,  be  subor- 
dinate to  those  of  this  arm.  In  offensive  movements 
the  reverse  generally  obtains.  In  defensive  positions 
the  security  of  the  batteries  is  of  the  last  importitnce. 
Unless  the  batteries  are  on  points  which  arc  inaccess- 
ible to  the  enemy's  cavalry  and  infantry,  they  must 
be  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  other  troops, 
and  be  outflanked  by  them.  As  in  the  defensive,  we 
should  be  prepared  to  receive  the  enemy  on  every 
point;  the  batteries  must  be  distributed  along  the  en- 
tire front  of  the  position  occupied,  and  on  those  points 
from  which  they  can  obtain  a  good  sweep  over  the 
avenues  of  approach  to  it;  the  guns  Ix'ing  masked, 
when  the  ground  favors,  from  the  enemy's  view,  until 
the  proper  moment  arrives  for  opening  their  (ire.  The 
distance  between  the  batteries  should  not  Ix'  much 
over  6t)0  paces;  so  that  by  their  tire  they  may  cover 
well  the  ground  intervening  between  them,  inid  af- 
ford mutual  support;  the  light  guns  being  jilaced  on 
the  more  salient  points  of  the  front,  from  their  shorter 
range  and  greater  facility  of  maneuvering;  the  heavier 
guns  on  tile  more  retired  points.  Guns  of  various 
caliber  should  not  be  placed  in  the  Siime  battery.  A 
suHicicnt  interval  should  also  be  left  between  batteries 
of  different  calilier,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  judg- 
ing, by  the  variations  in  the  effect  of  the  shot,  of  the 
weight  of  metal  of  the  batteries.  Those  positions  for 
batteries  should  be  avoided  from  which  the  shot  must 
l>a.ss  over  other  troops  lo  attain  the  enemy.  And 
those  shoukl  Ix'  sought  for  from  which  a  fire  can  be 
maintained  until  the  enemy  has  approached  even 
within  giHxl  musket-range  of  them.  Where  the  wings 
of  a  position  are  weak,  batteries  of  the  heaviest  cali- 
ber should  be  placed  to  secure  them.  A  sufficient 
number  of  pieces — selecting  for  the  object  in  view 
horse-artillerj'  in  preference  to  any  other — should  be 
held  in  reserve  for  a  moment  of  need;  to  be  thrown 


upon  any  point  where  the  enemy's  progress  threatens 
danger;  or  to  be  used  in  covering  the  iTtreat.  The 
collection  of  a  large  number  of  pieces  in  a  single  bat- 
tery is  a  dangerous  arrangement,  particularly  at  the  out- 
.set  of  an  eng:ig<.nient.  The  exposure  of  so  many  gims 
together  might  i)resent  a  strong  inducement  "to  the 
enemy  to  make  an  effort  to  carry  the  hiltery;  a  feat 
the  more  likely  to  succeed,  as  it  is  dillicult  either  to 
wilhilraw  the  guns  or  change  their  position  promptly 
after  their  fire  is  opened;  antl  one  which,  if  succc-isful, 
nught  entail  a  fatal  disaster  on  the  as,sailed,  from  the 
lossof-somauy  pieces  at  once.  In  the  outset  of  offensive 
movements,  good  positions  .should  Ix;  selected  for  the 
heaviest  |)ieces,  from  which  they  can  maintain  a  strong 
fire  on  the  enemy  until  the  lighter  pieces  and  the 
columns  of  attack  are  brought  into  action.  These 
]K)sitions  shovdd  be  taken  on  the  tlaiiks  of  the  gi'ound 
oi-cupied  by  the  assailant,  or  on  the  center  if  more 
favorable  to  the  end  to  lie  attained.  In  all  ca.ses,  wide 
intervals  should  be  left  between  the  hea^'J'  batteries 
and  the  other  troops,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  not 
suffer  from  the  return-fire  which  the  a.'sjuled  will 
probably  o)ien  on  the  batteries.  Forthesjime  reason, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  place  other  troops  liehind 
a  point  occui)ietl  by  a  battery,  where  they  would  Ix; 
exposed  to  the  return-fire  of  the  a.s.sailed;  when  this 
cannot  be  avoitled,  the  troops  should  be  so  placed  as 
to  be  covered  by  any  undulation  of  the  ground,  or 
else  be  deployed  in  line  to  lessen  the  effects  of  the 
shot.  The  artillery  which  moves  with  the  columns 
of  attack  should  be  di%-ided  into  several  strong  bat- 
teries, as  the  object  in  this  case  is  to  produce  a  deci- 
sive impression  upon  a  few  points  of  the  enemy's  line 
by  bringing  an  overwhelming  fire  to  bear  upon  these 
points.  These  batteries  should  keep  near  enough  to 
the  other  troops  to  be  in  safetv  from  any  attempts  of 
the  assjuled  to  capture  them.  Their  usual  positions 
will  be  on  the  flanks  and  near  the  heads  of  the  col- 
xunns  of  attack;  the  intervals  between  the  batteries 
being  sufficient  for  the  free  maneuvers  of  the  other 
troops,  in  large  bodies.  The  maneuvers  of  these  bat- 
teries should  be  made  with  promjititude,  so  that  no 
time  may  be  lost  for  the  action  of  their  fire.  They 
should  get  rapidly  over  unfavorable  ground  to  good 
positions  for  tiring,  and  maintain  these  as  long  as  pos- 
sible; detaching,  in  such  cases,  a  few  pieces  to  accom- 
pany the  columns  of  attack.  In  all  the  movements 
of  the  batteries,  great  care  should  Iw  taken  not  to  place 
them  so  that  they  shall  in  the  least  impede  the  opera- 
tions of  the  other  troops.     See  Sytiteiii  of  ArtUltry. 

ARTILLERY  COLORS.— In  the  United  States  army 
each  regiment  of  Artillery  has  two  silken  Colors. 
The  firs^  or  the  National  Color,  of  stars  and  strijx's, 
as  dcscrilied  for  the  garrison  flag.  The  mimber  and 
name  of  the  regiment  are  emliroidered  with  gold  on 
the  center  strii>e.  The  second,  or  Regimental  Color, 
is  yellow,  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  first,  Viearing 
in  the  center  t«o  cannon  crossing,  with  the  lettijs 
U.  S.  above  and  the  numljcr  of  tlie  regiment  below; 
fringe,  yellow.  Eacli  Colia'  is  six  feet  six  inches  fly, 
and  six  feet  deep  on  the  uike.  The  pike,  including 
the  sjH'ar  and  ferrule,  is  nine  feet  ten  inches  in  length. 
Conls  and  tassels,  red  and  yellow  silk  iulermi.xed. 
See  Cnfora. 

ARTILLERY  CORPS.— The  larger  weapons,  before 
the  invention  of  gunpowder,  were  .stimelimes  calle<l 
engines  of  war,  sometimes  aHillery,  and  were  worked 
by  strong  and  rough  soldiei-s,  who  needed  no  par- 
ticular apprenticeship  to  that  art.  When,  however, 
large  bails  of  iron  came  to  be  propelled  by  the  irresis- 
tible force  of  gunpowiler.  a  great  revolution  gradually 
took  place,  though  garris<in-guns  and  siege-guns  were 
improved  more  rapidly  than  field-guns.  Neverthe- 
less, field  guns  changed  the  whole  aspect  of  military 
tactics;  for  it  became  necessary  that  an  army  should 
form  in  order  of  battle  at  a  inucli  greater  distance 
from  the  enemy  than  in  older  times.  And  vhen  the 
cannon  were  made  more  rapidly  movable,  so  did 
tactics  vary.  Gradually  a  body  of  men  were  set 
apart  to  study  the  force  and  action  of  gunpowder, 


ABTILLESY  HOBSES. 


107 


AETILLEBY  PEACTICE. 


the  flight  and  range  of  projectiles,  the  weight  and 
strength  of  cannon,  and  the  maneuvering  o?  heavy 
masses.  The  French  were  the  first  to  make  these 
researches;  after  them,  the  English;  and  still  later, 
the  Germans.  During  the  Thirtj-  Years'  War  an  im- 
portant step  was  taken  in  Germany — that  of  including 
the  artillerymen,  who  were  till  then  a  sort  of  guild,  as  a 
component  in  the  Regular  Army.  Gustavus  Adolphiis 
in  Sweden,  Frederick  II.  in  Prussia,  and  Napoleon  I. 
in  France,  all  attached  a  very  high  degree  of  impor- 
tance to  the  artillery  as  an  arm  of  the  ser\ice.  After 
the  great  wars  in  the  begiiming  of  the  present  centurj' 
nearly  all  the  States  of  Europe  formally  recognized 
the  artillery  a-s  the  third  great  branch  of  militarj-  ser- 
vice (next  after  the  infantry  and  cavalry):  indeed, 
some  of  them,  including  Russia  and  Sardinia,  have 
shown  a  tendency  to  elevate  it  to  the  lirst  rank. 

Artillery  Corps,  or  artillerymen,  arc  divided  into 
land-artillery  and  marine  artillery.  The  laud-artillery 
is  divided  into  tield,  coast,  garrison,  and  siege  artil- 
lery. The  field-artillery  is  subdivided  into  horse  and 
foot.  There  are  also  the  special  appellation  of  reserve, 
light,  and  heavy  artillerv.  In  most  European  States 
the  artillerymen  are  divided  into  regiments,  battalions, 
brigades,  and  companies;  but.  in  Britain  the  whole 
form  one  enormous  regiment,  which  is  expanded  or 
contracted  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  ser\'icc. 
When  military  men  speak  of  7/«;  field-arlillery  they 
usually  include  cannon,  carriages,  horses,  ammuni- 
tion, and  stores  of  every  description,  as  well  as  the 
artillerymen.  The  distinction  between  hea^'j'  and 
light  artillery  depends  on  the  size  of  the  cannon  and 
the  weight  of  the  shot  and  shell  propelled  from  them. 
For  obrious  reasons  the  construction  of  verj'  large 
fjeld-guus  is  avoided.  Military  men  are  not  quite 
agreed  as  to  the  precise  figures;  but  there  is  a  general 
concurrence  in  opinion  that  a  well-appointed  field- 
force  should  have  two  or  three  artilleiy  guns  to  every 
1001)  infantry,  and  five  or  six  horse-artillerj'  guiLS  to 
every  10(K)  cavalry.  The  proportion  is  necessjirily 
affected  by  the  kind  of  country  and  the  amount  of 
available  transport.  During  the  Peninsular  War, 
Wellington  had  seldom  more  than  1  gun  to  every 
1000  soldiers;  when  he  entered  France  he  had  3  to 
the  10(K).  Napoleon  preferred  2  per  1000,  with  a 
larger  supply  of  ammunition  than  had  before  been 
deemed  necessjin,-;  and  man)"  foreign  governme:;ts 
followed  his  example.  Experienced  officers  in  the 
British  artillery  have  laid  it  down  as  a  usefid  rule 
that  an  army  of  GH.OOO  men.  comprising  .50,000  in- 
fantry, 7.500  cavalry,  and  2.500  artillery,  should  have 
100  pieces  of  ordnance — viz.,  30  for  horse-artillery,  .54 
for  foot-artillery,  and  16  in  reserve.  See  Uomrable 
Artilhri/  Company. 

ARTILLERY  HORSES.— Horses  for  artillery  service 
should  lie  not  less  than  nine  hundred  nor  more  thiin 
twelve  huiulrcd  pounds;  age  not  less  than  five  nor 
more  than  eight  years;  forehead  wide;  shoulders 
broad  enough  to  sujiport  the  collar,  but  not  too  hca\'j'; 
forelegs  short,  straight,  and  well  under  the  horse; 
chest  broad  and  deep,  barrel  large  and  increasing 
from  girth  to  flank;  withers  elevated,  back  short  and 
straiglit,  loins  and  haunches  broad  and  muscular; 
hind-legs  short,  hocks  well  bent  and  under  the  horse; 
feet  rather  large.  Special  care  must  Ije  taken  that  the 
withers  are  not  too  sharii,  and  that  the  horse  is  neither 
sway-backed  nor  roach-backed.  In  time  of  war 
horses  should  not  be  accepted  under  six  nor  over  ten 
years  of  age;  young  animals,  as  a  rule,  are  not  able  to 
stand  the  exposure  of  a  campaign.  Each  horse  must 
he  well  broken  to  harness;  and  in  each  battery  horses 
of  the  minimum  size  and  weight  should  never  exceed 
one  third  of  the  whole  numlwr.  The  load  allotteil  to 
an  artillery  horse  is  less  than  that  usually  drawn  by  a 
horse  of  commerce,  for  the  reason  that  allowance 
must  be  made  for  bad  roads,  bad  forage,  rapid  move- 
ments, and  forced  marches.  They  are  as  follows: 
Light-artillerv  horse,  700  lbs.,  including  carriage; 
heavy  field-artillery.  H.50  lbs.;  siege-artillery.  1000  lbs. 
The  above  is  based  on  the  rapidity  of  movement  re- 


quired in  the  different  services.  An  ordinary  draught- 
horse  can  draw  1600  lbs.  23  miles  in  a  day.  Usually 
a  horse  can  draw  seven  times  as  much  as  lie  can  carry; 
hence  all  material  of  war  should  be  transported  on 
carriages  if  pr:icticable.  The  average  march  for 
artillery  on  good  roads  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  miles 
per  day.  With  rare  exceptions  the  walk  is  "the  in- 
variable gait.  Long  marches  or  expeditions  should 
be  begun  moderately,  particularly  with  horses  new  to 
the  service.  Ten  or  twelve  miles  a  day  is  enough  for 
the  first  marches,  which  over  go<id  roads  may  be  in- 
creased to  twenty  or  twenty-five  miles  when  ne(e.s.sarj', 
after  the  horses  are  inured  to  their  work.  The  care 
of  horses  on  the  march  is  one  of  the  most  important 
duties  of  an  artillery  officer;  by  consUint  atttntion, 
many  horses  may  be  kept  in  .serviceable  condition 
which  would  otherwise  be  disabled  for  months.  Re- 
veille, ordinaril}-,  should  not  Ik-  sounded  on  the  march 
before  daylight,  as  horses  rest  better  from  midnight 
until  dawn  than  at  other  times.  A  halt  of  from  five 
to  ten  minutes  is  made  at  the  end  of  every  hour,  for 
the  purpose  of  adjusting  harness,  tightening  girths, 
etc.  When  troops  march  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
day,  a  halt  of  from  twentj-  to  forty -five  minutes  should 
be  made  about  noon.  The  march  is  usually  in  column 
of  sections:  v»hen  practicable  i.  will  be  in  column  of 
platoons  at  closed  intervals;  but  the  front  of  the 
column  must  not  be  frequently  diminished  or  in- 
creased, as  this  unavoidably  adds  to  the  fatigue  of  the 
horses,  particularly  of  those  in  rear.  When  distances 
are  lost  in  column,  they  must  never  be  regained  by 
taking  the  trot;  no  practice  is  more  fatiguing  to  horses 
and  more  injurious  to  their  .shoulders  than  the  alter- 
nate trotting  and  walking  so  often  seen  at  the  rear  of 
artillery  columns.  The  walk  will  be  quickened  as 
much  as  possible  by  such  carri;iges  as  have  lost  dis- 
tiince,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Captain  to  have  the 
gait  of  the  leading  guide  slackened,  or  the  column 
halted,  so  that  thej'  can  close  up.  See  Draught 
Animals. 

ARTILLERY  LEVEL.— An  instrument  adapted  to 
stand  on  a  piece  of  ordnance  and  indicate  by  a  pen- 
dulous pointer  the  .lugle  which  the  axis  of  the  piece 
bears  to  the  horizontal  plane.  By  its  means  any  re- 
quired antrle  of  elevation  is  given  "to  the  piece. 

ARTILLERY  MASS. — A  concentration  of  artillery 
with  mobility.  It  should  combine  with  great  mobil- 
ity a  powerful  fire,  which  can  be  concentrated  on 
some  definite  point  of  an  enemy's  line  to  be  broken 
through,  trasses  of  Artilhri/  are  usually  employed 
after  troops  have  been  engaged  for  some  time  and 
the  weak  points  of  the  enemy's  lines  '>ave  been  ascer- 
tained. 

ARTILLERY  PARK. — A  collective  name  given  to 
the  whole  of  the  guns,  carriages,  ammimition,  and 
other  appurtenances  essential  to  the  working  of  siege 
or  tield-artiller)'.  Besides  reserve  gvms  and  carriages, 
there  belong  to  it  the  ammunition-w:igons,  as  well  for 
the  infantry  and  cavalry  as  for  the  artillery,  the  im- 
plements and  materials  nece.ss!iry  for  repairing  and 
completing  equipments,  harness-stores,  field-forges, 
laboratories,  and  (in  some  armies)  transport  and  ijro- 
vision  w.igous.  The permn nil  oi  a  park  of  artillery' 
consists  of  artillery  officers,  non-commissioned  ofh- 
cers,  and  artillerymen;  besides  a  large  numljer  of 
smiths,  wheelwrights,  saddlers,  armorers,  drivers, 
and  other  mechanics  and  laborers.  Sometimes  the 
term  is  ;ip|ilied  to  the  place  selecte<l,  as  well  as  to  the 
vast  militarv  stores  collected  there. 

ARTILLERY  PRACTICE. — Siege-artillery  is  gener- 
ally used  against  fixed  objects  on  land;  the  target 
shouM  thei'efore  be  placed  on  land.  The  range  for 
the  4.5-inch  gun  should  be  about  2000  yards,  and  for 
this  distance  a  target  12  feet  scjuare  would  be  suitable. 
If  is  made  of  canvas,  or  of  light  boards  nailed  to  up- 
rights planted  in  the  ground,  and  is  whilew.ished.  A 
circular  bull's-eve  4  feet  in  diameter  is  iiainted  in 
black  in  the  cc-nter  of  the  target.  AViout  100  feet 
diagonally  in  front  of  the  target  a  pit  of  suitable  size 
for  the  m"arker  is  dug,  the  earth  being  thrown  upon. 


ARTILLERY  PRACTICE. 


108 


ARTILLERY  PRACTICE. 


the  side  towards  the  piece.  It  adds  greatly  to  the 
security  of  the  marker  to  have  splinter-proof  coverinjr 
for  the  pit.  The  nuirker  is  provided  with  a  disk, 
about  a  foot  in  diameti'r,  made  of  sheet-iron  or  tliiu 
board,  one  side  of  which  is  painted  black,  the  other 
white,  and  provided  with  a  stall  suffieienlly  lomj  to 
enable  him  to  ]K)inl  the  disk  to  any  part  of  the  target. 
The  marker  slionld  be  accompanied  by  a  Magman 
skilled  in  signaling,  and  provided  with  awhite  or  red 
tiag.  such  as  are  supplied  by  the  Signal  Bureau.  At  Ihe 
,  l)iece  is  another  tlagman  similarly  provided.  Where 
it  is  i>ossible,  a  hill,  situated  two  or  three  hundred 
yards  beyonil  the  target,  is  advantageous  for  arrest- 
ing the  projectik-s.  Cleared  space  beyond  the  target 
is  preferable  to  woods. 

Firm  ground  is  selected  for  the  gun-platform, 
which  is  laid  with  care  and  ])rccision.  The  distance 
to  the  target  is  ascertained  either  by  direct  tneasvire- 
ment.  with  the  teh'mcler,  o.r  by  triangulation.  Pre- 
vious to  going  out  to  tire,  the  Instructor  should  pre- 
pare a  memorandum-table  of  elevations  for  each  kind 
of  ])rojcetile  to  be  used,  and  the  time  to  which  fusi's 
are  to  be  cut  for  shells.  The  time  of  flight  is  deter- 
mined by  means  of  a  stop--vatch,  and  the  distance  at 
■which  shells  burst  by  the  Boulonge  telemeter.  Care 
and  di'liberalion  are  exercised  in  loadingand  pointing. 
When  the  piece  is  ready  to  be  tired,  a  signal  is  made 
by  the  tlagman  at  the  piece  to  the  marker  and  flag- 
man at  the  target,  who  then  screen  themselves  in  the 
pit.  As  soon  as  the  projectile  strikes,  the  flagman  at 
the  pit  rai.ses  his  flag  and  the  marker  proceeds,  in  case 
it  has  struck  the  target,  to  cover  the  hole  wi'h  his 
disk;  when^a  .shell  has  been  tired,  the  flagman  signals 
whether  it  has  burst  short  of  or  beyond  the  target. 
An  observer  at  the  piece,  with  a  glass,  or  even  with 
the  naked  eye,  can  see  upon  which  side  of  the  target 
tlie  projectile  passes,  and  can  form  an  approximate 
estimate  of  the  distance  to  the  right  or  left. 

Fnmi  the  data  thus  obtained,  errors  of  pointing  and 
of  cutting  the  fuse  may  be  corrected  for  succeeding 
shots.  A  complete  record  of  each  tire  is  kept  an(l 
entered  on  a  blank  form  furnished  by  the  Ordnance 
Department.  This  record,  besides  giWug  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  piece,  contains  the  kind  and  weight  of  the 
projectile,  the  kind  of  powder  and  the  weight  of 
charge,  the  elevation  and  the  time  of  flight,  the  kind 
and  length  of  fuse,  and  the  position  of  the  piece, 
whether  above  or  below  the  level  of  the  target.  In 
the  column  of  remarks  is  entered  whether  the  pro- 
jectile struck  the  target,  and  if  so,  where;  or  if  it 
missed,  to  which  side,  and  how  far;  whether  it  fell 
short  or  went  beyond;  whether  the  .shell  exploded 
short,  beyond,  or  did  not  explode.  The  direction  of 
the  wind,  with  reference  to  the  line  of  tire,  and  its  | 
strength  are  noted.  Those  engaged  in  the  firing,  par- 
ticularly the  otlicers,  should  examine  and  study  the 
ground  about  the  target,  oliserving  the  eflect  iiroduced 
by  the  striking  of  the  shot;  whether  they  penetrated 
or  ricocheted;  the  depth  of  penetration,  the  character 
of  the  craters  formed  by  bursting  shells,  and  of  the 
furrows  made  by  glancing  projectiles.  Thisinforma-  I 
tion  is  useful  when  constructing  works  of  shelter 
against  an  enemy,  and  in  the  attack  upon  and  demoli- 
tion of  his  works. 

When  the  allowance  of  ammunition  that  may  he 
expended  admits  of  it,  firing  at  a  horizontal  target 
should  be  practiced.  The  object  of  this  kind  of  tir- 
ing is  to  group  Ihe  shots  as  closely  .as  possible  on  the 
ground  about  the  target.  The  rectangular  space  in- 
closed by  Ihe  shots  is  called  the  polygon  of  fire.  In 
actual  service,  the  purpose  of  such  fire  is  to  reach  an 
enemy  sheltered  behind  works  or  soim>  intervening 
object,  as  hills  or  woods.  This  is  accomplished  by 
the  drop  of  iirojecliles  tired  at  long  range,  or  ill  short 
range  by  reducmg  the  charge  anil  giving  high  eleva- 
tion. Skill  in  this,  the  most  diflicult  kind  of  firing, 
can  be  acquired  only  by  practice.  To  obtain  the  mi- 
ter (if  ii/ipiwt,  the  target,  if  an  upright  one,  is  divided' 
into  four  parts  by  a  horizontal  and  a  vertical  line 
passing  through  iha  center  of  the  huU's-eyc;  if  the 


target  is  horizontal,  as  for  mortar-firing,  one  line  is 
drawn  as  the  trace  of  the  jMane  of  fire,  and  the  other 
Ihroughl  the  <enter  of  the  target  at  right  angles  to  it. 
The  distance  in  feet  of  each  shot  is  nieasined  from 
these  lines  as  co-ordinates,  and  recorded  in  a  table;  as, 
iiborc  or  beloir  the  horizontal  line,  and  to  the  ri{//it  or 
lift  of  the  vertical  line.  The  table  bs  of  the  follow- 
ing form: 


Distance  from  Co-ordi-    Distance  frou  Center  of 
NATES.  I  Impact. 


o 

Vertical. 

Horizontal.  |      Vertical. 

Horizontal. 

6 

Above  Below. 

Right. 1  Left. !  Above  Below. 

Right.  Left. 

1... 

3.'.'.'. 
4... 
5.... 

8 

4 

6 
8 

2 

5 
4 

2 
3 

4 

6 

8 
6 

i 

1.6 
8.6 

2.6 

5.4 
2.4 

7 

12 

9      1      7 

9 

» 

7.8 

7.8 

5-f5  =  1 

2  -^  6  =  0.4     18  -H  8  =  8.6 

15.6.«-5  =  8.1ii 

The  algebraic  sum  of  the  distances  in  each  direc- 
tion, divided  by  the  number  of  shots,  gives  the  posi- 
tion of  the  center  of  impact  in  this  direction.  In  the 
above  example,  the  position  of  the  cenlcr  of  impact  is  I 
fool  below  and  0.4  foot  to  the  rlLrht  of  thecenterof  the 
target.  To  obtain  the  mean  deviation  it  is  necessary 
to  refer  each  shot-hole  to  the  center  of  impact  as  a 
new  origin  of  co-ordinates;  and  this  is  done  by  sub- 
tracting" the  tabular  distance  from  the  distance  of 
the  center  of  impact  if  both  be  on  the  same 
side  of  the  center  of  the  target,  and  adding  them 
if  on  different  sides.  The  sum  of  all  the  di-stances 
thus  obtained  in  one  direction,  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  shots,  gives  the  mean  deviation  in  that  direc- 
tion; which  in  the  present  case  is  8.6  feet  vertically 
and  3.12  feet  horizontally.  The  foregoing  afl'ords  a 
measure  for  the  accuracy  oi  fire  of  the  piece  and  pro- 
jectile, but  it  does  not  afford  so  good  a  test  of  marks- 
manship as  the  Kfriiig.  or  sum  ot  the  distances  of  the 
shots  from  the  point' aimed  at.  Taiget-practice  with 
the  8-inch  siege-howitzer  is  conducted  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  siege-guns,  but  the  distance  should  not 
exeeetl  1;"'(I0  yards,  and  the  target  need  not  be  over  10 
feet  scpiare.  Direct,  ricochet,  and  rolling  fire  should 
each  be  practiced  with  this  jiicce.  To  observe  the 
flight  of  canister,  it  is  best  to  fire  it  over  smooth  water, 
with  an  elevation  not  exceeding  two  degrees. 

The  target  for  the  10-inch  siege  morlar  should  be 
about  l.">Ot)^yards  from  the  piece.  The  be*!  form  for 
the  target  is  that  of  a  square,  inclosing  the  general 
trace  of  a  field-work.  The  sides  of  the  square  should 
be  alHiut  100  yards,  and  the  trace  marked  by  stakes 
driven  at  distances  of  about  10  feet  apart.  "A  large 
cmpi  V  cask  or  box.  placed  upon  a  posi  in  the  center  of 
the  figure,  and  whitewashed,  serves  as  a  iioint  to  aim  at. 
At  a  distance  of  not  less  than  \~>i)  yard-<  lo  the  right 
or  left  of  the  target  is  constructed  a  strong  bomb- 
proof for  the  nnirker  and  flagman.  The  marker  is 
provided  with  a  number  of  small  slakes  which,  to 
make  them  more  conspiiaious,  have  allached  lo  them 
a  piece  of  while  or  red  stuff.  When  a  shell  strikes 
the  ground.  Ihe  marker  notes  the  place  with  a  stake, 
marking  it  with  a  number  corresiioncling  to  Itjc  nu:u- 
ber  of  Ihe  shot.  The  rules  governing  the  flagman  at 
the  bomb-proof  and  at  the  piece  are  the  same  as  those 
already  given  for  the  siege-gim.  A  convenient 
method  of  notifying  those  at  The  mortar  as  to  the 
points  at  which  liie  shells  .strike  is  to  describe  around 
the  center  of  the  target  a  circle  with  a  radius  of  about 
twenty-five  yards.  Divide  llii-  circle  into  twelve 
(■{pialiiarls,  "which  mark  conspicuously  with  stakes, 
being  careful  to  place  one  of  the  divisions  on  the  l>ro- 
longalion  of  the  line  passing  through  the  mortar  and 
the  Center  of  the  target.  Call  this  jxiinl  XII,  and 
number  the  others  around  to  the  right  similar  to  the 
dial  of  a  clock. 

Suppose  the  shell  falls  at  the  point  C  (see  figure), 


AKTILLEEY  SCHOOL 


109 


AETILLEEY  SCHOOL. 


on  the  line  passing  through  the  center  B  and  I, 
and  at  a  distance  of,  saj',  twenty  yards  from  the  center. 
The  marker  steps  or  otherwise  measures  this  dis- 
tance, and  signals  to  the  piece  "  One" — "  20."  Those 
at  the  piece,  referring  to  a  similar  diagram  made 
wpondujtgram  paper,  ascertain  at  a  glance  the  approx- 


imate point  at  which  the  shell  struck  the  ground. 
Firm  ground  is  selected  for  the  platform,  and  the  dis- 
tance to  the  target  is  determined  as  for  siege-^uns,  as 
is  likewise  the  time  of  flight  of  shells  and  the  distance 
at  which  they  cvplode.  In  order  to  economize  shells, 
charges  surticient  only  to  Mow  out  the  fuse  are  used, 
and  the  shells  are  afterwards  collected.  After  the 
tiring  is  completed,  the  distance  fiom  each  point 
where  a  shell  tell  to  the  center  of  the  target  is  meas- 
ured, and,  if  desirable,  a  diagram  made  of  the  target, 
showing  the  position  of  each  shot. 

Pre\ious  to  going  out  to  tire,  the  Instructor  should 
prepare  a  memorandum  range-table,  so  that  the  lirst 
shots  may  be  approximately  accurate.  Subsequent 
shots  should  be  rectified  with  care;  the  tendency  is 
always  to  overdo  the  correction;  as,  for  instance, 
when  the  shell  falls  short,  the  addition  given  to  the 
charge  will  most  likelysend  it  far  beyond;  or,  should 
it  fall  to  one  side,  the  correction  given  to  the  direction 
will  probably  be  so  great  as  to  cause  it  to  fall  a  still 
greater  distance  to  the  other  side.  Under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  mortar-firing,  as  compared 
with  firing  from  other  kinds  of  cannon,  possesses,  in- 
herently, a  considerable  degree  of  inaccuracy,  and  in 
making  corrections  care  should  be  observed  to  dis- 
criminate between  this  and  faulty  gunner}-.  When 
practicable,  the  charges  of  powder  should  be  weighed; 
if  ineamnil,  uniformity  shouUl  be  observed  as  to  the 
manner  of  doing  it,  .so  thai  all  shall  be  shaken  down 
in  the  measure,  or  all  measured  loosely.  The  plat- 
form should  be  tested  frequently,  to  see  that  it  does 
not  settle  unevenly.  The  shells  should  be  weigheil 
and  marked  with  chalk,  anil  in  firing  them  care 
should  be  obsci^ed  to  commence  with  the  lightest  and 
go  up  to  the  heaviest,  or  rice  term.  This  enables  the 
corresponding  variation  of  the  charge  to  be  made 
with  a  greater  degree  of  certainty.  Target-practice 
with  the  8-inch  mortar  is  conducted  as  just  explained 
for  the  10-inch. 

Target-practice  with  the  Coehom  mortar  is  similar 
to  the  foregoing;  but  the  distance  lo  the  target  should 
not  exceed  1000  yards,  and  the  target  may  be  smaller. 
As  this  piece  cari  be  moved  from  place  to  place  with 
ease,  and  requires  nothing  more  than  level  and  firm 
ground  for  a  platform,  the  distance  to  the  target 
should  be  varied,  thus  affording  practice  such  as  fre- 
quently occurs  in  war-service.  Sea-coast  mortars  are 
chiefly  used  against  shipping  in  the  defense  of  har- 
bors; a  floating  target  should  therefore  be  used. 
Any  floating  object,  as  an  empty  cask  or  a  spar, 
anchored  to  mark  the  spot,  suffices.  The  distance  to 
the  target  should  be  about  3000  yards.  The  practice 
is  conducted  in  the  .same  manner  as  for  the  10-iuch 
siege-mortar,  except  that  for  the  purjiose  of  determin- 
ing the  points  of  fall,  or  of  explosion  of  the  shells, 
plane-tables  are  employed  in  the  manner  hereafter  ex- 
plained. As  the  shells  are  not  recovered  after  being 
fired,  bursting-charges  may  be  used. 

Sea-coast  guns  are  chiefly  used  against  ships,  and 
are  fired  over  water;  hence  the  target  should  be  floating. 
For  the  15-inch  smooth-bore  and  the  8-inch  and  Par- 
rott  rifles  it  shoulil  be  moored  at  a  distance  of  about 
3000  yards;  for  the  10-inch  smoothbore  the  distance 
should  Ik'  about  2000  yards.  Plane-tables  are  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose  of  recording  the  striking-points 
of  shots  or  the  bursting- distance  of  shells.  The 
tables  are  stationed  one  at  each  extremity  of  a  line. 


the  length  of  which  is  accurately  determined  either 
by  actual  measurement  or  by  triangulation  from  a 
base-line,  the  measurement  of  which  h;is  been  made 
with  care  and  precision.  At  every  i)ost  mounting 
heavy  artillery  a  ba.se-line  should  IJe  so  detennined 
and  permanently  marked,  to  be  used  for  the  various 
requirements  of  artillery -firing.  About  1000  yards  is 
a  suitable  length  for  it.  The  plane-tables  are  placed 
so  as  to  have  a  clear  view  of  the  target,  of  each  other, 
and  of  the  guns.  They  should,  furthermore,  Ite  so 
placed  that  the  lines  joining  them  with  the  target  will 
intersect  at  as  near  a  right  angle  as  possible  This  en- 
ables the  position  of  the  shot  to  be  determined  and 
plotted  with  greater  accuracy  than  woidd  be  the  case 
did  the  lines  intersect  with  a  very  acute  angle.  The 
direction  of  the  wind  is  determined  by  a  \ane  at  the 
piece.  The  most  convenient  and  reliable  method  of 
noting  it  is  by  referring  it  to  the  dial  of  a  watch  held 
in  such  a  position  that  the  line  passing  through  VI 
and  XII  will  be  parallel  to  the  line  of  fire  with  the 
XII  towards  the  target.  The  (Unction  is  that  from 
which  the  wind  comes.  When  coming  directly  from 
the  front,  it  is  noted  as  "  tirelce  o'clock";  when  from 
the  rear,  as  "  six  o'clock";  when  from  the  right,  as 
"  three  o'clock";  when  from  the  left,  as  "  nine  o'clock"; 
and  when  from  intermediate  points,  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  velocity  of  the  wind  is  determined  by 
an  anemometer.  When  it  is  practicable  to  establish 
telegraphic  communication,  all  of  the  foregoing  opera- 
tions, so  far  as  signaling  is  concerned,  arc  greatly 
facilitated. 

The  target  for  the  Gatling  gun  is  made  of  light  can- 
vas or  ordinar>'  muslin,  antl  is  in  four  or  more  sec- 
tions, each  section  being  8  feet  long  by  6  feet  high. 
The  canvas  is  nailed  to  a  strong  light  frame,  the  up- 
rights of  which  extend  about  12  inches  below  the 
canvas  in  order  that  they  may  be  set  in  the  ground. 
Practice  should  commence  at  200  yards  and  the  dis- 
tance be  increased  up  to  1000  yards,  or  more.  At  the 
first  distance  a  single  section  of  the  target  is  sufficient, 
and  as  the  distance  increases  other  sections  will  be 
added.  Smooth,  level,  and  firm  ground  should  be  se- 
lected for  the  gun  to  st;md  upon.  See  Floating  Target 
and  Tiirr/it. 

ARTILLERY  SCHOOL.— A  special  school  for  in- 
struction and  training  in  artillery.  The  first  school 
for  artillery  instruction  was  estalilished  by  the 
Venetians  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Soon  afterwards  Charles  V.  established  similar 
schools  at  Burgos  and  in  Sicily.  The  French  found- 
ed a  school  of  practical  artillery  in  1675;  and  in  1679 
they  added  to  it  a  theoretical  school  at  Douai.  At 
present  France  has  no  fewer  than  seven  such  estab- 
lishments. Saxony  had  an  artilleiy  school  in  1766; 
but  the  other  German  States  were  more  tardy  in  this 
work.  In  Prussia  the  artillery  and  engineer  schools 
are  combined,  but  in  most  of  the  European  States  a 
separation  between  these  two  arms  of  the  science  is 
made.  In  most  schools  of  artillery  the  ofl[icers' 
studies  comprise  mathematics,  as  much  of  physics 
and  chemistry  as  is  necessary  to  the  duties  of  the 
artillerist,  field  and  permanent  fortification,  garri.son 
warfare,  field-tactics,  military  history  and  topog- 
raphy, military  surveying  aiid  sketching,  drawing 
from"  the  nKxlel,  etc.  The  practical  exercises  inchide 
the  serving  and  firing  of  guns  and  mortars,  the  laying 
out  and  constructing^of  field-batteries,  and  the  opera- 
tions of  the  laboratorj-  and  artillery  workshop. 

The  headquarters  "for  artillery  instruction  in  Eng- 
land are  at  Woolwich.  A  R'n'iil  Military  Academy 
was  established  there  in  1741,  to  impart  professional 
instruction  to  the  Artillerists  and  Engineers  belonguig 
to  the  Roval  Armv.  The  East  India  Company  sent 
their  Arlillerv  Cadets  to  this  academy  from  the  year 
1798  to  1810;"  but  afterwards,  until  1861,  they  main- 
tained a  separate  establishment  at  Addiscombe  (which, 
however,  was  not  wholly  for  artillery).  At  the  pivs- 
ent  day  the  students  in  "the  academy"  are  recruited  by 
fair  open  competition.  Thev  enter"  between  the  ages 
I  of  seventeen  and  twenty;  and  they  remain  two  years. 


AETILLEKY    TKAIN. 


110 


ABT  OF  WAB. 


or  such  longer  time  as  may  fit  them  to  pass  an  ex- 
amination for  the  Hoyal  Artillery  or  Engineers.  The 
sons  of  military  ollicers  are  admitted  on  lower  terms 
than  those  of  other  jiersons.  The  tinaneial  eontrol  is 
under  the  Secretary  of  Slate  for  War;  but  the  Com- 
mander-in-t'hief  regulates  the  discipline  and  internal 
arrangements.  There  are  twenty-two  Professors  and 
Inslnietors  of  various  kinds.  Besides  this  Royal 
Military  Academy,  there  is  at  WiK)lwich  a  Deptiit- 
inent  of  Artillery  Studiin.  for  the  instruction  of  jiniior 
officers  of  artillery,  and  for  facilitating  their  \isits  to 
the  forliticatioas  and  puhlic  works  of  foreign  coun- 
tries. There  is  also  a  S<lict  CumniitUe,  whose  duties 
are  not  so  much  educational  as  e.xiJerimcntal ;  it  is  a 
small  establishment  for  examining  and  reporting  on 
the  numerous  in^•entions  relating  to  artillery  brought 
before  the  War  Office.  The  Schcol  of  Gunnery  at 
Shoeburyness,  suliordinate  to  the  headquarters  of  the 
artillery  at  Woolwich,  is  for  experiments  upon 
ordnance,  gunpowder,  and  projectiles,  and  to  exercise 
young  artillery  officers  in  the  practical  and  mechani- 
cal duties  of  their  profession. 

An  Artillery  School  was  established  in  the  United 
States  in  1823  at  Fortress  Monroe,  but  discontinued 
six  jearS  later.  The  School  was  re-established  in 
1858,  and  was  again  closed  when  the  war  began  in 
1861.  Near  the  close  of  1867  it  was  again  estab- 
lished. It  is  commanded  by  a  Colonel  of  Artillery, 
assLsted  by  a  Lieutenant-Colonel  and  a  Major.  The 
instruction  is  both  theoretical  and  practical;  and  each 
of  the  Artillery  Kegiments  in  the  Regular  Army  has 
one  foot-battery  at  the  School,  the  "officers  of  the 
several  batteries  being  the  Instructors.  The  term  of 
instmction  at  present  is  two  years  for  officers  and 
one  year  for  enlisted  men.  The  course  of  studies  for 
enlisted  men  comprises  mathematics,  geography,  his- 
ton,-,  tactics,  and  penmanship.  The  course  of  prac- 
tical exercises  comprises  as  much  of  that  appointed  for 
the  school  for  officers  as  is  essential  for  enlisted  men. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  Course  of  In- 
struction pursued  at  the  United  States  Artillery 
School: 


ABTILLEBT  TBAIN.— The  guns  which  accom- 
pany an  army  are  assembled  into  an  Artillery  Train, 
containing  i>ieces  of  different  weights  and  calibers,  to 
meet  the  various  requirements  of  a  campaign;  anil  a 
certain  nimilHT  of  men  with  officei's  are  attached  to 
the  train,  some  to  serve  the  guns,  others  to  move  and 
inoinit  llicm  and  effect  repaire. 

ART  OF  WAB.— War,  as  us\ially  defined,  is  a  con- 
test between  Nations,  Stales,  or  parts  of  Slates,  carried 
on  by  force.  Wars,  from  the  causes  for  which  they 
are  waged,  or  which  have  jiroiiuced  them,  are  calletl 
Wars  of  (Jpiuion.Wars  of  Conquest,  Civil  Wars,  Wars 
of  Rebellion  or  Insurrection,  etc.  In  a  military  point 
view  wars  are  usually  classed  as  defensive  or  offen- 
sive wars.  The  Armies  of  a  Nation  entering  the 
domairs  of  another  for  the  puqiose  of  making  war 
upon  il  carry  on  an  offensive  war,  while  for  the  lat- 
ter nation  the  war  is  defensive.  To  the  Science  of 
War  belongs  a  study  of  those  principles  which  govern 
all  the  openilions  of  war,  and  which  are  deduced 
from  a  study  of  the  history  of  wars  conducted  by 
great  Military  Commanders.  The  Art  of  War  is  the 
practical  application  of  these  principles  by  a  General 
in  command  of  an  army.  The  Art  of  War  is  divided 
into  branches,  which  by  most  mililary  authorities  are 
classed  as  follows:  (a)  Statesmanship  in  relation  to 
war;  (A)  Strategy;  (p)  Grand  Tactics;  (<?)  Logistics; 
((■)  Engineering;  ( /)  Minor  Tactics.  The  first  subject 
belongs  purely  to  tlie  political  questions  involved  in 
the  war,  which  clearly  do  not  come  within  the  scope 
of  a  militarj-  work.  There  is  a  subject  which  most 
clearly  is  a  branch  of  the  Art  of  War,  and  which  of 
late  yeare  has  become  of  the  first  importance,  owing 
to  the  short  duration  of  recent  wars,  \iz.,  the  Organi- 
zation of  Annies.  We  have  lately  seen  that  power 
which  has  developed  the  system  of  organization  to 
the  greatest  extent  and  most  highly  perfected  it  con- 
C|uer  in  two  wars  of  gicat  magnitude  in  a  wonder- 
fully short  period.  That  Nation  which  adopts  the 
most  perfect  plan  of  organizing  its  Armies  will  have  a 
great  advantage  in  future  wai-s;  for,  as  time  is  the 
most  important  element  in  militarj-  operations,  the 


Month. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


August. 


Septemljer. 


October. 


November. 


December. 


January. 


February. 


March. 


April. 


First  Year. 


Sttdies. 


Practice. 


Mni/  iOth  to  June  Wth. 
Mathematics:  prelimina- 
ry   instruction    in    Engi- 
neering;   Signaling    and 
Telegraphy. 

June  lOfh  to  July  Ut. 
Preliminary     instruction 
in  Artillery  Science:  Sig- 
naling and' Telegraphy. 


May  iOlh  to  July  ist. 

*  Drill,  viz.:  The  Ser- 
vice and  Mechanical  Ma- 
neuvers o(  the  various 
kinds  of  pieces,  laying 
platforms  for  siege-euns 
and  mortars;  firing-prac- 
tice with  field-  and  siege- 
guns,  howitzers,  and  siege 
and  sea-coast  mortars. 


July  1st  to  Sejiteinber  Isf. 

Artillery  Firing-practice. 

•  Drill. 


Sept.  1st  to  Dec.  2Sd. 

Engineering,— 

including  Examination  in 
same. 


Sept.  1st  to  Dec.  SSd. 

Engineering, — 

including  Examination  in 
same. 

•  Drill. 


Jan.  Clh  to  Sept.  1st, 
ad  year. 

Artillery    Tactics    and 
the  Science  ot  Artillery. 


Jan.  bth  to  Sept  1st, 
2d  year. 

Artillery  Science. 

•  Drill. 


Second  Year. 


Stcdies. 


Practice. 


Artillery  Tactics  and  the 
Science  of  Artillery. 


Artillery  Science. 
•  Drill. 


July  1st  to  September  Ist. 

Artillery  Firing-practice. 

•  Drill. 


Sept.  Ut  to  Jan.  15th. 

Military  History,  Ge- 
ography, Infantr.v  and 
Grand  Tactics.— including 
Examination  in  same. 


Jan.  15th  to  April  15fh. 

Law  and  Military  Ad- 
ministration, —  incfudiug 
Examination  in  same. 


Sept.  lattoJan.  Kth. 

Infantry,  Applied  Tactics. 

•  DrUl. 


Jan.  15th  to  April  15th. 

Military  Administration. 
•Drill. 


April  lith  to  May  l$t  : 


Examination. 


•  This  practice  continues  during  the  term  of  two  years,  daily,  excepting  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  and  such  periods  as 
are  occupied  in  other  practical  exercises.  Infantry -drill,  and  target-practice  with  small  arms,  at  such  times  as  ordered  by 
the  Commandant. 

See  Military  Academy. 


AHX. 


Ill 


ASPHALT. 


country  whicli  first  places  a  superior  number  of  dis- 
ciplined troops  in  the  field  is  enabled  to  assume  the 
ofiensive  at  once,  and  to  advance  against  an  enemy 
unprepared  to  meet  it.  It  is,  therefore,  a  subject 
which  will  in  future  demand  the  first  consifleration 
and  the  most  thorough  study;  for,  onin^  to  the 
facility  with  which  armies  are  now  moved  to  the 
place  of  contest,  that  nation  which  is  more  fully  pre- 
pared has  great  odds  in  its  favor  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war,  and  a  few  decisive  actions  at  this  time  will 
usually  be  favorable  to  it  and  go  far  toward  ending 
the  conflict. 

For  these  rea.sons,  then,  tlie  Art  of  War  should  more 
properly  be  subdivided  into  the  following  branches, 
viz. :  («)  The  Organization  of  Annies;  («)  Logistics; 
(c)  Strategj';  ('/)  Engineering;  (<)  Tactics.  The  Or- 
ganiz!ili()n  of  Armies  is  the  building  up  neces-Siiry  for 
the  application  of  the  principles  of  strategy  to  them. 
Logistics  is  the  art  of  moving  and  supplyuig  armies. 
Strategy  is  the  art  of  directing  annics  upon  the 
theater  of  war.  Engineering  is  the  art  of  disposing 
troops  and  making  anangements  of  obstacles  by 
means  of  which  an  inferior  force  mav  successfully 
resist  the  attacks  of  a  superior  force;  and  also  the  art 
of  overcoming  and  rctnoving  all  obstacles  placed  in 
the  way  by  an  opposing  force.  The  following  are 
the  duties  of  Engineers  of  an  army:  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  field-telegraphs,  the  construction 
of  fortifications,  the  condiict  of  engineering  opera- 
tions at  sieges,  mining,  bridging,  survejing,  recon- 
noitcring,  opening  and  making  roads,  choosing  posi- 
tions, sketching  ground,  etc.  The  details  of  these 
duties  will  be  found  in  the  different  ilanuals  and 
Te.xt-books  of  Engineering.  Tactics  is  the  art  of  put- 
ting into  execution  the  projects  of  Strateg)'.  An  in- 
timate knowledge  of  all  thc.-c  branches  is  absolutely 
neces,san,-  in  order  to  be  a  great  and  successful  Gen- 
eral. The  formation  of  a  plan,  that  is,  deciding  the 
nature  of  the  war  that  will  be  v.aged;  determining 
the  objects  to  be  attained,  and  the  best  m.anner  and 
means  of  attaining  them;  or,  in  other  'vords,  outlin- 
ing the  general  features  of  a  campaign,  belong  to 
Strategy.  The  execution  of  the  plan  decided  upon 
belongs  to  Tactics.  The  country  in  which  the  op- 
posing annics  can  come  into  collision  is  the  province 
of  Strategy.  The  province  of  Tactics  is  the  field  of 
battle.  The  principles  of  war  cannot  be  violated  with 
impunity.  These  principles  are  fixed  and  are  de- 
termined from  the  narrative  of  operations  conducted 
by  successful  Generals.  A  study  of  military  histor,- 
is  then  necessary  for  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
principles  of  war;  and  as  in  all  other  professions,  so 
in  war,  he  who  is  most  proficient  in  the  les-sons  as 
taught  by  the  masters  of  the  >rt  will  be  most  succe.s.sful. 

The  duties  of  each  arm  of  the  service  overlap  and 
blend  into  one  another,  and  the  higher  the  grade  an 
officer  attains,  the  more  requisite  it  is  that  he  should 
be  acquainted  generall}'  with  the  duties  of  those  anns 
of  the  service  to  which  he  him.self  does  not  belong. 
By  this  means  alone  can  we  hope  to  obtain  that  in- 
telligent co-operation,  that  harmonious  working  of 
nil  branches  of  the  service  together,  which  makes  a 
perfect  machine  out  of  the  various  elements  compris- 
ing an  army,  and  at  the  s;ime  time  gives  the  surest 
guarantee  of  success.  In  armies,  as  elsewhere,  there 
is  a  tendency  for  every  one  to  tliink  his  own  branch, 
that  which  he  has  sttidietl  most  and  knows  best,  the 
most  important.  Such  feelings  are  veiT  natural,  and 
in  the  lower  grades  often  do  much  good;  but  as  men 
rise  in  the  service  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  know 
.something  of  the  duties  of  other  branches,  and  the 
difficulties  others  have  to  contend  vvilh.  Such 
knowledge  tends  to  jiroduee  cordiality  and  forbear- 
ance. Cavalry  officers  falling  into  command  of 
mixed  forces  will  not  then  expect  their  infautrj-  to 
pdlop,  infantiT  officers  will  not  -seek  to  bind  the 
cavalry  to  the  pace  of  their  infantry.  A  knowledge 
of  the  capabilities  of  other  arms  will  enable  officers  to 
use  those  arms  to  the  best  advantage  as  occasion 
offers.    It  shotild,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  it 


is  impossible  to  lay  down  fixed  rules  of  action. 
Nearly  even'  militari'  regulation  should  be  followed 
by  the  words  "according  to  the  ground  and  accord- 
ing to  circumstances."  Rides  are  but  guides,  which 
must  be  intelligently,  not  blindly,  followed.  Practice 
and  experience  alone  can  decide  many  points;  prac- 
tice and  experience  alone  can  give  the  power  of  ap- 
plying rules;  but  theory,  by  which  is  really  meant  the 
experience  obtahied  by  others,  Ls  not  the  less  impor- 
tant and  valuable.  Principles  are  but  guides,  which 
must  be  revised,  examined,  and  verified  after  each 
war,  after  each  discovery  that  may  be  brought  to  bear 
on  the  military  art.  The  great  success  of  Gustavns 
Adolphus,  Frederick,  Marlborough,  Napoleon,  Wel- 
lington, Von  Moltke,  are  but  due  to  careful  consider- 
ation and  appreciation  of  the  effects  of  various  dis- 
coveries on  the  Art  of  War.  There  is  no  fin.iUtv  in 
the  Art  of  War. 

ARX. — In  the  ancient  military  art,  a  fort,  castle, 
etc.,  for  the  defense  of  a  place. 

ARZEGAGE8.— Batons  or  canes  with  iron  at  both 
ends.  They  were  carried  by  the  Estradiots,  or  Alba- 
nian cavaliers,  who  served  in  France  under  Charles 
VIII.  and  Louis  XII. 

ASAFES. — An  inferior  class  of  Turkish  soldiers 
employed  in  sieges  to  work  in  intrenchments  and  per- 
form other  pioneer  dutv. 

ASHLAE— ASHLER.— Building-stone  squared  and 
hewn,  as  distiuguishetl  from  rubble,  or  rough  stones 
which  are  used  as  they  come  from  the  quarry  without 
being  dressed.  Ashlar  is  laid  in  regular  courses  in 
fortification,  and  is  of  various  kinds,  according  to 
the  stjie  of  working  that  side  of  the  stone  which  is  to 
form  the  facing  of  the  wall.  Thus  there  are  tookd 
ashlar — the  marks  of  the  tooling  being  either 
random  or  in  grooves ;  pAished  ashlar,  in  which  the 
face  of  the  stone  is  rubbed  smooth;  and  rustic  ash- 
lar,  in  which  onlv'  the  joints  are  accurately  hewn,  the 
face  of  the  stone  being  left  projecting  irregularly. 
Quarriers  applj'  the  term  ashhtf  to  squared  stones 
before  being  hewn.  In  old  doctmients  the  term  ai> 
pears  under  a  variety  of  forms,  such  as  achlere,  ashe- 
lar,  aslure.  and  txthir. 

ASKERI  MOHAMMEDIZE.— A  name  given  to  the 
Turkish  regular  troops  organized  according  lo  mod- 
ern tactics. 

ASPECT. — An  army  is  said  to  hold  a  menacing  as- 
pect when  by  advanced  movements  or  positions  it 
gives  the  opposing  enemy  cause  to  apprehend  an  at- 
tack. A  country  is  saitl  to  have  a  military  aspect 
when  its  generalsituation  presents  appropriate  obsta- 
cles or  facilities  for  an  army  acting  on  the  offensive  or 
defensive.  An  army  is  said  to  have  an  imposing^  as- 
pect when  it  appears  stronger  than  it  really  is.  This 
appearance  is  often  a.ssumed  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
ceinngan  enemy,  and  maj-  not  improperly  be  consid- 
ered as  a  principal  ruse  de  rpierre. 

ASPHALT— ASPHALTUM.— The  name  given  to  a 
bituminous  substance  of  a  solid  consistence.  It  prob- 
ably owes  its  origin  to  vegetable  matter  which  has 
been  subjected  to  a  slow  process  of  decomposition  or 
decay,  resulting  in  the  production  of  a  bituminous 
coal,  from  which,  bv  volciuiic  agency,  the  asphalt  has 
been  distilled  and  diffused  over  the  neighboring  dis- 
trict. The  largest  natural  deposit  of  asphalt  is  mthe 
Island  of  Trinidad,  where  the  plain  known  as  the 
Pitch  Lake  is  found.  The  asphalt  from  Trinidad  is 
largeh'  used  for  ships'  bottoms,  and  is  reputed  to  kill 
the  teredo  or  borer,  which  proves  itself  so  very  ile- 
structive  to  the  wood  of  ships  in  tropical  regions. 
Asphalt  is  also  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  in 
large  quantity,  and  is  known  to  the  Arabs  by  the 
nanie  or  Ilajar  Mo'isa,  or  Moses'  Stmie.  It  likewise 
occurs  in  South  America  at  Coxitambo  near  Cuenca, 
in  Alsace  and  other  parts  of  the  European  Continent, 
in  East  Lothian  and  Fife.shire  (Scotland),  in  Shrop- 
shire, etc.  During  the  manufactine  of  coal-gas  nuich 
tarry  matter  is  evolved  from  the  retort,  and  is  re- 
ceived in  the  coolers  or  condensers.  If  this  tar  be 
subjected  to  partial  distillation,  naphtha  and  other 


ASPIC. 


112 


ASSASSINS. 


volatilf  iiialtt'i>  escaix',  and  an  aiiiticinl  asphalt  is  k'ft 
bthiuil,  wliich  possesses  the  priiieipal  properties  ami 
can  l)e  emi)loyeil  for  the  iiuiiority  of  purjioses  to 
wliieh  native  asphalt  is  applied.  The  various  kinds 
of  asphalt  have  a  pitchy  odor,  are  of  a  black  or  dark- 
brown  color,  but  do  not  soil  the  linsrers;  are  insoluble 
in  water,  sparinirly  soluble  in  alcohol;  but  are  in 
trreat  part  dissolved  by  ether,  oil  of  turpentine,  and 
uaphth:i.  Ftiriih'iiin,  or  rock-oil,  is  a  native  liquid  bi- 
tumen, which  larirely  exudes  from  crevices  in  rocks 
in  many  districts,  aiid  is  essentially  asphalt  dissolved 
iu  uaplilha.  The  specltic  jrravity  of  asphalt  is  very 
near  that  of  water,  raniring  from  1000  to  1100.  AVhen 
set  fire  to,  it  burns  readily  with  a  smoky  fiamo,  and 
is  often  used  in  the  smaller  jras-works  as  fuel,  by 
being  allowed  to  run  very  slowly  into  the  furnace- 
lircsr  Asphalt,  besides  being  employed  for  coating 
the  exterior  of  ships'  liottoms.  is  also  used,  in  a  heated 
condition,  for  saturating  timber  which  is  intended  for 
piles  in  the  construction  of  breakwaters,  river-lnidges, 
and  other  situations  where  the  combined  action  of  the 
air,  water,  and  minute  animals  would  soon  render  or- 
dinary wood  rotten  and  useless.  Wooden  houses  may 
be  preservetl  in  the  same  manner  by  a  coaling  of  as- 
phalt applied  externally;  and  grouiiJ-flooring  placed 
in  damp  situations  is  much  tlie  better  for  the  spaces 
between  the  planks  being  filled  up  with  asphalt. 
About  1840  iusphalt  began  to  be  generally  used  for 
fcot-pavements,  and  also  for  floors  of  cellars  and  out- 
houses. For  purposes  of  this  nature  it  is  heated  in 
portalile  boilers,  into  which,  at  a  certain  stage  of  the 
preparation,  there  is  poured  a  quantity  of  thoroughly 
dried  .sjiud,  gravel,  or  powdered  limestone,  which  is 
well  mixed  with  the  liquid  asphalt.  The  mixture  is 
then  spread  on  the  spot  prepared  for  it,  and  when 
cool  forms  a  hard  kind  of  pavement.  Of  this  method 
of  forming  footways  high  expectations  were  at  first 
formed;  but  latterly  tlie  process  of  asphalting  has 
gone  out  of  use  in  England,  as  it  is  foiuid  not  to  Ije 
so  durable  as  stone,  and  therefore,  in  ordinar\-  cir- 
cumslaiice.>,  more  costly.  In  Paris,  however,  asphalt- 
ing is  still  extensively  practiced  iu  the  more  spacious 
thoroughfares.  The  better  kinds  of  asphalt  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  black  varnish  which  is  em- 
ployeil  iu  foruung  the  enamel  which  coats  the  variety 
of  leather  known  as  patent  leather. 

ASPIC. — An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance  which  car- 
ried a  l'J-i)ouud  shot;  the  piece  itself  was  11  feet  long, 
and  weighe<l  -lO.IO  pounds. 

ASPIS. — A  large  round  or  oblong  shield  which 
was  used  by  the  heavj'  infantry  of  the  ancient  Gre- 
cians. 

ASSAS-BACHI. — A  superior  officer  of  Janissaries, 
who  was  also  Administrator  of  the  Police  Depart- 
ment in  (Joustantlnople,  and  presided  over  public  exe- 
cutions. 

ASSASSINATION.— The  law  of  war  does  not  allow 
proclaiming  either  an  individual  belonging  to  the 
hostile  army,  or  a  citizen,  or  a  subject  of  the  hostile 
government,  an  outlaw,  who  may  be  slain  without 
trial  by  any  captor,  any  more  than  the  modern  law 
of  peace  allows  such  international  outlawry;  on  the 
contrary,  it  abhors  such  outrage.  The  sternest  re- 
taliation should  follow  the  murder  convmitted  in  con- 
sequence of  such  proclamation,  made  by  whatever 
authority.  Civilized  nations  look  with  horror  upon 
offers  of  rewards  for  the  assassination  of  enemies  as 
relai>ses  into  barliarisin. 

ASSASSINS.— A  military  order,  a  branch  of  the  so- 
cret  sect  of  the  Ismaelites.  The  secret  doctrines  of 
these  Ismaelites,  who  had  their  headquarters  in  Cairo, 
declared  the  descendants  of  Isimul,  the  last  of  the 
seven  so-called  Imaums,  to  be  alone  entitled  to  the 
califate;  and  gave  an  allegoricjil  interpretation  to  the 
precepts  of  Islam,  which  led,  as  their  adversaries  as- 
serted, to  considering  all  positive  religions  equally 
right,  and  all  actions  morally  indifferent.  The  atro- 
cious career  of  the  As.sassins  was  but  a  natund  .se- 
quence of  such  tcachin;:.  The  founder  of  these  last, 
Hassan-beu-Sabbah-el-llomairi,   of    Persian   descent, 


and  imbued  with  the  free-thinking  tendencies  of  his 
country,  hail,  about  tl."  middle  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tiuy.  studied  at  .Vislipur,  under  the  celebrated  Mo- 
wasek,  and  had  subsequently  obtained  from  Isniaelite 
DaiK,  or  religious  leaders,  a  partial  insight  into  their 
secret  doctrines,  and  a  partial  consecration  to  the  rank 
of  Dai.  But  on  betaking  himself  to  the  centnd  lodge 
at  Cairo,  he  quarreled  with  tlie  heads  of  the  sect,  and 
was  doomed  to  banisiiment.  He  suceeede<l,  however, 
in  making  his  cscaiie  from  the  ship,  and  reaching  the 
Syrian  coast,  after  which  he  returned  to  Persia,  every- 
wiiere  collecting  adherents,  with  the  \iew  of  foimd- 
ing,  ujion  the  Isniaelite  nu)del,  a  secret  order  of  his 
own,  a  species  of  organized  society  which  .should  be  a 
terror  to  his  most  powerful  neighlwirs.  In  lilDO  Ilas- 
.s;ui  conquered  the  Fortress  of  Alanuit,  in  the  Per- 
sian district  of  Hudbar;  and  continued  to  increa.sc  in 
stren.glh,  intimidating  Princes  and  Governors  by  a  se- 
ries of  secret  murders,  and  gaining  pos-ession  of  sev- 
eral fortitied  Castles,  with  their  surrounding  territories, 
both  in  the  mountain-range  south  of  the  Ca.spian,  in 
Kuhistan,  anil  iu  the  mountains  of  Syria  (.Massiat). 
The  internal  coustitulion  of  the  order,  wliich  had 
some  resemblance  to  the  orders  of  CInisiian  Knight- 
hood, was  as  follows:  First,  as  supreme  and  absolute 
ruler,  came  the  Sheikh-al-jebai,  the  Prince  or  Old  Man 
of  the  Mountain.  Ilis  vicegerents  in  Jebal,  Kuhistan, 
and  Syria  were  the  lh:xv  Dui-<(l-ke'>/r,  or  Grand-Priors 
of  the" order.  Next  came  the  Dais  and  Ketiks,  which 
last  were  not,  however,  initiated,  like  the  former,  into 
every  stage  of  the  secret  doct.-ines,  and  had  no  autliority 
as  teachers.  To  the  uninitiated  belonged  tiivt  of  all 
the  Fedavies  or  Fedais,  i.e.,  the  devoted:  a  band  of 
resolute  youths,  the  ever-ready  and  blindly  obedient 
executioners  of  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain.  Before 
he  assigned  to  them  their  bloody  tasks  he  used  to 
have  them  thrown  into  a  st.ite  of  ecstasy  by  the  iiuoxi- 
cating  influence  of  the  hmlii.-h  (the  hemp-plant),  which 
circmnstance  led  to  the  order  being  called  llashisliim, 
or  hemp-eaters.  The  word  was  changed  by  Euro- 
peans into  Assiissins,  and  transplanted  into  the  lan- 
guages of  the  West  w^ith  the  signilieation  of  nuuder- 
ers.  The  Lasilis,  or  novices,  formed  the  sixth  divi- 
sion of  the  order,  and  the  laborers  and  mechanics  the 
seventh.  Upon  these  the  most  rigid  observance  of 
the  Koran  was  enjoined;  while  the  initiated,  on  the 
contrary,  looked  upon  all  i>osiiive  religion  as  null. 
The  catechism  of  the  order,  placi-d  by  Has-sin  in  the 
hands  of  his  Dais,  consisted  of  seven  parts,  of  which 
the  seco:id  treated,  among  o;her  things,  of  the  art  of 
worming  themselves  into  the  confidence  of  men.  Jt 
is  easy  to  conceive  the  terror  v.hich  so  unscrupulous 
a  .sect"  must  have  inspired.  Several  Princ-cs  secretly 
paid  tribute  to  the  Old  Man  of  the  Moimtain.  Ha.s- 
san,  -nho  died  at  the  age  of  70  (1124  .\.D.),  ;ippointed 
as  his  successor,  Kia-Busurg-Omid,  one  of  his  Grand- 
Priors.  Kia-Busurg-Omid  was  succeided  in  1138  by 
his  son  Jlohammcd,  who  knew  how  to  inainl:iin  his 
power  against  Nureddin  and  Jussuf-Salaheddiii.  In 
1163,  Hassiui  II.  was  rash  enough  to  extend  the  secret 
privilege  of  the  initiated — exemption,  namely,  from 
the  positive  preie])ts  of  religion — to  the  people  .nener- 
ally,  ;ind  to  ;ibolish  Islam  iii"  the  Assassin  State,  which 
led  to  his  falling  a  victim  to  his  brother-in-law's  dag- 
ger. Under  the  rule  of  his  son,  :Mohammed  II.,  who 
acted  in  his  father's  spirit,  the  Syrian  Dai-al-kebir, 
Sinan,  became  independent  and  entered  into  negotia- 
tions with  the  Clirisiian  King  of  Jerusalem  for  com- 
ing over,  on  certain  cmulilions,  to  the  Christian  faith; 
but  the  Templars  killed  his  envoys,  and  rejected  his 
overtures,  that  tlie.s-  might  not  lo.se  the  yearly  tribute 
which  they  drew  frcan  him.  Mohammed  was  poi- 
soned bv  ilis  son  Hassan  III.,  who  reinstated  Islam- 
ism,  and  thence  obtained  the  surname  of  the  Xew 
Moslem.  Ha.s.«im  was  succeeded  by  Mohammed  III., 
a  l>oy  of  nine  years  old.  who,  by  his  elTetninate  rule, 
led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  order,  and  was  eventually 
murdered  bv  the  command  of  his  son,  Rokn-edilin, 
the  seventh  and  last  Old  Man  of  the  .Mountain.  In 
1  1250  the  Mongolian   Prince  Uulagu  burst  with   his 


ASSAULT. 


113 


ASSAY  FUENACE. 


hordes  upon  the  hillforts  of  Persia  held  by  the  As- 
sassins, which  amounted  to  about  a  hundred,  captur- 
ing and  destroying  tbcin.-  The  Syrian  branch  was 
also  put  down  about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
turj-,  but  remnants  of  the  sect  still  lingered  for  some 
time  longer  in  Kuhistaii.  In  13.52  the  Assa-ssins  re- 
appeared in  SjTia,  and  indeed  they  are  still  reported 
to  e.xist  iis  a  heretical  sect  both  there  and  in  Persia. 
The  Persian  Ismaelitcs  have  an  Imaum,  or  Superin- 
tendent, in  the  district  of  Kum,  and  still  inhabit  the 
neighborhood  of  Alamoot  under  the  name  of  Hos.se- 
inis.  The  Syrian  Ismaelitcs  live  in  the  distinct  of 
JIassiat  or  Ma.ssvad.  Their  Castle  was  taken  from 
them  in  1809  by  the  Nossaries,  but  afterwards  re- 
stored. 

ASSAULT. — Assaults  arc  of  two  kinds;  open  as- 
Sitults  antl  those  made  with  great  secrecy.  Whatever 
be  the  kind  of  !i-s.satilt,  it  should  be  preceded  by  recon- 
noiss;mces,  made  as  full  as  possible,  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the  best  and  cisiest  approaches  to  the 
work,  the  nature  and  position  of  the  obstacles,  the 
nimibers  and  kinds  of  troops  composing  the  garrison, 
and  the  strength  and  positions  of  the  reserves  exte- 
rior to  the  work,  but  near  enough  to  take  part  in  its 
defen.se.  Particular  attention  should  also  be  paid  to 
the  positions  for  the  artillery  of  the  attack.  These 
positions  should  be  such  that  the  guns  Ciin  bring  en- 
filading tires  on  the  principal  faces  of  the  work, 
strong  cross  fires  upou  the  ix)int  of  attack,  and  if 
possible  a  sweeping  fire  on  the  approaches  to  the 
work  in  rear.  An  important  point  to  be  observed  in 
this  matter  is  to  select,  if  possible,  positions  from  I 
which  the  guns  will  not  have  to  be  removed  during  ' 
the  attack. 

In  any  a.s.sault,  it  is  necessary  that  the  Officer  Com- 
manding and  responsible  for  the  whole  operation 
should  be  in  immediate  comnumication  with  the 
troops  during  the  assjiult,  and  lie  present  with  the 
reserve  or  supporting  party.  The  troops  destined  } 
for  this  duty  should  be  di\ided  into  two  portions, 
each  equal  in  strength  to  three  fourths  of  the  garrisoa  I 
attacked:  one  jxjrtion  being  the  attacking  partj',  and 
the  osher  half  the  reserve  or  supporting  party. 
Each  column  of  the  attacking  party  will  also  be  sub- 
divided into  advance,  main  body,  and  supiwrt,  what- 
ever may  be  the  number  of  these  columns.  The 
disposition  of  the  attacking  party,  as  it  reaches  the 
point  of  attack,  will  be  regulated  by  the  Engineer  ' 
Officer,  under  the  orders  of  the  Officer  Commanding — 
they  having  made  the  necessiirj-  recounoissjiiices;  the  i 
party  must  Ije  furnished  with  tools,  ladders,  and 
proper  implements,  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  moment,  and  accompanied  by  a  detachment  of 
sappers.  The  disposition  of  the  reserve,  equal,  as 
before  observed,  to  the  whole  attacking  force,  should 
be  regulated  by  the  officer  intrusted  with  the  execu- 
tion of  the  as.silult;  and  this  reserve  should  be  accom- 
panied or  not,  according  to  circumstances,  by  atvalry 
and  field-artillery.  When  these  descriptions  of  force 
are  present,  the  former  shoidd  be  placed  under  cover 
or  out  of  gun-shot,  about  1.500  yards  distant:  the  ar- 
tillery should  be  kept  in  hand  until  the  attacking 
party  is  engaged,  when  the  guns  should  be  spread 
out  on  the  tlanks  and  open  a  vigorous  fire  upon  the 
works;  the  infantry,  brought  immediately  in  rear  of 
the  leading  attack,  should  he  placed  under  cover,  if 
l)0.ssil)le,  from  fire  of  grape  and  musketry,  and  halted 
imtil  the  issue  of  the  first  a.s.siiult  is  seeii.  It  is  im- 
possible to  regulate  an  assault  by  any  minute  sugges- 
tions for  the  advance,  except  to  observe  that  it  is  usual 
for  each  column  to  attack  the  salient  points  of  the 
works  and  lejist  defended  portions;  to  throw  out 
skirmishers  and  firing-parties  under  anj-  cover  availa- 
ble, and  keep  up  a  rapid  and  compact  fire  upon  the 
defenders;  to  follow  with  the  Siippers  and  grenadiers 
to  force  all  obstructions;  and  then  to  advance  the  main 
Ixxiy,  the  supports  of  each  column  being  judiciously 
planted  in  the  rear.  Eventually,  as  success  occurs 
and  the  whole  move  on,  points  of  security  should  be 
taken  up,  such  as  the  reverse,  or  the  exterior  slope  of  i 


the  works;  buildings,  walls,  as  well  as  gorges  and 
flanks,  which  frequently  give  cover.  Men  should  be 
planteil  under  an  officer,  with  instructions  to  take  no 
notice  of  the  pell-mell,  but  to  keep  tip  a  heavj-  firing 
in  front;  employing  the  sappers  in  intrenching  the 
position  taken  up  by  the  supporting  party,  or  in  col- 
lecting wagons,  carts,  caniages,  etc.,  capable  of  being 
made  into  a  barricade.  Either  on  the  supix)silion 
that  the  success  of  the  a-ssimlt  is  doubtful,  or  that 
there  is  a  check  or  repulse,  the  reserve,  in  ca.se  of 
doul)tful  success,  to  render  the  attack  doubly  sure, 
shoidd  move  forward  imder  the  Officer  Commanding 
the  whole  a.ssiiulting  force,  and  relieve  the  a.s,s;iilanls, 
who  take  their  places  as  the  reserve  as  soon  as  order 
can  be  restored;  the  artillery  brought  into  position  in 
the  openings,  between  the  advancing  columns,  would 
be  directed  upon  the  retreating  or  resisting  forces;  and 
if  success  is  finally  complete,  the  cavalry,  iu  the  event 
of  their  lieing  employed,  will  move  forward,  either 
through  the  openings  cleared,  or  by  a  detour,  if  a  for- 
tified town,  in  piu^iiit. 

In  the  second  case — that  of  a  check — the  reserve,  on 
the  reconnoissance  of  the  Officer  Commanding,  will 
either  march  forward  in  support  of  the  attack,  or  to 
cover  the  retreat,  if  further  perseverance  in  the  as- 
s;iult  is  deemed  impracticable — the  artillery  and  cav- 
alry being  warned  .as  to  the  intention.  In  the  event 
of  the  ;»ssault  being  repulsed,  the  reserve,  which 
.should  be  in  echelon,  having  advanced-guards  in 
front,  will  allow  the  retreating  paity  to  move 
through  the  intervals,  and  the  advanced-guard  will 
endeavor  to  check  the  pursuit;  if  overpowered,  they 
will  fall  back  on  the  reserve,  and  the  whole  may  in 
that  manner  retreat  until  beyond  gun-shot,  endeavor- 
ing to  make  a  stand,  rejiulse  the  garri.son,  and  if  ]ios- 
sible  convert  failure  into  success,  if  the  pursuit  has 
been  badly  conducted  and  without  due  caution.  As 
an  important  rule  in  all  assaults,  except  in  partial  at- 
tacks, as  an  outwork,  or  any  particular  work  in 
which  a  lodgment  is  to  be  inade,  the  composition 
of  the  forces  should  be  by  regiments  and  corps,  and 
not  by  detachments;  and  each  non-commissioned  of- 
ficer should  be  pro\ided  with  the  means  of  spiking 
a  gun,  for  which  purpose  even  an  old  nail  is  sulli- 
cient.  Aiisn  lilts,  ii  fciisibl<;  would  seldom  fail  with 
these  precautions,  and  there  are  few  posts  not  open 
toassjiult,  by  taking  the  proper  opportunity .  An  officer 
intrusted  with  the  defense  of  a  place  should  there- 
fore exercise  the  most  unremitting  %igilance.      See 

Afl.irk. 

ASSAY  FURNACE.— A  furnace  with  a  chamber  or 
miirtle  in  which  the  metallic  ore  or  alloy  to  be  tested 
is  expo.scd  to  heat.  Assaying  is  more  generally  fol- 
lowed in  the  examination  of  compounds  of  silver  and 
goUI,  but  is  likewise  resorted  to  in  the  investigation 
of  ores  of  iron,  copper,  tin,  zinc,  bismuth,  antimony, 
mercury,  and  lead.  In  manufactured  articles,  also, 
some  foreign  metal  (generally  copper)  is  (iresent,  to 
impart  hardness  to  the  metal:  ami  in  Great  Britain 
caeli  article  is  assayed  at  the  fjoldsniitlis'  Hall,  previ- 
ously to  Ixing  sold,  so  as  to  determine  tlie  exact  rich- 
ness of  the  metal  whereof  it  is  made.  In  the  a.ssjiy  of 
compounds  containing  sUver,  the  apparatus  employed 
is  a  cupel,  a  small  basin-shaped  vessel  made  of  bone- 
a.sh;  and  a  miijne,  composed  of  fire-clay,  about  eight 
inches  in  length  and  three  to  four  inches  in  diameter, 
shaped  like  a  miniature  railway-tunnel,  open  at  one 
enil,  closed  at  the  other  end,  and  having  mnnerous 
.slits  or  air-holes  along  the  side.  The  drawing  shows 
the  Judson  Assjiy  Furnace,  much  ased  in  Ordnance 
Lalwratories.  It  is  constructed  in  three  sections, 
wiiercby  the  following  advantages  are  secured:  the 
risk  of  cracking,  by  luicqual  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion, is  much  diminished:  without  siicrificing  any- 
thing in  strength,  the  gross  weight  is  considerably  re- 
duced: and  the  furnace  is  rendered  very  portable. 
The  grate  is  a  revolving  one.  The  convenience  of 
this  in  remo\ing  ashes  and  clinkers  is  too  e\ident  to 
need  comment."  The  muffle-doors  and  the  door  for 
feeding  and  crucible  operations  are  large.    There  is 


ASSEGAI. 


114 


A88I8TAKT  BUBOEOHS. 


a  niiiffle-(l(x>r  in  both  front  and  back  in  onli-r  to  use  a 
niuttle  oiHii  at  IhhIi  entls.  The  advantagi's  of  this 
Btylc  of  muffle  are  the  <;reater  eonvcnieuee  in  work- 
ing the  charge,  the  diniinishiti  risk  of  cracking  by 
unequal  expansion  and   contraction,  and  the  better 


circulation  of  air  over  the  contents.  The  ordinary 
muffle,  closed  at  the  back,  can  also  be  used  as  with 
anj-  other  furnace.  The  doors  have  small  holes  in 
them  through  which  the  reactions  going  on  within 
the  m\iffle  may  l)e  watched  without  injury  either  to 
the  operation  or  the  operator. 

ASSEGAI. — A  light  projectile  spear  employed  by 
the  K;iltirs.     Also  written  Aumgai. 

ASSEGUAY. — A  kind  of  knife-dagger,  used  very 
Commonlv  in  the  Levant. 

ASSEMBLING.— The  act  of  putting  in  their  re- 
spective places  and  fastening  together  the  component 
parts  of  an  article  composed  of  a  number  of  (listinct 
pieces,  so  as  to  form  a  complete  and  perfect  whole; 
as  the  cheeks  and  stock  of  a  gun-carriage,  with  their 
connected  parts;  the  lock,  stock,  and  barrel  of  a  mus- 
ket, etc.  The  term  is  more  peculiarly  aiiiilicable  to 
the  fitting  together  of  jiarts  which  are  liiadc  strictly  to 
fixed  shapes  and  dimensions  so  as  to  be  promiscuously 
interchangeable.  The  system  of  intcrchangeability 
of  parts  was  first  introduced  into  the  French  Artillery 
8er\nce  by  General  Gribeauval,  about  the  year  1705. 
This  system  was  further  simplitied  and  extended,  and 
was  finally  applied  in  the  United  States  Arsenals  and 
Armories  to  all  articles  made  up  of  pieces,  the  im- 
provements in  machinery  enabling  most  articles  to  be 
made  accurately  to  pattern  without  depending  on  the 
eve  and  hand  <if  the  workman.  This  lias  been  ear- 
ned to  a  ven,'  high  pitch  of  improvement  by  means 
of  the  machinery  at  the  Springfield  Armory  and 
other  manufactories  of  sniiiU-anns  in  this  country; 
and  the  beauty  and  utility  of  the  system,  by  which 
exact  equality  of  dimensions  is  insured  in  every  one 
among  thousiuids  of  almost  microscopic  screws  and 
other  .small  parts,  are  particularly  exeinitlitied  in  the 
■work  of  the  American  walcli  and  .sewing-niachiiie 
companies.  This  system  of  intcrchangeability  and 
assemblage,  which  by  enabling  a  large  proportion  of 
perfect  and  scrviccjible  articles  to  lie  made  up  from 
the  part.s  of  similar  articles  which  have  been  broken 
or  injured  in  tisj',  instead  of  permitting  them  to  be 
cast  into  the  scriip-heap,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
triumphs  of  mo<lern  mechanism.  It  has  proved  it- 
self capable  of  adaptation  to  large  a.s  well  as  .small 
machinery,  and  is  now  applied  to  the  locomotives  of 
the  I'ciiM^vlv.iniii  K-illroad. 

ASSEMBLING  BOLT.— A  holt  used  for  holding  to- 


gether two  or  more  removable  pieces,  as  the  cheeks 

and  slock  of  a  field  gun-carriage. 

ASSEMBLY. — In  the  conduct  of  an  army,  the 
second  beating  of  the  drum  or  sounding  of  the  bugle 
before  a  march,  at  which  the  soldiers  strike  their 
tents  if  eneain)ied,  roll  tliem  up,  ami  stand  to  arms. 

ASSEB. — An  instrument  of  warfare  used  by  the 
Romans  on  their  warships;  it  consisted  of  a  hea\'y 
pole  with  an  iron  head,  aiul  was  used  as  a  battering- 
ram  against  hostile  ships.  Other  authorities  assert 
that  it  was  used  to  destrov  the  ricrtrins  only. 

ASSESSMENT  OF  DAMAGES.— In  the  English 
army,  the  deteniiinatidn  by  a  Committee  of  Omeers 
of  the  value  of  the  injury  done  to  the  barracks  each 
month,  in  order  that  stoppages  in  liipiidation  may  be 
made  from  men  who  have  committed  the  damage. 

ASSIDUI  MILITES.— Roman  soldiers  who,  for  the 
love  of  arms,  sirveii  in  the  army  without  receiving 
pav  or  cmiilumeuts. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  PAY.— The  assignment  of  pay 
by  a  non-commis-sioned  officer  or  private  pre\'ious  to 
discharge  is  invalid.  A  transfer  subsequent  to  dis- 
charire  is  valid. 

ASSINAIKES  —  ASSINARIES.  —  Festivals  which 
were  instituted  at  Syracuse  in  commemoration  of 
the  destniction  of  the  Athenian  fleet  commanded  by 
Kicias  and  Demosthenes. 

ASSISTANT.  —  In  the  English  army,  the  third 
grade  in  any  particular  branch  of  the  Staff,  such  as 
the  Qtiartennaster-General's  or  Adjutant-General's. 
After  the  Principal  comes  the  Deputy  and  then  the 
Assistant.  In  the  United  States  it  is  the  second 
grade  in  the  Slatf  of  the  Anny. 

ASSISTANT  ADJUTANT-GENERAL.- In  the  Eng- 
lish anny,  a  Field-Otlieer  and  a  subordinate  member 
of  the  xViljutant-General's  Department.  An  officer  of 
this  rank  is  attached  to  each  division  of  the  army.  His 
duties  include  the  submission  of  reports  on  discipline, 
military  duties,  training,  and  efficiency,  to  the  Gen- 
eral Officer  C'onmianding  the  Division.  Through  his 
Department  the  bulk  of  the  correspondence  on  arms, 
accoutemients,  ammunition,  etc.,  passes  before  being 
sent  on  to  the  Control  Department.  The  Adjutant- 
General  of  the  United  States  army  has  similar  Assist- 
ants. 

ASSISTANT  SURGEONS.— All  candidates  for  ap- 
pointment as  As,sistant  Surgeons  must  apply  to  the 
Hon.  Secretarv  of  War  for  an  invitation  to  appear 
before  the  Medical  Examining  Board.  The  applica- 
tion must  be  in  the  handwriting  of  the  Candidate, 
stating  age  and  birthplace,  and  be  accompanied  by 
testimonials  from  Professors  of  the  College  in  which 
he  graduated,  or  from  other  Physicians  in  good  re- 
I)Ute.  Candidates  must  be  between  twenty-one  and 
twenty<Mght  jears  of  age  (without  any  exceptions), 
and  graduates  of  a  regidar  Medical  College,  e\idence 
of  which  must  be  submitted  to  the  Board  before  ex- 
amination. The  morals,  habits,  jihysical  and  mental 
qualifications,  and  general  aptitude  for  the  service  of 
each  Candidate  are  subjects  for  carefid  examination 
by  the  Board,  and  a  favoial)le  rejiort  is  not  made  in 
any  case  in  wliich  there  is  a  reasonable  dotilit. 

The  following  is  the  general  plan  of  the  examina- 
tion: 1.  A  short  es.say.  either  autobiograjihical  or 
upon  some  professional  sidiject — to  be  indicated  by 
the  Board.  2.  Physical  examination.  This  will  be 
rigid,  and  each  Candidate  will,  in  addition,  be  re- 
quired to  certify  "that  he  labors  lUKhr  no  mental  or 
phi/sical  infirniity,  nor  dinability  of  an;/  hind,  rrhich 
i  can  in  any  jm.c/  interfere  with  the  most  cffieienl  dis- 
I  c/iaryeqf  his  duties  in  any  climate."  y.  Oral  examina- 
tions on  subjects  of  preliminary  education,  general 
I  literature,  and  general  .science.  The  Candidate  must 
satisfy  the  Board  in  this  examination  that  he  possesses 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  branches  taught  in  the 
Primary  Schools,  and  a  failure  to  show  this  will  end 
his  examination.  Oral  examination  on  scientific  sub- 
jects will  include  chemistry  and  natural  philosoiihy; 
and  that  on  literarv  subjects  will  include  English 
literature,  history  oi  the  United  States,  and  general 


J18SIZE  OF  ABH8. 


115 


ASTI0HATI8U. 


history — ancient  and  modern.  Candidates  possessing 
a  knowledge  of  tlie  higher  mathematics,  the  ancient 
and  modern  languages,  will  be  examined  therein,  and 
due  credit  given  for  a  proficiency  in  any  or  all  of 
these  subjects.  4.  Written  examination  on  anatoni}', 
physiologj',  surgery,  practice  of  medicine  and  general 
pathology,  obstetrics,  and  disea.ses  of  women  and 
children.  Oral  examination  on  these  subjects,  and 
also  on  medical  jurisprudence,  materia  medica,  thera- 
peutics, pharmacy,  toxicologj',  and  hygiene.  Few 
Candidates  pay  the  attention  to  hygiene  which  it 
deserves;  it  is  made  an  important  subject  in  tliis  ex- 
amination. 5.  Clinical  examination,  medical  and 
surgical,  at  a  hospital.  6.  Performance  of  surgical 
operations  on  the  cadaver.  The  Board  dc\'iate  from 
this  general  plan  whenever  necessary,  in  such  manner 
as  they  deem  best  to  seciue  the  interests  of  the  scr\'ice. 
An  applicant  failing  one  examination  may  be  allowed 
a  second  after  one  year,  but  not  a  third.  No  allow- 
ance is  made  for  the  expenses  of  persons  undergoing 
examination.     See  MetUeal  Department. 

ASSIZE  OF  ARMS. — A  law  enacted  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.  which  enjoined  every  able-bodied  man  in 
the  realm  to  maintain  arms,  suitable  to  his  rank  and 
■condition  of  life,  at  his  own  expense.  Of  this  law 
our  militia  is  the  modern  offspring,  and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  is  incumbent  on  every  British  subject 
now,  as  it  was  in  earlier  times,  to  give  his  service 
when  required  in  defense  of  his  Sovereign  and  Coun- 
try. The  enforcement  therefore  of  the  ballot  in  the 
militia  would  be  no  hardship. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  GRADUATES  OF  THE  MILI- 
TARY ACADEMY. — An  Association  of  all  Graduates 
of  West  Point  who  comply  with  the  provisions  of  its 
Constitution.  The  Association  was  organized  in  1869. 
Its  object  is  "  to  cherish  the  memories  of  our  Alma 
Mater  and  to  promote  the  social  intercourse  and  fra- 
ternal fellowship  of  its  Graduates."  The  meetings  of 
the  As.sociation  are  held  annually  at  West  Point, 
■  about  the  time  that  the  graduating  exercises  take 
place.  The  oldest  Graduate  belonging  to  the  Associa- 
tion is  its  President.  The  other  officers  are  appointed 
annually  by  the  President.  At  the  present  time 
(April,  1884)  the  Association  has  531  members  on  its 
rolls.  The  oldest  living  Graduate  is  John  T.  Pratt, 
of  the  class  of  1818,  living  at  Georgetown,  Ky.  The 
Association  endeavors  to  keep  a  record  of  all  Gradu- 
ates of  the  Academy.  After  the  annual  meeting  in 
June,  a  report  is  published  by  the  Secretary  contain- 
ing obituary  notices  of  deceased  Graduates,  together 
■with  other  matters  of  interest  relating  to  the  Military 
Academv. 

ASTIGMATISM.— An  anomaly  in  the  refraction  of 
the  eye  which,  by  law,  disqualifies  a  recruit  for  en- 
listment in  the  army.  Although  this  defect  is  very 
common,  yet  not  until  the  Inst  few  years  were  its  fre- 


FlG.   1. 


•quency  and  importance  fully  recognized.  Astigma- 
tism is  a  condition  in  which  the  curvature  of  the  cor- 
nea varies  in  the  different  meridians  (Fig.  1).  On 
examining  an  ordinary  lens  we  find  that  all  parts  of 


its  surface  have  an  equal  curvature  (Fig.  2),  and  so  it 
should  be  in  a  normal  cornea;  but  in  an  astigmatic 
eye  it  is  not  so,  since  the  vertical  curvature  differs 
from  the  horizontal,  thus  producing  a.symmetry  of 
the  refractive  part  of  the  eye,  and,  as  a  result,  rays 
falling  on  such  an  eye  are  not  all  brought  to  a  single 
focus,  but  those  in  one  meridian  fall  either  before  or 
behind  the  retina,  or  focal  point  of  the  other  meridian, 


Fio.  2. 

thus  causing  a  confused  and  indistinct  picture  of  the 
object  viewed.  Astigmatism  is  either  Myopic  or 
Hypermetropic;  it  may  also  be  "mixed" — the  eye 
being  Myopic  in  one  and  Hypermetropic  in  another 
of  its  meridians. 

Vision  in  astigmatic  eyes  is  usually  impaired  both 
for  distant  and  near  objects,  since  at  no  point  can  a 


Fio.  3. 

distinct  image  be  obtained;  but  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  this  defect  is  the  fact  that  certain  groups  in 
a  series  of  lines  and  circles  arc  seen  with  more  dis- 
tinctness and  blackness  than  any  others.  (Fig.  3.) 
Astigmatism  has  frequently  been  discovered  by  look- 
ing at  a  clock,  it  being  noticed  that  wlien  the  hands 
were  at  certain  figures,  say  III  and  IX,  they  were 
seen  with  difficulty,  while  when  at  VI  or  XII  they 
were  distinctly  seen. 

In  the  treatment  of  Astigmatism,  recourse  must  he 
had  to  cylindrical  kn»es,  as  the  ordinary  lenses  would 
not  correct  the  defect.  Since  the  correcting  glasses 
for  Astigmatic  eyes  are  frequently  combinations,  these 
lenses  are  always  ground  according  to  formula  to 


ASTRAGAL. 


116 


ATLAS  POWDER. 


correct  the  defect  of  each  m<li\-i(hml  eye,  which  can 
only  1)0  lietermineU  after  careful  measurement.  See 
lin'niit».  I 

ASTRAGAL. — A  small  convex  moKIin.!;  used  in  the 
ornameMlul  wi.rk  of  ordnance,  and  usually  connected 
witli  a  llal  molilini:  orriV/*/. 

ASTROLABE.— The  "name  given  by  the  Greeks  to 
any  ciriular  in>trument  for  ohsi'rvinj;  the  stars.  Cir- 
cular riiiirs,  arraniied  as  in  the  armillary  sphere,  were 
usttl  f(pr  this  purix)si\  A  projection  of  the  sphere 
uiHin  a  plane,  with  a  jrraduated  rim  and  sights  for 
takim;  altitudes,  was  known  as  an  a.slrolabe  in  the 
luiliny  days  of  astroloiry,  and  was  the  badjre  of  the 
a.slroloLirer.  The  astrolabe  has  been  su])erstHie<l  by  the 
vaoTv  iH-rfect  instruments  of  mo<;iern  lustronomy. 

ASTYLLEN. — A  small  dam  in  an  adit  or  mine  to 
previiH  ilic  lull  passiifft-  of  the  water. 

ASYLUM.— The  (X'rsons  entitled  to  the  lienelils  of 
the  Asylum,  or  Soldier's  Home  as  it  is  now  called, 
locateil  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  are:  1.  All  sol- 
diers, and  discharged  soldiers  of  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  who  may  have  served  honestly  and 
faithfully  for  twentj-  years.  2.  All  soldiers,  and  dis- 
charged "soldiers  of"  t'he  Kejridar  Army,  and  of  the 
Volunteers,  who  .served  in  the  war  with  ile.xico,  and 
were  disjibkd  by  disease  or  wounds  contracted  iti  that 
servici'  and  in  the  line  of  their  duty,  and  who  arc,  by 
their  disiibility,  incjipable  of  further  military  service. 
This  class  includes  the  portion  of  the  Marine  Corps 
that  served  with  the  army  in  Mexico.  3.  Every 
soldier,  and  discharged  soldier,  who  may  have  con- 
tributed to  the  funds  of  the  Soldier's  Ho"me  since  the 
passage  of  the  Act  to  found  the  same,  JIarch  3,  IS.!!, 
according  to  the  restrictions  and  provisions  thereof, 
and  who  may  have  been  disabled  by  disease  or  wounds 
incurred  in  the  service  and  in  the  line  of  his  duty, 
rendering  him  incapable  of  militarj'  service.  4. 
Every  pensioner  on  account  of  wounds  or  disability 
incurred  in  the  military  service — thouch  not  a  con- 
tributor to  the  funds  of  the  Institution- who  shall 
transfer  his  pension  to  the  Soldier's  Home  during  the 
period  he  voluntarily  continues  to  receive  its  bciietits. 
No  provision  is  made  for  the  wives  and  children  of 
those  admitted. 

No  mutineer,  deserter,  or  habitual  drunkard,  or 
person  convicted  of  felony  or  other  disgraceful  crime 
of  a  civil  nature,  while  in  the  army  or"  after  his  dis- 
charge, is  admitted  into  the  Asylum  without  satisfac- 
tory evidence  being  shown  to  'the  Commissioners  of 
■  the  Soldier's  Home  of  subsequent  service,  good  con- 
duct, and  reformation  of  character.  The  Commis- 
sioners arc  the  Adjutant-General,  the  Commissary- 
General  of  Subsistence,  and  the  Surgeon-General. 
The  Soldier's  Home  has  its  Governor,  Seeretai-j-,  and 
Treasurer  apjiointed  from  the  army.  See  Royal  Mill-  < 
tan/  AkiiI'iui.  I 

AS  YOO  WERE. — A  word  of  command  correspond- 
ing to  the  French  remeltez  roiis,  fre(|ueully  used  by 
drill-masters  to  cause  a  resumption  of  the  previous 
position  when  any  motion  of  the  musket  or  movement 
of  the  body  has  Ix-en  improperly  made.  ! 

ATCHE'TEMENT.- A  term  nearly  equiyalent  to  ar- 
morial liearinL's,  and  often  u.sed  when  speaking  of 
the  anns  of  a  deceased  person  as  disi)laved  at  his 
funeral  or  elsewhere.  In  this  sense  it  isinore  com- 
monly used  in  its  abbreviat<'d  fonn  of  hakhuunt. 

A'TEGAR.— The  old  English  hand-dart,  named  from 
the  Saxon  ni-tun,  "  to  tling,"  and  giir,  "  a  weapon." 

ATHANATI. — A  corps  of  picked  soldiers  beloniring 
lo  the  ancitnt  Persian  army.  lO.tKH)  strong,  which 
were  called  the  "Immortals,"  for  the  re:i.son  tliat  as 
soon  as  one  of  the  corjjs  died  another  was  put  in  his 
pla<e. 

ATHLETE. — The  name  given  to  a  combatant,  pu- 
gilist, wresllt-r,  or  ninner,  in  ancient  Greece.  Ath- 
letics were  studied  in  Greece  as  a  branch  of  art,  and 
IchI  to  several  asi-ful  rules  of  diet,  exercise,  etc.,  appli- 
cable to  ordinary  nuxles  of  life.  BotUlv  strength 
and  activity  were  so  highly  honored  by  the  Greeks 
that  the  athlete  held  a  position  in  society" totally  diller- 


ent  from  that  of  the  modern  pugilist.  When  he 
proposed  to  enter  the  lists  at  the  Olympic  or  other 
public  gainis,  he  was  examined  with  regard  to  his 
birth,  social  ixjsitiou,  and  moral  chanieter.  A  Ilendd 
then  steppeil  forth  and  called  upon  anj'  one,  if  he 
knew  aught  disgraceful  lo  the  Candidate,  to  state  it. 
Even  men  of  genius  contended  for  the  palm  in  athletic 
exercises.  Chrysippus  and  Cleanllies,  the  famous 
philosophers,  were  victorious  athletes,  or,  at  least,. 
agoni»ta\  i.e.,  iX'r^ons  who  pursued  gymnastic  exer- 
cises, not  as  a  profession,  hut  for  the  sake  of  exercise, 
just  as  at  the  present  day  wt'  have  gentlemen-cricketers, 
amateur-pugilists,  etc.  The  profound  and  eloquent 
Plato  appeared  among  the  wrestlers  in  the  Islhniian 
games  at  Corinth,  and  also  in  the  Pythian  games  at 
Sicyon.  Even  the  meditative  Pythagoras  i.s  said  to 
have  gained  a  prize  at  Elis,  and  gave  instructions  for 
athletic  tndning  to  Eurymenes,  who  afterwards  gjiincd 
a  prize  at  the  same  iihice.  So  great  was  the  honor  of 
an  Olympian  victor  that  his  native  city  was  regarded 
as  ennobled  by  his  success,  and  he  himself  considered 
sacred.  He  entered  the  c  ity  through  a  special  breach 
made  in  the  walls;  he  was  supported  at  the  public  ex- 
pense; and  when  he  died  was  honored  with  a  public 
funeral.  Euthymus,  of  Locri  in  Italy,  who  had,  T\ith 
only  one  exception,  been  regulaiiy  \  ietorious  at  Elis, 
was  honored  with  a  statue,  to  which,  even  during  his 
lifetime,  homage  was  jiaid  by  command  of  an  oracle. 
Athletic  sports  were  first  witnessed  at  Rome  186  B.C. 
They  were  introduced  by  M.  Fulvius,  at  the  end  of 
the  -.Etolian  War,  and  became  excessively  popular  in 
the  time  of  the  Emperors.  At  Rome  "the  athletes 
fomied  a  corporation. 

ATILT. — In  the  manner  of  a  tilter;  in  the  position 
or  with  the  action  of  a  man  making  a  thrust.  "  To 
run  atilt  at  men.  ' 

ATLAS  METAL.— The  metal  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  eases  of  Hale's  rockets  and  Boxer's  life- 
s;iving  rockets.  It  is  a  mild  steel  produced  by  the 
Bessemer  process. 

ATLAS  POWDER,— A  nitroglycerine  compound  of 
great  explosive  power,  uniting  that  element  in  a 
marked  degree  with  siifety.  When  not  confined  it 
burns  quite  harmlessly;  but  when  tired  by  a  blasting- 
cap  it  explodes  with  enormous  force.  In  cold 
weather  it  hardens  and  freezes,  but  resumes  its  soft, 
pasty  condition  when  wanned.  To  secure  its  full 
explosive  power  it  must  never  lie  used  even  in  a  semi- 
frozen  slate.  As  the  tendency  of  all  nitroglycerine 
compounds  is  to  decompose  when  exjiosed  for  any 
length  of  time  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  whatever 
the  temperature  of  the  air  may  be,  gre;it  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  ex]iose  this  powder,  or  any  other  com- 
pound of  a  similar  nature,  to  a  test  of  that  kind. 

As  an  industrial  agent  this  powder  is  stronger, 
cheaper,  and  sjifer  than  most  other  blasting-compounds. 
No  invariable  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  diame- 
ter and  length  of  cartridges  to  be  used  under  any  and 
all  circumstances,  nor  the  anioimt  nor  gnide  of  pow- 
der required  for  all  kinds  of  work.  Jluch  « ill  have 
to  depend  upon  the  good  sense  and  judgment  of  the 
persons  using  the  powder.  As  a  general  rule  it 
throws  rock  less  and  breaks  it  more,  and  extends  its 
effects  much  deeper  than  ordinary  blasting  powder; 
and  those  who  use  it  soon  learn  "not  to  judge  of  a 
blast  by  first  appearances.  It  frequently  happens  that 
a  blast  which  seems  to  have  had  no  effect  proves  to 
have  done  remarkable  execution  in  cracking  and 
loosening  the  rock,  and  Jirci^aring  the  way  for  subse- 
quent blasts.  This  is  especially  the  case"  in  tunnels 
and  shafts. 

The  powder  is  put  up  in  cartridges  of  either  6  or  8 
inches   in   length,   and  from  J    inch  to  2  inches  in 
diameter,  is  packed  in  25-lb.  and  50-lb.  bo.xes,  and  is 
branded  as  follows: 
F+,  Powder  containing  15  p.  c.  of  Nitro-Glycerine. 

E,  "  "  20 ' 

E+,         "  "  25    "     " 

D,  ■'  "  30    "     " 

D-r,        "  "  35     "     "  " 


ATMIDOMETEB. 


WJ        ATTACK  OF  TEMPORARY  FORTIFICATIONS. 


Powder  containing  40  p.  c.  of  Nitro-Glyceriue. 
43     "     " 


C. 

■c+. 

B,  "  "  50     "     " 

B+,         "  "  60    "     " 

A,  "  "  75    "     " 

Sec  Uiff/i  Krphnceg. 

ATMlbOMETER.  —  An  instrument  used  in  tlie 
English  Medical  Corps  for  measuring  the  rate  of 
t'vaporati<in.     Also  written  Admoineter. 

ATMOSPHERIC  HAMMER.  —  A  power -hammer 
driven  by  the  foree  of  eonipiessed  air.  In  some  eases 
the  air  is  employed  merely  to  lift  the  hammer;  iiidther 
cases  air  is  also  employed  as  an  adjunct  in  the  elfec- 
tive  stroke.  In  the  latter  ease  the  upeniliiin  is  much 
like  that  of  the  steam-hammer,  the  main  dillerenee 
beiiijj  in  the  sul)stitutii)n  of  air  for  sti'am. 

ATTACH.— To  place  or  appoint.  OHicers  and  Non- 
•commissioued  Officers  are  said  to  be  attached  to  the 
respective  army,  regiment,  battalion,  troop,  or  com- 
pany with  which  thev  are  appointed  to  act. 

ATTACHE.— The  seal  and  signature  of  the  Colonel- 
General  in  the  old  French  service,  which  were  affixed 
to  commissions  of  officers  after  they  had  been  dulj' 
examined. 

ATTACK. — An  advance  upon  the  enemy,  with  a 
"view  of  dri\ing  him  from  his  position.  It  may  either 
be  an  attack  in  the  open  field  or  an  attack  upon  a 
fortress.  In  an  attack  in  the  open  field,  the  General  ; 
first  ascertains  the  strength  and  position  of  the  enemy, 
by  means  of  a  reconnoissance  or  of  .spies.  He  then 
seeks  to  discover  at  what  point  the  enemy  c;m  make 
the  least  resistance;  which  is  generally  on  one  or  other 
tlank.  He  next  arranges  to  concentrate  Ids  chief 
strength  upon  this  partical:ir  point,  and  to  mask  his 
real  intention  by  feigned  operations  in  other  places. 
He  then  attacks  witli  energy  and  force,  his  troops  ad- 
vancing without  halt  till  near  enougli  to  use  their 
weapons  with  the  greatest  effect.  The  more  the  at- 
tack has  the  character  of  a  "surprise,"  the  greater 
the  probability  of  its  success.  In  order  to  make  this 
success  as  much  felt  as  po.ssible,  and  to  be  provided 
also  against  unforeseen  disaster,  the  attacking  body 
should  be  followed  at  a  distance  by  a  reserve;  a  neg- 
lect of  this  jirecaution  has  frequently  caused  the  I 
entire  failure  of  an  attack.  Various  forms  have  been 
devised  for  the  attack;  but  generally  the  piirnUii  or 
frontal  is  the  one  made  use  of.  Frederick  Ih,'  Great, 
tiowever,  won  most  of  his  battles  by  the  oblique  at- 
tack, in  which  one  wing  is  more  advanced  than  the 
other.  The  tirst  Napoleon  preferred,  by  means  of 
his  heavy  columns,  to  penetrate  and  break  up  the 
enemy's  center.  Another  mode  eomliines  an  attack 
on  oae  flank  as  well  as  in  front,  by  two  separate 
corps,  so  as  cither  to  get  into  the  enemy's  rear,  or  to 
perplex  him  as  to  his  retreat.  A  skillful  General  will 
be  guided  by  circumstances  in  his  selection  among 
these  severalmodes  of  operating.  An  attack  by  night 
might  act  most  signally  as  a  surprise;  but  as  this 
requires  a  very  exact  knowledge  of  the  ground,  an 
attack  at  early  "dawn  is  generally  preferred. 

The  ditTcrent  arms  of  the  service  render  each  its 
•own  kind  of  aid  during  an  attack.  First  come  the 
skirmishers,  or  perhaps  whole  battalions  of  light  and 
active  troops,  whose  rifles  or  long-range  gims  com- 
mence the  firing.  Then  come  the  main  body  of 
infantry  in  heavy  column;  they  halt  within  musket- 
shot,  lire,  and  charge  with  the  bayonet— the  skir- 
mishers meanwhile  deploj-ing  romid  to  the  rear  of 
the  column,  but  holding  themselves  in  readiness  to 
harass  the  enemy's  flanks.  English  troops  esiiecially 
excel  in  the  attack  by  bavoni't  in  line;  but  other 
armies,  for  the  most  pari,  rely  more  upon  the  mo- 
mentum of  a  compact  and  heavy  cohunn  in  an  attack. 
There  are  positions  in  which  the  cavalry  allack,  with 
its  shock  and  the  use  of  the  sword,  is  more  efiicaeious 
than  that  of  the  infantry.  The  troopers  ajiproaeh  at 
a  trot,  break  into  a  gallijp  at  a  distance  of  one  or  two 
hundred  paces  from  the  enemy,  and  endeavor  by 
their  weight  and  impetuosity  to  force  the  enemy's 
line.     There  are  many  foims  of  cavali-y  attack,  ac-  i 


cording  to  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  position 
of  the  enemy.  The  artillery,  working  at  a  distance, 
often  begin  an  attack  long  before  the  infantry  and 
cavalry  CiUi  come  uj).  harassing  and  confusing  the 
enemy.  At  SUO  to  1'200  yards'  distance,  the  artillery 
poui'  out  shot  and  shell,  and  try  to  silence  the  enemy's 
guns,  so  as  to  make  way  for  the  attack  of  the  infan- 
try; while  the  liayonel -charge  is  being  made,  the 
artillery  keep  in  elieek  the  enemy's  cavalrv.  If  the 
attack  succeeds,  the  infantry  and  artillery  take  up  the 
ground  recently  occui)ie<l  h\  the  enemy,  leaving  the 
cavalry  and  ritlemcn  to  maintain  a  jmrsuit;  butif  it 
f;dl,  the  artillery  and  cavalry  take  up  such  positions 
as  will  cover  the  retreal  of  the  infantry. 

In  an  attack  upon  a  fortress,  the  ojjeration  is  a  part 
of  that  of  besieging;  but  \ery  often  iiitrenchments 
arc  attacked  in  the  open  field.  Such  an  attack  has 
the  character  of  a  surprise,  when  the  works  are  ap- 
proached under  cover  of  night,  and  an  attempt  is 
made  to  break  into  them  on  all  siiles.  In  such  case, 
there  is  a  reserve  corps,  which  is  rapidly  brought  up 
when  wanted;  but  the  attacking  corps  retire  liehind 
the  reserve,  if  repulsed.  The  artillery  post  them- 
selves on  the  prolongation  of  the  line  of  works,  and 
try  to  dislodge  the  enemy's  guns  and  gunners;  or 
pour  a  concentric  fire  sufticient  to  breach  the  works. 
The  infantiy  advance  as  close  as  will  enable  them  to 
fire  upon  the  gunners.  'When  the  enemy's  fire  is 
silenced,  the  engineers  (under  cover  of  the  artillery) 
]iroceed  to  remove  iialisjidcs  and  all  other  obstacles, 
and  to  bridge  over  ditches  and  openings.  Then  fol- 
low the  operations  of  the  stormiug-partj',  analogous 
to  those  noticed  under  Assmilt. 

ATTACK  OF  TEMPORARY  FORTIFICATIONS.— 
The  subject  of  the  attack  admits  of  two  natural 
divisions;  the  first  of  whicli  comprehends  all  the 
preliminary  steps  taken  before  the  troops  are 
i)rought  into  action;  the  second,  all  the  subsequent 
operations  of  the  troops.  An  attack  is  made  either 
by  surprise  or  openly.  In  both  cases  exact  informa- 
tion should  be  obtained  of  the  approaches  to  the 
works;  their  strength;  the  number  and  character  of 
the  garrison;  and  also  the  character  of  the  Command- 
er. This  information  may  be  obtained  tlirough  spies, 
deserters,  prisoners,  and  othei'swho  have  access  to  the 
works;  but  implicit  faith  ought  not  to  be  jilaced  in 
the  relations  of  such  persons,  as  they  may  be  in  the 
interests  of  the  garrison;  and  ui  all  cases  they  shoidd 
be  strictly  cross-examined  and  their  different  repre- 
sentations be  carefully  compared  with  each  other. 
The  best  source  of  information  is  an  exannnalion,  or 
reconn/iisa/ince,  made  by  one  or  more  intelligent  offi- 
cers. This  reconnoissance  should,  if  possible,  be 
made  secretly;  but  as  this  will  not  be  practicable  if 
the  garrison  .show  even  ordinary  vigilance,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  protect  the  recounoitering  officer  by  small 
detachments,  who  drive  in  the  outposts  of  the  garri- 
son. The  object  to  be  attained  by  the  reconnois- 
Simce  is  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  natural  features 
of  the  ground  exterior  to  the  works;  the  obstacles  it 
presents,  and  the  shelters  it  affords  to  troops  advanc- 
ing; the  okstacles  in  front  of  the  counterscarp  and  in 
the  ditches;  the  weak  and  strong  ]iointsof  the  works, 
and  the  interior  arrangements  for  the  defense.  If  the 
work  is  an  isolated  post,  information  should  be  ob- 
tained as  to  the  probability  of  its  being  succored  in 
case  of  an  attack;  the  length  of  time  it  mu.st  holdout 
to  receive  succor;  and  the  means  it  pos.sesses  of  hold- 
ing out. 

A  surprise  is  an  unexpeeted  attack,  for  which  the 
a.ssailed  are  not  prepared.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  best 
method  of  assailing  an  unilisciplined  antl  careless  gsir- 
rison.  for  its  suddenness  will  disconcert  and  cause 
irremediable  confusion.  Secrecy  is  the  .soul  of  an 
enterpri.se  of  this  nature.  To  insure  it.  the  garrison, 
if  aware  of  the  presence  of  the  troops,  should  be 
deceivetl  and  lulled  into  security  by  false  maneuvers. 
The  troops  that  form  the  expedition  should  1k'  kept 
in  profound  ignorance  of  its  object  until  they  are  all 
assembled  atlhe  point  from  which  they  aix'  to  pro- 


ATTACK  OF  TEMPORARY  FORTIFICATIONS.         Hg       ATTACK  OF  TEMPORiHT  FORTIFICATIONS.. 


cccd  to  the  attack.  The  winter  seii«)n  is  the  most 
favorable  for  a  surprist',  whicli  should  be  miwle  about 
two  hours  lH.'forv  ilay,  iis  this  is  tlio  moineiil  when  the 
statrii's  are  gi'iuTiiUy  lausl  vijilaul,  and  the  L^Jirrison 
is  in  profound  sleep;  anil  the  attempt,  if  at  tirst  suc- 
cessful, will  be  facilitated  by  the  approach  of  day, 
and  if  unsuccessful,  the  troops  can  withdraw  with 
safety  uiuler  the  obscurity  of  night.  Should  there  Ik 
daniier,  from  succors  amviuir  in  a  short  time,  the  at- 
tack should  lie  made  S(K)n  after  miilniirht,  when  the 
garrison  is  asleep,  so  that  the  Ircxips  may  retire  before 
dayliifht,  after  having  attaineil  their  object.  As  a 
genenil  rule,  the  troops  for  the  attack  should  consist 
of  a  storrainir  party,  divided  into  an  advanced  party 
and  its  supi>ort,  lUid  be  followed  by  a  reserve  of 
picked  nun.  Tlie  advance  of  iheslomiinjr  party  will 
open  the  way,  and  be  closely  followed  by  the  support 
in  the  assault  of  the  parapet,  and  a  reserve  of  picked 
men.  There  should  be  two  jruiiles,  one  in  front  of 
the  stormins;  party,  with  the  detachment  of  workmen 
under  the  command  of  an  engineer  otticcr;  tlie  other 
in  the  rear,  under  charge  of  a  guard,  to  supply  the 
place  of  the  tirst.  if  killed.  The  workmen  should  be 
furnished  with  axes,  crowbars,  picka.xes,  etc.,  and 
sevend  bags  of  powder,  of  about  thirty  pounds 
each,  to  be  attached  to  palisiidings,  fraises,  and  bar- 
riers, to  blow  them  down,  if  the  alarm  should  be 
given  whilst  tliev  are  opening  a  way  through  them  by 
other  means.  All  the  operations  should  be  carrietl 
on  with  dispatch  and  in  silence.  Should  the  sen- 
tries challenge,  they  must  be  secured  or  bayoneted. 
Circumstances  alone  can  determine  whether  it  will  be 
ad\i.sable  to  make  false  attacks  with  the  true  one. 
They  will  tiislract  the  attention  of  the  garrison,  if  the 
alann  is  given,  from  the  true  attack;  and  a  false 
attack  has  sometimes  succeeded  when  the  true  one 
Las  failed.  When  made,  one  should  be  directed 
against  the  strongest  point  of  the  work,  as  the  strong 
points  are  usually  guarded  with  less  vigilance  than 
the  others;  and  they  should  all  be  made  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  true  attack;  and  orders  be  given  to  the 
detach..unts  making  them  to  proceed  to  the  point  of 
the  true  attack,  should  they  succeed  in  making  their 
way  into  the  work.  If  theatlack  succeed,  immediate 
measures  should  be  taken  to  place  the  v.orks  in  a 
state  of  defense,  if  the  position  is  to  be  maintained; 
or  else  they  should  be  destroyed,  as  far  as  practicable, 
before  retreating  from  them. 

The  gcnend  arrangements  for  an  open  assault  com- 
prehend the  operations  to  gain  possession  of  the 
works;  the  measures  for  maintaining  pos,session  of 
them,  and  following  up  the  first  advantage;  and,  fi- 
nally, the  precautions  to  be  observed  in  the  event  of  a 
repulse.  An  open  assjiult  may  be  made  citlier  with 
the  twiyonet  alone,  or  with  the  combined  action  of 
artillery  and  the  bayonet.  The  first  is  the  most  ex- 
peditious method,  "but  it  is  attended  with  great  de- 
struction of  life;  it  should  therefore  only  be  resorted 
to  against  works  of  a  weak  character,  w"hich  are  fee- 
bly g\iarded;  or  agiunst  isolated  posts  within  reach  of 
speedy  succor.  When  tried  it  will  usuallv  be  best  to 
make  the  attack  just  Ix-fore  day.  If  it  "is  made  by 
dayliL'ht  it  will.iu  most  ca.ses,  "be  well  to  scour  the 
einiroiis  with  a  few  squadrons  of  cavalry,  to  pick  up 
patrols  and  stragglers  who  might  give  the  alarm, 
and  then  push  forward  rapidly  the  as.s;iulting  col- 
umns. If  the  a.s.sjuled  seem  prepared,  liirht  troops 
sliould  precede  the  columns  of  attack,  with  orders  to  j 
display  in  front  of  the  counterscarp  and  open  a  brisk 
tire  on  the  a.s.sjnled,  for  the  purpose  of  diverting 
their  attention  from  the  columns  of  attack.  In  an  at- 
tack with  artillery,  the  troops  are  drawn  up  in  a  shel- 
tered i)Osiiion.  or  Iwyond  the  range  of  the  guns  of  the 
as.saileil;  Imtteries  are  then  established  within  twelve  to 
six  hundred  yards  of  the  works,  in  the  most  favorable 
positions  to  enfilade  the  faces,  and  destroy  all  visible 
obstacles.  The  batteries  keep  up  an  incessant  fire  of 
ball  and  hollow  projectiles,  in  order  to  dismount  the 
cannon  an<l  create  confusion  amonc  the  as,sailed. 
When  the  tire  of  the  works  is  silenced,  the  troops  are 


thrown  forward,  and  demonstrations  are  made  on 
several  points,  to  divert  the  attention  of  the  assailed 
from  the  true  ix)int  of  attack,  smd  prevent  him  from 
couccniniting  hLs  strength  on  that  point.  Several 
false  attacks  should  be  made  at  the  same  moment  with 
the  real  one,  and  each  of  them  should  be  sufficiently 
formidable,  in  point  of  numbers,  to  enable  the  troops 
to  profit  by  any  success  they  may  obtain.  The  num- 
lier  and  disposition  of  the  troops  making  the  as.sault 
will  depend,  in  so  great  a  degree,  on  Icx-al  circum- 
stances, and  the  arrangements  of  the  assjuled,  that 
nothing  more  can  be  laid  down  under  this  heail  than 
some  genend  rules.  The  attack  shoidd  be  led  by  a 
stonning  party,  composed  of  picked  troops,  or  of 
volunteers  for  the  occasion;  this  party  is  preceded  by 
a  detachment  of  engineer  troojis,  pro\  ided  with  the 
neces.sary  means  to  make  their  way  through  all  obsta- 
cles, to  enable  the  storming  party  to  assault  with  the 
bayonet.  If  the  detachment  is  arrested  at  the  crest  of 
the  counterscarji,  by  obstacles  which  must  be  de- 
stroyed before  further  progress  can  be  made,  the  lead- 
ing files  of  the  storming  party  may  open  a  Hn  on  the 
assailed  to  divert  their  tire  from  the  workmen;  but 
I  this  operation  should  only  be  resorted  to  from  neces- 
sity, as  it  breaks  in  on  that  unity  so  es.senlial  in  an 
operation  of  this  character,  and  impairs  the  confidence 
of  the  soldier  in  the  bayonet,  on  which  his  sole  reli- 
ance, in  such  ca.ses.  should  be  placed.  The  stonning 
party  should  be  provided  with  light  scaling-ladders, 
planks,  fascines,  strong  hurdles,  etc.,  for  the  purpose 
of  descending  into  the  ditch;  to  mount  the  scarp;  to 
cover  trous-tie-loup,  small  pickets,  etc.,  etc.  Another 
detachment  of  engineer  troops  follows  in  the  rear  of 
the  storming  party;  its  duties  consist  in  rendering  the 
passages,  opened  by  the  first  detachment,  more  acces- 
sible to  the  troops,  who  immediately  follow  it  to  sus- 
tain the  storming  party.  This  second  detachment  is 
also  charged  with  the  care  of  placing  the  work  from 
which  the  assailed  has  been  tlriven  in  a  defensive  atti- 
tude, in  order  to  fnistrate  his  attempt  to  repossess 
himself  of  it.  The  tirst  detachment  should  be  charged 
with  this  duty;  for,  independenth' of  having  hand.some- 
ly  acquitted  itself  in  bearing  the  brunt  of  the  action, 
it  may  be  required  to  precede  the  storming  party  in 
the  pursuit  of  the  as.sailed  to  his  interior  works.  The 
troops  destined  to  support  and,  if  necessary,  reinforce 
the  storming  part}-,  advance  in  one  or  two  lines,  with 
cavalrj',  and  some  pieces  of  artillerj-  on  the  wings,  to 
repel  sorties.  The  remainder  of  tlie  troops  follow  in 
order  of  battle,  to  improve  the  first  successes,  or  to 
cover  the  retreat  of  the  assaulting  columns,  if  re- 
pul.sed. 

The  salients  are  generally  the  points  on  which  the 
storming  party  advances,  unless  some  natural  feature 
of  the  ground  .should  present  greater  facilities  for  ad- 
vancing on  a  re-entering,  or  in  front  of  a  face.  When 
the  ditch  is  gained,  shelter  is  sought  in  a  dead  angle; 
and  if  the  work  is  fraised,  or  resolutely  defended  with 
the  bayonet,  a  breach  must  be  made,  either  by  firing 
beforehand  hollow  loaded  projectiles  into  the  parapet, 
or  by  undermining  the  scarp  with  the  pick.  If  the 
intrencliments  consist  of  detached  lunettes,  an  at- 
tack should  be  made  on  their  gorge  at  the  same  mo- 
ment with  the  one  in  front.  When  the  as.sailed  are 
di'iven  from  their  main  works,  the  stonning  party 
should  jiress  holly  on  their  rear,  and  endeavor  to 
enter  pell-nicll  with  them  into  their  interior  works, 
leaving  to  the  troojis  which  follow  them  the  care  of 
retaining  |ios.sessioii  of  the  works  gained;  but  if  the 
intrenchments  are  suiiported  by  other  troops  drawn 
up  in  order  of  battle,  the  storming  party  should  halt 
in  the  works  until  it  is  reinforced  by  the  troojis  in  its 
rear.  There  is  no  danger  to  be  apprehended,  in  case 
of  a  retreat,  after  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  an  isolated 
work.  But  in  an  attack  on  intrenchments,  supported 
by  an  army,  the  retreat  of  the  stonning  party  should 
lie  covere(l  by  cavalry  anil  artillery  imtil  it  can  find 
safety  l)ehind  the  main  body  of  the  troops  drawn  up 
in  order  of  battle  to  protect  it,  and  to  receive  the 
assault  of   the  assailed  should  he  attempt  offensire 


ATTENTION. 


119 


ATWOOS'S  MACHINE. 


operations.  In  conducting  tbi-  attack,  preparations 
should  be  made  beforehand  for  removing  all  the  arti- 
ficial obstacles  that  the  assailed  may  have  placed 
before  their  works  to  impede  the  projrress  of  the 
storming  part\'.  This  duty  is  usually  intrusted  to  the 
detachment  of  engineer  troops,  who  are  provided  with 
axes,  picks,  and  other  suitable  tools  for  this  purpose. 
When  the  obstacles  are  of  a  nature  to  be  easily  de- 
stroyed by  artillery,  it  should  always  be  resorted  to. 
Abattis,  palisades,  fraises,  and  entanglements,  when 
exposeil,  may  be  readily  torn  to  pieces  by  opening  an 
enfilading  ricochet  fire  on  them.  When  csmnon  can- 
not be  brought  to  bear  on  these  obstacles,  an  abattis 
may  sometimes  be  set  fire  to,  and  palLsades,  etc.,  Ije 
blown  in  by  attaching  t)ags  of  powder  to  them. 
Trous-de-loup  maj'  be  pas,sed,  either  by  covering 
them  with  jjlank  or  strong  hurdles,  or  else  by  direct- 
ing the  men  to  pass  cautiously  between  them  in  ex- 
tended order;  small  pickets  may  be  broken  down,  or 
else  fascines  may  be  spread  over  them  so  as  to  form  a 
tolerably  stable  roadway;  fascines  may  also  be  used 
to  cover  the  points  of  spikes. 

The  passiige  of  the  ditch  and  the  assault  of  the 
parapet  are  the  most  difficult  oiierations.  If  the  ditch 
is  not  more  than  six  feet  deep,  it  can  be  leaped  into 
without  danger,  and  the  men  can  nn)unt  the  scarp 
readily  with  a  very  little  assistance  from  each  other. 
When  the  width  is  not  greater  than  twelve  feet,  the 
ditch  may  be  crossed  by  laying  thick  plank  or  small 
scantling  "over  it.  When  the  depth  is  over  six  feet, 
the  storming  party  is  usually  pro\ided  either  with 
small  scaling-ladders  for  descending  into,  or  with 
fascines,  sand-bags,  or  other  means  to  till  the  ditch 
partly  up;  or  if  these  means  cannot  be  procured,  the 
detachment  dig  away  the  counterscarp  into  steps, 
thro^\-ing  the  earth  into  the  ditch,  and  thus  in  a  short 
time  form  an  ca.«y  entrance  to  it.  AVet  ditches  may 
be  filled  up  either  with  sand-bags  alone,  or  more  ex- 
peditiously by  attaching  sand-bags  to  large  fascines  or 
to  trusses  of  hay  or  straw.  The  assault  of  the  ]iara- 
pet  is  made  by  the  aid  of  scaling-ladders,  or  by  effect- 
ing a  Ijreach  by  firing  loaded  hollow  projectiles  into 
the  scarj)  and  parapet,  which  by  their  explosion 
crumble  the  earth  down  so  as  to  form  an  accessible 
ramp;  or  else  the  foot  of  the  scarp  is  undermined 
with  the  i^iek,  and  the  mass  of  the  parapet  tiunbled 
into  the  ditch.     See  Asuaiilt  and  Defense. 

ATTENTION. — A  cautionary  command  addressed 
to  troops  preparatorj-  to  a  particular  exercise  or 
maneuver.  Gurc-a-cous  has  the  same  signification 
in  the  French  service. 

ATTESTATION. — In  the  English  service,  a  certifi- 
cate which  is  granted  by  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  within 
four  days  after  the  enlistment  of  a  recruit.  This 
certificate  bears  testimony  that  the  recruit  has  been 
brought  before  the  Justice  in  conformity  to  the 
JIutiny  Act,  and  has  declared  his  a.s.sent  or  dissent 
to  sucii  enlistment,  and  that  (if  according  to  the  said 
Act  he  shall  have  been  duly  enlisted)  the  proper  oaths 
have  been  administered  to  him  by  the  Magistrate, 
and  the  sections  of  the  Articles  of  War  against  mutiny 
and  desertion  read  to  the  said  recruit. 

ATTICK  BRONZE  REINFORCE.— The  exact  mate- 
rial of  this  /itiiip  reinforce  was  never  made  public,  in- 
asmuch as  it  was  supposed  to  have  a  great  tensile 
strength.  This  method  of  reinforce  was  tested  on  the 
Xaug-atuck.  An  old  cast-iron  42-pdr.  had  a  hoop  of 
this  Broiize  Composition  forced  on  by  liydrostatic 
pressure.  The  gun  was  first  tried  witli  lOO-lli.  (iro- 
jectiles  (James')  and  16-lb.  charges.  The  endurance 
for  a  wlnle  appeared  satisfactory,  but  the  gim  subse- 
quenllv  liurst  after  a  short  service. 

ATWATER  GUN.— A  .5.8."}-inch  (SO-pdr.)  hooped 
gun.  experimented  with  at  the  Washington  Na\y 
Yard.  It  is  a  cast-iron  gim,  21  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  breech,  with  a  tier  of  six  wrought-iron  hoops,  6X3 
inches  each,  shrunk  on,  and  a  second  tier  of  five 
similar  hoops  over  the  first  tier.  Length  of  bore, 
12  feet;  weight,  11,62.5  pounds.  This  gim  is  remark- 
able in  its  rifling.     It  has  12  grooves  Jj  inch  deep, 


and  12  lands  of  eeiual  width  at  the  breech.  At  12 
calibers  from  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  the  lands 
are  cut  away  in  alternate  pairs  to  i  inch  below  the 
bottom  of  the  original  grooves.  Other  conditions 
remaining  the  same,  the  nmge  of  projectiles  from 
this  bore  is  considerably  increased.  This  result  is 
ascrilx'd  to  varioas  causes.  Decrease  of  friction 
would  be  better  promoted  by  cutting  off  the  chase 
altogether.  The  more  i)erfcct  combustion  of  the 
powder  by  the  au-  entering  at  the  side  of  the  shot 
would  also  follow,  leaving  an  air-space  in  the  chamber 
of  the  gun;  in  fact,  to  the  sudden  and  perfect  com- 
bustion thus  promoted  some  authorities  attribute  the 
bursting  of  guns.  The  inventor  rea.sons  from  the  ex- 
jieriments  of  Kodnian  that  the  air-pressure  in  front 
of  the  sliot  is  greater  than  the  gas-pressure  behind  it, 
at  the  point  where  he  cuts  the  lands  away. 

ATWOOD'S  MACHINE.— An  iustrumeiil   for  illus- 
trating the  relations  of  time,  space,  and  velocity  in  the 


Atwooii 


motion  of  a  body  falling  under  the  action  of  gravity. 
It  was  invented  l)y  George  Atwood  (or  Atrwood),  a 
mathematician  of  some  eminence,  who  was  bom  in 


AVSITOB. 


120 


AUSTBIAN  ABMT. 


1745,  educated  nt  Caniliridge,  bwanie  Fellow  mil  Tu- 
tor of  Trinity  C'olleire  in  that  university.  puMislieii  a 
few  treatises  "on  ineehauics  and  enjrineerinir,  and  died 
in  IWT.  It  is  found  that  a  body  fallinn;  freely  passes 
throufrh  16  fi-el  in  the  lirst  seeond,  ti4  feet'  in  the 
first  two  seeonds,  144  fi-et  in  the  lirst  three  seconds, 
and  so  on.  Now,  as  these  spaces  are  so  large,  we 
should  reciuire  a  machine  of  impracticable  size  to 
illustrate  the  relations  just  mentioned.  The  object  of 
Atwooil's  JIachine  is  to  reduce  the  scale  on  which 
gra\-ity  acts  without  in  any  way  altering  its  essential 
features  as  an  aiielerating  force.  The  machine  ct>n- 
sists  es.senlially  of  a  pulley,  movinc  on  its  axis  with 
very  little  friction,  with  a"  tine  silk  cord  passing  over 
it,  sustaininir  two  equal  cylimlrical  weights  at  its  ex- 
tremities. The  pulley  resis  on  a  square  wockIcu  jnl- 
lar,  graduated  on  one  side  in  feet  lUid  inches,  which 
can  be  placed  in  a  vertical  position  bj-  the  leveling- 
screws  of  the  sole  on  which  it  stands.  A  pendulum 
usually  accompanies  the  machine,  to  beat  si'conds  of 
time.  "  The  weight  of  the  cylinders  being  eijual,  they 
Lave  no  tendency  to  rise  or  fall,  but  are  reduced,  as 
it  were,  to  mjisscs  without  weight.  When  a  weight 
is  placed  on  one  of  the  cylinders,  the  motion  that  en- 
.sucs  is  due  oidy  to  the  action  of  gravity  upon  it,  so 
that  the  motion  of  the  whole  nmst  be  considerably 
slower  than  that  of  the  weight  falling  freely.  Sup- 
lX)se,  for  instance,  that  the  cylinders  are  each  7i  ozs. 
in  weight,  and  that  the  weight  is  1  oz. :  the  force  act- 
ing on  the  system — leaving  the  friction  and  inertia  of 
the  pulley  out  of  accounts — would  be  ^V  o^  gra^'3'.  or 
tlie  whole  would  move  oidy  1  foot  in  the  first  second, 
instead  of  16.  If  the  weight  be  left  free  to  fall,  its 
weight  or  moving  force  would  bring  its  own  mass 
through  16  feet  the  first  second;  but  when  placed  on 
the  cylinder,  this  force  is  exerted  not  only  on  the 
mass  "of  the  bar,  but  on  that  of  both  cylinders,  which 
is  1.5  times  greater,  so  that  it  has  altogether  16  times 
more  matter  in  the  second  case  to  move  than  in  the 
first,  and  must,  in  consequence,  move  it  16  times 
more  slowly.  By  a  proper  adjustment  of  weights, 
the  rate  of  motion  may  be  made  as  small  as  we 
please,  or  we  can  reduce  the  accelerating  force  to 
any  fraction  of  gravity.  The  drawing  represents  the 
latest  pattern  of  the  machine,  made  by  Qvieen  &,  Co., 
and  employed  in  experiments  to  estaljlish  the  laws  that 
regulate  the  motion  of  falling  bodies  and  to  illustrate 
various  principles  in  gunnery.     See  Falling  Bodifs. 

AUDITOR. — The  name  given  to  certain  otlicers 
appointed  to  examine  accounts  in  behalf  cither 
of  the  government,  of  courts  of  law,  of  corpora- 
tions, or  of  private  persons.  In  178.5  Public  Au- 
ditors were  a|)poinled  in  England  imdcr  the  title  of 
"  Commis.sioners  for  Auditing  the  Public  Accounts," 
bv  which  the  ))atents  of  Lord  Sondes  and  Lord 
Mountstuart,  as  Aiiditorn  of  the  Imprests,  were  vacated, 
the  sum  of  £7000  per  annum  Ix'ing  made  payable  to 
each  of  them  for  life,  in  lieu  of  a  percentage  which 
had  been  ])aid  them  on  the  amount  of  expenditure 
audited.  Many  subsequent  statutes  have  been  ])assed 
for  the  purpose  of  extending  and  defining  the  duties 
of  these  Commis-sioners,  and  regidating  the  business  of 
the  Audit  ( )llice.  The  Commis.sioners  of  Audit  are  em- 
powered to  call  on  all  Public  Accountants  to  account 
for  moneys  or  stores  intrusted  to  them;  aii<l  shovdd 
they  fail  to  do  so,  are  recjuired  to  certify  their  n.imes 
to  the  Hemenibrancer  of  the  ICxclieijuer,  and  the 
Attorney-General  cif  Kiiirlaiid  or  Ireland,  or  the  Lord 
Advocate  of  Scotland,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
proceeded  against  as  defaulters.  These  v>roccedings, 
however,  may  be  stayed  for  a  time  by  the  Lords  of 
the  Treasury,  by  wliom  the  whole  arrangements  of 
the  Audit  Office  are  controlled,  on  the  a|)plication  of 
the  acctised.  The  accounts  of  the  Ordnance,  of  the 
Army  and  Navy,  and  the  Land  Revenue  arc  now 
subjected  to  examination  in  the  Audit  Otlice.  In  the 
United  Stales,  the  Second  and  Third  Auditors  are 
offlcials  connected  with  thi'  Treasury  Department, 
whose  duties  consist  in  examining  all  accounts  re- 
lating to  the  pay  and  clothing  of  the  army,  the  sub- 


sistence of  officers,  bounties,  premiums,  military  and 
hospital  stores,  and  genendly  all  accoimts  of  the  War 
Department  other  than  those  provided  for;  also  all 
claims  for  compensjitiou  for  loss  of  hoi-ses  and  e(|uip- 
ments  of  otlicers  and  enlisted  men  in  the  military 
service  of  the  rnited  States,  pensions,  etc. 

AHGET— AUGETTE.— A  kind  of  small  trough  used 
in  mining,  in  which  the  s)iucis.son  or  train-hose  is 
laid  in  straw  to  prevent  the  powder  from  contracting 
any  dain]iiiess. 

AUGUSTAN  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.  — In 
this  system,  the  gorge  of  the  teuailles  is  occupied  by 
two  )iarallel  defensive  barracks  and  by  casemated  re- 
doubts. Many  of  the  casemates  here  traced  t)ear  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  plan  of  llaxo.  This  system  is  so 
com])licated  as  to  Ix'  imi)racticable.    ^(.f:  Fortification. 

AU6USTICUM.— A  bounty  that  was  given  by  the 
Roman  Emperors  to  their  soldiers  upon  the  latter 
taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  for  the  first  time,  or 
upon  a  renewal  of  the  oath. 

AULIC  COUNCIL.— One  of  the  two  highest  Courts 
of  the  old  tJerman  Empire,  co-ordinate  with  the  Im- 
perial Clwunlier.  It  came  into  existence  in  1495,  and 
seems  to  ha\c  been  at  first  employed  ])rinciiially  in 
prejiaring business  matters  regarding  the  Crown-lands 
anil  the  Em])ire  generally,  in  order  to  expedite  the 
decisions  of  the  Imperial  Chamber.  It  soon,  how- 
ever, began  to  assume  or  acquire  higher  fimctions. 
After  1.502,  the  States  submitted  important  griev- 
ances to  its  independent  consideration;  but  it  did  not 
receive  a  fixed  Constitution  before  1559.  In  1654  it 
was  foitnally  recognized  as  the  second  of  the  two 
Supreme  Courts,  and  ecpial  in  dignity  to  the  Impeinal 
Chandjcr.  It  was  composed  of  a  President,  a  Vice- 
President,  a  Vice-Chancellor,  and  eighteen  Councilors, 
who  were  all  chosen  and  paid  by  the  Emperor,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Vice-Chancellor,  who  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Elector  of  Mainz.  Of  the  eighteen 
Councilors,  .six  were  Protest^uits,  whose  votes,  when 
they  were  imauimous,  could  not  be  set  aside  by  those 
of  the  others,  so  that  a  religious  parity  was  to  some 
extent  preseiTed.  The  Councilors  were  divided  into 
three  classes — Counts,  Barons,  and  Meu  of  Learning — 
all  of  whom  were  on  a  footing  of  equality,  except 
that  the  last  mentioned  received  a  higher  salary,  and 
were  usually  advanced  into  the  ranks  of  the  nobility. 
The  Council  held  aloof  from  politics,  but  tmder  its 
jurisdiction  were  placed:  (1)  all  matters  of  feudality 
in  which  the  Emperor  was  immediately  concerned; 
(2)  all  questions  of  appeal  on  the  part  of  the  States 
from  decisions  in  favor  of  the  EmiHTor  in  Minor 
Courts;  (8)  whatever  concerned  the  im]ierial  jurisdic- 
tion in  Ital)-.  On  the  death  of  the  Emjjcror,  the 
Council  was  dissolved,  and  had  to  be  reconstructed 
by  his  successor.  It  finally  ceased  to  exist  on  the  ex- 
tinctiim  of  the  old  German  Empire  in  1806. 

AUMACOR.— A  title  sinular  to  General-in-Chief, 
which  was  given  to  the  Chief  of  the  Saracens  during 
the  Ciiisades. 

AUSEN. — A  name  given  by  the  Goths  to  their  vic- 
torious Generals.  This  word  in  their  langu.age  signi- 
fies "  more  than  mortal,"  i.e..  dcnn-gods. 

AUSTRIAN  ARMY.— One  of  the  four  great  conti- 
nental armies  of  Europe,  In  l)ccend)er,  1S68,  the 
imperial  signature  was  athxed  to  the  law  introducing 
the  system  of  obligatory  jiersonal  service  for  every 
male  sid)ject  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  At  jiresent  the 
milit:iry  force  of  Austria  is  composed  of  the  Standing 
Army, the  Reserve,  the  Landwelir.and  the  L;ind.sturm. 
The  latter  element  means  simply  a  lin'r  in  iiKisse  of 
the  entire  male  population  for  the  defense  of  the 
country  in  case  of  invasion.  The  total  liability  to 
military  service  extends  over  twelve  years,  this  pe- 
riod being  thus  apportioned:  three  years  to  the  Stand- 
ing Army,  .seven  years  to  the  Reserve,  and  two  years 
to  the  Landwehr.  In  countries  that  have  adopted 
the  compulsory  service,  exemptions  are  ol)tainal)le 
under  the  following  social  conditions;  1,  Being  the 
only  son  and  suiiport  of  a  helpless  father  or  widowed 
mother;  3.  After  the  death  of  a  father,  being   the 


AU8TBIAN  FIELD-GTJN. 


121 


AUTOGENIC  PLUMBING  APPAEATU8. 


only  grandson  and  support  of  an  infirm  grandfather 
or  "widowed  grandmother;  3.  Being  the  only  sup- 
port of  helpless  relations.  All  serWee  of  a  suljsti- 
tute  or  exemption  by  purchase  is  abolished.  As  in 
Prussia  and  France,  volimleers  for  one  year  are  ad- 
mitted. The  effective  numerical  strength  of  the 
Standing  Army,  Reserve,  and  Landwehr  amounts  to 
about  1,100,000  men,  of  which  about  ,",  are  contrib 
uted  by  the  first  two  classes,  the  Standing  Army  and 
Reserve,  to  which  Hungary  furnishes  a  quota  of  nearly 
330,000.  Austria,  inclusive  of  Hungary,  is  divided 
into  17  military  districts.  The  Standing  Army  is 
composed  of  24  divisions,  containing  52  brigades  of 
infantry  and  19  of  cavalry.  The  infantry  of  the  line 
consists  of  80  regiments;  the  cavalry  of  41  regiments 
(14  of  dragoons,  14  huzzars.  and  13  lancers),  giving 
about  36,000  cavalr^Tnen.  'i"he  artillery  consists  of  13 
regiments  of  field  and  12  battalions  of  garrison  artil- 
lery, each  field-artillery  regiment  consisting  of  four 
4-pdr.  foot-batteries,  three  4-i)dr.  horse-lxitteries,  and 
five  8-pdr.  foot-batteries.  In  the  Austrian  army,  to 
every  1000  combatant  foot-soldiers  there  are  103  cavalry 
and  4  field-gims.  There  are  2  regiments,  of  ■>  battalions 
each,  of  engineers,  with  4  active  and  8  reserve  com- 
panies, and  1  depot  battalion  of  .'5  companies.  The 
transport  scrN-ice  of  Austria  is  conducted  by  a  Mili- 
tary  TransiKirt  Corps,  which  consists  of  36  field-squad- 
roiis,  22  of  which  on  mobilization  are  as.signed  to  the 
infantrj-  di\"isions,  5  to  the  cavalry,  4  to  army  corps 
headquarters,  and  3  to  general  headquarters.  There 
are,  besides,  the  Intendance  and  a  Hospital  Corps.  The 
Emperor  is  the  supreme  head  of  the  Austrian  army, 
■which  he  governs  througli  a  Minister  of  War  and  an 
Inspector-general.  The  mode  of  olficering  the  Aus- 
trian army  is  as  foUows:  1.  By  passing,  as  a  Cadet, 
through  a  Military  College;  2.  Rising  from  the 
ranks.  (1)  Cadets  are  trained  at  public  cost,  and  re- 
main ten  years  in  active  serxnce  from  the  date  of 
their  leaving  the  Academy.  After  the  aspirant  has 
practiciUly  learned  every  duty  of  the  private  and  non- 
commissioned otficer,  he  attends  the  school  which  is 
established  at  the  headquarters  of  every  division. 
He  goes  then  through  a  course  of  eleven  months,  fol- 
lowed by  an  examination.  If  successful,  he  performs 
the  duties  of  an  officer,  though  still  not  commis- 
sioned, and  receives  his  commission  when  a  vacancy 
occurs.  (2)  The  preparation  for  promotion  is  also 
regimental,  amd  in  this  mamier  non-commissioned 
otticers  of  good  character  and  antecedents,  and  of 
sufficient  attainments,  may  obtain  a  commission.  Pro- 
motion goes  right  through,  arm  by  arm  and  rank  by 
rank.  It  is  by  seniority  and  non  seniority.  The  for- 
mer depends  on  the  confidential  reports  giving  testi- 
mony of  the  individual's  efficiency,  and  the  latter  is 
followed  every  sixth  step  below  tield-rank  and  every 
fourth  step  above  it.  There  is  an  examination  twice 
a  vear  for  promotion.     See  Army. 

AUSTRIAN  FIELD-GUN.— A  muzzle-loading  rifled 
gun  made  of  bronze.  There  are  two  sizes,  the  4-p(h-. 
and  the  8-pdr. ;  the  former  for  horse-artilleri-,  the  lat- 
ter for  field-batteries.  The  projectiles  are  iron-ribbed, 
not  studded,  for  taking  the  rilling.  The  Austrians 
are  about  to  change  their  bronze  guns  for  steel  of 
their  own  design;  tlie  proof  lately  of  one  of  their  guns 
answered  all  that  was  required  of  it.  The  gun  ex- 
perimented on  was  an  8.  T-ceutimeter  steel  cannon, 
and  is  .said  to  be  an  improvement  on  the  Prussian 
field-srun. 

AUSTRIAN  RIFLING.  —  This  system  is  specially 
ndapted  to  gun-cottfju.  The  bore  "is  spiral  in  cross- 
section,  increasing  in  diameter  from  the  point  at  the 
end  of  the  land.Vhich  is  the  bearing-side  going  in; 
all  the  rest  of  the  bore  is  the  bearing-side  which  ro- 
tates the  shot  coming  out.  The  cast-iron  projectile 
is  covered  with  a  soft  metal  coating  which  enters  the 
gun  freely  when  a  projection  bears  against  the  land 
mentioneJj;  but  which,  as  the  shot  comes  out,  is  com- 
pressed by  the  spiral  bore,  and  shuts  off  the  windage. 
To  prevent  the  shot  jamming  in  the  bore,  three 
grooves  are  introduced  to  receive  corresponding  ribs 


on  the  .shot.  But,  the  shot  is  centered  and  rotated, 
coming  out.  by  the  whole  circimiference  of  the  Iwre 
as  well  as  bv  these  three  grooves. 

AUTHOEITY.  — In  a  general  acceptation  of  the 
term,  a  right  to  command,  and  a  consequent  right  to 
be  obeyed.  The  Articles  of  War  provide  that  when 
any  oftlcer  or  soldier  is  accused  of  a  capital  crime,  or 
of  "any  offen,se  ag.iinst  the  i)erson  or  property  of  any 
citizen  of  any  of  the  United  States,  which  is  punish- 
able by  the  laws  of  the  land,  the  Commanding  Officer, 
and  the  officers  of  the  regiment,  troop,  battery,  com- 
pany, or  detachment  to  which  the  person  so  accased 
belongs,  are  required,  except  in  time  of  war,  upon  ap- 
plication duly  made  by  or  in  behalf  of  the  party 
injured,  to  use  their  utmost  endeavors  to  deliver  him 
over  to  the  Civil  Magistrate,  and  to  aid  the  officers  of 
justice  in  apprehending  and  securing  him,  in  order  to 
bring  him  to  trial.  If,  upon  such  application,  any 
officer  refuses  or  willfully  neglects,  except  in  time  of 
"vyar,  to  deliver  over  such  accused  person  to  the  civil 
magistrates,  or  to  aid  the  officers  of  justice  in  appre- 
hending him,  he  shall  be  dismissed  from  the  service. 

AUTOCRACY.— A  term  sigtiifying  that  form  of  gov- 
ernment in  which  the  .Sovereign  unites  in  himself  the 
legislative  and  the  executive  powers  of  the  State,  and 
thus  rules  uncontrolled.  Such  a  Sovereign  is  therefore 
called  an  Autocrat.  Nearly  all  Eastern  governments 
are  of  this  form.  Among  European  rulers  the  Em- 
peror of  Russia  alone  Ix'ars  the  title  of  Autocrat,  thus 
signifying  his  constitutional  absoluteness. — Kant  used 
the  word  Autocracy,  in  philo.sophy,  to  denote  the  mas- 
terv  of  the  reason  over  the  rebelUous  propensities. 

AUTOGENIC  PLUMBING  APPARATUS.— This  ap- 
paratus is  a  modification  of  the  o.xy-hydrogen  blow- 
pipe. It  has  been  in  use  for  some  years  by  manufac- 
turing chemists,  etc.,  in  the  construction  and  repair 
of  leaden  utensils.  Its  purpose  is  to  provide,  by 
means  of  the  reaction  between  oil  of  vitriol,  water, 
and  zinc,  a  supply  of  hydrogen  gas,  and,  after  ntix- 
ing  it  with  air.  to  burn  the  mixture  at  the  end  of  a 
blow-pipe  nozzle,  and  by  means  of  flexible  rubber 
tubing  apply  the  flame  readily  to  the  work  in  hand. 
By  its  aid  lead  sheets,  pipes,  "etc.,  may  be  joined  to- 
gether by  melting  the  points  of  junction,  without  the 
use  of  solder  or  flux.  It  can  also  be  used  for  solder- 
ing, brazing,  and  annealing;  in  fact,  for  any  purpose 
requiring  an  intense  heat  locally  applied.  It  consists 
of  a  rectangular  box  divided  into  two  closed  com- 
partments. The  upper  one  is  an  acid-chamlx>r.  open- 
ing at  the  top,  and  a  pipe  connects  it  with  the  bottom 
of  the  lower  compartment.  The  lower  compartment 
is  the  zinc-  and  gas-chamlx-r,  having  a  pipe  near  its 
top  to  convey  the  gas  generated  into  a  purifier  ar- 
ranged in  the  space  between  the  upper  and  lower 
compartments.  This  s]5ace  also  contains  the  opening 
into  the  lower  compartment,  through  which  the  zinc 
is  inserted.  The  dilute  acid  runs  down  the  pipe  from 
the  upper  chamljer  into  and  up  through  the  zinc  in 
the  lower  chamber,  in  the  upper  part  of  which  the 
gas  collects  and  pa.sses  out  by  a  bent  pipe  into  the 
bottom  of  the  purifier.  The  purifier  is  a  Iwx  intended 
to  collect  any  drips  which  may  pass  over  with  the 
gas.  From  its  upper  part  a  pipe  conveys  the  gas  to 
the  bottom  of  a  second  purifier,  filled  with  water, 
through  which  the  gas  rises  and  passes  to  the  blow- 
pipe. The  water  removes  any  sulphuj-o'is-acid  gas 
or  other  impurities  that  may  pass  over  with  the  hy- 
drogen gas.  The  rear  end  of  the  blow -pipe  is  divided 
into  two  branches.  To  one  of  these  the  tube  convey- 
ing the  hydrogen  is  attached,  and  to  the  other  a  tube 
conveying  air  driven  in  by  a  bellows.  The  hydrogen 
and  air  combine  and  mix  in  the  blow-pijie  and  flow 
out  of  its  nozzle  when  the  mixture  is  igni'ed  for  ap- 
plication of  the  flame  to  the  work.  Lead  sheets  may 
be  joined  edge  to  edge  or  by  a  lap.  In  the  former 
case  lead  straps  are  melted  along  the  joint  to  perfect 
and  strengthen  it.  The  apparatus  is  much  used  in 
arsenals  for  lining  pickliiig-vats,  floors  covered  with 
lead,  etc.:  also  for  annealing  the  serrated  vvires  for 
fiiction-primers,  and  for  soldeiing  .and  brazing. 


AVTOKATIC  FIKE. 


122 


AXL£-ia££  AKX, 


AUTOMATIC  FIKE.  — The  automatic  fire  or  ex- 
plosive luixlure  of  the  Greeks  was  inade  from  equal 
pans  of  sulpUur,  sjiltpeler,  and  sulphide  of  uitimouy, 
finely  pulveriznl  and  mixed  into  a  paste,  with  e<iual 
parts  of  the  juice  of  black  sycamore  and  liquid  as- 
phultum,  a  little  quick-liiue  behig  added.  The  rays 
of  the  sun  would  set  it  on  tire. 

AUTONOMY.— The  arrangement  by  which  the  citi- 
zens of  a  Slate  manage  their  own  leiitslalion  and  gov- 
ernment; and  this  eWdently  may,  with  certain  re- 
strictions, be  the  case  also  within  limited  bodies  of 
the  same  people,  such  as  parishes,  corporations,  re- 
ligious seels.  The  term  Autonomy  is  used  to  designate 
the  chanicterLslic  of  the  political  condition  of  ancient 
Greece,  where  every  city  or  town  community  claimed 
the  right  of  indelK'udaii  sovereign  action.  The  idea 
of  two  or  more  town  communities  sinking  their  in- 
dividual independence,  and  fonning  the  larger  ag- 
gregate unity  which  we  understand  by  a  State,  seenis 
to  have  iMcn  intolcnilile  to  the  Greek  mind. 

AUXILIARY  FOSCES.  — The  Militia,  Yeoraanr)-, 
and  Volunteers  of  Great  Britain.  These  forces  ag- 
gregate as  follows: 


Officers    Men. 


1.  reomanry,  10  regiments.. 

2.  Militia  : 

Artillery,  29  regiments... 
lufantf}-.  131  battalions.. 


8U 
^3497] 


3.  Voluuteera 
Artiller)" 


Total 4301 


14,2T4 

16.422 
119,700  )' 


Total. 


15,078 
[  139,619 


150,396     154.697 


Light    horse,  4  regi- 
ments. 


Cavalry  ■(  MointS       rifles     4         Separate 
I     ™:™i„..  ^  numbers  are 

I     regiments f     not  given. 

Engineers uvi.  6,  >i". 

Infantry I 

Permanent  Staff J 


Total. . 


31,823 
360 


1  139 
I  6,296 
1 128.669 
I     1,458 


168,751 


AUXILIARY    FRAME.— When    mining    in    loose 
soils,  besides  the  ordinary  gallery-frame,  there  is  re- 


succors  its  ncighl)ors,  either  in  consequence  of  alli- 
ances or  engiigenienl.s  entered  into  with  them,  or 
sometimes  to  |)revent  their  falling  imder  the  power  of 
an  ambitious  Prince. 

AVANT-BRAS. — Guards  for  the  lower  arms,  worn 
by  knights  and  st)l<iiers  in  the  Middle  xVges. 

"  AVIS— AVIZ. — An  order  of  knighthood  in  Portugal, 
instituted  by  Sancho,  the  first 
king  of  Portugal,  in  imitation 
of  the  Order  of  Calatrava,  and 
having,  like  it,  for  its  object 
the  subjection  of  the  Sloors. 
By  the  present  usage,  the  king 
of  I'ortugal,  who  is  grand- 
master of  all  of  them,  wears 
decorations  of  the  first  three 
orders  of  Portugal — those  of 
Christ,  St.  James,  and  A\'i2 
united  in  one  medal,  divided 
iaU>  three  ecjual  spaces. 

AWARD.— A  judgment,  the 
result  of  arbitration.  In  a  mili- 
tary sensi',  the  decision  or  sen- 
tence of  a  C'ourt-Miirtial. 

AXIS. — A  straight  line,  real 
or  imaginary,  about  which  a  body  revolves  is  called 
the  axis  of  rotation.     In  gunncrj-,  the  axis  of  the 
piece  is  the  central  line  of  the  bore  of  the  gun. 

AXLE-LATHE.— A  lathe  nmch  used  in  arsenals  for 
turning  axles,  shafting,  and  other  relatively  long 
articles  which  are  liable  to  be  swayed  or  bent  by 
their  flexibility  or  by  the  pressure  of  the  cutter.  Bear- 
ings are  provided  at  points  between  the  lathe-centers, 
and  sometimes  the  cutters  are  duplicated  so  as  to  act 
upon  opposite  sides  simultaneously.  The  axle  or 
shafting  is  turned  to  fonn  by  suitably  shaped  cutters 
secured  to  two  jaws,  Avhich  approach  each  other  by 
the  rotation  of  a  right-  and  left-hand  screw  in  a  fixetl 
rest.     Whitworth's  famous  lathe  is  of  this  character. 

The  drawing  shows  the  form  of  lathe  in  general 
use.  It  swings  16  inches  diameter  over  the  shears, 
and  14  inches  diameter  over  the  rest-carriage;  the 


Badge  ot  Order  of  Avfa. 


Auxiliary  Frame. 

quired,  as  for  shafts  in  the  ."wime  soils,  an  auxiliary 
gallery-frame.  This  frame,  shown  in  position,  in  the 
vertical  section  of  the  gallery  through  the  axis,  in 
the  drawing,  is  somewhat  wider  than  the  ordinary 
gallery  frame,  and  somewhat  shorter  also.  Its  cap- 
sill  is  rounded  on  top,  and  hius  two  mortices  on  its 
lower  side,  to  receive  the  tenons  with  which  the  two 
stanchions  arc  finished.  The  mortices  are  a  little 
longer  than  the  tenons;  the  latter  being  confined  in 
them  by  wedges  when  the  fnime  is  set  up.  To  ad- 
just the  franie  when  set  up,  a  pair  of  folding  wedges 
IS  placed  under  each  end  of  its  ground-sill.  By 
these  contrivances  the  frame  o;in  tie  readilj'  set  up 
or  taken  apart.     See  GnUeri/  and  S/mft. 

AUXILIARY  TROOPS.— Foreign  troops  which  are 
furnished  to  a  iKlligirent  power  in  consequence  of  a 
treaty  of  alliance,  or  for  )>ecuniarv  considerations. 
Of  the  latter  des<ription  may  lie  considered  the  Hes- 
sians that  were  employed  by  "Great  Britain  to  enslave 
Ameridi. 

AUXILIARY   WAR.— A  war  in  which  a  nation 


Axle-Lathe. 

cone  pulleys  have  three  speeds  for  a  4  inch  belt, 
which,  witii  the  two  sets  of  fast  and  loose  pulleys  on 
the  countershaft,  give  six  changes  on  the  faceplate; 
it  has  cast-steel  spindles  running  in  gun-metal  lx)xes; 
the  dead-spindle  is  secured  by  a  patent  conical  binder; 
the  rest-carriage  has  a  hand-movement  by  a  rack  in 
the  bed;  it-s  feed  is  by  a  screw  and  cut  cog  gearing 
with  two  changes,  operated  by  a  clutch  and  rod,  for 
roughing  and  finishing;  adjustnieni  to  diKul-liead  for 
turning  taper,  and  has  Clement's  driver.  With  12- 
foot  siiears,  to  turn  8J  feet  long,  the  weight  is  5700 
pounds.     See  Dithe. 

AXLE-TREE. — A  solifi  bar  or  beam,  so  shaped  as 
to  receive  at  each  of  its  extremities  a  wheel,  which 
revolves  freely  alKiut  it.  Those  parts  about  which 
the  wheels  revolve  are  called  the  (inns  or  axle-tree 
armit.  The  part  of  the  axle-tree  between  the  arms  is 
called  the  hodi/;  that  jiortion  of  the  body  contiguous 
to  the  arm  is  the  Klmtihhr;  imd  the  extremit}'  of  the 
arm  is  its  juilnl. 

AXLE-TREE  ARM.— That  portion  of  an  axle-tree 


AZLE-TBEE  BED. 


1  no 


BACKINO. 


about  which  the  wheel  revolves.  The  axle-tree  arm 
is  circular  in  section,  and  near  its  outer  extremity  is 
a  vertiail  hole  to  receive  the  linchpin,  which  keeps 
the  wlicel  on  the  aiin. 

AXLE-TREE  BED.— A  wooden  beam  or  block  in- 
termediate between  the  axle-tree  and  the  body  of  the 
carriage.  In  the  usual  constructions  it  is  kept  in  con- 
tact with  the  body  of  the  a.vle-tree  along  its  entire 
length,  the  body  being  housed  or  let  into  it  from  end 
to  end.  In  this  connection  side-thrusts  exert  hardly 
any  injurious  moment  about  the  juucliou  between  axle- 
bed  and  body,  the  length  of  this  connection  l)eing  con- 
siderable as  compared  with  the  length  of  the  lever- 
arm  R-\-(l  (R  being  the  height  of  the  axle-arm  above 
the  ground,  and  d  the  depth  of  the  axle-tree  bed);  but 

any  tractional  moment,    Pd^   "  „7  "   '"  being  the 

height  of  the  obstacle,  and  P  the  mciisure  of  blow  upon 
the  tire  in  direction  parallel  to  the  road),  must  be 
guarded  against  by  bands,  knees,  or  connecting  stays. 

AYA-BASSI. — A  non-commissioned  grade  in  the 
corps  of  Janissjiries,  corresponding  to  that  of  Cor- 
poral in  motlern  armies. 

AYENEE. — A  tree  which  grows  in  the  forests  of 
Southern  India,  Grodavery,  and  Burmah;  the  wood 
is  strong,  tolerably  close,  even-grained,  and  of  a  light 
yellowish  color.  It  is  a  wood  that  may  be  used  for 
gun-carriage  pui-poses. 

AZAINE. — A  name  anciently  applied  to  a  trumpet 
in  the  French  army;  now  obsolete. 

AZAFES. — Auxiliary  troops  which  were  levied  by 
the  Turks  among  the  Christians  (under  their  domin- 
ion), whom  they  exposed  to  the  first  attack  of  the 
enemy. 


AZEMAR  TELEMETER.— Of  the  mirror-telemeters 
giving  ti.xed  angles,  that  of  Azi'mar  seems  to  be  the 
simplest.     This  is  made  to  give  two  angles,  one  acute 

and  the  other  obtuse, 
supplements  of  each 
other.  It  is  shown  in 
the  ilrawing  with  the 
addition  of  an  addi- 
tional fixed  minor  for 
giving  a  right  angle. 
If  only  two  angles  are 
used,  an  acute  com- 
bined ^vith  a  right 
angle  would  be  better 
than  the  two  supple- 
mentary angles,  as  the 
advantage  of  having  a  right  angle  would  be  secured 
without  necessitating  back-sights  in  obser\'ation. 
The  modified  Azemar  telemeter  consists  of  a  small 
frame,  L  M  N,  on  which  are  placed  four  plane  mir- 
rors reaching  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  frame; 
this  frame  swinging  between  two  plates  of  brass, 
G  K,  it  being  pushed  out  and  in  bv  turning  it  about 
the  pivot  P.  The  mirrors  L,  Q,  and  31  make  with  the 
mirror  N  angles  less  than,  equal  to,  and  greater  than 
90  respectively — the  greatest  and  least  angles  being 
complements  of  each  other.  Such  a  telemeter  com- 
mends itself  by  its  cheapness,  but  a  prism-telemeter 
gives  far  greater  clcarnes.s  to  the  image,  while,  unlike 
the  mirror-telemeter,  it  is  not  subject  to  derangement. 
See  Telemeter. 

AZURE. — A  French  word  technically  used  in  Iler- 
aldrj'  to  signify  blue.  In  engra^•ing  arms  it  is  always 
represented  by  horizontal  lines. 


B 


BABOOL. — A  tree  which  is  found  in  different  parts 
of  India.  The  wood  is  close-grained  and  tough,  of 
a  pale  red  color,  inclining  to  brown.  It  is  used  in 
the  gun-carriage  agencies  of  Madras  and  Bombay'  for 
naves  and  felloes  of  wheels.  This  tree,  which  grows 
in  abundance  in  the  northwest  of  India,  forms  the 
staple  food  of  the  camel. 

BACCHI. — Two  ancient  warlike  machines;  the  one 
resembktl  a  battering-ram,  the  other  cast  out  fire. 

BACHELIER. — A  young  squire,  or  knight,  who 
has  pas^^ed  tlirouiib  his  first  aimpaign,  and  received 
the  belt  of  the  Order. 

BACHEVALEUREtlX.— A  term  which,  in  the  old 
French  language,  signified  warrior,  brave,  valiant, 
etc. 

BACK. — A  cast-iron  plate  forming  the  back  wall  of 
a  forge,  and  through  which  the  blast  enters  by  a 
tuyere.  When  the  buck  consists  of  an  iron  cistern, 
it  is  called  a  ir(iterJ)itck.  When  it  consists  of  a 
chaml)er  in  which  the  air-blast  is  heated,  it  is  called 
a  heatinri-lmek. 

BACK-BAND. — The  band  or  strap  which  passes  over 
the  back  of  the  horse  and  meets  tie  belly-band;  the 
two  unite  to  girth  the  horse. 

BACKING. — E.xperiineut  has  shown  that  wood- 
backing  alone,  unless  combined  with  rigid  horizontal 
angle-iron  stringers,  affords  but  little  support  to  the 
ariuor-plate;  that  is  to  say,  a  projectile  which  is 
capaljle  of  iienetrating  a  ])late  unbacked  will  al.so  be 
capable  of  doing  so  if  it  be  backed  with  wood  alone. 
Wood-backing  is,  however,  of  great  value  because  it 
distriluites  the  blow;  it  deadens  the  vibrations  and 
saves  the  fastenings;  also  it  stops  the  splinters.  The 
best  form  of  backing  a|ipears  to  be  that  in  which 
wood  is  combined  with  strong  horizontal  angle-iron 
attached  to  the  inner  skin,  and  extending  to  the 
armor-plates;  this,  by  giving  rigidity,  very  consider- 
ably a.s.sists  tlie  plate"  to  resist  penetration.  An  inner 
skin  of  iron  is  of  the  greatest  possible  advantage;  it 


renders  the  backing  more  compact,  and  prevents  the 
passage  of  many  splinters.  Oak  and  teak  are  the 
most  suitable  timbers  for  backing-plates,  and  are  used 
as  such  on  vessels.  A  yielding  backing  is  found  to 
occasion  less  strain  on  the  fastenings  than  a  very 
hard  one.  Where  projectiles  are  made  of  the  ssime 
maleri.il,  and  are  similar  in  shape,  their  penetration 
into  unbacked  plates  is  nearly  in  proportion  to  their 
living  fiirec ,  or  their  weight  multiplied  by  tliC  squares 
of  the  rehcity  of  impaet. 

The  resistance  which  an  unbacked  plate  offers  to 
penetration  is  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  square  of 
its  thiekneas,  pro\ided  tills  thickness  be  confined 
within  ordinary  limits.  In  the  case  of  oblique  plates 
the  penetration  diminishes  nearly  with  the  sine  of  the 
angle  of  incidence.  The  most  suitable  material  for 
shells  to  be  used  against  iron  plates  is  tempered  steel. 
These  projectiles  should  be  made  of  cylindrical 
shape  with  thick  sides  and  bottom  to  direct  the  ex- 
plosive effect  of  the  charge  forward  after  i)enelra- 
tion  is  effected.  The  most'suitable  material  for  solid 
shot  is  hard,  tough  cast-iron.  Palliser's  chilled  shot 
are  made  of  this  ma'erial,  and  so  are  the  shot  made 
for  our  service.  It  follows  from  the  i)receding  that 
the  most  suitable  covering  oi  shield  for  cannon  is  a 
conical-shaped  turret  made  of  WTought-iron  plates, 
as  large  as  if  is  [iracticable  to  make  them,  backed  with 
oak  or  teak.  To  protect  the  men  from  the  frag- 
ments of  projectiles  which  may  penetrate  completely 
through  this  covering,  there  should  Ix'  an  "  inner 
skin"  of  thick  boiler  plate  placed  behind  the  wood. 
With  our  1.5-inch  cast-iron  projectiles,  made  of  the 
best  charcoal-iron,  poured  and  worked  in  a  peculiar 
manner  so  as  to  obtain  hard  and  solid  nia.s.ses,  the 
penetration  is  quite  as  great  and  uniform  as  that  ob- 
tained with  steel  shot  of  equal  weights  propelled  by 
similar  charges,  the  only  ditference  Ix'ing  that  the 
iron  breaks  after  passing  through,  while  the  st<'el  is 
only  compressed  or  flattened,  a  result  rather  in  favor 


BACK-PLATE. 


124 


BADGE. 


of  the  iron  shol,  if  entrance  is  made  where  men  are 
expt)s<-<l  to  its  fniyroi-uis. 

BACK-PLATE.— A  piece  of  armor  for  covering  the 
back.     Sof  Ariwr. 

BACK-SIGHT— The  rear-sighl  of  a  ^un.  It  may  l)c 
of  various  furins.  In  the  olil-fashioued  arms  iu- 
leniliii  for  round  IwUs.  it  was  merely  a  notch  in  a 
knob  or  plate  near  the  breech  of  the  gim,  the  proper 
elevation  to  be  given  bi'ing  estimated  by  the  marks- 
man. xVs  the  elfectivc  nuige  scarcely  excit'ded  2.50 
to  3D0  yards,  this  could  be  ilone  with  suHicient  accu- 
racy by  an  expert  marksman;  but  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  elongated  bullet,  gi\-ing  ranges  of  1000 
yards  and  upward,  it  bwanie  necessiiry  to  seek  some 
mori'  etiicieni  means  of  seeming  the  proper  n\nge  at 
thesi'  long  distances,  so  that  the  bullet  might  not  either 
pa.ss  over  or  fall  short  of  the  object.  For  this  purpose 
was  introduced  the  rear-sight,  consisting  of  an  upright 
slotted  brunch,  which  was  |x)inted  to  a  seat  on  the 
barrel  of  the  gim,  or,  in  some  instances,  on  the  small 
of  the  stock  in  rear  of  the  barrel.  A  notched  slider 
on  the  upright  branch  could  be  elevated  as  desired, 
and  by  elevating  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  until  this 
notch  and  the  front-sight  were  in  line  any  range  within 

nthe  limit  of  projec- 
tion of  the  piece 
could  be  attained. 
This  sliding  sight 
has,  in  the  United 
States  ser\ice,  been 
superseded  by  the 
leaf-sight,  which  is 
more  compact  and 
less  liable  to  de- 
rangement. Other 
back-sights,  especi- 
ally those  lirst  in- 
troduced in  south- 
ern Germany,  have 
been  made  of  vari- 
ous patterns;  one 
variety  being  per- 
manenlly  ti.\ed  per- 
pendicularly to  the 
barrel,  and  haWng 
notched  holes  at 
proper  heights  through  which  to  sight;  luid  another 
being  segmental  in  shape,  and  nio\ing  circularly  in 
a  direction  longitudinal  to  the  barrel  through  a  stud 
fixed  thereon.  Another  form  of  back-sight  vertically 
adjustable  for  ran^e,  and  attached  to  the  slock,  has  "a 
graduated  spring-piece  slip]iing  ■within  a  vertical  slot 
in  the  small  of  the  stock,  and  is  adjusted  as  required. 
Its  spring  retains  it  in  place,  or  it  may  be  clamped 
by  a  set-screw  or  lowered  below  the  line  of  the  hind- 
sight on  the  barrel.  The  drawing  shows  the  back- 
sight (with  wiml-gauge)  tiscd  on  the  Winchester  mili- 
tary ritle.     See  Puiiiiing. 

BACK-STEP. — The  retrograde  movement  of  a  man, 
or  a  body  of  men.  without  changing  front. 

BACK-SWORD.— A  sword  w  itli  one  sharp  edge  in 
contradistinction  to  one  which  has  two  edsres  throueh- 
out  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  its  lenstli.  In  England, 
t'.ie  h<i<-l-s,rord  is  a  stick  with  a  b.isket-handle,  used 
in  r;istic  amusements;  called  also  "  Single  Stick." 

BACKWARDS. — A  technical  word  made  use  of  in 
the  British  ser\ice  to  express  the  retrograde  move- 
ment of  troops  from  line  into  column,  and  eirf  rerun. ' 
Also,  a  word  of  command,  in  the  United  Slates 
service,  to  cause  a  man.  or  a  body  of  men,  to  march 
to  the  rear  without  changing  front. 

BACDLE.— A  kind  of  portcullis  or  gate,  made  like 
a  pitfall,  with  a  counterpoise.     See  Bawiile  Bridf/c. 

BADALEEBS. — >rusket-charges  of  powder  in  tin  or 
copper  tulies.  worn  dangling  from  a  shoulder-belt, 
l)efore  the  introduction  of  cartridires. 

BADELAIRE.— A  short,  broad,  curved,  and  double- 
edged  poiiiti-d  sword.     Also  written  Biindehiire 

BADEN  FUSE.— A  nuxlitication  of  the  Bormann 
fuse.     The  metal,  form  of  the  parts,  etc.,  are  the 


same  as  in  the  Bormann  fuse,  with  the  addition  of  a 
bronze  stud  and  plate,  used  to  contine  a  liiece  of 
quick-match  in  the  recess  shown  at  b  (sec  Bormann 
fust'),  and  two  pieces  of  common  carlrid,ge-i)ai)er,  cut 
in  the  pro])er  shape  to  tit  the  horseshocshalicd  ojx'U- 
ing,  one  of  which  goes  alwve,  the  other  below,  the 
charge  of  composition,  to  prevent  it,  when  burning, 
from  melting  the  metal  above  and  below  it.  The 
graduated  scale  is  more  extended  than  in  the  Bor- 
mann fuse,  the  numbers  exi>re.s.sin^,  instead  of  sec- 
onds, the  bursting-distances  in  hundreds  of  paces  of 
29i  inches  in  length.  The  charge-forcr  is  ca.st  in  a 
mold  ;  the  plate  to  cover  the  priming  is  cut  out  with 
sci.ssors,  and  the  paper  is  stamjied  or  cut  out  with 
a  stiunp  or  punch.  The  vent  leading  from  the  com- 
position-channel to  the  magiizine  is  closed,  to  jire- 
vent  the  entnince  of  composition  when  pressure  is 
applied.  One  of  the  pieces  of  paper  is  now  laid  in 
the  lx)ttom  of  the  channel,  and  on  it  is  placed  evenly 
a  layer  of  mealed  powder,  weighing  exactly  .jI  grains 
troy  ;  on  top  of  this  is  jilaced  the  second  [liece  of 
jiajjcr,  and  then  the  charge-cover,  which  is  pres-sed 
down  to  its  jilace  by  machinery,  ha\ing  on  its  imder 
surface  the  dies  to  impress  the  tigures  of  the  gradu- 
ating scale  on  the  metal.  The  amount  of  pressure 
exerted  is  about  .5000  lbs.;  which  forces  the  top  of 
the  charge-cover  slightly  below  the  surface  of  the 
fuse,  forming  thus  a  shallow  annular  hollow,  in 
which  is  poured  some  of  the  melted  metallic  mixture, 
but  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  jiossible,  in  order  that 
the  heat  of  this  solder  may  not  act  on  the  sulphur  in 
the  fuse.  'When  cool,  the  fuse  is  placed  in  a  turning- 
lathe,  dressed  off  smooth,  and  any  irregulaiities  in 
the  thread  of  the  screw  coriected.  The  vent  is  then 
unstopped,  the  magazine  tilled  with  tine  powder,  the 
cover  placed  on,  fastened,  and  jiierced. 

This  fuse,  like  the  original  Bormann,  was  designed 
for  use  with  Shrajmell  shot,  and  is  always  used  with 
what  the  French  call  an  MuntUur,  orstopjicr,  which 
is  made  usually  of  w  rought-iron.  The  eye  of  the 
shell  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  larger  on  the  ex- 
terior (calletl  the  eye  proper),  and  the  contracted  por- 
tion, next  to  the  interior,  called  the  table.  Into  this 
latter  the  obturatcur  is  screwed,  and  serves,  w  itli  the 
offset  between  the  two,  to  prevent  the  soft  metal  of 
the  fuse  from  being  driven  into  the  shell  by  the  force 
of  the  charge.  The  obturatem-  is  perforated  through 
the  center,  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  Hame  into  the 
charge.  The  weak  point  of  this  fuse,  and  all  motli- 
tications  of  the  Bormann  fuse,  is  the  difhculty  of 
regidating  them  exactly  and  promptly  on  the  field  of 
battle,  in  a  dense  cloud  of  smoke,  and  especially  at 
night.  A  remedy  for  this  defect,  however,  has  been 
found  in  the  ingenious  invention  of  Captain  Breit- 
haujit,  of  die  Austrian  service.  See  Bnithaiipt  Fme. 
BADGE. — The  tenn  by  which,  in  general,  all  hon- 
orary decorations  and  special  cognizances  are  known. 
Badges  are  either  conferred  by  the  Stale  or  Sovereign, 
or  assumed  by  the  individual  for  purposes  of  dis- 
tinction, the  foniicr  class  having  very  freiiuently  had 
their  origin  in  the  latter.  Of  badges  cDnferred  by 
public  authority,  for  the  purpose  of  iiieiling  to  ex- 
ertion and  gratifying  honorable  ambition,  numerous 
instances  are  to  be  met  with  in  every  jiarl  of  the 
world.  The  Garter  of  the  English  knight,  the 
Golden  Fleece  of  the  Spanish  grandee,  iind  the 
Button  of  the  Chinese  mandarin  will  occur  as 
familiar  examjilcs.  To  the  same  class  iK'long  not 
only  the  Stars  and  Cros,ses  with  which  princes  and 
other  persons  of  rank  are  ailorncd  in  England,  and 
to  a  far  greater  extent  on  the  Continent,  but  the 
I  medal  of  the  private  .soldier,  and  even  those  nol  less 
honorable  decorations  which  are  now  frequently  con- 
ferred by  private  societies  for  acts  of  voluntary  dar- 
i  ing,  sucli  as  the  medal  given  bv  the  Humane  Society 
I  for  saving  from  drowning.  Amongst  the  ancients, 
,  one  of  the  most  usual  emblems  of  authority  was  a 
'  gold  ring,  which  was  worn  generally  on  the  fourth 
finger.  A  ring  of  this  description  was  ihe  mark  of 
I  senatorial  and  magisterial  dignity,  and   latterly  of 


BAGGAGE. 


125 


BAGPIPE. 


knighthood  at  Rome;  iron  rings,  during  the  eariier 
period,  at  all  events,  haWng  been  used  by  private 
citizens.  The  right  of  wearing  a  gold  ring  (Ju» 
annuli  aurei)  wa.s  gradually  extended,  till  at  length 
Justinian  conferred  it  on  ail  the  citizens  of  the  Em- 
pire In  the  early  times  of  the  Republic,  when  Em- 
bassadors were  sent  to  foreign  States,  thev  were  fur- 
nished with  gold  rings,  which  they  <\ore  during  their 
mission  as  badges  of  authority.  From  an  early  period, 
every  freeman  in  Greece  appe^irs  to  have  used  a  ring, 
though  the  custom,  not  being  mentioned  by  Homer, 
can  scarcely  have  belonged  to  the  e;irliest  period  of 
the  history  of  that  people,  and  is  commonly  supposed 
to  have  been  of  Asiatic  origin.  Rings  are  often 
mentioned  in  Scripture  as  badges  of  authority  both 
amongst  the  .Jews  and  other  Oriental  nations.  We 
read  of  Pharaoh  taking  off  his  ring  and  putting  it  on 
Joseph's  hand,  as  a  token  of  the  power  which  he 
committed  to  him  (Gen.  xli.  42);  and  still  earlier 
(Gen.  xxxviii.  18)  Judah  left  his  signet  ^^^th  Tamar 
as  a  pledge.  In  the  New  Testament,  rings  are  spoken 
of  rather  as  marks  of  wealth  and  luxury  than  as 
badges  of  otHcial  rank;  e.g.,  James  ii.  'i.  and  Luke 
XV.  22,  where,  on  the  return  of  the  prodigal  .son,  the 
father  ordered  that  a  ring  should  be  put  on  his  finger. 
Of  badges  a.ssumed  for  the  purpose  of  distinction, 
none  are  more  famous  than  the  white  and  red  roses 
of  York  and  Lancaster.  Henry  VII.  combmed  these 
two  emblems,  lirst  carrying  a  rose  per  pale,  white 
and  red,  and  afterwards  placing  the  white  rose  within 
the  red  one.  One  of  Queen  Elizalieth's  badges  was  a 
golden  falcon  perched  on  the  stump  of  a  tree  between 
two  growing  branches  of  white  and  red  roses,  a 
badge  which  is  said  to  have  been  given  to  her  mother. 
Anne  Boleyn,  by  Henry  VIII.  The  benr  and  rugged 
staff,  which  still  exists  as  a  sign  in  London,  was  the 
badge  of  the  great  Earl  of  Warwick.  The  irhite  hart 
and  silrer  siran,  which  are  frequently  '.net  with  as 
signs  to  inns,  have  a  similar  origin,  the  lirst  having 
been  the  badge  of  Richard  II.,  aud  the  second  having 
belonged  to  the  House  of  Lancaster.  The  gurb  and 
sickle^  Ihc  badge  of  the  Hungerfords,  is  another  ver}- 


Garb  and  Sickle. 


Fleur-de-lis  of  Louis  Vn. 


beautiful  and  less  common  example  of  the  same  cla.ss 
of  badges.  Different  countries  have  also  distinctive 
badges,  generally  connected  with  the  history  either 
of  the  actual  ruling  or  of  some  former  dynasty.  Of 
these,  llxc  Jteur-de-li.^  of  France,  and  the  other  badges, 
for  which  it  from  time  to  time  makes  way— viz.,  the 
cap  of  liberty  and  other  emblems  of  republicanism, 
the  eagles  of"  the  Empire,  borrowed  from  Rome,  and 
the  bees  and  other  insignia  which  the  Bonaparte 
family  have  assumed — may  all  be  taken  as  examples. 

For  the  badges  of  the  different  Orders  of  Knight- 
hood, see  their'respective  titles. 

BAGGAGE. — No  question  is  more  important  in  giv- 
im;  etticieucy  to  an  army  than  the  regulation  of  its 
bairiraire.  Nothing  so  seriously  impairs  the  mobility 
of  an  army  in  the'field  as  its  "baggage-train,  Imt  this 
bairgage  is  necessary  to  its  existence  ;  and  the  impor- 
tant question  therefore  arises.  How  shall  the  army  be 
sustained  with  least  baggage?  Sufficient  attention  is 
not  paid  by  Government  "to  this  subject  in  time  of 
peace,  and  "in  war  the  Commander  of  the  troops  linds 
himself  therefore  obliged  to  use  the  ini^tudud  means 
which  his  Government  hastily  furnishes.  In  respect 
to  artillery  and  artillery  equipments,  the  minutest 
details  arc  regulated.     It  should  be  the  same  with 


other  supplies.  In  the  United  States  Army,  the 
Quartermaster's  Department  has  charge  of  transports, 
and  some  steps  have  been  taken  to  regidate  the  sub- 
ject ;  but  legislation  is  required  for  the  neces-sary 
militarj-  organization  of  Conductors  and  Drivers  of 
wagons,  and  perhaps,  also,  unless  our  arsenals  may 
be  so  used,  for  the  establishment  of  depots,  where  a 
studied  examination  of  tield-transportation  may  be 
made,  which  will  recommend  rules,  regulating  the 
kinds  of  wagons  or  carts  to  be  used  in  different  cir- 
ciunstances ;  prescribing  the  construction  of  the 
wagon  and  its  various  parts  in  a  uniform  manner  so 
that  the  corresponding  part  of  one  wagon  will  answer 
for  aiKjther,  giving  the  greatest  possible  mobilitj-  to 
these  wagons  consistent  with  strength  ;  prescribing 
the  harness,  equipment,  valises  of  olficers,  blacksmith- 
forges,  tool-chests,  ch&sts  for  uniforms,  bales  of 
clothing,  packing  of  provisions,  and,  generally,  the 
proportion,  form,  substance,  and  dimensions  of  arti- 
cles of  suppl}',;  what  should  be  the  maximum  weight 
of  packages ;  the  means  to  be  taken  for  preventing 
damage  to  the  articles  ;  the  grade,  duties,  and  pay  of 
the  Quartermasters,  Wagon  -  msisters,  and  Drivers 
shoidd  be  properly  regulated ;  rules  for  loading 
should  be  gi\en ;  and,  finally,  a  complete  system  of 
marks,  or  modes  of  recognition,  should  be  systema- 
tized. With  such  rules,  and  the  adoption  of  a  kit- 
clten-cart,  together  with  small  cooking-utensils  for 
tield-ser\-ice  which  may  be  carried  by  llie  men,  an 
army  would  no  longer  always  be  tied  to  a  baggage- 
train,  and  great  results  might  be  accomplished  by  the 
disconnection. 

In  the  marching  arrangements  of  the  British  Army 
the  baggage  is  placed  under  strict  rules,  in  order  that 
accumulation  of  weight  may  not  impede  the  move- 
ment of  the  troops  ;  and  rules  of  an  analogous  kind 
are  enforced  in  troop-ships,  when  soldiers  are  f)n  a 
voyage.  The  term  itself  is  made  to  apply  chiefly  to  ar- 
ticles^of  clothing,  and  to  smal  I  personal  effects.  A  pri- 
vate soldier  is  allowed  to  carry  nothing  except  that 
which  his  knapsack  and  other  accouterinents  can  hold  ; 
but  those  who  are  married  witli  their  officers'  consent 
— a  small  number  in  every  regiment — are  allowed 
one  small  chest  each,  of  detinite  size,  which  may  be 
carried  on  a  march,  but  at  the  men's  own  expense. 
Staff-sergeants  and  Pay-sergeants  have  similar  per- 
mission. The  baggage-wagons  are  not  expectetl  to 
receive  packages  weighing  more  than  400  lbs.  each, 
or  as  much  as  four  men  can  lift.  OHicers'  bagg-age 
is,  of  course,  much  more  considerable  in  amount  than 
that  of  the  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates. 
On  board  troop-ships,  the  weight  to  be  carried  for 
each  person  is  strictly  defined — from  18  cwt.  for  a 
Field-officer,  down  to  1  cwt.  for  a  married  private 
soldier,  with  his  wife  and  children.  In  encamp- 
ments, whether  permanent  or  temporary,  and  in 
armies  on  field-service,  the  utmost  care  is  taken  to 
preserve  the  baggage  from  the  enemy,  by  surround- 
iuir  it  as  much  as  possible  Avith  defensive  troops. 

BAGGAGE  -  MASTER.— An  officer,  in  the  English 
Army,  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  baggage  of 
each  brigade  aud  division  of  an  army  in  the  field. 
He  is  selected  from  the  Line  if  the  Senior  Officer  of  the 
^\jiuy  Service  C'oips  is  not  suited  for  the  work. 
During  the  march  he  is  the  Staff-officer  of  the  Field- 
officer  of  the  Day,  who,  commanding  the  rear-guard, 
can  give  him  orders  if  necessarj'.  The  Queen's  Reg- 
idalions  of  1S73  state  that  each  regiment  on  a  march 
is  to  furnish  its  own  baggage-guard,  under  the  care 
of  an  officer  of  the  resiment. 

BAGGONET.— The  ancient  term  for  bayonet.  It  is 
seldom  used  at  present. 

BAGPIPE.— A  wind-instrument,  very  popular  in 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  This  iristniment,  the 
performers  of  which  are  called  "pipers,"  is  playefl 
by  the  bandsmen  of  Highland  regiments.  L'p  to  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  bagpipe  was  a  very  common 
instrument  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  of  Grecian  origin,  and  the  Romans  in 
all  probability  took  it  from  the  Greeks.     The  natives 


BAGS. 


126 


BAKES  OTTir. 


of  Indin  have  an  inslrumont  very  similar  to  llic  top- 
pipe.  The  bagpipe  lias  long  Iwen  n  favorite  instru- 
ment with  the  Scots,  inspiring  them  with  great  en- 
thusiasm and  valor  in  the  day  of  liallle. 

BAGS.— Articles  usc<l  in  Beld-fortitications,  and  in 
works  to  cover  a  Ix'sieging  army.  Sand-lxiga,  which 
arc  generally  16  Inches  in  diameter  imd  30  high,  are 
filled  with  earth  oi  sand,  to  repair  breaches  and  em- 
bnisures  of  batterie-s,  when  damaged  by  the  enemy's 
fire  or  by  the  blast  of  the  euus.  'fhey  arc  also 
placed  on  parapets,  so  ammgea  as  to  form  a  covering 
lor  men  to  tire  through.  E<irth-lHigs,  holding  a  cubi- 
cal foot  of  earth,  are  usctl  to  raise  a  parapet  in  haste, 
or  to  repair  one  that  is  bi«len  down.  They  are  only 
employed  where  the  ground  is  rocky,  or  too  hard  for 
the  pick!».\e  and  spade,  and  does  not  afford  ready 
material  for  a  temiHtrary  parapet.  See  Blowing-bags, 
Bunting-bags,  Calico -i'ligs.  Cartridge -bags.  Gunny- 
bags,  and  iiunpmtdtr-hags. 

BAGS  OF  POWDEK.— Powder  in  bags  used  to  blow 
down  gales,  stockades,  and  slight  obstructions.  In 
future  wars  the  higher  explosives  will  doubtless  be 
used  for  such  jiuqioses. 

BAICLAKLAR.— The  name  given  to  a  Color-bearer 
in  the  Turkish  Army. 

BAIKY.— The  baliium,  or  inclosed  plot  of  ground 
in  an  ancient  fort. 

BAIL. — A  stout  iron  yoke  placed  over  heavy-  guns 
and  tilting  closelj'  over  the  ends  of  the  trunnions,  to 
which  it  is  attached  by  pins  in  the  axis  of  the  trun- 
nions; used  to  raise  or  lower  the  gun  by  means  of 
the  gin. 

BAILLE. — A  term  formerly  used  to  designate  a 
work  9r  fortification  which  served  as  an  outpost  or 
exterior  defense. 


though  the  same  weight  of  metal  was  put  in  one  bar- 
rel, which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
Siinie  weight  oi  metal  in  a  hollow  tube  is  much 
slilTer  Ihiui  though  it  was  in  a  solid  bar;  and,  also, 
each  barrel  forms  a  brace  to  help  support  the  other, 
and  especially  in  regard  to  the  rifle-barrel,  in  which 


are  used  the  heaviest  charges  that  are  manufactured 
for  a  sporting-gun. 

The  drawings  show  the  form  of  the  gun  and  the 
manner  of  operating  the  mechanism.  In  the  smaller 
drawing,  A  is  the  rifle  hammer  which,  Ix-ing  hung 
in  the  trigger-plate  and  extending  up  its  side  between 
the  two  shotgun  locks,  strikes  the  rifle  firing-pin  at 


A,  Rifle  Barrel ;  B,  Thumb-piece  of  the  Rifle  Hammer. 


BAIONNIEE.— A  name  formerly  given  to  soldiers 
who  were  iiniied  with  a  bayonet. 

BAKEB  GUN— A  three-barrel  breech-loading  gun 
recently  introduced  and  received  with  much  favor. 
As  happens  to  every  liunter  or  sportsman,  unex- 
pected opportunities  offer  themselves  to  shoot  at  a 
cla.S8  of  game  that  a  sliot-gun  will  either  not  reach 
at  all,  or  fail  to  kill.  This  gun  gives  confidence  to 
those  Inmting  in  localities  where  there  are  dangerous 
animals,  or  wliere  an  enemy  might  be  lurking  and 
unexpect<'dly  encouiilered  at  any  moment.  It  is  a 
most  useful  and  suitable  weapon  for  the  hunters  at- 
tached to  scouting  columns  in  the  field,  who  are 
charged  with  supi)lying  the  mes.ses  with  game.  The 
weight,  not  over  nine  ])oimds,  is  sufficient  to  pre\ent 
an  uni)lea.siint  recoil,  and  permits  the  gun  to  be  Ciir- 
ried  with  the  same  ea.se  as  does  an  ordinary  rifle,  con- 
taining nielal  enough  to  do  satisfaclorj'  work. 

It  is  demonstrated  by  actual  u.sc  tliat  there  is  less 
spring  or  recoil  in  a  gun  with  three  barrels  thau 


B .  To  operate  it ,  cock  the  left-hand  shot-gun  lock  and 
then  p\isli  forward  the  thumb-piece.  A,  of  rifle  ham- 
mer, which  will  cause  Ihc  hook,  C,  to  engage  with  the 
pin,  E,  which  is  attached  to  the  ttmibler  of  the  left- 
liand  lock;  then  by  pulling  the  back  trigger  the  rifle 
hammer  will  be  caused  to  strike  the  firiiig-i)in  at  B, 
and  stop,  thus  not  allowing  the  left-hand  hammer  to 
go  quite  far  enotich  to  reach  its  tiring-pin.  After 
firing  the  rifle,  cocking  the  left-liand  hammer  throws 
the  rifle  lock  out  of  gear,  then  the  shotgun  locks  are 
entirely  independent  of  the  rifle  lock.  The  rifle 
barrel  is  chambered  to  use  the  Winchester  44-calibcr 
cartridge. 

The  gun  has  a  hinge-sight  on  the  stock  which  turns 
do\Yn  entirely  out  of  tlic  way  while  shooting  the 
shot-barrels,  and  when  turned  up  has  a  slide  with  a 
common  notch  in  the  top  for  open  or  quick  shooting, 
and  when  raised  has  a  fine  hole  or  peep-sight  for 
close  or  target  shooting.  A  buckhorn  sight  can  be 
placed  on  the  rib  when  desired,  but  in  most  cases  Is 


BAK£BI£S. 


127 


BALANCE. 


unadvisable,  as  the  rear-sight  answers   all  practical 
purposes. 

The  lock  is  so  constructed  that  while  it  retains  the 
identical  form  of  the  best  forward-action  locks,  mak- 
ing the  gun  the  same  shape,  and  having  the  same 
appearance  outside  of  tlie  tincst  standard  work,  the 
mainspring,  instead  of  running  forward  into  tlio 
breech,  is  inclosed  within  the  lock  -  plate,  which 
leaves  the  breech  to  retain  the  entire  strength  of  the 
metal  which  has  to  be  removed  to  make  room  for  the 
ordinary  lock,  and  which  weakens  it  most  precisely 
where  it  is  subject  to  the  urealest  strain.  While  the 
lock  thus  allows  of  absolutely  the  strongest  breech 
possible  to  get  on  a  gun,  it  also  admits  of  obtaining 
the  easiest  access  to  the  entire  working-parts  of  the 
gun,  and  is  of  such  construction  that  with  ordinary 
usage  it  will  not  get  out  of  order,  or  become  clog- 
ged with  dirt  or  oil  so  as  to  prevent  its  successful 
working. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  referring  to  the  description  of 
the  action,  that  while  it  is  composed  of  the  fewest 
pieces  that  is  possible  to  use  in  a  snap-action,  it  at 
the  same  time  possesses  every  quality  that  is  desira- 
ble, or  that  has  been  found  essential  to  strength,  dura- 
bility, and  safety.  It  is  impossible  to  fire  the  gun 
unless  the  bolt  is  securely  in  its  place,  and  the  act  of 
pulling  the  trigger  holds  it  there  while  the  gun  is 
being  discharged.  It  is  also  manifest  that  as  soon  as 
the  gun  is  tired  the  hand  is  in  place  to  open  it  with 
out  any  change  of  position,  insuring  easy  manipula- 
tion and  rapid  tiring,  it  being  entirely  practicable  to 
open  it  ready  to  receive  the  cartridge  while  bringing 
it  down  from  the  shoulder. 

BAKERIES.— Armies  have  generally  the  means  of 
obtaining  soft  or  loaf  bread,  though  not  till  recently 
could  this  be  said  of  the  British  Army.  The  French, 
ever  since  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  take  portable  ovens  with  their  armies;  those 
now  used  will  each  bake  4.50  rations  at  once.  Out- 
side Sebastopol,  in  the  winter  of  18.54,  the  British 
soldiers  sometimes  willingly  exchanged  with  the 
French  .3  or  4  lbs.  of  biscuit  for  1  lb.  of  soft  bread. 
The  efforts  since  made  to  improve  the  siinitary  con- 
dition of  the  army  have  included  the  establishment  of 
traveling-bakeries  for  field-ser\icc.  Umler  the  Com- 
missaries, the  troops  now  rarely  fail  to  obtain  their 
dail}-  rations  of  fresh-baked  bread.  The  English  were 
the  last  among  the  greater  nations  to  make  this  ob- 
vious improvement;  but  the  French  depend  more  on 
bread  and  lesson  meat  than  the  English;  and  this  ma)' 
partly  account  for  the  difference.  The  French  sol- 
diers are  taught  to  construct  tieltl-ovens,  and  to  bake 
their  bread  in  camp,  while  government  bakeries  are 
established  all  over  France,  entirely  coiidvicted  by 
soldiers.  Among  other  lcs.sons  afforded  by  the  Siege 
of  Sebastopol  was  one  relating  to  an  improved  sup- 
ply of  army-bread.  Two  screw-steamers,  the  Bruiser 
and  the  Ahvndanee,  were  sent  out  to  Balaklava,  one 
provided  with  machinery  for  grinding  corn,  and  the 
other  with  machinery  and  ovens  for  making  and  bak- 
ing bread.  In  each  case  the  ship  and  the  machinery 
were  propelled  liy  the  same  steam-engine.  When 
quietly  anchored  in  the  harbor,  the  mill  ground 
&4,000  lbs.  of  flour  per  day — better  in  quality  and 
cheaper  than  could  have  been  obtained  by  contract. 
The  bakery-ship  Abundance  had  four  ovens  of  14 
bushels'  capacity  each;  it  baked  in  an  excellent  man- 
ner 6000  loaves  of  3  lbs.  each  per  da}',  which  loaves 
were  sent  up  to  the  siege-army  as  soon  as  cooled. 
The  ships  and  machinery  were  sold  when  the  war 
was  over — a  proceeding  which  the  Commissariat 
Officers  much  regretted;  but  the  experience  thence 
obtained  will  not  be  lost.  The  improved  arrange- 
ments suggested  for  meat-rations  are  noticed  under 

BAKER  RIFLE.— In  1800,  the  9.5th  Regiment,  now 
tlie  Rifle  Brigade  of  England,  was  armed  with  this  rifle, 
which  weighed  9i  pounds.  The  barrel  was  'ii  feet  in 
length  and  had  7  grooves,  making  a  quarter  turn  in 
the  length  of  the  barrel,  and  its  caliber  was  a  30  bore. 


A  small  wooden  mallet  was  supplie<i  with  this 
rifle,  to  force  the  ball  into  the  barrel;  this  mallet  re- 
mained in  use  for  a  short  time,  when  it  was  with- 
drawn The  great  difliculty  experienced  in  loading 
the  rifle  led  to  the  remedy  of  M.  Dehigne  in  18i(j. 

BALANCE. — An  instrument  for  a.scertaining  the 
weight  of  bodies  in  grains,  ounces,  pounds,  or  any 
other  units  of  weight.  The  ordinary  balance  con- 
sists of  a  lever  called  a  beam,  whose  point  of  support 
is  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  and  having  dishes  or 
scales  suspended  from  cither  extremity.  "As  it  is  of 
importance  that  the  beam  sliould  move  easily  round 
its  point  of  support,  it  rests  on  polished  agate  or  steel 
planes,  by  means  of  knife-edges  of  tempered  .steel, 
which  project  transversely  from  its  sides,  and  serve 
as  the  axis  of  rotation.  By  this  arrangement  the 
surface  of  contact  is  reduced  to  a  mere  line,  and  the 
friction  of  the  axis  of  the  beam  on  its  support  almost 
entirely  obviated.  The  scales  are  hung  by  means  of 
chains  attached  to  steel  hooks,  which  rest  also  on 
knife-edges,  but  turned  upwards  instead  of  down- 
wards as  in  the  first  case.  The  essential  require- 
ments of  a  balance  of  this  description  are :  1st, 
That  the  beam  shall  remain  in  a  horizontal  position 
when  no  weights  are  in  either  scale;  and  2d,  That 
the  beam  shall  be  a  lever  of  equal  arms,  or  have  the 
distances  between  the  central  knife-edge  and  those  at 
either  end  exactly  the  same.  To  insure  the  first  of 
these  conditions,  it  is  necessary  that  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  beam  lie  vertically  below  the  point 
of  support,  when  the  beam  is  horizontal.  When 
such  is  the  ca.se,  the  center  of  gra\ity  at  wiiich  the 
weight  of  the  beam  nuiy  be  considered  to  act  oscil- 
lates as  in  a  pendulum  round  the  point  of  support, 
and  alwaj'S  comes  to  rest  right  under  that  point,  thus 
restoring  to  the  beam  its  horizontal  position  when  it 
has  been  tilted  out  of  it.  If  the  center  of  gravity 
were  above  the  point  of  support,  the  beam  would 
topple  over  ;  and  if  it  coincided  with  that  point,  there 
being  no  restormg  force,  the  beam  would  occupy 
indifferently  any  jwsition  into  which  it  was  thrown, 
the  balance  in  both  cases  being  useless.  That  a  bal- 
ance possesses  the  second  of  the  above  conditions  is 
ascertained  by  jiutting  weights  into  the  scales  which 
keep  the  beam  horizontal,  and  then  transposing  them, 
when,  if  it  still  remains  so,  the  lengths  of  the  arms 
are  equal.  Should  the  arms  be  of  different  lengths, 
a  less  weight  at  the  end  of  the  longer  arm  will  bal- 
ance a  larger  weight  at  the  end  of  the  shorter  arm; 
but  when  transposed,  the  larger  weight  ha\ing  the 
longer  arm,  and  the  smaller  weight  the  shorter,  the 
beam  can  no  longer  remain  horizontal,  but  will  in- 
cline towards  the  larger  weight.  A  balance  with  im- 
equul  arms  is  called  a  /«?.«'  Inilaiicc,  as  distinguished 
from  an  equal-armed  or  just  balance.  When  weigh- 
ing with  a  false  balance,  it  is  usual  to  weigh  a  body 
in  lx)th  scales,  and  take  the  arithmetical  mean — that 
is,  half  the  sum  of  the  apparent  weights  for  the  true 
weight.  This  is  near  enough  to  the  truth  when  the 
ajiparent  weights  differ  little  from  each  other;  but 
when  it  is  otherwise,  the  geometrical  mean  must  be 
taken,  which  gives  the  exact  weight  in  all  cases. 

Although  the  preceding  conditions  are  of  essential 
importance,  they  do  not  supply  all  that  we  look  for 
in  a  good  balance.  It  is  necessary,  in  addition,  that 
the  beam  should  turn  visibly  from  its  horizontal 
position  when  there  is  a  slight  excess  of  weight  in  the 
one  scale  as  compared  with  the  other.  This  tendency 
is  termed  scnsiiiliii/.  and  dejicnds  upon  the  weight  of 
the  beam,  the  position  of  its  center  of  gra\ity,  and 
the  length  yf  its  arms. 

There  is  another  form  of  delicate  balance  employed 
in  the  arsenal  and  laboratory.  The  beam  is  con- 
structed so  as  to  combine  lightness  with  strength,  and 
rests  by  a  fine  knife-edge  on  an  agate  ])lane.  It  is 
surmounted  by  a  weight  mo\ing  on  a  screw,  .so  that 
the  sensibility  may  be  incrcasetl  or  diminislied.  ac- 
cording as  the  weiirht  is  raised  or  depressed.  In  onler 
that  the  knife-edge  may  not  become  blunted  by 
constant  contact  with  the  supporting  plane,  a  cross- 


BALANCE. 


128 


BALANCE. 


bnr,  with  two  projcclinj;  pins,  is  niiulc  lo  lift  the 
beum  from  the  plaiu',  ami  susljiin  its  weiirJit  wlieu 
the  biilaiK'C  is  not  in  play.  The  beam  is  ijivided  by 
lines  niarkcfl  upon  it  into  ten  e<iual  parts,  ami  a  small 
weight  maile  of  tine  wirt'  bent  into  the  form  of  a  fork, 
called  a  rider,  is  n\ade  to  slide  along  to  any  of  the 
di\"isions.  If  the  rider  be,  for  instance,  |V,  of  a  grain, 
and  if,  after  the  weight  tif  a  ImhIv  is  verv  nearly  its- 
certaim^l.  it  brings  the  l)eam.  when  plaeet"!  at  the  tirst 
division  tic.xt  the  eenter,  exactly  to  its  horizontal 
position,  an  additional  weight  ot  \},g  of  a  gndn  will 
be  indicated.  The  use  of  inconveniently  small 
weights  is,  by  this  arrangement,  to  a  large  extent  ob- 
viated. iVs  the  beam  takes  some  time  before  it  comes 
to  rest,  it  would  be  tedious  to  wait  in  each  case  till 
it  did  so,  and  for  this  reason  a  long  pointed  inde.x  is 
fixetl  to  the  beam  below  the  point  of  suspension,  the 
lower  extremity  of  which  moves  backward  and  for- 
ward on  a  graduated  ivory  scale,  so  that  when  the 
index  moves  to  equal  distiuices  on  either  side  of  the 
zero-point  we  are  quite  certain,  without  waiting  till 
it  liually  settles,  that  the  beam  will  be  horizontal. 
The  same  is  seen  in  ordinary  balances,  only  the 
tomnie  or  index  is  above  the  beam;  and  according  to 
its  clcNiation  on  each  side  of  the  fork  or  cheeks  b}' 
which  the  whole  is  suspended  is  the  future  position 
of  the  beam  ascerUiined.  The  finer  balances  are 
never  loaded  to  more  than  a  pound  in  each  scale,  and 
when  so  charged  will  deflect  with  ^Js  of  a  grain  of 


additional  weight  in  one  of  the  scales,  or  will  turn, 
as  it  is  technically  called,  with  ttsVott  of  'he  load. 
The  finest  balances  turn  with  xjnrjTsjrir  of  the  load, 
and  some  have  been  constructed  which  turn  with 
much  less.  Even  with  the  best  achievements  of 
mechanical  skill,  no  balance  can  be  made  whose 
arms  are  absolutely  equal:  and  to  remedy  this  defect, 
the  method  of  double-weighing  is  resorted  to  when 
the  utmost  accuracy  is  demantled.  This  consists  in 
placing  the  body  to  be  weighed  into  one  scale,  and 
sand,  or  the  like,  into  the  other,  until  exact  equi- 
librium is  obtained,  then  removing  the  body,  and 
putting  weights  or  another  body  in  its  place  "which  ' 
exactly  counterbalance  the  sand.  Both  being  thus 
weiirhed  in  precisely  similar  circumstances,  must 
Weigh  precisely  the  same. 

The  balance  employed  in  the  process  of  determin- 
ing density  is  a  simple  b(?am-.scale.  constructed  w  ith 
great  accuracy.  The  great  convenience  of  a  decimal 
system  of  weights  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  the 
scale  of  grams  in  a.scertjiining  the  density  of  pow- 
der. The  set  of  weights  used  is  of  50(K)  grams;  ap- 
proximately 11  pounds.  The  heaviest,  Tkilogram, 
2204  ixiunds;  the  lightest,  3  centigrams,  0.75  '. 
grain.  The  i)owder  lo  1h'  tested,  if  of  mammoth 
size,  will  require  bnvikiii!;  up  to  a  smaller  granula- 
tion;  for  in  it.s  natural  slate  it  will  not  readily  enter 
the  va.se,  which  is  of  but  one  half-inch  interior  diame- 
ter at  the  neck.    This  is  readily  and  safely  done  by 


using  a  light  steel  hammer,  the  powder  resting  on  a 
table  of  wood.  For  convenience  of  computation,  it 
is  advisable  to  use  samples  of  100  grams;  or,  if 
eni]>loying  grain  weights,  of  l.>43.3  gnuns.  To  take 
the  deiisitv,  weigh  out  the  sample  with  great  accu- 
racy, taking  lOO  grams,  if  jiracticable.  The  vase 
I  iR'iiig  mounted,  w ith  the  nozzle  screwed  in  place  and 
well  immersed  in  the  mercury,  close  the  lower  cock, 
opening  both  the  others,  and  exhaust  the  air  from  tLe 
'  tube  and  vase.  When  the  gauge  shows  nearly  a  per- 
fect vacuinu,  opeti  the  lower  cock.  The  mercury 
from  the  dish  w  ill  then  enter  and  fill  the  vase,  rising- 
in  the  tul)c  marly  to  the  barometric  height,  the 
vacuum  meanwliiie  being  kept  up  by  continuous 
pumi>ing.  As  .soon  as  the  colunni  becomes  station- 
ary, eloK'  the  lower  stop-cock,  and  readmit  the  air  to 
the  top  of  the  tube  by  unscrewing  the  casing  of  the 
vacuum-gauge;  close  the  other  cocks  and  unscrew 
the  nozzle;  dismount  the  vase,  jar  out  the  mercury 
from  the  tubular  spaces  outside  the  cocks,  brush  the 
outside  clean,  and  then  place  the  vase  on  its  rest  and 
weigh  it.  Call  this  weight  of  vase  and  mercurj-  Vjf 
=  Tr.  Empty  the  vase  by  opening  the  cocks,  and 
allow  the  mercury  to  return  to  the  dish;  also  let  the 
mercury  nm  out  of  the  barometer-tube.  If  the  inside 
of  the  vase  is  coated,  unscrew  both  plugs  and  wipe  it 
otit  with  a  cloth;  or,  if  uecessarj',  wash  it  with' aqua 
regia.  With  clean  mercury,  washing  is  rarely  re- 
quired. In  general  practice,  after  having  emptied 
the  vase,  one  plug  is  unscrewed,  and  the  sample  of 
powder  previousl}-  weighed  out  is  poured  in.  The 
plug  being  again  securely  in  place,  the  vase  is 
mouuted  and  the  mercury  pumjied  into  it,  passing 
up  through  the  powder,  "tilling  its  interstices,  driv- 
ing out  the  air,  and  rising  to  the  .same  height  in 
the  tube  as  before.  "When  this  point  is  reached,  close 
the  cocks,  admit  the  air,  imscrew  and  weigh  the  vase 
as  before,  calling  the  weight  of  powder,  vase,  and 
mercuiy  PVM  =  W  .  From  these  two  weights,  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  powder  sample,  the  density  is 
calculated  by  the  proportion:  Density  of  mercury  is 
to  densitj'  of  powder  as  weight  of  merciuy  displaced 
by  powder  is  to  weight  of  powder;  or,  if 
W  =  weight  of  vase  and  mercury, 
W  =  weight  of  powder,  vase,  and  mercury, 
w  =  weight  of  powder, 
D  =  density  of  mercury, 
d  =  density  of  powder, 
then  W  —  ic  =  weight  of  mercury,  vase,  and  powder, 
less  the  weight  of  powder,  and  W  —  (W  —  (c)  = 
weight  of  mercury  displaced  by  the  powder,  and  the 
proportion  becomes 

D.d  =  W—  W  +  w  :w, 
or 

D  Xw 
"-W-  W  +  w' 
The  weight  of  W  should  be  determined  at  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  each  set  of  trials,  and  the  mean 
be  ased  to  correct  the  result  of  the  whole  series. 
The  mercury  used  should  be  of  specific  gravity 
—13.55055  at  66°  Fahrenheit.  Its  purity  can  be  tested 
by  comparison  with  distilled  water  by" the  following 
process:  Clean  the  vase  and  its  connections  thorough- 
1}',  and  weigh  it.  Call  this  weight  a.  Jlount  the  vase 
and  fill  it  with  mercury,  and  again  weigh  it.  calling 
the  re.sidt  b.  Empty,  clean,  !ind  connect  it  again, 
substituting  a  dish  of  distilled  water  for  that  of  mer- 
cury ordinarily  used.  Fill  the  vase  bj-  pumping 
slowly  to  avoid  overflowing.  Detach  and  weigh  it 
again,  calling  this  last  weight  c;  then 
b  —  a       ^ 

the  density  of  the  mercuiy,  which,  if  up  to  the 
standard,  will  con-espond  to  that  given  in  the  table 
for  the  temperature  at  the  time  of  trial.  The  mer- 
cury- used  with  the  densimeter  should  frequently  be 
strained  through  chamois-leather  to  remove  impuri- 
ties which  are  accidentally  introduced  into  it  in  ex- 
perimenting.    See  Weighing-machine. 


BALANCE-STEP. 


129 


BALLABD  EIFLE. 


BALANCE-STEP.— An  exercise  in  sciuad-drill  which 
is  much  practiced  as  a  preliminary  to  marchinir. 

BALDRICK— BAUDRICK.— A  band  or  sji.-ih  worn 
partly  as  a  military  and  partly  as  a  heraldic  symbol. 

It  passes  round  the 
waist  as  a  girdle,  or 
pa.sses  over  the  left 
shoulder,  whence  it 
is  brought  downward 
obliquely  imder  the 
riirht  arm,  or  is  sus- 
]iciKk'd  from  the  right 
shoulder  in  such  a 
way  as  to  sustain  a 
sword.  Many  of  the 
effigies  of  knights  con- 
tain representations  of 
thebaldrick,  more  fre- 
quently as  a  belt  than 
a  shoulder-sash.  Queen  Victoria  frequently  wears  a 
blue  silken  baldrick  on  state  occasions.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  hitUeus  of  the  Roman  soldier. 

BALESTRE.— The  erosg-boie  li  gakt,  so  called  by 
the  Germans,  from  its  being  somewhat  huge  in  size. 
Also  written  BaUtntrc. 

BALISTA— BALLISTA. — A  large  militan,"  weapon 
in  use  before  the  invention  of  gunpowder.  The 
bdUsUi.  the  mtapulta.  the  scorpion,  and  the  onager 
propelled  large  and  heavy  missiles,  chiefly  through 
the  reaction  of  a  tightly-twisted  rope  of  hemp,  flax, 
catgut,  sinew,  or  hair;  or  else  by  a  nolent  movement 
of  levers.  The  scorpion  was  a  kind  of  large  crowbar: 
the  balista  threw  stones;  the  catapulta  threw  hea\'y 
darts  or  arrows,  and  was  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
balista.  One  man  could  manage  the  scorpion,  but 
two  or  more  were  needed  for  the  balista  or  the  cata- 
pulta. There  was  a  good  deal  of  mechanism  nec- 
essary to  bring  about  the  propulsive  force.     The 


makers  of  those  machines  were  very  parricidar  in  the 
choice  of  women's  hair,  the  sinews  of  a  liull's  neck, 
and  the  tendons  of  the  deer,  wherewith  to  fashion  the 
elastic  cord.  The  onager  was  a  kind  of  balista,  which 
threw  a  stone  by  the  agency  of  a  sling  instead  of  a 
stretcheil  cord.  The  early  chroniclers  tell  of  cata- 
pultas  that  would  throw  an  arrow  half  a  mile,  or 
hurl  a  javelin  across  the  Danulie;  and  of  a  balista 
which  threw  a  stone  weighing  360  lbs.  Numerous 
other  weapons  of  an  analogous  character  were  known 
in  the  Middle  Ages — such  as  the  maiigomd;  the 
trebwhet,  which  threw  a  large  stone  by  the  action  of 
a  lever  and  a  sling;  the  petrary,  which,  as  its  name 
implies,  threw  a  stone;  the  robimt,  which  threw  ilarts 
as  well  as  stones;  the  matt'-griffon  and  mnte-fundn, 
both  slinging-machines;  the"  trieolk,  which  hurled 
quarrels,  or  square-headed  arrows;  the  espringnl  or 
apringal,  which  threw  darts;  the  ribatideguin,  a  large 
kind  of  cross-bow;  the  war-irolf,  a  stone-throwing 
machine,  etc.  The  arbalest  may  be  regarded  as  a 
small  portable  arrow-throwins  balista. 

BALISTA  FTJLMINATRIX.— A  peculiar  war-engine 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  This  engine  is  interesting  on 
account  of  the  men  inside  the  "wheels  who  form  its 
motive  power. 

BALISTARIUM.— A  store-room  or  arsenal  in  which 
the  Romans  stored  their  balistas. 

BALISTEB.— A  term  applied  in  ancient  times  to 


the  cross-bow,  carried  by  the  Baliatriers,  or  cross-bow- 
men. 

BALISTRAEIA.— One  of  the  names  given  to  those 
narrow  apertures  so  often  seen  in  the  walls  of  old 
castles,  and  through  which  the  cros.s-lx(wmen  dis- 
charged their  arrows.  Balistraria  do  not  seem  to  have 
come  into  use  till  the  thirteenth  century.  The  lower 
terminations  of  balistraria  are  generally  circular,  some- 
times in  the  form  of  a  shovel.  This  term,  frequently 
written  ballittraria,  also  signified  a  projecting  turret, 
otherwise  called  a  bartizan,  such  as  is  commonly  seen 
in  old  castles. 

BALES. — Joist-shaped  spars,  which  rest  between 
the  cleats  upon  the  .saddles  of  two  pontons,  to  support 
the  chess  or  flooring. 

BALL. — In  the  somewhat  indefinite  language  of  the 
militarj-  and  naval  arts,  all  kinds  of  shot  anil  bullets 
are  occasionally  called  by  the  collective  name  of  ball. 
This  was  especially  the  case  when  nearly  all  such 
projectiles  were  solid  and  spherical,  before  the  era  of 
hollow  and  spheroidal  shells.  At  present,  when  the 
varieties  are  so  numerous,  it  is  more  usual  to  employ 
the  terms  bvllet  and  shot.  These,  together  with  shell, 
are  subdivided  into  numerous  kinds,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  will  1»  found  noticed  under  their 
proper  designations.  A  particular  cla.ss  of  spherical 
combustibles  is  described  under  balls. 

BALL  A  CULOT.— As  no  two  soldiers  wovdd  prob- 
ably use  the  s;ime  number  of  blows,  or  the  same 
force,  when  ramming  the  ball  into  the  grooves, 
various  degrees  of  expansion  would  take  place.  With 
a  view  to  expanding  the  ball  regularly  and  inde- 
pendentlj-  of  the  soldier,  a  ball  with  a  wedge  (culot) 
was  invented.  The  shape  of  the  ca%"ity  in  this  ball 
was  that  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone,  and  in  this  cavity 
was  inserted  a  piece  of  iron  to  act  as  a  wedge.  This 
culot  was  driven  before  the  powder  into  the  cavity, 
and  by  expanding  the  softer  metal  of  the  ball  forced 
it  to  take  the  gi-oovcs. 

BALLARD  RIFLE.— An  American  rifle  having  a 
very  simple  and  elfective  breech  mechanism.  The 
extractor  is  positive  and  caimot  fail  to  work,  as  it 
acts  on  the  same  pin  ^\ith  the  lever;  when  the  lever 
is  thrown  down  it  withdraws  the  breech-block,  at  the 
-same  time  throwing  the  hammer  to  the  haLf-cock 
notch:  after  inserting  the  cartridge,  pushing  up 
the  lever  causes  the  lock  to  move  forward  and  up- 
ward, closing  tightly  on  the  head  of  the  cartridge. 
There  is  no  possibility  of  an  explosion,  as  the  hammer 
is  at  half  cock,  and  there  is  nothing  which  might  slip 
through  careless  handling.  Nothing  short  of  firing 
the  gun  voluntarily  can  set  it  off,  thus  making  it  in 
every  respect  safe.     This  rifle  is  a  great  favorite  with 


the  Indians  of  North  America,  and  seems  to  possess 
shooting  and  non-fouling  properties  not  possessed  by 
many  other  rifles.  The  Target  represented  was  made 
after  40  rounds  at  fifty  yards,  ■with  this  rifle.  The 
wind  was  from  the  le"ft"rear,  light,  but  the  atmos- 
phere was  damp,  and  conseiiuently  favorable  from 
the  fouling  point  of  view.     In  no  case  was  there  the 


BALL-CALIBER. 


130 


BALLI8TIC& 


411^; 


slightest  evidence  of  any  increase  of  fouling  up  to  100 
shots.  The  ritle  is  approved  iiud  recoininended  tiy 
the  K'st  shots  in  the  Iculiiig  dubs  in  the  United 
Slates,  Great  Hritain,  Fnuiee.  and  Gemisuiy. 

BALL-CALIBEE. — A  ringgsmge  for  testing  the 
diaiueter  of  cun-shol,  usuiUlv  iise<l  on  board  ship. 

■  BALL-CAHTEIDGE.— A 
cartridge  for  small-arms ; 
the  ball  and  powder  being 
inan  envelojx^  orshell.  In 
contradistinction  to  blaiiK- 
^     cartridge.     See  Oirtridf/i: 

BALLING-FUENACE.— A  furnace  in  which  pil<a  or 
fagola  of  iron  are  heated  so  as  to  form  balls  for  roll- 
ing. In  the  putldliiiff/urnact',  pig-iron  is  boiled  to 
drive  oft  certain  impurities,  and  the  iron  therein  is 
formed  info  balls  by  the  rabble  or  paddle  of  the  pud- 
dler,  so  as  to  he  ready  for  the  shingliug-hammer  or 
the  squeezer  which  drivi-s  the  slag  from  the  bloom. 
At  tlic  s;iine  heat  the  iron  may  be  rolled  and  become 
a  merchantable  article  of  bar -iron;  but  with  some 
qualities  of  iron,  and  for  the  production  of  the  liner 
varieties  of  bar  and  sheet  iron,  the  bar  from  the  first 
rolling  is  cut  up  by  the  shears  and  made  into  piles  or 
fiifjot.i,  which  are  i-eheatcd  to  form  balh  for  re-rolling. 
The  furnace  resembles  a  puddling-fiu-nace,  with  the 
exception  that  it  is  not  designed  for  stirring  and  pud- 
dling; but  the  piles  or  fagotti  are  laid  upon  the  floor 
of  the  reverberating  chamber,  and  are  there  heated 
without  running  together,  each  being  %vithdrawn  as 
it  attains  the  required  condition.  "The  bottom  is 
made  up  from  time  to  time  with  sjmd.  It  is  not  a 
mere  reheating,  but  the  action  of  the  fire  and  the  ad- 
mission of  regidatcd  quantities  of  air  remove  certain 
impurities  which  have  resisted  the  previous  opera- 
tions. 

BALLING-TOOL.— A  tool  for  aggregating  the  iron 
in  a  puddling-furnace,  to  fit  it  for  conveyance  to  the 
tilt  or  squeezer. 

BALLISTEA. — In  antiquit)'.  songs  accompanied  by 
dancing,  usi^d  on  occasions  of  %ictory. 

BALLISTIC  MACHINE.— A  machine  designed  to 
determine  by  electricity  the  initial  velocity  of  a 
projectile.  These  machines  arc  made  in  great  variety. 
The  Benton  vclocimcter,  devised  for  use  at  the 
Alilitary  Academy,  and  usually  known  as  the  West 
Point  ballistic  machine,  will  .serve  to  illustrate  their 
general  purpose  and  coastruction. 

BALLISTIC  PENDULUM.— The  ballistic  pendulum 
iiivented  by  Robins,  who  is  justly  held  to  be  the 
pioneer  of  modern  gunnery,  was  lirst  used  in  1740, 
with  the  object  of  measuring  the  velocity  of  projectiles 
and  the  resistance  of  the  air.  If  such  a  pendulum, 
being  at  rest,  is  struck  by  a  boilv  of  known  weight, 
and  the  vibration  which  it  makes  after  the  blow  is 
known,  the  velocity  of  the  striking  body  may  thence 
Ix;  determined.  The  quantitv  of  motion  of  the  body 
before  impact  is  equal  to  tha't  of  the  pendulum  and 
body  after  impact.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  stromr, 
large  pendulum,  which  has  its  axis  of  suspension  se- 
cured, and  a  core  or  block  at  its  lower  part.  The 
projectile  is  fired  into  this  core  and  remains  there, 
causing  the  pendulum  at  the  same  time  to  swing 
through  a  certain  angle  a  with  the  vertical;  this  is 
measured  by  a  slider  which  is  pushed  along  a  fixed 
arc. 

Before  using  the  pendulum  certain  adjustments  as 
to  sj-mmetry  and  level  are  necessarv,  aiul  it  is  im- 
portant to  arrange  that  the  pctiduluni  may  be  struck 
at  such  a  point  that  no  impulse  shall  be  given  to  the 
axis  of  suspension;  in  other  words,  the  center  of  per- 
cus-sion  shoidil  be  hit.  It  is  an  established  fa<t  that 
the  centers  of  percus'^ion  and  oscillation  are  coincident, 
and  the  center  of  oscillation  is  readily  found  by  caus- 
ing the  pendulum  to\ibnile  Ihrougira  small  are;  and 
obser\-ing  the  period  (T)  taken  to'perfonu  a  number 

T 
of  vibrations  (n),  then  -  gives  the  time  {f)  of  a  single 

vibration  with  considerably  accuracy.     The  length 


of  the  corresponding  simple  pcndidum  (I),  the  dis- 
tance of  the  center  of  oscillation  or  percussion  from 
the  axis  of    suspension,   is  then    known   from   the 

/T 
formula  t  =  n  y   -■    If  the  distance  of  the  center 

of  the  core  from  the  axis  of  suspension  is  exactlv 
equal  to  /,  the  instrument  is  in  adjustment:  but  ff 
this  is  not  the  case,  weights  must  be  pushed  up  or 
down  the  pendulum  by  trial  and  error,  till  the  time 
of  o.scillation  is  foimd  to  l)c  correct. 

The  weight  of  the  pendulum  being  known,  the  dis- 
tance (//)  of  its  center  of  gravity  from  the  axis  of  sus- 
pension is  then  found  experimentally  (if  not  already 
determined).  A  cord,  with  a  known  hea\T  weight  at 
the  end  of  it,  is  pa.ssed  over  a  ptdley  (in  the  plane  of 
oscillation),  and  attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
pentlulum,  which  it  pulls  through  a  certahi  angle  ft, 
which  is  measured.  The  ilistjmce  of  the  point  of  at- 
tachment of  the  cord  from  the  axis  of  suspension  is 
also  measured;  and  from  these  data  the  position  of 
the  center  of  gravity  of  the  pendulum  is  ea.'.ily  found. 

Let  W  be  the  weight  of  the  pendulum  in  pounds; 
V,  the  weight  of  the  projectile  in  pounds ;  r,  the 
velocitj'  of  the  projectile  in  feet  per  second;  d.  the 
distance  of  center  of  percussion  from  axis  in  feet; 
h,  the  distance  of  center  of  gravity  from  axis  in  feet; 
f,  the  angular  velocity  of  the  pendulum  at  the  in- 
stant of  impact.  Then 
d£  —  linear  velocity,  in  feet  per  second,  of  the  center 

of  percussion  at  the  instant  of  impact,  and 
Tii  =  linear  velocity  of  center  of  gravity  at  the  in- 
stant of  impact. 

The  projectile  is  fired  info  the  middle  of  the  core, 
and  the  pendulum  swings  through  the  angle  2a. 

Since  the  center  of  oscillation  moves  as  though  it 
were  i.solated,  its  velocity  df  at  the  instant  of  impact 
must  be  the  same  as  that  of  a  bodj'  falling  freely 
under  the  influence  of  gravity  from  the  height  to 
which  it  will  rise  at  the  end  of  its  swing,  or 
d-e-  =  'igd  (1  —  cos  a); 


whence 


2  -J-  sm  2- 


As  the  shot  buries  itself  in  the  core,  reboimd  is  pre- 
vented, and  we  have  a  case  of  impact  of  inelastic 
bodies,  when  the  momentum  of  the  projectile  before 
striking  must  be  equal  to  that  of  the  pendulum  and 
of  the  projectile  after  striking,  or 
wv  =  Whe  -\-  teds; 


whence 


:-(IF7i  +  Md). 


Substituting  the  value  of  f  from  above,  we  obtain 
a  Wh  -|-  led 


3  sin; 


icd 


WTd. 


If  the  center  of  percussion  is  not  exactly  struck,  the 
velocity  of  the  projectile  can  still  be  foiiud  by  suita- 
ble modifications  in  the  calculations;  this  often  had 
to  be  done,  when  firing  from  a  considerable  distance, 
to  find  the  loss  of  velocity  due  to  the  resistance  of  the 
air.  as  it  was  difficult  to  hit  the  exact  spot  aimed  at. 

BALLISTICS.— That  branch  of  the  science  of  gim- 
nery  which  treats  of  the  motion  of  projectiles. 
Ancient  artillerists  considered  that  the  trajectory, 
or  path  described  by  a  )irojectiIe  after  it  left  its 
piece,  was  composed  of  three  distinct  parts :  1st. 
The  molent,  which  ai)proached  a  straight  line ;  2d. 
The  middle,  or  mixed,  which  was  a  circle;  3d.  The 
last,  or  natural,  w'lich  was  also  a  right  line. 

Tartiiglia,  an  Ifjian  engineer,  invented  the  quad- 
rant for  measuring  elevations,  which  he  divided  into 
twelve  parts,  and  jy  which  he  was  able  to  compare 
the  ranges  of  different  cannon,  fired  luider  the  sjuiie 
or  different  degrees  of  elevation.  He  demonstrated 
that  no  jwrtion  of  the  trajectory  was  a  right  line, 
and  that  the  angle  which  gave  the  greatest  range 
was  45  . 

About  1638,  Galileo  discovered  the  laws  which 


.OOH. 

ailted 
wand 
1  ten- 
froiu 
je  re- 
ry  to 
m  no 

pos- 
abun- 
ng  to 
A\-ig- 
-  first 
about 

En- 
speri- 
(ually 
pres- 
nense 
neter, 
erical 
)aper, 
.  it,  in 
rned. 
of  re- 
V,  for 
."orld. 
d  the 
70  by 
1  it  is 
care, 
ously 
rench 
in  ac- 
r  pur- 
oyiug 
made 
After 
jmall 
1,  was 
•,  and 
:)utch 
I  feet 
s  and 
ropes 
ogen, 
from 
nemy 
traor- 
being 
made 
great 
aban- 
lefen- 
orted 
were 
e  be- 
tened 
>r  do- 
Fleu- 
.ssels, 
1  the 
i  the 
e  ap- 
both 
lloon- 
were 
)thers 
much 
a  the 
time. 

made 
rcap- 
■orks. 
imals 
f  100 
from 
-e  the 
)ns  it 
smain 


Baiaoosb     1.  MontgoIflSre  (flret  balloon).    3.  Pil&tre  de  Rozrer's  balloon  (first  ascent).    3.  Blanclianl's  balUjlm  (first  aerial  navigation),      -l.  Coutelle-s  balloon  (firs 
employed  for  acientlflc  purposes  at  HaniburK).     5.  Gre-fn's  balloon.     C.  Nadar's  balloon  "Le  Otenl  V  WisaslPOus  fall  at  Hanover).     T.  Duruot '3  balloon    ■  L* 
10.  Parachute  open.      ll.  "  Captive  baUon,"  at  London.     12.  RutuB  Porter's  pii^ble  aerial  ahip.      13.  Dupuy  do  Lflme's  guidable  aerial 


.  Paracbule  closed, 
balloon.    Gasometers. 

n-iao. 


employed  in  war,  nt.  the  battle  of  Fleunis  ;  later  first 
Neptun"  (exploded).  8.  Aeronaut's  marine  balloon, 
diip.     14.  Kaufmaou's  ll^g  maoblne.     IS.  Filling  a 


C 


o 


SALLIUH. 


131 


BALLOOH. 


govern  the  fall  of  bodies,  and  from  these  he  demon- 
atrated  that  the  curve  described  bj'  a  projectile, 
thrown  in  a  direction  oblique  to  the  horizon,  is  a 
parabola,  the  axis  of  which  is  vertical.  He  did  not 
consider  that  the  air  offered  any  material  resistance 
to  the  motion  of  artillerj-  projectiles. 

About  1723,  Newton  demonstrated  that  the  curve 
described  by  a  spherical  projectile  in  the  air  was  far 
from  being  a  parabola;  that  the  two  branches  were 
dissimilar,  and  that  the  descendini;  branch  would  be- 
come vertical  if  sufficiently  prolonged.  While  he 
considered  the  resistance  of  the  air  proportioned  to 
the  square  of  the  velocity,  he  did  not  conceal  the 
fact  that  this  was  but  an  approximation  to  the  true 
relation,  which  remained  to  be  determined  by  ex- 
periment. 

About  1765,  Robins  invented  an  instrument  for 
determining  the  initial  velocity  of  a  projectile,  called 
the  ballistic  pendulum,  by  which  he  was  able  to 
show  that  the  range  in  vacuo  was  much  greater  than 
in  air.  He  also  discovered  that  the  rotarj-  motion 
which  spherical  projectiles  generally  assume  around 
their  centers  of  gravity  will  cause  them  to  deviate 
from  their  true  direction. 

Hutton,  who  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  improved  the  ballistic  pendulum, 
and  applied  it  to  determine  the  true  law  of  the  re- 
sistance of  the  air,  as  exemplified  in  projectiles  of 
small  caliber.  At  Metz,  in  1839  and  '40,  further  ex- 
periments were  made  on  the  resistance  of  the  air  to 
projectiles  of  large  size,  moving  with  high  velocities, 
and  the  law  of  variation  was  detemiined  with  great 
accuracy. 

The  subject  of  ballistics  presents  two  fundamental 
questions:  1st.  To  determine  tbe  initial  velocity  of  a 
projectile  for  a  known  piece  ami  charge  of  powder. 
2d.  Knowing  the  initial  velocity  and  angle  of  pro- 
jection, to  determine  the  range,  time  of  flight,  remain- 
ing velocity,  and,  in  fact,  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
projectile's  motion. 

BALLIUM. — A  term  used  in  ancient  militarj-  art, 
and  probably  a  corruption  of  Vallium.  In  tomis, 
the  appellation  "  ballium"  was  given  to  a  work  fenced 
with  palisades,  and  sometimes  to  masonry  covering 
the  suburbs  ;  but  in  castles,  it  was  the  space  imme- 
diately within  the  outer  wall. 

BALLOON. — The  art  of  traversing  the  air  by  means 
of  balloons,  generally  called  aeronautics,  and  some- 
times ai?rostation,  is  of  comjiaratively  recent  date. 
The  germ  of  the  invention  of  balloons  is  to  be  found 
in  the  discovery  by  Cavendish,  in  1766,  of  the  re- 
markable lightness  of  hydrogen  gas,  then  called  in- 
flammable air.  Prof.  Black,  of  Edinburgh,  seems  to 
have  been  the  first  who  conceived  the  idea  that  a  light 
envelope,  containing  this  gas,  would  rise  of  itself. 
He  requested  Dr.  Monro,  the  Professor  of  Anatomy, 
to  give  him  some  thin  animal  membrane  for  the  ex- 
periment, but  for  .some  reason  or  other  it  was  never 
made.  "The  first  practical  attempts  were  made  by 
Cavallo,  who,  in  1773,  filled  swine's  bladders  and 
paper  bags  with  the  gas,  but  found  the  former  too 
heavy  and  the  latter  too  porous  ;  and  he  only  Suc- 
ceeded in  raising  soap-bubbles  inflated  %vith  the  gas. 
The  invention  of  the  balloon  is  due  to  the  two 
brothers  Stephen  and  Joseph  Jlontgolfier,  paper- 
makers  at  Annonay,  In  France,  whose  names  are  as 
distinguished  in  the  development  of  their  own  branch 
of  manufacture  as  in  the  histoiy  of  aeronautics.  It 
immediately  struck  these  brothers,  on  reading  Caven- 
dish's Different  Kinds  of  Air,  that  the  air  could  be 
rendered  navigable  by  inclosuig  a  light  gas  within  a 
covering  of  inconsiderable  weight.  Led  by  their 
avocation,  they  fixed  upon  paper  as  the  most  fitting 
material  for  the  purpose,  and  first  attempted  to  make 
balloons  of  paper  filled  with  inflammable  air.  Find- 
ing that  these  emptied  themselves  almost  as  soon  as 
they  were  filled,  instead  of  abimdoning  the  i^aper  as 
an  unsuitable  covering  for  the  gas,  they  sought  after 
another  gas  more  suited  to  the  paper.  By  a  chain  of 
false  reasoning  which  need  not  here  be  detailed,  they 


thought  they  fotmd  such  in  the  gas  which  resulted 
from  the  combustion  of  slightly  moistened  straw  and 
wool,  which  had,  as  the^'  imagined,  an  upward  ten- 
dency, not  only  from  its  t)eing  heated,  but  from 
its  electrical  properties,  which  caused  it  to  l)e  re- 
pelled from  the  ground.  It  is  hardly  nec-essary  to 
Siiy  that  tliLs  so-called  Jlontgolfier  gas  possessed  no 
advantages  for  raising  balloons  other  than  that  pos- 
sessed by  heated  air  of  any  kind  ;  in  fact,  tbe  abun- 
dant smoke  with  which  it  was  mixed,  by  adduig  to 
its  weight,  rather  detracted  from  its  merits.  At  Avig- 
non, in  November,  1782,  Stephen  MontMlfier  first 
succeeded  in  causing  a  silk  parallelopiped,  of  about 
50  cubic  feet,  to  rise  to  the  roof  of  a  room.  En- 
couraged by  this  success,  tlie  brothers  made  experi- 
ments on  a  larger  scale  at  Annonaj'  with  an  equally 
happy  result ;  and  finally,  in  Jmie,  1783,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Slates  of  Vivarsds,  and  of  an  immense 
multitude,  they  raised  a  balloon,  35  feet  in  diameter, 
to  a  height  of  1500  feet.  This  last,  nearly  spherical 
in  shape,  was  made  of  packcloth,  covered  with  paper, 
and  was  heated  by  an  iron  choffer  placed  beneath  it,  in 
which  10  pounds  "of  moist  straw  and  wool  were  burned. 

Balloons  are  useful  in  warfare  for  purposes  of  re- 
connoitering,  and  in  the  case  of  a  beleagured  city,  for 
keeping  up  communication  with  the  outside  world. 
The  Prussians  are  said  to  have  reconnoitered  the 
French  position  before  Metz  in  the  war  of  1870  by 
means  of  a  balloon  with  telegraph  attached,  and  it  is 
further  said  that  the  survey,  made  with  great  care, 
was  most  successful,  and  conveyed  instantaneously 
to  General  von  Moltke  the  true  position  of  the  French 
army  at  all  points,  and  its  movements.  From  an  ac- 
count given  of  the  first  balloons  used  for  war  pur- 
poses, it  appears  that  the  proposal  for  emplojing 
what  were  then  termed  captive  balloons  was  made 
by  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  in  1793.  After 
some  preliminary  experiments  at  Meudon,  a  small 
Corps  of  Aerostats,  skilled  in  precarious  crafts,  was 
formed  on  the  model  of  an  Engineer  C')mpany,  and 
dispatched  to  Manberg,  then  besieged  by  the  Dutch 
and  Austrian  troops.  "The  balloon  used  was  30  feet 
in  diameter,  and  rose  1800  feet  with  two  observers  and 
130  pounds  of  ballast.  It  was  managed  by  two  ropes 
attached  to  the  net,  and  was  filled  with  hydrogen, 
obtained  with  much  difficulty  and  expen.se  from 
water.  The  immediate  moral  effect  upon  the  enemy 
of  the  use  of  this  balloon  l)y  the  besieged  was  extraor- 
dinary. They  imagined,  which  was  far  from  being 
the  case,  that  their  every  movement  was  at  once  made 
patent  to  the  French,  and  it  was  tiiis  that  in  a  great 
measure  caused  the  demoralized  Austrians  to  aban- 
don the  siege.  The  balloon,  pa.s.sing  from  a  defen- 
sive to  an  offensive  position,  was  then  transported 
while  inflated  to  Charlcroi,  which  the  French  were 
attiicking.  Its  apparition  at  once  deprived  the  be- 
sieged of  all  confidence  in  their  strength,  and  hastened 
the  surrender  of  the  town  while  still  efficient  for  do- 
fense.  The  balloon  was  subsequently  used  at  Fleu- 
rus,  where  much  is  attributed  to  it ;  then  at  Brussels, 
Liege,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  on  the  Rhine,  and  on  the 
Danube.  A  Corps  of  Aerostats  accompanied  the 
French  anny  to  Eg)^)t,  but  did  nothing,  as  the  ap- 
paratus W!is  daniagcil  on  the  way.  In  1800  both 
corps  were  suppressed.  The  Prussians  u.sed  balloon- 
ing against  the  French  in  1812,  but  the  results  were 
not  encouraging.  At  Solfcrino,  one  of  the  brothers 
Godard  a.scended  in  a  montgolfier  ;  but  he  was  much 
too  late,  and  the  ascent  wasall  but  useless.  In  the 
American  war,  balloons  were  used  from  time  to  time, 
but  were  attended  with  no  advantage. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  experiments  made 
at  Woolwich  a  few  years  ago  in  reference  to  war  or  cap- 
tive balloons,  inflated  at  the  Royal  Arsenal  gas-works. 
They  are  thus  described  in  one"  of  the  public  journals 
of  the  day:  It  has  been  found  that  a  height  of  100 
fathoms,  at  a  horizontal  distance  of  600  fathoms  from 
the  enemy,  would  enable  the  observers  to  secure  the 
widest  expanse  of  view.  With  captive  balliwns  it 
has  been  found  that  they  attain  stability,  and  remain 


BALLOTING. 


132 


BANCA  TIN. 


like  a  kite,  at  rest,  when  the  liorizontal  resultant  of 
the  ascensional  force  and  the  tension  of  the  cord  arc 
iiliial  to  the  force  of  the  wind  ;  and  this  enables  a 
second  divi-rvion  of  science  to  come  in  and  lend  its 
aid  ill  the  lime  of  war.  The  war-liallooii  havinj;,  1>\- 
a  niathcnialical  mle,  taken  a  stationary  position, 
eight  cameras  and  lenses,  spread  round  the  balloon  at 
equal  distances.  cnal)les  a  complete  view  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  to  be  photo£;r,iphed,  and  subse- 
quently exainineii  at  leisure.  The  inclinition  and 
length"  of  the  cord  to  keep  the  balloon  in  the  same 
stnitum  of  air  was  found  to  l)e  easily  cakulable,  sul)- 
ject  to  the  inequality  of  g-aU>s  of  wind  and  their 
change  of  diri'ction.  The  WiMilwich  balloons  were 
held  liy  two  new  cords,  fastened  to  the  network,  and 
terminating  at  two  different  points  on  the  ground, 
which  gave  greater  stability  to  the  bdloon,  and  pro- 
vided ag-aiiLst  one  cord  snaiiping  or  being  cut  by  the 
enemy's  fire.  Under  the  old  jilan.  aeronautic  cor- 
respondence was  carried  on  by  the  explorers  in  the 
balkK)n-car  being  jiroWdeil  with  white  pasteboard 
tubes,  formed  like  cartridges  ojX'n  at  both  ends,  to 
which  a  bullet  was  securely  fastened.  Each  piece  of 
intelligence  was  written  in  pencil  in  large  characters 
along  the  major  axis  of  the  paper  tube  or  cartridge, 
which  w;ls  inunediately  dispatched  by  passing  the 
end  of  the  small  cord  through  it,  and  it  was  thus  pre- 
cipitated by  the  gravitation  of  the  bullet  into  the 
bands  of  tlie  expectant  General.  This  plan  has  just 
been  abrogjited  by  a  third  diversion  of  science  being 
brought  to  bear  in  the  time  of  war.  By  the  new  sys- 
tcnj  of  military  telegraphy  for  tield-service,  and  bj' 
means  of  the  wagons  at  present  being  placed  in  store 
for  military  service,  lines  of  telegraph  can  be  carried 
through  the  air  from  krra  jiriiui  to  a  balloon  several 
miles  distant.  The  wire  can  be  paid  out  as  fast  as 
the  balloon  travels,  so  that  if  a  captive  balloon  should 
break  or  soar  away  communication  could  be  kept  up 
with  it  for  six  miles,  or  two  or  more  balloons  can  be 
sent. 

BALLOTING. — A  bounding  movement  of  a  spheri- 
cal projectile  in  the  bore  of  a  cannon. 

BALL-PBOOF. — Incapable  of  being  i)enetrated  by 
balN  from  tire-arms  or  other  engines. 

BALL-SCBEW. — An  implement  for  extracting  bul- 
lets from  the  barrel  of  a  gun  in  cases  where  it  would 
be  dangerous  or  impossible  to  expel  them  by  firing. 
It  is  .screwed  on  the  end  of  the  ramrod,  which,  being 
turned,  rauses  the  screw-threaded  pointed  end  of  the 
l)all-screw  to  enter  the  bullet,  which  is  then  with- 
drawn by  pulling  the  ramrod.  Witzleben's  ball- 
screw  has  two  jaws  with  sharp-edged  interior  shoul- 
ders, constituting  a  portion  of  a  concave  screw- 
thread,  which  enters  the  bullet  to  prevent  it  from 
slijiping  from  the  grasp  of  the  jaws. 

BALL-TBAIN.— In  the  foundrj-,  a  set  of  rolls  for 
rolling  pitdt'.hr's  Ijalls  into  bars.  The  word  train, 
signifies  that  more  than  one  pair  is  used,  the  first 
being  cnishinff  rolls,  and  the  fH'Cond  fnia/iing.  The 
result  of  the  action  of  the  two  is  fnn--iTon. 

BALOTS. — Sacks  or  bales  of  wool,  made  use  of  in 
cases  of  great  emergency,  to  form  parapet-s  or  places 
of  arms.  They  are  likewise  adapted  for  the  defense 
of  trenches,  to  cover  the  workmen  in  .Siips,  and  in  all 
instances  where  promptitude  is  recjuired. 

BALUSTEADE.— A  range  of  balusters,  together 
with    the   cornice   or   coping   which    thev   support. 

The  balustrade 


is  often  u.sed  as 
a  parapet  over 
bridges,  for  the 
roofs  of  large 
edifices,  etc.,  or 
as  a  mere  ter- 
mination to  the 

structure.      It  is  also  used   to   inclose  stairs,  altars, 

balconies,  etc.    Balustrades  are  made  of  stone,  metal, 

or  wo(h1.     See  F'irtifieatinn. 

BAMBOO. — A  genus  of  gnusscs,  of  which  it  is  the 

most  gigantic;  it  is  well  known  for  its  great  economi- 


cal importance.  It  is  "found  in  all  tropical  climates, 
and  the  purpo.ses  to  which  it  is  applied  are  so  numer- 
ous that  it  would  Ih?  ditlicult  to  i>oint  out  an  object 
where  strength  and  ela.sticity  being  requisite,  and 
liijhincss  no  objection,  to  which  the  stems  are  not 
adapted  in  the  countries  where  it  grows.  Whcm 
ripe  and  hard,  it  is  converted  into  bows,  arrows, 
quivers,  lance-shafts,  poles  of  palanquins,  poles  for 
tents,  fire  and  escalading  ladders,  and  used  in  the 
flooring  and  supports  of  rustic  bridges.  In  an  artil- 
lery park  in  India,  wherever  the  bamboo  can  be  l>ro- 
cured,  it  is  made  use  of  in  carrying  heavy  weights, 
such  as  annuunition-bo.xcs,  shot  or  shell  when  car- 
ried in  slings,  and  for  a  variety  of  other  purposes. 

BAN. — 1.  Fonnerly,  a  title  given  to  some  of  the 
military  chiefs  who  guarded  the  eastern  boundariea 
of  the  Hungiirian  kingdom,  and  was  therefore  sy- 
nonymous with  the  German  marlgraf.  The  ban, 
who  was  appointed  by  the  Sovereign,  but  not  for 
life,  and  whose  appointment  had  to  be  ratified  by  the 
National  Diet,  had  originally  very  extensive,  in  fact 
almost  unlimited,  powers.  In  political,  judicial,  and 
military  affairs  he  was  the  suprc'me  authority. 
AVithiii  his  own  territorj-  he  exercised  an  influence 
similar  to  that  of  the  Palatine  in  Hungarj-,  and  only 
lower  than  a  king.  In  time  of  war  he  headed  the 
troops  of  his  baiiat,  and  if  the  campaign  occnned 
within  its  limits,  it  was  his  duty  invarialily  to  occupy 
the  post  of  danger.  He  led  the  van  to  battle,  or  cov- 
ered tlie  rear  in  retreat.  For  these  services  he  was 
recompensed  partly  in  riady  money  and  partly  by  a 
monopoly  of  salt.  "  The  most  important  banats  were 
those  of  Dalmaria,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Bosnia,  Ma- 
chow,  and  Szoreny,  but  their  boundaries  changed  so 
frequently  that  at  the  present  day  it  is  imjwssible  to 
ascertain  what  the}'  originally  were.  The  encroach- 
ments of  the  Turks  in  the  sixtcentli  centurj'  rendered 
the  union  of  the  various  banats  necessarj-;  and  after 
some  time  the  whole  were  formed  into  the  double 
banat  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia.  A  still  more  com- 
plete unity  was  subsiiiuently  obtained  by  centraliz- 
ing the  military  power.  In  1728  the  authority  of 
the  ban  was  made  entirely  svibordinate  to  that  of  the 
supreme  government  of  Hungarj-.  After  numerous 
vicissitudes,  his  powers,  rights,  and  lilies  were  stiict- 
ly  defined  during  the  reign  of  JIaria  Theresa.  He 
was  then  acknowledged  to  be  the  third  dignitary  of 
the  Hungarian  kingdom,  ajipointed  a  member  of  the 
Hungarian  council  of  government,  and  president  of 
the  council  of  the  banat,  and  at  the  coronation  of 
the  Hungariim  king  went  before  him,  bearing  the 
golden  apple,  the  symbol  of  sovereignty.  Such  was 
the  position  of  the  "ban  until  the  4tli  of"JIarch,  1849, 
when  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatia  were  trans- 
formed into  Austrian  crown-lands,  and  the  ban  made 
wholly  independent  of  Hungary.  In  1868  Croatia 
and  Slavonia  were  reunited  w  itli  Hungary.  One  of 
the  Hungiirian  ministers  superintends  the  affairs  oC 
the  "Kingdoms  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia;"  while 
there  is  a  special  local  administration  for  internal' 
affairs.  The  head  of  this  administration  is  called  the 
ban. 

2.  Besides  the  ci^il  use  of  the  word  ban,  as  a  proc- 
lamation or  prohibition,  there  was  a  military  appli- 
cation of  the  term  in  former  days  in  France.  When 
the  feudal  barons,  who  held  their  estates  and  honors 
from  the  king,  were  svunmoned  to  attend  him  in  the 
time  of  war,  they  were  called  the  ban,  or  the  levy 
first  called  out;  "while  the  tenants,  subordinate  to 
these  barons,  formed  the  arrihr  ban,  or  secondary 
\cv\. 

BANCAL.— A  curved  saber,  which  was  used  in 
France  durinij:  the  Republic  and  the  Empire. 

BANCA  TIN.— A  brand  of  English  tin  used  to  a 
great  extent  in  gun-constniction.  The  purest  comes 
from  the  ishinds  of  Banca  and  Billotin,  in  the  Malay- 
an Archipelago,  and  is  .■iold  once  ov  twice  a  ^•ear  at 
Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam.  In  Whitney's  ^elnUio 
Wealth  of  the  United  titate»,  published  "in  1854,  is. 
given  the  following  analysis  of  Bunca  tin: 


BAND. 


133 


BAND. 


Tin    99.961 

Iron 019 

Lead 014 

Copper 006 

100.000 
English  "  refined  "  tin,  from  the  Cornish  mines, 

stands  nest  as  regards  purity,  and  i.s  followed  by — 

1st.  Enjrlish  tin  (which  includes  "  Lamb  and  Flag"); 

2(1.  Straits  tin,   from  the   Malayan  Peninsula ;    M. 

Australian  tin. 

BAND. — In   the   United  States  Army,  when  it  is 

desired  to  have  bands  of  music  for  regiments,  there 


are  allowed,  for  each,  sixteen  privates  to  act  as  musi- 
cians, in  addition  to  the  chief  musicians  authorized 


by  law,  provided  the  total  number  of  privates  in  the 
regiment,  including  the  band,  does  not  exceed  the 
legal  standard.  Hcginiental  Commanders  designate 
the  proportion  to  be  subtracted  from  each  company 
for  a  band.  The  musicians  of  the  band  are,  for  the 
time  being,  dropped  from  company  nuister-roUs,  but 
they  arc  instructed  a.s  soldiers,  and  liable  to  serve  in 
the  ranks  on  any  occasion.  They  arc  nuisterc-d  in  a 
separate  squad  under  the  chief  musician,  with  the 
Non-commissioned  Staff,  and  are  inchuled  in  the 
aggregate  in  all  regimental  returns.  When  a  regi- 
ment occupies  several  stations,  the  band  is  kept  at 
the  headquarters,  promhd  troops  (one  or  more  com- 
panies) be  serving  there.  The  tield-music 
belonging  to  companies  not  stationed  at 
regimental  hea<l(iuarters  are  not  separated 
from  their  respective  companies.  In 
addition  to  the  regimental  bauds,  there  is 
enlisted  in  the  Army  one  band,  which 
consists  of  one  Band-leader  and  not 
more  than  twenty-four  nuisicians,  ordi- 
narily stationed  at  the  Military  Academy. 
In  the  British  service,  according  to 
military  regulations,  the  only  indis- 
pensable instruments  are  drums,  fifes, 
bugles,  and  trumpets,  all  of  which  are 
employed  to  give  signals  on  the  march 
or  in  active  .service,  either  for  infantry' 
or  for  cavalry.  To  supplement  this 
meager  musical  establishment,  however, 
the  otlicers  of  regiijients  organize,  chiefly 
at  their  own  cost,  effective  military  bands, 
who  use  a  variety  of  instruntents — such 
as  flutes,  clarionets,  bassoons,  horas,  ophi- 
cleides,  big  drums,  cjTnbals,  triangles,  etc. 
This  arrangement  has  assumed  almost 
the  force  of  a  regulation;  for  officers 
above  the  rank  of  Subaltern  are  obliged 
to  contribute  a  sum  not  exceeding  13 
days'  pay  in  the  course  of  a  year,  and  an 
extra  siun  when  promoted,  to  the  band- 
fund.  The  members  of  these  bands  arc 
selected  from  the  ranks;  but  tlie  Band- 
master, thougli  in  uniform,  is  often  a 
civilian  who  is  liired  for  the  ])urpose  and 
who  generally  refuses  to  accompany  the 
reginient  abroad,  except  at  an  increased 
rate  of  renumeratiun.  The  musicians, 
generally,  are  in  an  anomalous  position; 
for,  whilst  serving  in  the  band,  their  pay 
and  eventually  their  pensions  are  restrict- 
ed to  those  of  the  private  soldier.  Good 
musicians  have  at  all  times  a  tendency  to 
quit  the  band;  their  better  ]irospects  as 
teachers  and  iilayere  in  orclu'stras  and 
concerts  induce  "them  to  obtain  release 
by  paving  the  amount  of  compensation 
prescribed  by  regulation.  An  attempt 
made  by  theDuke  of  Cambridge  in  18.^6 
to  relieve  the  Commis.sioned  Otlicers  of 
part  of  the  expense  entailed  upon  them 
by  the  present  system  failed,  cxceiit  as 
regards  Subalteriis,  and  with  thai  excep- 
tion matters  remained  as  they  were.  In 
most  of  the  regiments  of  the  Line  the  band 
consists  of  a"  Band-master  and  about  l.~> 
musicians;  but  in  the  choice  corps  the 
number  is  often  much  larger.  The  baud 
plays  on  parade  and  at  mess  as  a  part  of 
regular  duty. 

The  success  of  a  military  band  depends 
very  much  on  the  proper  selection  of 
instruments,  and  the  a.ssignment  of  the 
most  suitable  mcmliers  to  the  various 
pieces.  The  band  should  have  at  least 
fourteen  members,  as  follows:  1st  and 
2d  E*  Comets.  1st  and  3d  B/>  Cornets, 
1st  and  3d  Altos,  1st  and  3d  Tenor, 
Baritone,  Tuba,  B*  Ba.ss,  Solo  Alto,  Snare  Drum, 
and  Bass  Drum.      When  selecting  Uie  plaj'ers  for 


BAND. 


134 


BAND. 


diffi-rent  instruments,  let  the  l)est  musicians  take 
the  1st  E6  Cornet,  1st  B6  Cornet,  iiiul  Biiritone. 
Next  select  ii  liirL'e  good-natured  jjenllenian  for  the 
Tuba,  and  one  with  some  ability  for  the  2d  B/>  Cornet. 
The  Isl  and  2<1  Altos  imd  1st  and  2<1  Tenors  are 
about  equally  dillicult.  For  the  Ba.ss  Drum  have 
some  one  who  will  keep  gotxi  time,  and  for  the  small 
Drum  it  Ls  well  to  have  a  man  who  has  played  before 
either  in  a  martial  or  a  brass  band. 

There  is  some  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  best 
motles  of  hokliiig  some  o{  the  larger  instruments,  but 
it  is  considered  proper  and  each  member  is  directe<i 
to  place  the  mouthpiece  iu  the  center  of  Uic  mouth, 
after  drawing  the  lips  tightly  across  the  teeth;  then 
to  rebix  the  lips,  leaving  the  part  inside  still  tight, 
and  to  be  careful  not  to  push  the  lips  or  cheeks  out 
when  blowing.  To  produce  high  tones,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  press  the  instrument  lirndy  against  the  lii)s; 
for  low  tones,  press  lightly,  and  rela.\  the  muscles. 
Begin  the  tone  by  pronouncing  the  syllable  J'li. 
To  take  breath,  oix'n  the  mouth  a  little  at  either  or 
botli  sides  of  the  mouthpiece.  The  length  of  the 
passiige  to  be  executed  should  govern  the  amount  of 
breath  that  is  taken.  If  too  much  breath  is  tjiken  in 
short  passages,  it  is  likely  to  produce  mijf'oaition.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  change  the  position  of  the  mouth- 
piece upon  the  lips  after  it  has  once  been  located. 

In  practicing,  members  should  seat  themselves 
either  in  a  circle  or  about  a  long  table;  the  Director 
at  the  end,  where 
he  may  be  seen  by 
all.  At  his  risrht, 
2d  E6  Cornet,"' l.st 
Bi  Comet,  2d  Bft 
Comet,  B6  Bass, 
and  Tuba.  At  his 
left,  1st  and  2d 
Altos,  1st  and  2d 
Tenors,  and  Bari- 
tone. The  Drums 
at  the  extreme  end. 
Always  have  the 
Drunis  near  the 
Basses,  and  oppo- 
site the  Leader. 
Let  it  be  under- 
stood, from  the  be- 
ginning, that  when 
the  Condtictor  raps 
for  attention,  every 
member  must  obey 
him.  and  at  once. 
It  would  add  much 
interest  to  the  prac- 
tice if,  a  few  days 
previoti.sly,  each  of 
the  mem1x>rs  would 
pniclice  privatily, 
getting  the  i)roi)er 
tones.  At  tirst,  the 
exercise  will  make 
the  lips  ([uite  sore, 
but  they  will  soon 
become  hardened, 
so  that  the  unpleas- 
antness will  pass 
away.  Having 
decided  to  attempt 
new  nuisic,  the  Di- 
rector should  fa- 
miliarize himself 
■with  each  part  be- 
fore asslsrniiig  il, 
that  he  may  see  f|ui(kly  what  Ls  required  of  every 
instrument.  He-  should  explain  the  first  movement, 
and  after  it  has  bccii  practiced,  the  harmony  horns', 
consisting  of  1st  and  2d  Altos,  Tenors  and"  Basses, 
should  play  their  parts  to  the  first  strain.  Then 
add  the  lead  and  other  homs.  Next  play  it  Ihrouirh 
with  full  band.     Do  this  with  each  strain  until  the 


O  : 


O 

V 


Fia.  1. 


entire  number  has  been  played.  It  is  always  well  to 
take  the  water  out  of  a  horn  as  soon  us  the  band 
slops  ])laying,  and  then  there  will  bo  no  delays  in 
commencing  again. 

When  requested  to  play  at  a  funend,  the  band 
should  march  to  a  [wint  near  the  remains,  without 
music.  While  the  body  is  being  removed  to  the 
hearse,  play  something  appropriate,  I'ltyils  Uynm 
j  or  music  of  this  order.  After  tiiking  a  position  at 
1  the  head  of  the  column,  funeral  marches  should  be 
[  played  mitil  arrivuig  at  the  cemetery  entrance, 
when  Uie  band  should  open  tirder,  and  cease  play- 
ing until  the  procession  pas.ses  through.  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  str\ices  the  band  should  resume 
their  position  at  the  head  of  the  column,  and  imme- 
diately play  some  quick  march.  It  is  well  to  make 
selections  of  marches  that  are  not  very  common, 
olhcrwLse  it  would  often  seem  incongruous.  All 
coumiands  shoidd  be  given  iu  a  subdued  tone,  and 
the  utmost  respect  and  gentlemanly  bearing  should 
exist  among  the  band-members. 

Tlie  smaller  Horns,  such  as  EJ  and  BJ  Comets, 
should  be  kept  in  boxes;  while  the  larger  ones,  such 
as  Altos,  Tenors,  Baritone,  Tuba,  etc.,  should  be 
kept  in  sacks  made  of  soft  flannel.  It  is  well  to  keep 
a  jjiece  of  chamois-skin  to  wijie  each  instrument 
beft>re  placing  it  in  its  .sack  or  bos.  Should  the 
valves,  in  piston -action,  refu.se  to  wurk  freely,  un- 
screw the  cap,  take  them  out,  and  wipe  them  care- 
fully with  a  soft,  dry  cloth.  Then  moisten  them 
slightly  and  put  them  back.  Spittle,  though  seem- 
ingly vulgar,  is  the  best  antidote  for  a  sticky  valve. 
Sometimes  it  will  be  iftcessary  to  use  a  little  alcohol 
or  kerosene  to  cleanse  them  thoroughly.  In  rotary 
action,  a  little  alcohol  ^Kiiired  in  the  bell  and  run 
through  the  valves  will  make  them  work  well. 
Always  keep  the  slides  in  order  by  using  a  little  fine 
oil  several  times  a  year,  as  the  instruments  are  liable 
to  Ix"  blown  out  of  tune,  and  can  be  remedied  by 
pulling  the  slide  slightly. 

Cornet-players  should  faithfully  and  frequently 
practice  all  the  scales  commonly  used  for  the  Comet. 
It  is  a  great  mistake  to  allow  the  attention  to  be 
given  too  much,  or  too  soon,  to  tripk-t(i7igvhig,  ■while 
simple  melodies  are  neglected.  It  recjuires  an  artist 
of  greater  skill  and  better  perception  to  interpret 
rightly  the  less  showy  class  of  music  than  to  per- 
form the  most  difficult  strain  in  triple-tonguing.  In 
the  practice  of  longving,  the  .syllables  tv,  (v,  fc^i, 
with  C  on  the  staff,  should  be  used.  At  first  tliis 
should  be  done  very  slowly,  while  care  should  be 
taken  to  have  the  Iru  equal  m  power  to  the  first  two 
syllables.  After  this  is  accomplished,  other  letters 
on  the  staff  should  be  used,  both  above  and  below 
C,  winle  at  the  same  time  the  kmpo  should  be  in- 
creased as  much  as  possible.  In  the  practice  of  the 
scides,  each  note  should  be  commenced  as  softly  as 
possible,  then  increased  to  ff,  and  diminished  to  pp. 
It  is  n(jt  well  to  practice  immediately  after  eating. 
Sleep  shoidd  be  indulged  in  at  repidar  hours.  Total 
abstinence  from  stimidants  is  commendable,  as  the 
use  of  them  counteracts  the  work  of  hardening  the  lips. 
A  want  long  felt  by  all  bands,  for  a  light  and 
handsome  stand  that  cotild  Ix;  carried  upon  the 
march,  at  a  serenade,  or  used  in  the  band-room,  has 
been  fully  supplied  in  the  "  Acme"  stand  .shown  in 
Fig.  1.  ft  migiil  with  equal  ijropriety  be  called  the 
"Sword"  stand.  Inning,  when  not  in  use,  the  exact 
appearance  of  a  handsome  sword;  and  instead  of  any 
detraction,  materially  adds  to  the  appearance  of  a 
military  band.  The  drawing  shows  the  stand  set 
up  and  tlie  extension  drawn,  ready  for  use,  the 
dotted  lines  indicating  where  the  music  is  placed. 
The  music  can  be  placed  at  any  height  from  30  to 
60  inches.  The  holder  remains  upon  the  belt  when 
the  stand  is  in  use.  There  are  no  set-screws  to  lo.se, 
and  but  one  spring  in  the  whole  stand,  making  it 
simple  and  very  durable.  It  weighs  only  36  ounces, 
and  is  entirely  nickel-plated,  to  prevent  rusting  or 
tarnishing. 


BANDAGES. 


135 


BANDIT. 


Fig.  2.  shows  au  improved  band-lamp,  made  of 
brass,  hand-spun,  and  having  but  one  seam.  These 
lamps  are  three  inches  deep,  bum  four  houra,  u.se  a 
half -inch  round  wick  with  kerosene  oil,  or,  what  is 
better,  equal  parts  of  kerosene  and  lard  oil,  make  a 
brilliant  light,  and  being  balanced  in  center,  keep 
their  equilibrium  with  the  player  in  any  position. 


Fig.  2. 

Bands  will  find  these  a  great  convenience  for  night- 
plajing,  and  much  superior  to  anything  else  for  this 
purpose.  They  are  readily  affixed  to  the  cap,  merely 
taking  the  place  of  the  pompon  or  plume,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  3.  The  lamp  has  an  improvement,  which 
consists  of  a  tight-fitting  tube  or  cap  which,  when 


Fio.  3. 

not  in  use,  fits  tightly  over  the  wick  and  on  a  shoul- 
der, as  shown  in"  the  sectional  view.  This  shoulder, 
which  is  made  to  receive  the  cap,  is  set  out  from  the 
tube  slisrhtly,  forming  a  chamber  for  the  oil  that 
escapes "froiii  the  vent,  returning  the  same  back  into 
the  lamp.  When  not  in  use  and  the  cap  on  it,  it  is 
perfectly  air-tisht  and  no  oil  can  escape,  which 
makes  them  perfectlv  safe  in  trausportmg,  while  in 


many  lamps  no  safe  provisions  are  made  against  the 
leakage  of  oil.  This  lamp  is  the  invention  of  Slessrs. 
Lyon  <fc  Healy,  of  Chicago,  who  are  the  leading  im- 
porters and  manufacturers  of  band-instruments  in 
the  United  States,  and  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
the  nuuiy  original  illustrations  of  musical  instru- 
ments throughout  the  work.     See  Drum-major. 

BANDAGES. — Contrivances  used  by  Surgeons,  in 
the  field  and  elsewhere,  to  apply  pressure  on  a  part, 
or  to  retain  dressings 
upon  wounds.  The  \vr. 
most  common  band-  - 

age  is  a  strip  of  linen, 
calico,  or  elastic  web, 
from  three  to  five 
or  more  inches  in 
breadth,  rolled  longi- 
tudinally; hence  the 
name  roller.  There 
are  also  bandages  to 
suit  special  purposes, 
as  the  four-tailed  for 
the  head  or  knee, 
which  consists  of  a 
piece  of  cloth  split  up 
on  each  side  towards  and  nearly  to  the  center. 
When  applied,  the  tails  arc  ciossed  and  tie<l  so  as  to 
make  an  extemporaneous  night-cap.  In  applying  the 
roller-bandage  to  a  leg,  the  Surgeon  first  turns  it 
round  the  foot,  then  ro'und  the  ankle;  and  so  by  re- 
peated turns,  each  one  of  whicli  should  overlap  about 
a  third  of  the  previous  one.  till  he  reaches  the  calf  of 
the  leg,  when  he  must  fokl  at  each  turn  tlie  bandage 
sharpfy  back  on  itself,  by  which  maneuver  the  band- 
age will  lie  flat  and  smooth  on  the  limb.  The  operator 
must  remember  that  the  bandage  must  be  applied 
more  tightly  at  the  foot  than  on  the  leg,  so  that  it  m;iy 
nf)t  impede  the  course  of  the  blood  through  the  veins. 
This  requires  to  be  practiceil.  as  the  effect  of  a  band- 
age is  always  for  good  or  evil  as  it  is  well  or  ill 
applied. 

BANDALEEE— BANDALIEK.— An  ancient  appen- 
dage for  facilitating  the  charging  of  muskets.  It 
consisted  of  a  broad  belt  thrown  over  the  left  shoul- 
der, serving  as  a  supjiort  to  the  fire-arms,  and  having 
suspended  "from  it  a  dozen  boxes  (each  containing  a 
charge  of  powder)  and  a  bag  for  balls.  It  was  both 
cumbrous  and  dangerous,  and  the  rattling  of  the 
boxes  often  betraved  the  soldier  to  the  enemy. 

BANDED-MAIL.— A  kind  of  armor,  which^'onsisted 
of  alternate  rows  of  leather  or  cotton  and  single 
chain-mail. 

BANDERET.— In  military  histoiy,  banderet  im- 
plies the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  troops  of  the  Can- 
ton of  Berne,  in  Switzerland. 

BANDEROL.— A  small  flag  used  to  convey  signals 
from  any  particular  spot  to  a  saluting  battery  or  other 
post;  also,  to  mark  the  position  to  be  taken  up  by  the 
flanks  of  a  regiment  at  a  review  in  deploying,  etc.; 
also  used  in  marking  out  a  camp.  Fre(|uently  writ- 
ten Blind  ml  or  Ban  lu  role. 

BANDES. — A  common  name  for  bodies  of  infantry. 
Banik'S  Franmises  was  the  ancient  name  of  the 
French  infantry;  the  term,  however,  became  less 
general,  and  was  confined  to  the  Precdt  des  Bandes, 
or  the  .Judge  or  Provost-marshal  that  tried  the  men 
belonging  to  the  French  guanls. 

BANDIT. — A  word  originally  signifying  a  "ban- 
ished" or  outlawed  person;  then  one  who,  because 
outlawed,  waares  war  against  civilized  society;  and 
finally  a  hiL'hwav-robbeV.  The  banditi,  or  banditti, 
formed  in  Italy,  in  earlier  times,  as  it  were  a  separate 
community  of  guild,  who  submitted  to  their  own 
strinsent  laws,  carried  on  both  open  and  secret  war 
with'civilized  societv,  and  kept  up  a  certain  romantic 
idea  of  honor.  Bv  means  of  the  severe  measures 
which  were  adopted  in  1820  by  the  Papal  Govern- 
ment asainst  the  banditti  and  their  abettors,  their 
haunts  were  broken  up.  Those  who  still  occasionally 
disquiet  the  frontiers  of  Naples  are  in  general  people 


BANDOLEER 


136 


BANNES. 


settled  on  the  spot,  who  re^nl  robbery  and  murder 
as  wjually  a  brunch  of  their  liadi'  with  airriculuire. 
Peter  the  (.'alabrian,  one  of  the  most  famous  kiiuiit- 
chiefs.  in  1812  assumed  the  titles  of  '•  Emperorof  the 
Mountains,  Kinjr  of  the  Woods,  and  Lord  of  the 
Highroads  from  Florence  to  Naples."  The  Govern- 
ment of  Ferdiuanii  I.  found  themselves  oblim'd  to 
conclude  trt-aties  with  them.  The  banditti  niu.st  be 
distinjruishe<l  from  common  robbers,  who  were  called 
tiialriTtiiti.  In  later  times  the  banditti  were  joined 
by  adventurers  of  all  kinds,  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  Atistrian  troops  who  tx'cupied  Naples  were 
obliged  to  make  fretiuent  expeditions  against  them. 
In  Sicily,  the  banditti  are  most  numerous  in  the  Val 
Denione.  They  formerly  acquired  so  much  power 
there  that  the  Prince  of  Villafranca,  as  a  piece  of 
policy,  declared  himself  their  patron,  and  treated 
them  with  much  contidence.  In  the  years  1S41— 43 
political  fuLcilives  uiiiled  willi  robbers  and  adventur- 
ers of  all  kinds  in  the  Abruz/.i,  Calabria,  and  Ko- 
niagua,  and  since  then  they  have  never  been  entirely 
exttrpated.  The  Revolution  of  1848^9  added  i:reatly 
to  their  numbers,  and  in  several  districts  of  Italy, 
especially  iu  the  States  of  the  Church,  between 
Ferrara  and  Aneona,  they  reached  an  unheard-of  de- 
gree of  boldness,  notwithstanding  the  Austrian  army 
of  occupation.  Under  the  command  of  one  Bcllino 
(known  by  the  name  of  "  II  Passatorc"),  a  daring  and 
talented  man,  who  died  in  1851,  they  kept  the  coun- 
try in  terror,  ami  even  burned  several  villages  to  the 
giound.  They  also  carried  on  a  real  guerrilla  war- 
fare against  the  military  forces  of  the  countn,-. 
Recent  events  in  Italy  have,  it  is  said,  recalled  nuiii- 
bcrs  of  these  banditti  to  a  more  honorable  Ufe.  See 
Comirrrii. 

BANDOLEEK. — Two  centuries  ago  soldiers'  mus- 
kets were  provided  with  matehlocls,  a  very  slow  and 
ineffective  contrivance  for  filing.  The  musketeers 
were  furni.shed  with  giuipowder  in  .small  cylindrical 
boxes  made  of  wood,  tin.  or  leather,  each  containing 
sufficient  for  one  cliarge.  Twelve  of  these  little 
boxes  were  fixed  to  a  belt  called  a  bandoleer,  worn 
over  the  left  shoidder.     See  Bandaleer. 

BAND-SAW  MACHINE.— An  endless  steel  belt  run- 
ning over  wheels  and  revolved  continuously.  It  is 
pliable,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  faces  of  the  wheels, 
and  is  serrated  on  one  edge.  The  ends  are  joined  by 
solder  and  by  neat  clami)s.  Arrangements  are  made 
for  straining  the  saw  by  regulating  the  relative  dis- 
tances of  the  wheels ;  "this  adjustment  also  permits 
the  machine  to  take  in  s;iws  of  different  lengths. 
One  advantage  of  the  band-saw  over  the  rccii)rocadng- 
saw  is  that  there  is  no  lost  lime  in  its  operation,  aiid 
no  effort  required  to  keep  the  work  to  the  table,  as 
the  action  of  the  sjiw  tends  to  this  result.  There  is 
no  need  of  a  pump  or  blower  to  clear  away  the  siw- 
dust,  as  it  is  carried  continually  downward. 

In  the  English  jiraclice  llie  "minimum  diameter  of 
the  band-,saw  pulley  is  set  at  80  inches;  but  for  wider 
saws  the  diameter  must  be  increased.  Thus,  saws 
of  2  to  8  inches  wide  ought  not  to  be  worked  o\er 
pulleys  of  less  than  42  inches  in  diameter,  and  for 
a  blade  6  inches  wide  the  pulleys  should  be  70  to  80 
inches. 

It  will  not  Ix-  uninteresting  to  give  some  facts  and 
figures  concerning  the  sawing  of  hmiber  l)y  band-saw 
machinen,-.  A  few  moments'  calculiitioii  will  serve 
to  con\ince  any  one  of  the  great  saving  in  luml)er 
which  results  from  the  u.se  of  the  band  instead  of  the 
circular  saw  in  working  it  up.  Tliis  is  quite  a  con- 
sideration, and  should  be  duly  appreciated.  The 
scarcity  of  timlxT  in  some  parts"  of  our  country,  and 
the  great  value  of  foreign  woods,  re(|uir<>s  that  there 
shouhl  be  the  lea.st  possible  loss  in  its  siiwiuL'.  The 
saving  which  results  from  the  use  of  the  band-saw 
can  ea.sily  be  demonstrated. 

If  we  lake  a  log  80  inches  square  and  20  feet  long, 
and  by  calculation  cut  it  uji  first  with  a  circular  saw, 
then  with  a  band-sjiw,  tlie  result  will  be  found  alxiut 
as  follows :     The  log  coulains  l.JOO  feet  of  lumber. 


Cut  with  circular  saw,  ,'i,-inch  kerf,  into  1-inch 
twiirds,  we  have  twenty-three  1-inch  boards,  1150 
fift  ;  balance  kerf,  •A'H)  'feet— total.  1500  feet.  Now 
cut  with  biuid-saw,  ,'5-inch  kerf,  into  1-inch  boards, 
we  have  twenty -seven  1-inch  Ixiards,  1350  feet ;  one 
J-inch  board,  87i  feet ;  balance  kerf,  112J  feet — total, 
1500  feet. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  with  the  circular  saw  23 
per  cent  of  the  log  is  kerf,  and  that  with  the  band- 
siiw  only  7  per  cent.  That  is,  by  using  the  liand- 
saw  we  have  saved  237^  feet  of  lumber.  See  Bertl 
JliiiKl-mir  Mac/line,  Circular  &iir,  Resaicing  Band- 
>utir  Mitr/iiin',  and  String-saw. 

BANISHMENT.— Excepting  in  the  penal  .sense  of 
transiKirtation,  with  which  it  is  popularly  synony- 
mous, can  only  now  be  said  to  have  a  legal  meaning 
histoiically.  Fonnerly,  in  England,  parties  who 
were  required  to  abjure  the  realm — that  is,  renounce 
and  depart  from  the  country — were,  so  to  .speak, 
baiiixhed;  but  the  word  appears  to  have  a  more  tech- 
nical and  precise  significance  in  the  Scotch  law  than 
in  the  English,  and  in  Scotch  law-books  is  defined 
as  the  punishment  of  exile  from  Scotland  inflicted  on 
persons  con\  ieted  of  certain  offenses  for  which  that 
punishment  is  provided.  But,  as  a  punishment  it 
has  either  l)een  abolished  in  that  country  by  express 
enactment  or  become  obsolete  by  disuse. 

BANNER. — A  piece  of  cloth  attached  to  a  pole  and 
usually  bearing  some  warlike  or  heraldic  device  or 
national  emblem.  In  this  sense  banner  is  a  generic 
term,  including  many  species,  such  as  standard,  en- 
sign, pennon,  flag,  etc.  Banners  have  been  used 
from  the  earliest  times  and  in  all  countries  for  the 
purpose  of  directing  the  movements  of  troops.  We 
read  of  them  constantly  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  in 
Nutnbers  ii.  2  :  "  Every  man  of  the  children  of  Israel 
shall  camp  by  his  standard,  and  under  the  ensign  of 
his  father's  house."  The  earliest  Roman  standard 
was  a  bundle  of  straw  fixed  to  the  top  of  a  spear. 
This  was  succeeded  by  figures  of  animals — the  horse, 
the  boar,  etc. — all  of  which  soon  gave  place  to  the 
eagle,  which  continued  all  along  to  be  the  chief 
Roman  ensign,  and  was  afterwards  assumed  by  the 
Gennan  and  latterly-  by  the  French  emperors  of  the 
Na]xileonic  dynasty.  In  addition  to  the  eagle  each 
Roman  cohort  had  a  banner,  generally  a  serpent  or 
dragon  woven  on  a  square  piece  of  cloth.  The 
standard  of  the  cavalry  was  a  square  piece  of  cloth 
expanded  on  a  cross,  and  it  was  to  this  that  the  term 
rexilluiii  properly  applied.  Examples  of  these  stand- 
ards are  sculptured  on  the  Arch  of  Constantine  at 
Rome.  The  top  of  the  staff  was  also  frequently 
adorned  with  a  figure  of  Mars  or  of  Victorv',  and  in 
later  times  with  the  head  of  the  reigning  Emjieror. 
After  Constantine  embraced  Christianity,  the  crt)SS 
was  substituted  for  the  head  of  the  Emperor  on  the 
pinple  banner  of  Kyziintium.  Standards  were  less 
in  use  amongst  the  Greeks  than  has  been  usual  with 
warlike  nations ;  but  a  standard,  and  sometimes  a 
scarlet  flag,  was  employed  as  a  signal  for  giving  bat- 
tle. On  the  rise  of  chivalry  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
ordering  of  banners,  like  every  other  branch  of  mili- 
tary or^anization,  attained  to  somethmg  like  scientific 
exactitude.  From  the  banner-royal,  which  bore  the 
national  emblems,  to  the  small  streamer  attached  to 
the  lance,  w  ilh  its  cross  or  stripes,  there  was  a  regu- 
lar subordination,  each  emblem  having  its  place  and 
its  meaning.  The  peiuion  of  the  simple  knight  dif- 
fered from  the  square  banner  of  the  banneret,  it  be- 
ing pointed  at  the  ends.  In  addition  to  their  varieties 
in  size,  shape,  and  color,  the.se  banners  were  distin- 
guished by  the  emblems  which  they  bore.  One  of 
the  earliest  is  the  Danish  raven,  depicted  on  the 
standaiil  taken  by  Alfred,  of  which  Asscr  mentions 
the  tradition  that  "in  every  battle,  wherever  that 
flag  went  Ix'fore  them,  if  tlicy  (the  Danesi  were  to 
gain  a  victory,  a  live  crow  would  appear  flying  on 
the  middle  of  the  flag ;  but  if  they  were  doomed 
to  be  defeated,  it  would  hang  down  motionless  " 
Nor  did  the  privilege  of  carrying  banners  belong  to 


BANNEKET. 


137 


BABB. 


princes  and  knights  alone ;  bishops  and  abbots  dis- 
played similar  ensigns,  which  were  carrieil  lx>fore 
them  in  religious  processions  and  under  which  their 
retainers  fought  in  their  defense.  It  was  to  these 
that  the  term  "  gonfalon,  "  a  word  as  to  the  origin  of 
■which  much  diversity  of  opinion  exists,  was  more 
commonly  applied.  In  place  of  the  heraldic  emblems 
of  the  knight,  the  banner  of  the  Church  and  of  towns 
and  communes  usually  bore  the  effigies  of  saints. 
Some  banners,  however,  <lisplayed  no  ensigns  what- 
ever and  were  known  simjily  by  their  color.  Of  this  I 
the  orijtamme,  or  plain  ruddy  tlag  of  St.  Denis,  was 
a  famous  example.  The  celebrated  Bayeux  tapestry 
throws  coasiderablc  light  on  banners,  as  well  as  on 
other  matters  connected  with  the  warlike  arrange- 
ments of  the  Middle  Ages.  By  every  warlike  people 
the  banner  has  been  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  na- 
tional honor,  as  a  palladium  for  the  defense  of  which 
the  individual  warrior  was  at  all  times  ready  to  sacri- 
fice his  life.  From  the  converse  of  this  feeling,  ban- 
ners antl  flags  taken  from  the  enemy  have  always 
been  regarded  as  special  trophies  of  \-ictory,  and 
places  of  honor  in  churches  and  public  buiklings 
have  consequently  been  assigned  them.  See  Colors, 
Flags,  and  Standnrd. 

BANNERET.— A  higher  grade  of  knighthood  con- 
ferred by  the  Sovereign  for  some  heroic  act  performed 
in  the  field,  and  so  called  Iwcause  the  jjennon  of  the 
knight  was  then  exchanged  for  the  banner — a  jiro- 
ceeding  which  was  effected  by  the  very  simple  means 
of  remling  the  points  from  the  pennon.  The  tii-st 
Banneret  in  England  is  said  by  Froissart  to  have  been 
made  by  King  Edward  I.,  and  the  last  time  the  honor 
was  conferred  was  by  Charles  I.  after  the  battle  of 
Edgehill,  the  recipient  being  an  individual  who  re- 
joiced in  the  familiar  name  of  John  Smith.  The 
ceremony  of  the  creation  of  a  Knight-banneret  must 
have  been  very  impressive  to  persons  filled  with  the 
ideas  which  were  prevalent  in  the  Ages  of  Chivalry. 
The  King  or  his  General,  at  the  head  of  his  army, 
drawn  up  in  order  of  battle  after  a  victory  under  the 
royal  banner  displayed,  attended  by  all  the  Ofilcers 
and  Nobility  of  the  Court,  received  the  Banneret-elect, 
■who  was  not  neccssjirily  a  knight  previously,  led  be- 
tween two  knights  of  note  or  other  men  famous  in 
arms,  carrying  his  j)eunon  in  his  hand,  the  heralds 
walking  before  him  and  proclaiming  his  valiant 
achievements,  for  which  he  deserved  To  be  made  a 
Knight-banneret,  and  to  display  his  banner  in  the 
fielii.  The  King,  or  General,  then  said  to  him,  "  Ad- 
vance, Banneret !"  (iidcanct*  toy  brnineret),  and  caused 
the  point  of  his  pennon  to  be  torn  off.  The  new 
knight,  with  the  trumpeters  sounding  before  him  and 
the  Nobility  and  OHicers  bearing  him  company,  was 
sent  back  to  his  tent,  where  a  noble  entertainment  was 
proWded  by  the  King.  Some  attempts  have  Ix'en 
made  to  revive  the  title  in  recent  times,  as  when 
George  III.,  at  a  review  of  the  navy  at  Portsmouth  in 
1773,  conferred  it  on  Admiral  Pye  and  several  other 
officers. 

BANQUETTE.— In  fortification,  a  device  by  which 
the  men  are  able  to  deliver  their  tire  over  the  [jarapet. 
It  is  made  just  high  enough  alwve  the  teiTe-plein  to 
allow  men  of  medium  slatvire  to  fire  over  the  int<"rior 
crest.  The  distance  of  the  tread  below  the  crest  is 
taken,  for  this  purim.se,  at  four  feet  and  six  inches ; 
sometimes  it  is  taken  three  inches  less,  or  four  feet 
and  a  ((Uarter.  The  width  of  the  tread  depends  upon 
the  number  of  ranks  cxjiected  to  occupy  it.  In  the 
days  of  smooth-bores  and  muzzle-loading  muskets  it 
was  made  wide  enough  for  two  ranks.  It  is  rarely 
occupied,  at  the  present  time,  by  more  than  one 
rank.  A  width  of  two  feet  is  sufficient  for  one  rank, 
although  it  is  usually  made  t/iree  feet  wi^le  in  ordinary 
field-fortitlcations.  The  tread  is  made  with  a  sloi)e 
to  the  rear,  to  allow  the  water  falling  on  it  to  drain 
off.  It  is  connected  widi  the  terre-plein  either  by  a 
slope  or  by  steps.  The  inclination  of  the  former  is 
usually  i  ;  it  may  be  greater  if  the  banquette  is  low. 
When  steps  arc  tised,  the  tread  of  each  step  should 


not  be  less  than  twelve  nor  more  than  eighteen 
inches ;  the  rise  should  not  be  less  than  niiie  nor 
more  than  twelve  inches.  Step.?  are  generally  used 
whenever  it  is  a  matter  of  importance  to  gain 
space.  All  other  tlungs  being  equal,  the  ramp  or 
utcliiied  sloiu-  is  preferred  to  steps.  See  Fkld-fortifi- 
enti^fh. 

BANQUETTE  SLOPE.— In  fortification,  a  slope  of 
earlh  or  timber  placed  in  rear  of  the  banquette  when 
the  top  cannot  be  reached  by  an  ordinarv  step. 

BAPTISM  OF  BLOOD.— Tile  act  of  being  baptized 
with  Ijlood,  and  used  specially  with  reference  to 
soldiers  who  fought  on  their  first  battle-field.  In  the 
old  French  service,  the  baptism  of  blood  equalized  all 
grades;  and  military  serN-ices,  not  rank,  were  the  rec- 
ognized claims  fur  jiriimotion. 

BAPTISM  OF  FIEE.— A  figurative  term  applied  to 
soliliers  who  have  passed  through  their  first  fire  in 
battle. 

BAR. — 1.  In  Heraldry,  one  of  those  more  important 
figures  or  charges  which  are  known  as  ordiiKtries, 
By  heralds,  the  ordinaries,  or  as,  by  way  of  eminence, 
they  are  called,  the  "  hononible  ordina- 
ries," are  commonly  reckoneil  as  ten 

s; I    in  number,  the  subordinaries,  or  minor 

P  charges,  being  greatly  more  numerous. 

I  _  The  bar,  like  the   fess,  is  formed  by 

^■"Y""^  two  horizontal  lines  passing  over  the 
shield,  but  it  differs  from  it  in  size,  the  fess  occupy- 
ing a  third,  the  bar  only  a  fifth  part,  of  the  shield. 
There  is  this  further  difference  between  thes(!  two  or- 
dinaries, that  the  fess  is  confined  to  the  center,  while 
the  bar  may  be  borne  in  several  parts  of  the  shield. 
There  is  a  diminutive  of  the  bar,  called  the  closet, 
which  is  half  a  bar;  and  again  of  the  closet,  called 
the  ban-ulet,  which  is  half  a  closet,  or  the  fourth  part 
of  a  bar. — B.\r-gemel  is  a  double  bar,  from  the 
French  terms  jumeau,  jumelle,  a  twin.  AJso  written 
burr. 

2.  An  elongated  piece  of  wood,  metal,  or  other 
solid  substance.  In  the  iron-manufacture,  bar  is  a 
rod,  either  round  or  square  shafted.  The  round 
ones  are  made  by  drawing  the  iron  red-hot  through 
a  bore  or  hole  in  a  plate,  and  the  square  ones  by 
pa.sstng  it  likewise  red-hot  through  a  roller-mill  be- 
tween two  rollers  counter-grooved,  with  their  tri- 
angular-grooved faces  forming  the  square  opening 
for  the  passage  of  the  iron.  Railway  and  knee  iron 
is  made  in  the  same  manner.  Bars  have  various 
denominations  in  the  construction  of  artillery -car- 
riages, etc.,  as  sweep-bars  and  cross-bars  for  tum- 
brils; fore,  hind,  and  under  cross-bars  for  powder- 
cjirts;  shaft-bars  for  wagons;  and  dowel-bars,  used  in 
mortar-tieds. 

3.  In  hydrography,  a  bar  is  a  bank  opposite  the 
mouth  of  a  river,  which  obstructs  or  bars  the  en- 
trance of  ves.sels.  The  bar  is  formed  where  the  rush 
of  the  stream  is  arrested  by  the  water  of  the  sea,  as 
the  mud  and  sand  suspended  in  the  river-water  are 
thus  allowed  to  be  deposited.  It  is  thus  that  deltas 
are  fonned  at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  The  navigation 
of  many  streams  (as  the  Danulx')  is  kept  open  only  by 
constant  dredging  or  other  artificial  means. 

4.  In  law,  the  word  has  several  meanings;  thus,  it 
is  the  term  used  to  signify  an  indosure  or  fixed  place 
in  a  Court  of  Justice  where  lawyers  may  plead,  or, 
perhaps  more  correctly,  where  they  can  address  their 
advocacy  on  behalf  of  their  clients.  A  veiled-off 
space  within  the  Houses  of  Parliament  is  similarly 
called  the  bar.  The  dock,  or  inclosed  space  where 
persons  accusi'd  of  felonies  and  other  offenses  stand 
or  sit  during  their  trial,  is  also  called  the  bar;  hence 
the  exjiression  "  iirisoner  at  the  bar."  This  word 
has  also  a  general  meaning  in  legal  procedure,  signify- 
ing something  by  way  of  stoppage  or  prevention. 
There  is  also  a  trial  at  bar;  that  is,  a  trial  liefore  the 
judges  of  a  particular  court,  who  sit  together  for 
that  Kurpose  in  banc. 

BA'rb.— 1.  The  reflected  points  of  the  head  of  an 
arrow;  also,  the  armor  for  horees. 


BARBACAN. 


138 


BABBETTE  FIRE. 


2.  The  desi&iiation  of  n  noble  bree*!  of  horses  culti- 
vated by  the  Jloors  of  Barlmry,  ami  introduced  by 
them  into  Sjniiu.  Barlisare  less  remarkiible  for  their 
beauty  ami  symmetry  than  for  their  speed,  endur- 
aiui-.  absiiiKiKe,  aiiil  i:enlle  temper. 

BARBACAN— BARBICAN. —  A  projecting  watch- 
tower,  or  other  advaiieetl-work,  In-fore  the  gate  of  a 
castle  or  fortitied  town.  The  term  barbaean  was 
mon-  s]>ecially  applii-d  to  the  outwork  intended  to 
defend  the  dniwhridire,  wliieli  in  modern  fortifica- 
tions is  culled  the  UU  dit  punt.  "  To  begin  from 
without,  the  first  member  of  an  ancient  castle  was' 


arrangement  is  made  for  llie  guns  to  flre  in  the 
direction  of  the  capital.  A  pancoupee  of  eleven  feet 
is  tirst  made;  fR)in  the  foot  of  the  interior  slope  at 

I  the  pancoupee,  a  distance  of  twenty-four  feet  is  set 
oil  lUoup  the  capital;  at  the  extremity  of  this  line  a 

!  ix;rpendicular  is  drawn  to  the  capital";  and  live  feet 
are  set  olT  on  this  ])erpendieular  on  each  side  of  the 
capital;  from  each  of  these  points,  on  tlie  )KTi>en- 
dicular,  a  line  is  drawn  perpendicular  to  each  face  re- 
spectively; the  hexagonal  tigure  thus  laid  out  is  the 
surface  of  the  barbette  for  one  gun.  The  ramp  in 
this  case  is  made  lUong  the  capital. 

If  three  or  more  guns  are  placed  in  the  sidient, 
a  pan-coupee  is  formed  as  in  the  last  case;  and 
twenty-four  feet  are  in  like  manner  set  off  on  the 
capital;  but  instead  of  proceeding  as  in  the  last  case. 


the  barbaean,  a  watch-tower  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
scrying an  enemy  at  a  greater  distance"  (Grose's 
Antiquities  of  England  and  Walfs):  and,  to  the  Siime 
effect,  Camden,  speaking  of  Bedford  Castle,  says  it 
was  taken  Ijy  four  as.S!iults:  in  the  first  was  taken  the 
barbaean;  in  the  second,  the  outer  ha]\a.  (See  also 
Parker's  Glossary  of  Archittelurf.)  There  are  a  few- 
perfect  barbacans  remaining  in  England,  as  at  Aln- 
wick and  Warwick;  but  the  best  examples  of  it,  as 
of  the  other  part.s  of  the  fortification  of  the  Jliddle 
Ages,  are  probably  to  be  sct'n  in  the  town  of  Carcas- 
sone.  A  very  curious  and  minute  account  of  the 
siege  of  Carcassone  in  1240,  in  the  form  of  a  report 
to  Queen  Blanche  by  the  Seneschal  who  defended  it, 
jireserved  in  the  archives  of  France,  has  been  pub- 
lished in  Hewitt's  Ancient  Armor,  in  which  the  uses 
of  the  barbaean  are  fully  illustrated.  The  street 
called  Barbican  in  London,  near  Aldersgate  Street, 
marks  the  site  of  such  a  work,  in  front  of  one  of  the 
gjites  of  the  old  citv. 

BARBED  AND  CRESTED— An  heraldic  term  by 
which  the  comb  and  gills  of  a  cock  are  designated, 
when  it  is  necessarj'  to  particularize  them  as  l)eing 
of  a  (litTercnt  tincture  from  the  Iwdy.  The  common 
English  term  is  icattUd  and  combed,  gules,  or  what- 
ever else  the  tinctiu'e  may  be. 

BARBETS. — Peasants  "of  Piedmont  who  abandoned 
their  dwellings  when  an  enemy  had  taken  possession 
of  llieni.  Thev  formed  into  txKlies  and  defended  the 
Alp-. 

BARBETTE.— The  ijarbette  is  a  constniction  bv 
means  of  which  a  piece  can  fire  over  a  parapet.  It 
consists  of  a  mound  of  earth  thrown  ui)  agidnst  the 
inlerior  slope;  the  upper  surface  of  which  is  level, 
and  two  feet  nine  inches  below  the  interior  crest  for 

funs  of  small  caliber,  and  four  feet  for  heavy  guns, 
f  the  l)arl)ette  is  raised  behind  a  face,  its  length 
should  be  sufficient  to  allow  si.xteen  and  a  half  to 
eighteen  feet  along  the  interior  crest  for  each  gim; 
and  its  drptli.  or  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the 
foot  of  the  interior  slope  to  the  rear,  .should  be 
twenty-four  feet,  for  the  service  of  the  guns.  The 
earth  of  the  barlx-tfe  at  the  rear  and  sides  receives 
the  natural  slope.  To  ascend  the  l)arlx;ttc,  a  con- 
struction temied  a  rnmp  is  made;  this  is  an  inclined 
plane  of  earth,  which  connects  llic  top  of  the  bar- 
Ijette  with  the  terre-plein.  The  nunp  is  ten  feet  w  ide 
at  top,  and  it.s  slope  is  six  l)a.sc  to  one  perpendicidar. 
The  earth  at  the  sides  receives  the  natural  slope. 
The  ramp  should  l>e  at  some  convenient  point  in  the 
rear,  and  take  up  as  little  room  as  possible. 
As  barbettes  are  usually  placed  in  the  sidients,  an 


Barbette,  with  Pan-coupfe. 

a  perpendicular  is  drawn  from  this  point  to  each 
face,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  and  the  pentagonal 
space  thus  inclosed  will  be  taken  for  the  gun  in  the 
salient;  from  the  perpendiculars  last  set  off  as  many 
times  sixteen  and  a  half  feet  will  be  set  off,  on  the 
interior  crest  of  each  face,  as  there  are  guns  required: 
this  will  give  the  length  of  the  barbette  along  each 
face;  the  depth  will  I)e  made  twenty-four  feet,  and 
the  two  wili  be  united  in  the  salient.  One  or  more 
ramps  may  be  made  as  most  convenient. 

To  give  fempoRir\'  cover  to  gims  on  a  field  of  bat- 
tle and  enable  them  to  command  a  wide  field  of  fire, 
a  parapet  of  just  sufficient  height  to  allow  the  gims 
to  fire  over  it  may  be  thrown  up  for  the  purix).se,  the 
earth  being  taketi  from  a  ditch  in  front.  The  ground 
niaj'  be  roughly  leveled  off  far  enough  to  the  rear 
for  the  maneuver  of  the  guns.  Between  each  gun  a 
shallow  trench  may  be  dug  parallel  to  the  wheels, 
where  the  gunners  can  find  shelter  when  not  serving 
their  pieces. 

The  advanta.ges  of  the  barbette  consist  in  the  com- 
manding p<isilion  given  to  the  guns,  and  in  a  very 
wide  field  of  fire;  on  these  accounts  the  salients  are 
the  best  positions  for  them.  Their  defects  are  that 
they  expose  the  guns  and  men  to  the  enemy's  artillery 
and  sharp-shooters.  Light  guns,  particularly  howit- 
zers, are  the  best  for  arming  barbettes,  because  the 
hollow  projectile  of  the  latter  is  verj-  formidable 
both  to  the  enemy's  colunnis  and  to  his  cavalry,  and 
when  his  batteries  are  opened  against  the  salients  the 
light  pieces  can  be  readilv  withdrawn. 

BARBETTE  CARRIAGE.— A  carriage  of  the  station- 
ary class,  on  wlii(  li  a  gun  is  mounted  to  fire  over  a 
parapet,  A  liarliitte  gun  is  any  gun  mounted  on  a 
barbette  carriage. 

BARBETTE  FIRE —Barbette  fire  can  only  be  ob- 
tained by  some  arrangement  which  raises  "the  gun 
into  a  position  from  which  it  can  be  fired  over  the 
parapet.  There  are  two  methods  by  which  this  can 
be  done:  one,  by  mounting  the  gini"  on  a  liigh  car- 
riage, or  on  a  carriage  whicli  admits  of  the  gun  being 
raised  to  the  necessary  position;  the  ntlur,  liy  build- 
ing a  mound  of  earth  sufiiciently  high  behind  the 
parapet,  and  placing  the  gim  on" this  mound.  The 
latter  is  the  method  generally  employed  in  field- 
works.  The  artillery  used  in  the  defense  of  field- 
works  may  be  either  siege  or  field  guns;  but  most 
generally  the  latter  lue  employed.     The   upper  sur- 


BASBOLE. 


139 


BABNACLES. 


face  of  the  platform  on  which  the  wheels  rest,  or  the 
upper  surface  of  the  barbette  when  no  platform  is 
used,  should  be  at  a  dLstiince  below  the  interior  crest 
just  sufficient  to  allow  the  gun  to  fire  over  the  interior 
crest  and  parallel  to  the  superior  slope.  A  distance 
greater  than  this  would  interfere  with  the  eftieiency 
of  the  gim;  a  distance  less  would  unnecessarily  ex- 
pose the  gun  and  carriage  to  the  enemy's  tire.  The 
axis  of  the  trunnions  of  a  field-gun,  in  the  United 
States  service,  is  about  forty-three  inches  above  the 
ground  on  which  the  wheels  rest.  The  diameter  of 
the  piece  at  the  muzzle  and  the  inclination  of  the  su- 
perior slope  being  given,  it  is  ea,«y  to  determine  what 
should  be  the  distance  of  the  upper  surface  of  the 
barbette  below  the  interior  crest.  The  general  rule 
u.sed  is  to  take  this  distance  at  two  feet  and  nine 
inches  for  field-gims,  and  four  feet  for  siege-guns, 
when  mounted  U[x)n  the  ordinary  carriages. 

BABBOLE. — A  heavy  battle-axe  us&l  in  ancient 
times;  now  obsolete. 

BABCE. — A  small  gun,  shorter  and  thicker  than  a 
falconet,  which  was  formerly  used  on  board  ship. 
Also  written  Bercht. 

BABDINGS. — Such  parts  of  horse-armor  as  protect 
the  animal's  head,  neck,  and  rump:  the  ekamp-froiU, 
the  mtiiufaire,  the  poitrd,  and  the  croupier.  Also 
written  Bant. 

BASIL  AEDENT.— A  barrel  filled  with  layers  of 
tarred  chips  intermixed  with  powder,  and  primed  at 
each  end  with  a  shell-fuse.  It  was  formerly  used  for 
illuminating  purposes,  and  had  holes  bored  in  it  for 
the  puqxise  of  admittin<r  air  to  the  burning  contents. 

BABIL  FOUDBOYANT.— A  contrivance  of  the  same 
nature  as  the  baril  ardent,  with  the  addition  of  gre- 
nades placed  between  the  layers  of  chips.  These 
were  used  at  the  defense  of  a  breech,  by  rolling  Uiem 
upon  the  assailants.     Also  written  Baril  d'art^ce. 

BAEKEB'S  MILL.— A  water-wheel  invented  by 
Dr.  Barker  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. It  is  represented  in  its  simplest  or  tj-pical  form 
in  the  drawing.    A  is  a  wide  metal  pipe,  resting  at 


its  lower  end,  by  the  steel  spindle  T,  on  a  metal  block 

B,  and  kept  in"  a  vertical  position  by  the  spindle  S 
at  its  upper  end,  which  passes  through  the  frame  of 
the  machine,  so  that  it  can  easily  revolve  roimd  its 
axis.     Near  its  lower  end  two  smaller  pijies  or  anns, 

C,  C,  are  inserted,  which  project  horizontally  from 
it,  and  these  have  each,  at  the  outer  extremity,  a  hole 
cut  vertically  in  them,  opening  towards  "op[X)sile 
sides.  The  water  is  supplied  by  the  pipe  P,  which 
opens  over  a  funnel-like  widening  on  the  upper  part 
of  A,  and  the  quantity  is  so  regulated  that  while 
the  pipe  A  is  kept  nearly  full,  no  more  is  admitted 
than  issues  from  the  lower  orifices.  The  reaction 
caused  by  the  water  gushing  from  the  arras  forces 
them  backwards,  and  gives  to  the  whole  machine  a 


rotary  motion.  This  reaction  is  much  the  same  as 
is  seen  in  the  recoil  of  a  gun  when  fired,  or  in  the 
pushing  back  of  a  small  Ixjat  by  the  foot  on  stepping 
a.shore.  It  may  be  also  thus  explained:  Suppose  that 
the  aiins  were  closed  all  round,  the  water  would 
press  against  the  sides  with  a  force  proportional  to 
the  height  of  the  water  in  the  pipe  A,  and  the  pres- 
sure against  any  particular  surface  of  the  side  would 
produce  no  motion  of  the  arm,  because  an  equal 
pressure  is  exerted  in  a  contrary  direction  by  a  cor- 
responding surface  opposite  to  it.  Now,  if  one  of 
these  smlaces  be  cut  out,  the  pressure  against  the 
other,  being  imcounteraeted,  forces  the  arm  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  that  of  tlie  side  in  which  the  hole 
i.s  made.  This  being  done  to  both  arms  on  opposite 
sides,  two  equal  pressures  are  prt)duced,  which  con- 
spire in  generating  the  same  motion  of  rotation.  As 
soon  as  motion  ensues,  centrifugal  force  comes  into 
plav',  which,  throwing  the  water  out  towanls  the 
ends  of  the  arms,  increa.ses  the  rapidity  of  its  dis- 
charge, and  also  its  reacting  power.  When  the  wheel 
is  in  action,  the  water  thus  acts  under  the  influence 
of  two  forces — one  being  the  pre.ssure  of  the  column  in 
A,  and  the  other  the  centrifugal  force  generated  by 
the  rotation  of  the  wheel  itself.  The  motion  of  the 
wheel  is  transmitted,  by  the  spur-wheel  fixed  to  the 
spindle  S,  to  the  machinerj-  which  is  to  be  driven  by  it. 

The  power  is  manifestly  incre;tsed  by  heightening 
the  water<olumn,  or  bj-  lengthening  the  arms — the 
former  increasing  the  pressure  of  the  water,  jmd  the 
latter  increasing'the  leverage  at  which  this  pressure 
acts.  In  the  mill  shown  in  the  figure,  the  colimin  in 
A.  cannot  be  advantageously  heightened,  for  the 
higher  it  rises  the  greater  must  be  the  weight  which 
the  conical  spindle,  T,  has  to  sustain,  and  the  greater, 
consequently,  becomes  the  friction.  It  is  from  this 
circumstance  that  such  mills  are  found,  in  practice,  to 
yield  but  a  small  mechanical  effect— the  friction  con- 
suming too  large  a  proixjrtion  of  the  work  of  the 
wheel.  Hence,  in  the  reaction-wheels  now  in  use, 
the  original  Barker's  mill  has  been  so  modified  as  to 
allow  of  the  water  being  conducted  from  the  reser- 
voir below  the  arms  instead  of  above.  This  Is  ef- 
fected by  making  the  vertical  pipe  revolve  below  in 
a  stulfing-lx)x  at  its  junction  with  the  conduit,  and 
above  by  a  pivot  moving  in  the  fixed  frame.  By 
this  arrangement  the  friction  attending  the  rotation 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  for  not  only  is  the  weight 
of  the  water  placed  out  of  account,  but  also  a  large 
proportion  of  the  weight  of  the  wheel  itself,  which  is 
borne  by  the  upward  pressiure  of  the  water.  The 
mechanical  performance  of  such  wheels  is  said  to  be 
highly  satisfactory,  producing,  with  a  limited  supply 
of  water  falling  from  a  considerable  height,  a  usefiU 
effect  hardly  to  be  obtained  by  any  other  contriv- 
ance. The  power  of  these  machines  may  be  also 
increased  by  using  curvetl  instead  of  straight  arms. 
With  straight  arms  a  considerable  Io.ss  of  force  is  in- 
curred by  the  sudden  change  of  the  direction  of  the 
current  when  it  leaves  the  arm,  which  does  not  take 
place  to  the  same  extent  with  curved  arms,  where  this 
change  is  effected  gradually.  In  Whitelaw's  mill 
(hence  called  the  Sccttisli  turbine),  the  form  of  Bar- 
ker's niiU  generally  met  with  in  Scotland,  there  are 
three  instead  of  two  curved  arms  of  this  description. 
Considerable  difference  of  opinion  still  exists  lus  to  the 
merits  of  Barker's  mUl,  some  considering  it  as  the 
most  perfect  way  of  applying  watcr-jtower,  ;uul  others 
putting  it  in  the  same  rank  as  an  undershot-wheel, 
with  the  s;imc  water-supply.  Of  late  years  it  has 
been  more  extensively  employed  than  formerly. 

BABNACLES.— 1.  In  Heraldrj-,  barnacles  resembled 
what  are  now  called  twitchers",  instmments  used  by 
farriers  to  curb  and  command  unruly  horses.  Bar- 
nacles are  fa'quently  introduced  into  coats  of  arm.s 
as  a  charge. — 2.  A  noose  attached  to  a  stock  or  han- 
dle, and  nipped  around  the  upper  lip  of  a  horse.  It 
is  twisted  so  as  to  lie  somewhat  paitiful,  in  order  to 
give  the  command  of  the  head  to  the  person  holding 
the  same.     It  enables  a  trooper  to  hold  the  horsed 


SABNEKOV-GREENE  OUN. 


140 


BABOHETEB. 


bead  aloft  to  kwj)  liini  fmm  biting,  occupy  his  atten- 
tion, and  nieasurablv  prevent  his  liickiniT. 

BARNEKOV- GREENE  GUN.— A  breech  -  loadini; 
rille  havini:  a  li.xed  chaniUr  closed  by  a  movable 
bntrh-bkKk,  whicli  slides  in  the  line  of  the  barrel 
by  iudin'ct  action,  bcini;  moveii  by  levers  from  above. 
Its  distinjruishini;  chanicterislic  is  a  short  sliding 
blcx'k,  back  of  which  is  a  pair  of  links,  secured  at 
thi'ir  forward  end  to  the  block,  and  in  rear  to  the 
frame.  The  rearniosl  one  of  them  contains  the 
hammer,  in  cocking  which  the  combination  is  bent 
upwanl  and  so  withdmws  the  block.  The  cartridge- 
shells,  when  extracted,  drop  through  a  hole  left  for 
the  ])iir|><)si>  in  the  frame. 

BAROMETER.— If  a  straight  tube  32  or  33  inches 
long  and  ck)>e-d  at  one  end  is  tilled  with  mercury 
ami,  the  open  end  Ining  .stopped  with  the  linger,  im- 
inersi-d  in  a  ves.sel  tilled  with  the  s;ime  substance  and 
the  linger  removed,  the  Huid  will  stand  at  about  30 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  mercury  in  the  vessel. 
The  coluiim  of  mercury  in  the  tube  is  sujijiorted  by 
the  pressure  of  the  aliiiosphere  iijion  the  surface  of 
the  mercury  in  the  cvip,  and  it  is  therefore  assiuned 
that  the  weight  of  a  column  of  mercury  of  uuifonn 
diameter,  30  inches  high,  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a 
column  of  air  of  the  .sjune  base,  extending  to  the  top 
of  the  atmosjihere.  This  is  the  barometer  invented 
by  Torricelli  in  1641!  and  still  used  in  essentially  its 
original  form.  As  every  fluctuation  of  atmospheric 
pressure  is  faithfully  shown  by  the  varving  height  of 
the  fluid  in  the  Torricellian  lube,  the  "instrument  is, 
as  its  name  implies,  a  measure  of  the  weight  of  the  at- 
mosphere. The  barometer  as  usually  made  consists  of 
a  gla.ss  tube  about  34  inches  long,  closed  at  one  end, 
fillet!  with  mercury,  and  placed  in  a  vertical  position 
■with  the  open  end  immersed  in  the  mercury, 
contained  in  a  cup  called  a  cistern.  A  scale 
of  inches  and  tenths,  placed  at  the  top  of  the 
column,  enaliles  the  height  of  the  mercury  to  be 
read,  and  in  the  higher  grade  barometers  a"  \eniier 
facilitates  the  reading  of  the  scale  to  hundredths.  A 
thennometer  is  usually  attached,  so  placed  that  its 
temperature  shall  be  the  same  as  that  of  the 
barometer  colunui,  by  which  the  correcliou  for 
temperature  may  be  accurately  made.  The  tube 
should  not  be  "  too  small;  l6  allow  freedom  of 
motion  to  the  column  it  should  have  an  internal 
diameter  of  from  one-third  to  one-half  inch.  The 
mercurj'must  be  absolutely  pure,  freed  from  moisture,  j 
and  of  the  s|>ecitic  gravity  of  13..')94.  Extreme  care  i 
is  necessary  iu  excluding  from  the  tube  both  air  and  i 
moisture,  the  pressure  of  which  tilliug  the  lube  above 
the  mercury  and  exerting  a  pressure  upon  the  upi)er 
surface  of  the  column,  would  depress  it  below  the 
proper  height.  The  tube  should  be  absolutely  clean, 
and  the  mercurj-  should  he  tillered,  and  both"  sliould 
be  healed  in  order  to  exjiel  moisture.  A  small  por- 
tion of  mercury  l)eing  carefully  introdticed  into  the 
tube,  it  is  held  over  a  charcoal -lire  until  the  mercury 
boils,  the  lube  being  held  in  an  inclined  position  so 
that  any  air-lK'lls  may  readily  esriii)e.  More  mercury 
is  added  and  the  process  of  boiling  repealed  until  the 
tube  is  llllcd.  When  a  lianimeler-tulie  has  been  care- 
fully tilled  and  imjperly  freed  from  air  and  moisUire, 
the  mercurj'  will,  when  the  lube  is  reversed,  strike 
the  top  of  the  tube  with  a  sharp  metallic  sound. 
The  barometer  tubes  are  usually  attached  to  woo<l 
frames,  of  which  there  is  an  infinite  variety  in  design 
and  cost,  but  in  standard  barometers  for  strictly 
scientific  pur|ios<s  a  cylindrical  brass  frame  is  usecl, 
the  index  of  expansion  of  thai  metid  lieing  more 
nearly  the  Siunc  as  that  of  gla.ss.  As  now  ar- 
ranged, with  adjusting  screw  below  the  cistern, 
the  mercury  can  Ijc  forced  u])  into  the  IuIk; 
and  the  barometer  rendered  i>erfeclly  portable. 
It  has  been  slal<Ml  that  the  height  of  "the  colunui 
al)f)ve  the  level  of  the  mereiuy  in  llie  eislern  indic-ates 
the  weight  of  the  .■itinosphere.  ll  is  f)lnious,  how 
ever,  that  the  level  of  the  men  urv  in  the  (•i^lern  inusi 
vary  with  the  amount  of  mercury  which  the  xarjiug 


atnn)spheric  pressure  causes  to  enter  or  leave  the  IuIk". 
To  compensate  for  this  difference  of  level  of  the  mer- 
cury in  the  cistern,  various  forms  of  barometer  have 
beeii  devised,  the  principal  of  which  are  Ihal  on 
Forlin's  ])rinci)ile,  the  Kew  barometer,  and  the  si|)hon, 
or  Gay-Lussjic.  barometer.  In  Fortius  barometer. 
Fig.  1,  a  straight  tube  enters  a  cistern,  the  ujiiier  part 
of  which  is  gla.ss,  w  bile  the  lower  pari  is  of  flexible 
leather  imder  which  is  a  lifting-screw.  The  lower 
extremity  of  a  small  ivory  point,  pointing  downwards, 
denotes  the  zero-poiiU  of  the  scjilc,  which  is  in  true 
inches.  At  every  observation  the  surface  of  the  mer- 
cury in  the  cistern  is  exactly  adjusted  by  the  lifling- 


I  I"   '  Fio.  2. 

screw  to  the  level  of  the  ivory  point.  This  lifting- 
screw  and  flexible  cistern  bottom  serve  the  purpose, 
also,  of  making  the  liaromeler  portable  by  confining 
the  mercury  in  the  tube  and  preventing  Ihul  pumping 
of  the  fiuicl  which  in  transit  is  apt  to  cndamrer  the 
inslrumenl.  The  Forlin  haromeler  can  only  gel  out 
of  order  by  the  adnnssion  of  air  or  moisture,"  and  it  is 
not  affected  by  changes  in  the  material  of  the  cistern 
or  of  the  fluid  itself.  It  is  therefore  well  adapted 
for  scienlilic  jiurposes.  and  the  higher  grade  of 
standard  barf)milers  are  usually  made  on  this  prin- 
<i|ile.  The  Kew  barometer,  I^g.  2,  was  originally 
reeonunendecl  to  the  Governnicul  by  the  Kew"  Com- 
mittee of  the  British  As.socialion,  as  a"  form  of  barome- 


BASOMETEB. 


141 


BASOMETEB. 


ter  well  adapted  for  marine  observations,  and  was 
adopted  by  the  British  Government  for  that  puipose. 
It  has  been  found  equally  well  suited  to  land  and 
marine  serviee,  and  is  in  extensive  use  in  nieteorn- 
logical  stations.  In  this  form  of  barometer  the 
cistern  is  closed  anil  is  composed  of  iron  or  wcoii. 
Cisterns  of  wood  are  sutliciently  pervious  to  permit 
of  the  mercury  being  affected  by  the  variations  of 
atmospheric  pressure.  Those  made  of  iron  have  a 
small  aperture  at  the  top,  which  is  closed  by  a  piece 
of  leather.  Sufflrient  mercury  is  contained  in  the 
cistern  to  cover  the  end  of  tlie  lube  in  whatever 
position  the  instniment  may  be  placed.  To  com- 
pensate for  variations  in  the  level  of  the  mercurj'  in 
the  cistern  the  scale  is  shortened  from  above  down- 
ward in  proportion  to  the  relative  size  of  the  diameter 
of  the  tube  and  of  the  cistern.  For  use  at  sea  the 
tube  of  this  barometer  is  contracted  to  prevent  oscilla- 
tion during  the  heaviest  storms.  In  the  siphon 
barometer  the  open  end  of  the  tube  is  bent  upward  in 
the  shape  of  a  siphon,  the  short  limb  being  from  si.\- 
to  eight  inches  long.    The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 

_  upon  the  surface  of  the  mercury 

in  the  short  limb  sustains  the  col- 
umn of  mercmy  in  the  long  limb, 
the  fluid  in  the  short  limb  falling 
with  its  rise  in  the  tube  and  rising 
with  its  fall.  The  upjier  jiart  of 
the  tube  is  made  of  equal  diame- 
ter with  that  of  the  lower  limb, 
so  that  the  distance  between  the 
ujjper  and  lower  levels  of  the  mer- 
cury is  always  the  height  of  the 
barometric  column.  A  .scale  of 
inches,  starting  from  a  zero-point, 
taken  near  the  bend  of  the  tube, 
with  verniers  fitted  to  each  limb, 
gives  the  means  of  measuring  the 
long  and  short  columns.  The  dif- 
ference of  the  two  readings  is  the 
height  of  the  barometer.  By  an- 
other method  the  zero -point  is 
taken  at  some  intermediate  posi- 
tion, and  the  distances  of  the  mer- 
cury-levels upward  and  down- 
ward from  this  measured,  their 
sum  being  the  height  of  the  ba- 
rometer. With  this  barometer  no 
correction  for  capillarity  is  re- 
quired, the  capillary  action  of  the 
glass  being  considered  the  same  at 
each  of  the  mercury  surfaces.  The 
J.JJ,  3  barometer-scale  being  divided  into 

inches  and  tenths,  the  vernier  en- 
ables us  to  subdivide  the  tenths  to  hundredths  and 
thousandths  of  an  inch.  Fig.  3  shows  the  scale  of 
a  standard  barometer  divided  into  half-tenths,  or  .05, 
of  an  inch,  as  A  B,  The  vernier  I)  is  made  equal 
in  length  to  twenty-four  of  these  divisions,  and  is 
divided  into  twenty-flve  equal  parts;  one  space  on 
the  scale  is  larger,  therefore,  than  one  on  the  ver- 
nier by  the  one  twenty-fifth  part  of  .0"),  which  is 
.0()2  inch,  so  that  the  vernier  shows  differences  of 
.002.  The  vernier  reading  upwards,  the  lower  edge, 
D,  indicates  the  lop  of  the  mercurial  column  and 
is  the  zero  of  the  vernier-scale.  In  the  drawing, 
the  zero  being  exactly  in  line  with  29  ,"5  inches  of 
the  fixed  scale,  the  barometer  reading  would  be 
29.500  inches.  The  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5  on  the 
vernier  measure  hun<lredths,  and  the  intermediate 
lines  thousandths,  of  an  inch.  In  Fig.  3  the  zero  of 
the  vernier  is  between  29.65  and  29.70  on  the  scale. 
Looking  up  the  vernier  and  scale,  the  second  line 
above  3  is  perceived  to  lie  evenly  with  a  line  of  the 
scale.  This  gives  .03  and  .004  "to  add  to  29.65,  so 
that  the  actual  reading  is  29.684  inches.  For  the 
ordinary  purposes  of  the  barometer  such  minute 
measurement  is  not  req\iired.  In  household  and 
marine  barometers  the  scale  is  only  divided  to  tenths 
and  the  vernier  constructed  to  measure  hundredths  of 


an  inch.  This  is  accomplished  by  making  the  vernier 
either  nine  or  eleven  tenths  of  an  inch  long  and 
dividing  it  into  ten  cciual  jiarts.  To  take  a  reading, 
[jlace  a  )iiece  of  white  paper  lieliind  the  tube  to  reflect 
the  light  and  aid  in  setting  the  vernier  accurately. 
Adjust  the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern 
carefully  to  the  ivory  point  or  zero  of  the  scale.  To 
determine  the  contact  it  will  be  found  best  to  slightly 
immerse  the  point  in  the  mercury  first  and  then 
slowly  lower  the  screw  until  the  depression  caused 
by  this  inmiersion  disiippears.  Tap  the  barometer 
with  the  hand  10  free  the  mercury  from  the  sides  of 
the  tube.  Sufficient  force  should  be  used  to  agitate 
the  top  of  the  colunm.  Bring  the  lower  edge  of  the 
vernier  exactly  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  mer- 
curial column.  When  set  ])roperly,  the  front  edge 
of  the  vernier,  the  top  of  the  mercury,  and  the  back 
edge  of  the  vernier  should  be  in  the  line  of  sight, 
w  Inch  line  will  thus  just  touch  the  middle  and  upjier- 
most  point  of  the  column.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
read  with  the  eye  exactly  on  a  level  wiih  the  top  of 
the  mercury.  The  inches  and  tenths  may  then  be 
read  from  the  scale,  and  the  hundredths  and 
thousandths  from  the  vernier.  A  reading  of  the 
attached  thermometer  should  also  be  taken.  All 
readings  of  the  Ijarometer  are  subject  to  corrections, 
in  order  to  eliminate  various  sources  of  error  and  to 
harmonize  the  indications  of  different  instnnnents,  so 
that  the  observations  can  be  used  for  scientific  pur- 
poses. These  corrections  are  for  index  error,  capac- 
itj',  capillarity,  temjierature,  altitutle  above  sea-level. 
It  is  ncces.sary  to  finil  the  index  error  of  each  instni 
ment  by  comparison  with  a  standard  instrument 
whose  constant  of  error  is  known.  This  being  de- 
termined, is  a  fixed  quantily  to  be  added  or  sub- 
tracted from  each  observation.  In  all  barometers  on 
the  Fortin  principle,  the  correction  for  capacity  is 
made  by  the  lifting-screw.  The  Kew  barometer  re- 
quires no  capacity  correction.  The  siphon  barome- 
ter requires  no  correction  for  capillarity.  All 
barometers  require  to  be  corrected  for  temperature 
and  altitude.  The  capillary  action  of  glass  and  mer- 
cury cause  a  dejiression  of  the  mercurj'  by  a  quantity 
verv'  nearly  in  inverse  propoition  to  the  diameter  of 
the  tube.  The  following  table  gives  the  corrections 
to  be  applied  to  tubes  from  0.6  to  0.10  diameter,  with 
boiled  mercury: 

Diameter 

of  Tube.  Correction. 

0.60  inch 0.002  inch 

0.50  do 0.003  do. 

0.4.5  do 0.005  do. 

0.40  do 0.007  do. 

0.35  do.' 0.010  do. 


Diameter 

of  Tube.  Correction. 

0.30  inch 0.014  inch 

0.25  do 0.020  do. 

0.20  do 0.029  do. 

0.15  do 0.044  do. 

0.10  do 0.070  do. 

As  mercur)'  expands  f,\  of  its  vohuue  between  the 
freezing  and  boiling  points  of  the  Fahrenheit  ther- 
mometer, it  is  necessary  that  all  observations  should 
be  reduced  to  a  uniform  temperature,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  barometer  is  always  accompanied  by  a 
thermometer,  wiiich  should  be  observed  at  each  time 
that  an  observation  is  taken  of  the  barometer  itself. 
It  is  universally  agreed  that  the  temperature  to  which 
all  barometrical  observations  shall  be  reduced  is  32' 
Fahr.  For  every  degree  of  the  thennometer,  above 
32°  Fahr.,  we  must  subtract  the  ten-thousandth  part 
of  the  observed  height.  If  the  tempeniture  tx'  lielow 
32  this  correction  must  be  added.  At  sea-level,  in 
latitude  45%  and  at  a  temperature  of  32°  Fahr..  the 
normal  height  of  the  mercurial  column  is  about 
29.922.  As'  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  dimin- 
ishes as  we  ascend,  it  is  evident  that  the  lenixtli  of  the 
mercurial  coUunn  will  be  less  in  proi>ortiun  to  the 
altitude  of  its  station.  In  order  that  observations 
may  be  intercomparable,  they  are  reduced  to  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  correction  to  be  applied  is  for  the 
height  of  the  colunm  of  air  extemling  from  the  sea- 
level  to  that  of  the  station.  But  as  the  weight  of  the 
column  of  air  varies  with  its  temperature,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  take  this  into  considenition.  Tables  have 
!  been  computed,  giving  corrections  for  every  degree 


BABOHETROGR&PH. 


142 


BABOK. 


from  20'  to  100',  and  from  sea-level  to  1500  or  more 
feet.  The  fornmlary  still  often  found  engraved  upon 
barometer-scules — 

At  31     inches Very  drj-, 

30.5    do Settled  fair, 

80       do Fair, 

28.5   do Chiuigeable, 

29      do Rain, 

2S.5    do Much  rain, 

2^      do Stormy 

— has  tended  to  dL»<Tcdit  the  barometer  a.s  an  instru- 
ment for  foretelling  (handles  of  weather.  The.<e 
words  are  useless  and  incorrect.  The  mere  height  of 
the  barometer  is  no  indication  of  the  weather  to  l)e 
expected.  The  point  to  be  observed  is  whether  the 
barometer  has  risen  or  fallen  or  remained  steady 
since  the  preWous  observation.  The  late  Adminil 
Fitzroy  proposed  the  following  words  for  barometer- 
scales,  which  have  been  very  generally  adopted: 


RISE. 

FALL. 

FOR 

roR 

NORTH 

SOITH 

S.  W.-N.-E. 

S.  E.-S.-W. 

DRY 

WET 

OR 

OR 

LESS  W»-D. 

WORE  WIND. 

EXCEPT 

EXCEPT 

WET  FROM  NORTH. 

Generally,  it  may  be  said  that  when  the  barometer 
rises,  owing  to  a  change  of  wind,  the  weather  gets 
colder,  and  if  it  remains  high 
(above  30)  the  weather  will 
probably  Ix?  fair.  If  the 
barometer  falls,  owinr  to  a 
change  of  wind,  and  remains 
steady  at  about  29.5,  the 
weather  will  he  warmer  and 
wet  and  cloudy.  A  gradual 
rise  is  an  indication  of  con- 
tinued fair  weather,  whilst  a 
gradual  fall  indicates  that 
prolonged  bad  weather  is  to 
be  exi)ected.  Either  a  very 
sudden  rise  or  a  sudden  fall 
are  dangerous,  as  they  indi- 
cate a  disturbance  of  atmo- 
spheric conditions  and  conso- 
quent  unsettled  weather.  In 
forecasting  the  weather  it  is 
important  that  the  stale  of 
the  thermometer  and  hygro- 
meter be  observed  as  well 
as  the  height  of  the  baro- 
meter, and  that  the  direction 
of  the  wind  and  tlie  time  of 

the  year  be  considered.     Reasoning  from  all  these  [ 
facto"rs,  it  is  undoubtedly  possible  to  foretell   local 
changes   with    gre;it  accuracy.      The    best  barome-  j 
ters  in  the  United  States  arc  "made  by  Messrs.  James  I 
W.  Queen  &  Co. ,  Philadelphia. 

The  uses  of  the  barometer  are  phj-sical,  hypso-  I 
metrical,  and  meteorological.  It  is  of  essential  use  j 
in  all  physical  researches  where  the  mechanical, 
optical,  acoustical,  and  chemical  properties  of  air  or 
other  giLses  are  dependent  on  the  pressure  of  the  al- 
mo.sphcrc.  Its  use  in  hy|Kometry,  or  the  art  of 
mea-suring  the  heights  of  liiountains,  is  verj-  valuable. 
When  a  Iwrometer  is  at  the  f(X)t  of  a  mountain,  the 
press\ire  it  sustains  is  greater  than  that  which  it  ex- 
periences at  the  top  by  the  weight  of  the  column  of 
air  inter\-cning  between  the  top  and  l)ottom.  A 
foi-mula  of  consideriililc  complexity  is  given  by 
mathematicians  for  finding  very  nearly  the  tnie 
heiglit  of  a  mountain  from  baromctriciil  and  llicr- 
mometrical  obser\ations  made  at  its  base  and  summit, 
the  interpretation  of  which  does  not  come  within  the 
compa-ss  of  this  work.  The  following  rules  give  very 
nearly  the  same  ri'sult:  1.  Rwluce  the  mercurial 
hcighls  at  both  stations  to  32  Fahr.  2.  Take  the 
logarithms  of  the  corrected  heights,  subtract  them, 
and  multiply  the  result  by  10,000,  to  give  the  aj)- 


prosimatc  height  in  fathoms  of  the  upper  above  the 
lower  station."  3.  Take  the  mean  of  tlie  temi>erature 
at  both  .stations,  take  the  difference  between  this 
mean  and  32,  multiply  the  difference  by  the  approxi- 
mate height,  and  divide  the  product  by  435.  This 
last  result  is  to  be  added  to  the  approxiniate  height  if 
the  mean  temperature  is  above  32,  and  subtracted  if 
l)elow,  to  tind  the  true  height  in  fathoms.  See 
Anerriid  BiirniiiiU'r. 

BAROMETEOGEAPH.— An  instrument  by  which 
the  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure  are  automati- 
cally recorded  on  a  sluet  of  paper.  The  drawing 
represents  the  Queen  Self-recording  Aneroid,  which  is 
remarkable  for  the  siinplicitj-  of  its  construction 
and  the  accuracy  of  its  work.  It  con.sists  of  an  ane- 
roid barometer,  composed  of  a  .scries  of  vacuum 
boxes,  the  movements  of  which  are  transmitted 
through  a  simple  mechanism  to  a  long  lever,  termina- 
ting in  a  metallic  pen  which  touches  a  ilrum  within 
which  is  an  eight-day  clock.  This  drum,  around 
which  is  wound  the  record-blank,  makes  one  revolu- 
tion in  seven  days,  so  that  each  diagram  forms  a 
complete  barometric  record  for  the  week.  After 
winding  the  clock  and  setting  the  barometer,  the 
instrument  requires  no  attention  whatever  until 
the  weekly  record  is  finished.  The  pen  retains 
enough  ink  to  last  for  several  weeks.  The  following 
are  important  advantages  of  this  instrument :  the  un- 
varying accuracy  and  precision  of  the  indications 


Queen  Self-recording  Aneroid. 


resulting  from  the  parts  specially  employed ;  the 
absence  of  anything  fragile  in  the  apparatus,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  it  is  not  liable  to  become  deranged  ; 
the  facility  with  which  the  instrument  is  set  in 
operation,  and  the  ease  with  which  the  record -papers 
can  be  changed  ;  the  regularity  of  the  cun-es  on  the 
diagrams  obtained,  resulting  from  the  special  metal 
pen  employed,  which  retains  sufficient  indelible  ink 
to  hist  for  a  month  if  necessary  ;  the  small  size  and 
weight  of  the  instrument,  rendering  it  most  convenient 
for  transportation.  Sec  Aneroid  Barometer  and  Ba- 
romi'tir. 

BARON.— This  term,  as  to  the  origin  of  which 
much  dilTercnce  of  opinion  exists,  is  probably  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  hnro  (allied  to  rir,  a  man,  a 
hero),  which  originally  signified  a  stupid,  brutal  man, 
afterwards  came  to  signify  a  man  simply,  and  latterly, 
by  one  of  those  strange  transmutations  which  are  not 
uncommon  in  language,  a  man  pre-eminently,  or  a 
person  of  distinction.  Teutonic,  Celtic,  and  even 
Hebrew  derivations  have  also  been  assigned  to  the 
word;  but  the  fact  of  its  hav-ing  been  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Normans  seems  in  favor  of  a 
Romanic  origin.  It  is  now  the  title  which  is  applied 
to  the  lowest  degree  of  hcreditarj'  nobility.  The  de- 
gree of    baron  forms   a  species    of    landing-place, 


BAEON  AND  FEMME. 


143 


BARBACKS. 


corresponding  amongst  noblemen,  in  a  certain  sease, 
to  that  of  gentleman,  at  a  lower  stage  of  the  social 
pyramid.  It  was  in  this  sense  that  the  word  was 
used  in  former  times  to  include  the  whole  nobility  of 
England,  because  all  noblemen  were  barons,  whatever 
might  be  the  higher  ranks  in  the  peerage  which  they 
occupied.  The  word  Peer  has  recently  come  to  be 
ased  with  the  same  signification,  perhaps  becau.se  it 
is  no  longer  necessarily  the  ease  that  every  nobleman 
fhould  be  a  baron,  there  being  instjuices  in  whieii 
earldoms  and  other  honors  have  been  given  without 
a  barony  being  attached  to  them,  and  in  which  the 
barony  has  been  separated  from  the  higher  degree  by 
following  a  different  order  of  descent.  The  general 
theory  of  the  Constit\ition,  however,  still  is,  that  it  is 
as  barons  that  all  the  peers  sit  in  the  Upper  House; 
and  it  is  on  this  ground  that  the  archbishops  anil 
bishops  are  said  to  sit  in  virtue  of  their  baronies. 
The  distinction  into  greater  and  lesner  barons  seems 
from  an  early  period  to  have  obtained  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  feurope.  The  greater  barons,  who  were 
tlie  king's  chief  tenants,  held  their  lands  directl}',  or 
in  eapite  as  it  was  called,  of  the  Crown;  whilst  the 
les.ser  held  of  the  greater  by  the  tenure  of  military 
service. 

BARON  AND  FEMME.— In  Heraldry,  the  expres- 
sion used  to  designate  the  bearing  bj-  which  the  anns 
of  husband  and  wife  are  carried  per  pale  or  mar- 
shaled side  by  side  on  the  same  shield.  The  hus- 
band's aims  are  always  carried  on  the  dexter  side. 
Where  the  wife  is  an  heiress — i.e.,  the  representa- 
tive of  her  father's  house — her  husband  carries  her 
arms,  not  per  pale,  but  in  a  shield  of  pretense;  and 
they  are  quartered  with  the  paternal  coat  by  the  issue 
of  the  marriage. 

BAROTS. — In  the  construction  of  wire  guns,  barots 
are  small  hardened  steel  pieces  placed  at  the  tennini 
of  the  wire  layers,  in  recesses  in  the  flanges  of  the 
steel  core  or  body  (between  which  the  layers  are 
placed).  These  barots  are  slotted  across,  "the  slot 
being  of  a  less  width  (at  the  middle)  than  the 
diameter  of  the  wire  (which  is  driven  into  it  with 
a  hammer),  .so  as  to  leave  about  two  thirds  of  the 
strength  of  the  wire  as  a  bind.  As  the  tension  is 
about  one  third  of  the  ultimate  strength,  suflicient 
tensile  strength  is  left  to  secuiely  withstand  the  pull 
of  the  tensed  wire.     See  Wire  Guns. 

BAREACK-ALLO'WANCE.— In  the  British  Army,  a 
.spocilic  allowance  of  bread,  beef,  wood,  coal,  etc.,  to 
reirinicnts  stationed  in  barracks. 

BARRACK-GUARD.— When  a  regiment  is  in  bar- 
racks, the  principal  guard  is  allied  the  Bgrrack-guard, 
the  Ofticer  being  responsible  for  the  regularity  of  the 
men  in  barracks,  and  for  all  prisoners  duly  committed 
to  his  charge  while  on  dutv. 

BAERACK-MASTER.— The  Officer  who  superin- 
tends the  barracks  of  soldiers.  The  condition  of 
■  British  soldiers  has,  ever  since  the  disasters  in  the 
Crimea  in  the  i;\-iuter  of  1854,  been  an  object  of  much 
public  solicitude.  This  solicitude  was  so  strongly 
expressed  as  to  break  through  the  cold  formalities 
of  the  official  departments.  Returns  were  ordered, 
and  commissions  and  committees  appointed,  partly  to 
inquire  into  existing  facts,  partly  to  suggest  improve- 
ments. The  Barrack-master-general  was  replaced  at 
the  beginning  of  this  century  by  Commissioners  for 
Barracks,  whose  functions  were  absorbed  by  the  now- 
extinct  Board  of  Ordnance  in  1822.  Barracks  are 
now  under  the  supervision  of  the  Surveyor-general 
of  the  Ordnance,  who  proWdes  for  their  construction 
and  maintenance  through  the  Royal  Engineers;  and 
for  their  \-ictualing  and  daily  service  through  Com- 
misssries  of  the  Control  Department.  Under  these 
Commis-saries  are  Barrack-clerks  and  Barrack  ser- 
geants, to  assist  them  in  their  duties. 

BARRACKS. — Penuanent  structures  for  the  accom- 
moiiation  of  s<3ldiers,  as  disIinguLshed  from  huts  and 
tents.  Originally,  the  word,  derived  from  the  Span- 
ish barracM,  applied  to  small  cabins  or  huts;  but  in 
England  the  term  is  now  always  considered  to  relate 


to  structures  of  brick  or  stone.  Great  opposition 
was  made  in  England  to  the  introduction  of  pemui- 
nent  barracks  during  the  early  |)art  of  the  la.st  cen- 
tury, on  the  grounil  that  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
might  possibly  be  cntlangered  by  tlius  .separating  the 
soldiery  so  completely  from  the  citizens,  and  placing 
them  in  the  hands  of  the  ruling  power.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  wa.s  contended  that  the  older  system 
of  billeting  the  soldiers  on  the  people  is  vexatious 
and  burdensome;  and  that  the  morals  of  townspeo- 
ple and  villagers  are  liable  to  be  vitiated  by  the  con- 
stant presence  of  soldiers.  The  pennancnt  barracks 
were  few  in  number  down  to  the  year  1792,  when 
George  III.  obtained  the  consent  of  Parliament  for 
the  construction  of  several  new  ones,  and  for  the 
founding  of  the  office  of  Barrack-masler-general. 
Various  changes  in  the  arrangements  were  made  from 
time  to  time. 

The  furniture  of  the  barracks  is  bought  by  the 
War  Office.  The  French  have  a  singular  plan  of 
hiring  such  furniture  at  l.'i  francs  per  man  per  an- 
num; the  English  cost  is  about  2.5  shillings  per  man, 
and  some  Officers  are  of  opinion  that  it  might  with 
advantage  be  superseded  by  the  French  jilan.  The 
barrack-rooms  have  ann  and  accoutemient  racks, 
shelves,  and  pegs;  with  a  regular  order  tor  deposit- 
ing everything  thereon.  During  the  ilay  all  the  bed- 
ding is  placed  in  exact  array;  as  well  as  dishes,  tins, 
and  canteens.  A  Subaltern  Officer  \isits  every  room 
every  day.  The  iron  bedsteads  are  tiu-netl  down 
every  evening,  and  up  everj-  morning.  One  Non- 
commissioned Officer  (Sergeant  or  Coriioral)  has  con- 
trol over  each  room,  and  is  responsible  for  quiet, 
cleanliness,  etc.  Married  women,  in  the  ratio  ot  6 
to  a  company  of  100  soldiers,  may  live  in  the  bar- 
racks with  their  husbands,  m  separate  rooms  known 
as  "Married  Soldiers'  Quarters,"  but  not  unless  the 
marriage  has  been  with  consent  of  the  Commanding 
Officer.  The  married  soldier  m;iy,  however,  sleep 
out  of  barracks,  and  is  allowed  an  extra  twopence  per 
day  if  lie  does  so.  Each  soldier  in  a  barrack  has  an 
iron  bedstead,  a  rug,  a  paillasse,  a  bolsti'r,  two 
blankets,  and  two  sheets;  he  pays  nothing  for  these. 
Each  soldier  has  his  name  and  number  written  near 
his  bed  and  knapsack. 

Notwithstanding  the  order  and  regidarity  estab- 
lished in  barracks.  Committees  of  Inquirj-  appointed 
in  1855  and  1857  a.sccrtained  the  existence  of  griev- 
ous defects.  It  was  found  that,  out  of  252  barracks, 
only  20  had  .separate  sleeping-rooms  for  married  sol- 
diers; the  wives  of  such  soldiers,  in  the  other  232, 
being  obliged  to  put  up  ^\ith  arrangements  repug- 
nant to  all  decencj'  and  propriety,  or  else  sleep  away 
from  the  barracks  altogether. 

In  regard  to  sanitary  arrangements,  great  efforts 
have  been  made  at  vast  cost  in  recent  years  to  im- 
prove all  the  hygienic  conditions,  such  as  drains, 
ventilation,  means  of  ablution,  recreation,  circula- 
tion of  air,  etc.  The  result  has  been  very  apparent 
in  the  reduced  rate  of  mortality.  Army  Physicians 
recommend  600  cubic  feet  of  room-sjiace  per  soldier; 
and  this  is  the  standard  now  demanded  in  all  practi- 
cable cases  bv  the  War  Office.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  a  "new  barrack  for  1000  Foot-guards  in 
London  would  cost  €150,000  bcmleti  hind,  the  cost  of 
which  would  depend  wholly  on  the  jjarlicular  site 
selected.  The  necessity  for  grounds  for  exercises, 
stores,  library-,  offices,  etc.,  renders  a  barrack  a  very 
costly  congeries  of  buildings.  Twenty  acres  may  be 
taken  as  the  minimum  space  needed  for  1000  men. 
In  relation  to  all  the  various  subjects  of  barrack-life, 
a  Committee  of  ilililary  Officers  has  drawn  up  a 
most  comprehensive  .scheme  of  reform;  but  unfortu- 
nately the  cost  of  making  these  improvements  would 
be  so  enormous  that  notjiing  better  thim  a  verj-  grad- 
ual adoption  can  be  expected. 

The  finest  barracks  existing  are  perhaps  those  at 
Aldersholt,  attached  to  the  camji  noticed  in  another 
article.  The  buildings  extend  in  two  long  lines, 
bnmching  out  of  the  Faruborough  and   Farnham 


BABRACK-SERGEANTS. 


144 


BASREL. 


road,  with  a  large  parade-gronnil  between  ibem. 
The  infantrj-  and  artillery  liarnieks  are  on  tlie  iu)rth 
side  iif  tills  spaee,  and  ilie  eavalrj'  Iiarnuks  cm  the 
stnitli.  The  infamrv  barnieks  are  divided  iiilo 
liliKks,  formintr  each  a  spacious  (luadniiijrle,  willi  a 
court-vanl  in  the  center.  Eacli  liloek  is  a  complete 
liarniek  for  a  full  reiriment,  with  all  the  men's  rooms, 
store-riKims,  schiKil-nxuns,  ollii-es,  etc.  The  Olficers' 
riH^ims  an-,  however,  sepanite,  and  occupy  o|H'n 
spaces  iK'tween  the  blocks  of  buildinjrs.  All  the  four 
sides  of  each  (luadniiijilc  are  occupied  by  various 
rooms  anil  buildings;  the  men's  liviiiir  and  sleeping 
rooms  bcim;  mostly  on  the  side  next  to  the  panide- 
ground.  The  sletping-rooms,  Ciicli  for  24  men,  are 
very  large  and  airy;  the  washing-rooms  are  ample 
and"  welltittid;  and  the  cooking-roonLS  will  each 
ciKik  forS'iO  men.  Dry  play-grounds  and  drill-yards 
tmder  glass  roofs  an.'  iirovidcd.  A  broad  balcony 
outsideevery  range  of  sleeping-rooms  enables  the 
solilicrs  to  look  out  upon  these  grounds.  Tlic  mar- 
ried soldiers  and  their  wives  are  comfortably  ))ro- 
yided  for,  in  rooms  wholly  apart  from  the  rest.  The 
artillery  and  cavalry  bamicks  resemble  in  their  gen- 
eral featuivs  those  for  the  infantry. 

In  the  United  States  Army  225  square  feet  of 
spaee  is  allowed  for  evcrj-  six  soldiers,  with  a  height 
of  12  feet,  giving  each  one  alwut  -ioO  cubic  feet. 
There  are  few  masonry-built  barracks  in  the  United 
States;  most  of  them  are  of  logs  or  lighter  timber. 
Of  the  more  permanent  are  Jladisou  Bamicks,  at 
Sackett's  Harbor,  X.  Y. ;  the  Citadel,  at  Charleston, 
S.  C. ;  Pen.sacola,  at  Pensacola,  Fla. ;  Jack.son,  at  Xew 
Orleans,  La.:  Jefferson,  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Baton 
Rouge  Arsenal,  at  Baton  Rouge,  La.;  Mt.  Vernon 
Arsenal,  Miss.;  Oglethorpe,  at  Savannah,  Ga,;  Bcni- 
cia,  in  California;  Carlisle,  in  Pennsylvania;  Fort 
Leavenworth,  Kansjis;  Newport,  in  Kentucky:  Ring- 
gold and  Fort  Brown,  in  Texas;  and  the  Cadet  Bar- 
racks at  West  Point.  N.  Y. 

An  annual  inspection  of  the  public  buildings  at 
the  several  stations  is  made  at  the  end  of  June  by 
the  Commanding  Officer  and  Quartermaster,  and 
then  the  Quartermaster  makes  the  following  reports  : 
1.  Of  the  condition  and  capacity  of  the  buildings,  and 
of  the  additions,  alterations,  and  repairs  that  have 
been  made  during  the  pa.st  year.  2.  Of  the  addi- 
tions, alterations,  and  repairs  that  are  needed,  ^nth 
plans  and  estimates  in  detail.  These  reports  the  Com- 
manding Officer  examines  and  forwards,  with  his 
views,  to  the  Quartermastcr-treneral. 

BARRACK-SERGEANTS.— Faithful  old  Sergeants, 
in  the  British  service,  who  are  selected  from  the  Line 
and  placed  in  charge  of  barracks,  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  Barrack-masters  or  Commissaries 
of  the  Control  Department.  A  similar  duty  is  per- 
formed by  roster  in  the  United  States  service,  the 
time  of  the  detail  usually  being  one  week. 

BARREL.— 1.  The  hiit  of  a  sword,  adapted  to  be 
gnisjieil  by  the  hand. — 2.  A  large  vessel  for  hohling 
liquids — probably  from  bur  in  tiie  sense  of  to  guard, 
contine,  contain — and  then  a  certain  iiieaniire,  but 
varving  in  every  locality,  ;md  almost  for  every  licpiid. 
In  the  old  English  measures,  the  barrel  contained  ;!U 
gallons  of  wine,  ;t2  of  ale,  and  W  of  licer — the  wiiie- 
g-allon  itself  differing  from  that  of  ale  and  beer.  In 
imperial  gidlons,  their  content.s  would  be  :  old  wine- 
biirrel  =  26i  gidlons;  ale  do.,  3U;  l)eer,  30 J.  The 
Italian  barile  varies  from  7  to  31  English  gallons ; 
the  French  barrique  of  Bordeaux  =  228  French 
litres  =  .jO  English  gidlons.  Four  barriciues  make  a 
tonncau.  In  many  ea.ses,  barrel  signifies  a  certain 
ireif//il  or  fitlicr  quantity  of  goods  usually  sold  in 
casks  railed  Iwrrels.  In  America,  Hour  and  beef 
are  .sold  on  the  large  scale  in  barrels :  a  barrel  of 
flour  must  contain  196  lbs.  ;  of  iK'ef,  200  lbs.  xV 
barrel  of  butter  =  224  lbs.  ;  of  soft-soap,  2"iG  lbs.  ; 
of  tar,  26^  gallons.  Barrels  or  casks  of  vaiious  kinds 
are  largely  used  for  inilitarv'  purpose's. — ;i  The  bar- 
rel is  the  most  important  part  of  a  tire-arm.  its  office 
being  to  concentrate  the  force  of  a  charge  of  powder 


on  a  projectile,  and  give  it  proper  initial  velocity  and 
direction  :  for  these  purposes,  and  for  the  safety  of 
the  lirer.  it  should  be  made  of  the  best  materials  and 
witli  the  greatest  care.  In  deternuning  the  exterior 
form  of  a  barrel,  it  is  not  only  nece.s.sary  to  give  such 
thickness  to  the  different  parts  as  will  Ix'st  resist  the 
explosive  effort  of  the  charge,  but  such  as  will  pre- 
vent it  from  Ix'ing  Ix'nt  when  used  as  a  pike  or  sub- 
jected to  the  rough  usage  of  the  sernce.  A  sufficient 
irtight  is  n'fiuired  to  give  stearliness  to  the  barrel  in 
aiming,  and  to  prevent  il  from  springing  in  tiring. 
The  latter  defect  generally  arises  from  bad  workman- 
ship, whercliy  there  is  a  greater  thickness  of  metal, 
and,  consetjuently,  less  expansion,  on  one  side  of  the 
bore  than  the  other.  In  the  military  service,  where 
the  rifle  is  carried  by  the  soldier,  tlie  barrel  should 
si'ldom  weigh  more  than  five  pounds. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  barrel  are  the  breech,  the 
hrtichserew ;  the  Jla Is,  the  berth,  and  the  oral;  the 
miif,  and  cone-seat ;  the  beii/onet-xliKl,  ixniX  front-»ight ; 
the  bi>re,  tlie  grooccs,  and  the  lands.  The  breech-scrtw 
is  composed  of  a  bodi/,  tenon,  and  tang,  and  it.s  ob- 
ject is  to  close  the  bottom  of  the  bore.  The  tenon 
fits  into  a  mortise  cut  in  the  stock,  and  prevents  the 
barrel  from  turning  in  its  lied ;  the  tang  is  the  i>art  by 
which  the  breech  of  the  barrel  is  secured  to  the  stock, 
and  for  this  purpose  it  is  pierced  with  a  hole  for  the 
tung-screir,  which  passes  through  the  stock  and 
screws  into  the  guard-plate.  The  fl<tts  are  two 
vertical  plane  surfaces,  situated  at  equal  distances 
from  the  axis  of  the  Ixire.  They  serve  to  prevent  the 
barrel  from  turning  in  the  jaws  of  the  vise  when  the 
breech-.screw  is  taken  out ;  the  flat,  on  the  right  side 
of  the  barrel,  also  presents  a  surface  of  contact  for 
the  lock-plate,  which  prevents  the  hammer  and  cone 
from  changing  their  relative  position.  The  corners 
of  the  flats  are  beveled  to  prevent  the  barrel  from 
being  marreil,  and  to  improve  its  finish.  The 
functions  of  the  cone  are  to  support  the  percussion- 
cap  when  exploded  by  the  hammer,  and  to  conduct 
the  flame  to  the  vent  of  the  piece.  The  parts  are  the 
nijijili .  iqiou  which  the  cap  is  placed  ;  the  square,  the 
]iart  to  which  the  wrench  is  ajiplied  ;  the  shoulder; 
the  sereir-thread ;   and   the   rent.     To    increase    the 

;  effect  of  the  hammer  on  the  cap,  the  upper  surface  of 
the  cone  is  diminished  bj-  chamfering  the  corners. 
The  cone-seat  is  a  projecting  piece  of  iron  welded  to 

'  the  barrel,  near  the  breech,  for  the  purpose  of  sustain- 

j  ing  the  cone.  The  principal  parts  are  the  feniah 
sereir,  the  rent,  and  the  rim  ;  the  latter  prevents  the 
flame  from  penetrating  between  the  lock  and  barrel. 
The  position  of  the  cone-seat  should  be  such  that  the 
vent  will  have  a  direct  communication  with  the  lK)re. 
To  prevent  the  blow  of  the  hammer  from  straining 
the  cone  and  breaking  it  off  in  the  cone-scat,  the 
plane  of  the  face  of  the  hammer  shoidd  pass  through 
the  axis  of  motion. 

The  length  of  a  gun-bane?  is  determined  by  the  ' 
nature  of  the  senice  to  which  it  is  apjilied,  rather 
than  by  the  effect  which  it  exerts  on  the  force  of  the 
charge.  It  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  the 
velocity  of  a  projectile,  in  a  smooth-bored  musket, 
increases  with  the  length  of  the  bore  up  to  108 
calibers  ;  but  a  musket  with  this  length  of  barrel 
would  be  loo  heavy  as  a  fire-arm  and  too  unwieldy 
as  a  pike.  The  points  to  be  observed  in  construct- 
ing the  grixives  for  militarv*  arms  are  range,  accuracy 
of  fire,  endurance,  and  facility  of  loading  and  clean- 
ing the  bore.  For  expanding  projectiles,  experi- 
ment .shows  that  these  points  are  best  attained  by 
making  the  grooves  broad  and  .shallow  and  with  a 
moderate  twist.  The  effect  of  decreasing  the  depth 
of  rifle-grooves  is  to  increase  the  accuracy,  but  it 
diminislus  the  range.  The  twist  is  dependent  on  the 
length,  diameter,   and   initial   velocity   of    the    pro- 

!  jectile  ;  in  other  words,  it  should  be  incifa.si'd  in  a 
certain  jiroijortion  to  the  length  of  the  projectile  ;  and 

I  for  the  same  weight  of  projectile  it  shoidd  l)c  in- 
crca.scd  in  a  certain  proportion  as  the  length  of  the 

I  bore  is  diminished.    See  Otin-beirrel&wiX  PumUr-barrel. 


BABBEL-HDAOED  SIGHT. 


145 


BAEEIEKS. 


BABREL-HEADED  SIGHT.— This  sight  consists  of 
a  sttel  bar,  an  elevating-nut,  a  cross-head,  two  thumb- 
screws, and  a  leaf.  One  side  of  the  bar  is  sniduated 
to  degrees,  the  other  to  yards.  The  degrees  are 
di\ided  into  six  parts  of  ten  minutes  each  ;  and  any 
number  of  minutes  up  to  ten  can  be  obtained  by 
turning  round  a  graduated  elevating-nut  on  the 
top  of  the  bar,  which  works  an  internal  screw 
and  so  raises  the  head  of  the  scale.  The  bar  is  in- 
'  clined  to  the  left  to  allow  for  demitum,  but  it  is 
fitted  with  a  horizontal  scale  or  cross-head,  graduated 
to  give  one  half-degree  of  deflection  either  to  the 
right  or  left.  At  each  end  of  this  slide  is  a  graduated 
nut  divided  into  minutes  up  to  ten,  and  these  nuts 
are  connected  by  a  screw  which  crosses  the  bar 
at  right  angles.  A  leaf  with  the  sight-notch  slides 
along  the  scale,  and  can  be  moved  right  or  left  bj- 
either  nut. 

BAEKEL-PIERS.— Casks  or  barrels  formed  into 
piers,  when  no  pontoons  or  boats  can  be  obtained  for 
the  pitssiige  of  troops  across  a  river. 

BABREL-PLATE.— A  plate  employed  to  hold  the 
barrels  of  certain  machine  guns  in  place.  In  the 
Gatling  gun,  the  breech-ends  of  all  the  barrels  are 
firmly  screwed  into  a  disk,  or  ;•((//•  bnrni-jilah',  which 
is  fastened  to  the  shaft  ;  while  the  muzzles  |ia.ss 
through  another  similar  di.sk,  called  the  front  barnl- 
plate,  on  the  same  shaft.  The  shaft  is  considerably 
longer  than  the  barrels,  and  projects  beyond  the 
muzzles,  while  it  e.xtends  backward  for  some  dis- 
tance behind  the  breeches  of  the  barrels.  See  Gat- 
li^nfi  Gun. 

BARREL-SETTEE.— A  cylindrical  mandrel  used 
by  annorers  for  straightening  the  banel  of  a  fire- 
arm and  in  truing  the  bore  or  exterior  surface. 

BARREL-VISE.— A  bench-\-ise  having  a  longi- 
tudinal groove  in  its  jaws  to  fit  it  for  the  reception 
of  a  gun-barrel,  which  may  be  protected  from  direct 
contact  of  the  jaws  of  the  vise  by  sheet-lead  or  other 
soft-metal  cheeks. 

BARRICADES.  —  Military  engineers,  and  sjippors 
and  miners,  are  instructed  in  the  art  of  barricading 
streets  and  roads  with  beams,  chains,  chera  iw^ih  -frix , 
and  other  obstacles,  either  in  defending  a  town  against 
besiegers,  or  in  suppressing  popular  tumults.  In  a 
ship,  a  strong  wooden  rail,  supported  on  stanchions, 
and  extending  across  the  foremost  part  of  the  quar- 
ter-deck, is  called  a  barricade;  during  a  naval  action, 
the  upper  part  of  this  barricade  is  sometimes  stuffed 
with  hammocks  in  a  double  rope-netting,  to  serve  as 
a  screen  against  the  enemy's  small-shot.     Barricades 


^^^f^^' 


y 


have  been  made  use  of  in  street-fights  since  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  but  they  are  best  known  in  connection  with 
the  insurrections  in  the  city  of  Paris.  As  early  as 
13jj8  the  streets  of  Paris  were  barricaded  against 
the  Dauphin,  afterwards  Charles  V.  A  more  note- 
worthy barricade-fight  was  that  in  1.^88,  when  4000 
Swiss' soldiers,  marched  into  Paris  by  Henry  III.  to 
overawe  the  Council  of  Sixteen,  would  have  been 
utterly  destroyed  by  the  populace,  firing  from  behind 
barricades,  had  the  Court  not  consented  to  negotia- 
tion; and  the  result  was  that  the  king  fled  next  day. 


The  next  barricade-fight  of  importance  in  Paris  was 
that  of  1830,  which  resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Bourbons  from  the  throne  of  Fnince,  and  the  election 
of  the  Citizen-king,  Louis  Philippe.  During  the  three 
days  which  this  revolution  lasted,  the  numter  of  bar- 
ricades erected  across  the  streets  amoiaUed  to  several 
thousiinds.  They  were  formed  of  the  most  hetero- 
geneous materials — overturned  vehicles,  trees,  scaf- 
folding-poles, planks,  building-materials,  nnd  street 
pa\-ing-stoues;  men,  women,  and  children  taking  part 
in  their  erection.  In  February,  1H4.M,  the  insurrec- 
tion against  Louis  Philippe  commenced  with  the 
erection  of  barricades;  but  the  most  celebrated  and 
bloody  barricade-fight  was  that  l^tween  the  populace 
and  the  Provisional  Government,  which,  commencing 
on  the  night  of  the  23d  June,  1848,  lasted  throughout 
the  three  following  days,  when  the  [leople  had  to 
surrender.  The  national  losses  by  this  fight  were  es- 
timated at  30,000,000  francs;  l"(),000  persons  were 
killed  and  wounded,  and  8000  taken  prisoners.  The 
Emperor  Napoleon  III.  has  so  widenetl  and  macada- 
mized the  pruicipal  streets  of  Paris  since  he  ascended 
the  throne  as  to  render  the  successful  erection  of 
barricades  next  to  impossible.  There  was  a  remark- 
able barricade-erection  in  London  in  1821.  The  Min- 
istry desired  that  the  body  of  Queen  Caroline  should 
be  conveyed  out  of  the  country  to  Germany,  for  in- 
terment, without  the  populace  haWng  the  opportunity 
of  making  any  demonstration.  On  the  matter  be- 
coming known,  a  vast  barricade  was  erected  at  the 
point  where  the  Hampstead  road  joins  the  new  road; 
and  as  nothing  but  the  use  of  artUlery  could  have 
forced  the  way,  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  funeral 
cortege  deemed  it  prudent  to  change  his  course  and 
pass  through  a  more  central  part  of  the  metropolis. 
During  the  revolutions  of  1848,  barricades  were  suc- 
cessfully carried  in  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  other 
places,  by  abandoning  the  attack  in  front  and  break- 
ing through  the  houses  of  contiguous  streets,  t;ikiug 
their  defenders  in  the  rear. 

BARRIERS.  —  Carpentry  obstructions  in  fortifica- 
tions. The  purpose  regulates  the  construction.  If 
the  barrier  is  to  be  permimently  defensible,  it  should 
be  musket-proof,  and  then  becomes  a  stockade.  If 
occasionally  defensible,  palisading  will  suffice,  with 
a  sand-bag  or  other  temporary  parapet  when  re- 
quireil,  behind  and  near  enough  to  fire  between  the 
palis;ides.  The  gates  in  both  the  above  .shovdd,  if 
possible,  be  of  palisading,  as  the  heavy  stockade-gate 
is  unwieldy.  Barrier-gates  should  never  be  left  un- 
protected. 

The  barrier-gate  is  most  frequentlj'  made  with  two 
leaves,  hanging  on  posts  by  hinges,  and  made  to 
open  inwaixl.  The  frame  of  each  upright  is  com- 
posed of  two  uprights,  called  atileii ;  two  cross-pieces, 
one  at  the  top  and  the  other  at  the  bottom,  called 
rails;  and  a  diagonal  brace  called  a  sieingiwj-bar. 
Since  the  gate  must  be  strong,  the  leaves  of  it  are 
necessarily \-ery  heavj-.  The  leaves  must  be  hung 
upon  stout  posts  fimily  brace<l  into  the  ground,  to 
sustain  the  great  weight  of  the  gate.     The  top  rails 


of  all  barriers  should  not  be  less  than  six  feet  above 
the  ground.  In  the  barriers  with  open  leaves,  the 
vertical  pieces  are  usually  extended  fron-.  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  abt)ve  the  top  rails,  and  their  upper 
ends  sharpened.  In  those  which  are  solid,  it  is  usual 
to  arrange  some  obstruction  upon  the  top  rail,  such 
as  sharp-pointed  spikes,  broken  glass,  etc..  to  inter- 
fere with  persons  climbing  over  the  top.     It  is  usual 


BABSITUS. 


146 


BASE. 


to  provide  npcrlurcs  iu  the  leaves,  through  which  the 
men  eiin  tire  u|x)ii  the  (iroiind  on  the  outside. 

BARRITUS.— A  word  which  not  only  sis;uitied  the 
biitllc  (TV  of  the  luuient  German.-;,  but  all  t)iiltlecries 
were  formerly  w>  called.     Also  written  BunliUn. 

barrows'. — 1.  Arlitical  mounds  of  earth  (renerally 
believed  to  have  l)een  erected  for  sepulchral  or  monu- 
mental pur|K)ses.  They  are  very  numerous  in  Great 
Britain,  and  many  of  them  are  suitposeil  to  belong:  to 
a  period  lonir  ]irior  to  the  Homan  Invasion.  The 
counties  of  \Vilts  and  Dorset  are  es|)ecially  rich  in 
these  remains,  and  the  barrows  of  the  former  have 
been  thoroughly  explored,  described,  and  classified 
by  Sir  K.  C.  llojirc  in  his  Ancient  Wiltuhire.  In  the 
sepulchral  barrows  the  human  remains  are  buried 
either  in  a  rude  stone  "cist  "  or  che.st.  in  which  the 
body  was  doubled  up,  or  are  laid  at  full  leni;lh  in 
the  earth,  accompanied  by  arms  and  other  utensils. 
Where  the  body  was  burned,  the  remains  were  laid 
on  the  floor  of  the  barrow,  in  a  cist  excavated  on  the 
spot,  or,  at  a  later  epoch,  iu  a  clay  urn.  Sir  U.  Hoare 
considers  the  Wiltshire  barrows  as  indicating  three 
stages  iu  the  progress  of  society.  The  first  class  con- 
tiiins  spear  and  arrow  heads  of  flint  and  bone;  the 
second  of  bni.ss;  and  the  third  contains  arms  and  in- 
struments made  of  iron.  One  of  the  largest  barrows 
in  Europe  is  Silbury  Hill,  near  JIarlborough,  in 
Wiltshire,  which  covers  5  acres  34  perches  of  land, 
and  has  a  slope  of  316  feet,  with  a  perpendicular 
height  of  170.  According  to  Sir  R.  Hoare,  barrow- 
burial  was  practiced  down  to  the  eighth  century, 
from  a  period  of  unknown  antiquity.  The  practice 
of  erecting  sepulchral  mounds  prevailed  among  all 
the  principal  nations  of  antiquity  both  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  thej-  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  Central 
America.  JIany  barrows  are  only  partly  artificial  ; 
natural  mounds  having  been  shaped  by  human  hands 
into  the  form,  round  or  oblong,  which  it  was  wished 
the.v  .should  take. 

2.  Light  hand-carriages  made  of  a  frame  of  wood, 
and  carried  by  two  men:  or,  as  in  a  wheel-bnrroir ,  a 
frame  with  a  box  supi>orted  by  one  wheel,  and  rolled 
by  a  single  man.     Barrows  are  largely  used  in  the 


ture  of  which  it  consists  being  varied  interchange- 
ably. 
Barry-pily  is  where  the  shield  is  divided  by  diago- 


;piilliiliiliiiiiHM;i 


llllllllllllllllli'llllllllll 


army,  there  being  no  less  than  fourteen  different 
kinds  put  to  various  purposes.  The  drawings  show- 
two  varieties,  the  rachiarroics  and  wagctn^tarrmes, 


employed  for  many  purposes  in  the  arsenal  and 
store-house. 

BARRY.— In  Heraldry,  the  term  applied  to  a  shield 
which  is  divide<l  transversely  into  four,  six,  or  more 
equal  parts,  and  consisting  of  two  or  more  tinctures 
interchangeably  disposed. 

liarri/lieiuli/  is  where  the  shield  is  divided  into  four, 
sis,  or  more  equal  parts,  by  diagonal  lines,  the  tiuc- 


^ILUl-iiriilljllim 

Barry. 


Barry-beuvly. 


liui  iy-i'tl>  . 


nal  lines,  the  colors  being  interchanged  as  in  the  ex- 
amph'. 

BAR. SHOE. —A  horseshoe  which  is  not  open  at 
the  hi  li.  but  continued  round  at  the  rear.  It  is  used 
with  horses  that  are  liable  to  contraction  of  the  heel, 
to  spread  that  part  of  the  foot. 

BAB-SHOT.— A  projectile  formerly  used,  consist- 
ing of  two  cannon-balls,  or  half-lialls,  united  by  a  bar 
of  iron,  and  employed  for  severing  the  rigging  of 
vessels,  as  well  as  for  field  and  fort  artillery.  Shot 
u.sed  in  proving  ordnance  may  be  considered  as  be- 
longing to  this  class,  consisting  as  they  do  of  a  bar 
with  hemispherical  ends,  weighing  twice  or  three 
times  that  of  Uie  solid  shot  used  in  service.  See 
Chftin-shot,  Projettiles,  and  Shot. 

BARTIZAN.— A  small  stone  closet,  thrown  out 
upon  coibils  over  doorways, 
and  on  other  parts  of  niedia;val 
castles,  generally  for  defense, 
l)ut  sometimes  only  for  con- 
venience to  the  inmates  and 
defenders. 

BASCHI.— A  Turkish  title, 
signifying  a  superior  com- 
mander, otlicer,  chief,  etc. 
This  title  is  only  used  in  con-' 
nection  with  the  office  title. 
The  most  prominent  are : 
TopTscii.1  Y  -BAscni,  General 
of  Artillery  and  Inspector  of 
Forts,  etc ;  Solacki-Baschi, 
Sub-commander  of  the  Arch- 
ers ;    SANDSCn.IACIv-DABLARS- 

Bascui,  Chief  of  the  .50  Col- 
or -  bearers  ;  Konabschjy- 
Bascui,  Quartermaster-gene- 
ral ;  Bon'CK-HAscin,  Colonel  of  a  regiment  of  1000 
militia  ;  Oda-Baschis,  Company  Officers  who  super- 
intend drill. 

BASCINET— BASNET.— A  head-piece  of  mail,  over 
which,  in  the  time  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  II.,  the 
helmet  was  worn  ;  but  in  the  latter  reign  the  bancinH 
api^ears  without  the  nasal  of  the  helmet,  and  occa- 
sionally with  a  movable  visor,  which  rendered  the 
helmet  unnecessary.  Another  form  of  the  bascinet 
during  the  latter  p"art  of  the  thirteenth  century  was 
its  being  ojipned  behind  and  having  to  be  fastened  or 
laced  l)chinil.     See  Helmet. 

BASCULE  BRIDGE.— A  counterpoise  drawbridge 
which  oscillates  in  a  \ertical  plane  ;  the  inner  portion 
descends  into  a  ])it,  wliili-  the  oviter  ascends  and  closes 
the  gateway.  A  bridge  which  has  its  truck  simjily 
hinged  to  the  edge  of  the  scarp  or  cmbin j,  and  Avhich 
is  lifted  by  weight  or  w indlass,  is  clas,sed  as  a  lifting- 
briitfie.  The  bascule  has  an  inner  portion  of  roadway, 
which  acts  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  portion  which 
projects  over  the  water-way.  The  inner  portion  de- 
scends into  a  dry  well  when  the  bridge  is  lifted  into  a 
vertical  iiositiou,  the  outer  portion  closing  the  open- 
ing in  the  wall  outside  of  the  portcullis,  if  there  be 
one.  This  form  of  bridge  was  not  uncommon  in  the 
castles  of  the  feudal  tinicE,  when  the  rich  owned  the 
poor,  and  learning  bad  no  refuge  but  in  the  Church. 

BASE. — 1.  In  fortification,  the  base  is  the  exterior 
side  of  the  iiolygon,  or  that  imaginary  line  which 
connects  the  salient  angles  of  two'adjaeent  bastions. 
2.  In  ordnance,  the  base  is  the  protuberant  rear  por- 
tion of  a  gun,  between  the  knob  of  the  cascabel  and 


Bartizan. 


SASS-LINE. 


147 


BASE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


the  base-ring.  The  base  is  the  middle  memljer  of  the 
cuactibtl  when  the  piece  has  a  base-ring  and  knob. 
In  the  simpiicity  of  modem  pieces,  many  mere  orna- 
ments and  extraneous  matters  are  omitted.  The  base 
is  always  present,  forming  the  rounded  contour  at  the 
rear  of  tlie  breech. — 3.  In  Heraldry,  the  l)ase  is  the 
lower  portion  of  the  shield.  There  is  a  de.xtcr  ba.sc, 
middle  base,  and  sinister  base.  The 
chief  or  principal  part  of  the  escutch- 
eon is  the  top.  The  shield  is  always 
supposed  to  be  on  the  arm  of  the 
wearer,  and  that  it  is  his  right  and 
left  bauds,  not  those  of  the  spectator, 
which  are  liept  in  view.  The  ground  or  surface  of 
the  shield,  on  which  all  the  cftargei  or  liguras  are  de- 
picted, Is  called  the  fidd. — i.  In  chemistrj',  a  term 
applied  to  a  compound  body,  generally  consisting  of 
a  metal  united  ^^^th  o.xj'gen.  Thus,  the  metal  potas- 
sium (K),  when  it  combines  with  oxygen  (O),  forms 
the  base  potash  (KO) ;  sodium  (Na)  and  oxygen,  the 
■ba.se  soda  (XaO) ;  lead  (Pb)  and  oxygen,  the  base 
oxide  of  lead  or  litharge  (Pb(J).  A  distinguishing 
feature  of  a  base  is  that  it  unites  with  an  o.xygeu  acid, 
such  as  sulphuric  acid  (SO3),  to  form  a  salt.  Tlius, 
the  ba.se  potash  iKU)  combines  with  sulphuric  acicl 
(SO3)  to  make  the  salt  sulphiite  of  potash  (KOSOs) ; 
potash  with  nitric  acid  (XOi)  to  form  the  salt  nitrate 
of  potash,  or  niter  (KONO5).  Occasionally  sulphur 
rephices  the  oxygen  in  a  base.  Thus,  the  metal  pota.s- 
sium  (K)  imites  with  sulphur  (S)  to  form  the  sul- 
phur base,  sulphuret  of  potassium  (KS),  which  can 
unite  with  a  sulphur  acid  like  sulpharsenious  acid  or 
orpiment  (AsSs)  to  make  the  salt  sulpharsenite  of  pot- 
ash (KS,AsS3).  The  metal  half  of  a  base  need  not 
be  a  simple  clement,  but  may  be  a  compoimd  body 
which,  for  the  time,  plajs  the  part  of  a  simple  sub- 
stance. Thus,  the  compound  ethyl  (CHj)  can  com- 
bine with  oxygen  to  form  ordinarj'  ether  ( [C4Hi]0); 
and  the  base"  thus  produced  can,  in  its  turn,  combine 
with  acids  to  form  salts.  A  ba.se  may  be  soluble  or  in- 
soluble in  water.  Thus,  the  bases  potash  (KO),  soda 
(JSaO),  ammonia  (NII.O),  bar>ta  (BaO),  strontia  (StO), 
lime  (CaO),  and  magnesia  (MgO),  are  more  or  less 
soluble  in  water ;  whilst  the  oxide  of  iron  or  rust 
(FcjOs),  the  red  oxide  of  lead  (PhbO,),  the  red  oxide 
of  mercury  (HgO),  are  Insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  acids. 

BASE-LINE. — In  gunnery,  a  line  traced  around  the 
gun  in  rear  of  the  vent ;  also  the  measured  line  used 
to  obtain  ranges  by  triangulation.  In  military  tactics 
the  bane-line  is  the  line  on  which  all  the  magazines 
and  means  of  supply  of  an  army  are  established.  It 
also  means  the  line  on  which  troops  in  column  move. 
BASE  OF  OPERATIONS.— In  all  military  operations 
of  a  general  character,  and  which  come  under  the 
head  of  strategj-,  three  principal  things  are  noticeable 
and  demand  consideration ;  these  are  the  line  from 
which  the  army  starts  in  commencing  its  onward 
movements ;  the  point  which  it  aims  to  attain  ;  and 
the  line  which  it  is  obliged  to  pa.ss  over  to  reach  tliis  j 
point.  The  tirst  of  these  is  termed  the  base  of  opera- 
tions ;  the  second,  the  objective  or  objective  point  ;  the 
third,  the  line  of  ojxrations.  When  maintaining  a  ' 
strictly  defensive  attitude,  the  base  of  operations  be-  ! 
comes  what  is  termed  the  line  of  defense,  and  in  a 
backward  movement  the  line  of  operations  becomes 
the  line  of  retreat.  The  base  of  operations  should  be 
a  series  of  points  ha%-ing  the  properties  of  military 
strength,  as  the  supplies  of  the  army  for  its  onward 
movements  are  collected  upon  it ;  and  it  should  have 
commodious  lines  of  communication  leading  from  it 
to  the  objective.  If  these  strong  points  lie  upon  any 
natunil  obstacle,  as  a  river  without  fords,  a  rugged 
mountainous  chain,  swamps,  or  thick  primeval  for-  I 
ests,  and  have  an  ea.sy  communication  between  them, 
the  ba.se  is  all  the  better,  from  the  difficulties  which 
a  line  of  this  character  offers  to  the  enterprises  of  the 
enemy  in  case  of  being  thrown  on  the  defensive.  A 
base  of  some  extent  is  better  than  a  short  one.  because 
ouore  latitude  is  given  to  operate  against  the  enemy, 


and,  if  obliged  to  retire  upon  it,  there  is  less  chance  of 
being  separated  from  it  by  the  enemy  gaining  our  rear. 
Should  it  consist  of  a  single  city,  for  example,  with  but 
one  line  of  operations  from  it,  t)y  seizing  on  tlus  line 
the  enemy  might  cut  off  the  army  from  all  supplies 
and  reinforcements.  The  outline  which  the  base  as- 
sumes is  far  from  tx-ing  a  matter  of  indifference.  If  it 
is  concave  towards  the  enemy,  or  has  its  two  ends  rest- 
ing upon  any  natural  impa.ssable  obstacle  Ijing  in 
advance  of  the  general  line,  the  army  moving  from 
it  will  find  greater  .security  for  its  wings  than  in  a 
case  where  the  b.ase  is  either  generally  convex 
towards  the  enemy,  or  presents  a  salient  point  to 
him.  When  an  army  moves  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance beyond  its  biise,  it  will  become  neecssarj-  to 
take  up  a  new  base  in  advance  of  the  primitive  one, 
in  order  to  have  its  depots,  from  which  it  has  to  draw 
its  supplies  of  every  description,  nearer  at  hand. 
This  new  line  is  tenned  a  secondary  base  of  operations. 
It  should  pos.sess  the  same  military  properties  as  the 
primitive  base,  and  art  should  supply  whatever 
nature  may  be  found  deficient  in  for  tliis  purjiose, 
in  order  that  everjthing  collected  for  the  army  on  it 
may  be  secure.  If  prudence  points  out  the  necessity 
of  taking  up  new  bases  as  the  army  advances  fur- 
ther into  an  enemy's  country,  it  does  not  follow  that 
the  army  should  be  detained  to  organize  them  on  a 
suitable  footing.  This  task  is  devolved  on  a  body  of 
troops  left  behind  for  this  purpose,  who,  with  the  re- 
inforcements sent  forward,  occupy  the  fortified  places 
on  the  new  line,  erect  new  field-works,  establish  mag- 
azines, etc.,  while  the  army  pursues  its  march  to 
profit  by  its  first  successes.  When  the  secondary 
base  is  not  parallel  to  the  primitive  one,  that  end  of 
it  which  is  most  advanced  should  be  strengthened  by 
every  aeces.sorj'  means,  as  it  is  the  one  most  exposed 
to  the  enemy's  attacks.  The  other  end,  though  less 
exposed,  from  its  retired  position,  also  affords  less 
support  to  the  army  in  advance.  An  oblique  base 
affords  the  advantage  of  threatening  the  communica- 
tions and  base  of  the  enemy  without  exposing  our 
o^Ti.  The  base  of  operations  can  .seldom  be  a  sub- 
ject of  doubt  in  a  foreign  wiu",  as  it  necessarily  lies 
on  that  portion  of  the  frontier  next  to  the  enemy. 
The  only  question  that  can  arise  is  at  what  point  of 
the  frontier  it  will  be  best  to  advance  against  the 
enemy.  It  is  here  that  a  consideration  of  the  general 
outline  of  the  base  comes  up.  Is  it  concave,  or  makes 
to  some  extent  a  re-entering  angle,  the  army  then  in 
advancing  will  find  both  its  rear  and  wings  securely 
supported.  Is  it  strongly  convex,  or  offers  a  .salient 
angle,  it  has  the  advantage,  by  assembling  our  army 
towards  the  apex  of  the  angle,  of  keeping  the  enemy 
in  doubt  as  to  which  side  we  will  adopt  for  our  ba.se, 
and  thus  forcing  him  to  distribute  his  forces  on  an 
arc  of  which  we  occupy  the  center.  But  even  should 
he  concentrate  on  one  point,  we  have  still  the  resource 
of  threatening  him  on  one  side,  so  as  to  draw  his 
attention  there,  while  by  the  shortest  line  we  throw 
ourselves  on  the  ojjposite  one.  This  convex  form  is 
then  decidedly  advantageous  on  the  opening  of  a 
campaign  ;  but,  in  case  of  reverse,  it  may  lead  to  our 
separation  from  our  base.  The  inverse  holds  for  the 
concave  base.  There  can  seldom,  if  ever,  be  an  equal- 
ity of  choice  between  two  frontiers  as  a  base  of  oper- 
ations ;  one  will  necessjirily  offer  preponderating  ad- 
vantages over  the  other,  which  will  cause  its  adop- 
tion, and  it  is  upon  this  one  that  all  our  means  of 
attack  must  lie  brought  together.  It  is  a  grave  fault 
to  pursue  a  double  offensive,  in  starting  at  the  sjmie 
time  from  two  bases.  It  is  much  better  to  stand 
strictly  on  the  defensive  on  one  of  the  frontiers,  .so 
that  by  accumulating  more  troops  on  the  other  we 
may  increase  our  chances  of  success.  It  is  a  rare 
thing  thai  we  arrive  at  a  satisfactory  result  by  divid- 
ing our  forces  ;  and  the  same  reasons  which  render 
double  lines  of  operation  dangerous  are  equally 
against  attempting  a  double  offensive.  We  should, 
on  the  contrar3'.  concentrate  our  efforts  as  much  as 
we  can,  in  order  that  the  advantages  we  obtain  may 


BASE  OF  THE  BREECH. 


148 


BASHFOBTH  CHBONOOBAPH. 


be  decisive ;  and  they  must  nlwa.vs  V)e  more  so  on  the 
prepondenitini:  fniiiticr  llian  on  ilii'  olbtr  ;  it  is  uynm 
the  fonner,  therefore,  tliat  we  sliould  aet  with  the 
most  vigor,  [holdiiij;  hack  from  thi-  otlier  all  thai  is 
not  indispfiisjilili-  to  the  defrnsive  ;  as  upon  the  field 
of  hattle  we  refuse  i>ne  wiiij;,  ilniwiiig  from  il  trcKips 
to  strt'ngthen  the  one  eniniged,  and  upon  which  we 
count  for  victory.  See  hue  of  Operations  and  Ob- 
jtctift'  P'titil, 

BASE  OF  THE  BREECH.— In  gunnery,  the  rear 
surface  of  the  lirceeh  of  a  c:im.     See  Pitct. 

BASE-RING. — A  project  mg  band  of  metal  ad  join- 
ins;  the  base  of  the  breech,  and  connected  with  the 
IxkIv  of  the  gun  by  a  concave  moldin".  It  .series 
as  a"  pt)int  of  "support  for  the  brecchsiglit,  and  rests 
upon  the  head  of  the  elevating-screw.  The  ring  is 
omitted  in  guns  of  recent  moiiel.     See  Caiijum. 

BASHAW.— A  Turkish  title  of  honor  given  to 
Viceroys,  Provincial  Governors,  Gcnends,  and  other 
(iisliiiguisheil  public  men.  The  term  Bashaw  is  also 
used  to  characterize  a  man  of  an  arrogant  and  domi- 
neering dispo.silioii. 

BASHI-BAZOUKS.— Inegular  troopers  in  the  pay  of 
the  Sultan.     Very  few  of  "them  are  Europeans  ;  they 
are  mostly  Asiatics,  from  some  or  other  of  the  Pasha- 
lics  m   Asiatic   Turkey.     They  are  wild,  turbulent 
men,  ready  to  enter  tlie  Sultan's  service  under  some 
leader  whom   they  can   understand,  and   still   more 
ready  to  plunder  whenever  an   opportunity   offers. 
During  the  Russo- Turkish  war  of  18.54,  etc.,  tliey  had 
miuiy  encounters  with  the  enemy  in  that  kind  of  ir- 
regular warfare  which  the  Russians  intrust  to  Cossack 
horsemen ;  l)ut  the  peaceful  villagers  had  almost  as 
much  distrust  of  the  Bashi-bazouks  as  of  the  Rus- 
sians.    When  the  British  Government  resolved, 
in  18.5.5,  to  take  into  pay  a  Turkish  contingent, 
to  aid  in  the  operations  of  the  war,  a  Corps  of 
Bitshi-bazouks  wsts  put  in  charge  of  an  Indian 
officer,  but  the  tjisk   of  reducing  them  to  dis- 
cipline was  not  completed  when  the  war  ended. 
Their  ferocity  was  exhibited  in  the  Servian  war, 
but  most  relentlessly  in  the  massacre  of  Uatak, 
where,  in  May  lH7(i,  under  Achmet  Agha,  they 
slew  over  100(3  defenseless  Bulgarians  in  a  church 
in  which  thev  sought  refuge. 

BASHFORTH  CHRONOGRAPH.— Professor  Bash- 
forth  of  the  Artillery  School,  Woolwich,  England, 
hats  made  extensive  experiments  to  determine  the  re- 
sistance of  the  air  to  the  motion  of  ritle-projectilcs, 
with  a  chronograph  of  his  own  invention.  A  general 
view  of  his  instrument  is  given  in  Fig.  1. 

The  fiy-whcel,  A,  is  capable  of  revolving  about  a 
vertical  axis,  and  cjtrrying  with  it  the  cylinder,  K, 
which  is  covered  with  prepared  paper  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  clock  and  screen  records.  The  length  of 
the  cylinder  is  12  or  14  niches,  and  the  diameter  4 
inches.  B  is  a  toothed  wheel  which  gears  with  the 
■wheel-work,  M,  so  as  to  allow  the  spring,  CD,  to  be 
slowly  unwrapped  from  its  drum.  The  other  end  of 
CD,  being  attached  to  the  platform,  S,  allows  it  to 
descend  slowly  along  the  slide,  L,  about  i  inch  for 
each  revolution  of  tlic  cylinder.  E,  E'  are  electro- 
magnets ;  d,  d'  arc  frames  supporting  the  keepers ; 
and/,/"  are  the  ends  of  the  springs,  which  act  again.st 
the  attraction  of  the  electromagnets.  AVhen  the  cur- 
rent is  interrupted  ia  one  circuit,  as  E,  the  magnet- 
ism of  the  electro-magnet  is  destroyed,  the  spring,  /, 
carries  back  the  keeper,  which  by  means  of  the  arm, 
a,  gives  a  blow  to  the  lever,  b.  Thus  the  marker, 
m,  is  made  to  depart  from  the  uniform  spiral  it  was 
describing.  When  the  current  is  restored,  the  keeper 
is  attracted,  and  thus  the  marker,  in,  is  brought  back, 
which  continues  to  trace  its  spiral  as  if  nothing  had 
happene<l.  E'  is  connected  with  the  clock,  and  its 
marker,  m' ,  records  the  seconds.  E  is  connected 
with  the  .screen,  and  records  the  pas,sage  of  the  pro- 
jectile through  the  screens.  By  comparing  the  marks 
made  by  in,  m',  the  exact  velocity  of  the  projectile 
can  be  calculated  at  all  points  of  its  course.  The 
slide,  L,  is  fixed  parallel  to  F,  and  the  cylinder,  K, 


by  the  brackets,  G,  H.  Y  is  a  screw  for  drawing 
Imck  the  wheel-work,  M  ;  and  J,  a  stop  to  regulate 
the  distance  between  M  and  B.  The  depression  of 
the  lever,  h,  raises  the  two  springs,  «,  which  act  as 


Fio.  1. 

levers,  and  bring  the  diamond  points,  m,  m',  down 
upon  the  paper.  When  an  experiment  is  to  be  made, 
care  is  taken  to  see  that  the  two  currents  are  com- 
plete. The  fly-wheel,  A,  is  set  in  motion  by  hand, 
so  as  to  make  about  three  revolutions  in  two  seconds. 
The  markers,  m,  m' ,  are  brought  down  upon  the 
paper,  and  after  four  or  five  beats  of  the  clock  tlie 
signal  to  fire  is  given,  so  that  in  about  ten  seconds 
the  experiment  is  completed,  and  the  instrument  is 
ready  for  another.  The  pendulum  of  a  half-seconds 
clock  strikes  once,  each  double-beat,  a  very  liglit 
spring,  and  so  interrupts  the  galvanic  current  in  E' 
once  a  second. 


^^S^^ 


Fio.  i 


Fig.  2  gives  the  details  of  the  screen.  It  repre- 
sents a  piece  of  board  1  inch  thick  and  6  or  7  inches 
wide,  and  rather  larger  than  the  width  of  the  screen 
to  be  formed.  Transverse  grooves  are  cut  at  equal 
distances,  something  less  tlian  tlie  diameter  of  the 
projectile.      Staples  of  hard  brass  spring-wire  are 


BASHKIBS. 


149 


BASSDBUM. 


■fixed  with  their  prongs  in  the  continuation  of  the 
grooves.  Pieces  of  sheet-copper,  a,  c,  e,  are  provided, 
having  two  elliptical  holes,  the  distance  of  whose 
centers  equals  the  distance  of  the  grooves.  The  pieces 
of  copper  are  used  to  connect  each  wire  staple,  b,  d,f, 
with  its  neighbor  on  each  side.  These  copper  con- 
nections hold  down  the  wire  springs,  which,  when 
free,  are  in  contact  with  the  tops  of  the  holes ;  but, 
when  properly  weighted,  they  rest  on  the  lower  edges 
of  the  holes.  Thus  the  coi)i)er,  e,  forms  a  connection 
between  the  staples,  h  and  d ;  the  copper,  e,  joins  d 
and/,  and  so  on.  A  galvanic  stream  will  therefore 
take  the  follow"ing  course,  whether  the  springs  be 
weighted  or  unweighted  :  copper  a,  brass  b ;  copper 
c,  brass  d  ;  copper  e,  brass  /,  etc.  The  current  will 
only  be  interrupted  when  one  or  more  threads  have 
been  cut,  and  the  corresponding  spring  is  flying  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  its  hole.  About  one  liftieth 
of  a  second  is  required  for  the  complete  registration 


Fia.  3. 

of  such  an  interruption,  the  spring  traversing  about 
half  an  inch.  The  shelf.  A,  is  placed  for  the  weights 
to  rest  against,  partly  to  prevent  them  from  being 
carried  forward  bj'  the  projectile,  but  chieflj-  to  pre- 
vent the  untwisting  of  the  threads  which  support  the 
weights.  The  weights  used  are  about  2  lbs.  each, 
and  the  strength  of  sewing-cotton  for  supporting 


were  strong  and  independent  and  troublesome  to  their 
neighbors.  In  1556  they  voluntarily  accepted  the 
supremacy  of  Russia,  and  the  city  of  Upha  was 
founded  to  defend  them  from  the  Kirghiz.  Three 
times  they  rebelled,  in  l(i7(i,  1707,  and  1735,  but  were 
reduced  "to  subjection.  They  are  now  divided  into 
thirteen  cantons,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Gov- 
ernor-general of  Orenburg.  They  maintain  a  mili- 
tary cordon,  escort  caravans  through  the  Kirghiz 
steppes,  and  are  em|)loyed  in  various  other  services. 
They  are  di\ided  into  settled  and  nomadic,  the 
former  eliiefly  agriculturists,  and  the  latter  cattle- 
raisers.  They  are  hospitable,  but  suspicious,  poor, 
apt  to  steal,  and  e.xiecilingly  lazy.  They  have  large 
heads,  .small  foreheads,  eyes  narrow  and  flat,  cars 
standing  straight  out,  and  black  hair;  but  are  nniseu- 
lar  and  strong,  and  capable  of  enduring  much  labor 
and  privation.  They  are  of  limited  intellect,  and  their 
Mohammedanism  is  rather  a  jirofession  than  a  practice. 

BASIL. — Tanned  sheep-skin,  used  for  various  pur- 
poses in  the  arsenal  and  armory. 

BASILICON. — A  name  given  to  an  ointment  com- 
posed of  yellow  wax,  black  pitch,  resin,  and  olive- 
oil;  hence  it  was  called  uiiijucidiim  Mra-plmrnmcnm 
(U'tra  plmrmahi,  four  drugs).  The  resin,  wax,  and 
jiitch  are  melted  together  over  a  slow  fire;  the  oil  is 
tbeu  added,  and  the  mixture,  while  hot,  strained 
through  lines.  The  straining  is  directed  in  conse- 
quence of  the  impurities  which  resin  often  contains. 
Basilicon  ointment,  or  resin  cerate  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  much  used  as  a  gently  stimulant  applica- 
tion to  blistered  surfaces,  indolent  ulcers,  burns, 
scalds,  and  chilblain.s,  and  other  accidents  of  the 
march  and  camp. 

0=9= 


li.^ss-drum. 


them  is  equal  to  a  stress  of  about  3  lbs.,  which  is 
sufficient  to  withstand  a  toleral)lv  strong  wind.  As 
the  weights  arc  equal,  the  threads  are  kept  equally 
stretched.  The  arrangement  of  urnvnn  for  an  experi- 
ment is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  wires  for  conveying 
the  galvanic  current  are  like  the  common  telegraph- 
wires  carried  on  posts,  abed  e  f  g  h  is  a  continu- 
ous piece  of  wire,  and  the  current  is  made  to  circu 
late  through  the  screens.  The  ends,  a,  h,  arc  con- 
nected with  the  instrument  and  Ijattery.  The  ])ro- 
jcetile,  being  fired  throiigh  the  screens,  in  passing 
cuts  one  or  more  threads  at  each  screen,  so  that, 
corresponding  to  the  instant  at  which  the  projectile 
passes  each  screen,  there  is  an  interruption  of  the 
galvanic  current,  and  a  simultaneous  record  on  the 
paper.     See  Cliroiiiixrojii'. 

BASHKIRS— BASHKUKTS.— A  people  in  Orenburg 
and  Perm,  Russia,  on  the  slojic  and  plains  of  the 
Ural.  They  are  a  mixture  of  Finns,  Tartars,  and 
Ostyaks.  Until  the  arrival  of  tlie  Hungarians,  alwut 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century," the  Bashkirs 


BASILLAED.— An  old  term  for  a  poniard  or  dagger. 

BASILISK-BASILISKE.  — An  ancient  piece  of 
ordnance,  which  was  ten  feet  lon.ir  and  weighed  7300 
pounds;  so  called  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to 
the  serpent  of  tliat  name,  or  from  its  size. 

BASKET-HILT.— The  hill  of  a  sword,  so  made  as 
to  contain  and  guard  the  whole  hand.  The  tenn 
"  ba.sket"  is  given  to  the  leather  guard  round  the 
handle  of  fencing  or  single  sticks,  and  the  leather  of 
condemned  iwuches  is  often  appli<'d  to  this  purjiose. 

BASKET-WORK.— In  fortification,  work  mvohing 
the  interweaving  of  witlie*  and  stakes:  such  as 
wicker-work,  randing,  wattling,  waling-gahions,  fas- 
cines. Iiurdl<<.  etc. 

BASLARD.— A  short  sword  or  dagger,  worn  in  the 
fift<'cntli  centurv. 

BASSART.— An  arm-guard  worn  by  knights  and 
soldiers  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

BASS-DRUM.— .V  very  large  drum,  beaten  at  either 
end,  and  used  chieflv  in  military  bands.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  drum  in  this  form  is  "ascribed  to  Bacchus, 


BASSINET. 


150 


BASTILE. 


■who,  ncconling  to  Polvgocnus,  gave  his  signal  of 
battle  by  cviiibal  ami  drum.  It  wa.-;,  however, 
known  i'u  vt-rj-  early  ages,  and  in  some  rude  form 
ainoiiL.'  iilniosi  all  nations. 

BASSINET.— The  i>aii  of  the  arquebus.  The  prim- 
ing is  placiHl  in  the  IxisgiiDt  and  covered  by  another 
plate  oiUed  the  courrt-lHisgiiitt. 

BASSOON.— A  wi-llknown  wind-instnmient  of  the 
rtrd  species,  made  of  niaple-wt)od  or  plane-tree.  The 
ha-ssoou  is  an  Italian  invention;  its  name,  fagotto, 
mean'mg  a  htiiidk,  prol)iibly  from  its  being  made  in 
different  pieces  laid  one  "against  the  other.  The 
French  call  it  lm»iion  dc  liaiitboin;  the  Germans  retain 
its  Italian  name.  Its  invention  is  attributed  to 
C'anonicus  Afnuiio,  in  Ferrani,  in  1539.  In  Uie  mid- 
dle of  the  si.xtceuth  century  it  had  already  reached 
great  jierfeclion.  Sigmund  ScUnitzer,  in  Nurem- 
berir.  who  died  in  l.JTtj,  was  a  celebrated  maker. 
The  bas-soon  consists  of  a  bored-out  tube  of  wood  in 
several  pieces,  fixed  together  alongside  each  other,  so 
as  to  bring  the  holes  ami  keys  witliiu  the  reach  of  the 
lingers  of  each  hand.  The  bassoon  has,  in  general, 
not  less  than  eight  holes  and  ten  keys.  In  the  narrow 
end  of  the  wooden  tube  is  fixed  a  small  tapering 
brass  tube  in  tlie  form  of  an  S,  on  the  end  of  which 
is  placed  the  reed  for  producing  the  tone.  The 
notes  for  the  bassoon  are  wTitten  on  the  bass  clef  for 
the  lower  part,  and  on  the  tenor  clef  for  the  higher. 
The  best  keys  for  the  bassoon  are  E  flat,  B  flat,  F,  C, 


^^^^mm 


both  in  England  and  Scotland,  is  comparatively  of 
modern  uivenlion,  natural  children  in  earlier  times 
not  having  Ikcu  ])ermitted  to  assume  the  arms  or 
even  the  "names  of  their  fathers.  "The  unlawful 
children  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  be- 
got on  Katharine,  daughter  of  Sir  Payen  Hoat  Guyn, 
King  of  Arms,  did  not  carry  the  arms  of  their  father 
the  king,  though  nobilitate,"  with  a  baton-sinister,  as 
now  used;  .  .  .  but  after  the  legitimation  of  these 
three  natural  sons  by  Act  of 

}  Parliament,  they  then  a.s- 
sumed  the  sovereign  en- 
signs of  England,  within  a 
bordure  gobbonaled  argent 
and  a/.ure."  According  to 
the  practice  of  France, 
which  probably  was  fol- 
lowed in  England  also,  the 
bastard     could    not    cancel 

!  or  alter  the   baton   without 

j  the  consent  of  the  chief  of 

I  the  family  or  the  authority 

;  of  the  sovereign.  Even 
where  the  baton  was  not  re- 
moved, it  was  common  lor 
the  sovereign  to  grant  his 
permis.sion  to  cany  it  dexter,  in  place  of  sinister. 
Charles  VII.  of  France  allowed  John,  the  Bastard  of 
Orleans,  for  his  valor  against  the  English,  to  turn  his 


Earl  of  Murray's  Arms. 


^  >■  '1^! 


Bassoon. 


G,  D,  and  A;  all  the  other  keys  are  more  or  less  diffi- 
cult. For  military  bands  there  are  different  sizes  of 
bassoons— one  a  fovirth  lower;  another,  tlie  contra 
B,  an  octave  lower;  and  a  third,  the  tenor  B,  a  fifth 
higher — all  of  the  same  construction.  The  best 
instruction  books  for  the  bas.soon  are  by  Almenrii- 
der,  Frohlich,  Ozi,  and  by  the  Paris  Conservatorium. 
Bassoon  is  also  the  name  "of  an  organ-stop,  the  pipes 
of  which  are  made  to  imitate  the  tones  of  the  mstru- 
ment. 

BASTABS. — An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance  of  about 
8  pounds  caliber,  9A  feet  long,  and  weighing  19.5t) 
povmds.  It  was  invented  by  Jean  llanrique  de  Lard, 
Ma.ster-general  of  Ordnance  under  Charles  V.  of 
France,  in  l.")3.5.  He  also  had  several  bastards  cast  of 
a  larger  caliber.  This  term  was  also  applied  to  gtms 
of  an  unusual  make  or  proportion,  whether  longer  or 
shorter. 

BASTAKD  BAR. — In  popidar  speech  we  frequently 
hear  of  a  hin'-niiihtir,  as  a  mark  of  bastardy.  But  a 
bar-sinister,  strictly  speaking,  is  an  impossibility,  in- 
asmuch as  the  bar  is  not  formed  of  diagonal  liut 
of  horizontal  lines.  A  lniidKiniskr.  which  by  the 
French  is  called  a  bar,  has  with  more  reason  been 
confused  with  the  true  mark  of  illegitunacy,  and  has 
on  that  account  tieen  av<iideil  even  by  heralds.  But 
the  real  bastard  bar  dilTers  ver}'  essentially  from  the 
bend-sinister,  iH'ing  half  of  the  scarp,  which  again  is 
half  of  the  bend-sinister.  "  The  half  of 
the  scarp."  says  Nisbet,  "  with  the  Eng- 
lish is  called  a  Batton-sinister;  by  the 
French,  Haston-sinister;  it  is  never  car- 
ried in  arms  but  as  a  mark  of  illegili- 
nialion,  commonly  called  the  Bastard- 
ban'."  Ir.  modern  ])raclice  the  baton 
does  not  touch  the  extremities  of  the 
shield,  or  of  the  (piarler  in  which  the  paternal  anns 
are  placed,  but  is  roiijud — that  is,  cut  short  at  the 
ends.  In  this  form  the  baton,  when  usi'd  as  a  mark 
of  illegitimacy,  is  placed  over  the  paternal  coat  of 
the  basUird,  whether  used  singly  or  in  a  quartered 
shield.     Nisbct   informs   us  that  the  baton-sinister. 


Bastaril  Bar. 


sinister  traverse  to  the  dexter,  ■nith  which  he  and  his 
issue  afterivards  bruised  the  anns  of  Orleans,  as 
dukes  of  Longueville.  The  same  privilege  was 
granted  to  James,  Earl  of  Murrav,  natural  son  of 
Kin.ir  James  V.  of  Scotland,  by  his  .sister  Queen  Jlary, 
and  he  thenceforth  carried  the  Lion  and  tre-ssure  of 
Scotland  thus  braised,  quartered  with  the  feudal 
arms  of  the  earldom  of  Murray.  The  general  prac- 
tice of  the  milder  heraldry  of  our  own  day  is  to  sub- 
stitiitc  the  gol)l)onated  bordure  for  the  bastard  bar, 
not  (■Illy  in  the  case  of  the  legitimate  children  of 
bastards,  but  of  liastards  themselves. 

BASTARD-CULVERIN.— A  cannon  of  the  French 
artillery,  under  Henry  II.,  carrying  a  projectile 
weiij-hing  7  pounds  21  ounces. 

BAST ARDEAir.— The  small  knife  often  seen  on  the 
sheath  of  the  ii mince. 

BASTARD  FILE.— A  file  much  used  in  the  armory, 
of  a  grade  between  the  roiir//i  and  the  smooth,  in  re- 
spei't  of  the  relative  prominence  and  coarseness  of 
the  teeth.  The  order  is  as  follows:  rough,  middle- 
cut,  bastard,  second-cut,  smooth,  and  dead-smooth. 
The  angle  of  the  chisel  in  cutting  the  bastard  file  is 
about  10"  from  the  perjiendicular.  The  number  of 
cuts  to  the  inch  varies  with  the  length  of  the  file  in 
inches. 

Inches 4      6      8    13    16    20 

Cuts 76    64    .56    48    44    34 

See  File. 

BASTEENA.— The  basterna  of  the  Romans  -was  a 
litter  orsjiecies  of  sedan,  carried  by  two  mules,  differ- 
ing from  the  lectica  in  that  the  latter  was  borne  by 
slaves.  The  name  is  derived  from  a  people  of  the 
Car|)alliian  Mountains,  and  was  afterwards  applied 
to  a  species  of  ox-cart  or  wagon  used  by  th  e  early 
kings  of  France.  The  name  survives  in  a  modem 
Euroiiean  carriage. 

BASTIDE.— In  ancient  times,  a  bastion,  a  block- 
house, a  fortress,  or  other  fortification. 

BASTILE— BASTILLE.— In  France,  a  general  term 
for  a  strong  fortress  defended  by  towers  or  bastions, 
and  in  this  sense  it  was  used  in  England  also  after 


BASTINADO. 


151 


BASTION. 


the  Norman  Conquest.  The  famous  prison  to  which 
the  name  latterly  was  appropriated  was  originally 
the  Castle  of  Paris,  and  was  built  by  order  of  Charles 


Bastile. 
v.,  between  1370  and  1383,  by  Hugo  Aubriot.  Pre- 
vot  or  Provost  of  Pjiris,  at  the  Porte  St.  Antoine,  as 
a  defense  against  the  English.  Afterwards,  when  it 
came  to  be  used  as  a  State  Prison,  it  was  provided, 
during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  with 
vast  bulwarks  and  ditches.  On  each  of  its  longer 
sides  the  Bastile  had  four  towers,  of  five  stories  each, 
over  which  there  ran  a  gallery,  which  was  armed 
with  camion.  It  was  partlv  in  these  towers  and 
partly  in  cellars  under  the  level  of  the  ground  that 
the  prisons  were  situated.  The  unfortunate  inmates 
of  these  abodes  were  so  effectually  removed  from  the 
world  without  as  often  t«  be  entirely  forgotten,  and 
in  some  eases  it  was  found  impossible  to  discover 
either  their  origin  or  the  cause  of  their  incarceration. 
The  Bastile  was  capable  of  containing  TO  to  80 
prisoners,  a  number  frequently  reached  during  the 
reigns  of  Louis  XI\'.  and  Louis  XV.  Though  small 
compared  to  the  number  which  an  ordinary  prison 
contains,  these  numliers  were  considerable  when  we 
reflect  that  they  rarely  consisted  of  persons  of  the 
lower  ranks,  or  such  as  were  guiltj-  of  actual  crimes, 
but  of  those  who  were  sacrificed  to  political  despot- 
ism, court  intrigue,  ecclesiastical  tvrannj',  or  had  fal- 
len victims  to  family  quarrels,  and  were  lodged  here 
in  virtue  of  kttres-de-cachet — noblemen,  authors, 
savans,  priests,  and  publishers.  On  the  14th  of 
July,  1789,  the  fortress  was  surroimdcd  by  an  armed 
mob,  which  the  reactionary  policy  of  the  Court  had 
driven  into  furv,  and  to  tlie  number  of  which  every 
moment  added.  The  garrison  consisted  of  83  old 
soldiers  and  32  Swiss.  The  negotiations  which  were 
entered  into  with  the  Governor  led  to  no  other  result 
than  the  removal  of  the  cannon  pointed  on  the 
Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  which  by  no  means  con- 
tented the  exasperated  multitude.  Some  cut 
the  chains  of  the  first  drawbridge,  and  a  con- 
test took  place,  in  which  one  of  the  besieged 
and  1.50  of  the  people  were  killed,  or  severely 
wounded;  but  the  an-ival  of  a  portion  of  the 
troops  which  had  already  joined  the  people 
v\1th  four  field-pieces  turned  the  fortune  of  the 
conflict  in  favor  of  the  besiegers.  Delaunay, 
the  Governor — who  had  been  prevented  by  one 
of  his  officers,  when  on  the  point  of  blowing 
the  fortress  into  the  air — permitted  the  .second 
drawbridge  to  be  lowered,  and  the  peo])le 
rushed  in,  killing  Delaunay  himself  and  several 
of  his  officers.  The  destruction  of  the  Ba.s- 
tile  commenced  on  the  following  day,  ami<l  the 
thunder  of  cannon  and  the  pealing  of  the  Te 
Deum.  This  event,  in  itself  apparently  of  no  great 
moment,  leading  only  to  the  release  of  three  unknown 
prisoners — one  of  wht)m  had  been  its  tenant  for 
thirty  years — and  four  forgers,  and  in  which  it  is 
said  only  the  6.^4  persons  whose  names  now  appear  on 
the  column  in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille  took  part, 
nevertheless  finally  broke  the  spirit  of  the  Court 
Party,  and  changed  the  current  of  events  in  France. 
BASTINADO.— The  name  given  by  Europeans  to 
the  pvmishment  in  use  over" the  whole  East,  which 
consists  in  blows  with  a  stick,  generally  upon  the 
soles  of  the  feet,  but  sometimes  upon  the  back. 


BASTION.— The  precise  period  that  the  bastioned 
.system  of  fortification  appeared  is  not  known,  but  it 
is  generally  conceded  to  have  appeared  about  the 
time  that  gunpowder  was  first  used  for  military  pur- 
poses. The  bastions  constructed  in  LIS.")  in  Verona 
are  among  the  oldest  known.  The  improvements 
made  in  siege-artillery  towards  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century  caused  Sully,  the  Prime  Minister  of 
France,  Grand-master  of  Artillery  and  Superintendent 
of  Portiticatious,  to  take  me;tsures  to  modify  and 
strengthen  the  fortitications  then  existing  in  France, 
llis  tirst  step  was  to  take  them  out  of  the  hands  of 
those  who  had  them  in  keeping,  and  to  put  them  in 
the  charge  of  a  select  body  of  men,  who  had  mili- 
tary experience,  education,  and  knowledge  of  con- 
struction. From  this  body  of  men  we  tlate  the  origin 
of  the  French  Corps  of  Engineers,  and  this  period 
may  be  regarded  as  the  l3Cginning  of  the  bastioned 
system  in  France.  The  noted  military  engineers, 
l^rranl,  of  Bar  le  Due,  De  Ville,  aim  Count  de 
Pagan,  were  successively  charged  with  these  modifi- 
cations and  left  their  impress  upon  the  works  in- 
trusted them.  They  were  followed  by  Vauban,  and 
he  by  Cormontaigne.  Although  modifications  have 
lieen  maile  in  the  bastioned  system  since  the  time  of 
Cormontaigne,  we  can  safely  say  that  its  essential 
basis  is  that  of  his  method.  A  knowledge  of  the 
bastioned  system  would  not  be  complete  without  an 
acquaintance  with  his  method  and  those  of  Vauban. 

A  bastioned  enceinte  consists  of  a  series  of  bas- 
tions, A,  B,  etc.,  which  occupy  the  salient  angles  of 
the  polygon  within  which  the  enceinte  is  inclosed;  the 
flanks  of  the  bastions  being  usually  connected  by 
straight  curtains.  The  sides  of  the  polygon  which 
connect  the  salient  angles  of  the  bastions  are  termed 
the  crterior  sides,  in  contradistiiietion  to  the  sides  of 
an  interior  polygon  which,  being  parallel  to  the  first 
and  occupying  the  positions  of  the  curtains,  are 
termed  thL-'uiUriov  siihs.  The  [lolygon  may  be  regu- 
lar or  irngular.  The  bastioned  enceinte,  when  its 
relli'f  and  plan  are  suitabh-  arranged,  possesses  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  its  ditches  thoroughly  swept  from 
within  the  enceinte  itself,  thus  securing  the  flanking 
arrangement  of  the  scarp;  of  bringing  a  cross  and 
flank  Are  to  bear  upon  the  approaches  on  the  sjilients 
of  the  enceinte;  and  furnishing  a  strong  direct  and 
cross  fire  upon  the  site  in  advance  of  the  curtains  and 
the  faces  of  the  bastions. 

It  is  not  safe  to  base  the  flankmg  an-angements 
solely  upon  artillery.     The  fire  of  musketry  is  more 


A.  B.— Bastions. 
EF— Exterior  side. 
N*.>.— Interior  side. 
PQ.— Perpendicular. 
EI.— Face. 
IK.-Flanlc. 


KL.— Ciirtain. 

EL.— Line  of  defense. 
SEI.— Salient-angle. 
EIK,  — Slioiilfierangle. 
IKL.—Cnrtain  angle. 
lEP.— Diminished  angle. 


deadly  and  more  effective,  and  upon  it  these  arrange- 
ments are  based.  Its  effective  range,  the  ordinary 
limits  of  distinct  vision,  and  the  skill  in  using  this 
arm  are  all  to  be  considered.  Supposing  the  enemy 
able  to  gain  a  position  within  .'50  yards  of  the  salient, 
he  should  there  be  within  range  of  the  maskctry- 
fire  of  the  flanks.  With  the  improved  arms  of 
the  present  time,  we  mav  a.ssume  this  distance  to  be 
300  yards.  The  musketry  may  be  supplemented  by 
Gatling  guns,  or  other  invenlions  of  the  same  nature, 
but  the  basis  of  the  flanking  arrangements  must  be 
the  arm  used  by  the  infantry  soldier. 


BASTIONED  F0BT8. 


152 


BASTIONED  LIITE. 


The  position  of  the  flank  will  varj-  between  the 
limits,  a  pcriH'nilicular  to  the  curtain,  anil  a  i)erix'n- 
dieular  to  the  opiHjsite  face  let  fall  from  the  i>oint 
where  the  curtain  intersects  the  line  of  defense.  A 
position  internii'Uiate  to  these  has  been  generally 
adoptcti;  inmost  aises,  placing /A<.;?/ihA*>(M /<*  »wto' 
aiianglf  of  iihoiit  \00'  with  (he  curtain.  The  length 
should  Ix'"  sutlieient  to  allow  it  to  be  armed  with  at 
leivst  two  pie<es  of  artillery;  this  will  ilelorraiue  the 
least  length  of  Hank.  It  inay  be  increased  beyond 
this,  to  any  extent  demanded  by  the  circumstances  of 
the  defense.  From  the  effect  had  in  so  doing  to  in- 
crease the  length  of  curtain  and  to  dimini.sh  the  in- 
terior spjiee  in  the  biustion,  the  vMJcimiim  kngtti  has 
been  restricted  to  50  t/drih. 

The  face  of  the  bastion  is  usually  directed  on  the 
curtain-angle.  In  this  case  the  entire  tire  of  the 
flank  am  l)e  brought  to  l)ear  on  the  enceiute-diteh 
along  the  foot  of  the  scarp-wall  of  the  face.  Cir- 
cumstances may  require  a  dilTerent  position  :  direct- 
ing it  on  some  point  on  the  curtain,  or  on  some  point 
ori  the  flank.  With  the  advantages  gained  there  \vill 
be  corresiHmdingdis;idvaiitages.  Their  relative  values 
will  decide  it.  The  relative  positions  of  the  curtain, 
flanks,  and  lines  of  defense,  and  their  respective 
lengths  affect  the  length  of  the  faces.  If  the  line  of 
defense  is  equal  only  to  the  distance  between  the 
curtain-angle  and  opposite  shoidder-an^le,  the  corre- 
sponding length  of  face  will  be  zero;  if  the  curtain 
and  the  flanks  have  their  least  and  the  line  of  de- 
fense its  greatest  length,  the  resulting  face  will  be  the 
longest  that  we  can  have. 

BASTIONED  FOBTS.  —  The  bostioned  fort  has 
been  devised  to  remedy  defective  flanked  disposi- 
tions. It  may  cou.sist  of  a  polygon  of  any  number 
of  sides,  but  for  tield-forts  the  square  and  pentagon 
arc  generally  preferred.     To  plan    a  work  of  this 


kind,  a  squsirc  or  jientagon  is  first  laid  out,  and 
the  sides  bisected  by  perpendiciUars,  HI;  a  distance, 
GH,  of  one  eighth  of  a  side  in  a  square  (one 
seventh  in  a  pentagon)  is  .set  off  on  the  perpen- 
diculars; from  tlie  angular  jjoinis  of  the  polygon, 
lines  DA,  C'F  are  drawn  llirough  the  points  thus 
set  off :  these  lines  give  the  direction  of  the  lines 
of  defense;  from  the  salients  of  the  polygon,  dis- 
tances equal  to  two  .sevenths  of  a  side  are  set  oif  on 
the  directions  of  the  lines  of  defense,  which  give  the 
faces;  from  the  extremities  of  the  faces  the  flanks 
are  drawn  perpendicular  to,  or  making  an  angle  of 
110  will),  the  lines  of  defense;  the  extremities  of  the 
flanks  are  eoimected  by  curtains.  C'l>. 

In  deciding  on  the  general  plan  to  be  carried  out, 
the  following  considerations  require  attention:  the 
object  the  work  is  exiweted  to  fullill,  and  its  .situation 
with  respect  to  the  enemy;  whether  it  is  likely  to  be 
attacked  by  overwhelming  forces;  whether  artillery 
is  likely  to  be  brought  against  it,  or  iidantry,  anil 
whethei  it  can  be  surrounded;  the  nuinl)er  of  men 
there  will  be  for  its  defense,  observing  that  it  is  belter 
to  have  a  force  concentrated,  and  that  it  is  therefore 
injudicious  to  make  works  of  a  greater  extent  than 


can  \k  well  manned  and  vigorously  defended.  An- 
other  consideration  that  must  not  Ix'  omitted  is  the 
number  of  men  that  can  be  collected  for  working, 
whether  they  are  one's  own  men  or  inhabitants,  and 
whether  there  are  tools  enough  and  time  enough  to 
do  it. 

An  examination  of  the  arrangement  of  a  bastioned 
front  will  show  that  there  are  neither  dead-angles 
nor  sectors  without  Are;  that  the  salients,  and  all  the 
ground  within  the  range  of  tire,  are  protected  by 
formiilable  cohnnns  of  direct,  flank,  and  cross  fire. 
There  is  one  point  in  this  system  that  demands  par- 
ticular attention,  which  is,  that  the  counterscarp  of 
the  ditch,  if  laid  out  parallel  to  the  interior  crest, 
would  form  a  dead-an^lc  along  each  face  near  the 
shoulder;  because  the  hre  of  the  flank  would  be  in- 
tercepted by  the  crest  of  the  counterscarp.  To  jire- 
vent  this,  either  the  counterscarps  of  the  faces  must 
be  prolonged  to  intersect,  and  all  earth  between  them 
and  the  scarp  of  the  flanks  and  curtain  be  excavated, 
or  the  ditch  of  each  face  must  be  inclined  up  in  a 
slope  from  the  bottom,  opposite  the  shoulder,  so  that 
it  can  be  swept  by  the  Are  of  the  flank.  The  first 
method  is  the  best,  but  requires  most  labor;  the 
second  is  chiefly  objectionable  as  it  gives  an  easy 
access  to  the  ditch,  which  might  be  taken  advantage 
of  in  an  as.sault.  It  is  proposed,  to  obviate  this,  to 
dig  a  second  ditch  at  the  foot  of  the  slope  across  the 
main  ditch,  twelve  feet  wide  and  about  six  feet  deep; 
to  make  it  pointed  at  the  bottom,  and  to  plant  a  row 
of  palisades  in  it. 

Forts  have  been  proposed  with  half -bast  ions,  but, 
being  very  little  superior  to  the  redoubt  and  much 
more  difficult  of  construction,  they  ought  never  to  be 
used.  The  exterior  sides  of  the  bastioned  fort  should 
not  exceed  250  yards,  nor  be  less  than  125  yards, 
otherwise  the  flanking  arrangements,  with  the  smooth- 
bore musket  in  the  former  case,  and  the  flanks  too 
short  ill  the  latter,  will  be  imperfect.  With  a  relief 
of  twenty-four  feet,  which  is  the  greatest  that,  in 
most  cases,  can  be  given  to  field-works,  and  an  ex- 
terior side  of  250  yards,  the  ditch  of  the  curtaiu  will 
be  perfectly  swept  by  the  tire  of  the  flanks,  the  lines 
of  defense  will  be  nearly  180  yards,  a  length  which 
admits  of  a  good  defense,  and  the  flanks  will  be 
nearly  thirty  yards.  With  a  relief  of  fourteen  feet, 
the  least  that  will  present  a  tolerable  obstacle  to  an 
assauh,  and  an  exterior  side  of  125  yards,  the  ditch 
of  the  curtain  will  be  well  flanked,  the  flanks  will 
be  nearly  twenty  yards  in  length,  and  the  faces  be- 
tween thirty  and  forty  yards.  "Between  these  limits, 
the  dimensions  of  the  exterior  side  must  vary  with 
the  relief.     See  Fartilication. 

BASTIONED  LINE.— Owing  to  the  imperfect  flank- 
ing ariaiigements  of  other  lines,  it  has  been  pro- 
posed to  use  bastioued  lines.  They  are  laid  out  by 
placing  the  .salients  250  yards  apart,  and  making  the 
perpendicular  of  the  front  equal  to  one  .sixth. 

Another  an-angement  of  the  bastioned  line,  shown 
in  the  drawing,  has  double  flanhi.  The  .salients,  in 
this  ca.sc.  should  be  between  400  and  500  yards  apart. 
The  drawing  explains  itself.  15}'  this  arrangement 
there  are  fewer  assailable  points  on  the  s;inie  front; 
one  of  the  bastions  is  placed  in  a  strong  re-entering; 
and  the  salients  of  the  advanced  bastions  are  pro- 
tected by  the  flank  fire  of  the  collateral  advanced 
bastion,  and  also  of  the  retired  bastion.  The  prin- 
cipal objection  to  the  bastioned  line  is  its  great  devel- 
opment, and  the  con.sequent  increase  of  labor  and 
time  for  its  construction.  This  objection,  however, 
does  not  a|iply  to  a  front  of  limited  extent  where  the 
flanks  of  the  line  rest  upon  natural  features  like  un- 
f'ordalile  water-courses,  or  upon  an  impassable  marsh 
which  will  prevent  the  line  from  being  turneil. 

Continued  lines  are  not  suited  to  an  active  defense; 
and  this  is  a  gmve  objection  to  their  use.  Moreover, 
from  the  great  dissemination  of  the  troops  over  a 
long  ilefeiisive  line,  the  resistance  at  all  ]ioints  will 
be  weak,  and  if  one  point  is  carried  the  rest  of  the 
line  is  taken  in  flank.     Besides,  the  main  reserve 


BASTIONET. 


153 


BATH. 


being  at  the  center,  the  flanks  may  fail  to  receive 
timely  succor  if  attacked.  The  enemy,  if  repulsed 
by  their  tire,  can  retreat  in  good  order,  and  renew 
the  iissiiult  at  a  more  opportune  moment;  because  the 
assjiiled,  if  they  attempt  a  sortie,  must  defile  through 
narrow  outlets,  and  present  a  fec'ole  front  to  the 


mental  books,  the  kettles,  the  tents,  the  medicine- 
chest,  the  veterinary  medicine  -  chest,  intrenching- 
tools,  armorers'  stores,  saddlers'  stores,  etc. — about 
twenty  such  horses  or  mules  to  each  battalion.  Bat- 
horses  and  bat-men  are  also  provided  lor  carrying 
officers'  camp-equipage.     An  allowance  for  procur- 


CE-iAB.CP'iAB 
AF-^AB.CHiH£ 


Bastioned  Line. 


enemy  during  the  operation  of  defiling.  They  are,  | 
however,  the  best  defensive  means  for  irregular 
troops,  owing  to  the  confidence  which  tliey  inspire. 
They  also  serve  to  guard  against  a  surprise,  and  to 
prevent  the  predatory  excursions  of  small  detach- 
ments of  the  enemy.     See  Lines. 

BASTIONET. — A"  small  bastion  in  masonry,  either 
casemated  or  open  and  placed  at  the  salient  of  a 
work.  When  casemated,  the  masonry  should  be 
covered  bv  the  srlacis. 

BASTION-FACE  CUT.— The  object  of  this  cut  is 
similar  to  the  one  in  the  demilune  face;  it  confines 
the  enemy  to  (he  salient  part  of  the  bastion,  prevent- 
ing him  from  extending  his  works  along  the  bastion 
terre-plein,  to  turn  the  cavalier  by  its  gorge;  so  that 
to  obtain  possession  of  this  work  he  mvist  make  a 
breach  in  its  face.  The  arrangement  of  the  ditch  of 
the  cavalier  frequently  subjects  only  a  part  of  it  to 
the  fire  of  the  parapet  behind  the  cut.  This  dead 
.space  might  offer  some  advantages  were  the  enemy 
to  attempt  to  caiTy  the  parapet  of  the  cut  by  esca- 
lade. To  remedy  this  defect,  it  has  been  proposed  to 
place  a  crenated  gallery  behind  the  scarp-wall  of  the 
cut,  to  flank  the  entire  ditch.  By  placing  the  door 
of  the  postern  that  leads  into  the  cavalier-ditch  at 
the  ixiint  where  the  vertical  wail  separates  the  two 
levels,  it  will  be  partially  covered  from  the  enemy's 
lodgment  on  the  bastion  terre-plein.  The  disposition 
of  the  cavalier  and  cuts  within  the  bastion  does  not 
leave  sufficient  space  upon  the  terre-plein  of  the  lat- 
ter to  organize  a  covered-way.  But  in  the  retrench- 
ments of  open  bastions,  resting  on  the  flanks  or  cur- 
tains, to  which  the  form  of  a  tcnaille  or  .small  has- 
tioned  front  is  given,  a  covered-way,  with  a  re- 
entering place-of-arms  closed  by  traverses,  can  be 
organized,  which  will  give  considerable  additional 
confidence  and  security  in  the  defense  of  the  breach 
in  the  bastion  with  the  bayonet.  The  organization 
of  these  covered-ways  presents  no  peculiarity.  They 
sho\dd,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  defiled  "from  the 
oesieger's  lodgments  within  the  bastion  assailed.  See 
Dcmi-bine  Gut. 

BASTON. — 1.  A  formidable  club  which  was  used 
as  a  war-chib  in  the  early  Norman  liattles.  It  was 
not  an  unusual  weapon  at  that  period,  and  seems  to 
have  been  the  precursor  of  the  iron  mace  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages. 

'i.  fn  Heraldry,  a  staff  or  cudgel  generally  borne 
jis  a  mark  of  bastardy,  and  properly  containing  one 
eighth  in  breadth  of  the  bend-sinister. 

BAT. — The  name  of  a  kind  of  pack-saddle;  and 
lieuce  a  bat-horse  was  a  baggage-horse  bearing  a  bat 
or  pack,  and  a  bat-man  was  a  servant  in  charge  of 
the  horse  and  bat.  By  a  modification  of  meaning,  a 
bat-man  is  now  any  soldier  allowed  to  act  as  servant 
to  an  officer.  When  British  troops  are  sent  on 
foreign  service,  l)at-horses  or  mtiles  are  provided  (if 
carriugcs  are  not  forthcoming)  for  carrying  the  regi- 


ing  these   accommodations  is   usually   called   bat- 
monev. 

BATAGE.— The  time  emploj-ed  in  reducing  gun- 
powder to  its  proper  consistency.  The  French  usu- 
ally consume  24  hours  in  pounding  the  niaierials  to 
make  good  gunpowder.  Supposing  the  mortar  to 
contain  16  pounds  of  composition,  it  would  require 
the  application  of  the  jiestle  SoOO  times  each  hour. 
The  labor  required  in  this  process  is  less  in  summer 
than  in  winter,  because  the  water  is  softer. 

BATAILLON  DE  LA  SALADE.— A  name  formerly 
given  in  Prance  .to  old  corps  which  wore  a  peculiar 
kind  of  helmet  called  snlnde. 

BATARDEAU. — A  strong  wall  of  masonry,  built 
across  the  outer  ditch  of  a  fortress,  to  susiidn  the 
pressure  of  water  when  one  part  of  the  ditch  is  dry 
and  the  rest  wet.  It  is  built  up  to  an  angle  at  the 
top,  and  is  armed  ■vnX)!  spikes,  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  crossing;  and  sometimes  a  stone  tower  is  pro- 
vided to  strengthen  the  defense.  There  is  a  sluice- 
gate to  rearulate  the  admission  of  water. 

BAT  DE  MULET.— A  pack-siiddlc  used  in  service 
when  mules  are  emploved  to  carry  stores.  Aparejos 
in  the  United  States  "service  are  used  for  a  similar 
jiurpose.     See  Apnrejo. 

BATEAU-BRIDGE.— A  floating  bridge  supported 
by  bateaux  or  lisht  boats.     See  Ponton. 

BATEAU  D'AVANT-GARDE.— A  small  light  boat 
attached  to  the  advance-guard  of  an  army.  It  is  3.3 
feet  in  Icnath  by  -5  feet  (J  inches  in  breadth. 

BATH.-^The  name  of  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of 
the  Bath  is  derived  from  tlie  ceremony  of  bathing, 
which  used  to  be 
practiced  at  the 
inauguration  of  a 
knight,  as  an  em- 
bleiii  of  the  puri- 
ty henceforth  re- 
quired of  him  by 
the  laws  of  chiv- 
alry. The  cere-  ■^^ 
mony  is  of  rather 
unknown  antiqui- 
ty, and  is  spoken 
of  bj'  writers  of 
the  thirteenth  cen- 
turj-  as  a  very  an- 
cient custom. 
The    earliest    au-  star  of  the  BRth. 

thentic  instance  of  . 

its  observance  which  we  have  is  m  the  tune  of 
Henry  IV.,  who,  in  preparing  for  his  coronation, 
made  forty-six  knights  at  the  Tower  ot  London 
who  had  "watched  all  the  nisiht  before,  and  bathed 
themselves.  The  last  Knights  of  the  Bath  created 
in  the  ancient  form  were  at  the  coronation  of  Charles 
II  in  1661.  From  that  period  till  the  accession  of 
the  House  of  Hanover,  the  order  fell  into  oblinon. 


BATH0BS£8. 


154 


BATTALION. 


It  was  revived  by  George  I.  in  I'm,  and  is  now  the 
second  order  in  muk  in  England,  the  first  lieinjr  the 
Garter.  By  the  statutes  then  framed  for  the  jrovern- 
raeut  of  the  order,  it  was  declared  that,  besides  the 
Sovereign,  a  jiriiiee  of  the  blooii,  suid  a  great  master, 
there  should  be  thirty-tive  knights.  At  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  great  \var,  it  was  thought  expedient, 
with  a  new  to  rewarding  the  merits  of  many  distin- 
guished otflcers,  lioth  military  and  naval,  to  extend 
the  limits  of  the  order,  which  was  effected  on  the  2d 
January,  181.').  But  the  order  was  still  purely  mili- 
tary, aiid  it  was  not  till  1847  that  it  was  i)lace(I  on 
its  "present  footing  by  the  admission  of  C'i\il  Knights, 
Commanders,  and  Companions.  The  following  is 
its  present  organization: 

FirH  CTwji;— Knights  Grand  Cross  (K.G.C.):  the 
number  not  to  exceed,  for  the  military  serWce,  oO, 
exclusive  of  the  royal  family  and  foreigners;  and  for 
the  ciWl  service,  25. 

Strond  C/dSS  —  Knights  Commanders  (K.C.B.); 
military,  102.  and  civil,  .")0,  exclusive  of  foreigners. 
These,  "like  the  tirst,  have  the  title  Sir,  and  take  pre- 
cedence of  Knights  Bachelore. 

TAird  Class. — Companions  (C.B.);  military,  525, 
and  civil,  200.  They  take  precedence  of  Esquires, 
but  are  not  entitled  to  the  distinctive  appellation  of 
knighthood.  No  Officer  can  be  nominated  to  the 
ndlitarj'  division  of  this  class  unless  his  name  has 
been  mentioned  in  the  London  Gazette  for  distin- 
guished ser\ices  in  action;  and  the  order  has  never 
been  conferred  on  an  Officer  below  the  rank  of  a 
Major,  or  Commander  in  the  Navy. 

BAT-HORSES. — Baggage  horses  or  mules  for  car- 
n.ing  olficers'  baggsige  on  service.  The  ammunition 
and  regimental  stores  are  also  so  carried  when  carts 
are  not  procurable. 

BAT-MEN.  —  Originally  servants  hired  in  war- 
time to  take  care  of  the  horses  belonring  to  a  train 
of  artillerj',  battery,  baggage,  etc.  Men  who  are 
excused  regimental  duty  for  the  specific  purpose  of 
attending  to  the  horses  belonging  to  Officers  are  also 
called  hat-men  or  bor-men. 

BATON. — 1.  The  tigure  in  Heraldry  commonly 
known  as  the  bastard  l)ar.  It  is  variously  written 
Battoon,  Batune,  and,  in  old  French,  Baston. — 2.  The 
name  of  a  short  stafi  presented  by  the  Sovereign  to 


ies,  is  designated  a  battalion.  For  maneuvers  the 
I  Ijiittalion  is  genendly  divided  into  an  even  number  of 
companies,  and  the  comi)anies  are  equalized  by  trans- 
ferring men  from  the  larger  to  the  smaller.  Two 
companies  constitute  a  division. 

In  each  l)attalion  tliere  is  a  Color-guard,  composed 
of  a  Color-ser^eimt  and  seven  Corporals,  which  is  post- 
ed as  the  left  four  of  the  right-center  compiuiy.  The 
front  rank  Is  comjiosed  of  the  Color-sergeant  and 
three  senior  Corporals,  one  posted  on  his  right  and 
two  on  his  left  ;  the  rear  rank  is  composed  of  the 
four  remaining  Corporals.  The  Corporals  are  placed 
in  the  order  of  nmk  from  right  to  left.  The  Color- 
sergeant  and  Color-corporals  are  selected  from  those 
most  distinguished  for  bravery,  and  for  precision  un- 
der arms  and  in  marching.  The  Color-sergeant  carries 
the  national  color.  The  regimental  color  (when  pres- 
ent) is  carried  by  a  Sergeant,  who  lakes  the  place  of 
the  Corporal  on  tnc  left  of  the  Color-sergeant. 

t'osts  of  FieM-officers  and  Regimental  SUiff. — The 
Field  anil  Stsiff  Officers  are  suppo.sed  to  be  mounted 
during  all  maneuvers  ;  the  Adjutant  is  on  foot.  The 
Senior  Officer  present  commands  the  battalion.  The 
Colonel  is  posted  thirty  yards  in  rear  of  the  tile- 
closers,  opposite  the  center  of  the  battalion.  This 
distance  is  rediiced  as  the  front  of  the  battalion  is 
diminished.  The  Lieuienant-colo/wl  and  Major  are 
on  a  line  twelve  yards  in  rear  of  the  lile-clo.scrs ;  the 
Lieutenant-colonel  opposite  the  center  of  the  right 
wing,  the  Major  opposite  the  center  of  the  left  wing. 
The  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major  are  opposite  the 
right  and  left  of  the  battalion,  six  yards  in  rear  of  the 
file-closers.  They  aid  the  Lieutenant-colonel  and 
>Lijor  respectively  in  their  duties.  At  reviews,  pa- 
rades, and  inspections,  the  Adjutant  takes  post  three 
yards  to  the  right  of  the  front  rank  of  the  battalion  ; 
the  Seryeant-niajor  three  yards  to  the  left  of  the  front 
rank.  The  Surgeon,  Quartermaster,  and  other  Staff- 
oflicers,  in  the  order  of  rank  from  right  to  left,  are  on 
the  left  of  the  Colonel,  and  three  yards  in  his  rear. 
In  column  Uie  Staff  marches  abreast  of  the  center,  on 
the  Hank  opposite  the  guide,  and  at  the  sjmie  distance 
from  the  column  as  from  the  file-closers  when  in  line. 
If  the  guide  be  changed,  the  Staff,  unless  otherwise 
directed,  passes  by  the  rear  of  the  column  to  the 
opposite  flank.     In  line,  if  the  battalion  wheels  about 


Drum-Major's  Baton. 


^m 


each  Field-marshal,  as  a  symbol  of  his  newly  be- 
stowed authority.  It  is  also  tlie  name  of  the  long 
staff  carried  by  the  Drum-major  of  a  band.  See 
Bastard  Bar  and  Dru/n-major. 

BATTA.  — An  Indian  term  implj-ing  field-allowan- 
ces, which  were  granted  formerly  to  troops  in  India 
in  adilition  to  their  regimental  jjay  ;  this  was  called 
full  batta.  Halt-batta  was  half  this  allowance,  and 
was  paid  to  oHicers  serving  at  the  presidency  towns, 
and  within  200  miles  of  them — full  batta  being  given 
to  officers  beyond  that  distance.  _  There  is  no  such 
distinction  in  name  now  as  halt  and  fidl  batta  in  tlie 
pay  of  the  officers,  thougli  in  reality  officers  of  the 
several  Staff  Corjis  in  India  onlv  receive  half-liatta, 
the  difference  being  made  up  in  their  allowances. 
Officers  of  British  regiments  receive  full  batta  wher- 
ever they  may  be. 

BATT'ALIA".— The  order  of  battle  ;  disposition  or 
arrangcnicul  of  troops,  brigades,  regiments,  t)attal- 
ions,  etc.,  as  for  action.  Fonnerly  the  term  applied 
to  the  main  body  of  an  army  in  array,  as  distin- 
guishi'<l  from  the  wings. 

BATTALION.— A  body  of  troops,  so  called  from 
bring  originally  a  body  of  men  arranged  for  battle. 
In  the  United  States  army,  a  regiment  of  infantry  is 
composed  of  ten  companies.  A  regiment,  or  any 
part  of  a  regiment  composed  of  two  or  more  compan- 


by  fours,  the  Staff,  unless  otherwise  directed,  passes 
around  either  flank  to  the  new  position  in  rear.  In 
all  battalion  maneuvers,  the  Staff  moves  to  its  new 
position,  in  line  or  column,  by  the  shortest  practica- 
ble line,  not  passing  between  subdivisions.  The 
QiLartermaster-sergcant,  Commissary-sergeant ,  and  the 
Ilospital-sti'ward  are  in  rear  of  the  left-center  com- 
pany In  the  order  of  rank  from  right  to  left,  three 
yards  on  the  right,  and  in  line  with  the  front  rank  of 
the  band.  In  all  battalion  maneuvers,  the  Non- 
commissioned St^iff,  except  the  Sergeant-major,  con- 
forms to  the  movements  of  the  band. 

Posts  of  the  Bund,  ami  Trumpeters  or  Field-music. — 
The  band  Is  formed  in  two  or  more  ranks,  with  suffi- 
cient interval  betwiin  the  files,  and  distances  between 
the  ranks,  to  peraill  a  free  use  of  the  instruments. 
The  Trumpeters,  If  not  with  their  companies,  form 
the  rear  of  the  band.  When  the  band  is  not  present, 
the  post  of  the  trumpeters  iuul  their  movements  are 
the  same  as  preserllied  for  the  baud.  In  line,  the 
band  is  habllually  posted  twelve  yards  in  rear  of  the 
flie-closers,  tlie  left  opposite  the  left  of  the  left-center 
company.  At  reviews,  parades,  and  inspections,  the 
band  is  "posted  on  the  riglit  of  the  battalion,  the  left 
of  its  front  rank  twelve  yards  from  the  right  of  the 
front  rank  of  the  l)attalion.  In  column,  except  at  re- 
I  view  and  inspection,  the  band  is  twelve  yards  from. 


BATTALION. 


155 


BATTALIOK. 


the  center  of  the  column  on  the  flank  opposite  the 
guide.  If  the  guide  be  changed,  the  hand,  unless 
otherwise  directed,  pa.«.ses  bj-  the  rear  of  the  column 
to  the  opposite  Hank.  In  line,  if  the  battalion  wheels 
about  by  fours,  the  band,  unless  otherwise  directed, 
passes  around  either  Uank  to  its  position  in  rear.  In 
all  battalion  maneuvers,  the  band  moves  at  quick  or 
double  time,  by  the  shortest  practicable  line,  to  it.s 
position  in  line  or  in  column  ;  the  march  being  so 
condueteil  as  not  to  pass  between  the  subdivisions, 
nor  delay  their  march.  When  the  signals  for  the 
Drum-major  are  not  usod,  the  band  is  maneuvered  as 
explained  for  a  .squad,  the  command  hand  being  sub- 
stituted for  squad.  When  the  battalion  in  colunm 
wheels  about  by  fours,  the  band  executes  the  counter- 
march ;  when  the  battalion  executes  the  riyht,hft, 
or  nbdutface,  the  band  faces  in  the  siime  manner.  In 
marching,  the  different  rimks  of  .the  band  always 
dress  to  the  right. 

A  battalion  of  Cavalry  is  usually  composed  of  four 
companies,  liut  may  be  composed  of  a  less  luunber, 
or  a  greater  number  not  exceeding  .seven.  The  inter- 
val between  companies  in  line  is  eight  yards.  In 
whatever  direction  the  battalion  faces,  the  companies 
are  designateil  numerically  from  the  right  to  the  left 
in  line,  and  from  the  head  to  the  rear  when  in 
column,  Jint  coiiipnni/,  si^otid  cowjxi/ti/,  imd  so  on. 
In  whatever  direction  the  battalion  faces,  the  com- 
panies to  the  right  of  the  center  of  the  battalion  in 
line  constitute  the  ri[/ht  wing;  those  to  the  left  of  the 
center  constitute  the  left  wing.  If  there  be  an  odd 
number  of  companies  in  line,  the  center  company 
always  belongs  to  the  right  wing. 

Posts  of  Field-ojficfrs,  Adjutant,  and  Sergeant- 
miijor. — The  tScnior  Officer  present  commands  the 
battalion,  and  in  line  is  thirty  yards  in  front  of  the 
center.  If  there  be  two  Fidd-oflicers  present,  (lie 
Jiuiivr,  in  line,  in  line  of  platoon  columns,  and  in  line 
of  doulile  columns,  is  twelve  yards  in  rear  of  the  cen- 
ter of  the  battalion.  If  the  battalion  faces  about,  the 
Junior  Field-officer  passes  by  the  shortest  line  to  his 
place  in  rear.  In  column,  the  Junior  Field-officer  is 
twelve  yards  from  the  flank  of  the  column,  abreast  of 
the  center  and  on  the  side  of  the  guide.  In  marching 
by  the  flank  of  subdivisions,  he  is  twelve  yards  in 
rear  of  the  center  subdivision.  In  the  maneuvers,  the 
Junior  Field-officer  assists  a.s  the  Commanding  Officer 
may  direct.  T/ic  Adjutant  is  on  the  line  of  Chiefs  of 
Platoon,  and  three  yards  outside  of  the  right  flank 
of  the  battalion.  When  the  battalion  faces  about, 
the  Adjutant  wheels  about  and  takes  his  place  on  the 
line  of  Chiefs  of  Platoon,  but  does  not  change  to  the 
other  flank.  The  IS(fgi<nit-iuajor  is  in  line  with  the 
rank,  three  yards  from  the  left  flank.  When  the 
battalion  faces  at)out,  the  Sergeant-major  wheels 
alx)ut,  and  takes  his  place  at  the  prescribed  interval 
from  the  rank,  but  does  not  chsmge  to  the  other 
flank. 

A  battalion  of  Artillery  consists  of  any  nimiber  of 
batteries  from  two  to  five.  The  interval  between 
batteries  in  line  is  twenty-eight  yards.  In  horse-bat- 
ttriis  the  interval  is  thirty-six  yards.  In  whatever 
direction  the  battalion  faces,  the  batteries  are  desig- 
nated numerically  from  the  right  to  the  left  in  line, 
and  from  the  head  to  the  rear  when  in  column,  first 
battery,  eeeond  batterg,  and  so  on.  In  whatever  direc- 
tion the  battalion  faces,  the  batteries  to  the  right  of 
the  center  of  the  battalion  in  line  constitute  the  right 
wing  ;  those  to  the  left  of  the  center  constitute  the 
left  wing.  If  there  be  an  odtl  ninnber  of  batteries, 
the  center  battery  always  belongs  to  the  right  wing. 

Posts  of  Major,  Adjiit/mt,  Sergea)it-m<ijor,  and 
Trumpeter. — The  Major,  or  Senior  Officer  present, 
commands  the  battalion,  and  in  line  is  twenty-eight 
yards  in  front  of  the  center.  The  Adjutant  is  in  line 
with  the  Chiefs  of  Platoon,  and  three  yards  outside 
of  the  right  flank  of  the  battalion.  When  the  battal- 
ion faces  to  the  rejir,  the  Adjutant  executes  an  about 
and  takes  his  place  in  line  with  the  Chiefs  of  Platoon, 
but  docs  not  change  to  the  other  flank.     The  <Sfe;*- 


geant-major  is  in  line  with  the  Chiefs  of  Platoon,  three 
yards  from  the  left  flank.  When  the  battalion  faces 
to  the  rear  the  Sergeant-major  executes  an  about,  and 
takes  his  place  in  line  with  the  Chiefs  of  Platoon,  but 
does  not  change  to  the  other  flank.  At  review,  other 
Stiiff-officers,  m  line,  are  on  the  right  of  the  Adju- 
tant ;  in  column,  they  are  in  rear  of  the  Major.  On 
all  other  occasions  they  accompany  the  Major. 

To  Form  the  Battalion. 

Infantry. — The  companies  being  formed  on  their 
parade-grounds,  a/ljutant's  call  is  sounded,  at  which 
the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major,  the  latter  on  the 
left,  each  covered  by  a  Marker,  march  to  the  regimen- 
tal parade-ground,  where  they  post  the  Markers  fac- 
ing each  other  at  a  distance  apart  a  little  less  than  the 
front  of  a  company  ;  the  Adjutant  posts  the  >Iarker 
nearest  the  right  of  the  line,  the  Sergeant-major  the 
one  nearest  the  left,  each  standimg  three  yards  in  rear 
of  the  Marker  nearest  him ;  the  Markers  being 
assured,  the  Adjutant  takes  a  side-step  to  the  left,  the 
Sergeant-major  a  side-step  to  the  right,  draw  swords, 
and  face  about ;  the  Adjutant  then  proceeds  company 
distimce  toward  the  right  of  the  line,  the  Sergeant- 
major  company  distance  toward  the  left  of  the  line, 
when  they  halt,  face  about,  and  again  cover  the 
Markers  ;  the  line  is  prolonged  in  the  right  wing  by 
the  Right  Guides,  who  precede  their  companies  on 
the  line  by  fifteen  or  twenty  yards,  and  establish 
themselves  facing  the  JIaikers,  each  at  company  dis- 
tance from  the  Marker  or  sruiile  in  front  of  him  ;  the 
Adjutant  assures  the  position  of  the  Right  Guides, 
placing  himself  in  their  rear  as  they  successively 
arrive  ;  the  line  is  similarly  prolonged  in  the  left 
wing  by  the  Left  Guides,  the  Sergeant-major  assuring 
them  in  their  positions  as  they  successively  arrive. 
The  Guides  invert  their  pieces  in  front  of  the  center 
of  the  body,  barrel  to  the  right,  the  right  hand  below 
the  left,  the  small  of  the  stock  above  the  head.  The 
color-companj'  is  the  first  established,  and  is  con- 
ducted by  its  Captain  so  as  to  arrive  from  the  rear, 
parallel  to  the  line  of  JIarkers.  When  it  arrives  at 
three  yards  from  the  line,  the  Captain  halts  it,  places 
himself  facing  to  the  front,  near  the  left  Marker,  and 
then  dresses  the  company  to  the  left,  the  breasts  of 
the  men  opposite  the  right  tmd  left  JIarkers  resting 
respectively  against  their  left  and  right  arms  ;  the 
companies  of  the  right  wing  fonn  successively  from 
left  to  right,  each  being  halted  at  three  yards  from 
the  line  and  dressed  to  the  left  as  ex-plained  for  the 
color-company;  the  Left  Guide,  at  the  command  hall, 
returns  to  the  line  of  file-closers ;  the  companies  of 
the  left  w  ing  form  successively  from  right  to  left,  and 
are  dressed  to  the  right.  In  all  alignments,  the  First- 
sergeants,  if  not  employed  to  mark  the  line,  step  into 
the  rear  rank  to  enable  the  Captains  to  dress  their 
companies.  To  enable  the  C^aptain  of  the  company  on 
the  left  of  the  color  to  align  his  company  to  the  right, 
the  Captain  of  the  color-company  steps  a  pace  for- 
ward if  he  be  the  Senior,  or  into  the  rear  rank  if  he 
be  the  Jimior  ;  if  the  Senior,  he  steps  back  into  the 
front  rank  as  soon  as  the  Junior  Captain  conunands 
front;  the  latter  steps  back  to  the  rear  rank;  the 
First-sergeant  of  the  left  center  comi)any  steps  back 
to  the  line  of  file-closers.  Each  Captain  commands : 
1.  (such)  Company,  2.  Suppi>rt,  3.  Arms,  as  .soon  as 
the  Captain  next"  succeeding  him  in  his  own  wing 
commands />»;;<;  the  liank  companies  ««;)/»)•<  af»i» 
as  soon  as  dressed.  Before  sounding  («//v/<(«^'»  raW, 
the  band  takes  a  position  designated  by  the  Adjutant, 
and  marches  at  the  same  time  as  the  companies  to  its 
position  in  line.  The  Colonel  takes  post  facing  the 
line,  at  a  distance  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  battal- 
ion, about  eqtial  to  half  its  front.  The  Adjutant 
having  a.ssured  the  position  of  the  Right  Guide  of  the 
right  company,  faces  about,  marches  three  yards  to 
the  right  of  the  front  rank,  faces  to  the  left,  moves 
two  yards  to  the  front,  faces  to  the  left  and  halts,  and, 
when  the  last  company  arriving  on  the  line  is  brought 


SATTALION. 


156 


BATTALION. 


to  tupport  arm»,  commands:  1.  Guide*,  ^.  Posts. 
At  the  commaii(i  guide»  po»U,  the  Captains,  Guides, 
and  Markers  take  their  posts  iu  line ;  the  First-ser- 
geants, who  are  imt  employed  to  mark  the  Hue,  step  a 
pace  to  the  rear  to  permit  the  Seeond-sirgeants  or 
Markers  to  pass  through  Iheir  intervals  to  the  line  of 
file-closers,  after  which  they  return  to  the  front  r.mk. 
T/iia  rule  U  general.  The  Ailjutaut  then  passes  along 
tlie  front  in  rear  of  the  Captains,  to  the  center,  turns 
to  the  right,  halts  midway  between  the  Captains  and 
the  Colonel,  faces  alxiut,  brings  the  battalion  to  a 
curry,  and  a  preiunt  arinii,  resumes  his  frtmt,  salutes 
hLs  Colonel,  and  reports:  Sir!  The  bathition  u 
formed.  The  Colonel  returns  the  salute  with  the 
right  hand,  directs  the  Adjutant  :  Tuke  your  post, 
/t>'/>,  dr^iws  his  sword  and  commands :  1.  Carry,  2. 
Arms.  The  Adjutimt  faces  about,  and  returns  to  his 
post,  pas-iing  in  rear  of  the  Captains  of  the  right  wing 
around  the  right  of  the  battalion. 

Curalry.  —  The  companies  being  lormed  and 
mounted  on  their  own  grounds,  udjiitaiit'i)  call  is 
Bounded,  at  which  the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant- 
major,  the  latter  on  the  left,  proceed  to  the  battalion 
parade-ground,  and  post  themselves  facing  each 
other,  a  few  yards  outside  the  points  where  the  right 
and  left  of  the  right  center  comi)any  is  to  rest  in 
line.  The  comi)anies  approach  the  line  so  as  to 
arrive  from  the  rear,  and  parallel  to  the  line  estab- 
lished by  the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major.  The 
riglilcenter  company  (or  center  company,  if  the 
number  of  companies  be  uneven)  is  first  established 
on  the  line.  As  the  right-center  comjiany  ap- 
proaches the  line,  its  Princi]«d  Guides  detach  them- 
selves, and,  preceding  the  eomjiany  by  tifteen  or 
twenty  yarils,  place  themselves  lietween  the  Adjut;mt 
and  Sergeant-major,  facing  each  other,  at  a  distance 
a  little  less  than  the  front  of  the  company.  The  Ad- 
jutant rectifies  the  position  of  the  Right  Principal 
Guiile;  the  Sergeant-major  rectilies  the  position  of 
the  Left  Principal  Guide.  The  Captain  of  the  right- 
center  company  halts  his  company  three  yards  from 
the  line,  places  himself  on  the  line,  facing  to  the 
front,  at  the  point  where  the  left  of  his  company  will 
rest  iu  luie,  and  then  dres.ses  it  to  the  left  against  the 
Principal  Guides,  so  that  the  heads  of  the  horses 
opposite  the  Principal  Guides  shall  touch  the  boots 
of  the  Princijial  Guiiles.  The  other  companies  sue- 
ces.sively  approach  the  line,  in  their  order  on  the 
right  and  left  of  the  right-center  company.  The 
Principal  Guides  of  each  comiiany  detach  themselves 
as  prescribed  for  the  Guides  of  tiie  right-center  com- 
pany, and  hasten  to  place  themselves  on  the  line  to 
be  occupied  by  their  respective  companies:  they  face 
toward  the  Princiiial  Guides  already  established,  at 
a  distance  from  each  other  a  little  less  than  the  com- 
pany front;  the  Principal  Guiilc  nearest  those 
already  established  carefully  preserves  the  interval  of 
eight  yards  between  companies.  The  Adjutant  and 
Sergeant-major,  having  rectified  the  iiositions  of  the 
Principal  Guides  of  the  company  which  arrives  first 
on  the  line,  draw  sal)ers;  the  Adjutant  then  wheels 
to  the  right  about,  moves  toward  tlie  right,  and  again 
wheels  to  the  right  about,  so  as  to  place  himself  in 
rear  of  the  Hight  I'rincipal  Guide  of  the  company 
next  on  the  right.  The  Sergeant-major  wheels  to  the 
left  about,  moves  toward  th<'  left,  and  wheels  to  the 
left  about,  so  as  to  place  himself  in  rear  of  the  Left 
Principal  Guide  of  the  company  next  on  the  left. 
In  this  manner  the  Adjutant  in  the  right  w  ing,  and 
Sergeant-major  in  the  left  w  ing,  rectify  in  succession 
the  |M)sitions  of  the  Guides  of  each  companv;  they 
then  lake  their  places  in  line.  Each  t-'aptain  halts 
and  dres.ses  his  company  as  jirescrilx^d  for  the  right- 
center  company,  each  company  Iwing  dressed  tow;n-d 
Uie  company  first  established.  The  line  being 
formed,  the  Adjutant  advances  three  yards  from  lijs 
jKisilion  on  (he  right,  wheels  to  the  "left,  halts,  and 
commands:  L  GvUIih,  2.  Posts,  at  which  the  Cap- 
tains and  Principal  Guides  return  to  their  posts  in 
line.     The  Major  takes  post  facing  the  line,  at  a  con- 


venient distance  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  bat- 
talion, generally  equal  to  about  half  its  front.  The 
Adjutant  then  "passes  in  front  of  the  otlicers  to  the 
center,  wheels  to  the  right,  and  halts  midway 
between  the  Major  and  the  line,  wheels  to  the  left 
about,  commauils:  \.  Dr.vw,  2.  S.vber,  3.  Pivxent, 
4.  Saueh,  wheels  to  the  left  about,  sjdutcs  the  ilajor 
and  reports:  Sir!  The  battalion  is  formed.  The 
Major  returns  the  salute  wiUi  the  right  hand,  directs 
the  Adjutant:  Take  your  jMst,  ,Sir,  draws  his  saber, 
and  conunauds:  1.  Carry,  2.  Saber.  The  Adju- 
tant wheels  to  the  left  about,  moves  toward  the  line, 
wheels  to  the  left,  mid,  i)assing  in  front  of  the  otli- 
cers, t;ikes  his  place  on  the  right. 

Artillery. — The  batteries  being  formed  at  their  own 
parks,  adjutant's  call  is  soimded,  at  which  the  Adju- 
tant and  Sergeant-major,  the  latter  on  the  left,  jiro- 
ceed  to  the  battalion  parade-ground,  and  post  them- 
selves facing  each  other,  a  few  yards  outside  the 
points  wiiere  the  right  and  left  of  the  right-center 
battery  is  to  rest  in  line.  The  batteries  approach  the 
line  so  as  to  arrive  from  the  rear,  and  parallel  to  the 
line  established  by  the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major; 
theright-centerbattery(orcenter  battery,  ifthenuniber 
of  batteries  be  uneven)  is  first  establishetl  on  the  line. 
As  the  right  center  battery  approaches  the  line,  the 
First-sergeant  and  Guidon,  who  are  called  Prineijxil 
Guides,  detach  themselves,  precede  the  battery  by 
tifteen  or  twenty  yards,  and  place  themselves  between 
the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major,  facing  each  other, 
at  a  distance  apart  a  little  less  than  the  front  of  the 
battery;  the  Adjutant  rectifies  the  position  of  the 
First-sergeant:  the  Sergeant-major  that  of  the  Guidon. 
The  Captain  of  the  right-center  battery  halts  it  at 
three  yards  from  the  line  and  dresses  it  to  the  left  as 
prescribed  iu  the  School  of  the  Battery,  so  that  the 
heads  of  the  lead-horses  of  the  leading  carriages  of 
the  right  and  left  .sections  shall  be  iu  line  with  the 
boots  of  the  Princiiial  Guides.  The  other  batteries 
successively  approach  the  line  on  the  right  and  left 
of  the  right-ceufer  battery.  The  Principal  Guides  of 
the  other  batteries  detach  themselves  as  prescribed 
for  the  guides  of  the  right-center  battery,  and  hasten 
to  place  themselves  on  the  line  to  be  occu|iied  by  their 
respective  batteries;  they  face  toward  the  Principal 
Guides  already  established,  at  a  distance  from  each 
other  a  little  less  than  the  battery  front;  the  Principal 
Guide  nearest  those  already  established  carefully  pre- 
serves the  interval  of  twenty-eight  yards  between  the 
batteries.  The  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major,  having 
rectified  the  po.sitious  of  the  Princijial  Guides  of  the 
battery  which  ariives  first  on  the  line,  draw  saber; 
the  Adjutant  then  executes  a  right  about,  moves 
toward  the  right.  :md  again  executes  a  liglit  about, 
so  as  to  jilacc  himself  in  rear  of  the  Right  Principal 
Guide  of  the  battery  next  on  the  right;  the  Sergeant- 
major  executes  a  left  about,  moves  toward  the  left, 
ami,  executes  a  left  about,  so  as  to  place  himself  in 
rear  of  the  Left  Princijial  Guide  of  the  batlerv  next 
on  the  left.  In  this  manner  the  Adjutant  in  the 
right  wing,  and  the  Sergeant-major  in  the  left  w ing, 
rectify  in  succession  the  positions  of  the  guides  of 
each  battery;  they  then  take  their  posts  in  line. 
Each  Cajitain  halls  and  dresses  his  battery  as  pre- 
scribed for  the  right-center  battery;  each  battery  is 
dressed  toward  the  riglit-center  battery.  The  line 
being  formed,  the  AdjuUuil  advances  three  yards 
from  his  post  on  the  right,  wheels  lo  the  left,  halls, 
and  commands;  1.  Guides,  2.  Posts,  at  which  the  1 
Captains  and  Principal  Guides  return  to  their  posts  i 
in  line.  The  Major  takes  post  facing  the  line,  at  a 
convenient  distance  in  front  of  the  center  of  the 
battalion,  generally  equal  to  about  half  its  front;  the 
Adjutant  then  jiasses  in  rear  of  tlie  Captains  to  the 
center,  wheels  lo  the  right,  and  h:dts  half-way  be- 
tween the  Major  and  the  line,  executes  a  left  atxjut, 
conuiiands;  1.  Present,  2.  S.viiER,  executes  a  left 
about,  salutes  the  Major,  and  reports:  Sir!  The 
battalion  is  formed.  The  JIajor  returns  the  salute 
with  the  right   hand,  directs  the  Adjutant:     Take 


BATTABD. 


157 


BATTESIES. 


1/our  post,  Sir,  draws  saber,  and  commands:  1.  Carry, 
2.  Saber.  The  Adjutant  executes  a  left  alwut, 
moves  toward  the  line,  wheels  to  the  left,  and,  passing 
in  rear  of  the  Captains,  takes  his  post  on  the  right. 
See  Inspection  of  Troops,  Mushr,  and  Rtrieie. 

BATTABD. — An  early  cannon  of  small  size,  now 
obsolete.     See  Cannon. 

BATTEN.— 1.  The  sloping  of  a  wall  which  brings 
the  perpendicular  from  the  top  inside  the  base. — 2. 
A  species  of  sawn  tir  timber,  of  smaller  dimensions 
than  the  kind  called  plauks.  Battens  are  usually 
from  12  to  14  feet  long,  7  inches  broad,  and  2*  inches 
thick.  Cut  into  two  boards  (If  inches  thick),  they 
are  used  for  flooring  ;  cut  into  three  toards,  they  are 
put  on  roofs  below  slates  ;  in  narrower  pieces,  they 
are  put  upright  on  walls  for  tixing  the  laths  for 
plastering.  The  best  battens  are  brought  from  Nor- 
way, and  sold  wholeside  by  wood-merchants. 
BATTZE. — 1.  A  cannonade  of  heavj-  ordnance, 
from  the  first  or  second 
parallel  of  an  intrenchment, 
against  a  fortress  or  other 
works.  To  batter  in  breueh 
implies  a  heavj-  cannonade 
of  many  pieces  directed  to 
one  part  of  the  revetment 
from  the  third  parallel. — 2. 
In  fortification,  the  back- 
ward slope  of  a  revetment 
or  retaining  wall.  The 
drawings  show  the  batter- 
Blopes  adopted  by  Engineers  at  the  present  time. 
These  slopes  are  1  in  4,  1  in  5,  1  in  6,  1  in  8,  1  in  10, 
and  1  in  12. 

BATTEBIE  EN  EOUAGE.— An  enfiladmg  battery, 
when  directed  ag-ainst  another  battery. 

BATTEEIES.— A  battery  consists  "of  two  or  more 
pieces  of  artillery  in  the  field.  The  term  batttry 
also  implies  the  emplacement  of  ordnance  destined  to 
act  offensively  or  defensively.  It  also  refers  to  the 
company  charged  ^vith  a  certain  number  of  pieces  of 
ordnance.  The  ordnance  constitutes  the  battery. 
Men  serve  the  battery.  Horses  drag  it,  and  epaul- 
ments  may  shelter  it.  A  battery  may  be  with  or 
without  embrasures.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  en 
barbette,  and  the  height  of  the  genouiW-re  varies 
according  to  the  description  of  the  gun-carriage  used. 
The  ordnance  constituting  the  batterj-  requires  sub- 
stantial bearings  either  of  solid  ground  for  field- 
pieces,  or  of  timber,  plank,  or  masonry  platforms, 
for  heavy  artillery.  Batteries  are  sometimes  desig- 
nated as  follows :  Barbette  battery,  one  without  em- 
brasures, in  which  the  guns  are  raised  to  fire  over 
the  parapet  ;  Ambultint  battery,  heavy  guns  mounted 
on  traveling  carriages,  and  moved  as  occasion  may 
require,  either  to  positions  on  a  coast,  or  in  besieged 
places ;  Corered  battery,  intended  for  a  vertical  fire, 
and  concealed  from  the  enemy  ;  Breafhin/j  battery  ; 
Joint  batteries,  uniting  their  fire  against  any  object ; 
Counter  battery,  one  batterj-  opposed  against  another  ; 
Coast  battery ;  Direct  battery  ;  Cross  batteries,  form- 
ing a  cross  fire  on  an  object ;  Oblique  battery,  forming 
an  angle  of  20°  or  more  with  the  object  against 
which  it  is  directed,  contradistinguished  from  direct 
battery ;  Raised  battery,  one  whose  terre-plein  is 
elevated  considerably  above  the  ground ;  Sunken- 
battery,  where  the  sole  of  the  embrasures  is  on  a 
level  with  the  ground,  and  the  platforms  are  con- 
sequently sunk  below  it  ;  Enfil<idinij  battery,  when 
the  shot  "or  shell  sweeps  the  wliole  length  of  a  line  of 
troops  or  part  of  a  work ;  Horizontal  battery,  when 
the  terre-plein  is  that  of  the  natural  level  of  the 
ground,  consequently  the  parapet  alone  is  raised  and 
the  ditch  sunk  ;  Open  battery,  without  epaulment  or 
other  covering,  wholly  exposed ;  Indented  battery, 
or  batten,-  a  cremaillhe,  battery  constructed  with 
salient  and  re-entering  angles  for  obtaining  an  oblique 
as  well  as  a  direct  fife,  atid  to  afford  shelter  from  the 
enfilade  tire  of  the  enemy  ;  Beterse  battery,  that  which 
flies  upon  the  rear  of  a  work  or  line  of  troops  ; 


Ricochet  battery,  whose  projectiles,  being  fired  at  low 
angles,  graze  and  bound  without  being  buried  ; 
Marked  battery,  artificially  concealed  untu  required 
to  open  upon  the  enemy. 

Field-batteries,  in  sieges,  are  usually  of  two  kinds, 
viz..  Elevated  batteries  and  Sunken  batteries,  and  they 
are  placed  either  in  front  of  the  parallel,  in  the 
parallel  itself,  or  in  rear  of  it.  In  an  elevated  battery, 
the  platforms  for  the  guns  or  mortars  to  stand  upon 
are  laid  on  the  natural  level  of  the  groimd,  and  the 
whole  of  the  covering  miLss,  or  paraix-t,  is  raised 
above  that  level,  the  earth  for  forming  it  Ix-ing  ob- 
tained from  a  ditch  in  front.  In  a  sunken  battery, 
the  whole  interior  of  the  batterj-  is  excavated  about 
three  feet  deep,  and  the  platfonns  laid  on  the  bottom, 
the  earth  is  thrown  to  the  front,  and  the  (larapet  is 
formed  out  of  it.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that  no 
rise  in  the  ground  before  the  battery  obscures  the 
\'iew  from  the  soles  of  the  embrasures  ;  for  this  pur- 
pose, the  officer  laying  out  the  battery  should  lie 
down  and  look  along  the  ground,  in  order  to  be  sure 
that  his  guns  can  range  freely  from  their  embrasures, 
before  he  fixes  his  details  for  constmction.  When 
guns  are  fired  with  an  elevation,  when  the  soil  is 
sandy  or  gravelly,  when  the  weather  is  dry,  or  the 
ground  elevated,  this  construction  is  approved.  The 
depth  of  the  excavation  for  the  interior  must  depend 
on  the  height  of  the  carriages  upon  which  the  guns 
are  mounted  :  it  should  be  deeper  in  rear  than  in 
front,  that  it  may  be  drained.  The  interior  slopes  of 
these  batteries,  and  the  cheeks  of  the  embrasures, 
must  be  supported  by  field-revetments  of  gabions, 
fascines,  sand-bags,  casks,  or  soils.  In  batteries  ex- 
posed to  a  heavj'  tire,  especially  of  shells,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  as  much  cover  as  possible  for  the  men 
serving  in  them  ;  for  this  purpose,  traverses  are 
usually  placed  between  every  two  guns  ;  and  as  these 
masses  serve  to  protect  the  men  from  the  splinters  of 
the  bursting  shells,  they  are  generally  called  splinter- 
proof  traverses.  There  is  nearly  twice  as  much  work 
in  the  elevated  as  in  the  simken  battery. 

A  batter}'  for  four  siege-pieces  is  represente<l  in  the 
drawing.     In  this  construction,  the  parapet  (A)  i& 


Battery  for  Four  Siege-Pieces. 

made  of  earth  taken  from  the  front,  thus  forming  a 
ilitch  (C).  To  protect  the  pieces  (X  X  X  X)  from 
flank  fire,  the  parapet  is  continued  around  on  one  or 
both  ends,  forming  epaulments  (BB).  The  guns  are 
in  pairs,  .separated  by  a  traverse  (D).  The  interval 
between  the  axes  of  the  embrasures  of  each  pair  is  16 
feet  for  gims  on  traveling  carriages,  and  from  18  to 
,22  feet  for  sea-coast  guns.  Between  the  two  middle 
pieces  this  distance  is  increased  by  the  thickness  of 
the  traverse,  generally  about  15  feet.  The  entire 
length  of  the  interior  crest  of  the  parapet,  from  a  to 
b,  will  therefore  be  79  feet.  This  and  other  given 
dimensions  are  not  absolute,  but  indicate  the  method 
of  obtaining  the  data  necess;»rv  for  lajing  out  any 
battery.  The  length  of  the  flanli  epaulments  •will  de- 
pend upon  the  direction  of  the  enemy's  fire  ;  in  all 
cases  it  must  be  sufficiently  great  to  give  full  pro- 
tection to  the  whole  interior  from  an  enfilading  fire ; 


BATTEKIMO  CHAROEB. 


158 


BATTEBT-OUN. 


gcncnillv  it  would  Ik-  nlwut  24  feet.  The  thickness 
of  the  piiraiK-t  luiil  epaulments  will  lieixiul  uiwu  the 
power  of  the  artillery  they  are  e.\peete<i  to  resist. 

Batteries  for  even  "the  heaviest  pieces  may  I)e  con- 
structed on  marshy  grouiul  liy  lavinj?  a  wrillaj.'e  of 
timlier  over  the  surface  and  biiildmi;  up  the  parapet 
on  it  with  sjmd-hairs.  To  prevent  the  parapet  from 
sctllini;  over  towanls  the  front,  the  irrillaire  should 
exteiuf  several  fed  beyond  it  in  that  direction.  In 
order  that  the  |)latfohu  of  the  piece  may  not  be 
movwl  from  its  true  horizontal  position  by  any  set- 
tling of  the  panipi't,  the  space  to  be  occupied  by  it  is 
inclosed  with  strong  sheeting  piles.  In  this  inclosed 
space  sevend  lavers  of  fiisc-incs  are  laid,  crossing 
each  other  at  rigiit  angles  ;  on  these  earth  or  sand  is 
nunnied,  and  the  platform  laid  in  the  usual  manner. 
If  s;uid  is  used  on  top  of  the  fa-scincs,  two  or  three 
thicknesses  of  paulins  should  be  spread  over  them  to 
hold  the  sand.  Magazines  in  such  localities  must,  of 
neees-iity,  be  entirely  above  ground,  and  supported  on 
grilhiire  in  the  same" manner.     See  E)nbrasu re . 

BATTEEING  CHAKGES. — In  the  service  of  artil- 
ler\-  there  are  two  classes  of  cartridges,  battering  and 
fu)l.  The  first  is  used  with  Palliser  projectiles,  and 
only  under  certain  circumstances  with  common  shell; 
the  second  is  the  ordinary  charge  used  with  common, 
double,  -shrapnel  shell,  and  c;ise-shot.  The  powder 
used  would  be  pebble  for  all  battering  charges,  and 
for  full  charges  of  40  povmds  and  upwanis. 

The  reason  why  pebble-powder  is  now  used  with 
all  large  guns  instead  of  ordinary  powder  is  explained 
as  follows:  that  the  pressure  on  "the  gun  is  much  less, 
and  the  velocity  greater,  with  the  former  than  the 
latter.  This  increased  .velocity  is  due  to  the  lower 
pressure  of  the  powder,  which  is  kept  up  longer  in 
the  bore  than  with  quicker-burning  powder,  the 
velocity  depending  upon  the  pressure  and  the  space 
over  which  it  is  e.\erlc<l. 

BATTEEING  PEOJECTILES.— Projectiles  for  bat- 
tering purposes  are  made  of  cast-iron,  chilled  iron, 
and  steel.  Against  panipets  of  earth  common  shell 
containing  large  bursting-charges  are  the  most 
effective.  Compound  shot,  having  chilled  cast-iron 
heads  and  cast-steel  bodies,  give  good  results,  but 
they  lack  the  power  to  carry  their  bursting-charge 
behind  the  armor  which  they  can  penetrate.  The 
hardness  and  tenacity  of  steel  shot  and  shell  make 
them  very  effective  against  all  kinds  of  armor.  Their 
great  cost  prevents  their  use  when  good  results  can 
be  accomplished  by  chilled  shot.  Gunpowder  is  not 
a  sufficiently  powerful  explosive  for  these  strong  shells, 
and,  moreover,  it  explodes  on  impact.  Satisfactorj' 
experiments  have  been  made  with  bursting-charges  of 
gun-cotton,  which  only  explodes  when  the  penetration 
is  complete.  Both  forged  and  cast  steel  shells,  well 
tempered,  have  perforated  great  thicknesses  of 
wrought  iron,  in  direct  hitting,  without  being  in- 
jured. Cast-steel  projectiles,  compressed  by  an 
hydraulic  press  while  in  a  fluid  state  to  drive  out 
bubbles,  give  excellent  results.  In  direct  fire  against 
steel-faceil  armor,  cast-steel  shells,  owing  to  their 
great  hardness,  iK'have  better  than  those  of  forged 
steel.  The  reverse  is  the  ca.sc  in  oblicpie  fire,  where 
tenacity  and  toughness  are  the  main  considerations. 
All  steel  projectiles  thus  far  tried  break  up  agaiiist 
Bteel-faced  armor  in  oblique  tire.  The  longer  the 
head  of  the  projectile  the  greater  the  effect  in  direct 
lire,  while  for  oblique  tire  the  liest  effects  arc  ob- 
tained with  heads  struck  with  a  radius  of  two  diam- 
eters. The  llal-hcadeil  projectiles  are  much  inferior 
to  tho.se  with  ])oiiiIed  heads  in  both  direct  and  oblique 
fire.  The  respective  advantages  of  light  and  hea\'y 
shells  may  be  said  to  be  as  follows,  assuming  the 
powder-charge  to  be  coastant :  The  heavier  shells, 
though  starting  with  a  lower  initial  velocity,  keep  up 
their  velocity  i)etter  than  lighlcr  ones,  and  so  have  a 
longer  range  of  |K>netmlive  effect.  The  lighter  shells 
have  a  higher  velocity  at  short  nmges,  and  a  flatter 
trajectory;  al.so,  a  greater  munber  can  be  carried  for 
a   given  weight.     The  projectile    must    not  be  so 


hcav^-  as  to  strain  the  gun  unduly,  but  this  is  easily 
avoided  by  the  use  of  slow-burning  jKiwder  and  air- 
spacing.  "The  cavity  in  shells  should  be  as  capacious 
as  ix).ssible,  so  as  to  "carry  a  large  bursting-charge,  but 
this  will  be  controlled' by  the  thickness  which  the 
head  and  walls  must  possess  to  give  the  necessary 
strength.     See  Aniior-jtlnlen. 

BATTEEING-EAM. — An  engine  of  war  used  in 
ancient  times  and  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  consisted 
of  a  Ix'am  of  wood  with  a  mass  of  bronze  or  iron  on 
one  end,  resembling  the  head  of  a  mm.  In  its  sim- 
plest form  it  was  bonie  and  impelletl  by  the  hands  of 
the  soldiers;  afterwards  it  was  suspendetl  in  a  fnmie, 
and  made  to  swing.    Another  form  moved  ou  rollers. 


^^^m 


Battering-ram. 

The  alternating  motion  was  commvmicated  by  ropes. 
To  protect  those  working  it,  a  wooden  roof  itenlndo) 
was  constructed  over  if,  and  the  whole  was  mounted 
on  wheels.  The  beam  of  the  ram  varied  from  60  to 
120  feet  in  length,  the  head  sometimes  weighed  alx)ve 
a  ton,  and  as  many  as  100  men  were  employed  in  im- 
peUing  the  machine.  When  the  blows  were  long 
enough  coiitinueil,  hardly  any  wall  could  resist. 
^^^len  or  where  it  was  invented  is  unknown.  It  is 
mentioned  Ivy  Ezekiel,  The  Romans  derived  it  from 
the  Greeks. 

BATTEEING-TEAIN.— A  train  of  artillery  used 
.solely  for  besieging  a  strong  place,  inclusive  of  mor- 
tars and  howitzers.     Sec  Sii^ffe-lrain. 

BATTERY-BOXES.— Square  chests  or  boxes,  filled 
with  earth  and  used  in  making  batteries  where  ga- 
bions are  not  to  be  had. 

BATTERY-GUN.— A  gim  having  a  capacity  for 
firing  a  n\imber  of  shots  consecutively  or  simultane- 
ously without  stopping  to  reload.  There  are  many 
varieties. 

1.  A  piece  of  ordnance  having  a  number  of  load- 
chambers  attached  to  a  vertical  axis,  and  consecutively 
presented  at  the  rear  of  the  cannon-l)ore.  As  each 
takes  its  place  at  the  breach,  it  is  advanced  into  the 
bore  and  locked  before  firing. 

2.  A  chambered  breech-piece,  revohnng  in  a  verti- 
cal plane,  anil  presenting  its  chamljers  consecutively 
at  the  open  rear  of  the  barrel,  which  is  common  to  all 
the  chambers.  The  principle  of  construction  is  that 
of  the  revolving  chambered  pistol. 

3.  A  number  of  parallel  baiTels  arranged  in  rank, 
and  ha\ing  connected  vents  for  intercommunication 
of  fire.  The  infernal-machine  of  Fieschi,  which  he 
tired  on  Louis  Philippe,  was  a  row  of  barrels  clinched 
to  a  frame,  and  had  a  train  of  powder  which  was 
laid  over  all  the  vents  in  succession,  like  the  row  of 
barrels  in  a  proving-house. 

The  Hequa  battery  consists  of  23  rifles,  each  24  ' 
inches  long,  moimted  in  a  horizontal  plane  \i\xm  a 
field-carriage.  If  is  breech-loading,  the  cartridges 
being  forced  into  the  chambers  by  a  sliding  -  bar 
worked  by  two  levers.  By  a  lever  beneath  the  frame 
the  barrels  may  be  divergcnl,  so  as  to  scatter  the  balls 
120  yards  in  a  distance  of  1000  yards.  The  weight  of 
the  battery -gun  >ised  at  Charteston,  S.  C,  was  1383 
pounds.  Served  by  three  men,  it  fireil  seven  volleys, 
or  175  shots,  jx-r  "minute.  Its  effective  range  was 
1300  vards. 

4.  l^orms  of  many-barreled  camion  revolving  on  a 
vertical  axis,  the  pieces  being  muzzle-loaded. 


BATTEBT-WAGON. 


159 


BATTEBT-WAOOH. 


5.  A  cluster  of  rotating  barrels,  consecutively  load- 
ed and  fired  by  automatic  action. 

6.  A  cluster  of  barrels,  in  whose  rear  is  placed  a 
chambered  plate,  each  of  whose  chambers  corre- 
sponds to  one  of  the  clusters  of  barrels,  against  whose 
rear  it  is  locked  before  tiring. 

7.  A  number  of  chambered  blocks  brought  con- 
secutively to  the  positions  for  loading,  and  then  tor 
firing,  through  a  group  of  barrels  equal  in  number  to 
the  number  of  chambers. 

The  drawing  shows  the  Lowell  battcrygun, 
mounted  on  a  tripod,  and  ready  for  firing.  A  brief 
notice  of  its  action  will  suggest  the  requisite  features 
of  all  battery-guns.  The  feed  comprises  the  feeding- 
tube  and  carrier-rolls;  the  former  keeping  each  car- 
tridge horizontiil  till  it  is  received  by  the  latter.  A 
double  extractor,  grasjiing  as  it  does  the  butt  of  the 
cartridge  on  both  sides,  works  with  very  great  cer- 
tainty. This  certainty  is  not  only  due  to"  the  fact  of 
its  being  double,  but  also  to  the  fact  of  the  extractors 


tinues  to  be  supported  in  rear  by  the  cam  during  a 
portion  of  its  revolution.  This  arrangement  is  of 
great  value  in  a  machine-gun,  where  the  cartridges 
arc  entered  and  extracted  from  the  barrel  with  such 
rapidity  that  hang-fires  are  liable  to  occur.  The 
gun,  firing  as  it  doe-s  all  its  shots  from  one  barrel  at  a 
time,  compares  in  this  respect  verj-  favorably  indeed 
with  any  machine-gun.  Twice  during  a  recent  trial 
three  hundred  shots  were  fireil  considtral)ly  within  a 
minute,  the  actual  time  being  fifty-three  and  fifty-four 
seconds  respectively.  It  is  proimsed  by  the  inventor 
to  construct  a  gun  "with  double  tlie  number  of  barrels, 
making  eight,  with  two  locks,  so  that  a  tire  of  four  or 
five  hundred  shots  a  minute  can  be  steadily  main- 
tained without  being  obliged  to  give  a  too  rapid  mo- 
tion to  the  crank.  The  question  of  rapidity  of  fire 
being  well  established  for  all  well-known  machine- 
guns,  it  .seems  that  the  points  to  which  attention 
should  now  be  given  in  the  trial  of  a  machine-gun 
are  simplicity  ol  mechanism,  liability  to  get  out  of 


Lowelf  Battery-gun,  mounted  on  Tripod. 


•not  depending  on  their  spring  or  elasticity,  but  to  a 
positive  movement  being  given  to  their  hooks  by  a 
shoulder  on  the  lock-plunger,  working  on  the  curved 
portion  of  their  rear  ends.  Thus  the  extracting  hooks 
are  obliged  to  retain  hold  of  the  flange  of  the  cartridge 
until  entirely  extracted,  when  the  empty  shell  is 
readily  removed  from  the  hooks  by  the  carrier-rolls. 
The  working  parts  being  exposed  by  simply  turning 
back  their  cover,  allows  the  mechanism  to  be  at  once 
seen  and  readil}'  removed;  and  whenever  a  stoppage 
may  occur,  its  cause  is  immediately  wen  and  easily 
remedied.  The  shape  of  the  cam  which  operates  the 
lock  is  such  tliat  alter  the  plunger  has  shoved  the 
•cartridge  into  the  barrel,  and  it  lias  been  fired,  it  con- 


order,  and  accessibility  of  parts.  In  these  are  in- 
cluded the  feed  and  extracting,  also  durability. 
These  points  have  been  highly  developed  in  the  gun 
before  us,  andiits  mechanism  brought  to  a  fair  stale  of 
perfection.  See  Gardner  Machine-gun,  GatUng 
Gun,  Hotchkisa  Berolring  Cannon,  Loirell  Battery- 
gun.  Xordenfelt  Gun,  and  Taylor  Gun. 

BATTEKY-WAGON.— A  wagon  designed  to  accom- 
pany a  field-buttery,  for  the  jiurjiose  of  transporting 
carriauc-maker's  and  saddler's  tools,  .spare  parts  of 
carriages,  harness,  and  equipments,  and  rough  mate- 
rials ifor  replacing  dilTereni  i)arts.  It  is  made  of 
equal  mobilitv  with  other  field-c«rriages,  in  order  to 
accompanv  them  wherever  they  may  be  required  to 


BATTEEY-WAGON. 


160 


BATTEBY-WAOON. 


go.  The  following  arc  the  supplies  usually  carried 
in  the  battery -wngon  and  forge  for  a  battery  of  six 
guns; 


COXTKXTS  or  LlMBKR-OimiT. 

iSmltli's  tools  anil  »tortw.> 


xo.  ^•«:!g|.t 


Horseshoes,  Noa.  2,  3 lbs.  100 

Horseshoes,  Nos.  2.  3 lbs.  100 

Horseshoe-nails,  Nos.  2  and 

3 lbs.  SO 

Washers  and  nuts.  No.  2 80 

Washers  and  nuts.  No.  S 10 

Washers  auii  nuts.  No.  4 4 

Nails.  No.  1.  C lbs.  1 

Nails.  No.  2,  C lbs.  1 

Tire-bolts ..  10 

Keys  for  ammunition- chests  5 

Li uoh- washers  icaieson) 8 

Linch-pins  (caisson) 12 

Linch-pitis  (for  piece) 6 

Chains.  Nos.  1  and  2 feet  2 

Cold-shut  Slinks.  No.  S ,  50 


Cold-shut  6'  links.  No.  5.. 

Hand  cold-chisels 

Hardie  

Files,  assorted,  with  handles 

Buttress 

Hand-punches,    round    and 

square 

Screw-wrench  

Hand  screw-driver 

Hand  vise 

Smith's  calipers,  pair 

Wood  screws,  1',  No.  14.. gr. 

Quart  can  ot  sperm-oil 

Borax lbs 

Fire-shovel 

Poker 

Split  broom 

Haud-bammers 

Riveting-bammer 

Naiiing^aminer 

Sledge-hammer 

Chisels  for  hot  iron 

Chisels  for  cold  iron. . . 

Smith's  tongs 

Fore-punch 

Creaser 

Fuller 

Nail-claw 

Round-punch 

Tap-wrench 

Die-stock 

Nave-bands,  developed 
Tire-bands,  developed. 

Shoeing-hanimer 

Pincers,  pair 

Rasps  (1 2  inches)   

Shoeing-knife 

Toe-knife 

Pritchel 

Nail-punch 

Clincning-pin 

Oil-stone 

Leather  aprons 

Horse-tail  brush 


Iron  square. 


Padlock 

Tar-bucket 

Boies 

Tow  for  packing.. 


Total 4&J.38 


100.00 
100.00 

SO. 00 
5.25 

s.ao 

8.15 
1.00 
1.00 
5.00 
1.80 
7.80 
8.37 

1.54 
8.50 
S.OO 
2.00 
0.75 
10.00 
1.50 

2.00 
2.42 
0.32 
1.00 
0.40 
1.50 
1.83 
2.10 
2.70 

3.05 
1.90 
1.25 
6.50 
1.05 
1.80 

10.50 
3.00 
3.00 

15.00 
1.00 
1.00 
2.40 
5.00 
2.10 
3.75 
6.25 

11.75 
2.75 
0.82 
2.00 
2.15 
0.33 
0.30 
0.85 
0.80 
1.00 
1.50 
3,00 
1.00 

2.00 

0,50 

7.00 
53,45 
6,00 


Box  Al. 
Box  A3. 

Box  A  2,  large  di- 
[vlsion. 


Inbox  A  2,91.11 
lbs. 


In  box  A  4,  28.52 
lbs. 


In  box  A  5,  80.05 
lbs. 


Inbox  A  5,  80.05 
lbs. 


In  shoeing-box, 
12.75  lbs. 


)  Fastened  on  in- 
1  side  of  chest- 
1  cover  with  two 
J     copper  clamps. 

On  the  chest. 

On  its  hook. 


One  pound  of  borseshoc-nails,  No.  3,  contains  140 
nails ;  one  pound  of  horseshoe-nails,  No.  2,  contains 
112  nails ;  one  hundred  pounds  of  horseshoes  contain 
90  shoes. 

OimierUs  of  Fbrge-Body. 


Tools  akv  stores. 


Square  iron,  \i  in.  and  1  in 
Flat  Iron,  1^4  X  H  'H-.  1  X  H 

in.,  m  X  m  X  J41n 

Round  iron,  9i  In 

Cast -steel,  t^  In.  square.  ... 
English  blistered  steel 

Boxes  5  and  6,  containing. 
Horseshoes,  Nos.  2  and  8 
Horseshoe-nails.  Nos.  2  and  3 

Waler-bueket     

Watering  bucket  ileather). 


Lbs. 


100 

SO 

fiO 

10 

5 


200 
20 
10 

6 


In  the  iron-room. 
Bars  not  more 
than  3  ft.  loner. 
Square  iron  in 
two  bundles. 


>  In  iron-room. 

On  its  hook. 
On  the  vise. 


■tooix  ktsn  Storks. 

No. 

Weight 
Llw. 

PUce. 

Anvil 

1 
1 

i 
1 

100 

29 

250 

5 

■5 

On  the  fireplace. 
On  stock  of  forge. 

\  In  the  coal-box. 

On  coal-lrax. 

Bituminous  coal 

Padlock 

Tow 

Total 

ai2 

The  anvil-block  is  carried  on  the  hearth  of  the 
forge,  and  secured  by  having  a  hole  through  its  axis, 
through  which  is  passed  a  lashing-rope. 
Contents  of  LiTnber- Chest. 


T00i:;S  AKD  STORES, 


Carriage-maker' 8  TooIb. 

Hand-saw 

Tenon-saw  (14  in.) 

Jack-plane 

Smoothinp-plane 

Brace,  with  'iA  bits 

Spokeshave 

Gauge 

Plane-irons 

Saw-set 

Rule  (3  feet) 

Gimlets 

Compasses,  pair 

Chalk-line 

Brad-awls 

Scriber 

Saw-files  (41^  in) 

Wood-flies  (10  in.) 

Wood-rasp  UO  in.) 

Trying-square  i8  in.) 

Hand  screw-driver 

Oil-stone 

Broad-axe 

Hand-axe 

Claw-hatchet 

Claw-hammer 

Pincers  (small),  pair 

Table- vise 

Framing- chisels  (1  and  2  in.) 
Firmer-chisels  (3^  and  1 U  in.) 
Framiii^-gouges(l  andlj^in.) 
Augers  and  handles  (J^>  %■• 

3^,  1,  and  Sin.) 

Screw-wrench 

Frame-saw 

Quart  can  of  sperm  oil 

Compass-saw 

Tacks  (carpenters') M. 

Measuring-tape 

Chalk 

Saddler's  tools  and  stores. 

Mallet 

Clam 

Hammer 

Shoe-knives 

Half-round  knive 

Shears,  pair 

Sandstones 

Rule  (2  feet) 

Needles,  assorted 

Collar-needles 

Thimbles 

Awls 

Awl-handles 

Punches,  assorted 

Pincers,  pairs 

Pliers,  pairs 

Claw-tools  

Creasers 

Gauge-knife 

Scissors,  pair 

Compass,  pair 

Strap-awls 

Saddler's  mallet 

Saddler's  clam 

Bristles 

Saddler's  thread 

Bees- wax 

Black-wax 

Patent  thread 

Shoe-thread  lbs. 

Buckles,  assorted  (0.75  to  1 .5 
jn.t doz. 

Tacka  (iron  and  copperj,  as- 
sorted  

Hand-saws 

Tenon-saws 

Blades  for  frame-saws 


LD8. 


Total 178.00 


4.00 
1.50 
4.15 
1.80 
4.35 
0.30 
0.30 
1.05 
0.25 
0.14 
0.95 
0.18 
0.10 
0.17 
0.15 
0.87 
1.12 
0.40 
0.60 
0.32 
1.50 
6.00 
5.00 
2.00 
1.50 
1.06 
3.80 
3.00 
1.00 
2.60 

4.50 
2.42 
6.00 
3.30 
4.50 
2.70 

i'.w 

2!66 

1.75 
5.00 
0.65 
0.20 
0.28 
0.47 
0.30 


0.50 
0.75 
1.00 
6.75 


0.75 

6!25 

i;75 
5.00 
2.00 
2.00 
3.00 
5.00 
5.00 
2.00 

1.00 

10.00 
2.00 


Pl*ce. 


I  Fastened  to  the 
t  inside  of  chest- 
[cover. 


In  liox  C  1,  17.20 
>■    lbs. 


Id  box  C  2, 
lbs. 


In  box  C  8,  28.85 

lbs. 


In  box  C  4. 


BATTLE-ARRAY. 


161 


BATTLES. 


Contents  of  Wagon-Body, 


Tools  axd  Stores. 


Grindstone,  14  X  4  in 

Arbor  and  crank  for  do.. . 

Pintles  (for  piece) 

Horse-collars  (assorted).. 

Girths 

Lt'ad-traces 

Whips  lartillery) 

Wheel-traces 

Currycombs 

Horse-brushes 

Nose-bags 

Saddle-blankets 

Spurs  and  straps pairs 

Halters  aud  straps 

Watering-bridles 

Bridles  (artillery) 

Hanie-straps 

Harness-leather sides 

Bridle-leather sides 

Sash  cord pieces 

Polf'-yoke 

Elevating-screw    

Saw.  cross-cut  (6  feet) 

JRope-trace feet 

Block  (treble)  for  above.. 
Block  idoublei  for  above. 

Wateritig-buckets 

Fuse-wrenches 

Fuse-gauges 

Fuse  knives 

Fuse-reaiuers 

Gunner's  pincers 

Vent-puncnes 

Breecn-sights 

Priming-wires 

Gunner's  gimlets 

Primer-pouches 

Castile  soap 

Handspikes  

Tallow 

Staves — sponge  and  rammer 
(lashed  to  wagon  outside).. 

Xeat's-foot  oil gal 

Grease,  wheel  (1-lb.  cans) 

Xails  (4-,  6-,  8-,  and  10-penny) 

Claw-hatchet 

Spirit-level  (carpenter's) . 

Sperm  or  wax  candles 

Rjxmmer-heads 

Sponge-heads  

Sponges  

Sponge-covers 

Lanyards  ( for  fric'n-p  rimers) 

Dark-lanterns 

Common  lanterns 


Total 1100 


Lbs. 


G 
1 
1 
1 
300 
1 
1 
5 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
18 
6 
3 


40 


0 
36 
30 

11 
50 
TO 
30 

a 

5 
5 
5 
3 


1  On  the  march 
V  these  are  carried 
)  on  a  caisson. 


■In  bos  C6. 


The  batfery-Tva,<ron  here  mentioned  is  that  fur- 
nisheil  from  the  arsenals ;  but,  being  cumbersome 
anil  quite  unsuitalile  for  field-service,  it  is  better  to 
utilize  its  body  and  limber-chest  by  placing  them  on 
the  running-gear  of  the  armj-  traiisportation-wagon. 
The  limber-chest  can  be  attached  to  the  front  part  of 
the  wagon-body  by  strong  iron  brackets,  aud  serves  as 
a  seat  for  the  driver.  A  similar  chest  can  be  placed, 
in  like  manner,  on  the  rear  end  in  place  of  the 
forage-rack.  In  the  front  chest  is  carried  the  car- 
riage-maker's outfit,  and  in  the  rear  one  that  of  the 
saddler.     See  Trareling  Forge. 

BATTLE-AKRAY.— Array  or  order  of  battle;  the 
disposition  of  forces  preparatory  to  a  battle. 

BATTLE-AXE.  — A  cuneiform  weapon,  like  the 
common  hatchet,  from  which  it  is  modified.  It  was 
best  known  in  the  so-called  ages  of  stone  and  bronze, 
and  was  the  favorite  weapon  of  all  Germanic  nations. 
Tlie  Frank  hatchet,  francisgue,  was  short-handled, 
while  that  of  the  Saxons  was  fixed  on  so  long  a  shaft 


tury  differs  considerably  from  the  weapon  of  an 
earlier  date.  Thouirh  on  one  side  an  axe,  it  becomes 
on  the  other  a  war-hammer,  either  with  a  s;iw-edge 
or  a  sharp  point,  but  generally  large  and  curved, 
called  falcon-t/eakeil ;  whilst  the  term  parrotJjeaked 
was  applied  when  the  weapon  wsis  short  in  the  handle 
and  belonged  to  a  horseman.  In  this  last  fomi  it 
i.s  frequently  found  to  have  a  gun-barrel  encased  in 
the  handle,  either  the  primitive  hand-cannon  or  the 
wheel  lock  pistol.  A  long  dart  or  sword  is  .some- 
times fi.xed  at  the  top  of  the  battle-axe. 

BATTLE  -  GEODND  CEMETERIES.  —  In  order  to 
secure,  as  far  as  possible,  the  decent  interment  of 
those  who  may  fall  in  battle,  it  is  made  the  duty  of 
Commanding  "Generals  to  layoff  lots  of  ground  in 
.some  suitable  spot  near  every  battle-field,  so  soon  as 
it  may  be  in  their  power,  and  to  cause  the  remains 
of  those  killed  to  be  interred,  with  head-boards  to  the 
graves  bearing  mmibers,  and,  where  practicable,  the 
names  of  the  persons  buried  in  them.  A  register  of 
each  burial-ground  is  preserved,  in  which  are  noted 
the  marks  corresponding  with  the  headboards.  See 
National  Cemeteries,  Post  Cemeteries,  and  Superin- 
tendent of  National  Cemeteries. 

BATTLEMENTS.  —  Xotched  or  indented  parapets 
used  in  fortifications.  The  rising  parts  are  called 
cops  or  merlons;  the  spaces  by  which  they  are  sepa- 

MQfiuS!    "5. 

Early  Enirli-li  Tr;ir.-i ,-      •  .,t. 

rated,  crenels,  embrasures,  and  sometimes  loops.  The 
object  of  the  de\ice  is  to  enable  the  soldier  to  shelter 
himself  behind  the  merlon,  whilst  he  shoots  through 


Battle-axes. 


that  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  it  was  named  pole-axe. 
The  foot-soldier's  battle-axe  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 


11  I       I 

Simple  Form  of  Battlement. 

the  embrasure.  The  ba.ss-reliefs  of  Nineveh,  and  the 
Egj7)tian  paintings,  testify  to  its  antiquity,  and  there 
is  perhaps  no  nation  by  which  it  has  not  been 
adopted. 

BATTLE-PIECES. — Paintings  representing  battles. 
The  modern  mode  of  warfare  is  less  favorable  for 
this  branch  of  art  than  the  ancient,  where  personal 
valor  had  more  room  to  display  itsi'lf.  Among  the 
greatest  paintings  of  this  kind  are  the  Battle  of  Con- 
stantine,  sketched  by  Rapliael  and  executed  by  Giulio 
Homano;  Lebrun's  Battles  of  Alexander;  and  the  Bat- 
lie  of  the  Amazons  by  Rubens.  In  smaller  scenes, 
such  as  skii-mishes  and  surpinses,  Antonio  Tempesta, 
Hans  Snelink,  Pet.  Snyders,  Fulcone,  Phil.  Wou- 
verman,  etc.,  are  distinguished.  The  most  eminent 
of  recent  l)attlepainters  is  Horace  Vernet. 

BATTLE-RANGE.  —  The  range  corresponding  to 
the  maximum  "dangerous  space"  for  the  trajectory 
of  any  fire-arm.  This  range  is  somewhat  greater  for 
such  "fire  arm  employed  against  mounted  troops  than 
against  foot-troops.     See  Dangerous  S/itiee. 

BATTLES.— General  actions  in  which  all  of  the 
di^-isions  of  an  army  are  or  may  be  engaged.  Con- 
sidered in  their  poliiical  relations,  the  importance  of 
battles  is  not  alwavs  in  proportion  to  their  magnitude. 
There  arc  some  battles  which  claim  our  attention, 
independently  of  the  moral  worth  of  the  combatants, 
on  account  of  their  enduring  importance,  and  by  rea- 
son of  their  practical  influence  on  our  own  social  and 
politicid  condition,  which  we  can  trace  up  to  the 
results  of  those  engjigenients.  They  have  for  us  an 
actual  and  abidimr  interest,  both  while  we  investigate 
the  chain  of  causes  and  effect-s,  by  which  they  have 
helped  to  make  tis  what  we  are;  and  also  while  we 


BATTLES. 


162 


BATTLES. 


speculate  ou  what  we  probably  should  have  been  if 
auy  one  of  those  battles  had  come  to  a  different  ter- 
mination. The  tifleeu  battles  which,  in  Profes.sor 
Creajij-'s  opinion,  have  had  the  most  decisive  influ- 
ence arc  the  following: 

4»0.  Battle  of  >ranUhon. 

413.  Defeat  of  the  Athenians  at  Syracuse. 

331.  Battle  of  Arlnla. 

207.       "      "  the  Metaurus. 

A.D. 

9.  Defeat  of  the  Romans  under  Varus. 

451.  Battle  of  Chalons. 

732.       "      •'  Toui-s. 

1066.  Battle  of  Ilsistings. 

1429.  Joan  of  Arc's  victory  at  Orleans. 

I.i88.  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada. 

1704.  Battle  of  Blenheim. 
1709.       "      "  Pultowa. 

1777.  Defeat  of  Burgovne  at  Saratoga. 

1792.  Battle  of  Valniv" 
1815.        "      "  Waterloo. 

Battles,  though  planned  and  fought  almost  solely 
on  tactical  principles,  have  in  many  cases  important 
strategical  bearings  wliich  it  is  the  province  of  an 
able  General  to  see  and  to  take  advantage  of.  Skill- 
fully combined  strategical  marches,  when  ably  exe- 
cuted, may  alone  decide  the  fate  of  a  campaign,  with- 
out the  necessity  of  coming  into  collision  with  the 
enemy;  but  this  is  a  rare  case,  and  a  battle  is  usually 
the  necessary  sequence  to  an  important  strategical 
movement,  and,  if  well  planned  and  successfully 
fought,  may  prove  decisive  of  the  war. 

itilitary  writers  designate  by  orders  of  battk  the 
general  combinations  made  to  attack  one  or  more 
points  of  an  enem}''s  position;  whilst  they  apply  the 
term  Urn  of  battle  to  the  disposition  of  the  troops,  in 
their  relations  to  each  other  for  mutual  co-operation, 
acting  either  offensively  or  defensively.  Whatever 
may  be  the  disposition  of  the  troops,  the  line  of  bat- 
tle of  any  considerable  force  will  present  a  well-de- 
fined center  and  two  wings;  thus  offering  to  an 
as.sailant  one  or  more  of  these  as  his  point  of  attack. 
This  has  led  to  dividing  orders  of  battle  into  several 
classes,  arising  from  the  necessary  disposition  of  the 
assailing  force,  as  it  moves  to  attack  one  or  more  of 
these  points.  If  an  equal  effort  is  made  to  assail 
every  point  of  the  euemj's  line,  the  assailing  force 
must  necessarily  advance  on  a  line  parallel  to  the  one 
assailed,  and  this  therefore  ha.s  received  the  name  of 
the  parallel  order  of  battle.  If  the  line  of  the  assail- 
ing force  is  sensibly  perpendicidar  to  that  of  the  as- 
saded,  the  disposition  is  said  to  be  the  perpendicular 
order.  If  the  main  attack  is  made  bj'  one  wing,  the 
center  and  other  wing  being  held  back,  or  refused  as 
it  is  termed,  the  positions  of  the  lines  of  the  two 
parties  become  natundly  oblique  to  each  other,  and 
this  is  termed  the  oblique  order.  In  like  manner,  the 
concave  order  results  from  an  attack  by  both  wings, 
the  center  being  refused,  and  the  conrex  order  from 
refusmg  the  wings  and  atUicking  by  the  center,  etc. 
The  order  of  batlh;  should  result  from  the  position 
in  which  the  enemy's  forces  are  presented  for  attack; 
and  as  these,  if  skillfully  disposed,  will  be  posted  so 
as  to  take  advantage  of  the  points  of  vantage  whicli 
the  position  they  occupy  offers,  the  order  of  battle 
for  iissiiiling  may  vary  in  an  infinity  of  ways.  Still 
it  Ls  not  to  Ix!  interred  that  one  order  is  not"  superior 
to  another,  or  that  the  choice  between  them  is  one  at 
pleiLsure.  In  the  parallel  order,  for  example,  the 
opposing  forces  being  supposed  equal  in  all  i)oints, 
there  is  no  reason  why  one  point  of  the  enemy's  line 
should  be  forced  rather  limn  another,  and,  therefore, 
success  depends  either  upon  destroying  his  whole 
line,  or  simply  pushing  it  back;  as  chance  alone  will 
determine  a  break  in  any  part  of  his  line.  In  the 
oblique  order,  on  the  contrary,  one  wing  being  re- 
fuse<l,  or  merely  acting  as  a  menace,  (he  other  may 
be  strongly  reinforced,  so  as  to  overwhelm  the  wing 


opposed  to  it,  and,  if  this  succeeds,  the  assailing  armv, 
by  its  simple  onward  movement,  is  gradually  brought 
to  gain  ground  on  the  enemy's  rear,  and  to  threaten 
his"  line"  of  retreat.  Agjiin,  in  crossing  a  river  on  a 
bridge,  or  passing  through  anj-  other  defile  to  assail 
an  enemy  opposing  this  movement,  the  order  of  battle 
becomes  necessjirily  convex  ;  the  extremity  of  the 
defile  it.self  becomuig  the  center  from  which  the  as- 
sailing forces  railiate,  to  enlarge  their  front,  whilst 
they  are  obliged  to  secure  the  defile  on  each  flank. 
To"  lay  down  rules  therefore  as  to  what  order  of 
battle  should,  in  every  case,  be  employed  would  be 
pure  pedantry.  Talent,  skill,  and  experience  can 
alone  enable  a  General  to  decide  this  ]>oint  in  any 
i^ven  ca.se.  As  to  the  distribution  of  troops  belong- 
mg  to  the  separate  fractious  of  the  entire  force,  as  an 
army  corjis,  a  division,  etc.,  the  rule  is  to  so  distrib- 
ute them  that  they  shall  fight  under  the  immediate 
eye  of  their  respective  Commanders,  and  support  each 
other.  Having,  for  example,  a  division,  composed 
of  four  brigades,  to  distribute  in  line  of  battle,  the 
question  may  arise  as  to  whether  all  four  of  the 
brigades  .shall  be  in  one  line,  the  first,  for  mstance, 
or  two  be  in  the  first  and  two  in  the  second  line.  By 
the  first  distribution,  the  four  brigades  will  be  under 
the  immediate  eye  of  the  Division  Commander,  but 
their  supports  of  the  second  line  may  be  a  stranger 
division,  and  be  led  by  a  General,  a  rival  or  enemy 
of  their  own  Commander.  In  the  second  case,  the 
Commanding  General,  being  separated  from  the  two 
divisions  in  the  first  line,  will  not  be  able  to  give 
them  that  direct  supervision  as  in  the  first  case;  but 
a  more  hearty  co-operation  of  the  brigiides  and  more 
unity  of  concert  may  be  looked  for  than  in  the  con- 
trary case. 

The  following  example  will  serve  to  show  how 
much  depends  upon  the  General's  ability  to  adapt 
his  troops  to  the  position  thcj'  are  to  fight  on.  a!s- 
sume  an  army  of  about  37,000  troops  of  all  arms, 
about  to  attack  an  enemy's  position,  the  main  effort 
being  directed  on  the  enemy's  left  wing,  our  left 
being  refused.  This  force  we  will  suppose  to  be  or- 
ganized as  follows: 

40  battalions  of  7.50  men  each 30,000 

12  squadrons  "120    "       "    1,440 

18  batteries,  72  pieces,  130  men  each.  2,340 

30  companies  of  Sharp-shooters 3,000 

2  companies  Engineer  troops 200 

Total 36,980 

In  this  organization  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  pro- 
portion of  cavalry  to  the  infantry  is  very  small,  and 
that  but  two  guns  are  allowed  to  every  thousand 
men;  proportions  which  would  be  only  suitable  for  a 
theater  of  war  in  which  cavalrj'  would  but  rarely 
find  any  but  a  very  confined  field  of  action,  and  in 
the  case  also  of  excellent  infantry,  which  admits  of  a 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  artillery.  Having  divided 
the  battalions  of  infantry  into  foiu-  divisions,  one  of 
these  is  taken  to  form  part  of  the  reserve,  to  which 
is  assigned  the  whole  of  the  cavalry,  and  all  the  dis- 
jiosabie  artillcrj',  and  the  Sharp-shooters.  The  other 
three  divisions  are  designed  to  move  on  the  right,  the 
center,  and  the  left  of  the  enemy's  position.  As  the 
main  attack  is  on  the  right,  ten  companies  of  Sharp- 
shooters are  attached  to  it,  and  five, to  each  of  the 
other  two;  ten  being  with  the  reserve.  In  the  attack 
on  the  right  and  center,  each  division,  when  fonned 
in  line  of  battle,  is  to  occupy  only  a  front  of  four 
battalions,  the  remaining  six  of  each  to  be  so  placed, 
in  second  or  third  line,  as  the  respective  Gcnends  of 
division  may  deem  best.  Five  battalions  of  the  left 
division  will  deploy,  in  echelon,  on  tlie  left  of  the 
second  division;  the  remaining  five  being  in  column 
to  the  rear,  so  as  to  move  to  the  support  of  either  the 
second  or  third  division  sus  circumstances  may  de- 
mand. Having  decided  upon  this  preliminary"  plan 
of  attack,  the  three  first  divisions  are  put  in  motion 
ou  their  respective  points,  the  heads  of  columu  on  the 


BATTLES. 


163 


BATTLES. 


same  level;  the  reserve  foUowincr  the  center  column. 
The  advance  of  each  leading  cohimn  will  Ix;  covered 
by  an  advanceil-guard,  composed  of  the  Sharp-shoot- 
ers, and  the  flank  companies  of  the  leading  brigade 
of  each,  and  by  one  battery  of  artillery.  Tiie  deploy- 
ment will  be  that  which  naturally  results  from  the 
positions  of  the  brigades  in  column  of  march;  each 
brigade  foiining  one  line,  its  artillery  on  the  right,  the 
Sharp-shooters  in  the  Intervals  of  the  battalions,  and 
the  flank  companies  on  the  wings.  So  soon  as  the 
three  advanced-guards,  which  are  from  lOOO  to  1500 
paces  in  advance  of  their  respective  columns,  have 
come  within  good  range,  the  Sharp-shooters  are  thrown 
out  as  skirmishers,  the  flank  companies  supporting 
them,  each  of  these  companies  keeping  nearly  op- 
posite to  the  battalion  to  which  it  belongs;  the  ar- 
tillery, in  the  mean  time,  having  opened  at  a  con- 
venient range  for  its  round  shot.  The  skirmishers 
stick  to  their  work  until  they  are  cither  repulsed  or 
called  in,  when  they  will  retire  behind  the  flank  com- 
panies; one  half  of  these  last  foiTuing  the  new  chain 
of  skirmishers,  the  other  half  the  supports;  and,  in 
this  order,  they  fall  back,  but  keeping  u])  their  Are, 
to  the  intervals  between  the  battalions.  The  Sharp- 
shooters then  take  position  to  the  rear  of  the  first 
line  in  the  battalion  intervals;  the  flank  companies 
doubling  on  the  ■nings;  and  the  batteries,  which  have 
thus  been  unmasked,  proceeding,  on  a  trot,  to  the  front, 
to  pour  in  a  heavy  continued  fire  on  the  enemy.  The 
two  first  divisions  in  this  way  enter  into  the  engage- 
mtnt;  the  third  merely  covering  its  position  by  its 
tMtteries. 


from  each  other,  and  has  thrown  out  one  of  his  bat- 
teries on  his  left,  giving  it  the  companies  of  Sharp- 
shooters as  a  support,  with  the  view  of  checking  any 
movement  on  this  winjj.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Gen- 
eral Commanding,  seemg  the  affair  well  under  way, 
has  ma.sscd  his  reserve,  in  rear  of  the  center  of  the 
first  division,  seeLog  the  moment  come  to  complete 
his  stroke,  has  detached  a  brigade  of  the  reserve, 
four  companies  of  Sharp-shooters,  si.\  batteries,  and 
the  half  of  his  cavalry  to  the  front;  gi\ing  the  artil- 
lery orders  to  take  position  on  the  right  and  left  of 
the  batteries  of  the  first  division,  so  as  to  get  a  slant 
fire  on  the  enemy's  line;  the  infantry  to  mass  itself 
on  the  right  of  the  artillery,  to  cover  it,  and  also  by 
proper  precautions  to  guard  itself  from  a  flink  move- 
ment; the  cavalry  to  post  itself,  in  echelon,  on  the 
right  of  the  infantry,  to  prevent  a  flank  movement 
of  the  enemy's  cavalry.  At  the  Siime  time,  two  bat- 
teries are  also  sent  forward  to  reinforce  those  of  the 
second  division.  To  give  room  for  these  movements 
of  the  batteries,  the  tlauk  battalions  of  the  first  line 
of  the  first  division  are  thrown  into  column  in  ma,ss, 
whilst  those  of  the  second  incline  towards  the  center 
so  as  to  avoid  being  behind  the  batteries.  As  the  re- 
serve is  weakened  by  these  movements,  the  Com- 
manding General  orders  the  .second  brigade  of  the 
third  division  to  take  post  in  rear  of  the  center  of  the 
second  division,  to  be  on  hand  for  any  emergency. 
The  order  of  battle  which,  in  the  early  phase  of  the 
engagement,  was  parallel,  has  now  become  oblique. 
The  first  division,  having  kept  its  center  battalions  of 
the  first  line  deployed  until  ready  to  charge,  will,  for 


ftes«Tvf^/'7!> 


This  stage  of  JJie  action  is  shown  in  the  drav 
s   the  intcntions"of  the  Commanding  General  i 


Irawmg 
as  the  intentions'^  ot  the  Commandmg  Ueneral  may 
have  been  interpreted  by  his  subordinates.  The 
Commander  of  the  first  division  has  taken  a  battalion 
from  each  of  his  lines  to  form  a  small  reserve,  which 
he  has  placed  in  a  third  line,  to  be  ready  for  any 
emergency.  The  Commander  of  the  second  division 
has  formed  bis  first  line  into  two  echelons,  and  has 
placed  a  second  battalion  to  su])i>ort  the  right  one  of 
the  advanced  echelon,  and  has  thrown  forward  all 
his  Sharp-shooters  into  the  first  line.  In  disposing  of 
his  second  brigade,  he  has  ]ilaced  three  battalions 
nearer  to  the  center  to  strengthen  the  troops  engaged. 
The  Commander  of  the  third  division  has  deployed 
Jlie  battalions  of  the  first  line  in  echelons,  at  150  paces 


this  last  stage,  throw  these  two  battalions  also  into 
column,  whilst  the  battalions  of  the  second  line  will 
spring  forward  and  fill  the  intervals  of  the  first,  so  as 
to  present  an  imbroken  wall  to  the  enemy.  In  this 
way  the  division  will  move  forward  rapidly,  bringing 
down  the  baj'onet  only  when  within  ten  or  twenty 
paces  of  the  enemy's  line.  If  the  line  should  be 
forced  to  deploy,  to  again  open  fire,  the  battalions 
of  the  first  line  will  fall  to  the  rear,  forming  as  tliu 
second,  leaving  this  task  to  those  of  the  second  and 
the  Sharp-shooters.  This  onward  movement  of  the 
right  will  be  followed  by  the  center  and  left,  care 
being  taken  that  the  whole  movement  is  performed 
connectedly.  This  example  gives  the  spirit  of  the 
phases  of  au  action  for  the  case  supposed.    The  prob- 


BATTRE  DE  FRONT. 


164 


BAYEUX  TAPESTRY. 


lem  to  lie  resolved,  with  the  arms  now  in  the  haiuls 
of  troops,  being  to  extend  our  front  as  much  as  pos- 
silile,  without,  however,  weakenins;  too  much  our 
line  of  battle,  so  as  to  brinjr  all  the  tire  we  can  upon 
the  enemy's  line.  Sec  Defeimre  Battle,  Mueti  Batik, 
and  Orl'cii/cirt  liittttf. 

BATTRE  DE  FRONT.— An  expression  nieanintr  to 
throw  eannonbiills  in  a  perpendicular  or  almost  per- 
pendicular direction  against  anv  bo<ly  or  place  which 
betonics  an  object  of  attack.  Yhis  mode  of  attack  is 
less  etTectual  than  any  other  unless  buttering  in  breafh. 

BAUDRIC. — A  short  shoulder-belt  Avhich  crossed 
the  figure  like  a  scarf,  and  to  which  the  sword  was 
adjusted  so  as  to  be  worn  behind  the  person.  The 
habit  of  thus  wearing  tlie  sword  commenced  in  the 
reiirn  of  I-ouis  XIII.     See  Balt/rick. 

BAULOIS. — A  piece  of  pimk  stuff,  used  by  miners 
for  tirini:  the  siuicis.son,  or  tniin. 

BAUME  FLUX. — A  founilry  composition,  consist- 
ing of  ;1  parts  of  ijitcr,  1  part  of  sulphur,  and  1  part 
of  sawdust.  This  flux  is  capable  of  inducing  tlie 
fusion  of  different  metals,  partly  on  account  of  the 
heat  evolved  by  deflagration,  and  partly  because  it 
converts  a  ijortion  of  the  metal  into  a  more  fusible 
sulphide. 

B  AVIERE.— The  beaver  of  the  helmet.  It  is  some- 
times called  mentoniire  and  is  pierced  with  holes  for 
res|>iration.     Also  writien  Ban'er. 

BAVINS. — In  the  pyrotechny  of  warfare,  small 
bundles  of  ea.sily  ignited  hnishwood,  from  3  to  3  feet 
in  length.  Thej-  are  made  by  arranging  the  bush- 
ends  of  the  twigs  all  in  one  direction,  tying  the  other 
ends  with  small  cord,  dipping  the  biish-ends  into  a 
kettle  containing  an  inflammable  composition,  and 
drying  them.  Thej'  are  employed  among  the  com- 
bustible materials  in  fire-ships. 

BAXTER  KNAPSACK-SUPPORTER.— This  con- 
sists of  two  pieces  of  ash,  curved  to  conform  to  the 
shape  of  the  back,  fastened  together  at  top  and  bot- 
tom by  straps,  with  rings  and  straps  to  secure  knap- 
sack or  blanket ;  carried  by  broad  cross-straps  across 
the  .shoulders  and  fastened  to  the  supporter  behind, 
and  also  to  the  waist-belt. 

BAY. — An  expression  for  the  length  of  bridge  cor- 
responding to  the  space  between,  two  pontons  from 
center  to  center. 


Acconlinc  to  Mr.  Bruce,  the  latest  authority  on  the 
subject,  the  tapestry  contains,  besides  the  figures  of 
.50.5  iiuadrupeds,  birds,  sphinxes,  etc.,  "  the  figures  of 
633  men,  202  horses,  55  dogs,  37  buildings,  41  ships, 
and  boats,  and  49  trees — in  all,  1512  figures."  The 
tapestry  is  divided  into  72  distinct  compartments,  each 
representing  one  particular  historical  occurrence,  and 
bearing  an  explanatory  Latin  inscription.  A  tree  is 
usually  chosen  to  divide  the  principal  cvent.s  from, 
each  other.  This  pictorial  history — for  so  it  may  be 
called,  and  indeed,  in  several  particulars,  it  is  more 
minute  than  any  written  history  we  have — opens  with 
Harold  prior  to  his  departure  for  Normandy,  taking- 
leave  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Harold  is  "next  ob- 
serv'ed,  accompanied  by  his  attendants,  riding  to 
Bosham  with  his  hawk  and  homids  ;  and  he  is  after- 
wards seen,  successively,  embarking  from  the  Sus.sex 
coast  ;  anchoring  in  France,  and  l«ing  made  i>risoner 
by  Guy,  Earl  of  Poutbieu  ;  redeemed  by  William, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  and  meeting  willi  him  at  his 
Court  :  as.sisting  him  a^iinst  Conan,  Earl  of  Brctagne;. 
swearing  on  the  Siicred  relics  never  to  interfere  with 
William's  succession  to  the  Saxon  throne,  etc ;  and 
finally  re-cmbarking  for  England.  The  tapestry  then 
represents  Harold  narrating  the  events  of  his  journey 
to  Edward  the  Confessor,  whose  death  and  funeral 
obsequies  we  next  see.  Harold  then  receives  the 
crown  from  the  Saxon  people,  and  ascends  the  throne; 
and  next  we  have  the  news  brought  to  William,  who 
takes  counsel  with  his  half-brother,  Odo,  Bishop  of 
Bayeux,  as  to  the  invasion  of  England.  Then  follow 
representations  of  the  active  war-preparations  of  the 
Normans;  their  embarkation;  disembarkation;  march 
to  Hastings,  and  formation  of  a  camp  there  ;  the  bat- 
tle and  death  of  Harold,  with  which  the  tapestry 
finishes.  The  Bayeux  tapestry  gives  an  exact  and 
minute  portraiture  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
times;  and  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  arms  and 
habits  of  the  Normans  are  identical  with  those  of  the 
Danes,  as  they  appear  in  the  miniature  paintings  of  a 
manuscript  of  the  time  of  King  Cimt,  ]>rcserved  in 
the  British  Jluseum.  M.  Lancelot  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  to  direct  attention  to  the  existence  of 
this  curious  monument,  by  a  description  of  an  illumi- 
nated di'awing  of  a  portion  of  it  he  had  discovered,  in 
a  paper  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and 


Battle  of  Hastings. 


BAYBERRY  TALLO'W.- A  product  of  the  wax 
myrtle,  mudi  used  as  a  lubricjint  for  bullets. 

BAYEUX  TAPESTRY. — A  web  of  canvas  or  linen 
cloth.  214  feet  Utnts  liy  20  inches  wide.'prescrved  in  the 
Puldic  Library,  Bayeux,  upon  which  is  embroidered, 
in  woolen  thread  of  various  colors,  a  representation 
of  the  Invasion  and  Conquest  of  England  by  the  Nor- 
mans. Tradition  asserts  it  to  be  the  work  of  Matilda, 
wife  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  it  is  believed  that 
if  she  did  not  actually  stitch  the  whole  of  it  with  her 
own  hand,  she  at  least  took  part  in  it,  and  directed 
the  execution  of  it  by  her  maids ;  and  afterwards  nre- 
sented  it  to  the  Cathedral  of  Baveux,  as  a  token  of 
her  apjireciation  of  the  effective  assistance  which  its 
Bishoi),  Odo,  rendered  to  her  husband  at  the  battle  of 
Hastings.  Some  antiquaries  contend  that  it  was  the 
work  not  of  Queen  Matilda  (the  wife  of  the  Con- 
queror), who  died  in  1083,  but  of  the  Empress  Matilda 
(the  daughter  of  King  Henry  I.),  who  died  in  1167. 


Belles-lettres,  in  1724.  This  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
tapestry  it.sclf,  in  the  Bayeux  Cathedral,  by  Pc>re 
Montfiiucon,  who  published  an  engraving  of  it  in 
1730,  with  a  commentary  on  the  Latin  inscriptions. 
In  1707  Dr.  Ducarel  gave  an  account  of  it  in  his 
Anrilo-Xoriimn  Antiquities.  Froniv  that  time  until 
1803,  when  Napoleon  had  it  conveyed  to  Paris,  the 
Bayeux  tapestry  excited  little  attention.  Its  exhibi- 
tion, however,  in  the  National  Musiuiji  Ibereawakened 
public  curiosity  concerning  it,  and  gave  rise  to  various 
speculations  as  to  its  age,  intention,  etc.  The  discus- 
sion satisfactorily  established  it  to  be  what  tradition 
asserted  it — a  contemporary  pictorial  record  of  the 
events  of  the  Norman  Conquest.  The  Society  of 
Antiquaries  (London)  published  an  engraving  of  the 
whole  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Vttunta  Moniimenta. 
The  Bayeux  tapestrv  would  have  been  destroyed  at 
the  Revolution,  had  not  a  priest  fortunately  succeeded 
in  concealing  it  from  the  mob,  who  demanded  it  to 


BAYONET. 


165 


BAYONET-EXEHCISE. 


■cover  the  guns.  It  was  formerly  preserved  in  the 
■Cathefiral  of  Bayeux,  where  it  was  wont  to  be  ex- 
hibited on  certain  days  every  j'ear,  in  the  nave  of  the 
churcli,  round  whicli  it  exactly  went. 

BAYONET. — A  short  sword  or  dagger  (usually  tri- 
angular in  cross-section)  fitted  on  to  the  muzzle  of  a 
musket  or  similar  weapon,  so  as  to  give  the  soldier 
increased  means  of  offense  and  defense.  The  name 
is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  town  of  Bayonne  in 
France,  where,  it  is  stated,  it  was  tii-st  invented  in 
1640.  The  first  regiment  which  appears  to  have  had 
bayonets  attached  to  their  muskets 
is  the  Grenadier  Guards,  so  far 
back  as  the  year  1693.  It  is  stated 
by  Macaulaj'  that  in  con.sequence 
of  the  awkward  mode  of  attaching 
the  bayonet  the  English  lost  the 
battle  of  Killiecrankie,  as  the 
Highlanders  were  upon  tlie  troops 
before  they  could  convert  their 
fire-locks  into  pikes.  The  bayonets 
then  used  were  called  hnyoiwls-ii- 
mane/ie,  and  had  handles  which 
fitted  into  the  muzzles  of  the  guns; 
but  at  a  later  date  were  introduced 
the  bayonels-ii-diniiHe,  or  socket- 
bayonets,  having  .sockets  which 
enabled  the  bayonets  so  to  be  used 
as  not  to  interrupt  the  firing.  The 
use  of  pikes  went  out  when  that 
of  bayonets  came  in.  It  seems 
very  probable  that  the  first  bayonet 
w^as  a  dagger,  which  the  musketeer 
stuck  bj'  means  of  its  handle  into 
the  muzzle  of  his  weapon,  to  shield 
him  from  a  cavalry  charge;  and 
that  the  usefulness  of  the  contri- 
vance suggested  a  permanent  ar- 
rangement. 

Bayonets  are  now  made  with 
great  rapidity  in  the  United  States, 
at  the  Government  Rifle  Factory 
at  Enfield,  and  elsewhere.  The 
process  of  manufacture  is  very  sim- 
ple. Two  pieces  of  metal  are  first 
.selected — viz.,  a  piece  of  the  very 
best  cast-steel,  7  inches  long  by  f 
inch  square,  and  a  piece  of  the 
best  wrought-iron  rod,  4  inches 
long  by  about  1  inch  in  thickness. 
The  steel  is  to  form  the  blade, 
and  the  iron  the  socket-handle. 
The  steel  being  properly  shaped 
at  one  end,  is  joined  to  the  iron  by 
welding.  A  forging-machine  is 
next  employed  to  give  a  rough 
outline  of  the  required  shape. 
Then  comes  the  action  of  a 
swagin^-machinc,  with  dies  which 
come    down    upon   the    metal    in 

freal   force  and    counter-dies   ben<'alti    the    metal, 
he  metal  is  then  annealed;  turned  in  a  cutling- 


the  socket  hollow;  shaped  and  furrowed  along  the 
blade;  bent  at  the  neck;  hardened  and  tempered; 
and  finished  by  a  numerous  tnun  of  minor  opera- 
tions. The  drawing  represents  the  triangular  bayo- 
net, one  fourth  size,  as  at  present  iLsed  on  the  Siuiiig- 
field  rifle  in  the  United  States.  A  is  the  blade;  B, 
the  neck;  C,  the  socket;  D,  the  bridge;  E,  the  stud- 
mortise;  F,  the  clasp.  The  bayonet-charge  is  now 
one  of  the  most  terrible  maneuvers  of  trained  infan- 
try, in  which  each  nation  fancies  itself  to  excel  all 
others.  See  ChUUngicorth  Bayonet,  Sitord-bayonel, 
and  Troirel-hayniiet. 

BAYONET-CLASP.  —A  movable  ring  of  metal  sur- 
rounding the  .socket  of  a  bayonet,  in  order  to 
strengllien  the  socket  and  render  the  bayonet  less 
easilv  detachable.     See  liayonH. 

BAYONET-EXEECISE.— If  the  sword-cxercise  be 
of  use  to  officers,  there  are  many  hundreds  in  the 
rank  and  file  to  whom  a  proper  command  of  the 
bayonet  is  indispeusjible.  In  close-quarter  engage- 
ments there  is  no  weapon  more  formidable :  from 
its  length  and  weight  the  thrust  of  the  bayonet  gives 
a  terrible  wound,  and  its  force  is  such  that  there  is 
great  difficult}'  in  parrjing  the  attack.  Like  other 
small-arms,  it  is  most  .serviceable  when  handled  on 
scientific  principles ;  and  the  art  of  using  it  to  ad- 
vantage is  so  simple  as  to  be  very  easily  acquired, 
while  the  exercise,  from  the  weight  of  the  rifie,  ad- 
mirably aids  in  developing  the  muscles  of  all  parts  of 
the  body. 

Of  course  the  bayonet  Ls  always  fixed  at  the  end  of 
the  musket,  when  it  becomes  \'irtually  a  pike.  The 
position  of  the  feet  iu  the  bayonet-exercise  remains 
always  the  same  relatively,  and  absolutely  until  ad- 
vance or  retreat  be  effected.  The  ri.iiht  foot  is 
thrown  back  24  inches,  and  the  weight  of  the  body 
thrown  upon  it.  The  heels  are  kept  in  a  line  with 
each  other,  both  knees  bent  and  well  apart;  the  right 
knee  directly  over  the  foot,  the  left  ea.sy  and  flexible, 
pointing  to  the  front.  In  tliis  position  of  the  body  all 
the  defensive  motions  of  the  bayonet  are  made.  In 
"  guard,"  the  bayonet  is  brought  nearly  to  a  horizon- 
tal direction,  level  with  the  waist,  and  pointing  to- 
wards the  breast  of  an  advancing  enemy.  Similarly 
to  "  guard,"  the  positions  "  low,"  "  high,"  and  "sec- 
ond point"  are  a.ssumed.  The  butt  of  tlu'  rifle  is 
always  kept  well  to  the  right  .side,  the  hand  behind 
the  trigger-guard,  and  the  whole  body  in  attitude  to 
offer  great  resistance.  In  "low,"  the  barrel  is 
turned  downwards;  but  in  all  the  other  defen.sive 
motions  it  is  held  upwards.  The  position  of  the  arms 
is  in  each  ca.se  that  which  would  naturally  be  taken 
in  placing  the  bayonet  and  musket  in  the  required 
direction.     See  Fig.  1. 

The  offensive  position  of  the  body  is  acquired  by 
the  extension  of  the  right  leg.  and  bending  forward 
of  the  left  without  moving  the  feet.  The  butt  of  the 
rifle  is  at  the  same  time  pressed  firmly  to  the  shoul- 
der. This  position  is  called  "  point,"  and  constitutes 
an  extension  of  the  weapon  iu  a  direction  parallel 
with  either  of  those  previously  taken.  As  there  were 
four  "  guards,"  so  there  are  four  points.    The  barrel 


rpoM 

•  "PBINT 

y^ 

^^y^ 

FROM 

^^ 

;J5--^      "     GUIBO 

^ 

Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


machine  to  remove  a  wire-edge  thrown  up  m  the 
act  of  stamping;  cut  to  a  proper  length  and  the 
socket-end  made  square;  driUed  and  bored,  to  make 


Fig.  3. 

is  in  each  case  upward,  and  the  motions  for  each  are 
similar,  except  in  pointing  from  "2d  point,"  as 
may  be  seen  in  Fig.  2,  when  the  rifle,  seized  by  the 


BAT0N£T-8CABBAKI>. 


166 


BEAK. 


right  biiiiil  roiiiul  the  small  of  Ihc  butt,  is  thrust 
stniight  up  alxive  the  head  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
arni.  the  left  hiuid  falling  along  the  thigh,  and  the 
legs  being  stniightein.Hl  so  as  to  form  an  isosceles 
triangle.  "  Shorten  arms"  is  a  useful  motion,  both 
as  a  defense  and  jus  a  preparation  for  a  strong  attack. 
It  consists  in  currying  the  butt  back  to  the  full  extent 
of  the  right  arm,  while  the  barrel  (downwards)  rests 
uiK)n  the  thick  part  of  the  left  arm.  The  bwly  is 
thrown  upon  the  right  leg,  and  the  left  straightened. 
This  powerful  position  is  seen  in  Fig.  3.  In  all  the 
guanis  and  i>oints,  and  also  "  shorten  arms,"  the 
bayonet  may  Ik;  turned  directly  to  the  front,  to  the 
right,  or  to 'the  left,  as  circumstances  may  suggest. 
In  contending  with  a  swordsman,  the  action  of  chang- 
ing from  right  to  left,  when  at  the  "  high"  or  "  low," 
is  sufficient'defcnse  against  the  ordinary  cuts  of  the 
latter.  See  Pamln/  J'dnits,  Dmnguge,  Guard, 
LiiKyt.  I'lirn/.  :uul  Tliruxt.. 

BAYONET-SCABBARD.— A  leather  orinetallic  case 
for  carrying  the  bayonet,  suspended  from  the  belt. 

BAZAR.— The  siitler  establishment  which  accom- 
panies a  native  regiment  in  the  India  ser^e  wherever 
it  ixoi-s, 

BEACH  COMBINATION  SIGHT.— A  sight  exten- 
sively usi'd  for  iKith  sporting  and  target  practice.  It 
is  so  constnicted  that  by  turning  it  up  or  down  the 
rifleman  can  have  a  globe  or  open  sight  at  will,  a 
peep-sight  being  attached  to  the  small  of  the  stock. 
The  globe  of  this  sight  is  so  constructed  as  to  per- 


ils communicating  the  intelligence  of  the  fall  of  the 
cilv  to  his  Queen,  t'lytemnestra,  at  Myci'iKc,  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  The  line  consists  of  eight  mountains, 
and  the  news  is  supposed  to  be  conveyed  in  one  night 
from  Troy. 

In  England,  the  beacons  were  kept  up  by  a  rate 
levied  on  the  Counties,  and  had  watches  regularly 
stationed  at  them,  and  horsemen  tt)  spread  the  in- 
telligence during  the  tlay,  w  hen  the  beacons  coidd  not 
be  .seen.  They  were  carefully  organized  while  the 
Spanish  Armada  was  expected.  In  the  beginning  of 
1856,  an  old  beacon-work  on  Malvern  Hill,  in  Wor- 
cestershire, which  had  done  its  ])art  in  the  former 
days  in  spreading  the  intelligence  of  the  apjiearance 
of  the  Armada,  of  the  approach  of  the  Yoiuig 
Chevalier,  and  of  that  of  the  Dutch  fleet  afterwards 
dealt  with  by  Admiral  Blake,  was  lighted  tip  in 
anticipation  of  the  close  of  the  Crimean  War,  and 
afi'orded  an  interesting  amusement  to  scientific  per- 
sons in  estimating  the  distance  at  which  the  blaze 
could  be  seen  from  distant  mountains.     See  Signal. 

SEALS  GUN. — A  breech-loading  rifle  ha\ing  a 
fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  breech-block, 
which  slides  in  the  line  of  the  barrel  by  indirect 
action,  being  moveil  by  levers  from  below.  It  is 
opened  by  depressing  the  lever:  this  brings  down  the 
rearmost  of  two  folding-wedges  which  form  the 
breech-block,  l)y  means  of  a  toggle  or  link,  and  at 
the  same  time  withdraws  the  upper  section  of  the 
block  to  its  full  extent  and  then  drops  it  out  of  the 


Beach  Sight,  and  Disks. 


mit  the  use  of  all  descriptions  of  sights,  detachable 
pieces  of  the  various  forms  in  use  being  slipped  into 
a  slot  in  the  globe  and  held  by  a  .screw.  There  is  a 
great  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  what  is  the  best  form 
of  sight;  but  the  four  disks  represented  are  favorites 
with  many  of  the  best  long-range  shots. 

A  spirit-level  and  wind-gauge  adjustment  is  usually 
attached  to  this  sight,  and  insures  any  degree  of 
nicetv. 

BEACH-MASTER.— Formerly  a  Superior  Officer 
afipointed  to  superintend  the  disembarkation  of  an 
attacking  force,  who  holds  plenary-  powers,  and 
generally  leads  the  storming  party.  His  acts  when 
m  the  heat  of  action  are  unquestioned. 

BEACON. — Any  signal  set  upon  a  height,  but 
especially  the  alarm-fires  at  one  time  u.sed  to  spread 
the  intelligence  of  foreign  invasion  or  other  great 
event.  These  fire-signals  were  in  use  in  the  earliest 
times,  and  notices  of  them  are  foimd  in  the  literary 
remains  of  ancient  Persia,  Palestine,  and  Greece. 
The}-  were  made  by  kindling  a  pile  or  bale  of  wood 
on  the  tops  of  lofty  movmtains,  and  keeping  the 
flame  bright  by  night,  or  having  the  tire  so  covered  as 
to  emit  a  dense  smoke  by  day.  There  were  various 
preconcerted  modes  of  exhibiting  the  light  or  smoke, 
so  as  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  intelligence.  Thus, 
an  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Seotlanil,  in  1455,  directs 
that  one  bale  on  fire  shall  be  warning  of  the  approach 
of  the  Engli.sh  in  any  manner;  two  bales  blazing  be- 
side each  other,  that  they  are  roming  hidad;  jxnd 
four  bales,  that  they  are  coming  in  great  force. 

An  early  instance  of  beacon-signals  is  found  in  the 
Book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah,  in  his  call,  in  chapter 
vi.  1,  to  the  peo|)lc  of  Benjamin  to  kindle  a  firc- 
Bignal  on  one  of  their  mountains:  •'  Set  tip  a  sign  of 
fire  in  Beth-hacecrem;  for  evil  appearelh  out  of  the 
North,  and  great  deslructioM."  An  instance  of  the 
iise  of  a  line  of  beacons  in  very  ancient  times  is  given 
in  a  passage  of  the  tragedy  of  Agamimiioii,  by  the 
Greek  poet  .Eschylus.  The  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  Greek  urmy  at  the  Siege  of  Troy  is  represented 


wa}-  of  the  cartridge.  The  hammer  is  simultaneously 
brought  to  the  half-cock.  The  piece  is  closed  by 
reversing  the  action  of  the  lever,  when  the  sections  of 
the  block  are  brought  into  place.  The  last  movement 
of  the  vipper  section  being  in  the  line  of  the  barrel, 
thus  tends  to  press  the  cartridge  into  the  chamber  if 
it  be  not  alrcadj'  completely  inserted.  The  piece  is 
locked  Ijy  the  position  of  the  breech-block,  and  is 
fired  by  a  tang-lock  of  the  usual  pattern.  Extraction 
and  ejection  are  accomplished  by  a  sliding  extractor  on 
the  side  of  the  barrel,  impelled  backward  by  a  spring, 
when  by  the  descent  of  the  breech-block  the  way  for 
it  is  clear.     See  Rifle. 

BEAM. — A  straight  piece  of  wood  or  iron  in  the 
frame  of  a  structure,  usually  occupying  a  relatively 
elevated,  horizontal,  and  transverse  position;  as  the 
beams  of  a  magazine,  stretching  acri).ss  it,  and  sup- 
ported by  the  side  walls  or  ])OSts.  Relative  size, 
character,  position,  and  importance  have  caused  the 
word  to  be  applied  to  a  long  straight  piece  in  a 
machine  or  tool,  whether  poised,  journaled,  or  fixed. 
Sliecific  denominations  have  been  conferred  upon 
beams  in  fnimeil  structures.  1.  Tie-bin m ;  one 
imiting  the  ends  of  a  pair  of  iirincijial  rafters,  or  a 
pair  of  posts,  to  prevent  sprcailing  or  divergence. 
2.  Cellar-beam ;  a.  horizontal  strut  connecting  and 
bracing  two  opposite  rafters.  3.  Dragon-beam  ;  a 
piece  of  timber  to  receive  and  .support  the  foot  of  the 
hip-rafter.  4.  Straining-biam  ;  one  useil  in  a  truss 
or  frame  to  confine  i>rincipid  parts  in  place.  5. 
Cnmbcr-fjiaiii  ;  a  horizontal  beam  in  a  simple  span, 
who.se  sill  has  two  posts,  two  struts,  ;md  a  camber- 
beam  uniting  the  top  of  the  posts.  6.  llaminer- 
heam  ;  a  tie-beam  proceeding  from  the  feet  of  a  pair 
of  principiil  rafters,  but  having  its  middle  portion  re- 
tnoved;  the  ends  of  the  gap  .are  stayed  by  ribs  spring- 
ing from  corbels  below,  and  sii]>i)ort  other  ribs  which 
spring  into  :in  arch.  7.  Bindiiig-bcain  ;  a  tie-beam 
whieli  binds  together  jiortions  of  a  frame.  8.  Triiss- 
beain ;  the  i)rincipal  horizontal  limbers  of  a  truss, 
calleii  the  tvp  and  bottom  chord,  and  from  which  pro 


BEAH-CALIFEB. 


167 


BEATING  OEDEB. 


ceed  the  utays  and  braces  which  hold  and  push  re- 
spectively, so  to  speak,  and  confer  rigidity  upon  the 
frame.  9.  Snmiiur-batm  ;  a  central  floor  or  ceiling 
timber,  resting  at  its  ends  upon  the  walls  or  the 
girders  of  the  exterior  frame,  and  supporting  the  ends 
of  the  joints  which  are  notched  into  it.  10.  Arched- 
beam;  a  beam  bent,  cut,  or  built  into  an  arched  form 
to  support  a  structure.  11.  BuiU-bedm ;  a  beam 
made  of  several  parts,  .scarfed  or  strapped  together. 
12.  KerfiiUmini  ;  one  whose  vmder  side  has  a  num- 
ber of  transverse  kerfs  penetrating  to  a  certain  depth, 
so  as  to  enable  the  beam  to  be  bent.  13.  Oroaml- 
beatii ;  a  sill  for  a  frame.     14.  Bui-beam  ;  a  form  of 

firder  having  a  double  web,  inclosing  a  box  or  cell. 
t  is  usually  of  iron.  The  drawing  shows  the  beams 
most  frequently  used  in  fortification-work,  and  the 
functions  they  perform.  In  the  case  of  lieams  sup- 
porting weights   over  ditches,  ravines,  etc.,    if  the 


depth  of  the  beam  be  doubled,  other  things  equal, 
its  strength  will  be  increased  four  times;  if  its  breadth 
be  doubled,  other  things  equal,  its  strength  will  be 
doubled.  By  increasing  the  distance  between  the 
supports,  the  strength  of  the  beam  istlecreascd  in  the 
same  ratio.  Half  the  distance  between  the  supports 
will  enable  the  beam  to  bear  twice  the  load.  Place  a 
prop  or  skid  under  the  center  of  the  beam,  when 
possible.  If  instead  of  concentrating  the  load  at  the 
center  of  the  beam,  it  be  equally  distributed  over  it, 
the  beam  will  bear  twice  the  load.  The  effect  of  the 
load  on  a  beam  will  decrease  in  the  ratio  of  its 
proximity  to  the  support.  A  beam  fixed  at  one  end 
and  loaded  at  the  other  will  bear  one  half  the  weight 
of  the  same  when  supported  at  each  end.  The 
strength  of  round  timber  is  about  one  half  of  that  of 
square  timber  whose  side  equals  the  diameter  of  the 
round  timber. 

BEAM-CALIPEK.— An  instrument  for  measuring 
diameters.  It  usvially  consist.s  of  a  square  of  steel  or 
iron,  with  two  liranches,  one  of  which  is  fixed  and 
the  other  sliiling.  The  inner  edges  of  the  two 
branches,  when  pushed  together,  lie,  of  course,  in 
contact  with  each  other   throughout  their   length. 


obtaining  correct  measurements  in  the  arsenal. 
The  side  represented  is  graduated  upon  the  bar 
to  inches  and  fiftieths  of  an  inch,  and  by  the  aid  of  a 
vernier  is  read  to  thousandths  of  an "  inch.  The 
opposite  side  is  graduated  to  inches  and  sixty-fourths 
of  an  inch.  The  outside  of  the  jaws  is  of  suitable 
form  for  taking  inside  measurements,  and  when  the 
jaws  are  closed  measures  2.50  one-thousjmdths  of  an 
inch  in  tliameler.  This  caliper  will  measure  one 
inch  and  eleven  sixteenths,  outside  diameter,  when 
the  jaws  an:  (jpened  full  size.  The  instrument  can 
be  furnished  with  millimeters  (in  the  place  of  sixty- 
fourths  of  an  inch),  and  provided  with  a  vernier  to 
read  to  one  fiftieth  of  a  millimeter.  See  Calipers, 
Gauge,  and  Iiigpertion  of  Ordnance. 

BEAM  -  CAKSIAGE.  —  In  artillery,  that  part  of  a 
gun-carriaiTc  included  between  the  breast  and  trail- 
point.  In  the  (lid  jiatteru  English  field-carriages,  the 
beam  is  formcil  of  a  .solid  block  of 
wood,  if  timber  of  sufficient  scantling 
can  be  obtained  ;  but  if  not  procurable, 
it  is  formed  of  two  pieces  tabled  one 
into  the  other.  In  this  form  it  is  called 
a  hlork-trail  carriage.  Formerly  light 
field-carriages  consisted  of  two  brackets 
fastened  together  by  transoms  ;  but  this 
form,  though  it  possessed  strength,  was 
found  to  be  awkward  and  unhandy  for 
quick  maneuvering ;  the  block-trail, 
therefore,  was  sidistituted  for  all  light 
field-carriages,  and  has  been  also  adopted 
for  certain  siege-carriages.  Since  the  introduction, 
however,  of  wrought-iron  guns  into  the  service,  the 
bracket  pattern  has  been  re-introduced,  and  the  c;ir- 
riage,  which  is  made  of  wrought-iron,  has  the 
brackets  and  trail  in  one.  The  l)rcsent  pattern  of 
iron  carriages  is  not  yet  universal  in  the  sernce, 
but  will  be  so  in  the  future. 

BEAM  -  COMPASS.— ^Vn  instrument  for  describing 
large  circles,  and  used  in  connection  with  the  trun- 
nion-square, in  the  inspection  of  ordnance.  It  has  a 
beam  or  rod.  and  two  sliding  sockets  which  carry 
the  steel  point  and  the  pencil  or  pen  points.  Set- 
screws  on  the  sockets  bold  them  to  their  places  on  the 
beam.     See  Trunnion-square. 

BEAB. — 1.  A  portable  punching-machine  for  iron 
plates.     A  punchin;i-he<ir,  much  used  in  armories. 

2.  The  Order  of  the  Bear  wjis  instituted  by  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II.,  in  1213,  \>y  way  of  acknowl- 
edgment for  the  service  the  Swiss  had  done  him,  and 
in  favor  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Gall.  To  the  collar  of 
the  order  hung  a  medal,  on  which  was  represented  a 
bear  raised  on  an  eminence  of  earth. 

BEABD. — The  reflected  points  of  the  head  of  an 
ancient  an'ow,  particularly  of  such  as  were  jagged. 


13  12 

iriliiiimiJiii;miinii'iiiiiiLiiiliiiiliiii'iiiiiiiiiiii: 

^Kiugf  EnnniSiSVtrpo  Fi-oiidonn.R.I. 


4LH 


Vernier  Caliper. 


The  beam  is  graduated  to  inches  and  tenths.  A 
vernier  is  attached  to  the  sliding  branch,  graduated  to 
hundredths  t)f  an  inc^h.  The  latter  is  provided  with 
a  thumb-screw  to  fasten  it  at  any  point.  The  length 
of  the  beam  must  be  greater  than  llic  diameter;  and 
that  of  the  branches  than  the  semi-diameter  of  the 
guns  to  be  inspected,  at  their  largest  points.  The 
drawing  shows  one  side  of  a  vernier  calijier,  a  light, 
convenient,   and    valuable    instrument   for    use    in 


BEARSKIN  CAP.— A  military  head-dress  worn  in 
England  by  the  Foot  guards.  Originally  the  Fusilier 
Keirimenfs  wore  licarskin  caps  somewhere  about  1805. 

BEATING  OBDEE.  — In  the  British  .s<r\icc,  an 
authority  given  to  an  indi\-i<lual  empowering  him  to 
raise  men  by  beat  of  drum  for  any  i)artieular  rugi- 
ment,  or  for  general  service.  It  consists  of  a  w.irrant 
which  is  signed  by  the  Secretarj-  of  War,  or  issued  in 
his  name  by  the  Adjutant-general. 


BEATING  0RDEK8. 


168 


BED-SOKES. 


BEATING  OEDERS.— Instrurtions  or  onlors  given 
to  nt-niitiii!;  parlii-s  lx>fori'  they  leave  the  heiulquar- 
ters  of  tbeir  reiriiueiit  ;  tliey  are  obtained,  on  appliea- 
tiou,  by  C'omniaiiiliiig  Ollicers  from  tlie  Seerelary  of 
State  for  War.  W'lien  recniitinir  parties  are  (juartered 
ill  places  where  a  Su])eriiiteiuiiiig  Officer  is  statioueil, 
tbev  are  to  ileju'sil  their  lieatiiig  orders  with  him. 

BEATING  THE  WIND.— A  practice  in  use  in  the 
ancient  methixl  of  trial  by  combat.  If  one  of  the 
combatants  diil  not  apix-ar  in  the  field  at  the  time  ap- 
pointed, the  other  was  to  make  so  many  flourishes 
with  his  weaiwn,  by  which  he  was  entitled  to  all  the 
atlvanlasres  of  a  conqueror. 

BEAT  OF  DETIM.  —  In  military  matters,  a  signal 
or  insiniciion  cnuveyed  by  a  particular  nio<le  of 
drum-beating.  It  is  an  audible  semaphore,  a  tele- 
gnijih  that  speaks  to  the  ear  instead  of  the  eye. 
There  are  many  varieties,  known  by  the  names  of  the 
general,  llie  reveille,  the  as.seniljly,  the  foot-march,  the 
grenadiers'  march,  the  retreat,  the  taptoo  or  tattoo, 
the  call  to  arms,  the  call  to  church,  the  pioneers'  call, 
the  sergeants'  call,  the  drummers'  call,  the  chamadc, 
the  rogue's  march,  the  long  roll,  etc.  Some  of  the 
same  instructions  or  commands  are  also  given  by  the 
bugle,  and  some  bv  the  trumpet. 

BEAUCEANT.— The  standard  of  the  Knights  Tem- 
plar ;  it  was  while  on  one  side  and  black  on  the 
oilier.      ANi>  written  Beii'ireitt. 

BEAULIEU  PROJECTILE.— The  plan  of  this  pro- 
jectile was  brought  forward  as  early  as  1842.  It  con- 
sisted of  twelve  zinc  studs,  or  buttons,  placed  on  the 
shot  in  pairs,  so  as  to  project  into  the  si.K  rounded 
grooves  of  the  gun.  One  stud,  or  projection  on  the 
gun,  was  arranged  to  push  tlie  bearings  of  the  shot 
tight  against  tliosc  sides  of  the  groove  on  which  it 
would  press  in  going  out,  so  as  to  decrease  jarring 
and  play. 

BEA'7ER. — That  part  of  a  helmet  covering  the 
lower  part  of  the  face,  which  shifts  on  pivots  to 
allow  the  wearer  to  drink.  The  word  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  betere,  to  drink,  and  is  sometimes 
written  Bircr. 

BEBRA. — A  sort  of  javelin  used  by  the  ancient 
Gennans;  it  was  an  imitation  of  the  pilum  of  the 
Romans. 

BEC  DE  CORBIN.— Akindof  lialbert  formerlyused 
by  the  body-guards  of  the  kinirs  of  France. 

"  BECHLIS,— Light  cavalry  of  the  Turks,  composed 
of  piiked  men  and  horses. 

BED. — 1.  In  artillerj-,  the  frame  or  rest  on  which 
mortiirs  are  placed  and  tired  from.  Mortars  have 
traveling  carriages,  which  are  attached  to  a  limber. 
In  battery  the  carriage  is  unlimtiered,  the  wheels  re- 
moved, and  the  body  laid  flat  upon  the  ground. 
Mortar-beds  for  the  larger-sized  mortars,  viz.  the  13-. 
10-,  and  8-incli  land  service,  are  made  of  iron,  and 
the  smaller  of  wood,  \-iz.  the  'i\-  and  45-inch.  Mor- 
tars arc  elevated  by  means  of  (juoins. 

2.  Straw  and  bedsacks  are  allowed  to  soldiers  for 
bedding.  The  introduction  of  single  iron  bedsteads 
will  make  it  ne(es<;iry  to  increase  the  allowance  of 
bed-furniture.  In  Prussia  and  other  countries,  ham- 
mocks are  used  in  place  of  bedsteads.  lied  has  also 
other  applications:  as,  camp-bed;  tx-d  of  a  gun-lock; 
Ix-d  of  sjind;  bed  of  a  river;  to  .separate  the  beds  of 
stone  in  a  ipiarry,  etc. 

BEDAINES.— Stone  bullet.s  which  were  thrown 
from  catapulls  durinu'  the  Middle  Ages. 

BEDOUINS-BEDUINS.— Arabs  who  lead  a  noma- 
dic life,  anil  are  generally  regarded,  according  to 
tradition,  as  the  descendants  of  Ishmael,  and  the 
aborigines  of  Arabia.  The  most  ancient  notices 
found  in  Scripture  agree,  in  their  descrl|Uions  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Bedouias,  with  the  facts 
of  the  present  time.  As  nomads,  the  Bedouin  Arabs 
have  no  united  history,  but  only  a  collection  of  gene- 
alogies. They  have  but  s<'ldom  appeared  as  a  united 
jX'ople,  taking  a  prominent  |iart  in  the  worhl's  poli- 
ties, and  have  never  been  enlirelv  held  in  subjection 
by  any  foreign  power.     The    desert  of  Arabia,  es- 


pecially the  plateau  of  Nedjid,  is  their  central  place 
of  abode;  but,  even  in  ancient  times,  they  had  spread 
themselves  over  the  deserts  of  Egypt  and  Syria;  and 
in  later  times,  after  the  decaj-  of  :uicient  civilization, 
they  entered  Syria,  Jlesoixitamia.  luid  Chahhea.  The 
conquest  of  Northern  Africa,  in  the  seventh  century, 
openeil  up  to  them  still  vaster  tracts,  and  they  .soon 
extended  themselves  over  the  Great  Desert  to  the 
.shores  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  At  ]ires(>nt,  they  are  to 
be  found  scattered  over  an  immense  lireadth  of  terri- 
tory— \iz.,  from  the  western  Ixiundary  of  Persia  to 
the  Atlantic,  and  from  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan 
to  the  Negro  Countries  of  Sudan.  In  the  cultivated 
lands  of  Mesopotamia.  Clialdiva,  the  SjTian  confines, 
Barbary,  Nubia,  and  the  north  of  Sudan,  the  Arabs 
are  found  intermingled  with  other  nations;  but  in 
the  deserts  they  have  maintained  their  distinct  char- 
acter and  independence.  Tlie  characteristics  of  the 
Bedouins,  as  herdsmen  and  robbers  in  the  desert,  are 
intimately  connected  ^vith  the  nature  of  their  haliita- 
tion.  Their  abstinent,  precarious,  and  often  solitary 
mode  of  life  makes  them  disposed  to  exercise  mutual 
hospitality;  but  their  independence,  love  of  liberty, 
and  other  g(X)d  (jualities  are  as.sociated  with  ^^olent 
passions  and  an  infamous  love  of  plunder,  which  is 
utterly  reckless  of  the  rights  of  property.  They  are 
generally  well-iiiade  men.  lean,  sinewy,  and  active; 
but,  on  accoimt  of  frequent  luinlsliips  and  privations, 
are  commonly  below  middle  stature.  Their  senses, 
especially  sight,  are  keen,  and  their  carriage  is  free 
and  indepentient.  The  nose  is  commonly  aquiline, 
the  face  rather  lengthened,  and  the  eyes  are  well 
shaped  and  expressive  of  both  daring  and  cunning. 
In  complexion,  they  have  various  shades  of  brown. 
With  the  exception  of  certain  tribes  in  S_\Tia,  all  the 
Beiiouins  are  professedly  Mohammedans,  but  bj-  no 
means  strict  in  the  observance  of  their  religious  rites 
and  duties.  Their  Marahouts — a  class  of  ascetics — 
take  the  place  of  priests,  and  exercise  considerable 
influence  in  all  social  and  public  affairs.  As  the 
Arabs  have  no  settled  government  or  policy,  religious 
traditions  and  customs  form  the  only  bond  of  order 
and  union  among  them.  Though  their  intellectual 
powers  are  naturally  good,  they  are  miserably  desti- 
tute of  solid  knowledge.  Their  endless  tales  and 
poetical  effusions  show  a  wonderful  activity  of  im- 
agination and  an  oriental  love  of  hj-pertole.  The 
relation  of  the  sexes  to  each  other  is  less  constrained 
than  among  the  settled  peoples  of  the  East,  and  a 
substitute  for  polygamy  is  found  in  a  freiiuent  inter- 
change of  wives.  Tlieir  favorite  pastimes  are  the 
chase,  ball-play,  dancing,  songs,  stories,  and  the  ihke 
far  niente  (plea-sant  lazines,s)  of  drinking  coffee  and 
smoking  narghiles.  Their  diet  is  principally  de- 
i  rived  from  their  herds,  but  includes  a  few  vegeta- 
bles, and  even  locusts  and  lizards.  Honey  is  also  a 
principal  luxury  with  all  clas.ses,  and,  moreover,  one 
\\  liich  has  a  religious  sanction,  for  it  was  indulged  in 
by  iloliammed  himself,  who  makes  copious  mention 
of  it  in  the  Koran.  They  manufacture  their  own 
woolen  clothing,  which  consists  of  the  haikh—a.  long, 
wide  garment  fastened  on  the  head,  and  descending 
to  the  feet — and  the  burnoofc,  a  large  mantle.  Only 
superior  men  wear  breeches  and  linen  or  cotton 
shirt-s.  The  hair  of  the  head  is  shaven,  but  the 
beard  is  a  favorite  object  of  cultivation.  The  politi- 
cal condition  of  the  Bedouins  may  be  styled  patri- 
archal. One  or  more  families,  the  males  of  which 
bear  the  title  of  Sheik,  form  the  core  of  a  tribe,  and 
along  with  the  maralxiuts,  or  priests,  constitute  a 
kind  of  aristocracy.  Out  of  their  number  the 
superior  Sheik,  or  Kaid,  is  electeti,  who  rules  in 
lialriarehal  style  over  the  whole  tribe.  This  general 
sketch  of  the  Bedouins  applies  chiefly  to  the  true 
nomads,  or  "  dwellers  in  the  desert,"  and  is  subject  to 
several  modifications  with  regard  to  tribes  located  in 
Barbary,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia,  who  practice 
agriculture  and  dwell  in  houses. 

BED-SORES. — A  very  troublesome  complication  of 
disease,  to  which  wounded  soldiers  are  liable  when 


BEECH-TBEE. 


169 


BEETLES. 


for  a  long  time  confined  to  the  ambulance  or  stretcher, 
and  either  unable  or  not  allowed  to  change  position. 
Thus  they  are  liable  to  occur  in  ca.ses  of  continued 
fever,  or  any  other  prolonged  debilitating  disorder, 
in  paralysis  from  injury  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  in 
cases  of  fracture  of  the  thigh.  The  skin  at  certain 
projecting  bony  parts,  chiefly  about  the  region  of  the 
buttocks,  or  on  the  heel,  is  apt  to  inflame,  ulcerate, 
and  slough,  especially  if  the  patient  is  not  kept  per- 
fectly clean.  The  patient  sometimes  complains  of  a 
sense  of  discomfort  at  the  parts,  as  if  he  were  lying 
on  dry  crumbs  of  bread;  at  other  times  he  seems  to 
feel  nothing.  Hence,  in  all  cases  of  prolonged  supine 
position,  the  parts  naturally  pressed  upon  by  the 
■weight  of  the  body  should  be  carefully  examined 
every  day  or  two,  as  prevention  is  far  easier  than 
cure.  When  a  long  confinement  to  bed  is  expected, 
attempts  should  be  made  to  thicken  the  cuticle,  and 
enable  it  to  bear  pressure  better,  I)}'  nilibing  the  skin 
■with  a  stimulant  such  as  spirits  or  eau-de-Cologne.  If 
the  part,  when  first  seen,  looks  red  and  rough,  further 


life  in  cases  of  this  accident,  disjcases  of  the  urinary 
organs  Ix'ini  the  other.     See  Airbed  and  Pillotr. 

BEECH-TREE.— Only  one  species  (Faf/u/i  gylmtka) 
is  common  to  Europe.  In  Engl.ind,  the  Buckingham- 
shire and  Sussex  beech-trees  are  esteemed  the  best. 
The  color  of  the  woo<l  is  whitish  brown,  of  a  unifonn 
texture  and  closeness.  It  is  considered  to  be  almost 
chemically  free  from  foreign  matters.  It  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  fiiscs,  and  no  wood  has  yet  been 
found  equal  to  it  for  that  purjwse.  It  is  also  valuable 
for  wooden  types  in  printing. 

BEEF-EATEE.— A  term  now  applied  jocularly  to 
certain  functionaries  in  England  belonging  to  the 
Yeomen  of  the  Guiird,  who,  ever  since  the  lime  of 
Henry  VII.,  have  formed  part  of  the  Train  of 
Royalty,  attending  the  Sovereign  at  royal  banquets 
and  other  state  occasions.  They  have  maintained  the 
same  costume,  with  a  slight  alteration  made  in  18.58, 
for  nearly  four  centuries;  and  this  costume  has  had 
much  to  do  with  their  attractiveness  to  sight-seere. 
The  origin  of  the  term  is  a  case  of  what  Dr.  Latham 


Befifroi,  or  Breaching-tower. 


damage  is  often  prevented  by  covering  it  with  a  piece 
of  calico  on  which  soaji-plaster  has  been  spread; 
the  local  p.essure  may  be  removed  by  air-cushions 
specially  co.  structed  for  ca.ses  of  this  kind,  and  in 
many  instances  Amott's  water-bed  affords  great 
comfort.  If  the  ca.se  is  one  in  which  it  is  admissible, 
the  patient  should  be  ma<le  to  alter  his  position  fre- 
quently. AMien  there  are  excoriations,  and  a  thrciit- 
ening  of  sloughing,  a  poultice  compo.sed  of  equal  parts 
of  bread-crumbs" and  of  finely-giated  nmttou-suet, 
mixed  over  the  fire  in  a  .saucepan,  with  a  little  boil- 
ing water,  is  often  a  comforting  and  useful  applica- 
tion. After  sloughing  has  fairly  begun,  stinndating 
applications,  such  .as  rcsin-oinlment,  must  lie  apiilii-d. 
It  is  -northy  of  notice  that  lied-sores  come  on  earlier 
in  cases  of  fractured  spine  than  in  any  other:  they 
generally  appear  by  the  fourth  day.  and  have  been 
seen  two  days  after  the  accident.  They  commonly 
form  one  of"  the  most  powerful  agents  in  destroying 


calls ''words  of  foreign  simulating  a  vernacular 
origin."  It  was  originally  beatifitier  or  biifftlur,  one 
who  attends  the  buffet  "or  sideboard.  Similar  in- 
st;mces  of  false  et)-niology,  arising  from  resemblance 
in  sound,  are  seen  in  Mot-ovtr  (a  hill  near  O.xford), 
from  Chateau  Yert;  gparroic-graxs,  from  anihiragm; 
ancient,  for  en»if!n;  dog-cheap,  from  the  old  English 
god-h)  jie,  i.e.  gooil-chmp,  meaning  a  good  bargain;  etc. 

BEER-MONEY.— A  peculiar  payment  to  Non-com- 
missione*!  officers  and  soldiers  in  the  English  army. 
It  was  establishcil  in  the  year  18(X),  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  Duke  of  York,  and  consisted  of  one  penny  per 
day  for  troops  when  on  home-service,  as  a  sul)stitute 
for  an  issue  of  beer  and  spirits.  It  continued  as  an 
addition  to  the  daily  jiay  until  IST."?,  when,  the 
stoppages  for  rations  having  been  abolished,  the  0l> 
jwrtumty  was  taken  to  consolidate  beer-money  and 
pav  proper. 

BEETLES.— In  a  military  sense,  very  large  wooden 


BEFFBOI. 


170 


BELLOWS. 


hammers  usctl  for  dri%'ing  do\vn  palisades,  and  for 

oilier  i)urp<isos. 

BEFFEOI.— The  name  frivcn  to  a  tower  used  in 
the  military  siegi-s  of  aucieiit  and  mciliieval  times. 
\Mien  a  tovi-n  was  to  be'  besieged,  a  movable  tower, 
as  hijrh  as  the  walls,  was  brought  near  it;  and  this 
tower  was  the  btffroi.  Its  use  is  more  than  oiue 
spoken  of  by  Ca'sjir  in  his  account  of  his  campaigns 
in  Gaul.  Froissart  desi-rilK'S,  with  his  usual  spirit,  a 
bellroi  employed  at  the  siege  of  the  Castle  of  Breteuil 
in  lii'iG.  At  llie  siege  of  Jerusjilem  by  the  Crusaders, 
a  beffroi  was  carried  in  pieces,  put  together  just  be- 
yond bowshot,  and  then  pushed  on  wheels  to  a 
proper  position.  The  object  of  such  towers  Wiis  to 
cover  the  api)roach  of  troops.  Sometimes  the3'  were 
puslied  on  by  pressure,  sometimes  by  capstans  and 
ropes.  The  highest  were  on  si.\  or  eight  wheels,  and 
had  as  many  as'twclve  or  tifteen  stories  or  stages;  but 
it  was  usual  to  limit  the  height  to  three  or  four  stages. 
They  were  often  covered  with  raw  hides,  to  protect 
them  from  the  flames  of  boiling  grease  and  oil  direct- 
ed against  them  by  the  besieged ;  and  there  was  a 
hinged  drawbridge  at  the  top,  to  let  down  upon  the 
parapet  of  the  wall,  to  aid  in  landing.  The  lower 
stage  frequently  had  a  ram;  while  the  others  were 
crowded  with  "archers,  arbalisters,  and  slingers;  or 
there  were  bowmen  on  all  the  stages  except  the  top, 
which  had  a  storming  or  boarding  party.  During 
the  wars  under  Charles  I.,  the  Royalists  made  a  bef- 
froi to  aid  in  the  besieging  of  a  town  or  castle  in 
Herefordshire;  it  was  higher  than  the  defense- works, 
and  was  provided  with  lo()|)-ho1es,  a  bridge,  etc.;  but 
the  Rovindheads  captured  it  before  it  could  be  ajiplied 
to  use.  Ducange  thinks  that  the  name  of  belfry 
given  to  a  bell-tower  was  derived  from  the  warlike 
machine  called  the  beffroi  or  belfry.  See  Battering- 
ram. 

BEG— BET.— A  Turkish  title,  rather  vague  in  its 
import,  and  commonly  given  to  superior  military 
ofticers,  ship-captauis,  and  distinguished  foreigners. 
More  strictly,  it  applies  to  the  Governor  of  a  small 
district,  who  bears  a  horse-tail  as  a  sign  of  his  rank. 
The  Governor  of  Tunis  has  this  title. — "  Beglerbeg," 
or,  more  correctly,  Beilerbegi  ("  Lord  of  Lords"), 
the  title  given  to  the  Governor  of  a  province  who 
bears  three  horse-tails  as  his  badge  of  honor,  and 
has  autliority  over  several  begs,  agas,  etc.  This 
suiK-rior  title  belongs  to  the  Governors  of  Rumelia, 
Anatcilia,  and  Syria. 

BEHOUKD.  —  A  name  given  during  the  Middle 
Ages  to  a  combat  on  horseback,  lance  in  hand;  also 
a  tilting  of  cavaliers,  which  took  place  at  public 
amusements.     Also  written  Bilumrl  and  Buhurt. 

BELFRY. — A  tower  of  wood,  movable  on  wheels, 
used  in  sieges  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Sometimes  a 
battering-ram  was  used  with  it.  It  was  as  high  as 
the  wall  attacked,  and  a  drawbridge  was  rigged  at 
the  top  to  be  dropped  on  the  wall  when  occasion 
offered.     See  Beffroi. 

BELIDOR  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.  —  This 
system  resembles  Hosard's  mctliod,  Init  is  not  so  good. 
A  tirst  enceinte  consists  of  small  bastions;  a  second 
of  large  liastions  with  retrenchments;  a  third  of  out- 
works. Tlie  reduits  of  re-entering  places  of  arms  are 
formed  of  loop-holed  walls.  The  glacis  is  further  de- 
fended by  limettes.  The  profusion  of  miusonry  ren- 
ders this  svstem  impracticable,  and  the  great  ninuber 
of  outworks  necessitates  a  very  strong  garrison.  Its 
great  merit  consists  in  obliging  the  besieger  to  em- 
ploy a  numerous  artillery  to  ricochet  a  fnjnt,  and  to 
pass  through  four  periods  of  breaehing-batteries. 

BELIEE. — A  battering-ram  invented  by  the  Carth- 
aginians al«)Ut  441  n.c;  ascd  in  ancient  times  for 
siege  purpd.ses.  Also  ti  w(x)deii  machine  for  driving 
wedges  under  a  ship's  bottom  (jr  heavy  ordnance. 

BELLIGERENT.— Waging  war.  Hence  any  two 
or  more  coiiiitries  at  war  with  each  other  are  termed 
belligerenls. 

BELL-METAL. — An  alloy  composed  of  copper  and 
tin,  either  alone  or  with  the  addition  of  a  greater  or 


less  proiwrtion  of  other  metals,  usually  zinc  and  lead. 
It  is  a  species  of  bronze,  and  from  its  hardness  and 
sonorousness  is  better  adapted  than  any  other  metal 
for  the  puipose  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 
The  usual  proportion  is  75  parts  copper  and  25 
parts  tin,  but  constituents  vary  from  50  copi>er, 
33  zinc,  and  17  tin,  to  HO  copper,  10  tin.  6  zinc,  and 
4  lead.  The  proitorlion  78  copper  to  22  tin  is  gene- 
rally recognized  in  commerce.  This  metal  is  vari- 
oiisiy  employed  in  the  armory. 

BELLONA. — The  goddess  of  war  among  the  Ro- 
mans. She  was  described  by  the  poets  as  the  com- 
panion, sister,  wife,  or  daughter  of  Mars;  she  wa.s 
also  represented  as  armed  with  a  bloody  s<'Ourge,  and 
as  inspiring  her  votaries  with  a  resistless  enthusiasm 
in  battle.  In  the  war  with  the  Samnites,  the  Cou.sul 
Appius  Claudius  vowed  a  temple  to  Bellona,  which 
was  erected  afterwards  on  the  Field  of  Mars.  In  this 
temple  the  Senate  gave  audience  to  cmba.ssics  from 
foreign  powers,  and  also  to  Consuls  who  had  claims 
to  a  triumph  which  would  have  been  nullified  by 
entrance  into  the  city.  The  priests  of  the  goddess 
were  styled  BeHoiuirii,  and  practiced  sanguinary 
rites,  such  as  cutting  their  own  arms  or  feet  and 
offering  (or  even  drinking)  the  blood  in  sacrifice. 
This  was  especially  done  on  the  dies  sanguinis  (day 
of  blood),  March  34. 

BELLOWS.  —  The  earliest  blowing-machine  was, 
doubtless,  .some  form  of  the  common  Im'Hows,  the 
idea  of  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  limgs.  A  very  primitive  form  of  this  instru- 
ment is  still  in  use  in  .some  Eastern  coimtries,  consist- 
ing simply  of  the  skin  of  some  animal  sewed  into  a 
rude  bag  with  a  valve  and  nozzle.  The  older  forms 
of  domestic  bellows  are  all  constructed  on  the  same 
principle — viz.,  a  chamber  formed  of  two  boards 
with  flexible  leather  sides,  having  at  one  end  a  noz- 
zle with  a  narrow  mouth,  and  in  the  lower  board  a 


Root's  Blowing-machine,  Sectiocal  View, 

valve  of  considerably  larger  area  for  the  admission 
of  air.  When  the  bellows  are  distended  by  drawing 
the  boards  apart,  air  is  sucked  in  by  the  valve,  to  re- 
place the  vacuum  which  would  otlierwi.se  be  formed; 
and  then,  when  the  boards  are  being  closed,  the 
valve,  which  only  opens  inwards,  is  shut  by  the  com- 
pressed air;  and  the  latter,  having  no  other  escape, 
is  forced  out  at  the  nozzle.  The  great  fault  of  the 
common  bellows  Ls  that  it  gives  a  succession  of  puffs 
and  not  a  continuous  blast.  One  remedy  for  this 
was  to  use  two  bellows,  so  that  one  was  blowing 
while  the  other  was  filling;  but  it  was  afterwards 
found  that  the  double-beliows  secured  a  still  more 
uniform  blast.  This  machine  is  merel}'  the  conunon 
bellows  with  a  third  board  of  the  same  shaiie  as  the 
other  two  placed  between  them,  so  as  to  fonii  two 
chambers  instead  of  one.  The  middle  board  is  ti.xed, 
and  both  it  and  the  lower  one  have  valves  placed  in 
them  opening  inward.  A  w(iglit  on  the  lower  lioiird 
keeps  the  imder  chamber  tilled  with  air;  and  when 


BELLS  OF  ABUS. 


171 


BELTS. 


this  board  is  raised  by  a  lever  or  othersvise,  tlie  air 
which  it  contains  is  forced  into  the  upper  chamber. 
The  exit-pipe  is  attached  to  the  latter,  and  a  weight 
is  placed  on  the  upjier  Ixiard  sufficiently  heavy  to 
press  the  air  out  in  a  continuous  stream,  the  con- 
tinuity being  maintained  liy  the  large  quantity  of  air 
always  present  in  the  ujiper  chamber,  and  the  uni- 
form pressure  of  the  weight.  Sometimes  a  spring  is 
used  instead  of  a  weight  to  press  out  the  air.  Even 
with  the  double  bellows,  however,  the  constant  re- 
filling of  the  upper  portion  from  the  lower  prevents 
the  blast  from  being  quite  regular 

Fanners  are,  at  present,  much  employed  for  creat- 
ing blasts  to  melt  pig-iron  in  foundries,  and  arc  used 
instead  of  bellows  in  smithies,  on  account  of  their 
greater  convenience  and  the  steadier  bla.st  which  they 
yield.  A  domestic  bellows  has  even  been  intro- 
duced on  the  fan-principle.  The  fan  is  also  much 
used  in  the  ventilation  of  buildings,  ships,  and  mines. 
For  the  last  it  is  now  considered  preferable  to  the 
plan  of  furnace-ventilation,  especially  where  there 
are  fiery  seams  of  coal.  A  modified  form  of  the 
fan,  called  a  centrifugal  dixk,  patented  by  Mr.  Kam- 
mell,  was  succe.ssfullj'  employed  by  the  Pneumatic 
Dispatch  Company  for  the  traiLsmission  of  the  mail- 
bags.  An  ingenious  but  simple  ventilator  is  in  use 
in  the  niities  of  the  Harz  for  supplying  fresh  air.  It 
consists  of  two  long  cylindrical  vessels,  one  of  which 
is  so  much  smaller  as,  when  inverted,  to  move  up 
and  down  inside  the  other.  The  outer  one 
is  partly  filled  with  water,  and  has  a  tube 
leading  through  the  water  down  to  the  mine. 
The  inner  inverted  cask,  which  has  a  valve 
opening  inwards,  is  lifted  and  then  pressed 
down,  so  forcing  air  through  the  tube.  Tli' 
excellent  and  well-known  blowing-raachiin 
of  the  Messrs.  Roots,  shown  in  section  in 
the  drawing,  may  be  thus  described;  A  pair 
of  horizontal  shafts,  geared  together  at  both 
ends,  traverse  a  ca.se  of  the  form  of  two  semi- 
cylinders,  separated  by  a  rectimgle  equal  in 
depth  to  the  diameter  of  the  semi-cylinders,  and  in 
width  to  the  distance  between  the  centers  of  the 
shafts.  These  shafts  carry  a  pair  of  solid  arms, 
each  having  a  section  somewhat  resembling  a  figure 
of  eight,  the  action  of  which,  as  they  revohe,  takes 
the  air  in  by  an  aperture  at  the  bottom  of  the  ma- 
chine, and  e.xpels  it  with  considerable  pressure,  if 
required,  at  the  top.  For  the  purposes  of  ventilation, 
and  also  for  expelling  accumulations  of  hot  air, 
dust,  waste  flyings,  etc.,  in  factories,  a  machine  has 
been  constructed  by  Mr.  J.  Howorth,  Farnworth, 
Bolton,  called  a  Rerolrlng  Archimedean  Screw-ceiitila- 
Ujr.  It  consists  of  an  Archimedean  screw  inclosed 
in  a  tube  with  proper  means  of  lubrication.  Its 
diameter  is  30  inches,  and  it  is  made  to  be  si-t  in  mo- 
tion b}'  steam  or  other  power,  but  it  is  also  furnished 
with  a  hood,  on  the  top  of  which  there  are  curved 
vanes,  which  turn  the  screw  by  the  action  of  the 
wind.  Immediately  beneath  these  there  is  another 
series  of  lateral  vanes  for  the  escape  of  the  hot  air. 
See  likiircr  and  Iron. 

BELLS  OF  ASMS. — Tents  or  ma.sonry  buildings, 
formerly  used  in  India,  and  to  some  extent  at  the 
present  day,  for  the  dejiosit  and  care  of  the  arms  of 
each  company  of  a  native  regiment.  The  bells  of 
arms  were  generally  built  in  front  of  the  lines  of  the 
reiriment  and  behind  the  parade-ground.  The  tent 
is  frequently  painted  with  the  color  of  the  facings  of 
the  regimental  uniforms. 

BELTS.— I.  Leathern  suspenders  of  different  kiiids 
and  for  various  purposes,  viz.:  Siroi-d  belt.s,  to  which 
swords  ham;  (the  drawing  represents  the  New 
Kegiilation  Full-dress  Belt  in  the  United  States 
Anny);  Shoulder  or  Cross  l)ells,  broad  Icatliem  belts, 
crossing  from  the  right  shoulder,  and  to  which  the 
pouch  is  affixed;  and  leathern  straps  fixed  round  the 
waist,  by  which  a  sword  or  bayonet  is  suspended. 
See  EqinpmenU.—-i.  Endless  strips  of  flexibl.'  mate- 
rial, usually  leather  or  India  rubber,  to  transmit  mo- 


tion or  power  from  one  pulley  to  another.  Ropes  and 
chains  serve  a  similar  puipose.  When  chains  are 
used,  the  pulleys  are  provided  with  projections  which 
engage  in  the  links  of  the  chains  and  prevent  slip- 
ping, and  the  mechanism  has  the  positive  relations  of 
a  rack  and  pinion.  ()rdin;iry  flexible  belts  transmit 
power  by  the  friction  between  them  and  their  pulleys. 
The  pulley  which  communicates  motion  is  the 
driving  pulley;  that  which  receives,  the  driven  pul- 
ley; that  part  of  the  belt  which  runs  from  the  driven 
pulley  to  the  driver  Ls  the  driving  part  of  the  lx;lt, 
since  it  is  pulled  by  the  driver,  and  in  turn  pulls  on 
the  driven  pulley;  the  part  of  the  belt  which  runs 
from  the  driver  to  the  driven  pulley  is  the  slack  belt. 
The  strain  on  the  driving  belt  is  the  sum  of  the  strain 
of  the  belt  on  the  pulleys  when  there  is  no  motion 
plus  the  strain  of  the  friction;  that  on  the  slack  belt 
is  the  .same  strain  on  the  pulleys  less  the  friction. 
Thas,  if  a  belt  is  stretched  over  its  pulleys  with  a 
strain  of  10  lbs.  per  inch  of  width,  and  it  requires 5 
lbs.  to  make  it  slip,  then  the  strain  on  the  driving 
belt  is  10-1-5  —  15  lbs.,  and  the  strain  on  the  slack  belt 
is  10—5  =  5  lbs.  per  inch  of  belt.  As  the  two  parts  of 
the  belt  are  unequally  strained  there  will  be  a  ten- 
dency to  move,  or  creep,  towards  the  driving  belt 
over  the  driven  pulley.  Hence  the  velocity  ratio  of 
the  two  pulleys  will  not  exactly  follow  the  inverse 
ratio  of  their  radii,  and  the  belt  cannot  lie  relied  upon 
for  giving  uniformity  of  motion.    For  driving  most 


machinery,  the  fact  that  the  belt  is  elastic,  and  will 
slip  if  unduly  strained,  makes  it  a  favorite  method  of 
communicating  power.  Rubber  bells  tran.smit  about 
25  per  cent  more  power  than  leather,  because  the  sur- 
face of  the  rubber  conforms  more  perfectly  to  the 
minute  inequalities  of  the  pulley  surface,  and  thus 
acquires  a  closer  gra.sp.  The  texture  of  a  rubber  belt 
is  more  uniform  than  can  be  had  in  leather,  and 
therefore  a  wide  rubber  belt  will  wear  more  evenly. 
In  damp  and  exposed  places  rubber  is  moa'  durable 
than  leather.  If,  however,  the  belt  is  to  be  shifted 
back  and  forth,  as  in  the  stopping  and  starting  of 
manv  machines,  or  in  cro.ss-belting — wherever  the 
edge"  of  the  belt  is  liable  to  wear— leather  is  prefer- 


BIND. 


172 


BENTON  DYNAMOHETEB. 


able.  If  the  pulley  lie  higher  at  the  center  thnn  at 
the  side,  or  higher  at  one  side  thnn  at  the  other,  the 
bell  will  creep  towards  the  highest  part;  for  this 
rC!i.<on  tlie  surface  of  the  pulley  is  usually  niii(U'  not 
cylindric,  but  of  greater  (liameter  at  the  center.  If 
this  be  ovenione,  the  iK-lt  does  not  pull,  except  along 
its  central  part.  The  pulleys  usually  lie  in  the  sjime 
plane,  and  with  their  axes  parallel;"  but  this  is  not 
necessarj-,  provided  that  the  course  of  each  part  of 
the  belt— the  driving  and  the  sla<'k  part  alike — be  in 
the  plane  of  the  pulley  toward  which  that  part  of  the 
bt'lt  runs;  the  belt  being  always  delivered  by  one 
pidlcy  into  the  plane  of  the  other.  Transinis.sion  of 
power  by  belts  is  more  common  in  the  United  States 
than  in  Euroix".  Hempen  or  wire  ro|)es,  running 
over  large  pulleys  witli  \' shaped  edges,  arc  used  to 
tnmsniil  power  to  long  distances.  The  l'.  S.  Arse- 
nal at  Rock  Island,  III.,  carries  more  than  half  a  mile 
by  one  to\w  the  power  of  four  large  turbine  wheels,  suf- 
ficient for  all  the  present  need  of  the  machine-shops. 
Such  cables  have  been  called  telcodynamic  cables. 
They  can  be  run  as  fast  as  one  mile  per  minute,  and 
•without  covering  will  last  three  years.  Intennediate 
sheaves  are  required  at  every  300  or  400  feet.  See 
Tran»misst(m  of  Poirerfor  Military  Purposes. 

BEND. — One  of  the  honorable  ordinaries,  or  more 
imiMirtant  figures  in  Heraldry.  It  is  formed  by  two 
parallel  lines,  which  may  be  either  straight  or  in- 
dented, engrailed,  etc.,  drawn  from  the  dexter  to  the 
sinister  bii.sc,  and  consequently  passing  athwart  the 
shield.  The  bend  occupies  a  fifth  part  of  the  shield 
in  breadth,  if  plain;  and  a  third  part,  if  charged. 
The  bend  is  sugposed  to  represent  a  shoulder-belt, 
or  scarf  worn  over  the  shoulder.  When  heralds 
speak  of  the  bend  simply,  llie  bend-dexter  is  under- 


with  a  steel  plate  securely  riveted  to  the  body  of  the 
block,  and  containing  a  dovetail-groove,  corres]>ond- 
ing  to  the  bolster  on  the  lock-plate.  When  fixed, 
the  block  is  l(M,-ked  in  place  by  a  rotary  cam  on  its 
inner  .surface,  connected  with  a  thumb-jiiece  on  the 
out.side  and  turned  by  it  so  as  to  engage  against  the 
lower  edgi^  of  the  bolster.  The  cartridges  are  held 
in  the  block,  incase  of  its  being  accidcutjdly  over- 
turned, by  copper  bushings  with  which  the  holes  are 
lined. 

This  block  is  intended  to  be  issued  as  a  part  of 
the  soldiers'  equipment,  and  to  be  carried  full  in  the 
cartridge-box.  To  this  end,  additional  protection 
against  dropping  the  cartridges  is  allorded  by  a 
leather  straji,  fastened  at  the  forward  end  of  the 
block  and  passing  over  the  heads  of  the  cartridges  to 
a  button  on  the  other  end  of  the  lilock.  Colonel 
Benton  also  pro])Osed  that  the  jiortion  of  the  slock 
jusi  to  the  left  of  the  receiver  of  a  Springfield  gun 
might  be  enlarged  so  as  to  accommodate  five  car- 
tridges, caliber  .4.5.  They  were  to  be  held  in  place 
by  a  lip  on  the  side  of  the  breech-block  when  the 
breech  was  closed,  and  when  opened  by  the  copper 
bushings.     See  ILne  and  Metcalfe  Cartridge-block. 

BENTON  DYNAMOMETER.— Tins  instrument,  in- 
vented by  Licutenanl-colonel  .lames  G.  Benton, 
Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  Army,  is  designed  to  be 
used  in  connection  willi  the  Hodman  pressure-gauge, 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  presence  per 
square  inch  exerted  within  the  bores  of  cannon  and 
small  arms  b)'  the  ignition  of  ixiwder.  It  may  also 
be  used  for  testing  the  tensile  strength  of  materials 
or  for  measuring  their  compres.sion  within  certain 
limits.  The  size  of  the  six>cimeus  would  necessarily 
have  to  be  small.     When  used  for  either  of  the  latter 


Bend. 


Bendlet. 


Garter. 


Cost. 


Ribbon. 


Stood,  the  bend-sinister  being  always  expressly  men- 
tioned. Bend-sinister  is  the  bend-dexter  reversed, 
and  pa.s.sing  from  the  left  to  the  right  side  of  the 
shield,  as  the  dexter  does  from  the  right  to  the  left. 
There  are  four  diminutives  of  the  bend,  viz.,  the 
bendlet,  the  garter,  the  cost,  and  the  ribbon.  The 
tenns  in  bend,  jier  bend,  bendy,  etc. ,  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  heraldic  works,  and  signify  that  the 
charge  is  placed,  or  the  shield  divided,  diagonally  in 
the  direction  of  the  bend.  See  Bar,  Bastard  Bar, 
and  Ilcrnhlni. 

BENGAL  LIGHT-BENGOLA.— A  brilliant  signal- 
light  used  at  sea  during  sliipT\Teck,  and  in  ordinary' 
pyrotechny  for  illuminating  a  district  of  coimtr}-.  ft 
is  iirepaied  from  niter,  sulphur,  and  the  tersulphuret 
of  antimony.  The  materials  are  redviced  to  fine 
powder,  thoroughly  dried,  and  intimately  mixed  in 
the  following  projjortions  bv  weight :  niter,  6;  sul- 
phur. 2;  tersidphuret  of  antimony,  1.  The  'mixture 
constitutes  the  bcnirola,  and  wheii  kindled  by  a  red- 
hot  coal,  red-hot  iron,  or  flame,  immediately  bursts 
into  rajad  and  vivid  combustion,  cvohing  a  brilliant, 
penetrating,  but  mellow  light,  which,  during  the 
darkness  of  night,  readilv  overcomes  the  gloom  for 
a  considerable  space.  As  the  fumes  evolved  during 
the  combustion  of  the  beiiETola  contain  an  o.xide  of 
antimony  and  are  poisonous,  the  lisrht  cannot  be 
used  with  siifety  in  rooms  or  inclosed  spaces. 

BENICKE.— "A  kind  of  militjiry  fOte  among  the 
Turks,  similar  to  a  tournament,  but  -without  the 
presence  of  ladies. 

BENTON  CARTRIDGE-BLOCK.- A  projecting  bol- 
ster is  left  at  the  forward  end  of  the  loe'k-plaie  and 
is  under-cut  in  ffont  and  rear.  On  to  this  it  is  de- 
signed to  slip  a  detachable  magazine-block  holding 
■one  row  of  six  cartridges,  and  faced  on  the  inner  side 


purposes,  special  forms  of  housings  have  to  be  made 
to  fit  between  the  guide-blocks.  In  testing  for  ten- 
sile strength,  provision  must  be  made  to  check  the 
sudden  reaction  of  the  springs  at  the  instant  of  rup- 
ture, by  interposing  a  block  of  rubber,  or  some  other 
yielding  substance,  in  order  to  break  the  force  of 
recoil. 

This  machine  consists  essentially  of — 1.  The  frame; 
2.  The  springs;  3.  The  cylindrical  casing;  4.  The 
guide-blocks;  5.  The  screw;  6.  The  graduated  scale. 
The  frame  is  rectangular  in  form  and  made  of  cast- 
iron.  It  rests  upon  a  wooden  pedestal  fonned  of  two 
thick  check- pieces  into  which  a  transverse  piece  of 
timber  is  mortised  and  securely  held  by  two  long 
wroughl-iron  bolts.  The  frame  is  fastened  to  this 
pedestal  by  four  bolts,  also  of  wrought-iron.  The 
steel  springs  are  comjiri-sed  in  two  .systems,  or  nests, 
of  concentric  spiral  sjirings,  consisting  of  three 
springs  each.  The  outer  is  a  left-handid  spiral  and 
has  the  greatest  cross-section;  the  middle  one  is  a 
right-handed,  and  the  central  a  left-handed,  spiral. 
The  twf)  systems  are  placed  one  above  the  other  be- 
tween the  u))rights  of  the  cast-iron  frame,  with  a  thin 
steel  plate  between  them.  The  cross-sections  of  all 
the  springs  are  reclangidar,  that  of  the  central  ones 
being  the  least.  Thev  are  inclosed  by  a  hollow  cast- 
iron  cylindrical  casing,  concentric  with  but  not 
touching  them.  This  casing  does  not  rise  to  the 
level  of  the  ni'Sts  by  nearly  three  inches,  to  allow 
space  for  their  compression.  The  lower  guide-block 
has'on  its  under  surface  a  fiat  disk  of  iron  with  a 
diameter  equal  to  the  exterior  diameter  of  the  springs, 
which  rests  ujion  the  upper  base,  in  order  to  give  a 
good  bearing  surface,  i'hese  nests  of  springs  are 
those  used  for  the  ordinary  car-buffers,  with  the  ex- 
terior and  interior  evliii<liical  surfaces  turned  smooth. 


BENTON  THBEAD  VELOCIMETER. 


173 


BENTON  THEEAD  VELOCIMETEE. 


so  that  the  springs  of  each  sj-stem  are  concentric 
without  being  in  contact.  Each  nest  is  7.68  inches  in 
length,  measured  on  the  a.\is.  The  lateral  deflection 
of  the  axis  of  the  entire  system  due  to  compression  is 
obviated  by  using  two  systems,  or  nests,  as  described 
above,  with  a  steel  disk  between  them,  and  by  grind- 
ing the  limiting  bases  of  the  sprini;s  to  plane  surfaces 
perpendieidar  to  their  axes,  and  inserting  small  steel 
blocks  under  the  tapering  terminal  ends  of  the 
spirals,  thus  insuring  the  rigidity  and  .stability  of 
position  of  the  basal  planes  of  each  system  of  springs. 
This  blocking  up  and  squaring  the  ends,  while 
diminishing  the  amount  of  their  compressibility, 
allow  the  power  applied  to  the  screw  to  be  trans- 
mitted more  uniformly  to  the  springs,  as  they  come 
to  a  bearing  almost  simultaneously.  The  guide- 
blocks  are  two  rectangular  pieces  of  cast-iron,  \\ith 
planed  siu'faces,  accurately  titled  to  move  between 
the  planed  surfaces  of  the  uprights  of  the  frame.  In 
front  they  are  confined  to  their  positions  by  steel  side 
plates  screwed  to  them,  and  projecting  shoulders  re- 
tain them  on  the  rear  side  of  the  frame.  The  lower 
block  rests  on  the  upper  set  of  springs,  and  carries  a 
cylindrical  cap  of  nickel-plated  brass,  which  conceals 
that  portion  of  the  springs  which  projects  above  the 
cyluidrical  casing.  This  cap  is  slotted  at  the  sides  to 
allow  it  to  slide  up  and  down  the  frame.  Its 
diameter  is  a  little  greater  than  that  of  the  ca.sing,  to 
admit  of  its  passing  over  the  latter  during  compres- 
sion. The  upper  guide-block  Is  attached  to  the  screw 
by  a  shoulder  which  turns  easily  in  a  recess  in  the 
let  surface  of  the  block,  and  is  covered  by  a  steel  plate 
into  its  upper  side  flush  with  the  surface,  and  held  by 
six  screws.  The  screw  is  of  steel,  1.6  inches  in  diame- 
ter, with  eight  threads  to  the  inch;  it  engages  a  female 
screw  in  the  upper  cross-piece  of  the  frame.  The 
motion  of  the  screw  is  limited  in  the  direction  of  the 
axis  by  a  metallic  collar  attached  to  the  newel  just 
below  the  wheel.  The  power  is  applied  to  a  cast- 
iron  wheel  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  the  screw. 
The  length  of  the  screw  and  the  position  of  the  collar 
are  so  correlated  that  when  the  machine  is  not  in 
use,  should  the  screw,  by  accident  or  design,  be  de- 
pressed to  its  fullest  extent,  no  initial  tension  can  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  springs,  jirovided  the 
housfng  and  block  have  been  removed  from  between 
the  guide-blocks,  as  they  invariably  should  be  except 
when  in  legitimate  use.  A  graduated  scale  6  inches 
long,  made  of  a  small  square  steel  bar,  is  attached  to  the 
frame  by  two  small  blocks.  These  blocks  are  slotted 
to  receive  the  ends  of  the  scale.  A  screw  inserted 
through  each  block  and  into  the  ends  of  the  scale-bar 
furnishes  the  means  of  a  longitudinal  adjustment. 
A  small  sliding-block  upon  the  scale,  whose  upper 
plane  surface  serves  as  a  pointer,  has  a  toe  projecting 
from  one  side  to  receive  the  pressure  of  the  lower 
edge  of  the  side  plate  of  the  lower  guide-block  during 
its  descent.  This  index  or  pointer  is  held  in  any 
position  on  the  scale  by  the  action  of  a  gib,  whose 
pressure  is  regTilated  by  adjusting  screws.  The 
scale  upon  its  four  sides  is  graduated  into  sixteenths, 
fiftieths,  sixty-fourths,  and  himdredths  of  an  inch 
respectively. 

When  the  dynamometer  is  used  for  finding  pres- 
sures, the  appendages  are:  1.  The  block;  2.  The 
housing;  3.  The  copper  block  or  disk;  4.  The  cutter; 
5.  The  limit-gauge.  The  block  is  of  cast-iron, 
planed  and  fitted  by  narrow  overhanging  lips  to  the 
upper  surface  of  the  ujjper  guide-ljlock.  A  pin  pro- 
iecting  from  the  latter  into  a  small  hole  countersunk 
in  the  bottom  of  the  block  centers  it,  and  a  corre- 
sponding pin  set  in  its  upper  surface  performs  the 
same  function  for  the  housing,  thus  insuring  the 
coincidence  of  the  line  of  direction  of  the  pressure  t 
with  the  axis  of  the  screw.  The  housing  is  made  of  ', 
tempered  steel,  and  its  form  and  dimensions  must 
conform  to  the  object  in  view.  Fig.  1  shows  the 
usual  form.  The  side  screws  (two  on  each  side)  pro- 
ject interually  far  enough  to  bring  the  edge  of  the 
cutter,  when  "in  iwsition,  upon  a  line  one  third  of  the  | 


width  of  the  copiier  block  from  its  longer  side.  By 
shifting  the  copper  block,  a  second  cut  may  be  made 
in  the  simie  block.  The  widths  of  metal  iK-tween  the 
cuts  and  eilges  will  be  equal.  The  side  screws  serve 
to  adjust  the  copper  blocks  in  the  housing  and  offer 
no  serious  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  the  metal,  the 
places  of  contact  being  mere  points.  The  position  of 
the  cutter  is  invariable,  laterally.  There  is  a  stop  on 
the  back  of  the  hou.sing  to  facilitate  the  longitudi- 
nal atljustment  of  the  copper  block  and  cutter.  The 
cutter-block  is  of  tempered  steel  and  is  rectangular  in 
shape.    The  cutting  or  inckntiiig  edge  is  an  arc  of  a 


I 


-D- 


©  i  r- 


r»o 

1 

r^ 

o 

9 

J 

-XTT 


FiQ.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fjg.  8. 


circle;  the  two  surfaces  whose  intersections  form  the 
edge  are  tw-o  right  cones  with  circular  ba.ses.  The 
form  and  dimensions  are  sho«-n  in  Fig.  2.  The 
limit-gauge,  shown  in  Fig.  3.  consists  of  tvvo  parts. 
The  lower  part  has  on  its  upper  end  a  screw  which 
tits  into  a  corresponding  female  .screw  upoti  the  in- 
terior cylindrical  surface  of  the  upper  part.  This 
arrangement  gives  a  longitudinal  motion  by  which 
the  length  of  the  gauge  can  be  adjusted.  Tlie  planes 
of  the  ends  of  the  gauge  are  parallel  to  each  other. 
A  collar  on  the  upper  part,  and  the  base  on  the  lower, 
are  either  milled  or  checked,  for  ease  of  turning  while 
adjusting.     See  Di/iKiiiiniinkr  and  Pntutiire-gd'if/e. 

BENTON  THREAD  VELOCIMETEE.— A  gravity 
in.stnunent  in  which  the  weights  are  suspended  by 
the  tension  of  a  cord,  and  it  may  be  worked  with 
common  thread  in  place  of  the  usual  electro-magnetic 
currents.  The  principle  involved  in  this  arrangement 
is  that  the  loosening  elTect  of  cutting  a  taut  thread  is 
transmitted  to  equal  distances  along  the  thread  from 
the  point  of  rupture,  in  equal,  or  sensibly  equal, 
times.  It  is  a  principle  that  can  be  applied  to  others 
of  the  large  class  of  machines  for  measuring  small  in- 
tervals of  time.  The  ]ieculiar  advantages  foimd  in 
the  use  of  threads  over  electricity  are  simplicity  and 
cheapness  of  the  api^aratus.  freedom  from  acid  and 
water  for  the  batteries,  and  the  certainty  and  ease 
with  which  it  can  be  oi)erated  by  a  single  person, 
and  that  person  the  one  who  tires  the  gun. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  front  and  end  views  of  the 
Benton  Electro-ballistic  Machine,  originally  devised 
for  the  use  of  the  Military  Acailemy,  and  since  nxMli- 
tied  and  adopted  by  the  Ordnance  Deparlnieiit,  for 
proving  powder,  etc.  a  is  a  bed -plate  of  metal, 
which  supports  a  graduated  arc,  i.  This  arc  is 
placed  in  a  vertical  jOTsition  by  means  of  thuiiib-ncrcwii 
and  Kpirit-kceh  attached  to  it  ;  iUid  it  is  graduated 
into  degrees  and  fifths,  commencing  at  the  lowest 
point  of  the  arc  and  endmg  at  W.  p  p'  are  two  pen- 
dulums having  a  common  a.xis  of  motion,  pa.ssing 
throuirh  the  center  and  jx-rpcndicular  to  thi^  plane 
of  the  arc.  The  bob  of  the  pendulum,  p ,  is  fixed, 
but  that  of  p  can  be  moved  up  and  down  with  a 
thumb-.screw,  so  as  to  make  the  times  of  vibration 
equal,  m  and  m'  are  two  electro-magnets  attached  to 
the  horizontal  limb  of  the  arc,  to  hold  up  the  pen- 
dulums when  they  are  detlectcd  through  angles  of 
90°.  »  and  s'  are  pieces  of  soft  iron  attached  to  the 
prolongations  of  the  suspension-rods,  in  such  way 


BIUTON  THKEAD  VELOCIMETEB. 


174 


BENTON  THBEAD  VELOCIMETEB, 


as  to  be  in  contact  with  the  lower  poles  of  the  mag- 
nets when  the  pemlulunis  are  deflected.  (/  is  im 
apparatus  to  ri'coRl  the  point  at  which  the  pendu- 
lums pass  each  other,  when  they  fall  liy  the  breakins: 
of  the  currents  which  excite  the  majjiiets.  It  is  at- 
tached to  the  prolonpition  of  the  suspension-rod,  ;) , 
and  consists  essiMitially  of  a  small  pin  inclosetl  in  a 
brass  tube ;  the  end  of  the  pin  near  the  arc  lias  a 
sharp  jx)int,  and  the  other  is  terminated  with  a  head 
the  surface  of  which  is  oblique  to  the  plane  of  the 
arc.  As  the  iicnduUmis  pass  each  other,  a  blunt 
steel  point  attached  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  sus- 
pension-rod, p,  strikes  against  the  oblique  surface  of 
the  head  of  the  pin,  which  presses  the  point  into  a 
piece  of  paper  clamped  to  the  arc,  leaving  a  small 


small-arms  it  is  found  difficult  to  insure  the  cutting  of 
the  thread  of  No.  2  target  without  a  sjwcial  arrange- 
ment. Target  No.  1 ,  for  miull-nrms,  consists  of  a  piece 
of  board  with  a  vertical  opening  to  serve  as  a  rest  for 
the  muzzle  of  the  gun.  Across  this  oi)ening,  and 
directly  in  front  of  the  muzzle,  is  stretched  a  short 
horizontal  llircad  secured  to  two  leatlier  washers. 
The  thread  to  jiendulum  No.  1  is  drawn  around  the 
middle  of  the  horizontal  thread,  and  secured  at  the 
leather  washer.  Tlie  muzzle  of  the  i)iece  is  in  con- 
tact with  the  intersection  of  the  threads,  which  should 
be  a  lillle  l)elow  the  center  of  the  bore  The  thread 
is  cut  the  instant  the  bullet  readies  tlie  muzzle,  and 
the  other  thread  slackens,  generally  without  breaking. 
Target  No.  2,  for  small-arms,  Fig.  3,  is  composed  of 


FlQ.  1. 


puncture  to  mark  the  point  of  passage.  An  improve- 
ment to  the  foregoing  consists  in  attaching  to  the 
pendulum,  p' ,  a  delicate  bent  lever,  which  carries  on 
its  point  a  small  quantity  of  printer's  ink ;  the  pen- 
dulum, /),  pres.se3  upon  this  lever,  causing  the  point  to 
touch  the  arc  and  leave  a  small  dot  opposite  to  the 
point  where  the  pendulums  pass  each  other.  The 
magnets  are  also  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  trans- 
posed from  one  pendulum  to  the  other,  thereby  af- 
fonling  the  means  of  correcting  errors  arising  from 
inequalities  of  magnetic  power,  by  taking  a  mean  of 
two  observations,  c  c  and  c'  c'  represent  the  wires 
■which  conduct  the  two  electric  currents  to  the  mag- 
nets m  and  m. 

The  targets,  two  in  number,  are  designated  as  No. 
1  and  No.  2,  in  the  order  of  their  distance  from  the 
piece.  For  cannon  the  targets  are  similar  in  con- 
struction ;  each  consists  of  a  post  fixed  in  the  groimd, 
to  which  are  well  secured  two  horizontal  arms.     A 


m 


Via.  2. 

thread,  d  d.  Fig.  2,  is  stretched  vertically  between 
these  arms,  to  which  is  attached  the  thread  lead- 
ing to  the  pendulinn  at  one  side.  The  point  of 
attJichment  of  this  thread  should  be  a  little  below 
where  the  projectile  cuts  the  vertical  thread,  and  is 
shown  at  b.  Both  tlireads  to  the  pendulum  pass 
through  the  loops  of  the  compressors,  and  are  fast- 
ened to  posts  set  in  tlie  ground,  in  such  relative  posi- 
tions to  each  other  and  the  ])encUiluni  that  the  coni- 
pres-sors  will  sustain  Ihe  pendulums  wlun  llie  threads 
are  tightened,  and  will  relax  their  hold  when  broken. 
When  cannon  are  carefully  aimed.  Ihe  projectile  will 
cut  both  vertical  threads  directly  ;  but  in  the  cose  of 


an  iron  target-plate,  B,  1  inch  thick,  which  swings 

freely  on  horizontal  trunnions  at  its  upper  edge. 
The  lower  back  edge  of  the  plate  rests  lightly  against 
the  back  of  a  sharp  knife-blade,  D,  hinged  at  E. 
The  thread,  I,  leading  to  jjendulum  No.  2  iswTapped 
around  the  .slitted  part  in  which  the  knife-blade  oper- 
ates, and  fastened  to  the  leather  washer,  F.  C,  C 
are  two  flat  iron  bars  bolted  to  a  post  of  wood  let 
into  the  groimd,  and  serve  as  supports  of  the  trun- 
nions of  the  target-plate,  B.  When  the  bullet  strikes 
the  plate,  B,  the  knife-blade,  D,  is  pressed  backwards, 
cuttmg  the  thread,  I,  and  releasing  the  pendulum. 
C  and  H  are  screens  of  boilerplate  to  protect  the 
thread  and  knife  from  fragments  ot  the  bullet.  The 
target-plate,  B,  is  made  of  tough  wrought-iron  about 
6  inches  wide,  6  inches  deep,  and  1  inch  thick.    The 


Fio.  3. 

knife  .should  be  made  as  sharp  as  possible,  .so  that  a 
slight  tap  of  the  finger  on  the  target-plate  will  suffice 
to  cut  the  thread. 

For  use  with  small-amis,  the  graduated  arc  of  the 
machine  shotild  be  placed  in  or  near  the  plane  of  fire; 
for  cannon,  the  arc  should  hv  parallel  to  and  at  least 
1(10  feet  to  one  side  of  the  plane  of  tire,  beyond  the 
jar  due  to  the  discharge,  and  in  every  case"  equidis- 
tani  from  the  targets.  If  it  be  desired  to  use  a  table  of 
calculated  velocities,  the  distance  Ix'tween  the  targets 
must  correspond  to  that  used  iu  the  table ;  but  any 


BEBDAN  TELEHETEB. 


175 


BEBDAN  TELEMETEB. 


distance  may  be  taken  and  the  tabular  velocity  modi- 
fied by  multiplying  it  by  the  ratio  of  the  actual  and 
tabular  distances.  The  machine  and  the  targets  hav- 
ing been  located  and  the  threads  laid,  the  operator, 
before  commencing  to  work,  levels  (be  machine  by 
means  of  the  thumb-screws  and  spirit-levels,  and  tests 
the  pendulums  and  compressors  to  see  that  they  work 
freely  ;  then,  1st,  deflects  the  pendulums ;  2d",  tight- 
ens the  compressors  and  secures  tlie  threads  at  the 
hxrgets  ;  3d,  covers  the  point  of  the  marker  with 
printer's  ink  ;  4th,  fires  the  piece  ;  .'jth,  notes  the  read- 
ing of  the  arc ;  6lh,  wipes  out  the  ink-mark.  As- 
suming that  each  pendulum,  whether  held  deflected 
by  an  electro-magnet  or  by  a  thread  and  compressor, 
begins  to  move  at  the  instant  the  projectile  cuts  the 
target,  then  the  interval  of  time  between  the  rupture 
of  the  two  targets  will  correspond  to  the  difference 
of  the  arcs  described  by  the  pendulums  up  to  the 
time  of  meeting.  To  determine  a  forniula  for  the 
time  that  it  takes  for  one  of  the  pendulums  to  pa.ss 
over  a  given  arc,  let  I  be  the  length  of  the  equivalent 
simple  pendulum,  o  the  velocity  of  the  center  of 
oscillation,  y  the  vertical  distance  passed  over  by 
this  point,  j  the  variable  angle  which  the  axis  of 
the  pendulum  makes  with  the  horizontal,  and  t' 
the  time  necessary  for  the  point  to  pass  over  an 
entire  circumfereace,  the  radius  of  which  Is  I,  with 
a  uniform  velocity  v.     We  have 

■^=  \^- 

Substituting  for  y  its  value  in  terms  of  the  con- 
stant angle  of  half  oscillation  and  the  variable  angle 
X,  the  above  expression  becomes 


r;=  \^2gl  cos.  (90'  —  x). 

The  time  t'  is  equal  to  the  circumference  of  the 
circle,  the  radius  of  which  is  I,  divided  by  the  ve- 
locity »  ;  again  divide  this  by  360  ;  we  have  the  time 
of  passing  over  each  degree,  or 


t- 


%nl 


360  V  SffZ  cos.  (90'  —X) 


To  determine  I  it  is  necessary  to  change  the  points 
of  suspension  from  cylinders  to  knife-edges,  in  order 
to  determine  the  time  of  vibration  through  a  ven|- 
small  arc.  The  mean  of  500  vibrations  will  be  ven,' 
near  the  exact  time  of  a  single  ^ibration.  Denoting 
this  time  by  f  and  substituting  it  in  the  preceding 

expression  for  its  value  tc  U  — ,  there  results 


«=■ 


r 


180  \''i,  sin.  X 
As  < "  is  constant  for  any  one  place, 


180  ^3 


:  =  A,will 


be  constant,  and  we  have  t  - 


A 


4/  sin.  X 


By  assign- 


ing values  to  x,  a  table  can  be  formed  giving  the  times 
corresponding  to  different  arcs.  The  length  of  the 
equivalent  simple  pendulum  in  all  velocimeters  is 
made  5.558  inches,  and  tables  calculated  on  this  length 
will  answer  for  practical  purposes  in  all  altitudes  and 
latitudes  in  the  United  States  where  they  are  likely 
to  be  used.  To  find  the  velocity  for  a  given  reading 
take  the  corresponding  time  from  the  table,  double 
it,  and  subtract  its  logarithm  from  the  logarithm  of 
the  distance  between  the  targets.  The  remainder 
will  be  the  logarithm  of  the  required  velocity.  By 
constructing  a  "table  of  velocities"  calculated  for  de- 
grees and  tenths  of  degrees,  from  10  to  29  inclusive, 
and  for  the  tlistance  l)etween  the  targets  used,  veloci- 
ties may  be  readily  obtained  by  inspection. 

The  peculiar  advantages  found  in  the  use  of  this 
velocimeter  are  simplicity  and  cheapness  of  the  ap- 


paratus, freedom  from  acid  for  the  batteries,  and  the 
certainty  and  ease  with  which  it  can  l)e  operated  bv  a 
single  person,  the  one  who  tires  the  gun.  If  electrici- 
ty be  employed  with  this  machine,  two  galvanic  bat- 
teries will  be  required.  These  should  be  as  nearly  as 
po.ssible  of  the  same  strength  and  constancy,  in  order 
that  any  remaining  magnetism  in  the  magnets  may 
be  as  unifonn  as  possible.  The  currents  from  the 
l)atteries  pass  to  the  electro-magnets  and  the  targets, 
each  magnet  having  its  own  battery  and  target ;  the 
circuit  of  each  current  must,  however,  include  the 
dixjitnetor.  This  latter  is  a  small  auxiliary  instru- 
ment by  which  the  currents  may  be  broken  simulta- 
neously. Each  pendulum  is  held  deflected  through 
an  angle  of  90  by  its  elect  ro-magnet  and  is  released 
and  allowed  to  osciliate  when  the  current  is  broken 
by  the  rupture  ot  its  target,  or  by  the  disjunctor. 
The  point  at  which  the  pendulums"  meet,  when  fall- 
ing, is  noted  by  the  marker.  This  consists  of  a  bent 
lever  attached  at  the  lower  end  of  the  inner  penduhnn. 
As  the  pendulums  pass  each  other,  an  arm  on  the 
outer  one  pres.ses  upon  the  lever,  drives  it  agiunst  the 
arc,  and  leaves  thereon  a  dot  made  by  printer's  ink, 
carried  on  the  point  of  the  lever.  The  error  of  the 
machine  is  determined  by  making  a  nipture  of  the 
wires  ^iy  the  disjunctor,  and  oljserving  the  point  of 
pa.ssjige  of  the  pendulums  with  reference  to  the  zero 
of  the  arc.     See  C/iri>ii'>Krt>pe. 

BEBDAN  TELEMETEB.— It  is  proposed  with  the 
Bcrdan  range-finder,  as  with  the  majority  of  instru- 
ments intended  for  the  same  tise,  to  determine  the 
side  of  a  right-angled  triangle  BAC  whose  base,  CA, 
is  known  by  measuring  the  angle  at  the  apex.  Let  6 
be  the  base.  One  can  measure  on  the  side  AB  a  cer- 
tain number  of  distances,  of  which  the  constant  dif- 
ference is  m,  corresponding  in  range  to  axmemFe 
notches  of  the  sight.  If  jVB  =  c  is  the  smallest  dis- 
tance, the  following  results:  c  -\-  m,  c  +  3»i,  .  .  . 
and  the  greatest,  c  +  ""'•  The  angles  at  the  apes 
corresponding  are  given  by  their  tangents: 

tang.  B    =  -  ; 


tang.  B„  = 


c  -\-  nm 

One  is  able  to  mea.sure  in  practice  these  different 
angles  by  prolonging  to  the  rear  of  the  point  C  the 
hypothenusi' of  each  triangle  as  far  as  the  arc  of  a 
circle  described  from  the  point  C  with  a  radius  /. 
We  obtain  in  this  way  the  points  0  .  1,  2  ...  A,  and 
the  arcs OD,  ID,  2D— "/(D,  orX,  X,,  X,  — X„,  meas- 
uring the  angles  B,  B,,  B^  — B„.  If  it  is  desired, 
for  example,  to  measure  some  infantry  distances: 

C  =    300  meters; 

m  =      50  meters; 

c  +  tun  =  1600  meters. 

If  we  take  5  =  2  meters  and  i  =  0.4'",  we  have 
tang.  B  =  1V5    =  0.00666,  B   =  23  55' 


0.00125,  B„  =     4'  17"; 
B  -  B„  =  18  38". 


tang.  B„  =  Tijinj 

angle  (X-X) 
Upon  a  circumference  whose  radius  is  1  this  angle 
intercepts  an  arc  of  1118  X  0. 01HX)04848,  which  is 
0.00.542;  for  a  radius  of  400  millimeters, 

X  —  X„  =  0.00.542  X  400  =  2.168""'. 

These  arcs  are,  moreover,  sulficientlv  small  to  enable 
one  to  substitute  for  their  lengths  tLose  of  their  tan- 


BEEEUNO. 


176 


B£RH. 


geuts,  and  to  form  llie  following  table  without  re- 
course to  trigonometrical  tables: 


Distances  In 

meters. 

c,c  +  m.  .  .  . 

c-f-n»i. 

TnnKents. 

taug.  B.  B 

B„. 

Arcs. 

Differences. 

x-x,.x„ 

X,... 
-X.-,-X.. 

maim. 

Millim. 

aoo 

O.0O6666 

a. 667 

0.381 

aso 

0.005714 

3  ax 

0.286 

400 

0.0O.VXIO 

3  000 

0.233 

450 

0001440 

1 .777 

0.177 

800 

0.001000 

1.600 

0.146 

eso 

o.ottitao 

1.4M 

0.131 

DOO 

OOOS-SSS 

1.333 

0.103 

6fiO 

0.00.3070 

1.330 

0.087 

TOO 

0.0I.>».57 

1.143 

0.077 

750 

0.000066 

1 .066 

0.066 

800 

0.003500 

1.000 

0.059 

850 

0.00-2353 

0.941 

0.053 

900 

0.00-iiB 

0.888 

0.046 

950 

0  002ia5 

0.843 

0  (M2 

1,000 

O.OIWIOO 

0.800 

0088 

1,030 

0.001905 

0.762 

0.035 

1,100 

0.00I8I8 

0.737 

0.032 

1,150 

0.001739 

0.695 

0.029 

1,200 

0.001666 

0  666 

0.036 

1,250 

0.001600 

0  6J0 

0.035 

1,300 

0.001539 

0  615 

0.032 

1.350 

0.001481 

0.693 

0.021 

1,400 

0  001438 

0.,'>72 

0.030 

1,450 

0.00I:M0 

0  553 

0.019 

1,500 

0.0013.33 

0.5.33 

'         0.017 

1,550 

0.00139O 

0.516 

0.016 

1,600 

0.001250 

0.500 

2.167 

One  sees  definitelj'  that  while  rapidly  mea.siiring  the 
arcs  X,  Xi,  Xj,  the  corresponding  distance  will  be  at 
the  sjime  time  determined.  Among  instruments 
already  known  a  great  number  mca.'^ure,  in  the  same 
■way,  angles  by  a  single  observation,  unfortunately 
too  long  to  be  practically  pos.sible  on  the  field  of  bat- 
tle. The  essential  conditions  are  great  rapidity  and 
accuracy  in  coimection  with  the  graduation  of  the 
sight.  The  range-tinder  invented  by  General  Berdan 
satisfies  these  conditions  by  reason  of  the  advantages 
which  it  presents.  So  far  it  does  not  seem  to  be  ob- 
jected to  in  Germany,  where  it  is  very  much  appre- 
ciated, cither  by  its  net  cost  (about  2o,000  francs)  or 
by  its  large  size,  which  it  owes  in  part  to  its  two  tele- 
scopes, a.stronomical  instruments  of  great  power, 
about  five  feet  long  (1"'..52),  and  provided  with  ob- 
jcct-LTlii.sses  4  inches  (0'".10)  in  diameter.  .Some  im- 
prriwincMts  in  details  have  been  made  in  it,  however, 
which  have  not  so  far  been  made  public.  The  appa- 
ratus consists  essentially  of  two  telescopes,  connected 
by  a  fi.xed  base,  one  of' which  can  be  moved  without 
altering  the  length  of  the  base.  This  displacement 
can  be  measured  by  a  micrometer  which  gives  imme- 


arcs  X  —  X,,  X  —  X,.  .  .  .  X„,  —  X„.  Each  divi- 
sion corrc.sjionds,  therefore,  to  one  of  the  distances  e, 
c+  m,  c  -f-  2w,  .  .  .  c  -j-  »m.  General  Berdan  has 
recently  modified  his  telemeter  for  garrison  and  sea- 
coast  service,  and  constructed  a  new  model  intended 
for  field  and  mountjiiu  artillery.  This  last  instru- 
ment is  constructed  upon  the  same  optical  principle 
as  that  which  was  aiijilied  in  the  telemeter  of  great 
range.  The  invenlt)r  rightly  thought  that  his  first 
telemeter  was  too  hea\y  for  field  and  mountain  bat- 
teries, and  endeavoretl  to  make  this  instrument 
lighter,  more  easily  handled,  and  cheaper.  The  te- 
lemeter represented  in  the  drawing  is  the  old  instru- 
ment mo(lified;  it  is  called  No.  6  in  the  series  of 
General  Berdan's  es.says.  In  this  model  the  bo\  can 
be  turned  in  all  directions  independently  of  the 
wagon.  The  instrument  has  a  fixed  base  of  4  meters; 
two  telescopes  of  V"J>0,  with  object-glasses  90"""  in 
diameter,  and  a  reekt)iier  which  indicates  directly 
distiuices  up  to  10,000  meters.  The  author  asserts 
that  it  only  takes  30  seconds  on  an  average  to  esti- 
mate distances,  and  that  the  errors  of  observation  are 
less,  even  for  movable  objects,  than  the  average  error 
in  range  resulting  from  the  precision  of  tire  of  artillery. 
This  in.strument,  although  more  powerful  than  the 
one  described  previously,  and  more  easily  handled,  in 
consequence  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  first  tele- 
scope can  be  directed  upon  the  object  to  be  sighted, 
is  still  too  cumbersome  for  service  with  field-batteries, 
and  should  be  reserved  tor  garrison  and  sea-coast 
batteries.  Telemeter  No.  7  is  of  smaller  dimensions; 
it  is  quite  portable.  It  has  a  base  of  1"'.33;  the  tele- 
scopes are  1"'.12  long,  and  the  reckoner  is  graduated 
up  to  6000  meters.  For  transportation  the  telescopes 
are  packed  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the 
instrument.  The  power  of  this  telemeter  is  one  half 
that  of  No.  6;  one  operation  occupies  about  30  sec- 
onds. The  weight  of  No.  7  is  only  70  kilometers 
(154  pounds),  while  that  of  No.  6  is  about  1000  kilo- 
meters (2200  pounds).  No.  7  is  therefore  suited  to 
field  and  momitain  batteries,  as  well  as  for  observa- 
tion on  shipboard.  General  Berdan  thinks  that  the 
very  high  price  of  his  instrument  ought  not  to  be 
considered  in  the  choice  of  a  telemeter,  in  conse- 

I  quence  of  the  advantages  which  result  from  the 
e-ract  determination  of  distances.  It  is  impossible,  in 
his  opinion,  to  construct  a  practical  instrument 
smaller  and  cheaper,  for  he  thinks  it  absolutely 
necessary  to  have  a  fixed  base  and  a  reckoner;  now 
the  fixed  base  being  always  tolerably  small  (4  meters 
at  the  most),  involves  necessarily  the  emploj-ment  of 
powerful   telescopes.     See  Pratt   Range-finder   and 

I  Telemeter. 

I      BEREUN6.— A  kind  of  Swedish  militia,  consist- 


Berdan  Telemeter.    No.  6. 


diately  the  di.stance  on  the  scale  when  the  pointini;  of  ] 
the  secoml  telescope,  ui)on  the  s;mic  point  of  llie  ob- 
ject at  which  the  first  one  is  directed,  is  comjileted. 
The  micronieter-screw  wliich  iiroduces  and  measures 
the  displacement  of  the  movable  telescope  has  a 
mi)vement  equal  to  the  total  arc  X  —  X„.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  a  large  heail  or  drum,  the  circumfireiKe 
of  which  is  divided  in  n  parts  proportionately  to  the 


ing  of  every  man  in  the  kingdom  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  years  of  age  capabie  of  bearing  arms. 

BERG  BARTHE.— A  variety  of  baltle-axe  used  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  This  arm  was  seldom  used 
for  war  purposes,  but  "mostly  by  miners  on  the  festi- 
val-day processions  of  niineis'  corporations. 

BERM. — Between  the  parapet  and  ditch  of  a  field- 
fortification  a  narrow   zone  is   usually   left  on   the 


BEENAED  SYSTEM  OF  FOBTIFICATIONS. 


177 


BESIEGE. 


natural  surface  of  the  ground  which  is  termed  the 
bertn.  This  is  a  defect  in  field-works,  because  it 
yields  the  enemy  a  foothold  to  breathe  a  moment, 
before  attemptinir  to  ascend  the  exterior  slope.  It  is 
useful  in  the  construction  of  the  work  for  the  work- 
men to  stand  on;  and  it  throws  the  weif:ht  of  the 
parapet  back  from  the  scarp,  whicli  mii;ht  be  crashed 
out  by  this  pressure.  In  firm  soils  the  lierm  may  l)e 
only  from  eighteen  incites  to  tiro  feH  iride;  in  other 
cases,  as  in  marshy  soils,  it  may  require  a  width  of  six 
feet.  In  all  cases  it  .should  be  six  feet  below  the  ex- 
terior crest — to  prevent  the  enemy,  should  he  form 
on  it,  from  firing  on  the  troops  on  tlie  banquette.  See 
Fiilit-fortiliriitiiiii. 

BEENAED  SYSTEM  OF  FOETIFICATIONS.— This 
system  proposes  a  double  enceinte  covered  by  counter- 
guards  and  ravelins,  having  high  and  low  faces.  The 
outer  bastions  can  be  isolated,  after  tlie  enemy  has 
opened  a  breach,  by  blowing  up  the  tlanks.  Ber- 
nard proposes  two  other  methods,  which  are  based 
upon  fxcellcnt  principles. 

BEENEE  EIFLE.— An  early  two-grooved  rille,  fir- 
ing a  belted  ball,  and  of  which  the  Lancaster  rifle  is 
a  modification. 

BEESAGLIEEI.— The  name  given  to  the  Riflemen 
or  Shaqishooters  of  the  Italian  army.  After  the 
disiistrous  campaign  of  Charles  Allx/rt  against  the 
Austrians  in  184*?-49,  and  the  abdication  of  that 
monarch,  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel,  commenced  a 
remodeling  of  the  Sardinian  army.  One  improve- 
ment, brought  about  by  General  Alessandro  della 
Marmora,  was  the  formation  of  a  Corps  of  Bersiig- 
lieri.  These  were  light  active  soldiers,  dressed  in  a 
picturesque  but  serviceable  dark-green  uniform,  and 
armed  with  long  rifles.  Two  battalions  of  these 
Ritlemen  formed  part  of  the  Sardinian  army  during 
the  Crimean  War.  On  the  16th  of  August,  is.'j.j,  they 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  the  Tehernaya.  During 
the  Italian  War  of  1859  the  Bersaglieri  were  engaged 
in  many  operations  requiring  dash  and  brilliancy. 
There  are  over  40,000  Bersaglieri  in  the  regulararmy. 

BESIEGE. — An  army,  to  undertake  the  siege  of  a 
fortress,  must  have  superiority  in  the  field,  so  that 
while  some  of  the  corps  are  occupied  in  besieging  the 
place,  others  are  employed  in  corering  this  operation, 
or  in  repulsing  the  enemy  whenever  he  endeavors  to 
succor  the  place.  The  army  covering  the  siege  is 
called  an  Army  of  Ohserratujn ,  and  that  which  en- 
deavors to  give  aid  to  the  place  is  called  the  Succoring 
Artiiy.  The  Besieging  Army  is  that  which,  protected 
by  the  anny  of  observation,  throws  up  all  the  works 
nccessiirj'  to  take  the  place,  such  as  trenches,  bat- 
teries, etc.  It  begins  its  operations  by  investing  the 
fortress;  that  is,  it  will  advance  with  the  greatest 
secrecy  and  rapidity,  and  occupy  positions  on  every 
side,  to  cut  off  all  communication  with  the  adjacent 
country,  and  confine  the  garrison  entirely  to  their 
own  resources.  The  positions  thus  occupied  are 
strengthened  by  field-works,  and  a  sure  communica- 
tion is  kept  lip  I)etween  them.  It  is  absolutely 
nece-ssary  to  invest  the  fortress  attacked,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  garrison  holding  any  intercourse  with  the 
neighboring  country;  for  if  this  precaution  be  not 
taken,  the  defenders  will  be  alile  to  draw  fresh  sup- 
plies of  men,  provisions,  and  ammunition  from  the 
country,  increasing  greatly  the  duration  of  the  siege, 
and  reducing  the  chances  of  ultimate  success.  At 
the  late  siege  of  Seliastopol,  the  ground  being  inter- 
sected by  the  inlet  of  the  harbor  of  Sebastopol,  the 
allied  army  was  unable  to  complete  the  investment. 
Thus  the  fortress  on  the  northern  side  was  left  open 
to  receive  all  the  reinforcements  of  men  and  materiel 
which  could  be  furnished  by  the  resources  of  Russia. 
Fresh  officers,  fresh  troops,  fresh  provisions  were  con- 
tinually poured  in;  the  defenses  were  enlarged  and 
multiplied;  and  the  besiegers,  attacked  in  their  own 
lines,  held  at  one  period  a  very  critical  position.  The 
siege  was  thus  prolonged  beyond  that  of  anj-  other  of 
modern  times,  and  success  was  ultimately  attained  by 
a  loss  of  men  and  materiel  altogether  unprecedented. 


Ground  was  broken  on  the  10th  October,  la'M,  and 
on  the  10th  September,  185.5,  the  Russians,  having 
sunk  their  ships,  retreated  from  the  southern  to  the 
northern  side  of  the  harlx)r,  leaving  the  works  on  the 
southern  side  in  the  hands  of  the  allies,  exactly  eleven 
months  after  the  commencement  of  their  attack.  A 
place  may  sometimes  be  re<luced  by  investment  or 
blockade  alone,  and  where  it  is  possible  suddeidy  to 
blockade  a  place  ill  provisioned  and  tilled  with  a  nu- 
merous garrison  and  population,  it  may  be  the  most 
ready  and  bloodless  mode  of  proceeding.  Indeed, 
many  other  circumstances  may  render  it  desir!d)le  to 
endeavor  to  reduce  a  place  by  blockade.  When  the 
defenders  have  been  driven  within  their  works,  and 
the  pla<e  invested,  the  ground  iH'fore  the  fronts  to  be 
attacked  is  carefully  examined,  and  the  most  suitable 
situations  selected  for  the  park  of  artillery,  and  the 
Engineers'  park:  the  fonnerto  receive  all  the  ordnance 
stores  and  ammunition;  the  latter  all  the  Engineers' 
stores  and  materials  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of 
the  trenches,  batteries,  etc.  These  parks  should  be 
placed  in  secure  localities,  behind  the  slopes  of  hills 
or  in  rapines,  beyond  the  general  range  of  the  guns 
of  the  fortress,  but  with  a  ready  access  to  the  trenches 
and  batteries  of  attack,  for  the  use  of  which  they  are 
formed. 

The  artillerj'  and  Engineer  parks  having  been  duly 
established,  and  an  adequate  sujiply  of  ordnance, 
anununition,  and  materials  collected  in  them,  for  a 
week's  or  ten  days'  consumption,  the  actual  work  of 
the  siege  begins.  The  objects  of  the  besiegers  are 
three:  l.st.  By  a  .superior  fire  of  artillery  to  dismount 
the  guns  and  subdue  the  artillery-fire  of  the  place. 
2d.  To  construct  a  secure  and  covered  road  by  which 
his  columns  may  march  to  a.ssault  the  defensive 
works,  so  soon  as  they  are  sutliciently  destrojed  to 
justify  the  attempt.  3d.  To  breach  or  liatter  down 
the  escarp  revetments  of  the  fortress  in  certain  spots, 
causing  the  fall  of  the  rampart  and  inira[iet  supported 
by  them,  and  thus  exposing  the  interior  of  the  place 
to  the  assaulting  columns.  Now,  before  any  means 
can  be  taken  to  attain  any  one  of  these  objects,  a 
strong  force  must  be  placed  under  cover,  close  at 
hand  to  the  spots  on  which  the  uece.s.sary  operations 
are  to  be  commenced,  whose  dulj-  it  is  to  repel  any 
sortie  of  the  enemy,  and  drive  back  any  parties  w  hich 
issue  from  the  place  to  destroy  or  interrupt  the  works 
of  the  attack.  The  cover  provided  for  this  guard  of 
the  trenches  is  usually  a  trench  and  parapet  called 
the  first  parallel,  formed  around  the  whole  of  the 
fronts  attacked:  its  distance  from  the  advanced -works 
has  usually  been  between  600  and  700  yards.  In  the 
late  siege  of  Sebastopol,  the  first  parallel  was  opened 
at  a  distance  of  1200  yards;  and  doubtless,  in  future 
sieges,  owing  to  the  increased  range  of  fire-arms,  the 
first  parallel  will  seldom  be  less,  and  may  probably 
be  consideralily  more  distant.  This  parallel  is  formed 
by  approaching  the  place  secretly  in  the  night  with  a 
biidy  of  men;  part  carrying  intreiiching-tools,  and  the 
reniaiiider  aniied.  The  fonncr  dig  a  trencli  in  the 
groiuid  parallel  to  the  fortifications  to  be  attacked, 
and  with  the  earth  excavated  from  the  trench  nuse  a 
liank  on  the  side  next  the  enemy,  while  the  latter  re- 
main under  amis,  usually  in  a  recumlx'nt  posture,  in 
readiness  to  protect  the  "working  party,  should  the 
garrison  sally  out.  During  the  liight,  this  trench  and 
bank  arc  made  of  sufficient  deiilli  and  extent  to  cover 
from  the  missiles  of  the  place  the  numlH-r  of  men 
re<iuisite  to  cope  with  the  garrison,  and  the  besiegers 
remain  in  the  trench  throughout  the  followinjj  day, 
in  despite  of  the  fire  or  of  the  sorties  of  the  Ix-sieged. 
This  trench  is  afterwards  progres.>iively  widenwl  and 
deepened,  and  the  bsink  of  earth  raised"  till  it  forms  a 
covered  road,  called  a  parallel,  embracing  all  the  forti- 
fications to  be  attacked;  and  along  this  road,  guns, 
wagons,  and  men  securelv  and  conveniently  move, 
equally  sheltered  from  th"e  view  and  the  missiles  of 
the  garrison.  So  soon  as  the  first  panillel  is  estal> 
lishcil,  the  Engineers  select  positions  for  the  batteries 
to  silence  the  defensive  artillery.    In  the  ix)sition8  of 


BESIEGE. 


178 


BESIEGE 


these  batteries  lies  one  of  the  principal  mlvantases  of 
Uic  besiegers.  Batti'rios  of  puns  ami  mortars  arc  now 
constniciod  a  little  in  advance  of  this  ]ianillel.  in  jio- 
sitions  siuh  that  their  iruns  cutilade  all  the  faces  of 
the  works  attacked.  Tlie  crest-lines  of  these  batteries 
an'  therefori'  maile  ]XTi>cndicular  to  the  prolongations 
of  the  faces  of  the  Rivelins  and  bastions  of  (he  fronts 
attacked,  and  so  irreal  is  the  advantage  to  the  besie^r 
arising  from  such  iwsiiious  of  his  batteries,  that  with 
an  CHjual  or  sometimes  smaller  number  of  guns  he  is 
able  spcc<lily  to  sulxlue  the  artillery-tjre  of  the  de- 
fense. These  entilading  batteries  on  the  first  parallel 
should  Ix-  completed  and  ready  to  open  lire  on  the 
third  morning  after  breaking  ground. 

After  the  fire  of  the  defensive  artillery  has  been 
sufiiciently  suUluc-d,  the  approaches  are  commenced. 
These,  like  the  first  parallel,  are  trenches  dug  in  the 
ground  and  prt)tccted  by  a  parapet  formed  of  the  ex- 
cavated earth,  thrown  up  on  the  siile  of  the  enemy's 
works.  The  approaches  are  made  on  the  capitals  of 
the  ravelins  and  bastions  attacked,  but  not  in  a  straight 
line  directly  towards  the  salients,  as  in  that  Citse  they 
could  be  enfiladed  from  end  to  end,  but  in  a  zigzag 
direction,  alternately  to  the  right  and  to  the  lett  of 
the  capitals,  in  such  a  manner  that  their  prolongations 
fall  clear  of  the  fortress,  and  the  possibility  of  enfi- 
lading them  is  entirely  removed.  The  heads  of  these 
approaches  are  pushed  forward  by  small  parties  of 
men,  who,  from  their  great  numerical  inferiority,  are 
quite  unable  to  contend  with  sorties  issuing  from  the» 
place.  To  prevent  the  repeated  destruction  of  the 
api>roaches,  and  the  continual  loss  of  the  working 
parties  engaged  in  their  construction,  a  guard  of 
sutlicient  strength  must  always  be  stationed  within  a 
distance  from  these  works  not  exceeding  the  distance 
of  these  works  from  the  covered-way  of  the  place:  so 
that  a  sortie  issuing  from  the  place  for  the  piu-pose  of 
destroying  the  approaches  may  be  met  and  repulsed 
by  the  guard  of  the  trenches  before  they  can  have 
time  to  carry  their  object  into  effect;  and  as  the  ap- 
proaches themselves,  from  their  limited  dimensions, 
iillord  no  accommodation  for  a  guard  of  the  trenches, 
a  parallel  must  always  be  established  at  least  as  near 
to  the  head  of  the  approaches  as  the  heads  of  ap- 
proaches to  the  covered-way  of  the  place.  It  may 
then  be  considered  a  general  principle  of  the  attack 
that  a  new  parallel  or  place  of  arms  becomes  neces- 
sary when  the  approaches  have  advanced  half-way 
between  the  last-formed  parallel  and  the  covered-way 
of  the  fortress.  So  soon,  therefore,  as  the  approaches 
have  advanced  half  the  distance  between  the  first 
parallel  and  covered-way  of  the  fortress,  a  second 
parallel  mast  be  established  to  accommodate  a  guard 
of  the  trenches,  or  the  working  parties  at  the  heads  of 
the  approaches  will  be  liable  to  be  swept  off  bv  parties 
of  cavalrj-  issuing  from  the  covered-way,  before  aid 
can  reach  them  from  the  first  parallel.  The  ap- 
proaches are  then  pushed  forward,  parallels  being 
made  according  to  the  principles  just  laid  down^ 
■wherever  required,  until  they  reach  nearly  the  crest 
of  the  covered-way.  Here  a  trench  of  greater  mag- 
nitude is  formed,  and  in  it  batteries  ot"  heavy  gims 
are  constructed  to  silence  the  remaining  artilferj-  of 
the  defense,  and  to  breach  in  certain  selected  spots 
the  escaq)  revetment-wall,  thus  destropng  the  for- 
midable obstacle  to  jtssault  presented  by  the  high  per- 
pendicular sides  of  the  ditches  of  the  fortress.  The 
order  for  the  assault  is  given  when  the  breach  has 
been  rendered  practicable  by  the  overthrow  of  the 
parai>et  uixm  the  niins  of  its  walls;  and  after  a  gal- 
lery has  been  opened  for  descending  into  the  ditch, 
across  which  a  good  epaidement  has  been  made  join- 
ing the  breach  to  the  gallerj-.  The  troops  for  the  as- 
sault are  held  in  the  ditch,  in  the  crowning  of  the 
covered-way,  and  in  the  third  parallel.  These  de- 
tachments are  to  sustain  each  other  and  to  do  it  with 
strong  arms.  At  the  concerted  signal,  the  first  de- 
tachment mounts  the  breach,  driving  back  the  de- 
fenders, and  seekmg  to  establish  itself  firmly  upon 
the  height  by   constructing   with    gabions  a  lodg- 


ment in  the  angle  of  the  bastion.  This  is  a  little  in- 
trenchmenl,  callid  Ijy  the  French  aid  de  pk,  which 
crowns  the  Ijreacb,  and  under  shelter  of  which  the 
soldiers  lire  upon  all  who  present  thenLselves.  The 
sap)x»rs  are  charged  with  its  construction,  and,  in 
sutlicient  numbers  for  this  jiurpose,  accompany  the 
assjiulting  party,  each  canying  a  shovel,  a  pickaxe, 
and  a  gabion.  The  second  detachment  aids  the  fii^t 
in  sunnounting  the  breach,  and  relieves  it  if  the 
struggle  is  obstinate.  The  third  detachment  lines 
the  trenches  upon  the  glacis,  and  sweejis  with  its  fire 
the  parapets  and  toi>  of  the  breach,  and  wherever  else 
there  is  resistance;  but  care  must  also  be  taketi,  before 
I  coming  to  close  quarters,  to  facilitate  the  a.s.sault  by 
j  directing  upon  the  work  attacked  as  many  jiieces  of 
artillery  as  jiossible.  When  the  clo.se  combat  Ix-gins, 
the  artillery  ceases,  as  it  would  otherwise  fire  upon 
friend  and  foe. 

Frequently  the  taking  of  the  first  works  brings 
about  the  surrender  of  the  place,  but  again  it  often 
happens  that  the  irresistance  is  but  a  foretaste  of  the 
obstinate  defense  to  be  made,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
grasp,  step  by  step,  the  fortifications  of  the  besieged. 
Sometimes,  again,  the  possession  of  the  ramparts  does 
not  put  an  end  to  tlie  fighting,  but  courageous  citizens, 
willing  to  sjK  rifice  their  propertv  to  the  honor  and 
independence  of  their  country,  dispute  inch  bv  inch 
the  po.sse.ssion  of  the  streets  and  houses.  The  defense 
of  Saragossa  in  1808  is  a  heroic  instance  of  such  de- 
votedness.  The  Spaniards,  after  losing  their  fortifi- 
cations, sustained  during  twentv-threc  days  attacks 
in  streets  and  from  houses.  I'hey  capitulated  for 
want  of  powder,  and  only  after  the  enormous  loss  of 
fifty-four  thousimd  persons  of  all  ages  and  sexes.  A 
Commanding  Officer  dtfinding  the  npproachen  of  a 
furtrem  threatened  by  armed  enemies  declares  it  in 
a  etate  of  mfge,  and  from  that  moment  martial  law 
prevails;  or,  in  other  words,  the  militaiy  authority 
alone  governs.  Everything  is  brought  into  the  place 
necessary  for  defense,  in  the  shape  of  wood,  fascines, 
gabions,  animals,  grain,  and  eatables  of  all  kinds. 
All  usi'less  mouths  are  sent  out  of  the  place,  and 
those  inhabitants  who  remain  are  required  to  provide 
themselves  with  wheat,  dried  vegetables,  oil,  salt 
meats,  etc.,  for  many  months,  in  order  that  the  gar- 
rison may  not  be  obliged  to  share  their  provisions 
with  them.  The  place  is  put  in  a  state  of  defense  bjr 
arming  and  repairing  the  fortifications,  planting  pali- 
sades, clearing  away  the  incumbrances  in  the  com- 
munications, etc.,  etc.  When  the  garrison  is  suffi- 
ciently nimierous,  and  that  is  the  ca.se  here  supposed, 
it  guards  against  bemg  entirely  shut  up  in  the  place, 
by  disputing  all  approaches.  Positions  are  taken  in 
advance  of  the  suburbs,  and,  far  from  destroying  the 
suburbs  as  a  smaller  gsjrrison  must  do,  they  should  be 
covered  by  intrenchments,  in  the  double  aim  of  lire- 
serving  them,  and  sparing  the  rear  as  long  as  possible. 
Besides  the  preceding  intrenchments,  advant^igeous 
jioints  arc  selected  for  .solid  redoubts  and  small  posts. 
The  most  expo.sed  passages  are  closed  by  abatis  or 
deep  cuts.  Walls  arc  pierced  with  cmbra.sures,  the 
different  stories  of  houses  made  defensible,  and  all 
means  whatsoever  resorted  to  that  can  prolong  the 
defense.  Upon  a  field  of  battle  thtis  prepared  a  k)ug 
resistance  may  be  cx-pected,  and  the  attacking  force 
will  experience  great  losses  before  they  can  open  their 
trenches  and  begin  the  ordinary  labors  of  the  siege. 
Perhaps  even  during  this  exterior  struggle  political 
events  or  other  warlike  operations  may  extricate  the 
garrison  from  the  impending  siege,  and  its  glorious 
struggle  will  then  have  freed  the  place  committed  to 
it  from  many  horrors.  If  the  moment  at  last  comes 
when  it  is  necessary  for  the  garrison  to  shut  it.self  up, 
then  follows  that  series  of  operations  |)r(iperly  called 
a  siege.  The  defense  has  a  thousand  means  of  pro- 
longing its  dtiration,  because  his  exterior  defen.se  has 
given  time  to  prepare  them.  Knowing  the  point  of 
attack  indicatetl  by  the  first  ojx'rations,  the  defense 
will  have  redoubled  his  intrenchments.  The  garrison 
will  have  I.hcu  made  warlike  by  frequent  combats. 


BESSEMER  SHOT  EOS  SMOOTH-BORES. 


179 


BESSEMER  STEEL. 


It  occupies,  it  is  true,  a  post  hard  pressed,  but  its  force 
is  the  more  concentrated  from  that  causi',  and  is  still 
imposing  notwithstanding  the  losses  that  it  has  ex- 
perienced. It  is  by  sartit'S  that  we  retard  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Iiesiegers.  Large  sorties  are  executed  by 
numerous  corps,  and  are  generally  made  by  day  to 
avoid  confusion.  Small  sorties  are  made  at  night, 
and  consist  of  but  few  men.  The  first  are  designed 
to  overthrow  the  trenches,  fire  the  batteries,  and  spike 
the  pieces,  and  they  are  consequently  always  followed 
by  a  sufficient  number  of  workmen,  pro\i(led  with 
the  ncces.si»ry  instruments.  The  smallest  sorties  are 
only  tlirecteu  against  the  workers  of  the  sap;  they 
present  themselves  unexpectedly,  and  frequently  drive 
away  the  workmen  and  break  up  the  gabions.  The 
sap  thus  interrupted  progres.ses  but  slowly. 

Defensive  mines  are  also  a  powerful  means  of  pro- 
longing the  defense,  as  they  force  the  besieger  to 
make  works  that  require  much  time  in  their  prep.i- 
ration.  As  soon  as  the  point  of  attack  is  known  the 
besieged  prepare  under  the  glacis  chambers  of  mines, 
which  threaten  the  batteries  of  the  besieger  and  con- 
strain hint  to  dig  inider  the  ground.  The  defense 
has  in  this  subterranean  war  a  great  advantage,  as  he 
expects  the  attack  in  galleries  previously  prepared. 
The  attjick  has  no  other  resource  than  to  [prepare  his 
chambers  at  a  great  distance  in  order  to  destroy  those 
of  the  defenders,  and  for  this  purpose  globes  of  com- 
pression are  employed.  These  overcharged  cham- 
bers, however,  require  a  great  deal  of  powder,  and 
also  much  time  for  their  preparation.  The  besieged 
has  also  an  advantage  in  the  defense  of  breaches,  be- 
caase  the  attacking  force  may  be  surrounded,  and 
can  only  reach  their  object  by  a  narrow  and  ditticult 
ascent.  In  defending  a  breach,  therefore,  all  the 
energies  of  the  defense  should  be  brought  into  action. 
Preparations  should  be  made  in  advance  for  this 
period  of  the  siege,  and  some  pieces  of  artillery  should 
be  carefully  preserved,  to  arm  at  the  moment  of  the 
assault  these  works  which  take  in  flank  and  reverse 
the  colunms  of  attack.  At  the  top  of  the  breach 
loaded  shells  are  kept  ready  to  roll  down  upon  the 
assailants;  a  large  fire  should  be  lighted  at  the  foot 
of  the  breach,  and  kept  up  by  fagots.  Or,  if  the 
enemy  has  only  partially  beaten  do^\^l  the  wall,  the 
foothold  may  be  cleared  away  during  the  night  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  breach  impracticable. 
Mines  may  be  dug  under  the  ruins  by  which  the  as- 
sailants may  be  overthrown.  Long  arms,  as  pikes, 
may  be  given  to  the  soldiers  who  defend  the  breach, 
and  those  in  the  front  ranks  may  be  protected  by 
cuirasses.  If  the  work  attacked  lias  much  capacity, 
reserves  may  be  held  in  the  interior  to  charge  the 
enemj^  when  he  shows  himself,  and  cavalry  may  also 
be  brought  up  at  this  decisive  moment.  Such  are, 
in  general,  the  steps  to  be  taken  to  defend  a  work; 
but  success  will  at  last  depend  upon  the  character, 
firmness,  and  skill  of  the  Governor,  and  upon  the  in- 
trepiditj'  of  his  soldiers.  The  army  of  observation 
ought  not  to  be  too  far  from  that  engaged  in  the 
siege,  because  it  may  be  necessary  to  call  for  re- 
inforcements from  the  latter,  and  tliey  should  be  able 
to  return  to  their  camps  after  the  action.  Such  aid 
furnished  at  the  opportune  moment  is  precious,  and 
may  contribute  powerfully  to  defeat  or  repulse  an 
enemy.  When  Napoleon  covered  the  siege  of  Jlantua 
he  did  not  confine  himself  to  drawing  battalions  from 
the  Ix'sieging  army,  in  order  to  tight  the  numerous 
troops  stri\ing  to  surroun<i  him,  but  he  marched  the 
whole  besieging  army,  and  uniting  it  N^-ith  the  anny 
of  observation,  he  gained  the  celebrated  battle  of 
Castiglione,  Besides  if  the  army  of  observation  be 
too  far  off,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  enemy  from 
tmcxi)cctedly  attacking  tbe  l)esieging  anny,  which, 
occupj-ing  a  long  line  of  investment,  is  rarely  in  a 
condition"  to  repulse  such  an  attack,  and  may  there- 
fore, without  aid,  be  compelled  to  raise  the  siege, 
with  the  loss  of  ordnance  and  other  materia].  Gen- 
eral rules  cannot  l3e  laid  down  for  tie  iwsition  to  he 
taken  by  an  army  of  observation.     It  must  possess 


mobility  of  action,  and  seek  concentration  as  much 
as  circumstances  admit.  It  must  not  fonsider  itself 
tied  to  the  besieging  army,  and  yet  be  always  ready 
to  succor  the  latter  as  well  as  repel  a  succoring  armj-: 
conditions  which  demand  much  consideration,  and 
which  will  be  fulfilled  only  by  varying  dispositions 
according  to  circumstances.     See  Sieye. 

BESSEMER  SHOT  FOR  SMOOTH-BORES.  —  The 
plan  of  this  projectile  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Macktiy. 
Channels  fomied  in  the  exterior  of  the  projectile 
conduct  the  pow<ler-gas  to  the  front.  The  forward 
ends  of  these  channels  are  sharply  inclined  so  that 
the  gas  escapes  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  bore, 
and  thus  causes  the  shot  to  reooil  in  an  opposite 
direction. 

BESSEMER  STEEL.— The  boldest  and  most  noted 
attempt  which  has  yet  been  made  to  improve  on  the 
older  methods  of  making  both  malleable  iron  and 
steel  is  that  of  Mr.  Henry  Bes.semer,  whose  proce-ss 
was  patented  in  1856.  Bessemer's  first  idea  was  to 
blow  air  through  molten  ciist-iron  till  the  whole  of 
the  carbon  was  oxidized  when  malleable  iron  was 
required,  and  to  stop  the  blowing  when  a  sufficient 
degree  of  decarburization  was  effected  in  order  to 
produce  steel.  He  has  hitherto  failed  to  produce 
malleable  iron  of  the  least  ser\'ice  by  his  process,  so 
that.  a.s  a  metallurgical  operation,  it  is  at  present  con- 
fined to  the  manufactiu-e  of  steel.  But  neither  can 
serviceable  steel  be  made  by  the  plan  first  specitied 
by  Bcs-semer,  except  from  the  best  charcoal-iron,  such 
as  the  Swedish.  In  England,  where  charcoal-iron  is 
not  used  for  this  purpose,  the  process  can  only  be 
successfiilly  conducted  by  first  oxidizing  the  whole  of 
the  carton  and  silicon,  and  then  restoring  the  proper 
amount  of  carbon  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  a  peculiar  cast-iron  of  known  composition,  called 
spkgeleisen.  Moreover,  until  recently  luematite  pig 
was  the  onlj'  kind  of  English  iron  which  could  l)e 
employed,  as  that  made  from  clay  ironstone  con- 
tainetl  too  much  phosphorus  and  sulphur;  but  by  the 
Thomas  Gilchrist  modification  of  the  Bessemer  pro- 
cess impure  ores  can  now  be  employed. 

The  various  steps  in  the  Bessemer  process,  as  at 
present  conducted,  are  as  follow:  Pig-iron  is  melted 
either  in  a  cupola  or  reverberatory  furnace,  and  run 


LR™^ 

h 

E 

'S 

■- 

-r,   nn   Tn;'Mi  ifii  - 

Conv 

in  the  liquid  slate  into  a  con  verting- vessel,  such  as 
is  shown  in  the  tlrawimr.  where  a,  a,  a  are  tuyeres; 
b,  the  air-space;  and  c,  the  melted  metal.  This  con- 
verter, or  "  kettle"  as  it  is  called  in  Sheffield,  is  of 
wTOUght-iron,  lined  either  with  fire-brick  or  with  a 
siliceous  material  called  "  ganister,"  and  is  suspended 
on  trunnions,  so  as  to  admit  of  its  being  turned  from 
an  upright  to  a  horizontal    position  by  means   of 


BESSEHEB  STEEL. 


180 


BESSEMER  STEEL. 


hydraulic  apparatus.  The  capacity  of  a  converter 
varies  from  thixt  to  ten  Ions.  In  the  bottom  there 
are  seven  tuyeres,  each  with  st'ven  holes  of  one- 
half  inch  ill"  iliiiiiKter.  through  which  atmospheric 
air  is  Mown  with  a  pressure  of  1.')  to  2(1  lbs.  [kt 
square  inch  l>y  n  lilii\vini:-fni.nne.     The  molten  iron 


the  whole  circumference.  Round  this  the  ingot- 
molds  are  arranged,  and  the  hydraulic  machinery  is 
so  conveniently  iihiinied  thai,  simply  by  moving 
levers,  a  man  standing  on  a  small  jilatform  can  empty 
the  contents  of  the  huge  converters  into  the  ladle, 
raise  or  lower  the  ladle  it.self,  and  turn  it  round  from 
point  to  ])oint,  so  as  to  till  the  molds  by  means  of  a 
plug  in  its  lx)ttom.  Steel  made  in  this  way  is  not 
sutticiently  dense,  and  accordingl}'  the  molds  are 
lifted  off  the  ingots  by  means  of  a  hydraulic  crane, 
and  the  latter  removed  while  still  hot,  and  condensed 
under  heavy  steam-hammers.  After  this  they  are 
rolled  into  rails,  tires,  plates,  and  other  heavy  ob- 
jects for  which  this  steel  is  suitable.  Although,  as 
alread}'  said,  Bessemer  steel  will  not  do  for  tools  and 
cutting  instruments,  nor  even  for  such  companitively 
coarse  objects  as  the  .springs  of  railway  wagons,  yet 
the  great  value  of  the  invention  is  unmistakably- 
shown  by  the  fact  that  5(10,000  tons  of  steel  arc  now 
annually  made  by  this  process  in  Great  Britain,  the 
total  inimber  of  converting-vessels  in  use  being  91, 
and  their  aggregate  capacity  467  tons.  Large  quanti- 
ties are  also  manufactured  by  it  in  Sweden,  Russia, 
Austria,  Prussia,  Belgium,  and  France.  It  is  like- 
wise extensively  employed  in  America.  The  capacity 
of  American  mills  for"  the  production  of  this  metal 
may  be  learned  from  a  notice  of  the  following  promi- 
nent Bessemer-steel  mills  in  the  United  States. 


Bevel  Band-saw  Machine. 


in  the  converter  is  therefore  resting,  from  the  first, 
on  a  bed  of  air,  the  .strength  of  the  blast  being 
sufficient  to  keep  it  from  falling  through  the  tuyrres 
into  the  blast-way.  During  the  blowing  oft  of  the 
carbon  at  this  .stage,  a  striking  and  magnificent 
effect  is  produced  by  the  roar  of  the  blast,  and 
the  volcano-like  shower  of  sparks  anil  red-hot  fnig- 
ments  from  the  mouth  of  the  convert<T,  as  well  as  liy 
the  dazzling  splendor  of  the  Hame.  In  about  1.5  or 
20  mimites  the  whole  of  the  carbon  is  dissipated. 
The  first  "  blow"  being  over,  the  converter  is  lowered 
to  a  horizontjil  position,  and  presently  a  red  stream 
of  molten  spiegeleisen  is  run  into  its  mouth,  till  it 
amounts  to  from  5  to  10  p«'r  cent  of  the  whole  charge. 
As  already  stated,  the  spiegeleisen  restores  the  proper 
amount  of  carlion  to  produce  steel;  and  after  it  is 
added,  the  blast  is  again  turned  on  for  a  few  minutes 
to  secure  its  thorough  incorporation.  There  is  a 
circular  pit  in  front  of  even,-  two  converters,  with  a 
hydraulic  piston  in  its  center,  and  on  its  counter- 
poised anu  a  large  ladle  is  hung,  so  that  it  can  sweep 


Name. 


Place. 


Albany  &  Rensselaer 

Iron  and  Steel  Co. . 
Tho  Pennsylvania  St'l 

Works 

Clfvelimd  KollingMills 
t'ftnibriii  Inm  (.'<>. . . . 
Union  KollinK-  Mills. 
North  CliifUgo  Holling 

Mills 

Joliel  Iron  and  Steel 

Works 

ncthlehem  Steel  W'ks 
Eilear  ThoinpsonSteel 

Works  

Tlie  Ijaekawauna  Steel 

Works 

Vulcan  Steel  Works. . . 


Troy,  N.  Y. 

Baldwin  Sta.Pa 
Cleveland.  O. 
Johnstown.  Pa. 
Chicago,  III. 

Chicago,  111. 

Joliet,  III. 
Bethlehem,  Pa. 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Scran  ton.  Pa. 
I  St.  Louis,  Mo. 


When 
Opened. 


Feb.,  1865. 

June,  1807. 
Oct.,  1868. 
July,  1871. 
July,  1871. 

April,  187T!. 

March.l87S. 
Oct.,  1873. 

Sept.,  1875. 

Oct.,  1875. 
Sept.,  1876. 


Con- 
verters. 


No. 


Tons. 


7 

6^ 
6 
5 
6 

6 
6« 


I  See  Iron  and  Sleel. 


BETON. 


181 


BILL. 


BETON. — A  French  term  for  concrete.  It  is  much 
used  in  permanent  fortitications.  BeU>n  aggUtmeri: 
is  a  species  of  concrete  invented  by  M.  Coignet. 
This  is  used  in  building  arches,  aqueducts,  cellar- 
■walls,  etc.  It  differs  from  ordinary  betou,  liaving 
much  greater  strength  and  hardness — qualities  de- 
rived from  the  ramming  to  which  it  is  subjected. 
See  Cuncreti. 

BETRAY. — To  deliver  pertidiousl)-  any  place  or 
Ibotly  of  troops  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy;  to  dis- 
cover that  which  has  been  intrusted  to  secrecy. 

BETTY. — An  ancient  machine  used  for  forcing 
open  gates  and  lioors.     See  Pi  turd. 

BEVEL  BAND-SAW  MACHINE.— A  machine  de- 
signed to  avoid  the  instability  of  inclined  tables  sup- 
ported by  siegments,  pivots,  etc.,  and  the  difficulties 
encountered  in  holding  and  guiding  work  upon  such 
tables.  The  saw  is  inclined,  and  the  table  simultane- 
ously set  to  correspond  with  the  inclination,  by  turning 
a  single  hand- wheel,  it  lx;iug  unnecessarj'  even  to 
clamp  the  parts  in  place,  as  all  remain  locked  in  any 
position  in  which  they  are  left,  ^^^len  a  varying 
bevel  Is  desiretl  on  work,  it  can  be  easily  produced  by 
turning  the  hand-wheel  while  the  work  is  being  fed 
to  the  saw. 

The  drawing  shows  the  form  of  the  machine  used 
in  the  arsenals,  which  combines  all  the  general  fea- 
tures of  the  band-saw  machine — ha\ing  tension 
spring;  rubber-covered  wheels;  adjusting-screw  for 
inclining  the  upper  shaft,  accessiljle  to  the  operator 
from  his  position  in  front  of  the  machine,  atid  so 
arranged  that  the  adjustment  can  be  made  while  the 
•wheels  are  in  motion;  imil  self-oiling  loose  pulley. 
The  machine  is  suital)le  for  general  work  as  well  as 
for  bevel  sawing.  For  the  latter  it  wUl  be  found  of 
great  value  in  carriage-factories,  dock-yards,  and  for 
pattern-making. 

The  weight  of  the  machine  is  about  1875  pounds; 
the  diameter  of  the  wheels,  40  inches;  the  total  height, 
8  feet;  the  width,  6  feet;  the  depth,  21  feet;  the 
height  of  the  .sjiwing  space,  1.5  inches;  the  tight  and 
loose  pulleys,  16  inches  diameter,  4  inches  face.  The 
speed  is  400  revolutions  per  minute.  See  Baiid-mw 
Machine. 

BEVELED  HANDSPIKE.— A  handspike  made  of 
■wood,  the  end  of  which  is  sloped  off  at  an  obtuse 
angle. 

BHEESTIE. — An  Indian  term  for  a  water-carrier. 
Bheesties  are  attached  to  all  regiments  in  India, 
whether  in  barracks  or  on  the  march. 

BHIL. — A  native  trilx;  in  Central  India,  friendly  to 
the  English,  which  has  done  good  service  in  sup- 
pressing the  predatory  habits  of  its  neighbors.  In 
common  with  other  hill-tribes,  the  Bhil  are  supposed 
to  have  been  aborigines  in  their  region.  They  are  of 
dark  complexion  and  diminutive  stature,  but  active 
and  capable  of  enduring  much  fatigue.  It  is  with 
much  difficulty  that  they  are  reconciled  to  the  life  of 
agriculturists. 

BHOOSA.— An  article  of  forage  fed  to  bullocks  in 
India.  It  is  a  finely-chopped  straw,  14  potinds  of 
which  with  <i  pounds  of  grain  constitute  the  ration. 

BIACOLYTES. — A  military  organization  in  the 
Grecian  Empire,  whose  duty  was  to  prevent  the 
committal  of  any  excesses  against  life  or  property. 
Their  service  was  analogous  to  that  of  the  French 
Gendarmes. 

BIANCHI  DENSIMETER.— The  density  of  the 
smaller-grained  gunpowiier  is  found  by  the  Binnehi 
dt'iiKiiiieUr,  which  consists  of  a  strong  glass  vessel 
pro\-ided  with  stopcocks  at  each  end.  Tlie  lower 
end  can  commimicate  with  a  cistern  of  mercury,  and 
the  upper  end  with  an  air-pumi).  This  ves-sel  is 
attached  to  the  apparatus  and  tilled  with  mercurj-  by 
e.\hausting  the  air  from  it;  both  stoji-cocks  arc  then 
closed.  The  vessel  is  then  removed,  weighed  (sup- 
pose W  the  weight  found),  and  iniptied.  One  hun- 
dred grams  of  powder  are  tlien  \m\  in,  it  is  again 
attaclied  to  the  apparatus,  and  mercury  is  forced  in  by 
atmospheric  pressure;  the  stop-cocks  are  again  closed. 


and  the  vessel  is  detached  and  the  weight  (w)  found. 
Then  if  S  and  d  are  the  densities  of  the  mercury  and 
gunpowder  respectively  at  the  time  of  the  experi- 
ment, 

IOCS 
"-W-ir-f  100' 
See  Densimeter  and  Mallet  Denmmeter. 

BIBAUDIESS. — A  name  anciently  given  to  the  foot- 
soldiers  armed  with  cnintquins. 

BIBAUX. — In  ancient  times,  soldiers  who  fought 
on  fot)t  with  cross-bow  and  lance.      Also  written  , 
Petauj. 

BICKER. —  A  word  formerly  used  in  the  sense  of  to 
skirmish;  to  tight  off  and  on;  to  make  repeated  at- 
tacks. 

BICKFORD  FOSE.- An  English  patent  fuse  in- 
tended for  miner's  use.  It  consists  of  a  cylinder  of 
gunpowder  or  other  explosive  matter  covered  by  a 
double  layer  of  cord  and  varnished.  A  similar  fuse 
covered  with  a  water-jiroof  composition  was  de- 
signed for  submarine  blasting.     See  Fuse. 

BICOQUE. — A  term  use<l  in  France  to  signify  a 
place  ill  fortified  and  incapable  of  nuich  deferise.  It 
is  derived  from  a  i)lace  on  the  road  between  Loiii 
and  >Iilan,  which  was  originally  a  gentleman's  coun- 
try-house surrounded  by  flitches.  In  1.522  a  body  of 
imperial  troops  were  stiitioned  in  it,  and  stood  the 
attack  of  the  whole  French  army,  during  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.  This  engagement  was  called  the  BatUe  of 
Bicoqtie. 

BICORNEURS.— An  ancient  name  given  to  the  mi- 
litia of  Valenciennes. 

BIDARKEE. — A  skin-Iioat  of  peculiar  construction, 
used  by  the  Aleuts;  light  and  portable. 

BIDAUTS — BIDATJX.— An  ancient  French  corps  of 
infantry;  according  to  some  authorities  they  were 
armed  with  two  javelins. 

BIGA. — A  Roman  term  apjilied  in  ancient  times  to 
vehicles  drawn  by  two  horses  abreast,  and  commonly 
to  the  Roman  chariot  used  in  processions  or  in  the 
circus.  In  shape  it  resembled  the  Greek  war  chariot 
— a  short  body  on  two  wheels,  low  and  open  behind, 
where  the  charioteer  entered,  but  higher  and  closed 
in  front. 

BIGHT. — The  name  applied  to  the  bent  or  doubled 
part  of  a  rope.  Thus,  one  anchor  may  "  hook  the 
bight  "  of  the  cable  of  another,  and  thereby  cause 
entanglement.  In  geographj',  bight  has  much  the 
same  sense  as  "  bay." 

BIGLES. — A  military  corps  of  Rome,  whose  parti- 
cular duty  was  to  furnish  sentinels;  the  bread  which 
these  troops  received  was  called  biglintieuin. 

BILBO.— 1.  A  fiexiblebladed  cutlass  from  Billwa. 
— 2.  A  form  of  tetters  for  prisoners,  iiaim-d  from 
Bilboa,  Spain,  where  they  were  manufactured  in 
large  quantities  aii<l  shijiped  on  the  vessels  of  the 
Spanish  Armada.  Billnics  consist  of  long  bars  or 
bolts  of  iron,  with  shackles  sliding  on  them,  and  a 
lock  at  one  end.  When  an  olTender  on  shipboard  is 
put  "in  irons,"  it  implies  that  bilboes  are  fastened  to 
him,  more  or  less  ponderous  according  to  the  degree 
of  his  offense.  The  bilboes  clasp  the  ankles  in  some 
such  way  as  handcuffs  clas|i  the  wrist. 

BILBOftUET.— A  small  8-inch  mortar,  whose  bore 
is  only  half  a  caliljer  in  length.  It  throws  a  shell  of 
60  pounds  aljout  400  toises. 

BILDARS. — .V  name  given  to  a  certain  class  of 
niitivts  in  India  who  are  entertained  as  a  part  of  the 
c-stablislimeiil  of  a  camp  or  of  a  siege-train  on  the 
march,  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the  camp  of  filth 
and  dirt,  or  cutting  down  brushwood  in  and  around 
the  camp. 

BILL  BROWNBILL.— The  main  offensive  weapon 
of  English  infantry  until  the  substitution  of  fire- 
arms; a  two-edged,  sickle-shaped  knife  or  swonl, 
weighing  from  9  to  12  pomuls,  on  a  handle  3  or  4  feet 
long,  and  wielded  with  Ixjtli  hands.  It  hail  terrible 
power,  sometimes  taking  off  a  person's  head  or  cut- 
ting a  man  in  two  in  spite  of  the  strongest  armor.    It 


BILLED. 


182 


BILL  OF  LADING. 


was  also  called  a  "glaive."  The  bill  or  bill-hook, 
under  the  uame  of  J'aLt  or  falcula,  was  a  common 
wejipt>n  iimonj;  the  Romans.  A  similar  implement 
was  u.seii  by  the  Greeks.  The  ti.L'ures  of  Persi'us  and 
Saturn  are  represiaited  thus  anntd.  With  this 
■vveaixm  Jupiter  wounded  Typhon,  and  Hercules  slew 
the  Lerniean  llydni. 

BILLED.— Aterm  exclusively  confinal  to  the  Foot- 
guards.  It  means  that  a  man's  name  is  placed  in  the 
list  or  bill  of  those  who  are  to  undergo  drill  and  con- 
linenient  to  larnick.  Hence  a "'  billed  man,"  "  seven 
days'  bill,"  "  billetl  up,"  etc. 

BILLET. — 1.  A  document  n'(j\iiring  a  houseuolder 
to  receive  a  soldieror  soldiers,  including  officers,  with 
their  horses.  Oidy  innkeepers  and  licen.sed  viclual- 
ers  are  liable  to  have  troo[>s  billeted  on  them.  See 
Bilhting. — 2.  In  Heraldry,  billets  are  small  oblong 
figures,  sometimes  taken  to  represent  bricks,  but 
more  commonly  bilUts-doujr.  The  latter  interpretation, 
■nhich  is  that  of  Guillim,  is  generally  aiUipted  by 
English  heralds,  and  is  supix)rlc(l  Ijy  the  authority  of 
Coiiimbiere.  The  former  again,  which  has  the 
Trtw/r  llt-raldique  and  Sir  George  Mackenzie  on  its  i 
side,  is  further  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  in  Ger- 
man they  are  called  Sc/iiiuitln,  shingles. 

BILLETING. — A  mode  of  provisioning  and  lodging 
soldiers  when  not  in  camp  or  barrack.  It  is  one  of 
the  many  vexed  questions  connected  with  the  organ- 
iz;itiou  and  administration  of  the  British  army. 
When  in  camp  or  liarrack,  the  soldier  is  supplied 
with  hot  food  daily  bv  the  Commissariat  Officers;  or 
rather,  with  undres-sed  food,  and  the  means  for  cook- 
ing it.  But  when  it  is  necessary  to  keep  soldiers  for 
one  or  more  days  in  a  town  unproWded  with  barracks, 
a  ditliculty  occurs  which  has  never  yet  been  properly 
surmounted;  a  burden  is  sure  to  rest  on  some  one 
■who  is  unwilling  to  bear  it.  In  early  times,  mon- 
arehs  were  often  w  out  to  quarter  their  troops  on  the 
moiuusteries.  In  later  times,  the  soldiers  often  com- 
pelled the  inhabitants  of  towns  to  receive  and  support 
them;  and  the  authorities  were  either  imable  or  un- 
■nilling  to  prevent  this.  The  iluliny  Act,  passed  for 
the  tirst  time  in  1689,  pu\  a  stop  to  this  pernicious 
practice,  by  declaring  that  no  housekeepers  should  be 
comix'lled  to  accommoilate  .soldiers  except  on  some 
recognized  and  fairly  administered  system.  The 
Chief  Civil  Magistrate  of  a  town,  on  reqiiisition  from 
the  military  authorities,  quartered  the  soldiers  on  the 
inhabitants  as  fairly  as  he  coidd.  This  continued  in 
England  until  174.5,  when  all  kinds  of  persons  were 
exempted  from  this  Ijurdcn  except  certain  traders; 
and  the  new  system  has  been  m.iintained  with  minor 
alterations  ever  since.  The  alteration  was  not  made 
inScotlimd  until  18.J7.  At  present,  thepei-sons  liable 
to  have  .soldiers  billeted  on  them  are  the  keepers  of 
public-houses,  hotels,  inns,  ale-houses,  beer-shops, 
wine-.shops,  spirit-vaults,  liveri'-stables,  and  such-like 
licensed  hou.ses.  There  are  certain  exceptional  cases 
pro\-ided  for;  and  in  and  near  London  there  arc 
special  regulations  concerning  the  billeting  of  the 
Guards;  but  the  general  rule  is  as  here  stated.  The 
persous  liable  are  Ixauid  to  accommodate  soldiers, 
under  a  system  that  may  be  descrilxd  in  a  few  words. 
When  troops  are  on  the  march  from  one  barnick  or 
station  to  another,  and  cannot  cover  the  distance  in 
one  day's  railway  or  foctl  travelini:;  or  when  they  arc 
to  remain  for  a  few  days  in  a  town  unprovided  with 
barrack  accommodation,  or  where  the  b.irracks  are 
already  oecuiiied — the  C'oiiunandintr  Officer  sends 
previously  to  the  Chief  Civil  Magistrate,  and  demands 
bill<tj<  for  a  certain  numl)er  of  men  for  a  c<rtjiin  time. 
The  Magistrate  has  a  list  of  all  the  housi-s  subjected 
to  the  billeting  system,  and  he  quarters  the  men  on 
those  houses  as  fairly  as  he  can.  Rules  are  laid  down 
to  prevent  the  Magistrate  from  billeting  too  many 
soldiers  on  one  liou.se:  any  excess  in  this  way  is 
remediable  at  the  hands  of  a  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
On  the  evening  Ijefore  the  arrival  of  the  troops,  two 
or  three  Non-conunis.sioned  Otficers  enter  the  low^l, 
and  present  an  order  for  the  delivery  of  the  billets  to 


them,  in  order  Uiat  no  delay  may  arise  when  the 
main  body  enter.  After  the  arrival,  the  soldiers  go 
to  the  houses  on  which  they  are  billeted:  all  those 
belonging  to  one  comi>any  l)eing  (juartered  as  near 
together  as  may  be,  fur  convcnienie  of  niu.ster;  and 
the  sick  are  billeted  near  headquarters.  The  licensed 
victualer,  or  other  jierson,  is  Imund  to  proNide  each 
billet-holder  witli  food,  drink,  lied,  and  accom- 
modation, either  in  his  own  house  or  somew  here  near 
al  hand.  A  specified  sum  of  lOrf.  )>er  day  is  allowed 
for  this;  or,  under  other  circinnslances,  a  trifling  .sum 
per  day  is  allowed  for  fire,  candles,  cooking-utensils, 
siUt,  and  vinegar.  The  sum  per  day  allowed  for  hay 
and  straw  for  a  horse  varies  with  the  price  of  forage. 
The  officers  visit  the  houses,  to  see  that  the  men 
really  have  one  hot  meal  per  djiy,  instead  of  taking 
the  value  of  it  in  money.  The  soldier  may  demand 
facilities  for  cleaning  his  arms  and  accoutennents. 
The  tinimcial  officer  of  the  regiment  makes  the  pay- 
ments. There  are  often  unplea.simt  disputes  between 
the  innkeeper  or  others,  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
officers  of  the  regiment  on  the  other,  concerning  the 
occupanev  of  the  "  best  room."  and  on  minor  details. 
The  militia  are  frequently  billeted  like  the  regulars. 
There  being  many  mitoward  circumstances  connected 
with  this  system,  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, in  1858,  sought  how  best  to  remove  them.  In 
their  report,  the  Committee  could  not  recommend  the 
cessation  of  the  billeting  system  altogether,  but  they 
pointed  out  certain  possible  ameliorations;  and  since 
that,' by  camping  out  the  troops  and  other  means, 
great  eiforts  have  been  made  to  reduce  billeting  to  a 
mininmm.  In  the  United  States,  the  law  declares 
that  no  soldier  shall  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in 
any  house  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in 
time  of  war  liut  in  the  manner  to  be  prescribed  by 
law. 

BILLETTE  FUSE.— This  fuseconsistsof  a  wrouglit- 
iron  fuse-plug  to  which  is  attached  the  explosive  ap- 
paratus. The  plug  is  .screwed  into  the  eye  of  the 
shell,  stopping  it  completely,  the  rest  of  the  apparatus 
being  inside  the  shell.  In  two  side-channels  are 
fixed  by  friction,  by  means  of  pieces  of  parchment, 
two  small  tubes  of  hard  wood,  one  filled  with  chlorate 
of  potassa,  the  other  with  sulphurct  of  antimony. 
Through  these  tubes  pass  two  hard  woolen  cords, 
terrauiated  at  the  upper  ends  by  rubbers  of  copjier. 
The  other  ends  pass  down  through  the  cup  and 
breaker  of  the  fuse,  and  arc  tied  together  in  a  groove 
of  the  latter.  In  order  to  load  the  side-channels, 
they  are  left  o]ien  at  the  bottom;  that  iiart  of  the  ap- 
paratus being  afterwards  closetl  by  means  of  the  two 
halves  of  a  hollow  truncated  cone,  w  liich  are  fixed  to 
the  body  of  the  fuse  by  means  of  a  screw.  These 
half-envelopes  are  made  of  bronze,  and  leave  Ix;- 
tween  them  two  openings  through  which  the  flame 
is  transmitted  to  the  charge.  The  breaker  is  fixed  to 
the  cup  by  means  of  a  steel  screw  through  its  center. 
The  shells  with  which  these  fuses  are  used  are  fixed 
to  sabots,  the  fuse  being  placed  in  llio  hollow  and 
exactly  in  tlie  axis  of  the  sabot.  When  tlie  shell 
strikes,  the  shock  breaks  off  the  steel  screw  connect- 
ing the  cu])  and  breaker  at  the  point  where  they  join; 
the  weight  of  the  breaker  and  sirenglh  of  the  screw 
iK'ing  so  regulated  as  to  insure  this  effect.  The 
weight  and  motion  of  the  breaker  act  on  the  cords, 
imidurin:.'  tlie  dettagration  of  the  fulminates. 

BILL-HOOK. — An  intrenching  tool  used  for  cutting 
down  and  clearing  jungle,  branches  of  trees,  stuff  for 
irabions,  fascines,  eic.  Tliebillliook  is  much  used  in 
Euro]xan  armies,  the  iiioneers  of  infantry  always 
beim;  provided  with  them.     See  Bill. 

BILL  OF  LADING.— Officers  of  the  Quartemia.sler's 
Departnunt  in  charge  of  the  transportation  of  public 
properly  issue  bills  of  lading  for  the  same.  When 
transporljilion  is  re(|uired  from  one  distant  point  to 
another,  or  over  more  than  one  road  forming  a 
through  line,  they  ascertain  from  the  projxT  repre- 
sentatives of  the  through  line  the  lowest  through 
rate,  or  any  special  rate  less  at  which  the  transporta- 


BINABT  THXaBI. 


183 


BIEAGO  BBID6E. 


tion  will  be  performed  and  cause  the  same  to  be  in- 
serted in  the  bill  of  lading.  The  following  Ls  a  form 
of  bill  of  lading  as  used  in  the  United  States  Army: 


No. 


ORIGINAL  BILL  OF  LADING. 


Marine. 


,18-. 

Received  from .  Un!te<i  States  .\rmy,  on  board  of  the 

of .  whereof  the  undersifrned  is  master  or  agent 

for  this  present  voyage,  now  lying  in  the  port  of .  and 

bound  for ,  the  following  articles  of  public  property  as 

specified  below  (contents  and  value  imknowni,  in  apparent 
good  order  and  condition,  to  be  forwarded  to .  the  dan- 
gers of  the  seas  only  excepted,  and  there  to  be  delivered  in 

like  good  order  and  condition  unto ,  for  which  I  have 

signed  a  bill  of  lading  in  d\iplicate.  Freight  to  be  paid  on 
the  original  bill  of  lading  by  — ■ — ■,  Quartermaster,  U.  S. 

Army,  at  ,  and  at  the  rates  named  below,  and  to  the 

order  of . 


Quartermaster's  Office, 

,  la-. 

I  certify  that  I  have  shipped  this  day  by  the ,  the 

stores  specified  in  this  bill  of  lading,  and  that  the  weight  is 
poimds,  and  the  measurement cubic  feet. 


•  Qitartermctster,  V.  S.  Army. 


Marks. 


Nos. 


No. 
packages 


I 
Contents.  Weight 


Meas- 
ure'!. 


ifcs. 


Rate. 


Cb.ft. 


The  bill  of  lading  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
original  and  duplifnte,  each  to  be  certified  by  the 
shipping  officer  and  receipted  l)y  the  carrier.  The 
original  is  given  to  the  cjirrier  at  the  time  of  making 
the  shipment,  and  upon  delivery  of  the  property  in 
good  order  and  condition  is  receipted  by  the  con- 
signee and  returned  to  the  carrier,  with  such  further 
indorsement  as  may  lie  necessiiry  to  insure  settlement 
for  the  service.  The  duplicate  is  promptly  trans- 
mitted by  mail  or  otherwise  to  the  officer  to  whom 
the  stores  are  shipped,  and  upon  delivery  of  the  prop- 
erty is  receipted  by  him  in  lilie  manner  as  the  original 
anil  retained,  if  he  is  the  paying  officer;  if  not,  it  is 
forwarded  to  the  pajing  officer,  to  be  used  in  settle- 
ment for  the  service.  If  the  shipping  officer  is  not 
the  paying  officer,  he  is  notified  by  letter  of  the 
receipt  "of  the  stores,  in  good  or  bad  order  as  the  case 
may  be,  as  jjer  bill  of  lading. 

BINABY  THEOEY. — This  theory  in  chemistry 
takes  cognizance  of  the  mode  of  construction  of 
salts.  It" assumes  that  all  salts  contain  merely  two 
substances,  which  either  are  both  simple,  or  of  which 
one  is  simple,  and  the  other  a  compound  playing  the 
part  of  a  simple  liody.  The  Ijcst  and  most  familiar 
illustration  of  the  binary  theory  is  common  salt  or 
chloride  of  sodium  (XaCl),  which  is  constructed  of  ,j 
the  metal  .sodium  (Na)  and  the  non-metal  chlorine  (CI), 
and  is  at  a  glance  seen  to  be  a  Unary  com  pound  (a 
compound  of  two).  In  like  manner,  fluor-spar,  or 
the  fluoride  of  calcium  (CaF),  consists  of  the  metal 
calcium  (Ca)  and  the  non-metal  fluorine  (F);  iodide 
of  pota.s.sium  (KI),  largely  employed  in  photography, 
of  potassium  (K)  and  iodine  (I);  and  bromide  of  silver 
(AgBr),  also  useful  in  photography,  of  silver  (Ag) 
and  bromine  (Br).  Considerable  difficulty  is  ex- 
perienced in  including  all  salts  under  the  binary 
theorj-,  but  in  many  cases  the  apparent  difficulty  may 
be  got  over.  Thus,  saltpeter,  or  the  nitrate  of  potash 
(Kt),X06),  according  to  the  ordinarj-  mode  of  repre- 
senting its  composition  in  symbols,  naturally  breaks 
up  into  potash  (KO)  and  nilric  acid  (NO.,);  but  in 
this  form  it  cannot  be  correctly  included  in  the  binary 
theory.  If,  however,  the  same  elements  I)e  arranged 
diffefentlv,  as  when  the  nitrate  of  potash  (KXO.)  is 
represented  as  contaming  the  metal  potassium  (K) 
and  the  compound  non-metal  nitrationide  (N0«),  the 


latter  playing  the  part  of  chlorine  or  other  simple 
substance,  the  apparent  barrier  to  the  introduction  of 
such  salts  into  the  list  of  those  comprehended  under 
the  binary  theory  to  a  great  extent  di.sappears.  The 
following  table  will  represent  this  more  clearly: 

_^  Symbols. 

^  Ordinary        Binary 

Way.  Theory 

Chloride  of  sodium Na,Cl  Na,Cl 

Nilrate  of  potash KO.XOj       K,XO, 

Sulphate  of  soda NaO,SOa      Xa.SO, 

Carbonate  of  lime CaO.COj      Ca.COi 

Much,  however,  remains  to  be  cleared  up,  and  in 
very  many  cases  the  binary  theory  does  not  answer 
the  purpose  of  including  all  salts  imder  one  class. 

BIN0CT7LAB  HICBOSCOPE, — A  microscope  adapted 
to  be  used  by  both  eyes  at  the  same  time.  It  has 
only  one  set  of  object-gla.sses,  but  the  pencil  of  light, 
after  pas.sing  the.se  lenses,  is  di\ided,  and  the  parts 
are  sent  to  the  eyes  separately.  The  division  is 
cau.sed  by  a  trapezoidal  prism  that  is  pushed  later- 
ally into  the  pencil  of  light,  cutting  off  one  half;  the 
other  half  goes  on  directly  to  one  eye.  That  part  of 
the  pencil  which  is  obstructed  enters  the  lower  face 
of  the  prism  normally  and  is  not  there  changed;  it 
meets  the  second  face  internally  at  such  an  angle  as 
causes  it  to  be  wholly  reflected  and  to  pass  back 
through  the  glass  to  the  third  face;  here  it  is  again 
totally  reflected,  and  it  pas.ses  thence  out  of  the  gla.ss 
normally  through  the  fourth  face.  The  result  at  all 
these  changes  of  direction  is  to  give  it  a  path,  slightly 
oblique  to  that  of  the  unchanged  ray,  that  will  carry 
it  through  an  oblique  tube  to  the  second  eye.  The 
rays  of  light  cross  in  the  objective;  hence,  to  obtain 
a  stereoscopic  effect — that  is,  to  cause  the  object  to 
stand  forth  as  a  solid,  its  three  dimensions  being 
properly  appreciated — the  light  which  comes  from 
the  left  side  of  the  object  nuist  enter  the  right  eve, 
and  i^iee  versa.  Should  the  light  from  the  right  side 
enter  the  right  eye,  a  pseudoscopic  effect  follows;  pro- 
jections seem  hollows,  and  hollows  look  like  eleval  ions. 
The  binocular  microscope  has  two  eye-pieces.  It  is 
restful  to  the  e\es,  and  with  low  powers  gives  infor- 
mation not  to  be  had  otherwise,  showing  the  depth, 
as  well  as  the  length  and  breadth,  of  the  thing  ob- 
served. The  binocular  telescope  has  two  tubes  and 
two  sets  of  lenses  throughout.  A  pair  of  opera- 
glasses  is  a  familiar  example.     See  Fidd-glaxs. 

BINOMIAL. — In  algebra,  a  quantity  consisting  of 
two  terms  or  part.s — e.g.,  a  -[-  J  or  9  —  5;  a  trinomial 
con.sists  of  three  terms,  as  a  +  6  +  e,  or  10  -|-  5  —  8. 
The  Binomial  Theorem  is  that  remarkable  series 
of  analMical  formuliie  by  which  any  power  of  a 
binomial  can  be  expressetl  and  developed.  Thus,  the 
eighth  or  any  other  power  of  rt  +  6  can  be  at  once 
written  down  without  going  through  the  actual 
mulliplication  of  a  +  b  by  it.self  for  the  given  num- 
ber of  times.  The  older  mathematicians  were  ac- 
quainteil  with  this  theorem  in  the  ca.se  of  integral 
ex-ponents,  though  the  actual  discoverer  is  unknown. 
Newton  was  the  first  to  demonstrate  its  truth  for 
all  exponents — fractional  and  neg-ative,  as  well  as  in- 
tegral. It  is  one  of  the  finest  of  his  discoveries,  and 
is  engraved  on  his  tomb.  Among  its  many  applica- 
tions, it  affords  the  means  of  finding  any  root  of  any 
nimtber  much  more  conveniently  than  by  the  usual 
method  of  extraction. 

BIPENNIS.— A  war-axe  used  by  the  Phrygians.  It 
was  double-edged,  having  the  edges  set  back  to  back, 
and  between  them  the  fong  shaft  or  handle  Ls  pro- 
duced until  it  ends  in  a  point.  Sometimes  the  axe  had 
but  one  edge,  while  on  the  other  side  it  had  either  a 
hook  or  a  hammer. 

BIPOBUS.— With  the  ancients  this  word  signified 
a  double  prowed  boat,  so  that  it  could  ch.ange  its 
course  to  the  opposite  direction  -nithout  tuminir. 

BIEAGO  BRIDGE.— A  trestle-bridge,  of  which  the 
supports  are,  for  a  depth  of  water  less  tlian  1'.?  feet, 
a  peculiar  kind  of  adjtistable  horse.  For  water 
deeper  than  this,   pontons  made  in  several  pieces 


BIHD'S-ETE  THW. 


184 


BIVOUAC. 


joinixl  tojrcthiT,  or  any  Inrjro  fliit-l)ottoiiic(l  boal.», 
may  U'  iisi'd.  It  may  be  so  laid  as  to  fonn  si'veral 
pa&«igt'ways  in  the  siiiiu'  bridge,  by  joiiiinj;  a  larsrer 
number  of  the  jMirts  of  pontons  together,  and  placing 
several  rows  of  the  horses.  The  horse  is  formed  of  a 
movable  cap  sustainetl  at  each  end  by  a  single  foot. 
The  Clip  is  of  spnice  or  jiine,  17  feel  long.  IS}  inches 
deep,  Of  inches  wide  in  the  niiildle,  and  ;<i  inches  wide 
at  the  ends  for  a  distance  of  3  feet.  A  mortise  3*  inches 
■wide  by  lOA  inches  long  is  cut  in  each  head  of  the  cap 
for  the" pas.sjjge  of  the  foot,  the  bottom  of  the  mortise 
being  inclined  22  .  The  floor  of  this  bridge  is  com- 
post of  planks  10}  feet  long  by  lU  inches  by  li 
inches,  with  a  notch  at  each  end  i  inch  deep  anci  isj 
inches  long,  to  receive  the  balks  at  the  side  of  the 
bridge. 

BIRD'S-EYE  VIEW.— A  term  applied  generally  to 
modes  of  persi)eclive  in  which  the  eye  is  supposed 
to  liKik  <lown  upon  the  objects  from  a  considerable 
height.  If  the  eye  is  considered  as  looking  perpen- 
dicularly ilown  while  it  sweeps  o^•er  each  point  of 
the  scene  in  succes-sion,  we  have  an  exact  ground 
plan;  no  object  covers  another,  horizontal  angles  and 
distances  are  exactly  represented;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  no  vertical  angles  or  side-^news  appear.  In 
sketching  or  drawing  a  locality  for  military  or 
economical  purposes,  this  kind  of  perspective  is 
always  used.  The  great  difficulty  is  to  represent  at 
the  same  time  the  relative  heights  of  mountains 
and  steepness  of  acclivities.  But  the  more  usual 
kind  of  bird's-eye  \iews  differ  from  common  per- 
spective only  in  the  horizontal  line  being  placed  con- 
siderably ab<)ve  the  picture.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
the  only  kind  of  \iews  known  were  of  the  nature  of 
griHunl-iilans,  and  the  artists  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury tried  to  combine  this  method  with  side-\'iews. 

BISCAIEN. — A  name  formerly  given  to  a  long- 
barreled  musket,  the  range  of  which  was  greater  than 
the  ordinary  musket.  At  present  this  appellation  is 
given  to  a  leaden  ball  alx)ut  the  size  of  an  egg,  which 
is  uscmI  for  canister  or  case-shot. 

BISCAYAN  FORGE.— A  furnace  in  which  malleable 
iron  is  obtained  direct  from  the  ore. 

BISCUITS.— Small  flat  bread  rendered  dry  and 
hard  by  baking,  in  order  to  their  long  preservation.  ! 
They  arc  divided  into  two  classes — Ihe  unfermeiit^d  and 
the  fei-iiii-nied.  XJnfermented  or  luikateiied  biscuits, 
generally  known  as  eommon  sen-biscuUtt  or  ship-bread, 
are  made  of  wheaten  flower  (retaining  some  of  the 
bran),  water,  and  common  salt.  The  materials  are  1 
kneaded  together,  either  by  manual  labor — that  is,  by 
the  hands  and  feet  of  the  workmen — or  by  introduc- 
ing the  materials  into  a  long  trough  or  box,  with  a 
central  shaft,  to  which  a  series  of  knives  is  attached, 
and  which  is  made  to  revolve  rapidly  by  machinery. 
The  mass  of  dough  so  obtained  is  then  kneaded  aiid 
thinned  out  into  a  sheet  the  proper  thickness  of  the 
biscuits,  bv  being  pas.sed  an<l  repassed  between  heavy 
rollers.  'I'liis  sheet  Ixing  i)laced  below  a  roller  with 
knife-edge  shapes,  is  readily  ctit  into  hexagonal  (six- 
sided)  or  round  pieces  of  dough  of  the  required  size 
of  the  biscuits.  The  indentation  of  the  slabs  of 
dough,  in  the  case  of  the  hexagonal  biscuits,  is  not 
complete,  sf)  that  all  the  biscuits  cut  out  of  each  slab 
remain  slightly  adhering  together.  These  slabs  of 
biscuits  are  then  introduced  into  an  oven  for  about 
fifteen  miimtes,  and  are  placeil  in  a  warm  room  for 
two  or  three  days  to  become  thoroughly  dry.  The 
more  modern  oven  is  open  at  both  ends,  anil  "the  l)is- 
cuits  being  placed  in  a  framework  are  diawn  by 
chains  through  llie  oven.  So  ra))idly  isthiso])eratioh 
conducted  that  about  21)00  lbs.  weight  of  biscuits  are 
pa.s.sed  through  one  of  these  ovens  every  day  of  ten 
hours.  The  extent  to  which  biscuits  are  now  con- 
.suined  may  be  learned  from  the  fact  that  several  of 
tlu^  largest  biscuit-manufactories  eacli  prepare  atid 
throw  into  market  every  week  from  ;i(),00()  to  r)0,000 
lbs.  weight  of  biscuits  of  various  kinds.  One  of  the 
largest  and  most  complete  biscuit-manufactories  in 
England  is  that  of  C'arr  at  Carlisle,  whose  biscuits. 


.sold  in  tin  bo.xes,  are  well  known.  Another  bakery 
of  this  kind  is  that  of  Harrison  of  Liverpool.  See 
HardUiek  and  Midt-biueuil. 

BISET.— A  member  of  the  National  Guard  who 
perfonued  his  duty  in  civilian's  dress,  before  the 
wearing  of  uniform  on  dutv  was  made  obligatory. 

BISHOP'S  MANTLE.  — A  Venetian  mail  cape,  with 
which  the  Doges  were  armed  ;  it  was  also  worn  in 
Germany  diunng  the  lifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
and  over  the  cuirass  in  Italy  during  the  fifteenth 
centurj'. 

BISTER— BISTRE.— A  pigment  of  a  warm  brown 
color,  |>ri|iared  from  the  soot  of  wood,  especially 
beech.  It  is  used  in  water-colors  after  the  maimer  of 
Indian  ink. 

BITUMEN. — A  mineral  substance,  remarkable  for 
its  iuflamnuibility  and  its  strong  peculiar  odor;  gene- 
rally, however,  supposed  to  be  of  vegetable  origin. 
The  name,  which  was  in  use  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  is  variously  emploj'ed,  sometimes  to  include 
a  luimlier  of  the  substances  called  mineral  rem'iiK, 
particularly  the  liquid  mineral  substances  called 
iiaplitlui  and  jxtnileiiin  or  mineral  oil,  and  the  solid 
ones  called  miiund  pi'tr/i,  ntfphalt,  miiwral  Hwntchoue, 
etc.;  sometimes  in  a  more  restricted  sense  it  is  ap- 
plied by  mineralogists  only  to  some  of  these,  and  by 
some  mineralogists  to  the  solid,  by  others  to  the 
liquid  ones.  All  these  substances  arc,  however, 
closely  allied  to  each  other.  Na|)htha  and  petroleiun 
consist  essentially  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  alone,  84 
to  88  per  cent  being  carbon;  the  others  contain  also 
a  little  oxygen,  which  is  particularly  the  case  in 
asphalt,  the  degree  of  their  solidity  appearing  to 
depend  u]X)n  the  proportion  of  oxygen  which  they 
contain,  which  amounts  in  some  specimens  of  as- 
phalt to  10  per  cent.  Asphalt  also  contains  a  little 
nitrogen.  Bituminous  substances  are  generally 
found  in  connection  with  carboniferous  rocks,  in  dis- 
tricts where  there  is,  or  evidently  has  been,  volcanic 
agenc}'.  See  the  articles  already  referred  to.  In- 
deed, most  kinds  of  coal  contain  bitumen,  and  a  sub- 
stance essentially  the  same  is  produced  from  all 
kinds  of  coal  by  distillation;  and  whether  before  ex- 
isting actually  fonned  in  the  coal,  or  produced  at  the 
time  by  the  action  of  heat,  bitumen  may  often  be 
seen  bubbling  from  pieces  of  coal  after  they  have 
begun  to  burn  on  an  ordinary  tire.  Some  of  the 
shales  of  the  coal-measures  are  verj-  bituminous,  as 
is  al.so  a  kind  of  nuirl-slatc  abundant  in  some  parts  of 
the  Continent  of  Europe.  One  of  the  most  interest- 
ing of  the  bituminous  minerals  is  that  called  miiieml 
ca/»iMui)ie  or  thi-itic  bitumen,  and  for  which  the  new 
name  of  elaterite  has  been  devised,  as  if  to  support 
the  dignity  of  its  exaltation  to  the  rank  of  a  distinct 
mineral  species.  It  is  a  very  rare  mineral,  only 
three  localities  being  known  for  it  in  the  world — the 
Odin  lead-mine  in  Derbyshire;  a  coal-mine  at  Slon- 
trelais,  near  Angers,  in  France;  and  a  coal-mine  near 
South  Bury,  in  Mas.Siicbusetts.  It  is  elastic  and  flex- 
ible like  caoutchouc,  and  may  be  used,  like  it,  for 
effacing  pencil-marks.  It  is  easily  cut  with  a  knife. 
Its  color  is  blackish,  reddish,  or  yellowish  brown; 
and  its  specitic  .gravity  is  somelimes  a  little  less  aial 
sometimes  a  little  more  than  that  of  water.  It  has  a 
strong  bituminous  odor,  and  bums  with  a  sooty 
flame.     See  Goal. 

BIVOUAC. — The  encampment  of  soldiers  in  the 
open  air,  without  tents,  where  ever3'  one  remains 
dres,sed  and  with  bis  weajions  by  him.  Even  dur- 
ing the  Seven  Years'  War  it  was  no  tmcommon  thing 
for  the  whole  army,  when  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
enemy,  to  pass  (he  iiiglit  in  their  ranks,  each  lying 
down  in  his  place,  in  order  to  be  ready  to  stand  to 
their  arms  at  a  moment's  notice.  But  the  French 
revolutionary  armies  introduced  the  practice  of  dis- 
pensing with  tents  altogether,  and  regularly  passing 
the  night  en  himiiiic.  Hence  in  a  great  measure 
that  rapidity  in  their  motions  which  long  made 
them  imiforndy  successful.  The  practice  was  after- 
wards   imitated    by   the  other   armies  of    Europe, 


BLACK. 


185 


BLACKING. 


though  less  by  the  English.  Soldiers  in  bivouac 
light  fires,  and  improvise,  where  it  is  possible,  huts 
of  straw,  branches,  etc.  But  this  mode  of  encamp- 
ment, though  favorable  to  celerity  of  movement,  is 
purchased  at  the  expense  of  the  soldiers'  health,  be- 
sides being  destructive  of  discipline,  by  leading  to 
plundering  and  destroying  of  houses,  fruit-trees,  etc., 
in  the  vicinity.  Accordingly,  the  tent  is  again  com- 
ing into  use,  and  for  permanent  encampments  regu- 
larly constructed  wooilen  huts  have  lieen  introduced. 
There  are  still,  however,  many  cases  where  the  biv- 
ouac is  the  only  resource. 

The  bivouac  is  formed  as  follows:  A  regiment  of 
Cavalry  being  in  order  of  battle,  in  rear  of  the 
ground  to  be  occupied,  the  Colonel  breaks  it  by  pla- 
toons to  the  right.  The  horses  of  eacli  platoon  are 
placed  in  a  single  row,  and  fastened  as  prescribed  for 
camps;  near  the  enemy,  tbey  remain  sadilled  all 
night,  with  slackened  girths.  The  arms  are  at  first 
stacked  in  rear  of  each  row  of  horses;  the  sabers, 
■with  the  bridles  hung  on  them,  are  placed  against 
the  stacks.  Tlie  forage  is  placed  on  the  right  of 
each  row  of  horses.  Two  stable-guards  for  each 
platoon  watch  the  horses.  A  fire  for  each  platoon  is 
made  near  the  color  line,  twenty  paces  to  the  left  of 
the  row  of  horses.  A  shelter  is  mside  for  the  men 
around  the  fire,  if  possible,  and  each  man  then 
stands  his  arms  and  bridle  against  the  shelter.  The 
fires  and  shelter  for  the  officers  are  placed  in  rear 
of  the  line  of  those  for  the  men.  The  interval  be- 
tween the  squadrons  must  be  without  obstruction 
throughout  the  whole  depth  of  the  bivouac. 

An  Infantry  regiment  going  into  bivouac  forms  its 
line  of  battle  and  then  breaks  into  companies,  like 
when  it  goes  into  camp.  The  arms  are  then  stacked, 
and  the  fires  made.  These  fires  are  on  the  ground 
that  would  be  occupied  by  the  tents  in  camp,  and  are 
sufficient  in  number  to  allow  one  for  every  eight  or 
ten  men.  If  possible,  shelters  are  constructed;  these 
are  easily  built  in  a  wooded  countrj'.  If  liable  to 
sui-prise,  the  infantry  should  stand  to  arms  at  day- 
break, and  the  cavalry  mount,  until  the  return  of  the 
reconnoitering  parties. 

The  Artillery  can  have  no  fi.xed  rule  for  its  biv- 
ouacs, being  obliged  to  suit  itself  to  localities;  but 
in  no  case  should  the  fires  be  near  the  park.  The 
following  arrangement  Ls  generalh-  observed:  In  a 
single  platoon  of  a  mounted  batterj',  the  pieces  and 
caissons  are  parked  at  eight  yards'  interval  ;  the 
horses  are  tied  to  the  prolonges  (twenty-four  feet  long) 
stretched  Ijetween  the  hind-wheels  of  the  pieces,  the 
distance  between  the  pieces  and  caissons  being  in- 
creased; the  harness,  etc.,  is  placed  on  the  carriages, 
and  any  implements  which  could  l)e  injured  by  the 
horses  are  removed.  If  there  be  no  forage  on  the 
caissons,  the  prolonges  may  be  stretched  between  the 
Lind-wheels  of  these  carriages,  the  spare  wheels 
being  taken  off.  The  men  bivouac  at  a  convenient 
distance  in  rear  of  the  caissons;  the  guard  is  on  the 
flank;  the  cook-fire  is  near  the  guard-tent.  In  a  sin- 
gle platoon  of  a  horse-hntttry,  tlie  carriages  are 
parked  in  one  line  with  ten  yards'  interval;  the  pro- 
longes are  lengthened  by  lariats  doubled  or  trebled. 
If  platoons  are  lialile  to  be  often  detached,  a  rope 
should  be  pro\aded  for  the  cannoneers'  horses.  A 
battery  bivouacs  in  a  similar  manner;  the  battery- 
wagon  and  forge  are  in  line  with  the  pieces;  the 
picket-rope  is  ordinarily  u.sed  instead  of  the  pro- 
longes. When  practicable,  the  picket-rope,  or  pro- 
longes, should  be  stretched  between  trees,  etc.,  so  as 
not  to  run  the  risk  of  having  the  carriages  gnawed 
by  the  horses.  See  Cump,  FieUl-mreiee,  and  Winter 
Quarters. 

BLACK. — In  Blazonry,  <mder  the  name  of  sable, 
denotes  constancv.  wisdom,  and  jirudence. 

BLACK-BAND  IRONSTONE.— An  ore  of  iron  found 
very  extensively  in  Scotland  and  elsewhere.  It 
occurs  in  the  Ciirboniferous  system  of  geologists,  in 
regular  bands,  layers,  or  strata,  and  generally  as.so- 
ciated  with  coal  and  limestone.     It  is  mainly  a  car- 


bonate of   iron  accompanieil  by  much  coaly  matter. 
The  following  is  the  composition  of  several  samples: 

„    ,.  ,  A.  B.       c.      D.       E.      F. 

Carbonate  of  iron* 51.58  50.40  40.62    2<J.14    5.1.38    63.80 

Carbonate  of  I  inio :i,T6  3.13  1.68      L.'ii      144      iw 

Carbonate  of  magnesia.  0.11  0.09  0.06      0.04      0  03     0  05 

Alumina 0,74      0.82  trace  trace  trace  trace 

Silica 20.96  26.56  8.48     19.84      2.TB      4  48 

Coaly  matter 22.64  18.M  49.16    49.46    42.39    30.08 

Water  and  loss 0.21  0.37  

100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00  lOO.OO  100.00 
•  Metallie  iron,  per  cent  35.20    35.79    19.61    14.06    25.77    30.80 

The  black-band  iron.stone  is  easily  reduced.  It 
does  not,  however,  yield  a  first-class  iron  when 
smelted  by  itself,  and  is  therefore  generally  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  ha'matite  (red  iron-ore), 
which  communicates  strength  smd  hardness  to  the 
iron  ol)tained.     See  fntn. 

BLACK  BOOK.— An  ancient  book  of  English  Ad- 
miralty Law,  compiled  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
It  has  always  been  deemed  of  the  highest  authority 
in  matters  concerning  the  Admiralty  in  England. 

BLACK-COATS. — Mercenary  troops  employed  in 
the  religious  wars  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Their 
appointments  were  lilack  throughout,  and  they  werc^ 
armed  with  swords  and  pistols.  They  desolated  the 
countries  in  which  they  were  employed,  and  over- 
whelmed the  humbler  clas-ses  of  the  populatioas  with 
their  cruelties  and  depredations. 

BLACK  FLAG.— xV  fiag  of  a  black  color,  displayed 
as  a  sign  that  no  mercy  will  be  -shown  the  van- 
quished, or  that  no  quarter  will  be  given. 

BLACK  FLUX.— A  material  used  to  assist  in  the 
melting  of  varioiLS  metallic  substances.  Black  flu.x 
is  prepared  by  heating  in  a  covered  crucible  ordinary 
or  crude  cream  of  tartar,  or  the  l)itartrate  of  pota.sli 
(KO,HO,C„H.O,«),  when  the  tartaric  acid  (C.H.O.o) 
is  decomposed  and  charred,  forming  carbonic  acid 
(COj),  which  remains  in  combination  with  the 
pottish  (KO)  as  carbonate  of  potash  (K0,C02),  ac- 
companied by  much  free  carbon.  This  very  inti- 
mate mixture  of  carlxjnate  of  ])otash  and  carbon, 
other\vise  called  black  flux,  is  a  tine  black  powder  of 
great  service  in  the  fluxing  of  metallic  ores,  as  of 
lead  and  the  separation  of  the  metal  therefrom.  The 
black  flux  is  likewise  employed  as  the  raw  material 
from  which,  on  the  application  of  heat  in  iron  ves- 
sels, the  metal  iiotassium  can  be  obtained. 

BLACK  HOLE. — An  appellation  familiarly  given 
to  a  dungeon  or  dark  cell  in  a  prison,  and  which  is 
a.s.sociated  in  the  public  mind  with  a  horrible  catas- 
trophe in  the  history  of  British  India — namely,  the 
cruel  confinement  of  a  party  of  English  in  an  apart- 
ment cuilled  the  "  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,"  on  the 
night  of  the  18th  of  .lune,  17.56.  The  garris(jn  of 
the  fort  connected  with  the  English  factory  at  Cal- 
cutta having  been  captured  by  the  Nabob  Suraja 
Dowlali,  this  barbarian  caused  tlie  whole  of  the 
prisoners  taken,  146  in  numl)er,  to  be  confined  in  an 
apartment  20  feet  square.  This  cell  had  only  two 
small  windows,  and  these  were  obstructed  by  a 
veranda.  The  crush  of  the  unhappy  sufferers  was 
dreadful;  and  after  a  night  of  excruciating  agony 
from  i)re.ssure,  heat,  thirst,  and  want  of  air,  there 
were  in  the  morning  only  23  survivors,  the  ghastliest 
forms  ever  seen  on  earth. 

BLACKING.— The  material  employed  for  produc- 
ing a  black  glazed  shining  surface  on  leather.  The 
main  ingredient  in  the  various  kinds  of  blacking  is 
bone-black,  which  is  mixed  with  an  oil,  some  sugar, 
and  a  little  sulphuric  acid.  The  materials  in  Dav 
&  Martin's  blacking  are  finely  powdered  bone-black 
ground  with  sperm-oil,  raw  sugar  or  moIa.s.ses,  a 
little  vinegar,  and  some  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
(specific  gra\nly  1.8.50).  The  substances  are  incor- 
porated together  one  by  one  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  stated,  and  the  action  of  the  sulphuric  acid 
is  to  convert  much  of  the  lime  in  the  bone-black  into 
sulphate  of  lime,  which  causes  a  thickening  of  the 
mixture,  and  a  tenacious  paste  results.     This  paste. 


BLACKWALL  HITCH. 


186 


BLAKELY  PROJECTILE. 


diluted  wiUi  weak  vinccnr,  is  put,  while  warm,  in 
stoiu-warc  bottles,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  market. 
Blackiiiir  for  shoes,  IkIIs,  etc.,  c-ousisls  of  three 
parts  of  white  wiu\,  seven  and  a  half  parts  essence  of 
turpentine;  one  and  a  half  |>arts  of  ivorj'-black.  The 
wax  is  cut  into  small  pieces  and  put  into  a  glazed 
vessel.  Spn-iid  the  turjK'Utine  over  it,  and  lesive  it 
for  twenty-four  hours.  Then  mi.v  it  by  degrees  with 
ivory-blaek.  To  use  it,  spread  it  with  a  rug  in  a 
thin  layer  on  the  leather,  and  afterwards  rub  with  a 
soft  brush. 

Blacking  for  harness  consists  of  yellow  wax,  four 
parts  in  weight,  six  parts  essence  of  turpentine,  one 
jiart  of  mutton-suet,  and  one  part  of  ivory-black. 
Cut  the  wax  into  small  jiieces,  and 
leave  it  to  soiik  twenty-four  houi-s 
in  the  essence  of  turiK'ntine;  grind 
in  separately  the  ivdry-lilack  and 
suet  until  there  is  a  perfect  mixture 
of  the  whole  mass.  When  the 
leather  has  lost  its  color,  it  may 
be  restored  by  the  mud  of  ink,  or 
by  sulphate  of  iron  in  a  thick  solu- 
tion, spread  upon  the  edges. 
.  BLACKWALL  HITCH.— A  bend 
to  the  back  of  a  tacklc-liook  or  to 
a  rope,  made  bj-  i)assing  the  bight 
round  the  object  and  jamming  it  by 
its  own  standing  part.    See  Conlnge. 

BLACK  WATCH.— The  appellation  given  to  certain 
aniuil  companies  employed  to  watch  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland.  The  term  hh'ick  aro.se  from  the  dress  of  this 
species  of  militia,  which  was  composed  of  tartans  of 
dark  colors.  Some  Highlanders  had  been  armed  by 
Government  as  early  as  1725,  when  General  Wade 
wius  appointed  Comniander-in-Chief  in  Scotland;  but 
it  was  not  till  atwut  1729  or  1730  that  the  companies 
assumed  a  regular  form.  The  companies  were  six  in 
number— three  com|)rising  100  men  each,  commanded 
by  a  Captain;  and  tBree  of  70  men  each,  commanded 
by  Lieutenants,  acting  as  Captains.  Stationed  in 
dilTcrent  jiarts  of  the  Highlands,  and  acting  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  they  were  stvled  the  Inde- 
pendent Companies  of  the  Black  Watch.  The  body 
was  raised  chiefly  from  the  Whig  or  loyal  clans- 
Campbells,  Grants,  Mimros.  etc.— and  many  men  of 
good  station  in  society  joined  it,  not  only  for  the 
.sake  of  good  pay,  but  for  the  valued  privilege  of 
bearing  arms.  The  duties  of  the  Black  Watch  were 
to  enforce  the  Disarming  Act,  to  overawe  the  dis- 
affected, to  prevent  political  meetings  of  a  seditious 
kind,  and  to  check  depredations  among  the  clans,  or 
on  the  Lowland  frontier.  After  being  of  consider- 
able u.se  for  these  local  purposes,  the  whole  of  the 
companies  were  formed  into  the  42d  Regiment, 
under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of  Crawford,  in 
1739— their  removal  gi\-ing  facilitv,  no  doubt,  for 
the  outbreak  of  the  Rebellion  in  1745.  Retaining  its 
original  Highland  character,  the  42d  Regiment  bc- 
canie  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Corps  in  the 
British  army;  the  whole  of  its  history,  for  which  we 
would  refer  to  the  work  of  Colonel  Stewart  on  High- 
lanil  Regiments,  being  a  series  of  brilliant  achieve- 
ments. Embodied  under  the  Earl  of  Crawford,  the 
regiment  would  have  adopted  the  tartan  of  that 
nobleman,  if  he  had  i)os.se.s.sed  such  a  coirnizimce; 
the  Earl,  however,  being  a  Lowlander.  it  was  neces- 
sary to  adopt  an  arbitrary  pattern  of  tjirtaa,  which 
has  ever  since  been  known  as  the  42d  or  Black 
Watch  tartan. 

BLACKWOOD.— A  tree  growing  in  Southern  India 
in  the  Aniianiallay  Forest,  and  in  other  parts  of  India 
and  Burmah.  The  wood  is  close-grained,  stronsr, 
flexible,  tibrous,  durable,  and  of  a  ver\-  deep  pur- 
ple color.  It  is  used  in  the  Bombay  Gun-carriage 
Agency  for  Ixjams,  cheeks,  axle-beds,  and  poles  of 
field-carriages. 

BLAISE.— A  militarj'  order  instituted  bv  thcKinsrs 
of  Aniienia,  in  lunior  of  St.  Blaise  the  MartjT,  an- 
ciently Bishop  of  Sebasta,  and  the  Patron  Saint  of 


Armenia.  Justinian  ciUls  them  Knights  of  St.  Blaise 
and  St.  Mary,  and  places  them  not  only  in  Armenia, 
but  in  Palestine. 

BLAKELY  GAS  CHECK.— This  consists  of  a  taper 
breech-screw,  deviseil  to  realize  the  advantages  of  a 
Iilug  pandlel  with  the  bore,  and  yet  to  withdraw  the 
plug  without  unscrewing  its  whole  length.  After  the 
plug  is  imscrewed  two  or  three  turns,  it  may  be 
withdrawn  longitudinally,  on  a  prepared  .slide,  with- 
out further  turning.  The  thin  end  of  the  screw 
forms  a  kind  of  sras-check. 

BLAKELY  GUN.- The  most  approved  pattern  of 
the  Blakely  gun  combines  in  its  construction  the 
principles  of  "  initial  tension"  and  "  varying  elastici- 


Blakely  Oun. 


ty,"  the  object  of  which  is  to  bring  the  strength  of 
all  the  metal  of  the  piece  into  simultaneous  play,  to 
resist  explosion.  The  drawing  shows  the  general 
features  of  the  gun.  The  inner  tube,  or  barrel,  is 
made  of  low  steel,  having  considerable  but  not  quite 
enough  elasticity.  The  next  t\ibe  is  made  of  high 
steel  with  less  elasticity,  and  is  shrunk  on  to  the  bar- 
rel with  just  sufficient  tension  to  compensiite  for  the 
insufficient  difference  of  elasticity  between  the  two 
tubes.  The  outer  cast-iron  jacket,  to  which  the 
trunnions  are  attached,  is  the  least  elastic  of  all,  and 
is  put  on  with  only  the  shrinkage  attained  by  warm- 
ing it  over  a  fire.  The  steel  tubes  are  cast  hollow 
and  hammered  over  steel  mandrels,  under  steam-ham- 
mers; by  this  process  they  are  elongated  about  130 
per  cent;  at  the  same  time  the  tenacity  of  the  metal 
is  increased.     All  the  steel  parts  are  annealed. 

Captain  Blakely  uses  other  combinations  of  these 
metals,  the  simplest  of  which  is  a  cast-iron  gun  with 
hoops  of  steel  surrounding  the  reinforce.  He  objects 
to  the  use  of  wrought-iron  on  account  of  its  tendency 
to  stretch  permanently.  Blakely  guns  are  rifled  with 
one-sided  grooves,  and  are  fired  with  expanding  pro- 
jectiles. l"he  following  are  the  dimensions,  etc.,  of 
Blakely  aU-steel  guns : 


.a 

°. 

5S 

■ss 

.a  o  »  S     Ss 

GCN. 

.11 

a 

^1 

is 

1=1 

1  turn  in 

Lbs 

In. 

In. 

Calibers. 

hbs. 

Lbs. 

lOOpdr.... 

8,000 

6.4 

96 

8 

48 

100 

10 

laipdr. . . . 

9.000 

100 

« 

48 

130 

12 

aOO-pdr. . . . 

17.000 

8 

44-156 

IS 

48 

aoo 

20 

Kil  pilr 

■.>4.(K10 

9 

do. 

VI 

48 

250 

25 

3.W-pdr. . . . 

;)o.ooo!  10 

do. 

15 

48 

3S0 

35 

35()pdr. .. 

35,000    11 

do. 

12 

36 

5.10 

55 

700-pdr. ... 

40,000    12 

do. 

13 

36 

TUO 

TO 

See  Orftmiiid . 

BLAKELY  PROJECTILE.— This  projectile  has  an 
expanding  copixT  cu|)  attached  to  Us  base  by  means 
of  a  single  tap-bolt  in  the  center,  or  other  simple 
means.  It  is  itreventcd  from  turning  by  radial 
grooves  cast  on  the  surface  of  the  bottom  of  the  pro- 
jectile, into  whicli  the  cup  is  pressed  by  the  jliarge. 
The  angle  between  the  curved  sides  of  the  cup  audi 
the  bottom  of  the  projectile  is  filled  with  a  lubricat- 
ing material.  On  the  forward  part  of  the  body  arc- 
soft  metal  studs,  more  numerous  than  the  grooves  of 
the  bore  of  the  piece,  that  some  of  them  may  always. 


BLANCHARD  LATHE. 


187 


BLANKET-BAG  EQUIPMENTS. 


form  a  bfarinR  surface  for  the  projectile  against  the 
lunds.  The  driving  sides  of  the  grooves  are  deeper 
than  thf  oilier.     See  Expnndin;)  PrcyectUes. 

BLANCHARD  LATHE.— A  lathe  for  t\irning  irregti- 
l:ir  forms,  invented  by  Jlr.  Thomas  Bkmchanl.  It 
was  the  first  successful  lalhc  for  turning  gun-stocks, 
axc-handles,  etc.  The  idea  was  partly  elicited  in 
Brunei's  block-turning  machine.  The  art  of  turning 
is  most  applicable  in  all  the  mechanical  arts;  for  the 
hardest  metals,  and  the  most  ponderous  articles,  as 
well  as  the  softest  wood  and  the  most  delicate  pivots. 
See  Uitlii'. 

BLANCHARD  PONTONS.— Tin  cylinders  termina- 
ted by  hemispheres.  19i  feet  in  length,  3(t  feet  in 
diameter,  weighing  565  pounds,  and  with  a  buoyancy 
of  7110  pounds.  They  are  divided  into  nine  water- 
tight compartments,  each  jirovided  with  a  .screw-plug 
for  the  insertion  of  a  sucker-pump.  When  placed  at 
open  order,  12*  feet  a]iart,  they  bear  infantry,  cavalry 
in  sections,  or  Jight  tieldartillery;  when  placed  8  feet 
apart  they  will  bear  siege-artillery.  The  heaviest 
guns  may  be  towed  on  a  raft  of  three  or  more  pon- 
tons. The  bridge  formed  with  these  pontons  can  be 
boomed  out  from  the  shore  at  the  rate  of  live  minutes 
per  ponton. 

BLANCH-LYON.— A  title  of  one  of  the  English  pur- 
suivantsat-arms.     See  PufKnicitnt. 

BLANK. — 1.  A  piece  of  metal  brought  to  the 
reiiuired  shape  and  ready  for  the  finishing  operation, 
whatever  it  may  be.  A  planehct  of  metal,  weighed, 
testetl,  lUid  milletl,  is  a  blank  ready  for  the  die-press, 
which  converts  it  into  a  coin.  A  strip  of  .softened 
steel  made  into  tlie  required  shape  is  a  hhink,  which 
cutting  and    tempering    transform   into   a  file.     A 


Rifle  Breech-pin  Blank. 

piece  of  iron  with  a  tlarinir  head,  and  otherwise  prop- 
erly shaped  ready  for  nicking  and  threading,  is  a 
screw -blank,  which  with  the  final  operations  be- 
comes a  screw.  The  drawing  shows  the  blank  from 
which  is  made  the  rifle  l)reech-]iin. — 2.  The  point 
of  a  fcirget  at  which  aim  is  taken,  marked  with  a 
white  spot  ;  hence  the  object  to  which  anything  is 
directed. 

BLANK  CARTRIDGE. — The  blank  cartridge  con- 
sists of  a  copper  case,  70  grains  of  musket-powder,  a 
cup-an\il,  +  grain  percussion-powder,  and  a  patch  of 
black  wax.  The  copper  for  blank  cartridges  is  rolled 
in  strips  :i5  inches  long,  8.2  inches  wide,  and  .024  of 
an  inch  thick  ;  each  strip  will  cut  forty-two  disks. 
The  process  of  manufacture  of  the  cases,  etc.,  is  the 
same  as  for  the  ball-cartridges  up  to  the  point  of 
loading.  This  is  done  by  boys,  by  hand,  the  case 
being  loaded  by  a  charger,  and  closed  by  pressing  a 


piece  of  soft  black  wax  upon  the  open  end.  The  car- 
tridires  are  then  wiped  clean  and  the  waxed  end 
touched  with  shellac  varnish.  They  are  afterwai;d 
put  tip  in  suitable  paper  lio.xes,  whieii  are  packed  in 
wooden  box'S  for  transportation.  The  black  wax. 
whieli  is  entirely  dissipated  by  tiring,  is  made  by 
boiling  lor  two  hours  15  lbs.  beeswax  and  1  lb.  rosin 


in  one  gallon  of  pine-tar.  The  following  materials, 
are  required  for  100,000  blank  cartridges  :  2890  lbs. 
sheet-copper,  scrap  one  third,  .08  inch  thick  ;  575 
lbs.  sheet-copper,  scrap  one  third,  .045  inch  thick; 
1145  lbs.  musket-powder  (80  grains  to  each  cartridge)  ; 
7J  lbs.  percussion-powder  ;  82  lbs.  nails,  8d.;  4  1b.s. 
nails,  wrought ;  15  lbs.  paint  ;  1  pound  twine  ;  1028 
lbs.  tarred  boards,  scrap  10  per  cent ;  1  quart  varnish; 
800  feet  lumber  ;  4f  gross  screws  ;  25  lbs.  paste  ;  1^ 
lbs.  putty  ;  45  lbs.  paper  covers ;  3  lbs.  glue.  See 
Ceiittr-jire  ^fl^UlUic■rHtle  Cartridge. 

BLANKET. — A  course,  heavy,  open,  woolen  fabric, 
aihipted  for  bed-covering,  and  usually  napped.  It 
may  be  twilled  or  otherwise.  The  name  is  apjilied  to 
any  coarse  woolen  robe  ascd  as  a  wrapping.  The 
jMiirhti  is  a  blanket  with  a  hole  in  the  center  for  the 
head  to  go  through.  It  is  worn  by  the  South  Ameri- 
cans, Mexicans,  and  Pueblo  Indians. 

BLANKET  BAG  EQUIPMENTS.— The  blanket-bag 
now  sui)plieil  by  the  United  States  Ordnance  De- 
partment is  a  substitute  for  the  clothing-bag  formerly 
issued,  and  is  designed  to  be  worn  without  the  "  car- 
ry ing-l)race."  Two  "clothing-bag  straps"  are  sup- 
plied in  lieu  of  the  brace  system,  each  23  inches  long, 
2  inches  wide  at  one  end,  and  H  inches  wide  at  the 
other.  On  the  wide  end  is  sewed  a  standing  leather 
loo]!,  open,  on  the  undres,scd  side  of  the  strap,  and 
having  a  small  brass-wire  loop,  to  receive  the  coat- 
strap,  on  the  blackened  side,  attached  by  a  chape 
sewed  and  riveted  under  the  leather  loop.  A  double 
bra.ss-wire  hook  is  attached  to  the  small  end  of  the 
strap,  which  is  passed  through  its  eye  (the  back  of  the 
hook  toward  the  undressed  side)  ami  secured  by 
another  hook  riveted  on  and  passing  through  holes 
punched  in  tlie  strap  to  regulate  the  length. 
A  sliding  loop  slijiped  over  the  fold  in  the 
strap  kecjis  the  double-wire  hook  in  place. 
The  straps  are  attached  to  the  bag  by 
means  of  two  rectangular  brass-wire  loops 
at  the  fop.  To  attach  the  strap,  remove 
the  double-wire  hook  and  the  sliiling 
leather  loop;  pass  the  strap  through  the- 
rectangular  brass  loop  at  the  top  of  the  bag 
from  the  back  of  the  bag  toward  the 
side  of  the  flap,  holding  the  blackened 
side  of  the  strap  toward  the  bag  and 
observing  that  the  straps  are  "rights" 
lefts."      The    straicht    edges    of    the    straps 


and 


should  be  toward  the  middle  of  the  Img.  Next, 
pa.ss  the  small  end  of  the  strap  through  the 
standing,  leather  loop  at  the  wide  end  and  draw 
the  noose  thus  formed  tip  close  to  the  rectangular 
wire  loop  on  the  bag.  The  small  brass  loop  on  the 
strap  should  be  drawn  through  the  brass  loop  on  the 
bag  so  as  to  remain  on  the  outside.  Next,  put  on  the 
sliding  leather  loop  and  then  the  double-wire  hook. 
Adjust  the  strap  to  the  desired  length  by  means  of 
the  hook  at  the  end,  and  pass  tlie  sliding  loop  over  the 
fold  in  the  .strap.  To  attach  the  coat-strap,  slip 
the  sliding  loop  down  to  the  buckle  and  pass  the  bil- 
let enil  through  the  small  brass  loop  on  the  blanket- 
bag  strap,  holding  the  blackened  side  of  the  coat-strap 
toward  the  bag  ;  pull  the  strap  through  to  within  one 
foot  of  the  buckle  ;  pass  the  billet  through  the  sliding 
leather  loop  and  push  the  latter  down  close  to  the 
Iirass  loo])  through  which  the  strai>  pa.sses.  The  eoat- 
strap  should  Im'  inserted  in  simie  direction  with  regard 
to  the  bag  as  the  blanket-bag  strap.s — that  is,  .so  that 
when  the  strap  hanns  double  over  the  flap  of  the  bag 
the  buckle  end  will  be  outside.  To  sling  the  bag, 
first  hook  the  left-band  strap  to  the  I)  ring  on  the 
lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  bag,  pass  the  left  arm 
through  this  strap,  gra.sp  the  end  of  the  other  strap 
with  the  right  liaii(l,  swing  the  bag  over  the  shotilders, 
carrying  tlie  riglit-hand  strap  over  the  heaii  ;  bring  this 
strap  down  over  the  right  shoulder  and  hook  it  into 
the  D  riiur  at  the  lower  right-hand  conicr  of  the  bag. 
The  webbins  loop  with  biitton  and  button-hole  at  the 
iHitfom  of  the  blanket-bag  is  designed  to  carry  the 
tin  cup.     When  the  bag  is  tilled,  the  flap  is  fastened 


SLANKET-BOATS. 


188 


BLAST-ENGINE. 


down  by  passing  the  leather  loops  at  the  corners  over 
he  buttons  on  the  gussets.  A  haversack -strap  is  also 
made  of  leather  and  supplieil  with  iluublcw  ire  hooks 
at  each  end  like  those  on  the  blauket  l(ag  stnips. 
These  hotiks  are  inserte<l  into  the  buckles  at  the  top 
of  the  haversack.  Ko  change  has  Ikhju  made  in  the 
haversack  except  to  enlarge  the  pocket  for  the  meat- 


ration  can.  It  can  be  used  with  either  the  carrying- 
brace  or  the  haversack-str.ip  now  provide^l.  A 
leather  stnip  similar  to  the  haversackstnip  (only  nar- 
rower) is  now  ))rovided  for  the  canteen.  Iron-wire 
loops  are  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  canteen  to  re- 
ceive the  double-wire  hooks  on  the  strap. 

BLANKET-BOATS.— A  practical  and  highly  useful 
I.)lan  for  crossing  streams  is  liy  means  of  boats  con- 
structed of  a  single  rubber  blanket,  capable  of  carry- 
ing a  soldier,  knaiJsack,  anns,  and  accoutennents, 
with  only  4  inches  of  flotation.  The  size  of  .some  of 
the  ordinary  blankets  is  6  feet  long  and  4"  feet  wide; 
but  7  feet  "by  5  feet  would  be  preferable.  If  the 
height  of  the  boat  be  made  1  foot,  the  lengtli  will  be 
4  feet  and  the  width  2J  feet,  so  as  to  be  Completely 
covered  by  the  blanket.  The  frame  may  be  made  of 
round  sticks,  1  inch  and  li  inch  in  diameter.  In 
using  these  boats  it  will  lx>  convenient  to  lash  several 
together,  side  by  side,  ui>oii  which  soldiers  can  be 
transixirted.  The  frames  are  abandoned  or  used  for 
fuel  when  the  army  has  crossed  over.     See  Canvag- 

IxniU. 

BLANKETEERS.— A  number  of  operators  who,  in 
IHIT,  nut  in  St.  IVter's  Fiehl,  near  Manchester,  Eng- 
land, many  of  them  having  blankets,  rugs,  or  great- 
coats rolled  up  and  fastened  to  their  backs.  '  This 
wa.s  termed  the  "  blanket  Meeting."  They  iiroceeded 
to  march  towards  London,  but  were  dispcrs('d  by  the 
Magistracy.  It  is  slated  that  their  object  was  to  com- 
mence a  general  insurrection.  Eventually  the  ring- 
leailers  had  an  inteniew  with  the  Cabinet,  and  a  better 
understanding  between  the  working  chLsses  and  the 
(jiiveriinient  ensued. 

BLAST.— The  longfla.sli  from  the  muzzle  of  a  piece 
of  ordnance,  and  the  rapid  rush  of  the  suddenly  iiro- 
duced  powder-gas,  cause  a  very  powerful  hluxt,  which 
acts  destructively  on  objects  cl'ose  at  hand  lying  in  its 
path.  In  siege-batteries  the  parapets  become  damaged 
from  the  effects  of  their  own  lire.  When  the  btitxt  is 
confined  hi  a  narrow  embrasure  (temporary  work 
the  sides  soon  crumble  away  after  repealed  firing,  eu) 


tailing  constant  repair.  Not  only,  however,  is  the 
embrasure  gradually  destroyed,  but  frequently  the 
revetment  ot  its  sides  catches  tire  or  smouldei-s,  ren- 
dering great  care  necessary  in  taking  out  fresh  car- 
tridges in  loading. 

BLAST -ENGINE.— For  .smelting  and  refining  fur- 
naces, where  a  blast  with  a  pres.sure  of  some  iwimds 
per  .square  inch  is  required,  blowing-engines  of  large 
size  are  usually  employed.  .Such  an  engine  consists 
of  a  sleain-engine,  with  the  orilinary  steam-cylinder 
at  one  eml  and  a  blast-cylinder  at  the  other  end  of 
the  beam.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  construction  preferRti 
for  the  larger-sized  engines;  but  sometimes  a  horizon- 
tal arrangement  of  the  cylinders  is  adopted  for  those 
of  smaller  size.  The  blowing-cylinder  is  of  ca.st- 
iron,  with  an  air-tight  piston,  which,  as  it  a.scends 
imd  descends  with  the  motion  of  the  engine,  alteniately 
inhales  and  expels  the  air  at  each  end.  A  bla.st-cngine 
at  Shelton  Iron-works,  of  which  the  blowing-cylinder 
is  8  feet  4  inches  in  diameter,  aiul  has  a  9-foot  stroke, 
working  with  186  horse-i)ower,  and  making  32  single 
strokes  of  the  piston  per  minute,  inhales  1.5,700  cubic 
feet  of  alnK>s]ihcric  air  per  minute  ;  but  this  is  com- 
pressed by  the  blowing-cylinder  to  a  iires.sure  of  'A  lbs. 
l>er  square  inch  aluive  the  atmosphere,  which  reduces 
the  volume  supi>lied  by  the  cylinder  to  13,083  cul)ic 
feet.  Its  volume,  however,  is  largely  increa.sed  again, 
when  rai.sed  to  the  hot-blast  temperature,  iK'fore  enter- 
ing the  furnace.  In  the  Catalan  forges  of  Spain  and 
the  south  of  France  there  is  a  very  ingenious  water- 
blowing  machine  in  use,  called  a  trimijx;  but  it  can 
only  be  advantageously  employed  where  a  fall  of  a 
few  yaixls  of  water  is  available.  The;  height  from 
which  the  water  falls  deleiiniues  the  tension  of  the 
blast ;  but  the  height  si'ldimi  exceeds  27  feet,  which 
gives  a  pressure  of  from  11  to  2  lbs.  to  the  .stpiare 
inch.  It  is  asserted  that  no  other  blowing-machine 
gives  so  equable  a  blast  as  the  trompe,  and  it  is  the 
least  costly  of  any  ;  but  it  has  the  serious  defect  of 
supplying  air  more  or  less  saturated  with  moisture. 
The  theory  of  this  siugidar  machine  has  never  been 
satisfactorily  explained,  although  one  or  two  able 
philo.sopheis,  who  have  specially  studied  the  matter, 
incline  to  the  belief  that  much  of  the  air  is  carried 
down  the  jiipe  by  becoming  entangled  in  water.  It 
is  found  (hat  the  separation  of  the  air  from  the  water 
is  greatly  promoted  by  allowing  the  falling  current  to 
imiiinge  on  a  narrow  platform,  about  midway  of  the 
wind-chest. 

The  engra\-ing  on  the  o])i)osite  page  represents  the 
blivst-cngiuc  exhibited  at  the  U.  S.  International  Ex- 
hibition, in  1870,  by  the  I.  P.  Morris  Company,  and 
which  is  constructed  after  a  style  now  much  in  favor 
with  many  American  furnace-managers.  In  its  de- 
sign the  following  [Mjints  were  sought  to  be  obtained: 
conqwetness,  without  Siicrifice  of  accessibility  to 
moving  i)arls;  .self-adjustment  of  jiarts  liable  to  in- 
equalities of  wear;  .steadiness  of  the  whole  structure, 
and  preservation  of  aligiunent  by  being  .self-contained. 
All  the  parts  are  proportioned  to  the  work  of  sujiply- 
ing  blast  of  10  lbs.  pressure  steadily,  if  needed  ;  and 
though  the  ordinary  working  of  anthracile-coal-lmru- 
ing  furnaces  does  not  demaiul  that  high  incssure,  it  has 
been  exceeded  in  one  case,  13i  lbs.  having  been  blown 
off  for  a  considerable  jH'riod of  time  without  damage 
to  the  engine.  The  AVanieh  e(|uilil)riinn  valve  with 
which  this  engine  is  fitted  was  aiqilied  first  about 
eight  years  ago  to  an  engine  at  the  Lebanon  Furnaces, 
and  soon  after  it  was  applied  to  a  second  engine  at  the 
same  furnaces,  on  both  of  which  it  has  ]iroved  highly 
stitisfactoiT,  saving  steam  and  being  entirely  manage- 
able. Doid)le-lieat  valves  will  leak  even  if  ground  in, 
under  steam,  owing  to  uiie(|ual  expansion  between 
themselves  and  the  chamber  eoiilaiiiiiig  their  seats. 
The  single-beat  valve  with  a  "  pilot"  or  sui>iileinenlarv 
valve  is  not  easily  handled  on  blast-engines,  where  it 
is  found  best,  in  order  to  jiroinote  regularity  ot  mo 
tion,  to  set  the  steam-valves  late,  .sometimes  so  much 
that  the  jiiston  has  moved  one  twelfth  of  its  stroke 
before  steam  is  admitted;  consequently  the  passage. 


BLAST-ENGINE. 


189 


BLAST-ENGINE. 


Blast-enfrine— I.  P.  Morris  Company. 


and  space  within  the  cylinder  to  be  filled  are  propor- 
tionately so  qjoit  and  rapidly  inoreasins  that  steam 
cannot  pa-ss  by  the  pilot-valve  fast  enoush  to  equalize 
the  pressure  on  the  upper  and  imder  sides  of  the  main 
valve  unless  the  pilot- valve  be  increased  largely  in 


area,  when  it  becomes  nnmanageable  by  band.  To 
overcome  this,  Jfr.  Wanich.  foreman  of  the  machine- 
shop  of  the  I.  P.  Jiorris  Company,  desifrned  the  valve 
illustrated,  and  found  its  action"  to  realize  ■what  was 
anticipated  of  it.     It  consists  in  the  use  of  a  ring  cast 


BLASTING. 


190 


BLA8TIM0. 


on  the  back  of  the  main  valve,  cxtendiiii;  upward, 
and  borcti  out  son*  to  envelop  and  slide  freely  upon 
the  outside  of  another  ring  east  on  the  steani-ehest 
bonnet,  droppinj:  downwani  and  turned  off.  The 
rinjpi  are,  of  course,  concentric,  and  the  ann\dar 
spaci'  between  them  is  quite  small  in  area,  very  much 
less  than  the  aggrejrate  an-a  of  tlie  holes  for  the  pa.ssape 
of  steam  l)elow  the  pilot-vahe ;  consequently  any 
steam  pa.ssing  the  annular  opening  when  the  pilot  is 
raised  gtH>s  freely  through  into  the  cylinder,  exerting 
no  aiipri'cinble  pressure  on  the  back  of  the  main  valve, 
and  pi'rmilting  it  to  rise  easily.  This  absence  of  pres- 
sure has  been  proved  by  connecting  with  the  space 
inclosed  by  the  rings  an  ordinary  sleam-giuige,  which 
showi-d  the  pressure  when  the  pilot  was  seated  to  be, 
say,  3.5  lbs.,  and  when  the  pilot  was  raised  the  pres- 
sure suddenly  fell  to  almost  zero  until  the  main  valve 
openefl,  when  it  rose  agsiin  to  3.5  lbs.  The  blast -valves 
are  of  selected  thick  sole-leather  backed  with  plate- 
iron  ;  blast-piston  fitted  for  either  metal,  wooii,  or 
bag  packing;  steam-piston  fitted  with  metal  double 
rings  held  out  by  springs;  valves  arc  lifted  by  cams 
oiierating  direeflj'  agiunst  rollers  fitted  into  the 
bottom  ends  of  the  lifting-rods.  The  cams  are  ad- 
justable, but  not  variable,  and  give  facilities  for  ex- 
perimenting to  detemiine  the  best  distribution  of 
steam  without  interference  with  each  other.  The 
cam-shaft  is  driven  by  spur-gears  fitted  to  the  main 
shaft.  The  fly-wheels  are  large,  and  weigh  nearly  18 
tons.  The  rini  on  the  side  in  line  with  the  crank-pin 
is  cored  out  so  that  the  preponderance  of  the  opposite 
sides  will  counterbalance  weight  of  pistons,  rotis, 
cross-heads,  etc.  The  shafts  are  of  wrought-ii-on  with 
ample  bearing-.'Jurface.  The  cro.ss-head  swivels  in 
the  yoke  connecting  the  two  piston-rods,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  spherical  journals  for  the  connecting-rods, 
so  that  it  maj'  accommodate  itself  to  any  inequalities 
of  wear  in  the  main  shaft  or  crank-pins.  The  height 
of  the  engine  compared  wiUi  its  base  is  suggestive  of 
instability,  but  that  defect  does  not  exist.  A  founda- 
tion of  hard  bricks  or  goml  stone,  long  and  wide 
enough  to  take  the  bed-plalc,  and  10  feet  deep,  is 
known  to  be  quite  sufficient  to  sustain  the  engine 
without  perceptible  swaying  of  the  top.  This  height 
is  mainly  ilue  to  length  of  stroke  compared  with  di- 
ameter of  blast-cylinder,  whereby  a  given  quantity  of 
air  can  be  supplied  by  a  le.sscr  immber  of  revolutions 
— u.sually  in  engines  of  this  stroke  not  exceeding 
twenty — and  with  fewer  beats  of  the  bla.st- valves;  and 
as  with  fixed  diameter  of  blast-cylinder  the  loss  in 
delivery  due  to  piston-clearance  and  space  in  the  pas- 
sages is  a  certain  quantity,  it  is  clear  that  the  per- 
centage of  loss  of  tiseful  effect  from  this  cause  dimin- 
ishes as  the  stroke  incrca.scs.  The  dimensions  of 
the  principal  portions  of  the  engine  are  as  follows: 
blowing-cylinder,  90  inches  diameter,  7  feet  stroke; 
steam-cylinder,  .50  inches  diameter,  7  feet  stroke;  two 
fly-wheels,  each  2-1  feet  diameter;  l>ed-plate,  13  feet 
by  8  feet;  total  height  of  engine,  36i  feet;  capacity, 
10,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute..  See  Bloiter  and 
Iron . 

BLASTING. — Before  gunpowder  was  invented,  the 
separalicii  of  mas.ses  of  slone  from  their  native  rock 
could  only  Ije  effected  by  means  of  the  hammer  and 
wedge,  or  by  the  slill  slower  method  of  fire  and  water. 
In  .soft  and  stratified  rock,  wedges  are  still  used  for 
quarrj-ing  stones  for  building  jairpo-ses,  but  in  hard 
rock,  or  where  regularity  of  fracture  is  no  object, 
gunpowder  Ls  universally  employed.  Blastins  is  either 
accomiilLshed  by  the  miiaU-shdi  svstem,  orbv  large 
blasts  or  nnnm.  Small  shots  mav  be  fired,  even 
under  water,  by  inclosing  the  charge  in  a  tin  case, 
with  a  tube  of  ixjwder  reaching  to  the  surface;  or 
in  a  canvas  hag,  well  tarred,  iiiul  lie<l  at  the  neck 
roimd  a  length  of  Hickford's  fuse,  which  liurns  under 
water.  The  charge  is  inserted  in  the  drjU-hole,  and 
the  weight  of  the  superincumbi'nt  water  acts  as  tamp- 
ing. In  removing  the  wall  Ixtween  the  old  and  new 
Shadwell  basins  of  the  London  docks,  shots  were 
fired  under  water  within  a  few  yards  of  ves,sels  lying 


in  the  ba.sin,  by  using  moderate  charges,  and  by  keep- 
uig  a  nift  of  timber  floating  over  the  hole,  as  a  shield 
to  prevent  anything  flving  upwards.  The  Voltaic 
battery  has  been  u.sed  for  firing  shots,  chiefly  under 
water,'  since  1839,  in  which  year  it  was  employed  at 
the  wreck  of  the  Royal  George  and  at  the  Skerry  vore 
light-house. 

When  a  large  mass  of  rock  has  to  be  removed  at 
once,  recourse  must  be  had  to  large  blasts  or  mines. 
The  greatest  isolated  example  of  this  kind  of  bla.sting 
was  the  overthrow,  in  1843,  of  the  Rounddown  cliff 
at  Dover,  by  18,.5t)0  pounds  of  powder,  in  three  sepa- 
rate charges,  fired  simultaneously  by  voltaic  electri- 
city. These  large  blasts  are  of  two  kinds  :  either 
sluifts  eunk  from  the  top  of  the  rock,  or  headings 
driven  in  from  the  face.  The  shaft-holes  are  6  feet 
long  by  4  feet  wide,  of  various  depths,  according  to  the 
height  of  the  rock,  but  seldom  much  exceeding  60  feet. 
The  deal-box,  with  the  charge  of  powder,  is  jjlaced  in 
a  chamber  cut  at  one  side  of  the  shaft,  so  that  the 
tamping  may  not  be  in  the  direct  upward  line  of  fire. 
The  lamping  consists  of  the  stone  and  debris  which 
have  come  out  of  the  shaft;  and  the  wires  from  the 
battery  are  protected  from  injury  by  being  laid  in  a 
groove  cut  in  a  batten  placed  up  one  angle  of  the  shaft. 
It  is  evident  that  the  same  point  in  the  rock  may  be 
reached  as  well  by  a  heading  or  gallcrj'  driven  in  from 
the  face  of  the  rock  as  by  a  shaft  from  the  top,  and 
often  by  a  shorter  route.  Headings  are  made  5  feet 
high  b}'  3  feet  6  inches  wide,  and  are  tlrivcn,  if  possible, 
along  a  natural  joint  in  the  rock.  The  direction  of 
the  gallery  is  changed  and  sunk  at  parts,  to  prevent 
the  tamping  from  being  blown  out.  Four  men  can, 
on  the  average,  drive  5  feet  run  of  heading  per  week; 
but  cannot  sink  above  3  or  4  feet  of  shaft,  which  has  a 
greater  sectional  area,  and  is  more  inconvenient  to 
work  in.  The  charge  of  powder  may  be  divided  and 
placed  in  two  or  more  separate  chambers,  and  it  is 
better  thus  to  spread  a  hea\'y  charge  over  a  length  of 
face  than  to  have  it  in  one  spot,  at  a  greater  distance 
frojn  the  face  than  about  30  feet.  The  charges  for 
these  mines  van,-  from  600  to  13,000,  and  even 
more,  pomids  of  powder;  and  the  produce  is  from  2 
to  6  tons  of  stone  to  the  pound  of  powder,  according 
to  the  density  of  the  rock  and  the  position  of  the  mine. 
In  militarj'  blasting,  or  where  total  destruction  is 
aimed  at,  an  excess  of  powder  is  little  or  no  objection. 
Of  late  yeai-s  great  improvements  have  been  effected 
in  the  production  and  application  of  explosive  agents 
other  tiian  gunpowder,  which  latter,  until  lately,  may 
be  said  to  have  l)cen  exclusively  used  for  the  puqjose 
of  blasting.  Nitro-gljxerine  and  gun-cotton  were  dis- 
covered within  two  years  of  each  other;  but  while  gun- 
cotton  was  immediately  applied  to  industrial  purjioses, 
nitroglycerine  was  destined  to  remain  a  chemical 
curiosit}-  for  about  16  years.  Dynamite  is  a  prepara- 
tion of  nitroglycerine  and  porous  earth,  in  the  form 
of  a  pasty  mass,  which,  witliout  materially  impairing 
its  explosive  properties,  has  the  effect  of  rendering  it 
perfectly  sjife  to  handle. 

A  great  variety  of  electric  blasting  apparatus  has 
been  devised  and  tested  in  the  lust  few  years;  but  a 
remarkably  simjile  and  effective  magneto  machine 
made  by  the  Laflin  and  Rand  Powder  Company  pos- 
.se.s.ses  more  points  of  merit  than  any  other  single  ma- 
chine made.  It  is  constructed  on  the  Wheatstone  and 
Siemens  principle,  ha\  ing  a  magnet  of  the  horseshoe 
character,  of  iron,  wound  alKnit  with  coilsof  insulated 
copper  wire;  between  the  poles  of  the  magnet  there  is 
fitted  to  revolve  an  aniuitiH'c  of  cylindrical  construc- 
tion carrying  in  its  body  other  insulated  wire  coiled 
longitudinally,  as  to  the  cylinder.  The  rapid  revolu- 
tion of  the  armature,  by  suitable  means,  generates  imd 
sustains  in  the  machine  an  accumulative  current  of 
voltaic  eleclricily  of  great  power,  w  hich  at  the  moment 
of  its  maximum  intensity  is,  praclically,  switched  off 
to  the  outside  circuit  in  which  are  the  fuses,  and  in 
the  interior  of  each  fuse  the  ignition  is  accomplished 
instantly.  The  drawings  show  the  interior  arrange- 
ment of  the  machine;  A,  the  principal  magnet;  B, 


BLASTING. 


191 


BLASTING. 


the  armature  revolving  between  the  poles  of  the  prin- 
cipal magnet;  C,  the  loose  pinion,  its  teeth  engaging 
with  the  rack-bar,  and  by  clutcliing  also  engjiging 
with  the  spindle  of  the  armature  on  the  downward 
stroke  (only)  of  the  rack-bar;  2),  the  spring  which, 
when  struck  by  the  foot  of  the  descending  rack-bar, 
breaks  the  contact  between  two  small  [ilatinum  bear- 
ings, and  this  causes  the  whole  current  of  electricity 
to  pass  through  the  outside  circuit, — the' leailing  wire 
and  fuses;  E,  the  two  plutiimm  bearings,  one  on  the 
upper  face  of  the  spring,  the  other  on  tlie  under  side 
of  the  yoke  over  the  spring;  F,  \\w.  commutator. 

Platinum-fuses  are  specially  made  for  Ihis  machine, 
and  the  manner  of  using  is  verj-  simple.  A  fuse 
should  be  used  with  the  wires  attached,  of  such  length 
that  the  ends  may  protrude  from  the  surface  after  the 
hole  is  charged,  the  fuse-head  being  in  the  center  of 
the  charge.  Tamp  with  dry  sand,  or  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  wires  may  not  be  cut  or  the  insulated 
covering  upon  them  be  injured.  Whi'U  all  tlie  holes 
to  be  fired  at  one  time  are  tamped,  separate  the  ends 


bringing  the  rack  to  the  Iwtlom  of  the  box  with  a 
-solid  thud,  and  the  blast  will  Ix'  made.  Platinum- 
fuses  arc  not  in  any  ca.se  to  be  fired  by  a  spark  or  by 
the  effects  of  free  electricity,  needing  a  current  of 
sufficient  .strength  and  pei'sistence  that  in  its  pa&sage 
through  the  circuit  it  shall  heat  to  redness  a  small 
bridge  of  tine  platinum  wire  in  the  body  of  the  fuse. 
The  most  extensive  operation  of  blasting  ever  wit- 
nessed in  the  United  States  was,  perhaps,  the  removal 
of  the  reefs  in  the  East  River,  at  Hallett's  Point,  near 
New  York,  known  as  the  "  Hell  Gate  Improvement." 
The  rock  to  Ijc  removed  extended  more  than  100  yards 
into  the  river,  greatly  narrowing  tlie  chamiel  and  ren- 
dering navigation  extremely  difficult.  The  plan  of 
operation  was  to  sink  a  large  square  shaft  on  the  Long 
Island  shore  from  which  the  rock  projected,  and  to 
run  into  tlie  rock  at  a  pro|)er  depth  long  galleries 
radiating  from  the  place  of  entrance  like  the  lines  of 
an  ex-panded  fan.  The  entrance-shaft  was  nearly  100 
feet  square,  and  its  bottom  was  ;33  feet  below  low 
water.    Nearly  20  tunnels  were  bored  in  all  directions. 


Ma^eto  Machine. 


of  the  two  wires  in  each  hole,  joining  one  wire  of  the 
first  hole  with  one  of  the  second,  tlie  other  or  free 
wire  of  the  second  with  one  of  the  third,  so  proceed- 
ing to  the  end  or  last  hole.  If  the  wires  attached  to 
the  fuses  should  not  be  long  enough,  use  connecting 
wire  for  joining.  All  connections  of  wires  should  be 
by  hooking  and  twisting  together  the  bare  and  clean 
ends,  and  it  will  be  best  if  the  parts  joining  be  bright. 
The  charges  having  all  been  connected  as  directed 
above,  the  free  wire  of  the  tirst  hole  should  l)e  joined 
to  one  of  the  "leading  "  wires,  and  tlie  free  wire  of 
the  last  hole  with  the  other  of  the  two  leading  wires. 
The  leading  wires  should  be  long  enough  to  reach  a 
point  at  a  safe  distiuice  from  the  blast — say  two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  at  least.  All  being  rc.idy,  and 
not  until  the  men  are  at  a  .safe  distance,  connect  the 
leading  wires,  one  to  each  of  the  projecting  screws  on 
the  front  side  of  the  nuichinc,  through  each  of  which 
a  hole  is  bored  for  the  purpose,  and  bring  the  nuts 
down  tirmlv  upon  the  wires.  Now,  to  tire,  taking 
hold  of  the  "handle  for  the  pui-posc,  lift  the  rack  (or 
square  rod  toothed  upon  one  side)  to  its  full  length 
and  press  it  down,  for  the  first  inch  of  its  stroke  with 
moderate  speed,  but  finisliingthe  stroke  with  all  force. 


extending  from  200  to  240  feet,  and  all  were  con- 
nected by  lateral  galleries.  All  the  excavated  rock 
was  hauled  to  the  entrance  and  hoisted  to  the  surface. 
The  work  was  comiiletcd  in  September,  187(5,  and 
made  ready  for  blasting  with  more  than  .52,000 
pounds  of  explosive  material  in  many  thousands  of 
holes  drilled  for  the  purpose.  The  explosives  were 
dynamite,  rendrock,  and  vulcan  iiowder.  On  the 
given  day  a  quarter  of  a  million  people  found  their 
way  to  points  on  land  and  water  w here  the  exiilosion 
could  be  seen.  When  the  eventful  moment  arrived. 
General  Newton,  the  Engineer  in  charge,  look  the 
hand  of  his  little  girl,  a  mere  infant,  and  with  it 
pre.s.sed  do\vn  the  key  by  wiiich  the  batterj- was  tired. 
There  was  a  rumbling  or  shaking  of  the  ground,  the 
rising  of  a  great  ma.ss  of  water  from  20  to  40  feet  in 
the  air,  a  few  small  stones  thrown  a  little  higher,  an 
immense  mass  of  smoke,  and  all  was  over.  Xlillions 
of  tons  of  rock  had  been  shattered,  and  yet  tlie  noisi" 
and  the  shock  were  less  than  would  have  attetided 
the  simultaneous  discharge  of  half  a  dozen  field- 
pieces  in  the  open  air.  There  was  so  much  doubt 
and  ignorance  about  the  possible  effect  of  this  explo- 
sion "that  many  people  living  one,  two,  and  three 


BLASTING-FUSE. 


192 


BLASTS. 


miles  away  left  their  houses  nnil  took  positions  in  the 
oiX'n  air,  throujih  fear  of  widespre.ml  ruin.  Tlie 
work  ■\viis  eoMii>lete<i  successfully,  anil  after  ilredyrinj: 
out  the  hrokeu  stone  the  navifralion  of  the  channel 
was  greatly  iniproveil.  In  previous  years  much  has 
been  done  in  the  liarlior  of  New  York  by  surface- 
bla-stinir,  i.e.,  lowering  to  the  face  or  to  soiiie  crevice 
of  a  rock  cans  tilled  with  nitro-glvccrinc  and  explod- 
ing it  by  electricitv,  the  elleet  "being  to  gradually 
wt-ar  away  the  rwk.  The  great  work  of  the  Sutro 
Tuiuiel  was  another  triumph  for  American  engineer- 
ing.    8ee  Miiiif. 

BLASTINO-FITSE. — The  common  hlnMiiig-f>ise  is 
merely  a  tulx'  tilled  with  a  composition  which  will 
burn  a  sufficient  length  of  lime  to  allow  the  person 
firing  it  to  reach  a  place  of  safety  before  it  is  burnt 
out."  The  sjifety-fuse,  by  which  the  charge  can  Ix- 
tired  by  a  man  at  a  considerable  distance,  is  also  much 
employed.  Some  of  these  consist  of  a  tape  of  soft 
material  saturated  with  a  highly  intlammablc  com- 
pound (fulminates  are  employed  in  some  to  increase 
the  speed  of  the  tlame),  and  covered  with  an  envelope 
of  water-proof  material.  Firing  by  electro-battery  is 
much  s;»fer.     See  Fniv  and  Platinum-fuse. 

BLASTING-POWDEB.— An  explosive,  in  the  form 
of  i^owder,  used  for  blasting.  The  most  powerful 
blasting-powders  in  common  use  are  made  by  adding 
certain  substances  to  nitroglycerine  which,  by  ab- 
sorbing it,  reduce  it  to  the  form  of  powder,  and  thus 
render  it  comparatively  safe  against  the  shocks  and 
jars  of  use.  The  tenn  blaMing-pincder  is  also  specially 
applied  to  a  powder  analogous  to  gunpowder,  but 
which  contains  sodium  nitrate  in  place  of  pota.ssium 
nitrate,  or  stiltpeter. 

There  are  two  grades  of  hlasUng-poirder,  branded 
"  X'  and  "  B."  "  A,"  the  best  grade  in  quality,  is 
packed  in  wood  or  metal  kegs  of  twenty-tive  poiiuils 
each,  and  is  branded  as  to  size,  "  CC,"  "C,"  "F," 
"  FF,"  "  FFF,"  "  FFFF,"  "  FFFFF,"  "  FFFFFF," 
and  "glazed"  or  "unglazed"  as  may  be  desired. 
"CC"  is  the  coarsest  .size,  the  others  being  liner,  in 
the  order  as  given  above.     "  B,"  of  which  the  greater 


"  CC  "  Ulasting-powder. 

quantity  is  sold,  it  being  best  adapted  to  most  work, 
is  packed  in  the  same  manner  us  the  "  A"  The  sizes 
are  from  "  C,"  coarsest,  to  "  FFFF,"  finest,  "  glazed  ' 
or  "unglazed."  "  B"  blantiiiti-iioirdtr  was  first  suc- 
ccs.sfully  made  at  one  of  the  mills  of  the  Latlin  &  Rsmd 
Powder  Company,  and  to  that  success  the  country 
is  indebted  for  a.  cheaper  grade  of  powder  than  hail 
ever  been  known  before,  and  one  as  well  adapted  lo 
most  of  the  rock-excavation  to  be  done  as  the  higher 
grade,  while  for  military  mining  it  is  entirely  supe- 
rior. It  is  a  slower-burning  powder  than  the  "A," 
but  produces  n  greater  volume  of  expansive  gases, 
and  in  soft  rock  lifts  a  large  mass,  rather  than  shat- 
ters to  small  fragments  n  le.s.s  quantity. 
The  drawing  fairly  shows  the  size"  of  "  CC"  blast- 


-mt 

7     . 

MlRQITi 

J  ■ 

-  H     1 

'  1 

1 1 

""! 

!{ 

c 

i  1 
ii 
II 

J 

! 

■,  1 

11 

LI 

COU/U'    } 

KTlrit     \ 

1           1 

(«»»  J 

U^ 

J 

ing-powder,  either  "A"  or  "B."     See  Gunpoicder 

and  Ml  IKK. 

BLAST  METER. — An  anemometer  applied  to  the 
nozzle  of  a  blast-engine.  The  CoUiau  meter  is  at 
presi'iit  used  by  most  furnacemmiagers.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  directions  for  its  use: 

!  1st.  Place    the   meter    in  vertical 

I  position  and  as  close  as  po.ssiblc  to 
the  blast-gate,  connect  it  with  air- 
l)ox  by  means  of  a  half-inch  gas- 
l)ipe  and  a  short  piece  of  India- 
nibber  pipe  Ix'tweeu  gas-pipe  and 
meter.  2d.  Pour  into  the  meter 
about  one  lialf-])iut  of  water.  The 
water  will  stand  at  the  same  height 
in  both  tubes,  at  about  mark  4. 
3d.  AVhen  the  blast  is  put  on.  the 
water  will  descend  on  one  side  of 

■  the  gauge:  then  loosen  the  screws 

!  of  the  sliding  gauge  so  that  it 
moves  easily  and  slide  the  gauge 
downward  until  the  0  mark  of  tlie 
gauge  reaches  the  level  of  the 
water  of  the  descending  side.  Fix 
the  gauge  there  by  means  of  the 
lower  screw.  4th.  The  mark  on 
the  gauge  corresponding  with  the 
level  of  -water  in  the  a.scending 
side  will  then  represent  the  pres- 
sure in  ounces  per  square  inch. 
5th.  The  amount  of  water  put  in  is  sultieicnt  for  a 
jiressure  of  7  to  8  ozs.  Should  a  greater  pressure  be 
required,  pour  in  a  little  more  water.  6th.  When 
the  water  on  the  lower  side  descends  below  the  zero, 
slide  down  the  gauge  so  that  the  zero  of  the  gauge  is 
level  with  the  water.  7th.  In  cold  weather  it  w-buld 
be  better  to  use  spirits  instead  of  water.  To  let  the 
liquid  out,  open  the  small  valve  at  the  bottom.  8th. 
This  bla.st-meter  is  calculated  for  sea-level.  When 
the  altitude  is  much  greater  a  special  gauge  is  re- 
quired.    See  Foundry. 

BLASTS. — Small  chambers  or  holes  made  in  rock 
or  masonry,  and  charged  with  powder.  The  form- 
ing of  blast-holes  requires  the  use  of  particular  tools, 
called  borers,  junipers,  scrapcm,  needles,  ami  tamping- 
bars.  To  form  the  blast-hole,  two  or  three  men  are 
required.  One  holds  the  borer  with  both  hands, 
while  the  head  of  it  is  stnick  with  sledge-hammers 
by  one  or  two  others.  The  first  turns  the  borer  at 
each  stroke  so  that  the  hole  may  be  circular,  and 
from  time  to  time  clears  it  out  with  the  scraper. 
When  the  hole  required  does  not  exceed  1.")  inches  in 
depth,  it  may  be  excavated  in  the  above  manner;  but 
if  20  inches,  or  more,  deep,  the  jumper  is  generally 
made  use  of.  The  miner  holds  the  jumper  in  both 
hands,  raises  it,  and  lets  it  fall  in  the  hole,  turning  it 
continually;  he  also  clears  the  hole  with  the  scraper. 
When  the  stone  is  of  a  very  hard  description,  it  is 
usual  to  poiu'  water  occasionally  into  the  jumper- 
hole. 

Blast-holes  are  seldom  made  by  hand  nowadays, 
when  the  use  of  the  rock-drill  is  possible.  The 
drawing  .shows  the  Burleigh  rock-drill  mounted  on 
a  frame  for  surface  and  qu;irry  work.  When  in 
operation,  the  drill  may  be  raised  from  the  wheels  by 
means  of  the  jack-screw  s  rciiresenteil.  There  are  two 
sets  of  journals,  and  by  shilling  the  wheels  it  can  be 
moved  in  dilfcrent  directions.  By  the  use  of  this 
machine  great  works  become  easy  that  could  hardly 
t)c  undertiiken  with  the  appliances  of  hand  labor. 
Having  the  hole  bored  to  a  suitable  depth,  to  load  it, 
fill  about  one  fourth  or  one  third  of  it  with  powder, 
according  lo  the  nature  (jf  the  stone.  The  charge  for 
a  depth  of  isinchesis  from  H  to  ISounccs.  To  tamp 
and  prime  the  blast-hole,  the  needle  is  fii-st  introduced, 
pltmging  it  well  into  the  powder  and  placing  it  on 
the  smoothest  side  of  the  Iiole;  then  a  layer  of  clay 
is  laid  on  the  powder,  and  is  clo.sely  pressed  down 
with  the  tamping-bar.  Other  similar  layers  are  then 
laid,  or  layers  of    brick  reduced  to  small  bits,  the 


BLAZINGOFF. 


193 


BLINDAOS. 


needle  being  turned  repeatedly.  It  is  usual  to  press 
down  the  lirst  layers  with  a  bar  of  wood,  the  helve 
of  a  tool,  for  instance,  and  the  latter  ones  with  the 
iron  tamping-bar.  When  the  hole  is  thus  tilled  up,  a 
small  shell  of  clay  is  formed  rovmd  the  needle,  which 
is  then  withdrawn,  the  hole  left  by  it  is  tilled  with 
tine  powder,  and  it  is  fired  with  a  monk  or  a  piece  of 
port-fire.  The  u.sc  of  the  needle  is  often  dispensed 
with,  in  which  case  the  priming  is  rolled  up  in  a 
sheet  of  brown  paper,  or  it  is  introduced  in  straw- 
stalks  thrust  into  one  another.  This  priming  is 
placed  in  the  hole  at  the  same  time  as  the  charge,  so 
that  it  may  penetrate  well  into  the  latter.     The  tamp- 


Burleigh  Rock-drill. 

ing  is  then  executed  as  before.  The  use  of  the  tamp- 
ing-bar and  the  ordinary  tamping  may  also  be  dis- 
pensed with,  the  hole  being  tilled  over  the  charge 
with  very  fine  dry  sand,  poured  iu  without  any  pres- 
sure. 

The  many  accidents  that  have  happened  in  prim- 
ing bla.sts  have  led  to  the  invention  of  priming-fuses, 
which  are  made  to  bum  somewhat  in  the  siime  way 
as  the  fuse  in  the  small  Chinese  fire-cracker.  Their 
use  is  far  safer  than  any  of  the  former  methods.  For 
blasts  under  water,  the  charge  is  inserted  in  a  water- 
tight tin  case  and  fired  either  by  a  galvanic  current 
or  a  priming-fuse,  which  is  protected  from  the  water 
by  a  small  tube  connected  with  the  charge,  and  lead- 
ing to  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  result  of  many 
experiments  has  shown  that  in  blasting  rock  a  large 
portion  of  the  powder — nearly  half — may  be  saved, 
by  mixing  with  the  remaining  part  fine,  dry  sawdust 
01  elm  or  beech.    In  blasts  exploded  in  this  way  the 


effect  is  not  the  same  as  when  the  full  charge  of 
powder  is  used;  the  rock  splits  into  fewer  and  larger 
pieces,  and  to  linish  di\iding  them  a  more  frequent 
use  of  the  sledge-hammer  is  required. 

BLAZIN6-0FF. — Tempering  by  means  of  btiming 
oil  or  tallow  spread  on  the  spring  or  blade,  which  is 
heated  over  a  tire. 

BLAZON —  BLAZONRY.— These  heraldic  terms 
originated  in  the  custom  of  blowing  a  trumpet  to 
announce  the  arrival  of  a  knight,  or  his  entrance 
into  the  lists  at  a  joust  or  tournament.  The  blast 
was  answered  by  the  heralds,  who  described  aloud 
and  e.xplained  the  arms  borne  by  the  knight.  Bla- 
zon and  blazonry  thus  came  to  signify  the  art  of 
describing,  in  technical  terms,  the  objects  (or  charges, 
as  they  are  called)  borne  in  arms — their  positions, 
gestures,  tinctures,  etc.,  and  the  manner  of  arranging 
them  on  the  shield.  As  Heraldry,  though  an  en- 
tirely arbitrarj',  is  a  very  accurate  science,  the  rules 
of  blazoning  are  observed  on  all  occasions  with  the 
most  rigid  precision.  The  foUowiui'  are  the  most 
important:  1.  In  blazoning  or  describing  a  coat  of 
arms,  it  is  neccssarj-  to  begin  with  the  field,  mention- 
ing the  lines  by  w'hich  it  is  divided — jttr  palf,  per 
fess,  etc.,  if  such  there  be — and  noticing  if  they  are 
indented,  engrailed,  or  the  like,  it  being  taken  for 
granted  that  they  are  straight,  unless  the  contrarj'  be 
mentioned.  2.  There  must  be  no  unnecessarj-  repe- 
tition in  blazoning;  thus,  where  the  field  is  blue,  and 
the  charges  yellow,  we  should  say,  iiziire,  a  crescent 
between  three  st/irs,  or,  thereby  implying  that  both 
the  crescent  and  the  stars  are  or.  3.  For  the  same 
reason,  where  a  color  has  been  already  mentioned, 
and  it  is  necessarj-,  in  order  to  avoid  ambiguity,  to 
repeat  it  in  describing  a  subsequent  chiu'ge,  we  say, 
of  the  first,  or  of  the  second,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Thus,  we  should  say,  nzure  on  a  saltire  argent, 
three  water  boiigits  nf  the  first,  thus  avoiding  the 
repetition  of  the  word  azure.  4.  Again,  recurring  to 
our  first  example,  it  would  be  an  error  to  say,  three 
sUirs  with  a  crescent  between  them,  because 
we  must  always  begin  with  the  charge  which 
lies  nearest  the  center  of  the  shield.  5. 
WTiere  the  charges  are  of  the  natural  color 
of  the  objects  or  animals  represented,  in 
place  of  describing  the  color,  you  simply 
say  proper — i.e.,  of  the  proper  or  natural 
color.  6.  Another  general  rule  in  blazon- 
ing, or  rather  in  marshaling  coat-armor,  is, 
that  metal  shall  never  be  placed  iijion  metal, 
nor  color  upon  color.  The  rules  for  blazon- 
ing separate  charges,  whether  animate  or 
inanimate,  are  indicated  in  the  descriptions 
which  will  l)e  found  of  them  under  their 
respective  heads.     See  Heraldry. 

BLECHSCHIENEN.— Thin    metal   plates 
which  the  ancient  Gauls  placed  upon  the 
buff  coats  of  the  infantry,  between  the  buff 
and  the  lining.     Also  written  Blechstreifen. 
BLEUS. — A   name  given  to  the  soldiers 
of  the   Republic,   by   the   Royalists,   dur- 
ing the  wars  of  La  Vendee,  on  account  of  their  uni- 
form. 

BLINDAGE.— When  a  trench  has  to  be  pushed 
forward  in  a  position  where  the  command  of  the 
dangerous  point  is  so  great  that  it  cannot  be  shel- 
tered from  the  plunging  fire  by  traverses,  it  is 
covered  on  the  top  and  on  the  sides  by  fascines  and 
earth  supported  by  a  framework,  and  is  termed  a 
blindage.  The  frames  used,  termed  blindage-frames, 
are  composed  of  two  uprights  or  stanchions  of  5- 
inch  scantling,  each  8  feet  6  inches  long  and  pointed 
at  both  eniLs;  and  two  horizontal  pieces  of  the  same- 
sized  scantlmg,  each  3  feet  4  inches  long.  The  hori- 
zontal pieces  are  notched  upon  the  stanchions  at  12 
inches  from  each  end.  The  width  of  the  frame 
from  out  to  out  is  3  feet  4  inches;  the  distance 
between  the  horizontal  pieces  from  out  to  out,  6  feet. 
This  method  of  obtaining  cover  is  principally  requi- 
site in  trenches  which  descend  towards  the  dangerous 


BLINDED  BATTEEIE8. 


104 


BLISTEKED  STEEL. 


point;  like  the  passages  which  lead  from  the  trenches 
on  the  placis  into  the  covereti-way,  or  to  the  bottoms 
of  shallow  ditches.  The  manner  of  forming  the 
blindage  is  to  set  up  a  row  of  l>lindage-frames  along 
each  side  of  the  trench  or  pa.s.sages;  to  connect  the 
two  rows  at  top  by  like  frames  laid  across  the  line  of 
the  trench;  to  cover  tlie  top  frames  by  fascines  and 
earth;  and  to  till  in  between  the  side  frames  and  the 
sides  of  the  trench  with  fascines.  The  trench  is 
made  by  the  double  sap.  Its  width  at  bottom  is  7 
feet  6  inches;  the  ividth  between  the  frames,  6  feet. 
The  frames  and  fa.scines  of  the  blindage  are  gradu- 
ally placed  as  the  trench  advances,  the  latter  preced- 
ing the  former  about  ">  feet.  The  work  is  begun  by 
placing  an  upright  frame  on  each  side;  the  two  are 


they  might  Ix"  sunk,  so  as  to  place  them  in  greater  se- 
curity and  to  effect  tlieir  construction  more  readily. 
See  Bdtterit's. 

BLINDS.— Shutters  of  an  embrasure;  they  are 
musket-proof,  and  at  a  siege,  at  the  <li.scretion  of  the 
Officer  Conunanding  the  Artillerj',  are  made  up  by  the 
Engineer  Department  from  materials  available  on  the 
spol.  In  the  Crimea,  coils  of  roin;  run  round  the 
chase  of  the  gim  were  used  in  addition  to  the  ordi- 
nary blind,  to  protect  the  gutmers  from  the  lire  of 
riticmen  when  laying  the  gun. 

BLIND  SHELLS.— Shells  which  do  not  explode  on 
impact,  or  at  the  time  it  is  intended  they  should. 
Several  causes  are  attributed  to  this  defect,  among 
them  the  imperfect  manufacture  of  the  fuse,  the  in- 
secure manner  of  fitting  it  in  the 
shell,  shrinkage  of  the  composition, 
whereby  the  fuse  is  imable  to  act 
and  consequently  does  not  ignite,  and 
various  other  causes. 

BLISTEKED  STEEL.— This  varie- 
ty of  steel  is  prepared  by  exposing 
alternate  layers  of  bar-iron  and  char- 
coal in  a  close  furnace  for  several 
days.  The  purpose  for  which  this 
steel  is  to  be  used  determines  the  de- 
gree of  carbonization.  The  best  quali- 
ties of  iron  (Russian  and  Swerlish)  are 


Longitudinal  Section   of  Blindage  Descent  into  Covered-waj-.    A,  Blindage-   ,,op,i  fnrtlip  tiii«t  kinds nfstwl     This 
amei:    B.    Covered-way:    C,  GaTlerj- Descent    to    Ditch;    O,   P,  Direction  of   use  1  lor  lut  nmst  hmtlsoi  sictl.    1  Ills 


frames.  ,         . 

besieged  Are  coming  over  end  of  Traverse. 

next  connected  by  a  frame  on  top,  one  side  of  which 
is  lodged  on  tlie  top  cross-pieces  of  the  upright 
frames,  and  the  other  supported  by  two  auxiliarj- 
frames  until  the  next  two  upright  frames  arc  placed; 
the  fascines  are  then  thrown  over  the  top  frame  to 
the  depth  of  about  2  feet,  and  these  are  covered  with 
earth  or  raw  hides,  to  prevent  their  being  set  on  fire. 
Fascines  are  at  the  same  time  placed  in  on  the  sides. 

The  slope  given  to  the  bottom  of  a  blinded  de- 
scent should  not  be  greater  than  one  perpendicular  to 
four  base.  When  the  descent  is  to  a  covered-way, 
the  bottom  of  it  should  come  out  in  the  covered-way 
at  43  inches  below  its  tcrre-plein;  this  will  serve  to 
determine  the  point  of  departure,  the  slope  being 
ILxed,  which  should  be  five  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  glacis,  so  that  when  the  blindage  is  put  up  at 
this  point  the  top  of  it  shall  not  be  above  the  level  of 
the  parapet  of  the  trench.  A  horizontal  landing 
about  8  feet  in  breadth  is  made  at  the  entrance  of 
the  blindage;  and  this  is  connected  with  the  bottom 
of  the  trench  by  two  ramps  of  one  .sixth. 

The  point  selected  for  a  blinded  descent  into  a 
covered-way  is  usually  at  the  end  of  a  traverse  of 
the  covered- way;  as  the  traverse  will  thus  seiTc  to 
cover  the  outlet  of  the  blindage  into  the  covercd- 
wav  from  a  pluniring  tire  in  front. 

BLINDED  BATTERIES.— In  view  of  the  great  im- 
provement in  range,  and  the  accuracy  of  (ire  of  rifled 
guns,  and  of  the  greatly  increa.scd  amount  of  both 
guns  and  mortars  shown  in  the  more  recent  sieges,  the 
question  of  armored  parapets  and  of  bomb-proof 
blinds  for  the  protection  of  the  gxms  of  the  batteries 
in  the  position  of  the  second  parallel  is  one  demand- 
ing consideration.  When  the  batteries  are  not  exposed 
to  flank  or  very  oblique  slant  views,  chambers  or 
casemates  of  timber,  with  strong  bomb-proof  roofs 
and  sides  with  sutlicient  cover  and  strength  to  resist 
any  chance  shots,  might  be  easily  constnicted,  re- 
stricting the  dimensions  of  each  casemate  to  what 
will  be  strictly  requisite  for  the  maneuvers  of  the  gun 
in  it. 

The  entire  front  of  the  battery  might  be  guarded 
from  direct  shot,  particularly  of  (longaled  projectiles, 
by  laying  heavy  logs  or  iron  rails  in  an  inclined 
position  against  the  exterior  slope  and  covering  them 
with  Siiml-bags,  leaving  only  enough  embrasure 
opening  in  front,  Ixitli  horizontally  and  vertically,  for 
the  field  of  fire  wanted.  Considering  the  range  of 
these  batteries  at  this  distance  of  the  second  parallel, 


is  the  kind  of  steel  from  which,  by 
hammering,  rolling,  etc.,  certain  qual- 
ities of  tools  and  files  are  fa.shioued.  When  broken  up, 
piled,  and  welded  under  the  hammer,  it  forms  shear- 
steel,  from  which  a  finer  cla.ss  of  tools  is  made,  and 
when  melted  in  crucibles  it  forms  the  finest  kind  of 
cast-sttel  for  cutleiy.  Blister -.steel  is  made  from 
bar-iron  of  superior  quality  by  a  process  of  cementa- 
iion,  and  the  furnace  emploj'ed  for  the  purpose  is 
tefmed  a  converting-furnace.  This  furnace  is  dome- 
shaped  and  inclosed  in  a  conical  jacket  of  brick- 
work, which  serves  to  carrj'  off  the  smoke  from  the 
flues,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  hearth  of  the 
furnace  is  divided  in  two  parts  by  the  grate,  G, 
traversing  the  whole  length  of  the  furnace,  in  which 
a  coal-tire  is  maintained,  the  flame  of  which  is  made 
to  circulate  around  the  fire-clay  chests  or  pots,  C, 
placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  grate,  before  escap- 
ing through  the  flues 
in  the  wall,  H,  and 
through  the  open- 
ing, M.  Into  each  of 
the.se  pots  layers  of 
the  purest  malleable 
iron  bars  and  layers 
of  powdered  char- 
coal are  packed  hori- 
zontall}-,  one  upon 
the  other,  to  a  proper 
height  and  quantity, 
according  to  the  size 
of  the  pots,  leaving 
room  every  way  for 
the  expansion  of  the 
metal  when  it  be- 
comes heated.  The 
bars  are  cut  to  certain  lengths,  according  to  the 
lengths  of  the  pots.  After  the  packing  oftlie  pots 
is  completed,  the  tops  are  covered  with  a  bed  of  sand 
or  clay,  to  confine  the  carbon  and  exclude  the  air. 
All  the  open  spaces  of  the  furnace  are  then  closed, 
and  the  fire  kindled.  The  heat  is  kejit  up  for  a  week 
or  ten  days,  according  to  the  flegrce  of  hardness  re- 
quired, the  hardest  quality  for  melting  purposes 
requiring  the  longest  time.  When  the  bars  are  re- 
moved after  cooling,  they  are  found  to  have  under- 
gone a  remarkable  cliange.  They  are  no  longer  tough, 
but  quite  brittle  and  fusible,  aiid  covered  over  with 
blisters.  During  the  process  the  iron  absorbs  and 
combines  with  from  a  half  to  one  and  a  half  per 
cent  of  carbon.    The  blisters  are  supposed  to  be  due 


Converting-furnace. 


BLOCKADE. 


195 


BLOCK-HOUSE. 


to  the  evolution  of  carbonic  oxide  arising  from  the 
combination  of  carbon  with  a  trace  of  oxygen  exist- 
ing^ in  the  iron. 

beveral  bars  of  blixttred  steel  being  welded  together, 
and  the  process  being  repeated,  Ji/war-itoiis  the  result; 
this  being  broken  in  pieces,  and  melted  in  a  crucible, 
forms  cast-sleil,  which  possesses  equality  of  texture 
and  a  capability'  of  being  rendered  extremely  hard,  as 
well  .IS  of  takmg  a  tine  polish.  The  Bessemer  pro- 
cess of  making  steel  consists  in  blowing  atmospheric 
air  into  the  meltetl  pigiron  in  the  converting-vessel, 
and  this  operation  is  conlinued  until  the  oxygen  has 
eifeeted  a  combination  with  all  the  carbon,  except  the 
quantity  required  to  form  steel.  It  has  also  been 
manufactured  in  such  a  way  tliat  the  bars  contain 
cores  of  iron,  this  gives  all  the  hardness  of  steel  and 
the  tenacity  of  iron:  and  prevents  articles  made  of  it 
from  lireaking  off  short,  as  they  frequently  do,  when 
formed  only  of  hardened  steel.  See  Cementation  and 
Sttcl. 

BLOCKADE.— 1.  In  a  military  point  of  view,  block- 
ade is  an  operation  for  capturing  an  enemj''s  town  or 
fortress  without  a  bombardment  or  regular  siege. 
The  attacking  party  throws  up  works  on  the  neigh- 
Iwring  heights  anil  roads;  these  works  may  be 
redoubts,  for  200  or  300  men  each,  raised  around  at 
distances  of  1000  or  1.500  yards  asunder;  or  they  may 
assume  other  forms,  according  to  the  circumstances 
of  each  case.  The  rest  of  the  besieging  force  remains 
under  cover  in  villages,  or  in  a  temporary  camp, 
ready  to  repel  any  sortie  attempted  by  the  besieged. 
The  whole  purpose  in  \-iew  is  to  prevent  the  besieged 
from  recei\'ing  supplies  of  any  kind,  in  order  that, 
when  the  food  or  tlie  ammunition  is  exhausted,  they 
may  be  compelled  to  surrender.  Fortresses  situated 
on  steep  and  rocky  eminences,  diificult  to  conquer  by 
bombardment  or  a.s.sault,  may  often  be  reduced  by 
blockade;  because  the  roads  or  paths  for  the  recep- 
tion of  supplies  are  few,  and  can  be  watched  by  a 
small  number  of  troops.  Towns  situated  on  a  plain 
are  less  frequently  invested.  If  the  inhabitants  be 
numerous  and  commercial,  they  will  soon  tje  impa- 
tient of  the  restraint  produced  by  a  blockade,  and 
may  compel  or  induce  the  Governor  to  adopt  a  plan 
opposed  to  his  wishes  as  a  soldier.  If,  however,  a 
resistance  be  determined  on,  the  Giovernor  sends  out 
of  the  town  as  many  non-combatants  as  possible;  all 
the  stores  are  collected  in  bomb-proof  receptacles; 
economy  is  observed  in  the  consumption  of  food ;  all 
the  people  within  the  walls  are  placed  under  military 
rules;  and  the  Governor  endeavors,  by  frequent  sor- 
ties, to  prevent  the  besiegers  from  making  too  close 
an  investment  of  the  place. 

2.  In  international  law,  blockade  is  the  right,  in  time 
■of  war,  of  rendering  intercourse  ^ith  an  enemy's  port 
unlawful  on  the  part  of  neutrals;  and  it  is  carried  into 
effect  by  an  armed  force  (ships  of  war),  which  blocks 
up  and  bars  export  or  import  to  or  from  the  place 
blockaded.  This  right  is  described  by  all  -miters  on 
the  law  of  nations  as  clear  and  incontrovertible,  hav- 
ing its  origin  in  the  soundest  principles  of  maritime 
jurisprudence,  sanctioned  by  the  practice  of  the  best 
times.  It  is  explained  on  the  rea.sonable  theorj'  that  if 
a  potentate  or  government  lays  siege  to  a  place,  or  sim- 
ply blockades  it,  such  potentate  or  government  lias  a 
right  to  prevent  any  other  power,  or  representative,  or 
subject  of  such  power,  from  entering,  and  totrciitas  an 
enemy  any  one  who  attempts  to  enter  the  blockaded 
place,  or  in  any  way  assists  the  besieged,  for  such  a 
pereon  opposes"  the  undertaking  and  contributes  to 
the  miscarriage  of  it.  To  be  valid,  a  blockade  must 
be  accompanied  by  actual  investment  of  the  place, 
and  it  may  be  more  or  less  rigorous,  either  for  the 
purpose  of  watching  the  operations  of  the  enemy, 
or,  on  a  more  extentled  scale,  to  cut  off  all  access  of 
neutral  vessels  to  that  interdicted  place,  which  is 
strictly  and  properly  a  blockade;  for  the  former  is,  in 
truth,  no  blockade  at  all,  as  far  as  neutrals  are  con- 
cerned. But  to  be  binding  on  neutrals,  it  ought  to 
be  shown  that  they  have  knowledge  or  may  be  pre- 


sumed to  know  of  the  blockade;  and  this  knowledge 
may  arise  in  two  ways — either  by  such  a  public  and 
formal  notification  as  we  have  already  descril)ed,  or 
by  the  notoriety  of  the  fact.  Yet  it  is  at  all  times 
niost  convenient  that  the  blockade  should  l)e  declared 
in  a  iMililic  and  distinct  manner,  instead  of  being  left 
to  creep  out  from  the  consequences  produced  by  it; 

[  and  the  effect  of  such  notitiavtion  to  the  neutral  gov- 
ernment is  clearly  to  include  all  the  individuals  sub- 
ject to  the  latter.     Tlie  breach  of  blockade  may  be 

!  cither  by  coming  out  of  the  blockaded  jxirt  or  going 
in;  such  breach,  however,  may  sometimes  be  excusa- 
ble. It  has  been  decided  that  intoxication  on  the 
part  of  the  master  of  a  ship  will  not  lie  received  as 
an  excuse.  That  breach  of  blockade  subjects  the 
property  employed  for  that  purpose  to  confiscation  is 
an  established  rule  of  the  law  of  nations,  and  is  uni- 
versally acknowledged  by  all  civilized  governments. 
The  violation  of  blockade  by  the  master,  however, 
affects  the  ship,  but  not  the  cargo,  unless  the  cargo  is 
the  property  of  the  same  owner,  or  unless  the  owner 
of  the  cargo  is  cognizant  of  the  intended  \iolation. 
On  the  proclamation  of  peace,  or  from  any  political 
or  belligerent  cause,  the  continuance  of  the  invest- 
ment may  cease  to  be  necessiiry,  and  the  blockade  is 
then  said  to  be  raistrf.  The  blockading  force  then 
retires,  and  the  port  Is  open  as  before  to  all  other 
nations. 

BLOCK-EATTEBY. — In  gunnery,  a  wooden  battery 
for  two  or  more  small  pieces,  mounted  on  wheels, 
and  movable  from  place  to  place:  adapted  to  Hre  en 
barbette,  in  the  galleries  and  casemates,  etc.,  where 

i  room  is  wanted. 

BLOCK-HOUSE. — In  inclosed  works  a  place  of  re- 
treat, into  which  the  troops  may  retire  in  safety  after 
a  ^^gorous  defense  of  the  main  "work,  will  remove  the 


Plan  of  Ground  Floor. 


A— 


e      13 
Q       a 


Block-house. 

fears  of  the  garrison  for  the  consequences  of  a  suc- 
cessful  attack  of  the  enemy,  and  will  inspire  them 

■  with  confidence  to  hold  out  to  the  last  moment.  This 
interior  work,  which  may  very  properly  lie  termed 
the  liep,  can  only  Ix;  applied  to  works  of  large  in- 
terior capacity.  It  may  be  formed  of  earth,  or  con- 
sist simply  of  "a  space  inclosed  by  a  defensive  stockade, 
or  palisiu\inu^  In  cither  case  it"  should  be  about  four 
feet  higher  than  the  main  work,  to  prevent  the  enemy 

!  from  obtaining  a  plunging  fire  in  it  from  the  parapet 

\  of  the  main  "work.  The  best  arrangement  for  the 
keep  is  the  construction  tenned  the  WocA-A'?./«'.  This 
work  is  made  of  heavy  timber,  either  squared  on  two 
sides  or  four;  the  pieces  which  form  tlie  sides  of  the 
block -house  are  either  laid  horizontally,  and  halved 

I  together  at  the  ends,  like  an  ordinarj-  log-house,  or 
else  they  are  placed  vertically,  side  by  side,  and  con- 

,  nectcd  at  top  by  a  capsill.     The  sides  are  arranged 


BLOCKS. 


196 


BLOCKS. 


with  loop-hole  defenses;  and  the  top  is  formed  by 
laying  heavy  lojjs,  side  liv  side,  of  the  same  thickness 
as"  those  ustnl  for  the  sides,  luul  eovcriug  them  with 
earth  to  the  depth  of  tliree  feet. 

The  plan  of  a  block-house  is  selected  by  the  same 
genend  rules  which  an'  used  for  selecting  the  trace  of 
a  tield-work.  It  may  be  stpiare,  rectjuigular,  octag- 
onal, and  even  cruciform  in  plan,  according  to  the 
loodity  in  which  it  is  placed  and  the  lire  which  it 
has  lodeliver.  The  dimensions  should  Ix'  sufficient 
to  allow  sleeping  accommodations  for  the  men  who 
are  to  occupy  it;  and  in  some  cases  allowance  should 
be  made  for  other  accommodations.  Its  interior  di- 
mensions should  give  at  least  a  height  of  si.\  feet  in 
the  clear  for  the  rooms;  a  height  of  eight  or  nine  feet 
gives  l)etter  accommoilations  and  better  ventilation. 
The  width  of  the  interior  should  not  tx-  less  than  nine 
feet  in  the  clear,  as  this  is  the  least  distance  which 
can  tie  used  and  give  room  for  a  passageway  and  a 
row  of  bunks.  The  length  will  depend  upon  the 
numlx?r  of  men  it  has  to  accommodate,  after  the 
width  has  been  assumed.  Block-houses  must  be 
made  strong  enough  to  resist  the  projectiles  which 
may  strike  Them,  and  should  l)e  proof  against  fire  and 
splinters.  They  should  hv  free  from  dampness,  and 
should  be  well  Ventilated.  The  conditions  given  for 
a  bomb-proof  are  ap|ilicable  to  the  block-house,  with 
the  additional  one  of  arranging  it.s  walls  for  defense. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  place  a  slight  parapet  of 
earth  on  top  of  the  blockhouse.  It  is  thought  that 
this  accumulation  of  earth  would  be  too  heavy  for 
the  timbers,  independently  of  leaN-ing  but  little  space 
for  the  defense.  Perhaps  a  better  arrangement  might 
be  made  on  top,  similar  to  a  defensive  stockade,  the 
uprights  being  secured  at  bottom,  between  two  pieces 
resting  on  the  top  pieces,  and  held  firm  by  an  arrange- 
ment of  riband  pieces  and  braces.  It  has  also  been 
proposetl  to  place  the  interior  and  exterior  rows  of 
uprights  three  feel  apart,  and  to  till  in  between  them 
with  closely  packed  earth,  for  a  defense  against 
artillery.  This  method  has  Ix'cn  tried,  and  was  found 
to  be  less  .solid  than  the  one  here  laid  down,  independ- 
ently of  beiu"  more  difficult  to  construct.  The  top 
pieces  should  in  no  case  project  more  than  twelve 
inches  beyond  the  sides,  to  admit  of  logs,  etc.,  being 
rolled  over  on  the  enemy. 

Timber  block-houses  were  used  frequenllj'  in  the 
War  of  1861-5  in  isolated  spot«-i,  as  independent 
works.  In  these  places  they  were,  as  a  rule,  exposed 
to  attack  only  from  infaniry  or  cavalry,  or  a  few 
pieces  of  field-artillery.  It  was  found  from  experi- 
ence that  it  required  "a  thickness  of  forty  inches  of 
solid  timber  to  resist  the  projectiles  of  field-guns. 
The.se  isolated  blockhouses  were  frequently  built  two 
stories  high.  The  upper  stoiy  was  usually  placed  so 
as  to  have  its  sides  make  an  "angle  with  the  sides  of 
the  lower  story.  By  this  arrangement  the  comers  of 
the  upper  story  projected  over  the  sides  of  the  lower. 
This  arrangement  of  the  upper  story  removed  the 
dead  space  near  the  sides  of  the  lower  story,  and  the 
sector  without  fire  in  front  of  the  angles.  Block- 
houses exposed  to  artillerj-firc  shoula  not  have  a 
second  story. 

The  drawing  shows  the  construction  of  a  block- 
housi',  with  dimensions  in  meters,  used  by  the  French 
in  Algiers;  or  it  may  be  built  of  logs  18  inches  square 
on  the  ground-tloor  and  12  inches  sfjuare  in  the 
upper  stor)-.  Height  of  each  story  10  feet;  loop- 
holed;  th('  upper  story  projecting  all  round,  beyond 
the  ground-story,  as  machicoulis.  Hatches  are  made 
in  the  roof  for  the  escape  of  smoke,  !>nd  are  grated. 
See  Ai/irrirtin  JUnrkhouxe. 

BLOCKS. — 1.  Bloekx  are  of  two  kmds,  mmle  and 
mnrdned.  A  made  block  consists  of  four  part.s — the 
shell,  or  outside;  the  sheare,  or  wheel  on  which  the 
rope  turns;  the  pin,  or  nxle  on  which  the  wheel 
turns;  and  the  ntrap,  either  of  roi>e  or  iron,  which 
encircles  the  whole  and  keeps  it  in  its  place.  The 
sheave  is  generally  strengthened  by  letting  in  a  piece 
of  iron  or  brass  at  the  center,  called  a  hmh.     Nearly 


all  hea\y  blocks  for  ordnance  purposes  are  made 
with  iron  shells  and  brass  sheaves.  A  iin'rtMti  bUick 
is  made  of  a  single  block  of  wood,  morli.scd  out  to 
receive  a  sheave.  All  blocks  are  single,  double,  or 
threefold,  according  to  the  number  of  sheaves  in 
them.  There  are  ulocks  that  have  no  sheaves,  to 
wit:  a  bull's  eye,  which  is  a  wooden  thimble  without 
a  sheave,  having  a  hole  through  the  center  and  a 
groove  round  it;  and  a  dead-tyi,  which  is  a  solid 
block  of  wood  made  in  a  circular  fonn,  with  a 
groove  round  it,  and  tliree  holes  bored  through  it,  for 
the  lanyards  to  reeve  through.  SiniMi-bliirks  are 
single  blocks,  with  a  notch  cut  in  one  cheek,  just  be- 
low the  sheave,  so  as  to  receive  the  bight  of  a  fall 


Mortised  Block. 

without  the  trouble  of  reeving  and  unreeving  the 
whole.  They  are  generally  iron-bound  and  have  a 
hook  at  one  end.  A  tail-block  is  a  single  block, 
strapped  with  au  eye-splice,  and  having  a  long  end 
left,  by  which  to  make  the  block  fast  tempontrily  to 
the  rigging.  This  tail  is  usually  selvaged,  or  else  the 
strands  are  opened  and  laid  up  into  sennit,  as  for  a 
gasket. 

Blocks  were  made  by  hand  imtil  about  a  century 
ago.  But  mere  workers  in  wood  could  not  produce 
them;  it  required  unusual  skill  and  practice  to 
fashion  the  several  pieces  and  put  them  together  so 
as  to  possess  the  requisite  strength  and  facility  in 
working.  In  1781  a  Mr.  Taylor  began  to  make  the 
sheaves  and  shells  of  blocks  by  a  process  which  he 
had  invented.  He  made  all  the  blocks  for  the  Roval 
navy  until  the  expiration  of  his  patent-rights,  "the 
Admiralty  then  commervced  the  manufacture  on  their 
own  account.  In  1801  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  JIark. 
Isambard  Brunei  submitted  to  the  Admiralty  a  work- 
ing-model of  a  very  beautiful  system  of  machinery 
for  block-making;  it  was  accepted,  and  the  inventor 
engaged  to  set  up  the  apparatus  at  Portsmouth.  So 
intricate  was  the  machinery,  and  so  great  the  difficulty 
in  procuring  the  several  working-parts  from  the 
machinists  of  those  days,  that  it  was  not  until  the 
year  1808  that  the  system  was  put  into  effective 
operation.  It  was  then,  however,  so  perfect  that 
very  few  additions  or  improvements  have  since  been 
needed.  The  machinery  made  blocks  more  accurately 
than  they  had  ever  been  made  by  hand,  and  with  the 
aid  of  ordinary  workmen  only.  It  could  effect 
,£50,000  worib  of  work  in  a  year,  or  140,000  blocks, 
by  the  assistance  of  ten  men  attending  the  machine, 
duplicate  machinery  was  made  for  Chatham.  Brunei 
received  ,£20,000  for  his  invention  and  for  his  per- 
sonal superintendence  until  the  machinery  was 
brought  into  working-order;  this  sum  was  money 
well  laid  out,  for  the  machine  saved  to  the  country 
more  than  £20,000  a  year,  in  the  busy  warlike  i)eriod 
from  1808  to  1815.  The  machinery  itself  is  too  com- 
plicated to  be  (ktscribed  except  at  a  length  incompati- 
ble \vith  the  limits  of  this  work;  but  it  may  be  staled 
in  a  genend  way  thai  the  system  is  made  up  chiefly 
of  saws  and  lathes,  combined  with  great  ingenuity. 
The  blocks  are  made  of  elm,  and  the  sheaves  of 
lignum  \it«!;  the  pins  are  of  iron,  carefully  prepared 
to  avoid  friction  as  much  as  possible. 

The  dniwing  shows  a  most  excellent  block-turning 
machine  manufacUu-ed  by  Messrs.  Maiming,  Max- 
well &  Moore,  New  York.  It  is  generally  employed 
at  the  armories,  and  has  a  capacity  for  blocks  up  to 
50  inches  diameter.  The  latest  designed  block-turn- 
ing lathe  has  a  large  cone-pulley,  with  6  steps  for  a 
wide  belt,  which  transmits  the  power  through  tangent 
gearing  (accurately  cut)  to  the  main  spindle;  this  is 
an  extraordinarily  steady  and  powerful  method  of 
driving,  and  is  held  in  high  eslimalion  in  England, 


3I0CK-SHIP. 


197 


BLOOD-HOinri). 


-where  it  has  been  testefl  through  a  range  of  work 
that  demands  the  utmost  steadiness,  such  as  cjiinder- 
lx)ring,  etc.  The  carrier-plate  is  of  the  equalizing 
tj-pc,  obviating  unequal  and  lateral  strains.  On  each 
side  of  the  solid  bed-piece  are  placed  rests  which  slide 
in  and  out  on  graduated  surfaces  to  suit  the  diameter 
of  the  pulley  to  be  turned;  these  rests  can  be  set 
angularly  to  get  any  desired  degree  of  "crown"; 
tools  are  thus  operated  on  both  sides  of  the  machine.' 
The  feeds  are  continuous,  not  intenuittent  (a  ratchet 
and  a  pawl  give  an  intennittent  feed).  The  feeds 
can  be  instantly  engaged,  disengaged,  or  chansed. 
Another  admirable  feature  of  this  tool  is  thafthe 


BLOMAEY— BLOOMAEY.— A  furnace  for  trans- 
forming pig-iron  to  wrought  or  malleable  iron,  or  for 
making  such  iron  directly  from  ore.  When  ore  is 
used,  a  mass  of  iron  called  a  "  bloom"  is  produced, 
instead  of  the  impure  pig-iron  that  runs  from  the' 
melted  metijl  in  a  blast-furnace.  The  bloniary  process 
is  one  of  the  oldest  in  iron-working,  and  is"  used  in 
rude  forms  in  some  still  barbarous  countries.  The 
best  of  modern  blomaries  are  the  German  and  the 
Catalan  (Spanish)  furnaces,  in  which  ores  are  reduced 
chiefly  by  means  of  charcoal.  The  best  of  ore  should 
be  vised,  as  the  waste  is  much  greater  in  poorore.  In 
the  Catalan,  the  charcoal,  with  a  large  part  of  the 


K  turuing  Machine.    Manning,  JIaxwell  ,S:  JIuoie. 


spindle  of  the  cone-pulley  runs  at  so  much  higher  velo- 
city than  the  main  spindle  that  its  speed  is  suitable 
for  polishing  when  the  latter  is  turning;  a  steel  man- 
drel and  a  suitable  rest  are  pronded  for  polishing. 
This  arrangement  secures  a  combination  of  machines. 
The  counter-shaft  has  two  pulleys  20  inches  in  diame- 
ter, ^i  inches  face,  which  should  run  130  revolutions 
per  minute.     See  Mecfmnkal  Maneuvers  and  Tcwkka. 

2.  Rectangular  prisms  of  wood  employed  ex- 
tensively in  all  operations  connected  with  tlie  move- 
ments of  heaNy  artillery.  They  are  usually  8  inches 
square  and  20  inches  long. 

BLOCK-SHIP.-— A  ship  of  war  too  old  or  too  slow 
in  sailing  to  render  elBcient  service  in  action  out  at 
sea,  but  useful  as  a  defense  in  great  ports  and  naval 
arsenals.  Since  war-steamers  have  almost  superseded 
the  old  sailing  men-of-war,  the  latter  are  of  little  ser- 
vice except  as  block-ships,  or  for  training-ships.  The 
numl)er  of  block-ships  in  the  British  na\y  in  1859 
was  a'Dout  ten. 

BLOCK-TIN. — Tin  which  has  undergone  refining, 
either  by  Ufjuaiiun  or  jmling,  when  it  is  run  into 
blocks,  each  weighing  about  3  cwt.  Tin  thus  treated 
is  found  to  form  in  the  melting-basin  three  stratji,  of 
which  the  top  stratum  is  most  pure,  the  bottom  most 
impure,  and  the  middle  of  average  purity.  The  best 
qualities  of  this  metal  are  the  Baiica.  the  Cornish,  and 
the  Spanish  tin.  This  metal  is  mixed  with  copper  to 
form  bronze. 

BLOCK-TRAIL.— In  artillery,  that  pattern  of  gun- 
carriage  the  trail  of  which  is  formed  of  one  beam,  or 
two  beams  tabled  one  into  the  other.  It  is  stated  in 
Lieutenant-colonel  Owen's  Modern  Artilttry  that 
this  nature  of  carriage  was  invented  in  1792  by  Sir 
W.  Congreve.  It  has  now  been  superseded  in  lately 
constructed  wrought-iron  carriages  by  the  bracket- 
trail. 


iron,  is  heaped  on  a  square  hearth  opposite  to  the 
tuyere,  charcoal  and  fine  ore  being  added  from  time  to 
time,  while  amoflerate  blast  is  kept  up  and  the  mass 
occasionallv  stirred.  In  about  six  hours  the  iron 
settles  to  the  bottom,  is  taken  out  in  a  mass,  and 
forged  into  a  bloom.  For  the  German  or  more  com- 
mon bloom,  the  ore  is  pounded  fine  and  thrown  in 
small  quantities  upon  a  charcoal-fire,  with  either  hot 
or  cold  blast,  hot  being  much  the  better.  The  metal 
settles  to  the  bottom,  and  is  drawn  off  at  intervals, 
and  hammered  into  blooms.  The  process  is  avail- 
able in  places  where  wood  (for  charcoal)  and  good 
iron-ore  are  found  near  each  other.  Iron  so  made  is 
of  the  best  quality,  and  is  very  desirable  for  convert- 
ing into  steel. 

BLONDEL  SYSTEM  OF  FOETIFICATION.— In  this 
system  the  Itastions  are  large  and  acute;  their  flanks 
are  long  and  triple.  The  bastions  are  covereil  by 
counterguards,  whose  ditches,  like  those  of  the  rave- 
lins, are  defended  by  low  batteries.  Small  ravelins 
are  substituted  for  tlie  reduit  of  the  re-entering  place 
of  arms.  It  is  weak  in  outline  and  costly  in  ma- 
sonry.    See  Forlilication. 

BLOOD-HOUND.— A  variety  of  hound  remarkable 
for  its  exquisite  scent  and  for  its  great  .sagjicity  and 
perseverance  in  tracking  anv  object  to  the  pursuit  of 
which  it  has  been  trained.  It  derives  its  name  from 
its  original  common  emplo_\Tnent  in  the  chase,  either 
to  track  a  wounded  animal  or  to  discover  the  lair  of 
a  beast  of  prey.  It  was  also  formerlv  called,  both 
in  England  and  in  Scotland,  ukut-hound  or  akuth- 
hnund  from  the  Saxon  nUni,  the  track  of  a  deer. 
The  poetical  histories  of  Bruce  and  AVallace  describe 
these  heroes  as  occasionally  tracked  by  blood-hounds, 
when  they  were  skulking  from  their  enemies.  The 
blood-hound  was  at  a  later  period  much  used  to 
guide  in  the  pursuit  of  cattle  carried  off  in  border 


BLOOD'S  PONTONS. 


198 


BLOWEB. 


raids;  it  lias  been  frequently  used  for  tlie  pursuit 
of  felons  imd  of  lieer-stenlers;  and  latterly,  in  Amer- 
ica, for  the  capture  of  fugitive  slaves  and  prist)n- 
ers  of  war — an  employment  of  its  powers  which  has 
contributed  not  a  little  to  rentier  its  name  odious  to 
many  i)hilanthropists.  Terrible  ideas  are  also,  prob- 
ably" suirgested  t>y  the  name  itself,  although  the 
bloiKl-houud  is  bvno  means  a  panicularly  ferocious 
kind  of  dog,  imtf  when  employed  in  the  pursuit  of 
human  beings  can  be  Iraiueil  to  detain  them  as 
pristmers  without  offering:  to  injure  them.  The  true 
blooil-hound  is  taller  and  also  stronger  in  proportion 
ami  of  more  conii>act  tigure  than  a  fox  hound, 
muscular  and  broad-chested,  with  large  pendulous 
cars,  large  i)endulous  upper  lips,  and  an  expression 
of  face  which  is  variously  described  lus  "  thoughtful," 
"  noble."  and  "  stern."  The  original  color  is  said  to 
have  been  a  dee])  tan,  cloudcil  with  black.  The 
color  appears  to  have  l)een  one  of  the  chief  distinc- 
tions between  the  blood-hound  and  the  tallKit,  but  it 
is  not  improbable  that  this  name  was  originally  com- 
mon to  ail  blood-hounds.  JIany  interesting  anecdotes 
are  recorded  of  the  persevenmce  and  success  of  blood- 
hounds in  following  a  track  upon  which  they  have 
been  set,  even  whenit  has  led  them  through  "nuich- 
frequcnted  roads. — The  Cuban  blood-hound,  which  is 
much  employed  in  the  pursuit  of  felons  and  of 
fugitive  slaves  in  Cuba,  differs  considerably  from  the 
tnie  blood-hound  of  Britain  and  of  the  Continent  of 
Europe,  being  more  tierce  anil  having  more  resem- 
blance to  the  bull-dog,  and  probably  a  connection 
with  that  or  some  similar  nice.  Many  of  these  dogs 
were  imported  into  Jamaica  in  1796,  to  be  employed 
in  suppressing  the  Maroon  Insurrection,  but  the 
terror  occasioned  by  their  arrival  produced  this  effect 
without  their  actual  employment.  It  was  this  kind 
of  blooii-hound  which  was  chiefly  introduced  into  the 
former  Slave  States  of  North  America. 

BLOOD'S  PONTONS.— Flat-bottom  boats,  made  of 
light  wooden  frames  covered  by  coatings  of  canvas, 
wood,  cork,  anil  leather,  cemented  together.  Their 
length  is  21  feet,  breadth  .'3J  feet,  weight  850  lbs., 
and  buoyancy  5i  tons.  The  bridge  will  readily  bear 
a  64-poii"nder  gun.  One  wagon  conveys  one  ponton 
and  the  supcrstructvne  for  1.5  feet  of  bridge.  The 
bridge  can  be  constmcted  at  the  rate  of  200  yanis 
per  iiour.     See  lUinirhnnl  Pontons. 

BLOOM  CAMPAIGN  EQUIPMENT.— The  difficult 
problem  of  drawing  the  in-ojier  line  between  the 
number  of  articles  that  shoidil  be  in  hand,  when  the 
engagement  ensues,  and  the  weight  that  .should  be 
transported  on  the  person,  has  received  much  at- 
tention of  late.  The  excellent  campaign  equipment 
devised  by  J.  E.  Bloom,  Esq.,  late  of  the  United 
States  ArtilliT)-,  is  the  nearest  approach  to  perfection, 
as  vet.  By  this  device  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
soldier  remains  nearly  normal,  and  the  strain  falls 
upon  those  portions  of  the  body  which  can  best  bear 
them.  It  seems  that  the  principal  objection  to  the 
"roll"  as  worn  during  the  late  war  was  that  the 
■weight  fell  >ipon  one  side  of  the  body,  thus  heating 
it,  etc.  In  .Mr.  Bloom's  system  of  equi[iment  this 
objection  is  entirely  overcome,  and  the  soldier  is 
enublc'd  to  transport  the  following  with  great  facility: 
one  hundred  cartridges  (cal.  4.5),  one  blanket,  one 
shelter-tent,  one  overcoat,  one  pair  pants,  one  pair 
drawers,  one  undershii't,  one  woolen  shirt,  one  pair 
socks,  one  pinr  shoes,  towel,  soaj),  etc.,  in  addition  to 
his  ritle.  The  ef|uipment  consists  in  a  system  of  sup- 
portinK  straps,  by  means  of  which  the  weight  to  be 
carried  i-;  directly  transferred  to  and  supported  equally 
by  the  shoulders,  without  producing  any  horizontal 
pri'.ssure  vipon  the  chest.  This  object  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  yoke,  composed  of  two  leather  straps, 
passing  over  tlie  shoulders  and  joined  by  the  simie 
rivets  at  their  ends — front  and  rear  (opposite  to  the 
extremity  of  the  stennim  bone) — both  to  plates  or 
stirrups,  and  also  to  a  dout)le  blankct-stra]),  for 
securing  the  blankets  and  articles  rolled  therein. 
The  blanket-roll  is  adjusted  so  as  to  fully  clear,  by  an 


inch,  the  shoulder  over  which  it  passes,  Iwing  thus 
suspended  from  a  central  ]ioint  front  and  rear,  upon 
a  line  passing  through  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
body — thus  causing  such  a  disposition  of  tlie.>ie  arti- 
clesas  not  to  disturb  the  equilibrium  of  the  body. 

The  weight  of  the  cartridge-belt,  of  any  variety,  is 
supported  from  stirrups,  lx)th  at  front  and  back,  by 
means  of  books,  or  book-plates,  which  are  counectca 
with  the  belt  through  adjustable  straps  imd  snap- 
hooks.  The  havei"sack,  canteen,  gamebags,  etc.,  are 
likewise  sus]K'nded  from  side  slots  in  the  stirriqis  by 
means  of  straps.  The  blanket-roll,  when  firmly 
made  and  adjusted,  exerts  more  than  sutticient  out- 
iriinl  t/inixl  to  counteract  all  inward  strains  (which 
would  otherwise  fall  upon  the  chest)  due  to  the 
weight  of  the  "roll,"  ammunition-lnlt,  etc.  This 
should  be  pa.s.sed  over  the  left  shoulder  when  the 
soldier  is  right-handed  or  fires  from  the  right 
.shoulder,  and  «W'  nnn.  The  following  advantages 
of  such  an  equipment  are  apparent:  1.  Lightnes.s 
and  sim])li(ily;  and,  being  practically  in  one  piece, 
there  are  no  jiarts  to  be  lost  by  the  most  careless. 

2.  Facility  and  quickness  of  slinging  and  unslinging. 

3.  It  does  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  soldier, 
or  the  natural  equilibrium  of  his  lK)dy.  4.  It  does 
not  heat  the  soldier;  but  allows  him  to  .>ileep  with  all 
accouterments  upon  the  person — the  upper  part  of 
the  "roll"  fonning  a  pillow  for  the  hciid.  The 
Eviropean  soldier,  on  going  into  action,  is  allowed  the 
followin<;  ammunition:  France,  92;  Gemiany,  117; 
Russia,  "120;  England,  100;  Au.stria,  119."  The 
equipment  described  will  enable  him  to  carry  100 
rounds,  in  addition  to  his  kit,  etc.,  with  ease  and 
-sfifetv.     See  Equipinciils. 

BLOOMFIELD  GUN.— An  ordinary  cast-iron  gun, 
with  a  charge  of  one  third  the  weight  of  the  shot. 
It  has  from  IJ  to  4  cwt.  of  metal  to  every  1  lb.  of 
shot.  The  32-pdr. ,  of  56  cwt. ,  and  24-pdr. ,  o"f  50  cwt. , 
are  still  in  the  English  service,  as  well  as  some  other 
guns  of  this  pattern. 

BLOUSE— BLOWSE.— A  part  of  the  undress  uni- 
form. It  is  usuall.y  employed  for  fatigues,  marches, 
squad  and  company  drills,  and  other  drills  when 
authorized  by  the  Commanding  Officer,  and  for 
ordinary  wear.  In  the  United  States  army,  it  is  a 
sack-coat  of  dark  blue  cloth  or  serge;  falling  collar; 
single-breasted,  with  live  buttons  in  front,  same  as 
those  worn  on  the  dress-coat.  The  skirt  extends 
from  one  third  to  two  thirds  the  distance  from  the 
hip-joint  to  the  bend  of  the  knee.  The  shoulder- 
strajis  are  always  worn  with  this  coat.  A  Chaidaiu 
wears  a  plain  black  frock  coat  with  standing  collar; 
one  row  of  nine  lilack  buttons  on  the  breast,  with 
"herring-bone"  of  black  braid  around  the  buttons 
and  button-holes.  Officers  are  permitted  to  wear  a 
jilain  dark  blue  body -coat,  with  the  button  desig- 
nating their  respecti\e  coqis,  regiments,  or  depart- 
ment.s,  without  any  other  mark  or  ornament  upon  it. 
This  coat,  however,  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  dress 
for  any  military  purpose.  Enlisted  men  wear  a 
dark  blue  blousv  of  navy  flannel,  according  to  the 
p:illcni(lcpositc<l  in  the  Quartermaster-general's  Office. 
Blouses  for  winter  wear  are  lined.     See  Dnss-coaU. 

BLOWER. — A  machine  for  creating  an  artiticial 
current  of  air  by  pressure.  A  pleiiimi  engine,  as 
contRidistinguished  from  a  viicuuni  engine,  such  as 
an  aspirator.  Blowers  are  used  to  increase  draughts 
in  furnaces;  to  fiuiiish  \-ital  air  to  close  and  fetid 
])laccs,  as  mines,  poorly  ventilated  casemates,  etc.;  to 
furnish  a  current  of  wanned,  cooled,  moistened,  or 
medicated  air  to  hosjiitals  or  closely  occupied  bar- 
racks; to  furnish  a  drying  atmosphere  in  powder- 
mills  and  lunibcr-kilns;  to  raise  fluids  on  the  princi- 
ple of  the  GilTard  injector,  etc. 

The  earlier  modern  forms  of  machine-blowers  con- 
sist of  cylinders  with  pistons,  the  dilTerences  between 
them  consisting  principally  in  the  means  for  commu- 
nicatiiig  motion  and  for  securing  a  iniiform  blast. 
In  the  blowers  at  Woolwich,  England,  the  air  is 
forced  from  the  blowing-cylinders  into  a  reservoir. 


BLOWEB. 


199 


BLOWIE. 


Sturtevaut  Blower. 


whence  it  issues  by  the  force  of  its  comprcs.sion. 
The  beams  of  the  pistons  are  so  connected  tliat  when 
one  is  at  the  top  of  the  stroke  another  is  midway  of 
its  cylinder  and  the  third  at  its  lowest  point,  main- 
taining vcrj'  nearly  uniform  pressure  in  a  wind-chest 
below  with  which  each  cylinder  communicates. 
Blowers  on  the  fan-principle  are  the  favorite  suDjects 
of  the  exercise  of  the  ingenuity  of  modern  inventors 
in  this  line.  In  these  the  air  is  admitted  through  an 
aperture  at  or  near  the  axis  of  the  rotating  fan, 
■whence  it  is  driven  toward  the  periphery'  by  means 
of  curved  arms,  and  discharged  through  an  "opening 
in  the  case.  The  Sturtevant  blower,  in  its  many 
'  varieties,  is  acknowledged  to  be  superior  to  all  others 
of  its  kind,  and  is  much  used  by  the  United  States 
Government,  as  also  in  foreign  armories.  The  draw- 
ing shows  a  form  of  this  blower  csjiecially  adajiled 
for  use  where  air  is  to  be  carried  any  distance  in 
imderground  ducts,  and  is  much  used  for  forcing 
fresh  air  into  and  taking  foul  air  out  of  hospitals 
and  apartments  needing  ventilation.  These  Itlowers 
are  of  all  descriptions  to  suit  every  po.ssible  situation 
and  kind  of  work.     In  nearly  all  cases  where  the 


blast-pipe  leads  directly  upward  from  the  blower  it 
is  better  to  have  the  blower  built  with  upward  blast, 
with  the  mouth  pointing  upward  instead  of  horizon- 
tally. It  saves  making  an  ellKiw,  which  would 
have  to  be  used  in  the   case  of  a   horizontal-blast 

j  blower;  and  in  most  cases  where  elbows  arc  put  on 
to  the  horizontal  bla.st,  contractors  try  to  economize 
room,  and  by  so  doing  make  a  very  short  elbow, 

[  which  in  some  cases  reduces  the  force  of  the  blast 
aliout  one  lifth,  necessitating  nearly  double  the  power 
lo  do  the  same  work  as  would  l)e  required  with  the 
up-blast  blower  and  straight  pipe.  These  blowers 
may,  for  example,  be  used  with  advantage  where  the 
space  under  the  tloor  is  to  be  ventilated,  and  the  foul 
air  discharged  upward  through  the  roof  or  into  a 
chimney,  or  when  the  blower  is  attached  to  a  heater 
and  located  where  floor-space  is  very  valuable,  and 
the  hot  blast  used  in  dryers  overhead  or  on  the  next 
tloor  above. 

The  pressure  -  blowers  for  cupola  -  furnaces  and 
forges  are  made  of  steel,  and  are  built  very  strong 
and  heavy.  The  following  table  shows  the  melting 
capacities,  speeds,  etc. .  of  blowers  of  varioas  sizes: 


Diam. 

Power  Saved  by  RKDrciNo 

THE  Speed 

No.  of 

in 
inches 
inside 

of 
cupola. 

Melting 

capacity 

per  iiour  in 

pounds. 

Number  of 

square  inches 

of  blast. 

Cubic 
feet  of 
air   per 
minute. 

Speed. 

Pres- 
sure  in 
ounces 
of  blast 

Horse- 
power 
req'ired 

AND  Pressi-re  or  Blast. 

blower. 

Speed. 

Oz. 

Pres. 

H.  P. 

Speed. 

Oz. 
Pres. 

H.  P. 

1 

22 

1,200 

4    ^^  ^-^  ^ 

334 

4135 

5 

0.5 

2 

26 

1,900 

5.  t  c  ^c  «  '^ 

507 

3756 

6 

1 

3445 

5 

0.8 

3100 

4 

0.6 

3 

30 

2,880 

8    'r  ii  i  5^   . 

708 

32S0 

1.8 

3000 

6 

1.5 

2750 

5 

1.1 

4 

33 

4,130 

io.~£S^T5^ 

1.102 

3100 

8 

3 

2900 

7 

2.5 

2700 

5 

40 

6.178 

H.2S  JO.  gg 

l,6t6 

2900 

10 

5.5 

2560 

8 

4 

2890 

8 

46 

8.900 

18.7  =-.2 ""s  II 

2.375 

2820 

12 

9.7 

25ob 

10 

7.4 

2260 

8 

T 

S3 

l2,.:oo 

24.3*Sii^S 

3,353 

2000 

14 

16 

2380 

12 

12.7 

2150 

10 

8 

60 

16.500 

32     gdoaSi 

4,410 

2270 

14 

22 

2100 

12 

16  7 

1900 

9 

7*^ 

23,800 

4.1    |3;.     -=.2 

6.364 

2100 

16 

85 

1960 

14 

28.4 

1800 

12 

10 

84 

33,300 

60  S£S.I§. 

8,880 

1815 

16 

48 

1700 

14 

39.6 

1566 

BLOW  GUN. 


200 


BLOWPIPE. 


The  speed  given  is  rcgiilatcd  so  as  to  give  the  pres- 
sure of  blast  stated  in  ounces  per  square  inch.  The 
number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  jjer  minute  given  against 
each  size  cupola  is  the  result  of  numerous  tests  taken 
on  cupolas.  The  tenn  "square  inches  of  blast"  re- 
fers to  the  area  of  a  proper-shaped  mouth-piece  dis- 
charging bliist  into  the  Ojx-n  air.  The  melting 
capacity  per  hour  in  pountls  of  iron  is  made  up  from 
an  average  of  tests  on  a  few  of  the  best  cupolas 
found,  and  is  reliable  in  cases  where  the  cupolas  are 
•well  constructed  and  driven  with  the  greatest  force 
of  blijst  given  in  the  table.  That  portion  of  the  table 
headed  "  Power  saved  by  reducing  the  speed  and 
pressure  of  blast"  shows  "that  in  foundries,  where  a 
strong  blast  is  not  desirable,  the  blower  can  be  run 
and  do  good  work  with  very  much  less  power.  See 
Fanner,  Iron,  and  Shamfan. 

BLOW-GUN. — A  sort  of  air-gun  used  by  the  Bar- 
bados Indians  of  Brazil  and  other  aborigine's  of  South 
America.  A  similar  contrivance  is  emploj'ed  by 
some  of  the  Malays,  by  whom  it  is  called  "sumpi- 
tan."  The  arrows  are  about  lifty  inches  long,  made 
of  a  yellow  reed,  and  tipped  ^ritli  hard  wood,  which 
has  a  spike  of  cocourite  wood  poisoned.  The  spike 
is  cut  half  through,  so  as  to  break  off  in  the  wound, 
that  the  arrow -shaft  may  drop  and  be  recovered. 

BLOWING-BAGS.— Bags  tilled  with  a  small  charge 
of  gunpowder  mul  coal-dust,  and  placed  inside  a 
common  shell  when  it  is  not  intended  to  burst  the 
shtU.  The  charge  is  ignited  by  means  of  a  fuse. 
Blowing-bags  are  used  in  artillery-practice,  to  show 
■where,  "if  the  shell  had  been  a  live  shell,  it  would 
have  burst. 

BL0WING-CHAB6ES.— Charges  used  for  different 
natures  of  common  shells;  they  are  a  mixture  of 
gunpowder  and  coal-dust.  The  object  of  using  the 
blowing-charge  is  when  it  is  not  desirable  or  safe  to 
burst  the  shell. 

BLOWING-CYLINDEE.— A  form  of  blast-engine. 
Smeaton  introduced  the  blowing-cylinders  at  the 
Carron  Iron-works,  and  bj-  the  power  and  volume  of 
blast  made  effective  the  earnest  and  repeated  at- 
tempts of  the  English  to  smelt  iron  by  the  use  of 
the  coke  of  pit-coal.  This  was  in  1760,  and  utilized 
the  invention  of  Abraham  Darby,  of  Colebrookdale, 
in  173.5. 

BLOW-PIPE. — A  small  instnunent  used  in  the 
laboratory  for  soldering  metals,  and  in  analytical 
chemistry  and  mineralogy  for  determining  the 
nature  of  substances  by  the  action  of  an  intense  and 
continuous  heat,  its  principle  depending  on  the  fact 
that  when  a  jet  of  air  or  oxygen  is  thrown  into  a 


turned  over  to  admit  of  the  lips  closing  perfectly 
round  it.  Near  the  lower  end,  a  small  tube,  fitted 
with  a  finely  perforated  nozzle,  is  inserted  at  right 
angles  to  the  large  tube,  the  s|iace  below  being  in- 
tended as  a  chamber  for  condensing  the  moisture  of 
the  breath.  Through  this  nozzle  a  fine  current  of 
air  can  be  projected  against  the  flame  experimented 
with. 

When  a  current  of  air  from  the  blow-pipe  is 
directed  against  a  candle  or  gas-jet,  the  flame  almost 
entirely  loses  its  luniinositj',  owing  to  the  perfect 
combustion  of  the  gases  evolved  from  the  source  of 
heat,  and  is  projected  in  a  latcml  direction,  as  a  long- 
pointed  cone,  consisting  of  three  distinct  parts.  The 
first  or  centi-al  cone  is  of  a  dark  blue  color,  and  there 
the  combustion  is  complete  from  the  excess  of  air 
thrown  in  from  the  small  nozzle.  The  second  cone, 
or  that  immediatclj-  .surroun<iing  the  first,  is  some- 
what luminous;  and  here,  the  oxygen  being  insuffi- 
cient for  the  combustion  of  the  carbon,  any  metallic 
oxide  subjected  to  the  action  of  this  portion  of  the 
flame  is  deprived  of  its  oxygen  and  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  metal;  for  this  reason  the  luminous  cone 
is  generally  termed  the  rednHng  flame  of  the  blow- 
pipe. Beyond  the  second  cone,  or  where  the  flame 
comes  freely  in  contact  with  Uie  atmosphere,  and 
abundance  of  oxygen  is  present  to  cfiect  complete 
combustion  of  the  gases,  is  a  third  or  pale  yellow 
envelope,  containing  excess  of  atmospheric  air  at  a 
verj'  high  temperature,  so  that  a  portion  of  metal, 
such  as  lead  or  copper,  placed  at  this  point,  becomes 
rapidly  converted  into  its  oxide:  this  outer  part  of 
the  flame  is  on  this  account  called  the  oridizing  flame 
of  the  blow -pipe. 

Hoskins'  Hydro-carbon  Blow-pipe  and  Furnace  are 
represented  in  the  drawing.  In  this  apparatus,  much 
used  in  the  armory ,  P  is  an  ordinan,-  force-pump,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  (at  A)  is  a  valve  which  closes  auto- 
matically upon  releasing  the  pressure  from  the  pump. 
C  is  a  check- valve  which  closes  the  inlet  to  the  tank,  T, 
completely.  F  is  the  filling-screw.  H  Ls  the  pipe  lead- 
ing from  the  tank  to  the  burner,  D.  E  is  the  burner- 
regulator,  terminating  in  a  fine  point,  closing  the 
orifice  of  the  burner.  B  is  the  crucible-furnace. 
Upon  pumping  a  few  strokes,  a  pressure  is  created  in 
the  tank,  which  forces  the  fluid  through  the  pipe,  H, 
and  the  tubes  of  the  burner,  when  it  is  vaporized  by 
heating  the  burner,  and  finally  issues  from  the  fine 
orifice  at  the  end  of  E  as  a  highly  heated  gas,  and 
bums  as  such  with  a  powerful  blast.  After  once 
being  started,  the  heat  of  the  flame  passing  through 
the  burner  evaporizes  the  fluid  in  the  tubes,  and 


Hoskins'  Hydro-carbon  Blow-pipe  and  Furnace. 


flame  the  rapidity  of  combustion  is  increased,  while 
the  effects  are  concentrated  by  diminishing  the  extent 
or  space  originally  occiijiied  l)y  the  flame.  The 
blow-pipe  generally  consists  of  a  conical  tube  of 
metal,  about  8  inches  long,  closed  at  the  wider  or 
lower  end,  but  open  at  tlie  narrow  or  upper  end, 
■which  latter   constitute^  the   mouth-piece,  and   is 


hence  it  is  automatic  in  its  action.  The  air  which  is 
forced  in  is  not  used,  and  therefore  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  occasionally  use  the  pump  to  mainiain  the 
pressure  les.sened  bj-  the  consumption  of  the  fluid,  to 
keep  up  the  blast. 

The  folio-wing  are  exemplifications  of  the  difference 
of  color  commimicated  to  the  flame  by  different  sub- 


3L0W-PIPE  AND  AEROW. 


201 


BOARD  OF  ENGINEEES. 


Stances:  salts  of  potash  color  the  flame  riolet;  soda, 
yellow;  lithia,  purplish  red;  baryta,  yellowish  green; 
strontia,  earmine;  limo,  briek-red;  compounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  l)oracic  acid,  and  copper,  green. 
The  commonly  occurring  metallic  oxides  reducible  by 
heating  on  charcoal  alone  in  the  inner  flame  of  the 
Wow-pipe  are  the  oxides  of  zinc,  silver,  lead,  copper, 
bismuth,  and  antimony;  the  principal  ores  not  so  re- 
ducible are  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  as  also 
the  oxides  of  iron,  manganese,  and  chromium.  The 
fluxes  generally  used  in  blow-pipe  experiments  are 
cither  carbonate  of  soda,  borax  (biborate  of  soda),  or 
the  ammonia-phosphate  of  soda,  otherwise  called 
micrdcosmic  suit.  The  carbonate  of  soda,  when 
heated  on  platinum  wire  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  forms 
■with  silica  a  c/lvrless  glass;  with  oxide  of  antimony, 
a  if/lite  bead,  etc.  The  following  metals  are  reduced 
from  their  compounds  when  heated  with  carbonate 
of  soda  on  charcoal  in  the  inner  flame  of  the  blow- 
pipe, viz.:  nickel,  cobalt,  iron,  molybdenum,  tung- 
sten, copper,  tin,  silver,  gold,  and  platinum.  When 
compounds  of  zinc,  lead,  bismuth,  arsenic,  antimony, 
tellurium,  and  cadmium  are  similarly  treated,  these 
metjils  are  also  formed,  but  being  volatile,  the}'  pa.ss 
off  in  vapor  at  the  high  temperature  to  which  they 
are  exposed. 

Boras,  as  a  flux,  is  generally  mixed  with  the  sub- 
stance under  examination,  and  placed  on  platinum 
•wire.  When  thus  heated  in  either  of  the  flames, 
barj'ta,  strontia,  lime,  magnesia,  alumina,  and  silica 
yield  colorless  beads;  cobalt  gives  a  fine  blue  coUtr ; 
copper,  a  green ;  etc.  With  microcosmic  salt  the 
results  obtained  are  generally  similar  to  those  with 
borax,  and  need  not  Ik  specially  mentioned,  as  the 
test  is  applied  in  the  same  way.  The  blow-pipe  has 
been  long  used  by  goldsmiths  and  jewelers  for  solder- 
ing metids,  and  by  glass-blowers  in  fusing  and  seal- 
ing glass  tubes,  etc.;  it  has  also  been  applied  in 
qualitative  analj'sis  for  many  years,  but  more  re- 
cently chemists  (especially  Plattner)  have  devoted 
Iheir  attention  to  its  use,  and  have  even  employed  it 
■with  great  success  in  quantitative  chemical  analysis; 
the  advantages  being  that  only  a  verj'  small  quantity 
of  material  is  required  to  operate  upon,  whilst  the 
results  may  be  obtained  with  great  rapidity  and  con- 
siderable accurac'v. 

BLOW-PIPE  AND  ARROW.  —  A  kind  of  ■weapon 
much  used  by  some  of  the  Inilian  tribes  of  South 
America,  both  in  war  and  for  killing  game.  It  con- 
sists of  a  long  straight  tube  in  ■which  a  small  poi.soned 
arrow  is  placed  and  forcibly  expelled  by  the  breath. 
The  tulje  or  blow-pipe,  called  grurutiina  poeuna,  etc., 
is  8  to  12  feet  long,  the  bore  not  generally  large 
enough  to  admit  the  little  finger.  It  is  made  of  reed 
or  of  the  stem  of  a  small  palm.  Near  Pani  it  is  in 
general  verv  ingeniously  and  nicelj'  made  of  two  stems 
of  a  palm  (Iriartea  setigera)  of  different  diameters,  the 
one  fitted  into  the  other,  in  order  the  better  to  secure 
its  perfect  straightness.  A  sight  is  affixed  to  it  near 
the  end.  The  arrows  used  in  that  district  are  15  to 
18  inches  long,  made  of  the  spines  of  another  palm, 
sharply  pointed,  notched  so  as  to  break  off  in  the 
■wound,  and  <heir  points  covered  ■with  c!/ronpoi.son. 
A  little  soft  down  of  the  silk-cotton  tree  is  twisted 
round  each  arrow,  so  as  exactlj-  to  fit  the  tulje.  In 
Peru  arrows  of  only  1^  to  2  inches  long  are  used,  and 
a  ditfcrcnt  kind  of  poison  seems  to  be  employed.  An 
accidental  wound  from  one  of  these  poisoned  arrows 
not  imfrequently  jiroves  fatal.  In  the  hand  of  a 
practiced  Indian  the  weajion  is  verv  deadly,  and 
particularly  when  directed  against  birds  sitting  in 
the  tops  of  high  trees.  As  his  weapon  makes  no 
noise,  the  hunter  often  empties  his  quiver  before  he 
gathers  up  the  game,  and  does  more  execution  than 
an  American  sportsman  could  with  his  double-biu'- 
reled  fowling-piece. 

BLUDGEON.— A  short  stick,  with  one  end  loaded 
or  thicker  and  hea\ier  than  the  other,  used  as  an 
offensive  weajion. 

BLUE-LIGHT.— An     ornamental    composition    in 


pyrotcchny.     For  one  hundred  lights  the  following 
materials  are  required:  niter,  9  jxjunds  10  ounces; 
sulphur,    2    pounds    6i  ounces;    red    orpiment,    11 
ounces;    mealed  powder,    11  ounces.     The   materials 
should  be  pure,  well  pulverized,  and  thoroughly  in- 
corporated, rubbing  them  in  the  hands,  and  piLssing 
I  them  several  times  through  a  fine  hair-sieve,     llemt- 
j  spheriml  cups,  of  well-seasoned  wood  (beech,  linden, 
1  etc.),  with  a  handle  10  inches  long,  l|-ineh  diameter; 
j  quifk-match;  paper;  paste.     To  prepare  a  blue-light, 
till  the  cup  with  composition,  and  press  it  firnd_\-^in; 
prime  the  cup  with  quick-match,  and  cover  th«  whole 
with  cartridge-paper  i)asled  to  the  bottom  of  the  cup. 
The  brilliancy  of  the  light  depends  on  the  purity  and 
;  thorough    incurpoiiition    of    the    ingredients.   "  The 
composition  may  also  be  driven  in  a  paper  ca.se,  and 
afterwards  cut  off  to  suit  the  required  time  of  burn- 
ing.    Both  ends  of  the  case  are  closed  with  paper 
caps   and   primed  with  quick-match,  in   order  that 
one  or  both  cuds  may  be   lighted   at   pleasure.     A 
light  in  which  the  composition  is  1..5  inch  in  diame- 
ter can  Ije  easily  distinguished  at  a  distance  of  15 
miles.     See  Cunijxisitions  and  Fire-works. 

BLUE  PETER.— A  blue  flag  with  a  white  square  in 
the  center,  used  to  signify  that  the  ship  on  which  it  is 
raised,  or  the  fleet  of  which  that  is  the  flagship,  is 
about  to  sail.  "  Peter"  is  a  barbarism  for  the" French 
piirtir,  a  notice  of  departure. 

BLUES. — (Jne  of  the  three  mounted  regiments  of 
household  trooiis.  This  regiment  was  originally 
raised  at  Oxford,  and  was  commonly  called  the  Ox- 
ford Blues.  It  is  now  known  as  the  regiment  of 
Royal  Horse-iruards. 

BLUING. — The  art  of  imparting  a  blue  color  to 
finished  iron-work  or  steel,  such  as  gun-locks,  barrels, 
gun-sights,  etc.  The  object  in  bluing  articles, 
which  is  simply  coating  them  with  a  thin  film  of 
oxide,  is  to  prevent  further  oxidation  from  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere. 

BLUNDERBUSS.— A  kind  of  short  musket  with  a 
very  wide  bore,  sufficient  to  take  in  several  shot  or 
bullets  at  once.  It  has  a  limited  range,  but  is  very 
destructive  at  close  quarters.  As  a  military  weajwn 
it  is  chiefly  of  service  in  defending  p:is.s;igcs,  dcwr- 
ways,  stairca.-ies,  etc.  Some  of  the  English  and  Ger- 
man troopers  in  the  .seventeenth  century  were  armed 
with  the  blunderbuss;  but  the  carbine  has  since 
nearly  superseded  this  weapon. 

BLYDE. — A  kind  of  war-machine,  which  was  used 
in  ancient  times  to  throw  stones;  some  authors  com- 
pare it  to  the  catapult.  In  the  year  loS-i,  at  the  siege 
of  the  Castle  of  Rucklingen,  Albert,  Duke  of  Saxony 
and  Luneburg,  was  killed  by  a  stone  thrown  from  a 
blvde.     Also  written  Bli/  and  Blude. 

BOARD  OF  ENGINEERS.- A  Board  consisting  of 
not  less  than  three  ollicirs  to  be  designated  by  the 
Chief  of  Engineers,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Secretary 
of  War,  whose  duty  is  to  plan  or  re\ise,  as  may  be 
directed  by  the  Chief  of  Engineers  from  time  to  time, 
projects  of  permanent  fortifications  required  for  the 
defense  of  the  territory  of  the  Uinted  St;ites.  and 
works  of  river  and  harbor  improvement;  also  to  con- 
sider and  report  upon  such  other  matters  as  may  be 
referred  to  it  by  the  Chief  of  Engineers.  It  is  the 
duly  of  the  ^[embers  of  the  Board,  whenever  re- 
quired by  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  to  inspect  and 
report  upon  anv  of  the  works  of  construction  or 
other  of  the  operations  of  the  Engineer  Department. 

Whenever  the  defense  or  improvement  of  any  par- 
ticular locality  or  other  work  is  under  considenition, 
the  local  Entrincer  otticer  niav  be  associated  with  the 
Board  as  a  member  thereof,  if,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Chief  of  Eiurineers,  this  can  be  done  consistently  with 
his  other  duUes.  Two  :Members  of  the  Board  consti- 
tute a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business,  but  its 
final  decisions  in  imi>ortant  matters  must  be  sanctioned 
by  a  majoritv  of  its  members.  A  dissenting  member 
may  present  "his  views  or  project  through  the  Bojird 
to  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  with  drawings  and  esti- 
mates.    The  reports"  of  the  Board  are  made  to  the 


BOAKD  OF  EXAMINATION. 


20i 


BOARDS  OF  SURVEY, 


Chief  of  Engineers.  It  keeps  a  journal  of  its  proceed- 
ings, ami  on  the  first  day  of  «ich  month  reports  to 
liiin  the  movements  of  its  meraliers,  ami  a  lirief  state- 
ment of  the  i)eeupation  of  tlie  assembled  Board.  The 
Chief  of  Engineers  submits  all  important  reports  of 
the  Boiinl.  with  his  views  thereon,  to  the  Secretary  of 
War,  without  whose  sanction  no  important  work  can 
be  imdertaken. 

BOARD  OF  EXAMINATION.— A  Board  instituted  in 
the  Army  to  determine  upon  appointments  in  regi- 
ments, and  for  ap|K)iiitnHnls  and  promotion  in  the 
Metlieal  St:iff,  Engineer  Coqjs,  and  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment. All  meinl)ers  of  these  Boards  are  annj-  olli- 
cers. 

BOARD  OF  OFFICERS.— A  number  of  officers  as- 
sembled by  military  authority  for  the  transaction  of 
business. 

BOARD  OF  ORDNANCE.— A  Government  Depart- 
ment formerly  having  tlie  management  of  all  affairs 
relating  to  the  Artillery  and  Engineering  Corps,  and 
to  the  materiel  of  tlie  British  army.  Under  this  pre- 
cise designation,  the  Board  no  longer  exists;  a  change 
ha\ing  been  made  which  requires  brief  explanation. 
The  Board  existed  from  the  time  of  Henrj-  VIII.  un- 
til. 18.55,  when  it  was  abolishetl,  its  functions  being 
vested  in  the  Secretarj-  of  State  for  War  as  regarded 
materiel,  and  in  the  Commander-in-Chief  as  concerned 
the  military  command  of  the  Artillery  and  Engineers. 
The  Board  of  Ordnance  until  18.t4  comprised  the 
JIaster-general  of  the  Ordnance,  the  Survey or-gcnend, 
the  Clerk  of  the  Ordnance,  and  the  principal  Store- 
keeper, all  of  whom  were  usually  Members  of  Parlia- 
ment. There  was  no  chairman  at  the  meetings,  and 
the  Board  often  consisted  of  only  one  officer.  The 
Master-general  had  a  veto,  ami  was  in  that  respect 
more  powerful  than  the  chief  member  of  the  Board 
of  Admiralty;  although,  not  having  necessarily  a  seat 
in  the  Cabinet,  he  had  less  political  power.  The 
Board  days  were  thrice  a  week;  and  each  of  the  four 
members  had  control  over  certjiin  Departments — the 
patronage  of  which  was  generally  vested  in  him. 
Scarcely  any  improvements  were  made  from  1828  till 
1854,  aiid  the  general  arrangements  were  very  defec- 
tive. Of  the  four  members,  the  Master-general,  be- 
sides his  veto,  had  a  general  authority;  the  Surveyor- 
general  had  control  over  the  Artillery,  Engineers,  Sap- 
pers and  Miners,  Ordnance  Medical  Corps,  contracts, 
laboratory,  gunpowder,  barracks,  and  navy  gunners; 
the  Clerk  of  the  Ordnance  managed  the  estimates, 
moncy-arr.mgements,  ci\il  establishment,  pensions, 
superannuations,  and  ordnance  property;  while  the 
principal  Storekeeper  had  charge  of  stores,  store- 
rooms, naval  equipments,  and  naval  war-stores.  In 
matters  relating  to  coast-defenses  it  was  often  difficult 
to  decide  between  the  Admiralty  and  the  Ordnance, 
each  Board  claiming  authority.  When  the  Crimean 
disasters  took  place  in  18.54,  the  defects  of  the  Board 
of  (Ordnance  became  fully  apparent:  it  could  not  work 
harmoniously  with  the  other  Government  Depart- 
ments. The  Board  was  dissolved,  and  the  office  of 
3Iaster-general  abolished.  By  the  War  Office  Act  of 
1870  the  post  of  Survejor-gencral  of  the  Ordnance 
was  revived  as  one  of  the  principal  officers  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  for  War.  He  is  responsible  for  the 
miit-'riel  and  sujiplies  of  the  army.  See  Ordnance 
liiiiinl  and  Ordnnurc  Corps. 

BOARD  OF  VISITORS.— A  Board  apiiointed  by  Act 
of  Congress  approved  August  S,  184ti,  amended  by 
Acts  of  March  Ifi,  lH(i8,  and  February  21,  1870,  to  at- 
tend the  Annual  Examination  and  make  lui  annual  re- 
port on  the  condition  of  the  United  States  Military 
Academy.  It  consists  of  seven  jiersons  apiJointed  liy 
the  President  of  the  United  Stales,  two  Senaldrs  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  tlu!  Senate,  lUid  three 
Representatives  apiK)inted  by  the  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  An  annual  examination 
of  the  ela.sses,  preparatorj'  to  their  advancement,  shall 
commence  on  the  first  day  of  .June  (except  when  that 
day  comes  on  Sundaj'  or  Monday,  in  which  ca.se  it 
shall  commence  on  the  first  Tuesday),  at  which  lime 


the  Cadets  shall  l>e  examined  by  the  Academic  Board, 
or  its  Committees,  in  all  the  branches  of  study  and  in- 
struction through  which  they  have  pa.s.sed  in  the  pre- 
vious academic  year,  in  the  presence  of  the  Board  of 
Visitors,  or  such  members  as  ma.v  be  present. 

BOARDS  OF  SURVEY.— Boards  of  Survey  have  no 
power  to  comltmn  public  property.  They  are  ciiUed 
(mly  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  facts  or  opinions 
by  "which  ijuestions  of  administrative  responsibility 
may  Ix-  deternuned,  and  the  adjustment  of  accounts 
facilitated;  as,  for  example,  to  assess  the  amount  and 
kind  of  damage  or  deficiency  which  public  property 
may  have  sustained  from  any  extraordinary  cause, 
not"  ordinary  wear,  either  in  transit  or  in  store,  or  in 
actual  use,  whether  from  accident,  lumsual  wastage, 
or  otherwise,  and  to  set  forth  the  circumstances  lUid 
fix  the  responsibility  of  such  damage,  whether  on  the 
carrier,  or  the  person  accountable  for  the  property  or 
having  it  immediately  in  charge;  to  make  inventories 
of  property  onlered  to  be  abandoned,  when  the  arti- 
cles have  not  lieen  enumenited  in  the  orders;  to  as.sc.ss 
the  prices  at  which  damaged  clothing  may  be  i-ssued 
to  troops,  and  the  proportion  in  which  supplies  shall 
be  issued  in  consequence  of  damage  that  renders 
them  at  the  usual  rate  vmequal  to  the  allowance 
which  the  regulations  contemplate:  to  verify  the  dis- 
crepancy between  the  invoices  and  the  actual  quan- 
tity or  description  of  projierty  tran.sferred  from  one 
otflcer  to  another,  and  ascertain,  as  far  as  po.ssible, 
where  and  how  the  discrepancy  has  occurred — 
whether  in  the  hands  of  the  carrier  or  the  officer 
making  the  transfer:  and  to  make  inventories,  and 
report  on  the  condition  of  public  property  in  the  pos- 
session of  officers  at  the  time  of  their  death.  In  no 
case,  however,  iloes  the  report  of  the  Board  supersede 
the  depositions  which  the  law  requires  with  reference 
to  deficiencies  and  damage. 

It  is  required  that  Boards  of  Survey  shall /«%  in- 
reitigaU  the  subject  of  losses  submitted  to  them;  that 
they  shall  call  for  all  e\idence  attainable  without  lim- 
iting their  inquiry  to  that  submitted  by  the  party  or 
parties  at  interest";  that  they  shall  scrutinize  rigidly 
the  evidence,  especially  in  the  matter  of  propert}'  al- 
leged to  have  been  stolen  or  embezzled  by  deserters- 
or  others;  and  that  they  shall  recommend  no  officer 
or  soldier  to  be  relieved  from  responsibility  for  prop- 
ert.y  till  the  proof  shall  be  clear  and  conclusive  that 
he  has  given  it  his  watchful  attention,  and  fully  per- 
fonned  his  duty  in  regard  to  it.  In  order  to  relieve 
an  officer  from  liability  on  account  of  public  property 
which  has  become  damaged,  excejit  by  fair  wear  and 
tear,  or  which  is  believed  to  be  unsuitable  for  the  ser- 
\ice,  it  shall,  before  being  submitted  to  an  Inspector 
for  condemnation,  be  examined  by  a  Board  of  Sur- 
vey. Exceptions  will  be  made  in  cases  of  animals  or 
other  public  property  infected  with  conta.aious  dis- 
ease, which  may  be  summarily  disposed  of  by  order 
of  a  Commanding  Otiicer.  One  cojiy  of  the  i>roceed- 
iugs  of  the  Board  will  accompany  the  inventory  and 
inspection  report  which  is  transmitted,  as  a  voucher, 
with  tlie  accounts  and  returns  of  the  otiicer  responsi- 
ble for  the  pro|)erty.  Another  copy  of  the  proceed- 
inirs  of  the  Hoard  and  of  the  inventory  aud  inspection 
re|)ort  will  be  tiled  with  his  retained  ]ia]xrs. 

Boards  of  Survey  are  not  conveiu'd  by  any  other 
than  the  Commanding  Officer  present.  They  are 
composed  of  as  many  officers,  not  exceeding  three,  as 
may  be  pri'sent  for  duly,  exclusive  of  the  Command- 
ing Officer,  and  the  otlieer  responsible  in  the  matter 
to  be  reported  on.  In  ca.se  the  two  latter  only  are 
present,  then  the  one  not  responsible  will  perform  the 
duties.  When  the  resi)oiisil)le  oflicer  is  the  only  offi- 
cer at  a  post,  he  will,  instead  of  constituting  himself 
a  Board,  furni.sh  his  own  certificate  of  the  facts  of 
the  case,  accompanied  by  allidavits  of  Non-commis- 
sioned Officers  at  the  post  cognizant  thereof.  If  this 
should  not  be  satisfactory,  the  Department  Com- 
mander, upon  notification,  may  send  an  Inspector  to 
make  the  necessary  reiiort.  iJeither  the  Commander 
nor  any  member  of  the  Board  shoidd  be  parties  in- 


BOAB'S  HEAD  OSDEE  OF  BATTLE. 


203 


BODKIH. 


terested  in  the  matter  to  be  investlpited.  A  Board 
of  Survey  has  no  legiil  power  to  swear  either  itself, 
its  member>>,  or  witnesses  before  it. 

BOAR'S  HEAD  OEDEE  OF  BATTLE.— Among  the 
orders  of  battles  among  the  ancients,  that  known  as 
the  wtdge,  or  boar's  head,  is  the  most  celebrated.  In 
this  disposition,  the  point,  or  head,  Ls  formed  of  a  sub- 
division of  the  phalanx  of  greater  or  less  strength, 
according  to  circumstances;  this  being  supported  by 
two,  three,  and  four  subdivisions  of  the  same  force, 
one  behind  another.     See  Order  of  Batik. 

BOAT.— A  small  open  vessel  ascd  in  military  op- 
erations for  crossing  rivers,  and  for  forming  pontons, 
flying-bridges,  etc.  When  the  serNaces  of  a  bridge 
rof  boats  is  dispensed  with,  i.e.,  no  longer  required 
fby  the  army,  thel)oats  should  be  broken  up,  to  prevent 
their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

BOAT-BEIDGE.— A  boat-bridge  consists  of  a  track 
laid  on  a  number  of  lx>ats  anchoreil  parallel  in  the 
stream,  or  moored  to  ropes  or  chains  which  pass  from 
bank  to  bank.  The  bridge  thrown  across  the  Helles- 
pont by  Xerxes  when  he  invaded  Greece,  480  B.C., 
had  a  length  of  500  paces,  and  was  supported  on 
ships  used  nupmUnM.  Suspension-cables  of  flax  and 
biblos  united  the  ships;  transverse  beams  were  laid 
on  the  cables;  the  beams  supported  planks  and  earth, 
and  the  army  marched  across,  bag  and  baggage. 
Many  years  after,  there  appears  to  have  been  a  more 
pemianent  construction  of  this  nature  in  the  same 
vicinity.  At  Abydos  is  the  Zeugma,  a  bridge  of 
boats  which  could  be  unfixed  at  pleasure  for  the  pas- 
sage of  vessels.  Cyrus,  according  to  Xenophon, 
crossed  the  Meander  on  a  bridge  supported  by  seven 
boats.  Bridges  of  boats  were  in  general  use  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  are  still  used  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe.  One  at  Stra.sburg  is  1300  feet  long.  Boat- 
bridges,  in  a  military  point  of  \-iew,  are  classed  as 
ponton-bridges,  the  pontons  or  bateaux  and  the  road- 
bed being  transported  on  wagons  with  inclined  plimes, 
and  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  machinery 
driven  by  water-wheels.  See  Bridges. 
BOB.— A  conoidally  shaped  piece  of  metal  sus- 
pended by  a  cord  attached  to  its 
upper  end,  and  used  for  deter- 
mining vertical  or,  in  connec- 
tion with  a  level  or  straight  edge, 
horizontal  lines.  It  is  indispen- 
sable in  engineering  operations, 
sighting  guns,  and  placing  vari- 
ous surseying  and  astronomical 
instruments  centrally  over  sta- 
I  tions  or  points  of  departure. 
The  dra\s'ing  shows  an  adjusta- 
ble plum-bob,  having  a  con- 
cealed reel,  B,  around  which  the 
cord,  /,  is  wound  by  turning  the 
milled  head,  K,  on  top.  The 
friction  upon  the  reel  within  will 
hold  the  bob  at  any  desired  point 
of  the  line.  See  Pendulum  and 
Plttntiftet. 

BOCCACCI.— A  peculiar  kind 
of  fire-arm  used  by  the  Italians. 
It  is  enlarged  towards  the  muz- 
zle in  the  shape  of  a  trumpet. 
.J-  .  ui  ™  „v  V,  .,  This  ffim  is  prineipallv  used, 
at  iiresent,  by  the  t  alabnaiis. 
BOCH  MAGAZnjE-CFUN.- Thisgun  belongs  to  that 
svstem  in  which  a  fixed  chamber  is  closed  by  a  bolt 
by  direct  action,  and  in  which  the  lock  is  concealed. 
The  stock  is  in  a  single  piece,  extending  nearly  to  the 
end  of  the  barrel,  and  secured  to  it  by  bands  held  in 
place  by  springs.  The  tang-screw  and  the  screw 
which  passes  into  the  leceiver' secure  the  latter  to  the 
stock.  The  trigger-guard  is  fastened  by  screws.  The 
receiver  has  two  lomritudinal  holes,  one  on  each  side. 
The  opening  on  the  left  side  is  for  the  ejection  of 
empty  shells,  and  the  one  on  the  right  side  is  for  the 
intro(luction  of  cartridges,  whether  used  as  a  maga- 
zine-gun or  as  a  single-loader.     The  latter  opening 


has  at  its  ends  two  projections,  which  fit  to  corre- 
sponding surfaces  on  the  magazine  when  the  latter  is 
attached.  The  receiver  Ls  perforated  at  its  rear  for 
the  reception  of  the  breechbolt.  The  latter  consists 
of  three  psirts,  viz.,  the  rear  piece  through  which  the 
firing-pin  pa.s.ses,  the  projection  of  the  pin  fitting  into 
a  cut;  the  locking-tube,  including  the  handle;  and 
the  bolt-head  or  body,  through  which  the  tiring-pin 
pa.s.ses,  and  which  supports  the  cartridge  at  the  instant 
of  fire. 

The  firing-pin  having  been  introduced  into  the  rear 
piece  is  then  pas.sed  through  the  firing-pin  spring; 
the  movable  shoulder  is  then,  bj'  sufficiently  com- 
pressing the  spring,  introduced  over  the  head  of  the 
pin,  and  by  giving  it  a  quarter  turn  is  retained  on  the 
pin  bearing  agains't  the  shoulders  of  the  latter.  The 
spring  is  then  held  compressed  between  the  ends  of 
the  rear  piece  and  the  movable  shoulder.  The  firing- 
jiin  and  spring  are  pa.ssed  through  the  locking-tube, 
and  then  through  the  bolt-head,  which  is  .screwed  to 
the  rear  piece.  The  locking-tube  has  two  projections 
which,  when  the  handle  of  the  bolt  is  turned  down  in 
the  receiver,  fit  into  two  recesses  in  the  latter,  and  the 
bolt  is  thereby  held  in  position.  When  the  handle  of 
the  bolt  is  turned  up  from  the  locked  position,  the 
curved  surface  of  a  cut  cams  back  the  tiring-pin  by 
means  of  a  projection  (which  slides  in  the  cut),  and 
the  latter  then  rests  in  a  notch  and  the  piece  is  cocked. 
When  the  handle  is  turned  down  the  cut  is  brought 
opposite  to  the  projection  which,  relea.sed  from  the 
notch,  is  held  by  the  nose  of  the  sear;  hence  the  firing- 
pin  cannot  reach  the  cartridge  until  the  bolt-handle  is 
turned  down,  and  accidental  explosions  are  therefore 
avoided.  The  bolt-head  canies  the  extractor,  which 
is  fastened  to  it  by  means  of  a  dovetail-lenon  which 
tits  into  a  recess  in  the  bolt-head.  The  bolt-head  is 
prevented  from  turning  bj-  a  projection  titling  into  a 
groove  in  the  receiver.  The  sear  is  notched  for  the 
nose  of  the  trigger.  The  sear-spring  is  attached  to 
the  under  side  of  the  tang  by  a  screw.  The  trigger 
when  pulled  releases  the  projection  of  the  firing-pin, 
and  the  cartridge  is  exploded.  The  extractor  hooks 
on  the  rim  of  the  cartridge  when  the  bolt  is  closed, 
and.  when  it  is  withdrawn,  throws  out  the  empty 
shell  through  the  hole  in  the  left  side  of  the  receiver 
by  deflecting  it  from  the  axis  of  the  chamlx'r.  The 
magazine  is  attached  to  the  right  side  of  the  receiver, 
and  is  operated  by  a  wheel  which,  when  a  cartridge 
is  to  be  introduced,  is  turned  so  that  a  cartridge  can 
drop  into  the  receiver,  when  the  bolt  pushes  it  well 
into  the  chamber.  The  magazine  holds  twentj-  car- 
tridges. 

In  another  pattern  of  the  Boch  gun  the  stock  is  in 
ts\o  parts,  the  butt  and  the  tip;  these  are  joined  to- 
gether and  to  the  barrel  by  a  band  which  passes 
around  the  ends  of  the  two  parts,  at  their  junction, 
and  the  barrel.  Another  band  fastens  the  front  end 
of  the  tip-.stock  to  the  banel.  In  the  right  side  of 
the  butt-stock  is  a  longitudinal  opening  coincident 
with  a  similar  one  in  the  receiver.  Through  this 
hole  cartridges  maj'  be  introduced  on  the  carrier. 
The  butt-stock  is  grooved  to  fit  the  barrel  and  cut 
through  for  the  receiver,  which  is  fastened  to  the 
stock  by  means  of  a  tang-screw,  passing  through  the 
stock  into  the  trigger-guard  plate.  The  butt-stock  is 
also  perforated  by  a  hole  continuous  with  one  in  the 
tip-stock,  through  which  the  magazine-tube  pa.sses, 
the  latter  being  fastened  to  the  receiver  by  a  scTew- 
thread.  This  gun  carries  nine  cartridges  in  the  mag- 
azine and  one  in  the  chamber.  As  a  magazine-gun, 
three  motions  are  neces-siirj-  to  operate  it,  viz.,  opened, 
closed,  fired;  as  a  single-loader,  four  motions,  viz., 
opened,  loaded,  closed,  tired.     See  Magaziiie-gini. 

BODKIN. — Anciently  a  dagger.  The  bodkin  was 
used  by  women  of  antiquity  to  fasten  up  tlioir  liair 
behind.  It  was  the  method  commonly  adopted  by 
the  prie-sts  of  Cybele,  as  well  as  bv  the  female  char- 
acters in  Greek  tragedy,  the  botlkin  Iteing  highly 
ornamented.  Silver  twilkins  are  still  worn  in  a  simi- 
lar way  by  the  peasant-girls  of  Naples.     The  term 


BOOT. 


204 


BOILEB. 


bodkin  is  also  applied  to  a  sharp-pointetl  instniment 
for  picrcitifr  holes  iii  cloth,  iiiid  it  was  at  one  time  a 
very  (■oiniiioii  luune  (ov  a  <l:ii;;cr. 

BODY.— 1.  lu  tlie  iiomeiulature  of  modern  ord- 
natiee.  the  part  of  the  jiieee  in  rear  of  the  trunnions. 
2.  In  the  Art  of  War,  a  number  of  forces,  horse  or 
foot,  united  and  niarchiii!:  under  one  commander.  3. 
Tliat  portion  of  a  carriaire,  including  framing  and 
boarding,  whicli  forms  the  rcceiitacle  for  conveyance 
of  stores.  The  frame  of  the  IxKly  generally  consists 
of  two  frame  sides,  a  front  and  hind  earlxui,  and  two 
or  more  summers.  4.  That  portion  of  the  axletree 
between  the  a.xletrcearms. 

BODY-GUARD.— A  guard  designed  to  protect  or 
defend  the  person;  a  lite-guard. 

BODY  OF  THE  PLACE.— The  enceinte  of  a  fort- 
ress, or  main  line  i<'i  liaslions  and  curtains,  as  distin- 
guished from  outworks. 

BEOTIAN  HELM.— An  ancient  and  favorite  head- 
covering.  It  was  made  deej),  with  neck  and  cheek- 
guards,  the  whole  being  wrought  into  a  solid  mass, 
which  would  cover  and  effectually  protect  the  wearer 
from  the  shoulders  ui>wards. 

BOGHEAD  COAL.— Bituminous  coal  of  Scotland, 
more  valualile  for  making  g-as  than  for  fuel.  Named 
from  the  chief  place  of  deposit,  Boghead,  Linlith- 
gowshire. 

BOG  IBON-OBE. — A  mineral  of  very  variable  com- 
position, but  regarded  as  consisting  essentially  of  per- 
o.xide  of  iron  and  water;  the  peroxide  of  iron  often 
amounts  to  about  60  per  cent,  the  water  to  about  20. 
Phosphoric  acid  is  usually  present  in  quantities  vary- 
ing from  2  to  11  per  cent.  Silicic  acid,  alumina,  oxide 
of  manganese,  and  other  substances,  which  seem  ac- 
cidentally present,  make  up  the  rest.  Bog  iron-ore 
occurs  chiefly  in  alluvial  soils,  in  bogs,  meadows, 
lakes,  etc.  It  is  of  a  brown,  yellowish-brown,  or 
blackish-brown  color.  Some  of  its  varieties  are  earthy 
and  friable,  formed  of  dull  dusty  particles;  some  arc 
in  mas-ses  of  an  earthy  fracture,  often  vesicular;  and 
some  more  compact,  with  conehoidal  fracture.  It  is 
abundant  in  .some  of  the  northern  and  western  islands 
of  Scotland,  and  in  the  northern  countries  of  Europe 
generally;  also  in  North  America.  When  smelted  it 
yields  good  iron.  From  what  source  the  iron  in  bog 
iron-ore  is  derived  has  often  been  a  subject  of  dis- 
cussion; but  Ehrenberg  appears  to  have  determined 
that  it  proceeds  from  the  shields  of  animalcules,  and 
he  regards  the  mineral  itself  as  composed  of  inealcu- 
lal)le  multitudes  of  these  shields.  He  found  in  the 
marshes  about  Berlin  a  substance  of  a  deep  ochre- 
yellow  passing  into  red„whieh  covered  the  bottom  of 
the  ditches,  and  which,  when  it  had  become  dry  after 
the  evaporation  of  the  water,  appeared  exactly  like 
oxide  of  iron  ;  but  which  iniiler  the  microscope  was 
found  to  consist  of  slender  articulated  threads,  formed 
of  the  partly  silicious  and  partly  ferruginous  shields 
of  OnillDiii  Hit  ferruf/i)iea. 

BOG-SPAVIN. — This  singular  name  has  been  ap- 
plied to  a  lesion  of  the  hock-joint  of  the  horse,  con- 
sisting in  distension  of  the  capsule inclo-^ing  the  joint. 
It  usually  arises  suddenly  from  a  sprain  in  action.  It 
most  conmionly  affects  young  horses  with  defective 
hocks,  and  is  a.ssociated  with  other  indications  of 
weakness  of  the  injured  joint. 

%;»;jtoH(«.— As  the  immediate  result  of  a  violent 
sprain,  the  hock  becomes  swollen,  hot,  and  tender, 
and  there  is  considerable  huneness.  The  acute  symp- 
toms subside  readily,  but  a  circumscribed  swelling 
remains  towards  the  front,  inner,  and  lower  jiart  of 
the  joint.  The  swelling  is  soft,  partlv  disapiiears  on 
pressure  if  tJie  joint  is  moved;  biit  on  the  horse 
standing  tirmly  on  its  liml)s,  the  projection  is  dis- 
tinctly Wsible.  At  every  recurring  strain  lameness 
supervenes,  but  commonly  passes  off  within  a  short 
time.  If  the  bog-spavin  has  accidentally  occurred  in 
a  yoimg  horse  with  good  hocks,  it  may  never  be  at- 
tcmU'd  with  inconvenience,  and  the  acute  symptoms 
mentioned  do  not  relapse. 

Treatment.— The  treatment  of  bog-spavin  consists 


in  the  apjilication  of  stimidating  embrocations,  or 
mild  blisters,  in  the  early  stage;  in  severe  cases  the 
golden  ointment  of  iodine  is  the  best  application;  but 
we  can  oidy  obtain  a  reduction  in  the  inflammatory 
symptoms, "and  disappearance  of  the  lamenes.s.  The 
capsular  ligament  which  is  injured  is  never  again 
completely  restored,  and  the  horse  is  more  or  less 
blemished  for  life.     See  Vittrinury  Art. 

BOILER. — The  name  given  to  a  vcs.sel  in  which 
steam,  usually  for  a  steam-engine,  is  generated.  In 
its  simplest  form  it  consists  of  a  close  vessel  made  of 
metal  plate,  having  ajiertures  for  the  admission  of 
water  and  egress  of  steam,  fitted  with  apjiaratus  for 
showing  the  level  of  the  water  and  the  pressure  of 
the  steam,  and  in  connection  with  a  furnace,  either 
internal  or  external.  A\'hen  water  is  boiled  in  an 
oiX'ii  linn,  the  temperature  of  the  water  and  of  the 
steam  rising  from  it  remains  at  or  very  near  212  F., 
and  the  tension  or  pressure  of  the  steam  is  no  more 
than  sufficient  to  make  its  way  into  the  atmosphere, 
being  exactly  equal  to  that  exerted  in  all  directions 
by  the  atmosphere  it.self — namely,  14.7  lbs.  per 
square  in(h.  In  a  close  vessel,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  temiieiuture  and  pressure  to  which  we  can  raise 
the  .steam  are  only  limited  by  the  strength  of  the 
ve.s.sel  or  boiler  against  bursting.  The  form  of  a 
boiler  is  determined  by  two  considerations — namely, 
strength  to  withstand  internal  pressure,  and  efficiency 
in  producing  steam;  and  the  object  of  the  designer  is 
to  combine  in  one  apparatus  sufficient  strength  to 
work  safely  at  the  proposed  pressure,  with  such  a 
form  and  aiTangement  as  shall  alistract  the  maxi- 
mum of  heat  from  the  gases  of  condiustion,  and 
at  the  same  time  be  in  all  respects  suitable  to  the 
special  circumstances  of  the  case.  The  globular 
fomi  is  that  best  adapted  for  strength,  and  was  the 
earliest  to  be  used.  It  presents  to  the  fire,  however, 
the  minimtun  area  in  proportion  to  its  contents,  and 
therefore  has  a  minimum  efficiency.  After  spherical 
boildcrs,  cylindrical  ones  came  into  use,  at  first  set  on 
end,  and  afterwards  laid  on  their  sides,  and  later  on 
these  were  furnished  with  internal  cylindrical  tubes 
for  furnaces.  Watt's  "  wagon-lxiiler"  (so  called  from 
its  shape)  was  used  for  many  years,  but,  being  quite 
unfit  for  any  but  the  lowest  pressures,  it  has  long 
been  discarded;  anil  the  "  egg-end  "  boiler,  or  plain 
cylinder  with  hemispherical  ends,  also  much  used  at 
one  time,  has  now  almost  disappeared  on  account  of 
its  small  eva]iorative  efficiency.  At  present  it  is 
quite  common  to  use  a  working  steam-pressure  of  50 
lbs.  per  square  inch  in  ordinary  factory  boilers,  and 
in  some  cases  this  is  already  greatly  exceeded,  whUe 
the  tendency  to  use  higher  pressures  seems  to  grow 
yearly.  Under  these  ])ressures,  the  oidy  foniis  of 
boiler  which  can  be  used  without  heavy  and  ex- 
pensive internal  stays  to  prevent  the  danger  of  burst- 
ing are  the  globular  and  the  cylindrical.  The 
former  shajx'  is  rejected  for  the  reason  already  given, 
and  the  latter  form  is  used  almost  invariably  in  the 
construction  of  modern  boilers,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  examples  given  below.  The  ends  of  the  cylin- 
ders, when  it  is  necessary  to  make  them  flat,  nmst, 
of  course,  be  strengthened  by  stays.  Boilers  may 
be  classified  in  several  ways — as  (1)  horizontal  and 
vertical;  (>')  internally  and  externally  tired;  and  (3) 
plain  multitubular,  and  tubulous.  Large  boilers  are 
almost  iinariably  horizontal,  but  small  vertical  boilers 
are  often  used.  They  aie  I'mployed  in  steam-cranes 
anil  other  situations  where  great  length  would  be  an 
inconvenience,  and  often  in  traction-engines,  where 
steep  inclines  have  to  be  traversed,  and  where,  if  a 
locomotive-boiler  were  ii.sed,  one  or  the  other  end 
of  its  tubes  might  become  uncovered  and  so  get 
burned.  In  Great  Britain,  when  moderately  good 
fuel  is  used,  boilers  with  an  internal  furnace  are 
generally  i)refeiTeil;  but  in  America  the  conunon 
brown  coal  is  much  inferior  to  Engli.sh  fuel,  and  a 
corresiiondingly  larger  quantity  of  it  nuist  be  used  to 
generate  a  given  volume  of  steam.  As  the  .size  of  a 
furnace  lunits  the  fuel  which  it  can  burn,  this  fre- 


UoiLKiis.  1.  Coninioii  stettiii  boiU-r  nnd  flre-hox.  2.  Thomson's  vertical  t,.hular  Ix.iler.  .i.  MUle 
..  Co.m.1,,1,  liorizonml  l.ihnlar  boil,.,-.  R.  Coinmoi.  Coiriwnll  lu.ilrr.  9.  Hairisoi.-s  stt»ai 
lubiilar  b,.,|^r.    12.  Claik-s  .•o..,p..ui,.l  stvani-boiier.    i:).  Fit-ld'.s  steam  boiler.     14.  Section. 

1  ,^"'"""'""^'"""'8 apparatus  and  ebaiu-lieater.     19.  Georges screw-heater aud  smoke-COOM 


ar  boiler     4   Jordan's  tubular  boiler.    5.  Belleville's  tubular  boiler.    0.  Couimon  vertical  tubular  boiler, 
of  castimu  spherical  shells).     10.  C-omu.on  steam-boiler  with  outer  fire-box.     11.  Howanl  s  casliroti 
ubes.    )5.  Uells  cast-iron  t.ibular  boiler.    16.  17.  Prideaux's   smoke-consumer  or  flre-door.     IS.  Jukes 
's  smoke-consumer  and  sectional-heater. 


SOILING  POINT. 


205 


B0LTCUTTEE8. 


quently  involves  having  a  much  larger  grate  than 
could  be  conveniently  arranged  inside  the  boiler,  and 
on  this  and  other  accounts  boilers  are  more  frequent- 
ly externally  fired.     See  Furnace. 

BOILING-POINT.— When  heat  is  applied  to  a  vessel 
containing  water,  the  temperature  gradually  rises, 
and  vapor  comes  silently  off  the  surface;  but  at  a 
certain  degree  of  heat  steam  iK'gins  to  be  formed  in 
small  explosive  bursts  at  the  bottom,  and  rising 
through  the  liquid  in  considerable  bubl)les,  throws  il 
into  commotion.  If,  after  this,  the  steam  is  allowed 
freely  to  escape,  the  temperature  of  the  water  rises  no 
higher,  however  great  the  heat  of  the  tire.  The 
water  is  then  said  to  boil,  and  the  temperature  at 
which  it  remains  permanent  is  its  binliny-point.  The 
boiling-point  of  water  is  ordinarily  212  ;  but  every 
liquid  has  a  point  of  its  own.  Thus,  suliihuric 
ether  boils  at  96°;  alcohol,  at  176°;  oil  of  turpentine, 
at  316";  sulphuric  acid,  at  620;  and  mercury,  at  662'. 
The  boiling-point  of  liquids  is  constant  under  the 
same  conditions,  but  is  liable  to  be  altered  by  various 
circumstances.  For  example,  water  with  common 
salt  in  it  requires  greater  heat  to  make  it  boil  than 
pure  water.  The  nature  of  the  vessel,  too,  exerts  an 
influence;  in  a  glass  vessel  the  boiling-point  of  water 
is  a  degree  or  two  higher  than  in  one  of  metal,  owing 
to  the  greater  attraction  between  water  and  glass  than 
between  water  and  a  metal.  But  what  most  affects 
the  boiling-point  is  variation  of  pressure.  It  is  only 
when  the  barometer  stands  at  30  inches,  showing  an 
atmospheric  pressure  of  15  lbs.  on  the  square  inch, 
that  the  boiling-point  of  water  is  212\  When  the 
barometer  falls,  or  when  part  of  the  pressure  is  in 
any  other  way  removed,  it  boils  before  coming  to 
212%  and  wheu  the  pressure  is  increased  the  boiling- 
point  rises.  Thus,  in  elevated  positions,  where  there 
is  less  air  above  the  liquid  to  press  on  its  surface,  the 
boiling-point  is  lower  than  at  the  level  of  the  sea. 
An  elevation  of  510  feet  above  the  sea-level  makes  a 
diminution  of  a  degree;  at  higher  levels,  the  differ- 
ence of  elevation  corresponding  to  a  degree  of  tem- 
perature in  the  boiling-point  increases;  but  the  rate 
of  variation  once  ascertained,  a  method  is  thus  fur- 
nished of  measuring  the  heights  of  mountains.  At 
the  city  of  Mexico,  7000  feet  above  the  sea,  water 
boils  at  200  ;  at  Quito,  9000  feet,  at  194';  and  on 
Donkia  Mountain,  iu  the  Himalayas,  at  the  height  of 
18,000  feet.  Dr.  Hooker  found  it  to  boil  at  180'. 
Boiling  water  is  thus  not  always  equally  hot,  and  in 
elevated  places  many  substances  cannot  be  cooked 
by  boiling.  Under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump  the 
same  effect  is  still  more  strikingly  seen;  water  may 
be  made  to  boil  at  the  temperature  of  summer,  and 
ether  when  colder  than  ice.  In  complete  vacuo, 
liquids,  in  general,  boil  at  a  temperature  140'  lower 
than  in  the  open  air.  The  knowledge  of  this  effect 
of  diminished  pressure  is  now  largely  turned  to 
account  in  sugar-boiling,  in  distilling  vegetable  es- 
sences, and  in  other  proces.scs  where  the  substances 
are  apt  to  be  injured  bj-  a  high  temperature. 

BOLA. — A  loiig  strong  cord,  or  small  rope,  having 
a  stone  or  a  ball  of  metal  fixed  at  one  end;  or,  some- 
times, it  consists  of  two  such  cords,  each  provided 
with  a  stone  or  ball.  The  cords  being  secured  by 
their  other  ends  to  the  person,  he  whirls  the  two  balls 
rapidly,  and  with  great  adroitness,  about  his  head, 
and  then  discharging  them  at  the  object,  strikes  it 
as  with  a  blow  from  a  flexible  club.  Such  a  blow 
takes  effect  with  great  violence.  The  management 
of  the  bola  requires  long  practice  and  no  ordinary 
skill. 

BOLADE.— An  ancient  weapon  of  the  shape  of  a 
mace.     Now  little  used. 

BOLAND  KNAPSACK.— This  knapsack  is  made  up 
as  follows:  The  body  is  made  of  water-proof  materi- 
al, 14i  inches  square  by  4  inches  deep  for  the  largest- 
sized  men.  The  sides  are  made  of  sole-leather  and 
have  the  neces.sary  stiffness.  Stay-straps  pass  entirely 
around  the  knapsack-lwx  proper,  and  side-straps  arc 
provided  to  secure  the  blanket  when  rolled.    The 


shoulder-straps  arc  secured  by  buckle  on  one,  and 
hook  and  loops  on  the  other.  The  blanket  is  carried 
rolled,  and  secured  to  three  sides  of  the  knapsack; 
overcoat  on  top. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  knapsack  are  that 
the  weight  carried  is  more  equally  distributed;  that  it 
is  kept  clo.se  to  and  inside  the  Ime  of  gravity  of  the 
carrier,  and  is  well  up  and  retained  close  to  the  sho\d- 
ders.  The  knapsacks  arc  made  of  four  sizes  for  dif- 
ferent-sized clothing. 

BOLAS. — A  form  of  missile  used  by  the  Paraguay 
Indians,  the  Patagonians,  and  the  Esquimaux.  The 
Putagouians  have  several  varieties.  That  ased  in  war 
consists  of  a  single  ball  of  hardened  clay  or  rounded 
stone,  weighing  about  a  pound,  and  fastened  to  a  stout 
rope  of  sinew  or  skin.  This  they  sometimes  throw  at 
their  adversary,  rope  and  all,  butgenerally  they  prefer 
to  strike  his  head  with  it,  like  a  slungshot.  That  used 
by  the  hunters  in  capturing  wild  cattle  con.sists  of  two 
leather  balls,  covered  and  united  by  a  narrow  but  stout 
thong.  The  cattle  hunter  holding  one  ball  swings  the 
other  around  his  head  until  proper  momentum  is 
gained,  and  then  launches  the  lx)las  at  the  legs  of  the 
animal,  which  it  instantly  ties  together,  rendering  him 
helple.ss.  It  is  said  that  the  natives  can  use  the  bolas 
effectually  at  80  yards.  The  bolas  of  the  Esquimaux 
consists  of  a  number  of  walrus-teeth  attached  to  the 
ends  of  strings  whose  other  ends  are  united  into  a 
knot. 

BOLLASS. — Large  posts  driven  into  the  ground  to 
which  hawsers  or  cables  of  any  sort  can  be  made  fast. 
They  are  recommended  to  be  provided  at  the  tops  of 
ramps,  or  in  narrow  passages,  and  in  masonry-works. 

BOLSTEBS. — Strong  stout  bars  or  beams  fastened 
across  the  under  portion  of  the  frame  of  a  wagon- 
body,  or  across  the  f  utchclls  of  the  fore-carriage.  Their 
functions  are  varioas;  sometimes  they  are  added  to 
give  strength  and  rigidity  to  the  structure,  sometimes 
to  raise  its  height  above  the  axletree,  and  sometimes 
to  form  a  convenient  attachment  for  springs  or  other 
necessaiy  iron- work.  The  term  bolster  is  also  applied 
as  follows:  The  lower  part  of  the  check  of  a  gun-car- 
riage. The  iron  collar  in  which  a  gun  turns  in  the 
boring-ljench.  Tlie  quoin  or  wooden  bolster  by  which 
a  mortar  is  raised  in  its  Ix'd. 

BOLT. — 1.  A  pointed  .shaft  or  missile  intended  to 
be  shot  from  a  cross-bow  or  catapult.  2.  An  elonga- 
ted solid  projectile  for  rifled  cannon,  as  the  Whitworth 
and  Armstrong  guns.     See  Bolt*. 

BOLT-CUTTEES. — In  these  most  valuable  machines 
for  the  arsenal,  the  bolts  arc  generally  cut  as  with 
solid  dies,  at  one  operation,  the  dies  opening  under 
cut  when  the  work  is  done,  and  in  releasing  the  lx)lt 
remove  all  trace  of  the  chip  made  by  the  cutting- 
tools.  On  the  back  of  the  large  driving-wheel  (Fig.  1), 
is  an  index  or  pointer,  which  must  be  set  to  nunilwrs 
given  on  a  card  furnished  with  each  machine.  When 
so  set,  the  bolt  will  fit  a  nut  of  corresponding  size  cut 
with  the  tap  sent  with  machine.  An  adjustment  of 
the  index,  one  way  or  the  other,  will  cause  the  bolt 
cut  to  be  larger  or  smaller,  thus  jiermitting  the  thread 
to  be  adapted  to  the  u.se  required  of  it,  and  also  [icr- 
mitting  an  adjustment  of  ilies  to  compensate  for  wear. 
Some  important  improvements  have  recently  been 
made  in  this  machine,  viz. :  A  change  in  the  mode 
of  driving  renders  it  possible  to  run  tliem  at  a  higher 
speed,  and  a  novel  oil -feeding  device  supplies  the 
oil  to  the  back  of  the  dies,  whence  flovring  out  it 
thoroughly  lubricates  the  cutters  and  the  bolt -end, 
and  washes  out  the  chips  as  they  are  cut  from  the 
bolt.  A  regulating  cock  in  the  fwd-pipe  directs  the 
oil  either  to  the  dies  as  above  stated,  or  to  the  tap 
when  the  machine  is  used  as  a  nut  •  tapper.  The 
machines  arc  constructed  with  four  dies  in  the  die- 
box.  These  dies  are  equally  spaced,  and  each  pair 
has  one  die  diametrically  opposite  to  the  other  one  of 
the  pair.  This  arrangement  insures  accurate  work, 
ina.smuch  as  the  opposite  dies  calliper  the  bolt  while 
being  cut,  thus  making  the  bolt  round  and  to  gauge. 
Added  to  this  a  conveuicDt  adjustable  stop-motion  is 


BOLT-CUTTEBS. 


206 


BOLTCUTTEES. 


provided  whereby  the  dies  are  opened  automatically 
when  :\  given  length  of  thread  has  lieen  cut.  These 
improvements  have  adiliil  greatly  to  the  value  of 
this  imjHjrIiuit  lix)l,  which  is  made  and  used  ex- 
tensively in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  and 
is  believed    to    have    no  equal    in    durability    and 


Fig.  1. 

efficiency.  The  counter-shafts  are  made  with  two 
loose  pulleys,  one  on  each  side  of  a  fast  one,  so 
that  open  and  cross  belts  can  be  used  to  run  the 
machine  backwards  as  well  as  forwards.  This  run- 
ning backwards  is  only  of  use  in  recutting  dies  or 
cutting  left-handed  screws.  To  sharpen  the  dies, 
they  must  be  softened,  and  then  recut  with  hobs  which 
are  specially  made  for  this  purpose.  The  hobs  are 
guided  in  recutting  dies  by  collars  fitting  in  a  hollow 
sleeve,  which  guide  a  prolongation  of  one  end  of  the 
hob,  while  the  other  end  is  steadied  in  the  clamp 
for  holding  the  l)olts  to  l>e  cut.  This  insures  Jier- 
fect  concentricity  to  the  dies.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  in  the  use  of  Ixjlt-cutters  oil  should 
be  freely  used  upon  the  work.  This  on  the  new- 
style  machine  is  accomplished  by  the  automatic 
feed;  and  the  oil  used  should  be  animal,  not  from 
coal.  The  commomst  lard  or  fish  oil  will  answer 
a  good  purpose.  Fig.  1  represents  the  Sellers  |- 
inch  size  of  machine  intended  to  cut  from  i  to 
J  inch.  This  size  is  admirably  adapted  to  cut  set- 
screws  and  small  bolts.  In  using  it  with  set-.screws 
it  is  well  to  arrange  a  socket -wrench  to  l)c  clamped 
in  the  bolt-holder,  the  head  of  the  set-screw  fitting 
the  socket  loosely.  By  the  use  of  such  a  de\-ice 
the  twits  can  be  .set  and  removed  more  rajiidly 
than  when  each  one  liiis  to  be  clamped  in  the  lioli- 
holder.  This  machine  has  been  nm  at  the  rate 
of  28()0  bolts  in  ten  hours  on  J-inch  bfOts  threaded 
two  inches  in  length,  but  this  rate  is  not  econom- 
ical, iniusmuch  as  the  excessive  speed  is  too  hard 
on  the  dies.  The  countershaft  should  be  speeded 
to  2(t0  revolutions  per  minute;  the  speed  on  the 
dies  of  the  fastest  and  the  slowest  speeds  will  then 
be  at  the  rate  of  13  feet  circumferential  motion 
per  minute  on  }-inch  and  on  5-inch  bolts.  The  j-inch 
bolt,  ha\ing  ten  threads  per  inch,  will  be  threaded 
at  the  rate  of  six  inches  in  length  of  bolt  per  mimite, 
and  if  the  thn'ad  l)c  U  inches  long,  at  the  rate  of  four 
per  minute,  exclusive  of  the  time  consumed  in  i)Ut- 
ting  in  and  talking  out  the  bolts;  one  man  can  at 


this  rate  very  well  run  two  machines  cutting  from 
1500  to  1800  J-inch  liolts  on  each  machine. 

The  Babbitt  bolt  cutter  will  cut  screw-threads  in 
nuts  and  on  l)olts  by  once  passing  over  them,  cutting 
the  standard  imnibi'r  of  threads  to  the  inch  on  all  the 
sizes,  and  making  as  great  uniformity  in  the  fits 
between  the  nuts  and  bolts  as  can  be 
desired.  The  great  advantage  of  this 
machine  consists  in  the  facility  and 
ea.se  in  changing  dies.  No  backing  off 
is  required.  This  Siives  nearly  one 
half  the  tinie*required  to  do  the"  work 
over  the  solid  die.  There  is  no  danger 
of  tearing  off  the  thread  or  injuring 
the  die  in  breaking  off.  A  solid  die 
soon  wears  a  little,  and  the  tap  the 
same.  The  result  is  that  the  bolt  will 
not  enter  the  imt  without  a  wrench,  if 
at  all,  and  a  new  tap  or  die  has  to  l)e 
made.  This  machine,  if  projxjrly  ad- 
justed, will  cut  a  complete  thread, 
and  reduce  the  bolt  to  suit  the  tap, 
however  much  it  may  be  woni.  It  is 
much  praisi'd  for  its  practical  effi- 
ciency and  economy  in  running,  as 
well  as  adaptation  to  all  kinds  of 
work  in  the  armorj-.  The  counter- 
shaft has  pulleys  fourteen  inches  di- 
ameter ami  four  inches  face.  Should 
nm  one  hundred  and  fifty  revolu- 
tions. 

The  open-die  machine  made  by  the 
Pratt  and  Whitney  Company  is  a  very 
superior  one.  Instant  ielca.sc  of  the 
bolt  when  threaded,  without  running 
back  through  the  dies,  is  a  peculiarity 
__^J2ZZ1!1_^  of  tli's  machine.  The  die-head  is 
constructed  to  receive  finished  blocks 
or  cases,  with  inserted  chasers,  form- 
ing the  dies,  thus  doing  away  with  the  labor  of 
fitting  each  die  or  chaser  to  tlie  head.  The  cha- 
sers, four  in  number,  in  simpler  form,  are  phmed 
or  fitted  to  cases  with  a  file,  from  pieces  of  flat 
steel,  averaging  U  inches  in  length  and  ^^  inch 
in  thickness,  threaded  in  the  machine  by  liobs  or 
master-taps  and  set  forward  bj-  a  screw  in  the  end 
of  each  case  for  dres.sing  when  the  thread  is  worn 
out.  Broken  or  damaged  chasers  can  be  replaced 
by  duplicates  at  little  expense.  The  adjustment 
of  dies  to  the  proper  diameter  is  accomplished  by 


Fio.  s. 

merely  turning  a  screw  in  the  front  of  the  head. 
The  die-head  can  l)e  quickly  stripj)cd  without  re- 
mo\-ing  it  from  the  machine.  One  .set  of  ca.se-<lies 
can  be  removed  and  another  inserted  in  the  head  in 
less  than  one  minute  by  changing  a  stop-pin,  project- 
ing from  the  sleeve,  from  its  position  when  the  ma- 


SOLTS. 


207 


BOLTS. 


remov- 


chine  is  working,  to  a  point  opposite  a  hole  in  the 
flange  at  the  rear  of  the  head,  then,  by  means  of 
the   lever,   pushing  the  sleeve  back  to  the  flange, 
uncovering  the  cases,  and   permitting  their  removal 
and   replacement  by   band.      The   machine   can  be 
quickly    converted    into    a   nut-tapper, 
ing  the  ease-dies  and  putting 
in  their  place  a  steel  block 
to  which  is  secured  a  uui\cr- 
sal   chuck  for  holding  taps 
that  is  furnished  willi  each 
single-head    machine    only. 
The  locking  de\ice  is  posi- 
tive   and   requires  but  one 
movement  of  the  lever,  by 
hand  or  automaticallj',  for 
unlocking  and  opening  the 
dies,  when  the  desired  length 
of  thread  has  been   cut,   or 
closing  and   locking.      The 
hollow  spindle  allows  a  piece 
to  be  threaded  any  length  de- 
sired.    The  machines  work 
rapidly,  the  bolt  being  cut 
to  a  full  thread  at  one  opera- 
tion.     The    die-blocks    are 
held  rigidly  by  the  inclosing 
sleeve  when  locked,  and  con- 
sequently cut  bolts  of  more 
uniform  diameter  than  is  the 
case    when    the    chasers  or 
cutters  can  spring  away  from 
the  bolt  when  cutting.     The 
arrangement  and  operation 
of  the  stop-pin  is  such  that 
a  longer  thread  cannot  be 
cut  on  a  bolt  than  is  permit- 
ted by  the  adjustment  of  the 
automatic  opening  apparatus 
when  the  latter  is  employed. 
Fig.  2  shows  a  small  hand 
bolt-cutter  adapted  for  light 
work  on  gun-carriages,  etc. 
It  is  mounted  on  legs,  and 
is  suitable  for  cutting  i-inch 
to  l^-inch  bolts  and  -J-    to 
2-inch  pipe.     The  crank  and 
socket  are  used  on  the  stud 
of  a  small  gear  to  cut  |  and 
larger  bolts,  and  upon  the 
spindle  of  the  machine  to  cut 
i-inch  and  smaller  bolts,  and 
to  back  the  die  quickly  off 
from  large  bolts  after  cutting, 
the  spindle  and  the  die  re- 
volving in  the  direction  that 
the  crank  is  turned.  Threads 
may    be    cut    a    length    of 
eighteen  inches  as  the  ma- 
chine is  usually  consti-ucted. 
Nine  taps  and  dies  are  fur- 
nished with  the  machine  to 
cut  threads  of  the  following 
sizes:  i,  13;  |,  11;  f,  10;  j, 
9;  1,  8;  U,  7;  U,   7;  If,  6; 
1+,  6.     Weight  of  machine, 
with    tap-chuck,   nine    dies 
anil  taps,  about  350  pounds. 
BOLTS. — Stout  metal  pins, 
variously  employed  in  ord- 
nance and  artillery  construc- 
tions for  holding  objects  or  parts  together,  and  fre- 
quently screw-threaded  at  one  end  to  receive  a  nut. 
Bolts  for  permanently  fjistening  objects  may  be  dis- 
tinguished, first,  by  their  construction;  secondly,  by 
their  application.     As  to- construction,  the  difference 
may  regard   the  head;   as,  round,  square,  hexagon, 
octagon,  saucercd,  countersunk-headed,  clinch,   col- 
lared, chamfered,  diamond,  convex,  etc.:  some  struc- 
ttiral  peculiarity  of  the  head;  as,  eye,  doubled-headed. 


hook,  ring,  T-headeil,  etc.:  the  mode  of  securing;  as, 
.screw,  fox,  forelock,  clinch,  rivet,  rag,  bay,  barb,  jag, 
key.  As  to  the  nature  and  purpo.se  of  their  application 
they  may  be, — a.s.sembling,  tish,  foundation,  bringing- 
to,  carriage,  drive,  fender,  lewis,  set,  shackle,  wagon- 
skein,  tire,  king,  scarf,  through,  etc.     The  following 


Bolts  used  in  Arsenals  and  Armories. 

list  of  lx)lts,  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Hoopesifc  Town- 
send  of  Philadelphia,  and  exhibited  at  the  Centennial 
in  1876,  is  approximately  complete: 


vVsst'inbliuc-bolt, 

Barbed  bolt. 

liavbolt. 

Briut-inK  to  bolt, 

Carria^re-bolt, 

Clinch-bolt. 

Countersunk-beaded  bolt, 


Diamond-beaded  bolt. 

Door-bolt, 

Drive-bolt, 

E}-e-bolt. 

Fender-bolt, 

Fish-bolt. 

Flour-bolt, 


BOMB. 


208 


BOHB-LAKCS. 


Flush-bolt, 

Forrlockbolt, 

Foundation-boU, 

Koxbolt, 

Half-tuniiug  bolt, 

HoltUn^-dnwo  bolt, 

Hi>ok-bolt. 

Jo^ed  bolt, 

Krj-bolt, 

Lewis-bolt, 

Mauhole-bolt, 

Pointed  bolt, 

Rag-bolt, 


Riii>;bolt, 
KivrU-U  bolt, 
K»-»!*e-iieatleii  bolt, 
Kouuti'beadeU  bolt, 
Bi-aif  bolt, 
Screw-bolt, 
8e^b<>lt, 
Slittoklebolt, 
Shinj;le-bolt, 
Soi-k.'I  Iwlt. 
S<tuare-lieaded  bolt, 
Tin-bolt. 
WagoD-skein  bolt. 


The  impoi-tant  bolt.s  fabricaled  and  used  in  arsenals 
and  armories  are  shown  in  the  drawing  on  the  pre- 
ceding page.  The  following  table  gives  the  weight 
of  bolts,  of  given  diameter  and  length,  per  hundred: 


DUm 

i 

A  1   1 

A 

i 

A 

i 

i 

i 

1 

Lgtb.jlbs. 

lbs.    lbs.    lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

iH 

4 

7       10.50  15.20 

22.50 

30 

39.50 

i« 

4.85   7.50  11.25  16.30'  23.S2'  31.75 

4162 

2 

4.75    8       12       17.40    23.15:  ai  5(1 

43.75 

69 

108 

2^ 

5.15    8.50  12.75  18.50;  2G.47    35.25 

45.88 

72     1 112.25 

2i2 

!i.50;  9       13.5011960    27.SO   37 

48 

75       116.50 

175 

n^ 

S.75'  9.50 14.2520.70    29.12   3S.75 

50.12i  78       121.75 

180 

8 

6.25  10       15      ,21.80 

30,45    4O50 

59.25 

81        126 

185 

SH 

7       11      ,16.50  24 

33.10    44 

56.50 

87       134.25 

196 

Y* 

7.75  IS      18      26.20 

35,75    47.50 

60.75 

93.10  142.50 

207 

4H 

8.5013      !  19.50  28.40 

38.40'  51 

65 

99  05  151 

218 

5^ 

9.S5'14      21       30.60 

41.05    54.50 

69.25  105.20  159.55 

229 

6>« 

10       15      22.50  32.80 

43.701  58 

73..5U  111.25  ItW 

240 

6 

10.75  16      ,24      135 

46.35,  01.50 

77.75  117.311  176.60 

251 

<H 

11.5017      2.5.5037.20 

49        65 

82      Il23.3il85 

262 

7 

12.25  18      27      139.40   5I.K    68.50 

86.25  129.40  193.65 

273 

TH 

13 

19.25  28.50,41.60,  54.30    72 

90.50  135       202 

2!i» 

8 

13.75 

20.75 

30 

43.80,  .59.60,  75.50:  94.75  141.50  210.70 

295 

9 

84 

48.20!  64.90   82.50  103.2i  l.Vj.CO  227.75 

317 

10 

37.50 

52.60!  70.20    89..51)  111.75  105.70  244.80 

339 

11 

41 

57      !  75.50    96.50  120.25,177.80  261. So 

3«1 

12 

44.50 

61.40    80.80  1(I.')..W  128. 75|lH9.90  278.90 

382 

13 

86.11)  1111.,')"  137.25  202,      295,95 

404 

14 

91,40  !i;,.'>0  145.75  214.10  313 

426 

15 

96.70  124.50  1.'>».25:2-,>6.21)  .I'JO.Oo 

448 

16 

102       131  .50  162.75|2.3S„30  347,10 

470 

17 

107.30  iaS,.W  171      '-250.40  3(14.15 

492 

18 

112.00  145..50  179.50262.60  :i81.20 

514 

19 

117.90  1.52.50  188       274.70  398.25 

536 

SO 

183.20159.50  196.501286.80  415.30 

III! 

558 

The  following  general  rule  is  given  for  the  compu- 
tation of  the  weight  of  wrought-iron  bolts:  Square 
the  radius  of  the  bolt,  and  multiply  it  by  ten;  the 
product  will  give  the  weight  in  pounds  per  toot.  For 
cast-iron  bolts,  multiply  the  above  result  by  .074. 

BOMB. — A  missile  which  also  receives  the  names  of 
huinh-nhell  and  shell.  It  is  a  hollow  ball,  usually  of 
cast-iron,  fired  from  a  mortar  or  other  large  piece  of 
ordnance,  and  filled  with  combustibles  which  work 
great  havoc  when  the  ball  bursts  by  the  firing.  All 
such  projectiles  were  formerly  fired  from  mortars 
only,  and  there  was  thus  a  definite  relation  between 
the  bomb  and  the  mortar;  but  since  the  invention  of 
shell-guns  and  other  modern  pieces  of  artillery,  the 
name  shell  has  been  generally  substituted  for  that  of 
bomb.  The  13-inch  bomb,  which  is  the  largest  .size 
used  in  ordinary  warfare,  weighs  about  195  lbs.,  with 
a  thickness  of  metal  varying  from  U  to  2  inches  at 
different  parts;  it  bursts  with  about  8  lbs.  of  powder. 
The  vent  through  which  it  is  filled  with  powder  is, 
after  the  filling,  dosed  with  a  i>lug  called  a  fuse, 
which  sets  tire  to  the  powder,  and  at  the  jiroper  mo- 
ment bursts  the  bomb  into  fragments.  The  10-inch 
bomb,  weighing  about  90  lbs.,  is  proportion:ibly  less 
in  all  dimensions  than  that  ju.st  described;  and  "so  on 
for  those  of  smaller  diameters.  It  should  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  the  above  are  conventional  quan- 
tities prescribed  and  adopted  more  than  half  a  century 
ago.  iloilcrn  artillerists  try  e.viierimenis  on  bombs 
of  various  degrees  of  thickness  with  various  charges 
and  fuses.     See  ShHl. 

BOMBABD. — An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance,  which 
was  very  short,  thick,  and  wide  in  the  bore.  It 
differed  from  the  balista  in  being  worked  with  gun- 
powder instead  of  bv  mechanical  force,  and  from  the 
mortar  in  Bhooting  forth  stones  instead  of  iron  .shells. 
Some  of  the  bombards  used  in  the  fifteenth  century  j 


propelled  stones  weighing  from  200  to  500  lbs.  each. 
The  shape  of  the  first  cannon  used  after  the  invention 
of  gunpowder  was  conical,  internallv  and  e.\temally 
rcsemliling  an  aiwthecary's  mortar.  They  were  called 
mortars,  Ixjinbards, 
and  rasi's;  were  fired 
at  high  angles;  and, 
in  consequence  of 
the  slow  burning  of 
the  powder  of  that 
d;iy  imd  the  conical 
shape  of  the  bore, 
the  stone  balls  pro- 
jected by  Ihcni  i)ro- 
ceeded  w'ith  very  lit- 
tle velocity  and  accuracy.  Bombanls  were  made 
first  of  wood  banded  with  WTought-iron,  then  of 
sheet-iron  strengthened  by  hoojis  and  bnizing,  and 
later  of  longitudinal  iron  bars,  connected  and  hooped 
like  the  staves  of  a  cask.  As  none  of  these  construc- 
tions gave  the  requisite  strength,  cannon  were  sub- 
sequently made  of  wrought-iron,  then  of  cast-iron, 
and  finally  of  bronze. 

BOMBAEDELLE.— A  small  bombard  which  -was 
used  in  ancient  times.  In  1830  one  wits  disinterred 
near  Laon,  France;  it  is  the  opuiion  of  some  that  this 
bombardelle  was  manufactured  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  VII.,  from  U36  to  1-440. 

BOMBAEDIEE.— An  artilleryman  versed  in  that 
department  of  arras  which  relates  especiallj'  to  bombs 
and  shells,  mortars  and  howitzers,  grenades  and  fuses. 
He  has  learned  to  load  shells  and  grena<ies,  fix  fuses, 
prepare  composition  for  fuses  anil  tubes,  etc. ;  and  on 
the  field  or  at  sieges  h5  fires  the  mortars.  In  some 
foreign  armies  the  bombardiers  form  a  separate  corps; 
but  usually  there  are  some  attached  to  every  battery. 

BOMBAKDMENT.— An  attack  upon  a  fortress  or 
fortified  town  by  means  of  shells,  red-hot  shot,  car- 
casses, rockets,  etc.,  to  bum  and  destroy  the  build- 
ings and  kill  the  people.  A  bombardment  is  most 
likely  to  be  succe.s.sful  when  the  place  is  destitute 
of  bomb-proof  cover;  or  when  the  Governor  is  too 
humane  to  expose  the  unoffending  inliabitants  to  this 
dreadful  ordeal;  or  when  the  population  is  strong 
enough  to  compel  him  to  yield.  A  bombardment  re- 
quires little  engineering  science;  whereas  to  reduce  a 
place  by  regular  siege  requires  the  aid  of  engineers  to 
direct  the  attack  against  fortifications,  guns,  and 
soldiery,  leaving  the  inhabitants  and  buildings  un- 
touched. Military  engineers  generally  regard  a  liom- 
bardment  as  a  cruel  operation;  it  is  especially  directed 
against  the  ciWlians  and  their  buildings,  as  a  means 
of  inducing  or  compelling  the  Governor  to  suiTcnder 
the  place  and  terminate  their  miseries.  In  a  well- 
defended  place,  the  soldiers,  the  ammunition,  and  the 
defense-works  suffer  comparatively  little,  seeing  that 
the  bombardiers  aim  at  pitching  their  terrible  missiles 
into  the  heart  of  the  place.  In  modern  times  a 
bombardment  is  mostly  adopted  as  an  adjunct  to  a 
siege,  distracting  the  Governor  by  an  incessant  fire  of 
mortars  day  and  night.  At  Sebastopol,  for  instance, 
the  mortars  fired  shells  into  the  center  of  the  city,  to 
weaken  the  defense  of  the  forts  which  were  cannon- 
aded by  the  siege-guns.  Bombardment  is  more  fre- 
quently a  naval  than  a  militarj'  operation.  The 
stores  required  for  a  vigorous  bombardment  are  im- 
mense. Thus,  in  1759  Rodney  threw  20,000  shells 
and  carcasses  into  Ha\Te;  in  1793  the  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Teschen  threw  36,000  shot  and  shell  into  Lille  in  140 
hours;  in  1795  Pichegni  threw  8000  shells  into  Mann- 
heim in  16  hours;  and  in  1807  the  English  threw 
11,000  sliot  and  shell  into  Copenhagen  in  three  days. 

BOMB-CHEST.— A  chest  filled  with  bombs,  or  only 
with  i.ampowder,  jilaced  underground,  to  cause  de- 
Strucliim  by  ils  explosion. 

BOMB-LANCE.— A  sharp-pointed  projectile,  used 
principally  in  whale-fishing,  charged  like  a  gi-enade, 
and  shot  from  a  musket,  the  slow  fuse  that  explodes  it 
being  first  lighted.  Its  power  is  sufficient  to  stun  the 
whale. 


BOHB-FBOOF. 


209 


BOHO. 


BOMB-PBOOF.— A  term  applied  to  military  struc- 
tUTfS  of  such  immense  thickness  and  strength  that 
bombs  cannot  penetrate  them.  Jlilitary  buildings, 
generally  ^Wthin  permanent  fortitications,  and  which 
are  formed  so  as  to  withstand  the  shock  of  hca\'y 
shot  or  shell  falling  on  them.  Magazines  for  holding 
gunpowder  should  be  placed  in  the  most  sheltered 
position  within  a  fortress,  and  strongly  constructed 
to  resist  direct  and  vertical  fire  from  heavy  ordnance. 
In  the  forts  recently  built  for  coast-defense  in  Eng- 
land, 17  feet  of  masonry  has  been  considered  neces- 
sary against  direct  tire,  and  an  arch  3  feet  thick,  with 
3  feet  of  concrete  over  the  roof,  against  vertical  fire. 

BOMB  PROOF  MAGAZINES.— For  field-works  of  a 
semi-permanent  character  which  are  to  be  indefinitely 
occupied,  have  an  armament  of  heavy  guns,  anil  are 
expected  to  stand  a  siege, — like  the  ilefenses  around 
Washington,  for  example, — the  magazines,  bomb- 
and  splinter-proof  shelters  should  be  constructed  of 
the  heaviest  timber,  and  be  covered  securely  with 
earth  from  the  assailant's  curvated  and  direct  fire. 
The  ventilation  of  the  magazines  and  precautions  for 
their  drainage  are  of  the  utmost  importance.  The 
drawing  shows  a  cross-section  of  a  magazine  con- 


4f  (^ 

Cross-section  of  Bombproof  Magazii 

structed  in  a  work  of  this  character.  The  sides  of 
the  interior  of  the  magazine  are  formed  of  twelve- 
inch  logs  placed  vertically  in  juxtaposition  and  rest- 
ing upon  a  ground-sill.  These  are  capped  on  top  by 
a  two-inch  board,  a  strip  of  a  like  kind  being  spiked 
on  within  the  cap.  The  top  is  fonned  of  fifteen-inch 
logs,  also  in  juxtaposition,  each  having  a  shoulder  of 
three  inches  to  fit  it  to  the  cap  and  inside  strip.  Lon- 
gitudinal logs  are  laid  on  these  with  varying  diame- 
ters, so  as  to  give  a  projier  pitch  for  the  roof.  Earth 
is  solidly  packed  upon  the  top  and  between  the  roof- 
logs,  recei\ing  the  proper  slope  for  the  roofing-boards. 
These  boards,  carefully  jointed,  are  laid  on  in  two 
thicknesses,  each  being  covered  with  a  coating  of  as- 
phalt. The  flooring  of  the  magazine  is  of  joists  and 
boards.  The  sides  of  the  magazine  are  sur- 
rounded with  an  air-chamber  formed  by  in- 
clined logs  supported  on  a  groundsill  and 
resting  against  the  top  logs;  these  are  placed 
at  three  or  four  feel  apart,  each  one  being 
braced  at  the  middle  point  to  resist  flexure 
from  the  pressure  of  earth.  The  chamber  is 
covered  in  by  saplings  laid  in  juxtaposition. 
There  are  ventilators  between  the  magazine 
and  the  air-chamlier  near  the  top,  and  also 
between  the  latter  and  the  external  air; 
the  two  not  being  opposite,  and  the  usual 
precautions  to  guard  ag-ainst  accidents  from  sparks 
being  taken.  The  earth-cover  is  ten  feet  on  the  ex- 
posed side,  and  six  feet  on  the  other  sides  and  on  top. 
The  entrance  to  the  magazine  is  well  secureil  by  a 
bomb-proof  covering.  A  slope  is  given  from  the  in- 
terior to  the  foot  of  the  steps  leailing  to  the  level  of 
the  floor  for  the  jmrposes  of  draining. 

BOMB-PEOOF  aUARTEKS.— Casemated  bomb-proof 
quarters  are  indispensable  to  the  safety  and  comfort 
of  the  garrison  during  siege,  or  any  prolonged  attack 
for  the  annoyance  or  reduction  of  the  work  by  a 
bomluirdment.  In  small  works  like  most  of  our  forts, 
which  are  chiefly  designed  for  sea-coast  defense, 
casemated  quarters  have  been  genentUy  arranged  in 


the  rear  of  the  batteries,  a  portion  of  each  ca.scmate 
towards  the  parade  being  partitioned  off  and  suitably 
disposed  for  the  object  in  view.  In  some  ca.ses  ad- 
vantage is  taken  of  a  scar])-wall,  on  a  land-front, 
which  is  well  covered  by  a  glacLs  or  other  face-cover, 
to  form  in  its  rear  quarters  of  this  character.  In  all 
cases  care  should  be  taken  to  place  such  qtiarters  on 
those  fronts  which  are  best  covered  from  a  direct  tire, 
and  the  parade-walls  of  which  are  not  exposed  to 
reverse-fire.  Whenever  the  jilan  of  the  work  admits 
of  it,  quarters  of  this  kind  should  be  arranged  for  de- 
fense, by  being  piercetl  with  loop-holes  and  even  with 
embrasures  for  cannon.  Defensive  ca.semated  quar- 
ters form  a  prominent  and  distinctive  feature  in  what 
is  now  known  as  the  German  School  of  Permanent 
Fortification. 

BOMB  PROOF  SHELTERS.— These  structures  are 
for  the  |)roU-ction  of  the  troops  when  not  on  duty. 
They  should  be  located  on  the  parade,  convenient  "to 
the  pieces  to  be  served,  yet  not  so  near  as  to  interfere 
with  the  defense.  They  are  usually  constructed  in 
half  excavation  of  logs  built  up  like  a  log-house,  or 
of  a  framework  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  drawing, 
the  exterior  side  being  of  hea\-y  logs  placed  vertically 
in  juxtaposition,  resting  on  a 
ground-sill  and  capped  at  top. 
Parallel  to  this  is  another 
row,  fonning  the  other  side, 
which  may  also  be  placed 
side  by  side  or  at  short  in- 
tervals apart,  and  capped  like 
the  outside  row.  The  roof, 
'•  ""''^  consisting  of  hca%'y  logs  laid 

■ii^,L^ij....,,Si     ju  juxtaposition  aiid  covered 
with    thick    boards    joined, 
rests    on    the    capping,    the 
whole  covered   over  on  the 
e.  side  of  the  enemy  with  earth 

to  a  depth  of  at  least  14 
feet  from  the  wood-work.  To  i)revent  this  mass  of 
earth  from  pushing  the  stnieture  over  to  the  rear, 
one  in  every  two  or  three  of  the  roof-logs  is  cut  of 
sufficient  length  to  extend  about  8  feet  beyond  the 
front  of  the  "wall,  and  dovetailed  to  a  longitudinal 
log  held  in  position  by  vertical  posts,  the  anchor-log 
being  sufficiently  covered  with  earth  to  protect  it 
from  injury  by  shot  from  the  enemy.  These  bomb- 
proofs  are  macle  to  ser^c  the  purposi'  of  traverses,  and 
are  frequently  arranged  with  a  staging  or  ^Uery 
along  the  rear  side;  for  the  accommodation  of  infan- 
try, who  deliver  their  fire  over  the  top.  arranged  for 
this  as  a  parapet.  In  all  interior  arrangements,  sys- 
tem and  regidarity  should  be  observed  from  the  first; 
otherwise  the  work  will  grow  into  a  labj-rinth  of  cou- 


Bomb-proof  Shelter. 

fusion  greatly  opposed  to  efficiency  and  comfort. 
See  ShelUTS  and  SpUutfrproof  Shdters. 

BOMB  SHELL.— A  hollow  globe  of  iron,  filled  with 
powder,  and  tlirown  from  a  mortar.     See  Botiih. 

BONB, — A  bond,  in  law,  is  simple  or  conditional, 
the  latter  being  generally  used.  It  must  be  in  writ- 
ing, and  signed,  and  sliould  be  sealed.  The  condi- 
tion is  the  vital  part,  limiting  and  determining  the 
amount  to  be  paid  or  the  thing  to  be  done,  ami  no 
person  can  take  the  benefit  of  a  bond  except  the 
parties  named  therein,  save  in  tlie  case  of  a  bond 
given  by  an  officer  for  the  |X'rfonnance  of  duty.  If 
a  bond  "runs  to  sevend  jiersons  jointly,  all  nuist  join 
in  suit  for  breach,  although  the  conditions  may  not 


BONE  SPAVIN. 


210 


BOOMDREDOE. 


at  all  affect  some  of  them.  Recovery  amiiiist  a  surety 
on  a  bond  is  not  limitetl  to  the  ix-nally,  Imt  mav  go 
beyond  as  far  as  necessary  to  include  interest  from 
the  time  of  default.  A  i)ond  dormant  for  twenty 
years  cannot  afterwards  lie  recovered,  the  presump- 
tion Ix'ing  that  it  has  been  satistied.  If  the  maker  of 
a  bond  binds  liimself  without  addinsr  "heirs,"  the 
heirs  cannot  be  held.  b\it  the  executors  and  adminis- 
tniloiN  are  liable.  All  Disbursinjr  Officers  of  the  army 
are  re(iuired  to  fiive  bond. 

BONE-SPAVIN.— A  bony  tumor  in  horses  where 
the  head  of  the  splint-bone  joins  the  shank.  Inflam- 
mation of  the  ligaments  of  any  of  the  small  bones  of 
the  hock  proceeding  to  bony  tmnor  cla.s.ses  as  spavin. 

BONFIRE. — A  tire  kindled  for  .some  purpose  of 
public  rejoicing,  usually  in  an  ojjen  conspicuous 
place,  as  the  top  of  a  hill  or  the  center  of  a  village- 
green.  The  burning  materials  consist  of  Uir-barrels, 
coal,  and  other  combustibles.  The  practice  of  kind- 
ling tires  of  this  kind  is  of  so  great  antiquity  in  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  and  Scotland  as  to  be  trjiced  to  pagan 
rites.  The  origin  of  the  word  honfire  has  been  very 
puzzling  to  etymologists.  In  Scotland  the  popular 
term  is  banefire  or  hainfire,  which  Jamieson  saj'S  is 
apparently  a  corruption  of  bailfire,  which  may  be 
doubted.  The  most  probable  etyniologj-  is  the  Welsh 
ban,  high,  whence  ban-ffiif/l,  a.  lofty  blaze,  a  bonfire. 
The  same  hills  that  in  English  arc  called  beacons 
are  in  Welsh  called  bans  or  miis.  In  Danish,  also, 
baini  is  a  beacon,  and  may  be  traced  in  such  names 
as  Banburif. 

BONING  STAFF.— A  T-headed  staff,  used  in  con- 
junction with  a  pliunmet  and  line  for  taking  short 
levels. 

BONNET. — 1.  In  fortification,  a  small  defense-work 
constructed  at  the  salient  angles  of  the  glacis  or 
larger  works.  It  consists  of  two  faces  only,  with  a 
panipet  three  feet  high  by  ten  or  twelve  broad.  There 
is  no  ditch.  A  larger  kind,  with  three  salient  angles, 
is  called  a  priest's  bonnet,  or  bonnet  a  pretre.  The  use 
of  the  bonnet  is  to  check  the  besiegers  when  they  are 
attempting  to  make  a  lodgment,    ^ee  Bonnettes. 

2.  A  covering  for  the  head,  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties.  The  French,  from  whom  we  have 
the  word,  applj'  it  as  we  do  to  male  as  well  as  female 
head-dress.  From  the  frequent  notice  of  the  blue 
bonnet  in  historical  records  and  in  song,  il  would 
seem  that  the  Scotch  were  long  identified  with  this 
kind  of  head-covering.  The  genuine  old  bonnet  of 
the  Lowland  Scottish  peasantry  was  of  a  broad, 
round,  and  Hat  shape,  overshadowing  the  face  and 
neck,  and  of  a  dark  blue  color,  excepting  a  red  tuft 
like  a  {herry  on  the  top.  The  fabric  was  of  thick 
milled  woolen,  without  .seam  or  lining,  and  so  ex- 
ceedingly durable  that,  with  reasonable  care,  a  single 
bonnet  worth  about  2s.  would  have  served  a  man  his 
whole  life.  No  head-dress  ever  invented  could  stand 
so  much  rough  visage.  It  might  be  folded  up  an(l 
jint  in  the  pocket,  or  laid  fiat  and  sat  upon,  with 
equal  impunity;  it  might  be  exposed  to  a  heavy 
drencliing  rain  without  the  head  being  wetted,  ami 
when  dried  it  was  as  good  as  ever.  Besides  it  coiild 
be  worn  on  the  top  of  the  head,  or  slouched  in  front. 
behind,  or  sidewise,  as  a  protective  against  a  cold 
blast  ;  and  from  its  softness  and  elasticity  it  very 
fairly  saved  the  head  from  the  effects  of  a  blow.  In 
short,  there  was  no  end  to  the  adaptability  of  the  old 
"braid  bannet,"  as  the  Scotch  termed  'il;  and  one 
almost  feels  a  degree  of  regret  that,  in  the  progress  of 
fashion,  it  should  have  gone  so  much  out  of  use. 
The  Highlanders  have  long  worn  bonnets  of  the 
same  fabric,  but  these  rise  to  a  point  in  front  and 
are  without  any  rim.  Such  is  the  cap  now  known 
as  the  Glenr/fiiT!/  bonnet.  From  time  immemorial, 
these  various  kinds  of  Scots  bonnets  hive  been  manu- 
factured at  Stewarloii,  a  .small  town  in  Ayrshire. 
Formerly  the  Stewarlon  bonnet -makers  formed  a 
corporation,  which,  like  other  old  guilds,  was  gov- 
erned Iiy  regulations  conceived  in  a  narrow  and  often 
amusingly  absurd  spirit;  one  of  the  rules  of  the  fra- 


ternity, however,  can  be  spoken  of  only  with  com- 
ntendalion,  for  it  eiit'oreed  a  certain  weight  of  ma- 
terial in  each  bonnet,  as  well  as  durability  in  the 
color.  The  bonnets  used  in  the  Highland  regiments 
are  made  at  Stewarton  and  Kilmarnock;  they  are 
usually  distinguished  by  a  clieekered  tillel,  being  the 
fiss^eheqiii oi  the  House  of  Stuart.  Latterly,  although 
hats  and  caps  have,  to  a  great  extent,  superseded 
bonnets  of  the  old  varieties,  the  lionnet-manufactories 
of  Stewarton  have  much  increased,  and  are  still 
increasing. 

BONNETTES.— It  is  frequently  desirable  that  the 
height  of  the  parapet,  at  certain  points,  should  be 
increased  for  a  short  distance.  This  increa.se  is  gen- 
erally obtained  by  making  use  of  the  constructions 
known  as  bonnettes.  A  bonnettc  extends  but  a  short 
distance  along  the  parajiet,  is  made  of  earth,  and  is 
used  generally  to  give  greater  ])rotection  to  the  men 
standing  on  the  banquette  against  a  slant  or  an  en- 
filading fire  of  the  enemy.  Bonnettes  are  jjlaced 
usually  on  the  salients;  they  arc  sometimes  placed  on 
the  parapet  between  guns  en  barbette.  Tliey  may 
be  constructed  during  the  jnogrcss  of  the  work,  or 
after  the  work  has  been  finished.  In  the  fornier  case 
their  construction  is,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  parapet.  In  the  latter  case  they 
are  constructed  generally  in  haste,  and  sand-bags  or 
gabions  filled  with  earth  are  used  to  build  them. 

BONTCHOUK.— A  lance  oniamented  with  a  horse's 
tail.  When  the  kings  of  Poland  led  their  armies, 
bontchouks  were  carried  before  them. 

BOOM. — A  strong  chain  of  timber  logs  or  iron  em- 
ployed in  barring  the  passage  of  the  month  of  a  har- 
bor or  river,  or  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  an  enemj-  if 
he  has  actually  entered.  Such  a  boom  should  be 
protected  by  a  battery  or  batteries.  There  shouUl  be 
two  such  chains,  one  to  afford  resistance  if  the  enemy 
has  penetrated  the  other;  they  need  not  extend  all 
across  the  pas.sage,  seeing  that  shallow  spots  are  self- 
defended.  A  modern  war-steamer  would  cut  through 
a  chain-boom,  unless  made  of  very  thick  and  strong 
u'on.  Sometimes  hempen  cable-booms  are  used  to 
resist  small-craft.  The  Russians  effectually  boomed 
the  harbor  of  Sebastopol  in  September,  18.54,  thcrebj' 
preventing  the  entrance  of  English  and  French  ships; 
this  was  done  partly  by  sinking  some  of  their  own 
shi|)s,  and  jiartlv  bv  the  laying  of  booms. 

BOOM-DREDGE.— This  machine,  recently  given  to 
the  public  by  its  inventor,  Mr.  Ralph  R.  O.sgood,  of 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  built  by  the  Osgood  Dredge  Com- 
pany, is  destined  to  effect  a  revolution  in  dredging 
methods  and  operations.  Its  general  outline  is  shown 
in  the  drawing,  as  also  the  essential  working  elements, 
and  the  strains  to  which  the  various  parts  are  sub- 
jected, lu  this  machine  we  have  the  dipper  and  luuidle 
essentially  the  same  as  in  the  crane-dredge.  The  ilip- 
per-handle  is  held  in  position  by  a  friction-clutch,  of 
Mr.  Osgood's  design  and  patent,  placed  on  top  of  the 
boom  near  to  the  boat.  The  excavating  power  is 
applied  to  the  dipjier  by  means  of  a  chain  running 
over  a  sheave  at  the  outer  extremity  of  the  boom, 
and  thence  along  the  boom  to  the  hoisting-drum  on 
deck.  Tlie  boom  is  pivoted  or  hinged  to  a  turn-table 
at  the  boat  eml  and  supported  al  its  outer  end  by  a 
chain  passing  to  an  overhead-iiullev,  pendant  from 
the  combination  of  timber  A-braces  and  iron  ties. 
This  chain  is  worked  by  a  drum,  and  therefore  al- 
lows the  boom  to  take  any  jiosition  required  by  the 
caprice  of  the  operator.  The  strains  are  based  n])on 
the  tension  occurring  in  the  hoisting-chain,  taken  at 
100.  Comiiressive  sirauis  are  denoted  by  a  +,  while 
those  of  a  tensile  nature  are  indicated  by  a  — .  Each 
degree  is  a.ssumed  to  be  working  in  2.5"feet  of  water. 
In  the  boom-chain  a  l.>ton  .steel  spring  is  placed, 
through  which  all  shocks  and  jars  must  pass  before 
reaching  the  machinery.  This  adds  greatly  to  the  life 
of  the  iiiacliine.  The  boom  can  swing  and  operate 
through  a  complete  siniicircle.  The  hoisting-chain 
can  be  changed  from  the  inlermediate  sheave  to  the 
sheave  at  the  outer  end  of  the  boom,  for  delivering 


BOOHEBANG. 


211 


BOOMESANC. 


on  banks.  The  boom  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by 
means  of  the  chain  connecting  it  with  the  A-frame. 
The  turnteble  is  made  of  iron,  and  is  mounted  on 
friction  -  rollers  which  greatly  reduce  the  strain  of 
swinging.  All  the  different  levers  for  working  the 
throttle,  spud  and  hoisting-drum  frictions,  for  swing- 
ing the  turn-table,  etc.,  are  placed  near  together  and 
are  operated  by  one  man.  The  peculiar  advantages 
of  this  machine  will  be  readily  comprehended  from 
the  brief  description  which  has  been  given.    They  lie 


same  length  of  dipper-handle  as  the  crane- dredge 
has,  can  dredge  in  deeper  water.  7.  With  a  slight 
additional  expense,  may  be  made  to  work  as  a  "clam- 
shell "  dredge.  See  Crane-dredije,  l>redging-machiue, 
and  E.rennit'ir. 

BOOMERANG.  —  A  mis.sile  instrument  for  war, 
sport,  or  the  chase,  much  used  by  the  aborigines  of 
Australia.  It  is  of  hard  wood,  of  a  bent  form;  the 
shape  is  parabolic.  It  is  about  two  and  a  half  inches 
broad,  a  third  of  an  inch  thick,  and  two  feet  long, 


Osgood  Boom-dredge. 


in  the  fact  that  material  can  be  dredged  at  greater 
depths,  raised  higher,  and  dumped  further  from  the 
center  of  the  dredge-boat  than  is  practicable  with 
any  of  the  old-style  crane-dredges.  The  advantages 
maybe  briefly  stated  as  follows:  1.  Greater  pulling 
force  or  excavating  power  in  the  direction  of  the 
bank.  3.  Le.«s  strain  in  the  dipper-handle  and  hull  of 
boat.  3.  Less  loss  of  power  liy  frictional  resistances. 
4.  Greater  rapidity  In  delivering  the  dipper-contents, 
thus  making,  other  things  being  equal,  greater  capa- 
city.   5.  Dredges  on  the  half-circle.     6.  With  the 


the  extremities  being  rounded.  One  side  is  flat,  the 
other  rounded;  and  it  is  brought  to  a  bluntish  edge. 
The  method  of  using  this  remarkable  weapon  con- 
sists in  throwing  it  in  a  particular  manner.  It  is 
taken  by  one  end,  with  the  Indgcd  side  downward 
and  the  convex  edge  forward,  and  thrown  directly 
onward,  as  if  to  hit  some  object  thirty  yards  ahead. 
Instead  of  going  directly  forward,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, and  there  falling  to  the  gi-oimd,  it  slowly  as- 
cends in  the  air,  whirling  round  and  round,  and 
describing  a  curved  line  of  progress  till  it  reaches  a 


BOOMINO  OUT. 


212 


BOBINO-MACHINE. 


considerable  height,  when  it  begins  to  relrognide, 
and  finally  it  sweeps  over  the  head  of  the  projector, 
and  falls  "Wiind  him.  Tliis  surprisiiii;  nioliou  is 
prmluced  by  the  bulwl  side  of  the  missile.  The  air 
impinixiug  therivn  lifts  the  instrument  in  the  air, 
exactly  as  by  hitting  the  oblique  bars  in  a  windmill 
it  forcfes  it  to  go  round.  The  ingenuity  of  the  con- 
trivance, which  is  worthy  of  the  highest  scientific 
calculation,  is  very  extraordinary  as  coming  from 
almost  the  lowest  nice  of  mankind.  The  b<H)merang 
is  one  of  the  ancient  iiLstruments  of  war  of  the  lut- 
tives  of  Australia.  They  are  said  to  be  very  dexter- 
ous in  hitting  birds  with  it,  the  animals  being  of 
course  behind'them,  anil  perhaps  not  aware  that  they 
are  objects  of  attack.  This  curiosity,  as  it  must  be 
called,  was  tirst  made  known  by  Ix-in-'  brou^'ht  licfore 
the  Koval  Irish  Academy  by  Prof.  M't'uUagh  in 
Mav,  ISST. 

BOOMING  OUT. — A  method  of  constructing  a  pon- 
ton-bridge. A  frame  of  two  saddles,  connected  by 
their  balks,  is  prepared  on  shore:  a  ponton  Ijeing 
launched,  the  fnmie  is  lifted  up,  and  the  ponton  is 
brought  under  the  first  saddle,  and  fa.stened  to  it; 
in  the  mean  while  the  balks  of  another  frame  are 
bolted  to  a  third  saddle,  the  bridge  is  biioiiu'd  out,  and 
a  second  ponton  is  fixed  under  the  second  saddle,  and 
so  on.  The  bridge  is  kept  in  its  proper  position  by 
means  of  ropes  secured  to  anchors. 

BOOTS  AND  SADDLES.— A  sound  on  the  trumpet 
which  is  the  first  signal  for  mounted  drill,  and  for  all 
other  formations  mounted;  it  is  also  the  signal  for 
the  tnmiix-ters  to  a.sscmble.  In  the  English  .ser\ice, 
it  is  a  parade<'all  in  the  cavalry  and  artillery,  sounded 
half  an  hour  before  the  furn-ouf. 

BOOTY. — Despoiling  a  people  or  city  is  barbarous 
and  not  tolerated  in  ci\ilized  warfare,  but  legitimate 
subjects  of  booty  are  well  described  in  an  Act  of  the 
British  Parliament;  as.  arms,  ammunition,  stores  of 
war,  goods,  merchandise,  and  treasure  belonging  to 
the  State  or  any  pitblk  trading  company  of  the  enemy, 
and  found  in  finy  of  the  fortresses  or  possessions,  and 
all  ships  and  ve.s.scls  in  any  road,  river,  haven,  or 
creek  belonging  to  any  such  fortress  or  possession. 
It  should  be  the  duty  of  Commanding  (Jenerals  to 
cause  an  exact  account  of  such  atptures  to  be  kept, 
in  order  that  the  captors  may  be  remunerated  by  the 
Government  for  such  stores  as  are  reserved  for  the 
public  service,  and  in  order  that  all  such  prizes  of 
war  may  be  legally  and  equitabh-  di\'ided  amongst 
the  captors.  Such  is  the  practice  in  England.  There 
land-prizes  are  divided  according  to  an  established 
rule  of  division.  In  the  Piedmontese  army  the  ad- 
ministration of  booty  is  intrusted  to  a  special  Staff 
Corps;  the  French  laws  (says  Bardin,  DiHionnaire  de 
I'Armee  de  Terre)  arc  silent  on  this  subject,  or  else 
those  which  are  m  force  announce  nothing  positive; 
and  in  their  silence  there  is  inhumanity,  hypocrisy, 
and  mental  reserve.  In  a  memorial  presented  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  he  claimed  of  his  Government 
for  the  English  army  more  than  a  million  sterling 
which  had  been  usi'd  in  the  king's  service  from  cap- 
tures made  by  the  British  army  in  Spain  and  France, 
and  the  English  budget  of"  1823  .shows  that  the 
amount  so  claimed  was  given  to  the  army.  An  Arti- 
cle for  the  government  of  the  armies  of  the  United 
States  provides  that  "  All  public  stores  taken  in  the 
enemy's  camp,  towns,  forls,  or  magazines,  whether 
of  artillery,  ammunition,  clothing,  forage,  or  pro\i- 
sions,  shall  be  secured  for  the  serrice  of  the  United 
States;  for  the  neglect  of  which  the  Commanding 
Officer  is  to  be  answerable."  This  Article  of  War  is 
borrowed  from  acorrespomling  British  Article,  which 
directs  that  the  same  stores  shall  be  secured  for  the 
king's  service.  But  by  proclamation  in  Great  Bri- 
tain the  money-value  of  all  captures  is  invariably 
divided  amongst  the  cajitors.  No  pr.ictice  can  be 
more  wise  and  just;  for  although  it  is  necessary  to 
proscribe  marauding  or  piWuji',  it  is  impos,sible  to  ex- 
tirpate the  desire  of  gain  from  the  human  heart,  and 
it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  law  should  frankly 


provide  for  an  equitable  distribution  of  captures 
amongst  the  army.  The  absence  of  a  law  of  di\isioii 
tends  to  introduce  into  an  army  the  greatest  evils: 
soldiers  disband  themselves  in  .search  of  pillage, 
and  their  cupidity  leads  to  the  greatest  horrors. 
These  great  e\ils  are  avoided  by  a  legjil  division  of 
lK)oty,  when  all  soldiers,  animate<i  by  the  hope  of 
sharing  the  fniits  of  \-ictor)-,  are  careful  not  to  aban- 
don to  the  greedy,  the  cowardly,  and  the  wicked 
amongst  themselves  advantages  projierly  belonging 
t(i  the  giillant  \ictors.     See  I'rize. 

BORDURE. — In  Herahlry,  coats  of  arms  are  fre- 
quently surrounded  with  a  bordure,  the  object  of 
which  is  generally  to  show  that  the  bearer  is  a  cadet 
of  the  house  whose  arms  he  carries.  The  character 
of  the  bordure  often  has  reference  to  the  profession 
of  the  liiarer:  thus,  a  Iwirdurc  einhattUd  is  granted 
to  a  .siildicr;  and  a  bordure  ermine,  to  a  lawyer. 
Also  written  Border. 

BORE. — The  internal  cavity  of  a  cannon,  mortar, 
howitzer,  rifle,  musket,  fowling-piece,  pistol,  or  other 
kind  of  fire-arm.  It  is  in  most  ca.ses  cylindrical;  but 
in  the  Lancaster  gim  the  bore  is  oval;  in  the  ^Vhit- 
worth  gim  it  is  hexagonal;  while  in  the  Armstrong 
and  many  other  kintls  of  gim  it  is  furrowed  by  spiral 
grooves.  Technically,  the  bore  of  a  gim  often  means 
simply  the  diameter  of  the  cavity,  as  when  we  speak 
of  a  gun  "  of  8-inch  bore;"  and  in  that  case  its  mean- 
in^is  equivalent  to  "c.iliber." 

The  Boring  of  a  cannon  is  a  process  which  may 
best  be  described  in  connection  w  ith  Cannon-foitm)- 
ixG  and  BoRrxG-M.\cirrNE.  If  is  desirable  to  men- 
tion in  the  present  place,  however,  that  there  is  an 
operation  called  "  boring-up"  conducted  at  Wool  nich 
Arsenal,  for  enlarging  the  bore  of  a  gun.  It  has 
been  found  in  recent  years  that  many  of  the  old  can- 
non are  thicker  and  heavier  than  needful  for  the  size 
of  shot  propelled,  and  that  they  could  be  fitted  for 
the  discharge  of  larger  shot  without  danger.  A 
change  was  begun  in  the  armament  of  the  British 
fleet  in  1839  by  substituting  heavier  broadsides;  and 
as  one  part  of  the  process,  many  of  the  old  '2-t-pound- 
ers  were"  bored-up  "  to  32's;  even  some  of  the  18- 
pounders  were  found  to  be  thick  and  strong  enough 
to  undergo  this  process.  More  than  2000  iron  naval 
gtms  were  thus  treated  at  Woolwich  preparatory  to 
the  change  in  1839;  and  many  others  have  since  been 
similarly  bored-up.  About  1860,  important  experi- 
ments were  carried  on  at  Woolwich,  to  determine 
whether  the  old  smooth-bore  iron  guns  could  not 
only  be  bored-up,  but  rifl<d  at  the  s;ime  time.  There 
were  15,000  of  such  guns  belonging  to  the  British 
Government,  and  it  was  suggested  that  they  ought  to 
be  improved,  instead  of  being  cast  aside  as  useless  in 
the  event  of  the  success  of  the  Armstrong  and  Whit- 
worth  guns.  The  process  has  not  proved  altogether 
satisfactory. 

BORERS  FOR  FUSES.— Instruments  for  boring  out 
fuses.  There  are  two  kinds,  termeil  hm/k  and  hand 
borers;  the  former  consists  of  a  hook  info  which  the 
fuse  is  placed,  and  a  shank  which  contains  a  female 
screw.  The  bit  pas.ses  through  the  center  of  the  han- 
dle and  male  screw,  and  it  is  secured  by  a  small 
screw  which  presses  upon  the  bit.  The  hand-borer  is 
a  simple  instrument,  somewhat  like  a  hand-gimlet, 
but  the  blade  is  fluted  and  not  spiral.  This  instru- 
ment is  supplied  to  each  gun. 

BOBI. — A  Turkish  term  for  military  trumpets  and 
other  similar  instnitncnts. 

BORING-MACHINE.— This  machine,  designed  to 
bore  and  drill  horizontally  work  resting  on  a  table 
or  platform,  has  been  considered  by  Engineers  and 
Orilnancc  DtHcers  as  coming  next  to  the  lathe  in  use- 
fulness in  the  armory.  It  should  drill  work  that 
cannot  be  operated  on  in  an  ordinary  vertical  drill- 
pre.ss,  and  have  all  the  advantages  of  a  faciug-lathc 
for  some  kinds  of  work. 

JIarked  advantages  which  the  Sellers  machine  (see 
cut)  has  over  similar  t(M)ls  lie  in  the  nature  of  the 
feed-motion,  which,  by  use  of  the  friction  feed-disks, 


SOBHAinf  FUSE. 


213 


BOBMANN  FUSE. 


admits  of  an  infinite  variety  of  feeds  between  its  finest 
and  its  coarsest:  in  the  ready  application  of  tlie  feed, 
and  its  quick  hand-motion;  also  in  the  manner  of 
operating  the  compound  table  upon  which  the  work 
rests,  the  handles  to  govern  the  motion  of  table  being 
all  on  one  side  and  within  easy  reach  of  the  workman. 
The  screws  which  raise  the  table  require  holes  in  the 
foimdation  below  the  bed;  as  when  the  table  is  low- 
ered they  project  below  the  ba.se  of  the  machine.  If 
placed  in  damp  places,  the  bo.xes  or  reces-ses  in  foun- 
dation for  these  screws  should  be  made  water-tight. 
The  machine  is  provided  with  an  out  board  hearing 
when  that  style  of  machine  is  required.  This  bearing 
is  carried  from  the  bcd-jilate.  arching  over  the  knee 
■nhich  carries  the  table;  it  l)olts  to  the  bedplate,  and 
to  the  knee  also.  It  can  be  placed  29  inches  from  the 
face-plate,  or  it  can  be  moved  otf  to  o'i  inches  from 
the  face-plate;  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  ready 
adjustment  of  the  table  vertically.  The  feed  motion 
now  applied  is  arranged  in  two  scries,  a  tine  and  a 
coarse,  both  of  these  scries  being  applicable  to  any 
speed  or  any  size  of  drill.  The  value  of  the  coarse 
feed  T\'ill  be  felt  in  all  kinds  of  boring  with  bai-s  and 
cutters,  inasmuch  as  it  is  possible  to  rough  out  with  a 
flue  feed,  and  to  finish  with  a  light  cut  and  a  very 
coarse  feed.  In  this  way  the  finishing  cutter  is  hur- 
ried through  the  work,  is  less  liable  to  wear  in  the 
eugth  of  tiie  hole  to  be  bored,  and  much  time  is  saved. 


ping  and  filing.  To  insure  a  smooth  surface  in  the 
bore,  all  the  work  on  the  exterior  surface  of  the  gun 
is  suspended  while  the  reamer,  or  finishing-tool,  is 
being  used.  The  boring  Ix-iug  completed,  the  rylii,- 
dtr-gaugi:  is  inserted  before  removing  the  gun  from 
the  lathe,  to  ascertain  if  it  passes  freely  to  the  Ixjttom 
of  the  bore;  the  chamber-reamer  should  also  be  mea- 
sured after  use  in  each  gun,  and  if  found  coiTect  the 
gun  is  moved  from  the  lathe. 

A  general  difference  in  the  style  of  the  tools  between 
those  employed  for  wood  and  those  for  metal  gives 
opportunit}'  for  disringui.shing  between  the  twoclaisscs 
of  machines,  although  the  modes  of  propulsion  in 
some  machines  of  the  respective  classes  are  very 
similar,  and  the  boring  biu  for  hard  wood  are  much 
like  the  drills  for  metal.  See  Drilling-machine  and 
Hmdiiir/'Uitfie. 

BOBMANN  FUSE.— This  fuse  is  the  invention  of 
an  (illiccr  of  the  Belgian  service.  The  case  is  made 
of  an  alk)y  of  tin  and  lead,  c-a.-^t  in  iron  molds.  Its 
shape  is  that  of  a  thick  circular  disk;  and  a  .screw- 
thread  is  cut  upon  its  edge,  by  w  hich  it  is  fastened 
into  the  fuse-hole  of  the  [irojectile.  The  upper  sur- 
face is  marked  with  two  recesses  and  a  graduated  arc. 
The  former  are  made  to  receive  the  prongs  of  a  screw- 
driver; and  the  latter  overlies  a  circular  groove,  filled 
with  mealed  powder,  tightly  pressed  in  and  covered 
with  a  metal  cap.     The  only  outlet  to  the  groove  con 


Sellers  Boring-machine. 


When  turning  down  gun-castings,  the  gun  while  in 
the  machine  rests  in  the  journals  at  the  cascabel- 
bearing  and  chase;  the  metal  at  these  points  having 
been  turned  down  to  the  finished  size  while  in  the 
heading-lathe,  the  square  knob  or  ca.scabel  is  secured 
in  the  chuck  by  tightening  the  screws  equally  in  all 
directions.  The  boring-rod  is  first  introduced  a  short 
distance  into  the  bore  of  the  gun,  and  the  space  be- 
tween the  exterior  surface  of  the  boring-iod  and  the 
exterior  surface  of  the  gun  at  the  muzzle  observed. 
For  this  purpose  a  thin  wooden  gauge  is  used,  pointed 
at  one  end  and  having  a  notch  at^the  other,  which 
takes  the  outer  surface  of  the  gun  at  the  muzzle,  the 
gauge  being  laid  on  the  face  of  the  muzzle,  and,  of 
course,  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  bore.  As  the 
gun  revolves,  the  distance  above,  below,  and  on  either 
side  is  ob-scrved,  thus  verifying  the  ix>rfcct  concen- 
tricitv  of  the  axis  of  the  gtiii  at  the  muzzle.  The  ad- 
justment is  completed  at  the  breech,  by  slackening 
the  Ix)lts  at  the  cascabel-bearing,  leading  it  free  to 
move  on  the  rest;  and  should  any  lateral  motion  lie 
perceptible,  it  is  corrected  by  adjusting  the  screws  in 
the  chuck,  after  which  the  concentricity  is  comjilete 
from  breech  to  muzzle.  During  the  process  of  bor- 
ing, the  turning  continues,  and  the  exterior  is  finished, 
except  between  the  trumiions  and  about  the  lock  and 
sight-ma-sses;  the  former  Ix-ing  planed  off  by  a  ma- 
chine for  the  purpose,  and  the  latter  reduced  by  chip- 


taining  the  mealed  powder  is  under  the  zero  of  the 
graduation;  this  outlet,  or  channel,  is  filled  with  rifie- 
powder,  and  leads  down  to  a  circular  recess  which  is 
filled  with  musket-powder  and  covered  with  a  per- 
forated disk  of  tin.  To  enable  this  fuse  to  resist  the 
shock  of  discharge,  and  at  the  same  time  to  increase 
the  effect  of  a  small  bursting-charge,  the  lower  poT- 
tion  of  the  fuse-bole  is  closed  vrith  a  pcrforate<l  disk. 

Before  the  projectile  is  inserted  into  the  jnecc,  a 
cut  is  made  across  the  graduated  portion,  laying  bare 
a  small  proportion  of  the  mealed  powder,  which,  being 
ignited  by  the  flame  of  the  charge,  burns  in  lM)th 
directions  until  the  outlet  is  reached  ;ind  the  gniin- 
l>owder  ignited.  The  graduations  are  .seconds  and 
quarter-seconds,  and  the  time  of  buniing  of  the  fuse 
depends  on  the  length  of  the  cohunn  of  mealed  lew- 
der included  between  the  incision  and  outlet.  If  the 
metal  covering  be  not  cut,  the  projectile  mav  be 
fired  as  a  solid  shot.  The  Bonnann  fuse  is  uscu  for 
the  field  and  siege  services,  and  is  fo\uid  to  be  accu- 
rate and  relialile,  especially  for  spherical-ca.se  shot. 
The  time  of  liurning  not  lieing  long  enough  for  the 
general  .service  of  ritie-projectiles,  the  paper  timefuse 
is  used  instead  of  it  for  all  of  tho.se  projectiles  which 
require  the  time-fuse.  It  is  inserted  into  a  zinc  plug, 
which  is  screwed  into  the  fuse-hole  of  the  projectile. 

The  action  of  the  Bonnann  fuse  is  as  follows:  The 
thin  covering  of  metal  above  the  composition  is  cut 


BOSHES. 


214 


BOSTANJl. 


SO  as  to  lay  l)are  the  upper  surface  of  the  composition, 
and  to  affonl  the  tlarae  access  to  it  at  the  part  desired. 
The  cut  should  hv  made  with  the  fuse-cutter  close  to 
the  rijrht  of  the  mark  in  the  index -phile;  and  it  is 
best  made  in  two  or  thn-e  efforts  insteail  of  trying  to 
effect  the  cut  at  once.  The  combustion  occupies  the 
assiinie<l  time  in  passing  from  the  incision  towards 
the  origin  of  the  graduation,  when  it  traverses  the 
orifice  leading  into  the  magazine,  the  contents  of 
which  explode  smartly  towards  the  interior,  and  then 
encoimter  instantly  the  charge  in  the  shell. 
The  metal  of  this  fuse  being  soft  and  its  diameter 


firing  furnaces  consists  of  finely  pulverized  ore  and 
German  clay  made  into  a  paste;  and  another  for  the 
.same  purpose  is  a  paste  made  by  grinding  the  ore 
and  rendering  it  plastic  by  moistening  and  working. 
liuU<Ui<i  is  a  decomposeil  protosilicale  of  iron  used 
in  Kngiand  and  Friuice  for  this  purpose. 

BOSNIAKEN. — Formerly  light  cavalrj'of  the  Prus- 
sians, resembling  the  present  Uhlans.  Frederick  I. 
formed  this  cavalry  in  174.5. 

BOSS. — 1.  A  St  ml  or  ornament  raised  above  the  lea- 
ther-work of  a  cavalryman's  horse-trappings.  2.  A 
protuberance  raised  as  an  oruameut  on  any  work; 


Bormann  Fuse. 


great,  there  is  danger  of  its  screw-thread  being  strip- 
ped, and  its  being  driven  in  by  the  shock  of  tiring,  or 
of  its  being  driven  out  on  the  ignition  of  the  bursting- 
charge,  thus  affording  a  means  of  escape  for  the  gas 
evolved,  without  bursting  the  shell.  To  prevent  the 
former,  a  broad  shoulder,  aa,  is  left  when  the  fuse- 
hole  is  tapped.  To  avoid  the  possibility  of  the  latter, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  increase  the  effect  of  a  small 
bursting-charge,  the  fuse-hole  below  the  shoulder  is 
closed  by  screwing  in  a  comiiosition  disk,  b,  with  a 
small  hole  in  its  center  through  which  the  tire  from 
the  fuse  is  communicatetl  to  the  charge. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  this  fuse  consists  in  the 
driving  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  composition  by  a 
single  pre.ssurc,  and  its  dis-position  in  such  wise  that 
the  combustion  occurs  not  with  the  stnititication  of 
the  mass,  but  transversely  to  it,  while  in  the  ordinary 


Shouldt-r  auil  Di^k. 

fuses  the  solidification  and  the  i^roeess  of  combustion 
are  just  the  reverse;  that  is,  the  column  is  composed 
of  a  number  of  layers  solidified  successively  by  an 
equal  pres.sure;  but  as  the  inferior  layers  have,  be- 
sides the  pressure  applied  to  them,  to  bear  that  of  the 
superincumbent  layers,  it  follows  that  the  mass  is  not 
homogeneous,  but  increases  in  density  with  the  in- 
ferior position  of  the  layers.     See  Fu«e  and  Tiine- 

BOSHES.— The  sloping  sides  of  the  lo^\er  part  of  a 
blast-furnace,  which  gradually  contract  from  widest 
part  of  the  furnace  to  the  hearth.  In  a  furnace  .5.5 
feet  high  and  38  feel  wide  at  tlie  base  of  the  struc- 
ture, the  lx)shes  will  1k'  about  8  feet  in  perpendicular 
height.  12  feet  w^ide  at  the  top,  and  2i  feet  at  the  bot- 
tom where  they  join  the  hearth.  The  boslies  are 
built  of  a  coarse-griltcd  freestone,  alKiunding  in 
small  nodules  of  quartz.  A  numl)er  of  newly  in- 
vented puildling  and  boiling  furnaces  have  iron  tioors 
and  boshes.  A  current  of  water  is  caused  to  circu- 
late in  them  to  prevent  destruction  of  the  iron  under 
the  extreme  heat.  The  material  which  is  banked  up 
ag-iinst  the  lx)shes  to  protect  them  from  the  heal  is 
called  firing.  It  consists  of  scrap  and  ore,  and  re- 
ceives a  preliminary  melting.     One  compotition  for 


the  part  rising  in  the  center  of  a  shield.  3.  A  plate 
of  cast-iron  secured  to  the  back  of  the  hearth  of  a  trav- 
eling-forge. 4.  In  architecture,  a  raised 
ornament  covering  the  intersections  of 
the  ribs  of  ceilings.  They  are  more  fre- 
quently seen  in  vaulted  roofs,  as  in  the 
aisles  of  a  church,  but  occur  also  where 
the  ceiling  is  flat.  In  early  Xorman 
work  there  are  generally  no  bosses,  and 
they  become  richer  and  more  frequent 
as  we  advance  towards  the  decorateil 
and  perpendicular  styles.  In  the  il  > 
rated  style  the  boss  usually  consi>i-  n. 
foliage,  sometimes  combined  with  ani- 
mals, heads,  and  the  like.  Coats-of- 
arms,  charged  w  ith  armorial  bearings,  came  then  also 
lobe  used  for  this  jiurpose,  though  they  were  more  fre- 
quent in  the  periundiculiir. — The  boss  was  borne  in  the 
arms  of  the  Corporation  of  Lorimers.     Sec  Lorimer. 

BOSSE— BOSSE  A  FEU.— A  term  used  in  the  French 
Artillery  to  express  a  glass  bottle  which  is  very  thin, 
containing  four  or  five  pounds  of  powder,  and  roinid 
the  neck  of  which  four  or  five  matches  are  hung  after 
it  has  been  well  corked.  A  cord  two  or  three  feet  in 
length  is  tied  to  the  lK)ttle,  which  serves  to  throw  it. 
The  instant  the  bottle  breaks,  the  powder  catches  fire 
and  everything  within  the  immediate  effects  of  the 
explosion  is  destroyed. 

BOSSETTES.— In  horse-armor,  the  ornaments  on  the 
side  of  the  bit.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  pieces 
of  leather,  or  blinkers,  which  cover  the  eyes  of  the 
mule. 

BOSTANJl. — A  class  of  men  in  Turkey  whO:  origi- 
nally the  Sultan's  Gardeners  (the  name  being  derived 
from  bostan,  a  garden),  now  perform,  in  addition  to 
their  garden-labor,  a  variety  of  duties,  such  as  mount- 
ing guard  at  the  Seraglio,  rowing  the  Sultan's  barge, 
and  attending  on  the  Officers  of  the  Imperial  IIou.se- 
hold.  They  are  under  a  Chief  called  Bostanji  Bashi, 
who  holds  the  rank  of  a  Pa.sha,  and  is  Governor  of 
the  Sultan's  residences,  and  Steersman  of  his  barge. 
He  also  holds  the  Inspector-generalship  of  the  woods 
and  forests  in  the  \icinity  of  the  capit.il,  has  the  ju- 
risdiction of  the  shores  of  the  Bosporus  and  Sea  of 
Mannora,  and  is,  altogether,  so  important  a  function- 
ary that  onlv personal  favorites  of  the  Sultan  c.in  hope 

j  to'fill  theofrice.  The  financial  reforms  of  Sultan  Mah- 
moud,  however,  have  greatly  les.sen(d  the  emoluments 
of  the  post.     The  Bostanji  at  one  time  amounted  to 

1  .50(M),  and  were  di\ided  into  comfjanies  like  the  .lan- 
issaries.  with  w  horn  tliey  were  united  in  military  duty. 

;  In  war-time  their   strength  was   12,000.      A  scarlet 

1  bonnet,  of  excessive  dimensions,  formed  the  dislino 


BOTHW   Y  BLOCKS. 


215 


BOTHITY. 


rive  part  of  their  costume.     Their  number  now  does 
not  .imount  to  more  than  600. 

BOTHWAY  BLOCKS.— Two  natures  of  these  hlock.s 
have  been  introduced  into  the  English  service,  the  IH- 
and  1.5-inch.  They  are  each  siwjle,  double,  and  tnl'lr 
blocks.  These  blocks  in  the  land-service  have  supi  r 
seded  the  ordinary  common  blocks  of  18  inches  and 
upwards,  but  the  existing  store  of  iron  gy  a  blocks  will 
be  used  up.  Bothway's  blocks  are  made  of  the  best 
English  elm;  the  swivel,  hooks,  and  shackles,  of  the 
best  manufactured  scrap-iron;  the  straps  and  pins  for 
sheaves,  also  connecting  pins,  of  the  best  iron;  and 
the  sheaves,  of  phosphor-bronze.     See  lilocks. 

BOTON£. — In  Heraldry,  a  cross  liotone  is  a  cross  of 
which  the  ends  are  in  the  form  of  buds  or  buttons. 
Also  written  Bohmny. 

BOTTLE-NECKED  CARTRIDGE.— The  name  given 
to  the  Martini-Henry  cartridge,  from  its  bottle-necked 
shape.  The  neck  or  smaller  diameter  of  the  cartridge- 
case  is  formed  by  means  of  a  die  so  arranged  as  to 
form  flutes  or  folds  in  that  part  of  the  case,  and  con- 
sequently reduce  the  diameter;  the  paper  covering  is 
ilispensed  with,  a  paper  lining  being  substituted. 

BOTTOM.— 1.  A  circular  disk  with  holes  to  hold 
the  rods  in  the  formation  of  a  gabion.  2.  One  of  the 
plates  by  which  grape  or  canister  is  built  up  into  a 
cyliuder  suitable  for  loading  into  the  gun:  cast-iron 
tops  and  bottoms  for  grape,  wrought-irou  for  canis- 
ter. 

BOUCANIER. — A  long,  hea\-y  musket  used  l\y  the 
American  Buccaneers,  and  with  such  skill  as  to  give 
the  weapon  a  high  degree  of  ceiebrity. 

BOUCHE. — 1.  The  ajierture  or  mouth  of  a  piece  of 
ordnance, — that  of  a  mortar,  of  the  barrel  of  a  mus- 
ket, and  of  e\ery  species  of  tire-arms  from  which  a 
ball  or  bidlet  is  discharged.  2.  A  cylinder  of  copper 
in  which  the  vent  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  is  drilled.  It 
has  an  exterior  screw-thread  cut  on  it,  so  that  it  may 
be  removed  when  the  vent  becomes  worn,  or  a  new 
bouche  substituted.     Also  written  Bmwh  and  Bugh. 

BOUCHING. — The  fuse-holes  of  shells  are  frequent- 
ly bouehed  with  gun-metal  to  receive  the  fuse-stock. 
In  lilting  the  shell  to  receive  the  bouching,  the  bore 
should  be  tapped  with  a  full  thread,  and  tlie  jiroper 
shoulder  left  at  the  bottom  to 
prevent    the    bouching    from 
being  driven  in  by  the  .shock 
of  tiring  and  causing  prema- 

II  ^V  ture  explosion.  The  object  of 
;,W  the  bouching  is  to  prevent  rust, 
^^9  and  to  have  the  siime  kind  of 
ii^  metal  in  contact  with  the  fusc- 
i  stock,  so  that  there  will  be  less 

I  danger  in   extracting   or    ex- 

;  changing   a  fuse.     The  fuse- 

_  holes"  of   heavy  rifle-shell   are 

'"iflif  ,1  necessarily  cast  larger  than  the 

•""  diameter  of  the  regular  fuse- 

stock,  which  can,  however,  be  used  with  the  aid  of  an 
tiihtptlnri-riiiH  of  gun-metal,  which  is  screwed  in  to 
reduce  the  diameter  of  the  hole  to  the  proper  dimen- 
sions. The  1.1-inch  spherical  shell  are  cast  with  three  i 
fuse-holes  equally  distant  from  each  other,  and  situa- 
ted in  the  angles  of  a  triangle  4  inches  apart.  See 
Fiinc-hiilc  and  Shtils. 

BOUCHING-BITS. -Instruments  used  for  boring  a 
hole  in  the  vent  field  of  guns,  to  receive  the  coiiper 
plug,  or  bouch,  through  which  the  vent  is  afterwards 
drilled.  ! 

BOUGE.— An  ancient  war-club,  the  head  of  which 
was  loaded  with  lead;  also  called  plonMc,  and  fre- 
quentlv  written  Boiih/i'. 

BOULAF.— A  kind  of  lialon  or  very  short  mace,  for- 
mcrlv  uscii  bv  the  Polish  Generals. 

BO'ULENGE  TELEMETER.— The  Boulenge  teleme- 
ter is  an  inslnnnent  devised  for  ascertaining  the  distance 
to  a  point  by  means  of  sound  proceeding  from  the  point 
to  the  place  of  observation.  The  one  u.sed  for  artil- 
lery purposes  consists  of  a  glass  tube  about  six  inches 
in  "length,  tilled  with  a  transparent  liquid  that  does  . 


not  freeze  except  with  intense  cold.  In  the  liquid  is 
a  metallic  disk,  which  moves  freely  from  one  end  of 
the  tube  to  the  other.  It  is  so  adjusted  that  the  mo- 
tion will  be  uniform  and  comparatively  slow.  The 
tube  is  inclosed  in  a  brass  case,  to  which  is  attached 
a  scale,  after  the  fashion  of  a  thermometer.  This 
scale  is  marked  for  each  hundred  yards  up  to  4000. 
The  ilivisions  on  the  scale  show  the  distance,  in  yards, 
through  which  soimd  will  travel  in  air,  during  the 
time  required  for  the  disk  to  descend  over  the  space 
on  the  scale  marked  by  the  curresponding  mmiber  of 
yards.  If,  for  instance,  the  disk  pa.sses  from  zero  to 
the  500  mark,  it  indicates  that  sound  would  have 
traveled  ,500  yards  through  the  air  during  that  time. 
The  instrument  must  be  held  vcrticallj',  or  as  nearly 
so  as  possible.  To  arrest  the  motion  of  the  disk  at 
any  point,  the  mstrument  is  quickly  turned  to  a  hori- 
zontal position. 

To  use  it  for  determining  the  time  of  flight  of 
shells,  it  is  held  in  the  right  hand,  back  of  the  hand 
up,  with  the  zero  of  the  instrument  to  the  left;  a  turn 
of  the  wri.st  to  the  right  brings  the  instrument  verti- 
cal, with  the  zero  end  uppermost;  the  disk  then  de- 
scends, and  a  turn  of  the  wrist  to  the  left  arrests  its 
motion.  The  ob.server,  holding  the  instrument  as  de- 
scribed, watches  for  the  flash  of  the  shell,  and  upon 
seeing  it,  instantly  brings  the  instrument  to  a  vertical 
position;  upon  hearing  the  report  from  the  shell,  he 
instantly  turns  it  back  again.  The  position  of  the 
disk  indicates  the  number  of  yards  frtmi  the  ob.server 
to  where  the  shell  exploded.  To  asf  eriain  the  dis- 
tance loan  enemy's  battery,  the  in.strmnent  is  held  and 
turned  in  the  same  manner.  The  observer  watches 
for  the  flash  of  a  gun;  observing  which,  he  lurns  the 
instrument,  and,  when  he  hears  the  reiiort,  turns  it 
back  and  reads  oft  the  di-stance.  Each  hundred  yards 
on  the  scale  is  subdivided  into  quarters.  See  Le  Bou- 
lenge Ckronof;ra]h  and  Telciiieler. 

BOULEVARD-BOULEVART.— The  name  given  in 
Frai.cc  to  the  old  fortitiealimis,  rani])arts,  etc.,  with 
which  towns,  or  ]iortions  of  tlicm,  were,  or  still  are, 
surrounded.  In  France  and  Germany  these  ancient 
works  have  generally'  been  leveled,  the  ditches  tilled 
up,  and  the  space  "thus  obtained  emjJoyed  for  the 
formation  of  parks,  promenades,  and  streets  lined 
with  trees.  These,  however,  in  France  still  bear  the 
name  of  bovlenird.  The  boulevards  of  Paris  are 
celebrated,  and  are  of  great  service  as  open  sjiaees 
promoting  the  circulation  of  air  amidst  the  dense 
mass  of  habitations.  Some  jiarts  of  them  present  a 
veiy  dazzling  spectacle,  and  as  a  whole  they  afford  a 
striking  exhibition  of  the  life  and  character  of  the 
French  Capital  in  all  the  different  classes  of  society. 
The  Boulevard  des  ItaUens  is  particvdarly  known  as 
the  rendezvous  of  the  fashionable,  and  the  Binilerard 
du  Temple  as  the  place  where  the  small  theaters  are 
to  be  found  which  are  frequented  by  the  conmion 
people  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  suburbs,  for  which 
rea.son  the  expression  T/u'iittr  de  Boulevard  is  often 
employed  to  denote  a  theater  for  the  common  jieople, 
or  one  of  an  inferior  kind.  The  Thames  Embank- 
ment is  essentiallv  a  boulevard. 

BOUND.— In  gunnery,  the  jialh  of  a  shot  comprised 
between  tu  o  grazes. 

BOUNTY. — A  sura  of  money  given  to  encourage 
men  to  enter  the  army  or  navy.  In  time  of  peace, 
when  there  is  little  or  no  need  to  augment  the  forces, 
the  bounty  sinks  to  a  minimum;  but  in  ca.ses  of  exi- 
gency, it  is  raised  according  to  the  difficulty  and  ur- 
gency of  the  circumstances.  In  the  British  anny  no 
bountvwas  paid  to  recruits  until  about  half  a  century 
ago;  tlie  temptations  offered  to  them,  if  any,  were  of 
some  other  character.  The  highest  Iwunty  ever  paid 
during  the  great  wars  against  iSai)oloon  was  in  If  12, 
when"^it  amounted  to  t'18  12«.  6(/.  for  limited  service, 
and  £23  IT.*.  6rf.  for  life;  but  these  sums  were  in 
great  part  nominal,  being  subject  to  many  imfair  and 
absurd  deductions.  Even  so  late  as  \M\).  when  the 
bounty  to  an  iufantn'  recruit  was  nominally  £4,  he  re- 
ceived little  more  than  one  eighth  of  this  amount,  all 


BOURBON  FUSE. 


216 


BOW  AND  ARROW. 


the  rest  being  swallowed  up  in  fees  and  drawbacks  of 
^iirious  kinds.  The  only  l)<>uuty  which  now  exists  is 
a  free  kit — no  other  ln-ini;  allowed.  The  young  men 
who  used  to  enter  the  British  army  were  supposi-d, 
for  the  most  part,  to  have  iH'en  temiited  by  immediate 
iHJunly  rather  than  by  |)ros|K-ctive  pay  aiid  pensions; 
and  thus  it  aro.se  that  the  rate  of  lx>unty  varied  fre- 
quently, while  tho.si'  of  pay  anil  pensions  underwent 
verj-  little  change.  In  18.i.")  il  was  £7  jwr  head  (for 
line"  infantry):  m  IWti,  only  £-i;  in  18.")8,  t'3;  and  it 
afterwanls  "  underwent  further  changes.  It  was 
always  higher  to  the  cavalry  and  artillery  than  to  the 
infantn,-;  and  in  the  latter  ii  wiv*  higher  to  the  High- 
land than  to  the  other  regiments,  on  account  of  mat- 
ters connected  with  dress  and  personal  ornaments. 
The  tenn  boiiKty  is  also  used  in  the  navy  to  signify 
the  payment  and  distribution  of  moncv  to  which  the 
otficcrs  and  crew  of  Her  JIajesty's  ships  and  vessi'ls 
of  war  may,  on  particular  occasions  of  active  service, 
be  entitled".     See  Prize. 

BOURBON  FUSE. — This  fuse  consists  of  a  bronze 
fuse-plug  screwed  into  the  eye  of  the  shell,  with  a 
head  larger  in  diameter  than  the  other  part  and 
threaded  on  the  exterior,  by  means  of  which  a  cap  is 
screwed  on,  covering  the  fuse  imtil  just  Ix^fore  it  is 
used.  A  cap  of  copper  is  fixed  to  the  head  of  the 
fuse  by  means  of  several  circular  grooves  in  the  fuse- 
plug;  slots  and  projections  Ix'ing  formed  on  the  edge 
of  the  cap,  and  the  rabbets  of  the  circular  grooves, 
■which  allow  the  cap  to  be  inserted  in  its  place.  A 
threaded  hole  is  placed  at  the  highest  point  of  this 
cap,  in  which  the  fulminating-cap  is  screwed  just  be- 
fore the  fuse  is  used.  A  steel  nipple  is  screwed  into 
the  body  of  the  fuse  just  under  the  cap,  which,  when 
the  cap  is  exploded,  conveys  lire  to  the  charge,  com- 
municating it  first  to  the  powder  contained  in  the  chan- 
nel of  the  fuse.  The  bottom  of  this  channel  is  closed 
with  a  cork  stojjper,  which  is  blown  out  when  the 
powder  in  the  fuse  takes  tire.  The  projectile  being 
supposed  to  strike  with  the  point  first,  the  shock,  in 
order  to  explode  the  cap,  must  be  of  sufficient  force 
to  flatten  the  cap;  and  this  cap  has  been  made  of  such 
a  thickness  that  nothing  less  thati  striking  against  a 
fortification  or  other  c<|ually  resisting  body  is  suffi- 
cient to  cause  explosion.  Ricochets  could  seldom 
cause  the  shell  to  burst.  Such  a  fuse  is  evidently 
good  for  all  projectiles  with  arrangements  to  keep 
particular  [larts  always  to  the  front.     See  Fuse.  j 

BOURDONNANTE."— A  name  formerly  given  to  a  j 
kind  of  bombard  of  a  heavv  caliber.  j 

BOURGUIGNOTE.— A  hejinet  worn  by  the  Bur- 
gundians,  and  from  whom  it  was  named.  It  was  of 
polished  iron,  with  a  visor.  Under  Louis  XIV.  their 
head-<lre.ss  was  changed  lo  a  kind  of  bonnet.  Also 
wrillen  linnrijenut  and  Bmirgignolte. 

BOURLETTE.— In  antiquity,  a  mace  which  was 
garnished  with  iron  points. 

BOURNOUSE.— The  Arabic  name  of  a  garment 
worn  in  Algeria,  Morocco,  and  other  parts  of  north- 
ern Africa,  and  which  constitutes  a  part  of  the  mili- 
tary clothing  of  some  corps  of  the  French  army.  It  is 
a  large  woolen  mantle,  worn  above  the  other  attire  of 
the  natives,  and  having  a  hood,  which  is  thrown  over 
the  head  in  rainy  weather.  The  bouniouse  is  gene- 
rally white,  though  distinguished  individuals  wear  it 
of  various  colors — blue,  green,  red,  etc.  It  has  been 
long  in  use  among  the  Spaniards  \mder  the  name  of 
Mjnnuiz.  Through  the  con()uest  of  Algeria  by  the 
French,  the  bouniouse  was  imported  into  France  and 
England,  although  its  origuial  form  has  been  con- 
siderably altered.  Also  written  Boumous,  Burnooae, 
and  JtnriiiiK. 

BOUSMARD  BASTION  SYSTEM. -This  system  of 
forlirtcaliim  possesses  renmrkiiljle  features."  Taking 
the  enceinte  of  Vauban's  first  svstem,  both  the  crest 
of  the  flank  and  the  original  face  are  divided  into 
eight  equal  parts,  being  re.s])ectively  0,  .s,  10,  l>,  ]4_ 
16, 18,  and  nearly  21)  yards  in  length".  The  new  tacts 
are  composed  of  eight  broken  lines.  The  teuaille 
has  flanks  without  either  terre-idein  or  banguette. 


The  casemates  are  skillfuUv  disjiosed,  and  their  rear 
is  protected  by  the  shoulder-angle  of  the  bjistions. 
The  main  ditch  is  reduced  to  20  yards,  in  order 
that  the  defenders  may  throw  hand-grenades  into  the 
kxigment  of  the  enemy  on  the  covered-way.  The 
covered-way  is  traced  in  cremaillere,  and  extends 
along  the  counter-s<arp  of  the  main  ditch.  The 
traverses  have  the  form  of  sedans,  and  the  ravelin  is 
detached  be.vond  the  glacis  of  the  enceinte.  The 
great  defect  of  this  system  is  that  the  ravelin  and  its 
reduit  are  liable  to  be  taken  by  the  gorge. 

BOUTEROLLES.— The  richl'y  decorated  termination 
of  ancient  sword-scabbards.  The  figures  of  lions  or 
other  animals,  haxing  their  bodies  stretched  out  in 
the  direction  of  the  sword-blade,  impart  a  bold  and 
effective  finish  to  the  botiterolle. 

BOUTON.— A  kind  of  war-club,  formerly  used  by 
the  C'aiibs  (if  the  Antilles.     Also  written  BniiUmu. 

BOW  AND  ARROW.— In  the  ariiele  Ahciieks  will 
be  found  a  orief  account  of  the  military  arrange- 
ments imder  which  bow^nen  formed  a  comi^onent 
element  in  the  armies  of  the  Middle  Ages;  and  imder 
Arb.\lest  is  a  description 
of  the  cross-bow,  which  was 
once  so  favorite  a  weapon. 
We  here  describe  the  more 
effective  though  simpler  im- 
])lemenl.  The  loug-bow  first 
gained  ascendency  in  Eng- 
land in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. It  was  fotmd  that  a 
dozen  arrows  could  be  dis- 
charged from  this  weapon 
while  the  Arbalester  was 
winding  up  his  cumbrous 
cross-bow  and  discharging 
one  arrow  or  quarrel  from  it. 
Moreover,  the  long-bow  being 
held  vertically,  the  bowmen 
were  able  to  stand  in  closer 
array  than  the  Arbalesters; 
they  were  enabled  also  to  take 
a  greater  supply  of  the  muni- 
tions of  war  into  the  field, 
seeing  that  the  bow  and  ar- 
rows were  much  lighter  in 
weight.  In  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward III.  a  bow  was  priced 
\s.  to  Is.  6(f.,  and  a  sheaf  of 
arrows,  \s.  to  1«.  2(f.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  VII.  the  price 

(fixed  by  law)  of  the  bow  varied  from  6rf.  to  3*. 
4(/.  The  last-named  monarch  adopted  extraordinary 
means  for  encouraging  the  use  of  the  long-bow. 
Many  ordinances  were  issued  for  insuring  a  good 
supply  of  bow-staves.  The  bowyers,  string-makers, 
flctchers,  and  arrow-head  makers  were  all  placed 
imder  stringent  regidations.  Merchants  were  com- 
Iielled  to  import  gooii  bow-staves  with  cargo,  in 
certain  projiortions.  Very  long  bow-staves  were 
admitted  duty  free.     Yew  was  considered  the  best 


wood;  mil  111  iirder  that  the  sujiply  should  not  be 
loo  speedily  used  up,  Itowyers  were  ordered  to  use 
elm,  ash,  and  witch-liazel  in  certain  proportions  to 
yew.  The  heads  of  families  were  bidden  to  i)ro\ide 
bows  for  their  sons  anil  serv:uits;  and  town-councils 
or  officers  were  required  to  provide  shooting-butts  just 


/ 


/ . 


K.J 


Bow  AND  Ahrow.  Ancibnt  Weaposs.  etc.  ].  The  Block  Prince  at  Crecy,  2.  British  An;Wi»-  ,n  c,M«tlshilif"'-'' '™«'''8  nttoekod  by  Spaniards.  4.  Husslto  wnc-ni-fort.  r,.  Oprman  or  black  kniglit.  il.  Spanish 
Arquebus  man.  7,  Tipstaff.  6.  Falconet,  9.  Italian  kniitht  with  Are  iirni  (lfil"«'"'^'i.Mn2e-  W  IW^„  "i;  ,','■  Jnck-snake.  12,  Jack-hook  tlBth  i-entun).  Vi.  Tarru.')  nmaket  (SwItKorlandi,  II.  Tlpstarr 
Hitli  three-biirrflleil  portable  gun,  16.  Moitar,  10,  LoadinK  sUovel  IT  Ramn'!'"-  ''^i'BiulfrU.^  a  HuMi.r^Vw  "''■*P''*^  -'■  Guuner'8  helmet,  a  Rammer,  -li.  Repeating  arm  f.>r  clone  firing.  »t,  Tip- 
Htaflfswword,    -25    Knights  Hwor,!.    -iO.  Huesito  weapon,    -r    Halberts,     *   rorUaW'-  »  "  "Mile  Weapons,    31.  Battle  cIubB.      3J,  33.  3).  33,  Wall,  hooked,  chamber  and  tinder  musket.    36.  DuJ  let- 

molds.     37.  Powderrtaska. 

Ji-eso. 


• 


BOWIE-KNIFE. 


217 


BOXEE  CAETEID6E. 


outside  each  town.  Some  of  the  bows  had  two  arch- 
es, connected  by  a  middle  straight  piece.  The  best 
length  was  regarded  as  about  .5  feet  8  inches  from 
nock  to  noclc;  but  in  earlier  times  some  of  the  bows 
were  much  longer.  The  first  an-ows  were  made  of 
reeds;  these  materials  were  afterwards  superseded  by 
cornel-wood;  but  the  wood  finally  adopted  as  the  best 
was  ash.  The  arrows  had  heads  pointed  with  steel, 
.sometimes  barbed  to  render  their  action  more  terrible. 
They  were  feathered  with  portions  of  goose-wing. 
The  best  length  for  a  bow  of  the  above-named  size 
was  set  down  at  2  feet  3  inches.  Sometimes  the  ar- 
rows were  tipped  with  combustibles.  The  best  ma- 
kers of  arrow-heads,  as  well  a-s  of  bows,  were  com- 
pelled by  law  to  go  from  town  to  town,  to  exercise 
their  craft  wherever  it  was  most  needed.  The  bow- 
man usually  carried  34  arrows,  called  a  sheaf,  or  a 
quiver,  at  his  right  side  or  at  his  back;  besides  others 
in  his  girdle.  He  kept  his  bow  in  a  case;  hence 
Falstaff's  comparison  of  Prince  Hal  to  a  bow-case,  in 
allusion  to  his  slenderness.  Bowmen,  in  their  hours 
of  sport,  used  arrow-heads  called  rigged,  creased, 
shoiihUred,  and  sprnm-lwmled,  according  to  the  shape. 

BOWIE-KNIFE.— A  common  hunting-knife  used 
by  Southwestern  pioneers,  and  improved  by  Colonel 
James  Bowie,  who  has  been  wrongly  represented  as 
a  bully  and  a  duelist.  The  bowie-knife  is  .seldom 
concealed,  and  it  is  by  no  means  the  commonly  used 
weapon  which  it  is  represented  to  be  by  foreigners; 
indeed,  of  late  years  it  is  seldom  seen  at  all  unless 
among  hunters  or  .settlers  in  the  extreme  frontiers. 

BOWLINE.— A  very  useful  knot,  known  as  the 
single,  running,  and  double  bowline  knot.  The 
single  bowline  serves  to  throw  over  a  post  to  haul  on, 
also  to  sling  a  barrel;  the  running  liowline,  for 
securing  paulins  on  ammunition-wagons;  and  the 
double  bowline,  for  slinging  a  ca.sk. 

BOW-SHOT. — A  term  sometimes  employed  to  de- 
note the  space  which  an  arrow  m.ay  pass  over  when 
shot  from  a  bow. 

BOWSING  ROPE. — A  rope  used  in  the  artillery  ser- 
vice for  mo\ing  a  weight  by  simply  hauling  upon  it. 

BOW-STRING. — 1.  Great  improvements  have  been 
made  of  late  years  in  the  strength  of  field-axletrees, 
rendered  necessary  by  the  increased  strains.      The 


Bow-string. 

wooden  bed  having  been  given  up,  the  box-girder  t6ok 
its  place,  and  the  bmr-string  of  steel  is  a  further  im- 
provement. In  this  the  bed  is  the  top  of  a  strong 
girder  of  deep  section,  the  bottom  of  which  is  formeil 
by  the  axletree;  the  latter  is  only  pierced  with  holes 
for  attachment  to  the  l)ed  at  it.s  thick  ends.  This 
arrangement  prevents  the  thinner  jiarts  of  the  metal 
from  being  nipped  or  pierced  when  strained — an  im- 
portant matter,  especially  in  dealing  with  steel.  It 
is  also  easily  taken  off  the  bed  when  required. — 2. 
On  the  quality  of  the  bow-string  depend  in  a  great 
measure  the  shooting  qualities  of  the  bow.  It  shoulil 
not  be  too  thin,  or  it  wjll  not  last  Ions;  in  the  selec- 


tion of  it,  it  is  best  to  be  guided  by  the  size  of  the 
notch  of  the  arrows.  At  one  end  of  it  a  strong  loop 
should  be  worker!  to  go  over  the  upper  horn;  the 
other  end  should  be  left  free  in  order  to  l)e  fixed  on 
to  the  lower  horn:  this  is  done  with  a  peculiar 
loop,  shown  in  the  drawing.  When  the  lower  end  is 
fastened,  the  distance  between  it  and  tlie  loop  at  the 
other  end  should  be  such,  that  when  the  loop  is  in  it.s 
place  (i.e.,  the  bow  sti-ung)  the  string  is,  in  a  gentle- 
man's bow,  six  inches,  in  a  lady's,  five  inches,  from 
the  center  of  the  bow.  The  slnnjj  should  be  lapjied 
for  an  inch  above  the  noeking-pomt,  and  five  inches 
below  it,  with  waxed  thread,  and  this  again  with  fioss- 
silk — to  such  a  thickness  that  it  completely  fills  the 
notch  of  the  arrow,  but  without  being  too  tight,  or  it 
may  split  it.  Never  trust  a  worn  string;  talce  it  off 
and  put  on  a  new  one— should  it  break,  it  will  most 
probaljly  snap  the  fjow.— 3.  A  stiing  used  by  the 
Turks  for  strangling  offenders. 

BO'WYER.— the 'militaiy  term  for  the  man  who 
makes  or  repairs  the  military  bows.  Not  much  used 
at  present. 

BOXER  CARTRIDGE.- The  Boxer  cartridges  for 
the  Snider  and  ^Martini-Henr}'  rifles  are  made  on  a 
large  scale  at  the  Woolwich  Arsenal  in  what  is  known 
as  the  Small-arm  Cartridge  Department.  Although 
the  number  of  pieces  constituting  a  Boxer  cartridge 
is  much  greater  than  those  on  the  American  plan  of 
drawing  the  shell  out  of  a  single  disk  of  metal,  the 
cost  of  manufacture  is  low,  inasmuch  as  tlie  parts  are 
made  very  rapidly  in  presses  tended  by  boys.  The 
cost  of  a  single  small-arm  cartridge  at  Woolwich  Is 
about  one  penny. 

The  bullets  are  made  in  presses  of  very  strong  and 
solid  construction,  the  princ  ifiles  of  which  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  drawing.     The  lead,  hardened 


n 


by  alloying  it  with  one  thirteenth  of  its  weight  of  tin, 
is  drawn  out  into  wire  which  is  wound  on  a  reel,  and 
from  this  reel  it  is  fed  into  a  revohing  disk  of  hard- 
ened steel,  (/,  which  is  pierced  with  roiuid  holes  of 
the  precise  diameter  of  the  finished  bullet.  This  disk 
revolves  vertically,  and  as  it  passes  the  sharp  edge  of 
a  piece  of  steel,  d,  pressing  against  its  side,  the  lead 
wire  is  shaved  off,  leaving  in  the  die  a  quantity  just 
sufficient  to  form  the  bullet.  Revolving  a  lit  tic  further, 
two  punches,//,  press  on  the  lead  in  the  die  from 
opposite  direciions,  and  give  it  proper  sliajie  at  the 
point  and-  ba.se.  In  one  of  the  punches  there  is  a 
smidl  hole  for  the  escape  of  any  surplus  lead,  if  there 
chance  to  be  anv.  There  is  a  slight  cannelure  in  the 
surface  of  the  ^Martini- Ilcnrv-  bullet  into  which  the 
mouth  of  the  case  is  crimped  to  secure  the  l)ullet  in 
its  place  in  the  cartridge.  The  bullets  are  rolled  be- 
tween a  horizontallv-revolviiig  disk  and  a  confining 
rim.  The  edire  of  "the  disk  and  inner  surface  of  the 
rim  have  a  raised  rib,  which  make  the  required  in- 
dentation or  cannelure  in  the  Indlet. 

The  l)ullet  for  the  altered  Enfield  lifle  differs  from 
the  Martini-IIenrv  bullet,  inasmuch  as  it  has  two 
cavities  and  three  "cannelures.  The  cannel  ures  are  for 
holding  the  lubricants.  The  rear  cavity  has  a  clav 
plug  in  it  for  the  pui-pose  of  expanding  the  lead,  and 
the  forward  cavity  is  fonned  by  a  punch,  and  after- 


BOXHR  TVSE. 


118 


BOXER  LIFE-SAVING  ROCKET. 


ward  closed  over  in  a  die.  The  object  of  this  latter- 
named  cavity  is  to  give  a  proper  adjustment  to  the 
position  of  the  center  of  srravity  of  the  bullui  in  tirinir. 
bmull-iirm  iimmunition  in  the  BritLsli  service  is  dis- 
tributed in  the  tiild  by  nietuis  of  carts  dcsiirned  for 
this  sernce  and  tlr.iwn  by  two  horses.  Artillery  am- 
munition is  transported  in  wagons.  See  Martini- 
lit  nri/  liifif  and  tiiiidtr  Rifle. 

BOXER  FUSE.— A  wooden-stock  time-fuse.  A 
coned  coinposiiion  chauuel  is  bored  into  the  stock 
parallel  to  the  a.xis.  but  one  tenth  of  an  inch  distant 
from  it.  This  channel  receives  the  paper  fuse-casi'. 
Just  above  the  upjx'r  face  of  the  fuse-composition  is 
an  unoccupied  space  from  which  four  gas-vent  chan- 
nels lead  to  the  outside  of  tlie  stock  above  the  point 
of  the  shell.  Immediatel}-  above  this  gas-veiit  cham- 
ber the  bore  of  the  stock  is  considerably  enlarged  to 
receive  the  igniter.  This  consists  of  a  small  bronze 
hollow  cylinder,  closed  at  the  lower  end,  Avhere  it  is 
furnished  on  the  inside 
with  a  pierced  nipple 
for  percussion-cap.  The 
upper  edge  of  the  hollow 
C3iinder  is  flanged  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  rest 
on  the  top  of  the  stock; 
thereby  preventing  the 
igniter  from  being  driven 
bodily  into  the  fuse  on 
discharge  of  the  gun. 
Inside  of  this  hollow 
cylinder  the  plunger  is 
hung  on  a  brittle  nire 
(half  copper  and  half 
lead).  When  this  aiTangement  is  in  place,  the  head 
of  the  fuse  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  paf)cr  or  linen 
luted  down  and  shellacked.  Thus  far  the  fuse  only 
burns  for  the  full  time  for  which  it  is  pressed.  In 
order  to  provide  for  intermediate  times,  two  side 
channels  are  bored  from  the  lower  end  of  the  fuse 
upward  (one  of  these  is  shown  in  the  drawing). 
Holes  bored  (at  equal  intervals)  from  the  outside  of 
the  stock  connect  the  exterior  of  the  fuse  with  the 
side  channels;  the  lowest  communicating  hole  in  each 
channel  being  bored  entirely  through  to  the  fuse- 
composition.  The  channels  are  tilled  T\'ith  mealed 
powder,  and  paper  is  pasted  over  the  exterior  of  the 
communicating  or  time  holes,  which  are  arranged  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  The  upper  and  lower  ends 
of  the  stock  are  served  with  brass  wire. 

This  fuse,  which  is  viitu.illy  the  English  Boxer, 
works  as  follows:  With  a  suitable  tool  pierce  through 
the  communicating  hole,  which  corresponds  to  the 
number  of  seconds  desired,  into  the  column  of  fuse- 
composition  (see  arrow),  then  push  the  fuse  by  hand, 
giving  it  a  slight  twist,  into  the  fuse-hole  of  the  pro- 
jectile, and  load  the  gim.  On  the  explosion  of  the 
charge  the  plunger,  by  its  inertia,  shears  the  brittle 
suspending-wire,  and  strikes  the  percussion-cap, 
which  ignites  the  comiX)sition,  and  the  fuse  burns 
down  to  the  point  at  which  it  was  pierced.  Then  the 
flame  flashes  into  the  side  channels,  down  the  latter  to 
the  lower  communicating  hole,  and  thence  to  the 
bursting-charge.  If  for  any  reason  the  flame  should 
not  pass  through  the  hole  bored  at  the  desired  time, 
the  fuse  would  still  act  at  the  end  of  its  time  of  burn- 
ing by  igniting  the  charge  through  the  lower  com- 
municatiu;;  hole.  If  the  .sliell  "strikes  the  object 
before  sufficient  time  has  elapst-d  to  enable  the  com- 
position to  burn  to  the  lower  end,  it  is  probable  that 
the  stock  woidd  be  split  and  the  whole  be  driven  in- 
wards; in  which  case  it  would  act  as  a  concussion- 
fuse.     See  Film . 

BOXER  LIFE-SAVING  ROCKET.— The  12-pounder 
rocket  used  by  the  English  Coasi-guard  Service  is  the 
invention  of  General  Boxer,  R.A.  Three  different 
patterns  of  the.'*  rockets  have  been  made  and  issued. 
The  one  now  in  use  is  known  as  •'  Mark  III."  The 
Boxer  rocket  is  composed  of  a  head,  head-dip,  bo<ly, 
base-clip,  base-plug,  and  diaphragm.      The  head  "is 


hemispherical  in  form,  with  a  c}'lindrical  tenon  that 
fits  in  the  front  end  of  the  ro<'ket-case.  The  head- 
dip  nearly  envelops  the  front  end  of  the  rockel<'ase, 
with  its  forward  edge  coincident  with  the  exterior 
junction  of  the  case  and  head.  On  one  side  of  tlie 
case  the  iron  strap  forming  the  head-clip  is  bent  out 
wards  to  form  a  short  rectangular  tul)e,  whose  axis  is 
parallel  to  that  of  the  rocket.  This  short  tube  receives 
the  front  end  of  the  rocket-stick.  The  body  of  this 
rocket  consists  of  two  cylinders  of  sheet  metal  (Bes- 
semer i.  These  cylinders  are  placed  end  to  end  with 
their  axes  coincident  with  the  siuue  straight  line. 
The  front  cylinder  is  shorter  than  the  other,  to  which 
and  the  inner  diaphragm  it  is  joined  by  screws  pass- 
ing through  ca.ses  into  the  diaphragiii.  The  front 
cylinder  is  filled  with  rocket -composition  to  within 
.4  inch  of  its  front  end.  A  conicjil-shaped  canity  is  left 
in  the  axial  portion  to  furnish  a  large  surface  of  in- 
flammation. The  rear  cylinder  is  filled  in  a  similar 
manner  with  comijosition,  leaving  a  .solid  portion  of 
this  composition  at  the  front  end  between  the  two 
cavities  1.2  inch  in  thickness.  The  cavity  or  "  bore" 
of  tile  rear  cylinder  is  also  conical  in  shape.  The 
base-clip  is  analogous  to  that  at  the  head,  but  is  longer. 
It  nearly  surrounds  the  rear  end  of  the  rocket, 
and  has  a  rectangidar  tubular  projection  on  one 
side  in  line  with  that  of  the  head-clip.  The  base-plug 
closes  the  rear  end  of  the  cylinder  and  is  pierced  with 
an  axial  vent  one  inch  in  diameter,  through  which  the 
g;is  escapes  after  the  ignition  of  the  composition. 
The  diaphragm  is  placed  between  and  inside  of  the 
two  body -cylinders,  and  performs  the  same  functions 
for  the  front  cylinder  that  the  base-plug  does  for  the 
rear  one,  and  in  addition  serves  as  a  seat  for  the  as- 
sembling screws.  A  paper  cap  covers  the  vent,  which 
must  be  broken  before  firing.  The  rocket-cases  are 
protected  on  the  inside  from  the  action  of  the  compo- 
sition by  a  coat  of  anti-corrosive  paint;  the  outside  is 
protected  and  blackened  by  burning  off  oil.  Since 
1870  the  exterior  of  the  case  is  still  further  protected 
by  two  coats  of  red  paint. 

The   following  are   the  principal  dimensions  and 
weight  of  the  rocket: 


Total  length 

Radius  of  head 

Diameter  of  rocket-case  \  f^^^a^; 

Lengtti  of  front  cylinder 

Length  of  rear  cylinder 

(  Length 

Head-clip  ■<  Rectangular    (  Width . . . 

(     projection. "(  Depth. . . 

\  Length 

Base-clip  -  Rectangular    (Width... 

I     projection .  (  Depth. . . 

Length  of  clip-piu 

Diameter  of  vent  

Weight  of  rocket 


Inches. 

Centi- 
meters. 

25.0 

63.60 

1.5 

3.81 

2.75 

6.98 

2.6 

6.6 

9.3 

23.62 

14.2 

36.06 

1.5 

3.81 

1.3 

3.30 

1.2 

3.05 

2.5 

6.35 

1.5 

3.81 

1.3 

8.30 

•0.85 

2.15 

1.0 

2  54 

Pounds. 

Kilog'ms. 

14.25 

=  6.46 

The  rocket-sticks  are  made  of  pine  and  are  9  feet  6 
inches  in  length.  The  portion  of  the  stick  that  ex- 
tends through  the  clips  along  one  side  of  the  rocket  is 
square  in  cross-section,  with  a  groove  on  the  side  next 
to  the  rocket  to  fit  the  curvature  of  the  case.  The 
slick  in  rear  of  the  rocket  is  octagonal  in  cros,s-section. 
The  lower  end  of  the  stick  is  surrounded  by  an  iron 
ferrule.  Two  plates  are  placed,  one  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  slick  and  the  other  at  a  distance  from  that  end 
equal  lo  the  dislance  between  the  clips  on  the  rocket. 
The  lower  jilate  has  a  small  flange  that  brings  up 
ag.iinst  the  lower  clip  w  lien  the  stick  is  inserted  in 
position  for  firing;  both  jilates  arc  hollowed  lo  fit  the 
rocket-case.  An  iron  dip-pin  widi  the  head  bent  at 
right  angles  is  inserted  in  a  hole  through  the  slick  in 
front  of  the  base-clip,  to  prevent  the  withdrawal  of 

*  Leneth  of  clip-pin  before  l>eQdiDg,  1.2  Inch.  Size  of  wire, 
No.  8  Birmineton  wire-gauKe. 


BOXEE  LIFE-SAVING  ROCKET. 


219 


BOXER  LIFE-SAVING  ROCKET. 


the  stick  in  firing.  The  stick  is  partially  8iin-ounded 
for  18  inches  below  the  vent  by  a  sheathinfr  of  tin  to  pro- 
tect it  from  tlie  burning  gases.  Axial  holes  are  bored 
in  each  end  of  the  stick  for  the  attachment  of  the  line. 
These  holes  are  curved  outward  from  I  he  a.xis  until 
they  reach  the  exterior  of  the  slick  on  the  same  side. 
The  holes  are  smoothed  by  passing  a  red-hot  iron 
through  them,  charring  the  wood."  The  sticks  are 
unpainted,  and  are  packed  in  bundles  of  six  each. 

The  stand  for  this  rocket  is  known  a.s  the  Boxer 
rocket  machine  or  stand,  "Mark  IV."  The  material 
is  sheet-iron,  except  the  legs,  which  are  of  wood. 
This  stand  is  lighter  and  simpler  in  construction  than 
the  older  forms.  The  principal  parts  are  an  open 
rectangular  trough  or  body,  a  curved  trough,  called 
by  the  English  "  a  pry-pole,"  a  horizontal  axis,  two 
legs,  and  a  graduated  arc  made  of  brass.  The  rectan- 
gular trough  or  body  receives  the  rocket.  Its  width 
is  less  than  its  depth.  The  front  end  is  stiffened  by 
a  narrow  iron  strap  around  the  outside.  The  up|)cr 
edges  are  rolled  over  wire  for  the  same  purpose. 
Near  the  rear  end.  on  each  side,  are  cut  subelliptical 
holes  to  admit  the  port-fire  in  firing  the  rocket.  The 
body  and  pry-jiolc  are  connectetl  by  ijieees  of  wrought- 
iroD,  rivets,  and  braces.  There  aie  two  of  the  latter, 
one  on  each  side.  Two  pieces  of  wrought-iron  pro- 
ject from  the  rear  end  of  the  rectangular  trough  and 
have  holes  bored  to  receive  the  horizontal  transverse 


its  construction,  are  from  17'. 5  to  40°.  At  the  center 
of  this  arc  is  a  rivet  with  a  projecting  head,  around 
which  is  fastened  a  short  string  with  a  minute  pear- 
shaped  plumb-bob  dei)endent. 

The  life-siiving  rocket-fuse  is  a  frustum  of  a  cone 
in  shape,  made  of  jiaper  and  covered  with  kamptuli- 
con.  It  is  1.5  inch  long  and  fits  the  vent  in  the  base  of 
the  rocket,  which  is  1  inch  in  diameter.  The  fuse  is 
covered  with  a  paper  cap  tied  on  with  twine.  The 
bore  of  the  fuse  is  rilled  with  al)out  an  inch  of  ordi- 
nary fu.se-compositioii,  and  burns  about  five  seconds. 
The  iiaper  cap  may  or  may  not  be  removed  before 
firing.     The  fuse  is  ignited  by  means  of  a  port-fire. 

The  Boxer  port-fire  for  life-saring  ajjparatus  has  a 
total  length  of  9.3  inches,  and  is  cylindrical  in  form. 
The  exterior  diameter  of  the  case  is'. 7  inch.  One  end  is 
closed  with  a  tin  cap  and  a  jiiece  of  kamptulicon;  this 
cap  is  .5  inch  long  and  .(i  inch  in  exterior  diameter.  On 
one  side  the  tin  band  of  the  cap  is  perforated  to  ad- 
mit a  detonating  primer  that  enters  a  small  space 
under  the  kamptulicon,  and  fires  the  priming  of 
mealed  powder.  The  exterior  surface  of  the  port-fire 
is  painted  flesh-color.  A  circular  black  spot  on  the 
eaji  indicates  the  position  of  the  hole  for  the  detonat- 
ing primer.  The  time  of  burning  of  this  port-fire  is 
six  minutes. 

The  following  is  the  manner  of  using  the  Boxer  or 
English  life-saving  rocket: 


Boxer  Life-saving  Rocket. 


axis.  The  long  rounded  trough  or  pry -pole  extends 
into  the  rear  end  of  the  body  for  a  .s"hort  distance. 
The  upper  edges  of  the  pry-pole  are  rolled  over  a 
large  wire  to  stiffen  them,  and  the  trough  is  still  fur- 
ther strengthened  by  a  wrought-iron  bar  .5  inch  thick, 
running  along  the  bottom  the  whole  length.  The 
lower  or  rear  end  of  this  bar  is  decurved  and  ])()inted 
to  form  a  ground-si)ike  or  foot.  A  strap  with  a 
Inickle  on  the  end  is  riveted  to  the  pr3--pole  near  the 
rear  end,  for  the  luirpose  of  binding  the  le.gs  to  the  prv- 
pole  when  they  are  folded  up  for  transportation.  The 
horizontal  axis  has  a  small  swinging  tablet  below, 
through  which  are  pierced  two  holes  for  rivets  for  the 
legs.  The  latter  have  a  lateral  motion  upon  these 
rivets  as  a.xes.  The  le.gs  are  made  of  tough  wood. 
They  have  wrought-iron  heads  or  sockets  with  slotted 
pro.jeetions  to  etnbraee  the  tablet  pendant  from  the 
horizontal  axis.  Ferndes  envelo])  the  lower  ends, 
which  are  armed  with  pointed  spikes  in  order  to  se- 
cure a  firm  hold  in  the  soil  when  placed  in  position. 
On  the  right-hand  side  of  the  body,  l)etween  the  open- 
ing and  tile  front  end.  is  placed  a  sheet-brass  (piadrant, 
graduated  and  marked  from  0  to  3.5  .  The  limits  ot 
elevation  that  can  be  obtained  with  this  stand,  due  to 


With  the  apparatus  on  the  .irround  where  it  is  to  be 
used,  place  the  rocket-stand  in  po.sition,  giving  the 
necessary  elevation  by  means  of  the  graduated  arc  on 
the  side  of  the  trough  and  the  )ilummet.  Take  a 
Boxer  rocket,  insert  the  stick  through  the  clips,  and 
drive  in  the  clip-pin.  Then  wet  about  12  feet  of  the 
end  of  the  line  and  insert  the  end  through  the  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  rocket-stiek,  carry  it  along  the  stick 
to  the  hole  near  the  upper  end.  draw  it  tlimugh  and 
put  on,  first,  a  rubber  wiisber  and  then  a  brass  one, 
and  tie  a  knot  in  the  end,  drawing  the  whole  down 
snugly  u|)on  the  end  of  the  stick.  It  is  better  to  tie  a 
knot  in  the  line  after  pa.s,sing  it  through  the  hole  in 
the  rear  end  of  the  stick,  so  tliat  in  ease  the  line  burns 
off  between  the  rocket  and  lower  end  of  the  stick  the 
knot  will  ealcli  and  the  line  still  be  carried  out.  Re- 
move the  paper  cap  on  the  base  of  the  rocket  and  in- 
sert a  fuse.  Place  the  rocket  and  stick  in  the  trough 
of  the  stand,  sliding  them  to  the  rear  until  the  base 
of  the  rocket  brings  u])  against  the  front  end  of  the 
curved  trough  or  pry-pole.  Put  the  faking-box, 
slightly  inclined  to  the  front,  in  n-ar  of  the  stand 
and  a  little  toone  side.  Insert  a  i)ort-tire  in  the  holder, 
and  ignite  it  with  a  detonating  primer.     Advance  to 


BOXER  SHBAPNEL  SHELL. 


220 


BRACELET. 


the  stand,  insert  the  port-fire  in  the  opening  on  the 
side  opi>osite  to  that  on  wliich  tlic  fakiiig-lxi.x  and  line 
are  plactni,  light  the  rockit-fuse,  and  retire  towards 
the  rear. 

As  soon  as  the  rockrt-composilion  is  ignited  and 
sufficient  pis  is  evolTe<l,  the  roeket  start.s,  guided  by 
the  trough  and  the  roeket-stiek.  After  traversing  a 
part  of  its  trajeetorv,  the  eoniposilion  in  the  rear 
cylinder  is  consumed,  the  solid  jiart  between  the 
cylinders  bvirns  through  and  .sets  tire  to  the  coniposi 
tion  in  the  forward  cylinder,  giving  a  new  impetus  to 
the  rocket  and  prolonging  the  range.  See  Lifi-tuiring 
JiiHrl.1. 

BOXER  SHRAPNEL  SHELL.— This  shell  embodies 
tlie  main  features  of  tlie  Shrnpiwl.  The  cliaige  is 
placed  in  a  chaml)er  at  the  ba.se,  so  that  on  expIi)sion 
there  is  no  tendency  to  increa.se  the  lateral  siiread  of 
the  bidlets,  but  rather  to  increase  their  velocity  and 
penetn\lion.  The  shell  has  a  cylindrical  iron  body, 
four  longitudinal  grooves  inside,  and  is  cast  without 
a  head.  A  tin  case  for  the  bursting-charge  tits  into 
the  chamber,  on  the  shoulder  of  which  rests  a  wrought- 
iron  disk.  The  sliell  is  lined  with  paper  and  tilled 
■with  balls  imbedded  in  rosin.  The  balls  for  the 
smaller  naturesare  of  lead  and  antimony.  A  wrought- 
iron  tube  passes  down  the  middle  of  the  shell  and 
through  a  hole  in  the  center  of  the  iron  disk,  to  lead 
the  tiame  from  the  fuse  to  the  bursting-charge.  The 
tube  is  tapped  at  the  top  to  take  a  primer.  A  kamp- 
tulicon  disk  is  i)laced  over  the  bullets.  The  head  is 
ogival  in  form  and  made  of  wood,  covered  with  thin 
wrought-iron.  The  bursting-charge  being  confined 
in  the  tin  ca.se,  the  shell  is  not  liable  to  premature 
explosion  from  pieces  of  iron  breaking  oS  the  shoul- 
der of  the  chamtx?r  by  the  shock  of  discharge.  See 
Projixtihn  and  Slim  pud. 

BOXING.— Fighting  with  the  fists.  It  was  pr.ic- 
ticed  as  a  manly  exercise  by  the  ancients,  among 
whom  it  was  an  art  so  highly  esteemed  that  Pollux, 
Hercules,  and  some  of  the  other  gods  were  repre- 
sented as  having  excelled  in  it.  The  pugilists  of  the 
ancient  games  had  leather  thongs  on  their  hands, 
sometimes  loaded  with  lead  or  iron;  this  armature  of 
the  hand  was  called  the  ea-ntus.  Of  course  their  com- 
bat.s  were  not  imfre(iuently  attended  with  fatal  conse- 
quences, which  have  resulted  also  in  mam'  instances 
of  modern  pugilistic  encounters,  although  no  arma- 
ture of  the  fists  is  allowed.  Among  the  Greeks  the 
practice  of  boxing  wa.s  at  first  permitted  only  to  free- 
men, no  slave  or  person  attainted  with  crime  being 
considered  worthy  to  po.s.sess  the  high  jiriWlege  of 
being  beaten  to  the  consistency  of  a  jelly.  Gradu- 
ally, however,  lx)xing  wa.s  taken  up  as  a  jirofcssion, 
and  its  character  deteriorated.  Boxing  was  a  favor- 
ite amusement  of  Englishmen  for  centuries:  it  is  even 
said  to  have  had  such  distinguished  patrons  as  King 
Alfred  an<i  Kichard  III.  But  the  golden  age  of 
pugilism  as  a  profession  in  England  commenced  with 
the  accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover;  then  men 
calling  themselves  Professors  publicly  announced 
their  intention  of  giving  lessons  in  "the  noble  art 
of  self-defense."  One  Professor  challenged  another 
to  combat  in  the  most  l)oml)astic  language  In 
1726,  one  Ned  Sutton,  who  announces  himself  ivs 
"  PiiK'maker  from  Grave.send,  and  Professor  of  the 
Noble  Science  of  Defense,"  sneers  at  another  Profes- 
sor, whom  he  calls  "the  extolled  Mr.  Figg,"  for 
having  by  "sleeveless  pretense"  shirked  a  combat 
with  him,  "  which  I  take,"  says  the  Pipemaker  and 
Professor,  "  to  be  occasioned  through  fear  of  his  hav- 
ing that  glory  eclipsed  by  me,  wherewith  the  ej'es  of 
all  spectatoi-s  have  been  so  much  dazzled."  He  fur- 
ther a.ssures  the  said  Figg  that  if  he  can  muster  cour- 
age enough  to  fight  witli  him,  he  (Figg)  "  will  have 
the  advantage  of  being  overcfune  by  a  hero  indeed!" 
Figg  had  an  "  amphitjieater"  in  Oxford  Hoail,  wherein 
fighl.s  were  held;  and  a  larger  one  was  erected  in  the 
same  locality  in  1742  for  one  Broughton,  the  funds 
being  subscinbed  by  some  eighty  noblemen  and  gen- 
tlemcD.      The  pugilistic  encounters  that  took  place 


here  were  patronized  by  many  of  the  nobility.  Some 
faint  protests  against  tlie  brutality  of  the  pa.«timenow 
liegJin  to  be  made  by  the  press,  but  thesi'  had  little 
ctfect.  Towards  the  end  of  the  la.st  century  fights 
wei"e  patronized  Ijy  Princes  of  the  Blo<jd  Roval;  and 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  iV.,  was 
present  at  one  at  Brij^hton  in  which  one  of  the  com- 
batant.s  was  killed.  When  the  allied  Sovereigns  and 
their  Generals  went  over  to  England  in  1S14,  Lord 
Lowther  treateil  them  to  a  series  of  boxing-matches 
in  his  drawing-room,  which  were  so  highly  relished 
that  they  were  re]x?ated  a  few  days  afterwards.  One 
of  the  pugilists,  called  Jackson,  became  quite  a  hero, 
and  made  enormous  sums  by  giWng  les.sons  to  young 
noblemen,  among  whom  was  I-ord  Byron.  In  1817 
the  Czar  Nicholas  of  Russia  witnes.sed  a  prize-fight  at 
Coombc  Warren.  At  the  close  the  \-ictor  was  pre- 
.sented  to  him,  with  whom  he  shook  hands.  This 
was  the  last  time  that  Royalty  was  present  at  one  of 
these  disgusting  .spectacles. 

BOX-TRAP.— A  connuon  method  of  firing  mines  is 
by  the  use  of  the  frnx-inip.  This  is  a  lx)x  18  inches 
high  and  6  inches  wide  in  the  clear.  The  bottom 
consists  of  a  piece  of  plank  18  by  10  inches,  and  its 
cover  is  fixe(l  at  one  side  only  with  a  wooden  pin, 
al)out  which  it  am  be  turned.  At  6  inches  from  the 
top  of  the  box  a  horizontal  slit  is  made  in  one  of  its 
sides,  and  grooves  in  the  two  adjacent  to  it,  to  receive 


a  piece  of  board,  which  ought  to  slide  freely  in  this 
arransement.  In  the  lower  iiarl  of  the  box  iin  ojien- 
ing  is  left  on  the  side  t)pposite  the  one  cut  for  the 
slide,  to  admit  the  powder-hose.  To  fire  the  triin, 
place  the  Ixix  against  the  extremity  of  the  tamping 
and  secure  it  well;  tie  a  string  to  the  slide  and  lead  it 
along  the  stanchions  of  the  gallery  on  pegs  driven  for 
that  purjwse;  put  the  eiid  of  the  hose  into  the  box 
through  the  hole  left  for  it,  and  sjiread  on  the  top  of 
it  sonie  dry,  fine  powder;  then  put  in  the  slide  and 
close  with  earth  or  rags  of  sand-bags  all  communi- 
cation between  the  lower  part  of  the  box  and  the 
branch;  place  a  star-match  of  six  or  eight  jioints,  well 
lighted,  on  the  slide;  reiilacc  the  cover,  then  pull  the 
string,  and  the  star  will  fall  IkIow  and  fire  the  mine. 
See  Monk  and  Ri'i-kd-trmnih. 

BOYAUX. — In  military  engineering,  winding  or  zig- 
zag ajiproaches  dug  to  form  a  jiatli  or  communication 
between  the  different  armed  trenches  of  a  siege-work, 
and  to  prevent  them  from  being  enfiladed  or  fired 
upon  in  flank.  Each  branch  of  an  approach  over- 
laps that  behind  it  by  about  ten  yards,  to  afford  pro- 
tection against  enfilade,  .md  to  serve  as  a  trench  depot 
for  trench-materials.  The  dimensions  may  In-  the 
same  as  those  u.sed  in  the  first  jjarallel,  and  fn'(|uently 
these  are  adopted  if  there  is  to  be  much  use  made  of 
the  approach.  In  both  the  parallel  and  the  boyau  it 
is  recommended  to  slojie  the  liottom  of  the  trench  to 
the  rear,  giving  a  fall  of  abovit  six  inches.  This  pro- 
vides for  drainage,  and  also  affords  greater  protection 
to  the  men  using  them.     See  Sitge. 

BRABANCONS— .Mercenary  fighters  from  Brabant 
and  other  countries  who,  in  the  later  Middle  Ages, 
served  any  who  w nuld  |iay  them.  They  were  i)oorly 
organized  an<I  little  better  than  banditti. 

BRACELET. — An  ornament  worn  on  the  arm,  gen- 
erally at  the  wrist.  Bracelets  and  armlets  have  l)een 
used  by  every  nation,  both  savage  and  civilized,  from 


BBACKETS. 


221 


BB&NCH  6ALLEBI£S  WITH  DUTCH  CASES. 


the  earliest  periods  to  our  own.  They  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  Genesis  as  worn  both  by  men  and  by 
women,  both  by  the  Hebrews  and  the  surrounding 
nations.  Similar  ornaments  were  worn  round  the 
ankle.s,  but  they  are  stigmatized  by  Isjiiah  as  marks 
of  lu.\ury  (iii.  16).  The  Medes  and  Persians  were  re- 
markable, even  amongst  Asiatics,  for  their  love  for 
ornaments  of  this  class.  They  wore  not  only  brace- 
lets and  armlets,  but  ear-rings,  collars,  and  necklaces, 
which  often  consisted  of  strings  of  \alual)le  pearls  or 
were  enriched  with  other  jewels.  These  ornaments 
were  used  to  indicate  the  rank  of  the  wearer,  and 
this  use  has  continued  to  be  made  of  them  in  the 
East  down  to  the  present  day.  In  Europe,  bracelets 
and  armlets  were  worn  both  by  the  classical  nations 
and  barbarians  from  the  earliest  times.  The  Gauls 
wore  them;  and  the  Sabines,  as  early  as  the  founda- 
tion of  Rome,  had  ponderous  golden  armlets  on  the 
left  arm.  The  same  was  the  case  ■with  the  Samians 
about  the  same  period.  It  does  not  appear  that  arm- 
lets were  worn  by  men  during  the  historical  period 
of  Greece,  but  ladies  wore  both  armlets  and  bracelets 
of  the  most  various  materials  and  fomis.  Both  gen- 
erally passed  round  the  arm  several  times,  and  the 
form  of  bracelet  now  most  in  fashion  has  been  accu- 
rately copied  from  those  twisted  spirals  described  by 
Homer  in  the  eighteenth  book  of  the  llimh  Jlany 
examples  of  this^ind  of  bracelet,  as  represented  oil 
painted  vases,  will  be  found  in  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton's work.  We  are  indebted  to  the  Greeks  even  for 
the  idea  of  giving  to  these  spiral  bracelets  the  form  of 
a  snake,  the  best  models  of  our  present  goldsmiths 
being  e.xact  copies  of  antique  bracelets.  The  god- 
desses of  the  Greeks,  like  the  bles.scd  Virgin  in  Ro- 
man Catholic  countries,  were  represented  as  attired 
in  the  style  of  ladies  of  the  highest  rank;  and  the 
celebrated  marble  statue  of  Aphrodite,  preser\ed 
at  Florence,  e.vhibits  traces  of  a  metallic  armlet. 
Amongst  the  Romans,  armlets  were  frequently  con- 
ferred upon  soldiers  for  deeds  of  valor,  of  which  an 
instance  is  mentioned  by  Livy  (x.  44).  Roman  ladies 
wore  bracelets,  not  only  for  ornament,  Ijul  also  for 
the  purpose  of  containing  amulets,  which  were  sup- 
posed to  effect  miraculous  cures.  On  this  principle 
it  is  Siud  that  the  Emperor  Nero  wore  on  his  right  arm 
the  skin  of  a  serpent,  inclosed  in  a  golden  armilla. 
But  at  Rome,  also,  it  was  chiefly  as  an  indication  of 
rank  or  wealth  that  these  ornaments  were  worn. 

BRACKETS.  —  In  artillery,  the  cheeks  or  sides 
of  ordnance-carriages.  Carriages  termed  "  bracket- 
trail,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  "  block-trail "  pat- 
tern, have  been  introduced  into  the  English  .service; 
all  the  new  field-  and  some  of  the  siege-carriages  have 
been  made  of  this  pattern. 

BEACKET-TKAIL.— The  body  of  the  bracket/rail 
airritige  consisted  of  two  brackets,  connected  to- 
gether by  three  transoms,  the  trail  thus  formed  being 
termed  a  hracktt-traiL  The  length  of  the  tran.soms 
varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the  gun,  and  there 
Were  two  sets  of  trunnion-holes. 

BRACONNIERE.— In  antiquity,  a  mail  armor,  of 
the  shape  of  a  petticoat,  which  "was  attached  to  the 
cuirass,  and  reached  from  the  hips  to  the  middle  of 
the  thigh,  and  sometimes  below  the  knee.  Also  writ- 
ten Br<if/oiiiihre. 

BRAKE.— A  contrivance  to  stop  motion  by  friction, 
applied  mainly  to  wheels  and  hoisting  apparatus. 
Originally  it  was  a  flexilile  iron  baud  so  placeil  that 
it  might  "be  rirawTi  tightly  around  most  of  the  outer 
surface  of  the  revoh-ing  w"heel,  the  friction  gradually 
slackening  the  motion.  In  carriages  curved  blocks 
of  wood  were  used,  and  pressed  against  the  tire  bj-  a 
lever  worked  with  the  hand  or  the  foot.  ]iIodern  in- 
vention has  given  us  .systems  of  bnikes  that  may  be 
instantly  applied  to  everj-  wheel  in  a  train  of  cars. 
For  the  Creamer  brake,  once  somewhat  in  favor,  a 
powerful  spiral  spring  was  the  power  applied.  This 
spring  was  coiled  in  a  drum  through  which  a  shaft 
pa-sses,  and  was  set  free  by  the  brakeman,  or  all  the 
brakes  on  a  train  could  be"  set  free  by  one  act  of  the 


engineer.  The  Westinghouse  air-brake  is  now  very 
generally  u.sed  in  America.  Each  carriage  has  be- 
neath its  floor  a  cylinder  and  piston  which  may  be 
operated  bj"  compres.sed  air;  the  piston  acts  on  suit- 
able levers  and  rods  to  set  the  brakes  against  the 
wheels,  the  brakes  being  also  connected  with  the  or- 
dinarj'  braking  mechanism  at  the  platform  of  the 
cars.  Compressed  air  is  conveyed  to  the  cylinders  by 
tubes  leading  from  a  reservoir  at  the  locomotive,  ancl 
this  reservoir  is  tilled  by  a  .special  engine  which  is  in- 
dependent of  the  ordinary  motive  mechanism.  The 
special  en^ne  acts  automatically,  starting  when  the 
pressure  of  air  in  the  reservoir  is  below  a  fixed  stan- 
dard, and  stopping  when  the  pressure  reaches  another 
fixed  standard.  The  engine-driver  comnumicates  the 
compressed  air  to  the  cylinders  by  the  simple  act  of 
turning  a  valve-handle  through  one  fourth  of  a  cir- 
cumference; the  brakcsare  instantly  "  .set"  with  great 
force  throughout  the  train.  A  diflerent  sj'stem  uses 
a  vacuum,  and  the  pistons  beneath  the  cars  arc  acted 
on  by  atmospheric  pressure,  when  the  cylinders  are 
in  communication  with  the  vacuous  reservoir.  The 
Westinghouse  and  the  other  air-brakes  ser\'e  to  jOace 
the  train  very  fully  imder  the  control  of  the  engine- 
driver;  permitting  the  stoppage  of  trains  from  high 
speed  in  a  verj-  short  space.  See  Pneumatic  Qun- 
carriage. 

BRAN.  —  The  material  obtained  from  the  outer 
covering  or  husk  of  grain  during  the  process  of 
grinding,  and  which  Is  separated  from  the  finer  flour 
before  the  latter  is  made  into  bread.  It  is  generally 
met  with  in  commerce  in  thin  scaly  yellowish-brown 
particles,  with  .sharp  edges,  and  its  composition  in 
100  parts  is  as  follows: 

Water 13.1 

Albumen  (coagulated)   19.3 

Oil .". 4.7 

Husk,  ■with  a  little  starch 55.6 

A.sh  or  saline  matter 7.3 


^ZC 


100.0 
Bread  made  of  flour  containing  bran  is  known  as 
hriDrn  bread.  The  main  uses  to  which  bran  is  put 
are  in  the  feeding  of  horses  and  stock,  and  in  clear- 
ing and  brightening  goods  during  the  proces.scs  of 
d>-eing.  In  the  practice  of  medicine,  bran  is  em- 
ployed as  a  warm  poultice  in  abdominal  inflamma- 
tion, spasms,  etc.,  and  an  infusion  is  used  as  an 
emollient  foot-hath.  It  is  also  used  internally  in 
catarrhal  affections. 

BRANCH  GALLERIES  WITH  DUTCH  CASES.— 
These  galleries  are  of  the  same  dimensions  as  small 
branches.  The  frames  are  made  of  thick  plank,  and 
are  placed  in  the  branch  galleries  touching  each 
other,  serving  both  as  frames  and  sheeting.  Each 
case  consists  of  four  pieces ; 
the  stanchions  have  a  tenon  at 
each  end,  fitting  into  notches 
cut  in  the  cap  imd  ground  sills 
to  receive  them.  When  the 
gallery  is  an  ascent"  ing  or  de- 
scendmg  one,  the  ends  of 
the  stanchions  may  be  cut 
obliquely,  in  order  that  their 
sides  may  always  be  vertical; 

or  the  ordinarj-  cases  may  be  „,      ..        .        j     .    „ 

.  .    ,     i, i:,  ,,i".,  ,„  Elevation,  .\.  and  pieces 

set  so  as  to  be  perpendicvihir  to  ^f  frame  of  Dutch  Case, 
the  gallerj-  floor.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  limiting  the  explosive  effects  of  mines  upon 
the  branches  leading  to  them,  and  at  the  same  lime 
enabling  the  miner^  acting  on  the  defen.se,  to  push 
fonvard  and  open  a  new  branch  towards  the  crater, 
a  portion  of  a  branch  leading  towards  the  mine  is 
made  of  heavy  frames  of  the  foregoing  construction. 
The  timber  recommended  for  the  purpose  is  oak,  and 
the  pieces  of  each  frame  are  12  inches  wide  and  4 
inches  thick.  The  portion  of  this  strong  frame- 
work, at  the  extremity,  is  solidly  filled  in  with  pieces 
of  4-inch  scantlins,  from  6  to  10  fi-et  in  length.  For 
a  branch  28  inches  high  and  24  inches  \^^de  seven 


\j' 


r^^ 


BRAND. 


000 


BRASS-FITTING  MACHINE. 


horizontal  layers  will  bo  required,  each  layer  consist- 
iug  of  6  pieces.  The  center  piece  of  each  layer  may 
have  11  rope  lianiUe  at  it.-;  ciiil  to  allow  of  its.  heiui; 
dniwn  out  readily.  Fille<l  in  this  way  and  having 
earth  well  packed  l)ctween  the  pieces,  branches  of 
IhLs  de.-<Tii)tion  will  not  be  damaged  by  the  e.xjilosion 
of  mines  of  from  6  to  lit  feet  line  of  lejist  resistance 
even  when  the  mines  are  within  -li  to  6  feet  of  the 
branch.  From  their  chief  object  these  branches  are 
termed  by  the  French  rameaiu  de  combat.  See 
Gti/Un/. 

BRAND. — The  old  Anglo-Saxon  term  to"-  burnished 
swords  of  all  descriptions. 

BRANDING. — A  mode  of  punishment  practiced  in 
England  for  various  offenses.  It  was  effected  by  the 
application  of  a  hot  iron,  the  end  of  which  had  the 
form  which  it  was  desired  should  be  left  imprinted 
on  the  skin.  But  brandin^^  by  such  means  has  long 
ceiuscil,  and  now  it  is  practically  contined  to  the  case 
of  desertion  from  the  anny;  the  bnmdinj;  or  marking 
being  not  done  by  a  hot  iron,  but  with  ink  or  other 
similar  preparation.  By  the  Mutiny  Act  of  1858  it 
is  enacted  as  follows:  "On  the  first  and  on  everj- 
subsequent  conviction  for  desertion,  the  Court-Mar- 
tial,  in  addition  to  any  other  punishment,  may  order 
the  offender  to  be  marked  on  the  left  side,  two  inches 
below  the  armpit,  with  the  letter  I),  s\ich  letter  not 
to  be  less  than  an  inch  long,  and  to  be  marked  upon 
the  skin  with  some  ink  or  gunpowder,  or  other  pre- 
paration, so  as  to  be  \isible  and  conspicuous,  and  not 
liable  to  lie  obliterated."  Formerly  branding  was 
employed  in  the  ca.se  of  all  c'tergitible  offenses  by  burn- 
ing on  the  hand;  and,  with  a  view  still  further  to  re- 
press theft  and  petty  larceny,  it  was  enacted  that 
such  offenders  as  were  allowed  the  benefit  of  clergy 
should  be  "burnt  in  the  most  risible  part  of  the  left 
cheek,  nearest  the  nose."  This  additional  severity, 
however,  not  having  the  desired  ileterrent  effect,  but 
the  reverse,  was  repealed  by  an  Act  which  neverthe- 
less provided  for  offenders  being  burnt  on  the  hand 
as  formerly.  The  latter  punishment,  however,  was 
entirely  abolished  by  an  Act  pas.sed  in  18"32.  Brawl- 
ing in  church  was  made  an  offense  punishable  by 
having  one  of  the  ears  cut  off,  or,  the  offemler  ha\'iug 
no  ears,  l)v  branding  with  the  letter  F  on  the  cheek. 

BRANDSCHWAERMER.— A  small  rocket  which 
contains  a  Imllct.  It  is  tired  out  of  a  gun,  and  used 
for  the  puriiosc  of  setting  fire  to  straw-thatched  build- 
ings. 

BRAQUEHARD. — A  comparatively  short  weapon 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  held  a  place  midway 
between  a  sword  and  a  dagger,  had  a  straight  flat 
wide  blade,  verj-  sharj'  at  either  edge,  and  pointed. 
It  had  on  the  hilt  a  cross-guard  that  curved  on  both 
sides  towards  the  point  of  the  weapon. 

BRAftUEMART.— 1.  A  short  sword  of  Italian  origin, 
used  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  very  nmch  like  the 
(iiielare.  2.  In  antiquity,  a  two-eilged  broad-sword. 
Also  WTJIten  Jaequemart.     See  Braguemanl. 

BRASS. — An  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  largely  used 
for  ordnance  purjioses,  certain  parts  of  macliinerj', 
and  other  ornamental  anil  usefiU  articles.  Techni- 
cally the  term  brass  is  extended  so  as  to  include 
compoimds  of  copper  and  tin,  as  in  brass-ordnance, 
the  brasses  or  bearings  of  machinery,  etc. ;  but  such 
alloys  of  copper  and  tin,  though  styled  hard  brass, 
are  more  strictly  varieties  of  bronze,"  and  the  pr&sent 
notice  will  be  confined  to  the  alloys  of  copper  and 
zinc,  or  ydUnr  bra.ss.  In  ancient  history.  Biblical  and 
profane,  frequent  allusions  are  made  to  the  employ- 
ment of  brass  in  the  construction  of  musical  instru- 
ments, vessels,  implements,  ornaments,  and  even 
gates;  but  as  no  mention  is  made  of  its  mode  of  man- 
ufacture, or  even  of  its  coinposiiiun.  it  is  dovibtful  if 
the  bra.ss  of  the  ancients  was  composed  of  copper 
and  zinc.  In  the  manufacture  of  brass  on  the  large 
scale,  two  parts  by  weight  of  copper  to  one  part  of 
zinc  arc  u.scd,  the  zinc  iK-ing  one  half  the  weight  of 
the  copper;  but  alloys  arc  made  for  particular  pur- 
poses with  less  or  greater  proportions  of  zinc.     Thus, 


where  a  material  of  more  than  ordinary  tenacity  is 
required,  the  zinc  is  reduced  to  one  fourtt  the  weight 
of  the  cop]K-r;  and  where  an  alloy  of  a  hani  and 
brittle  tiature,  pos.sessiug  little  resisting  power,  is 
wished  for,  the  zinc  is  increased  to  an  amount  equal 
with  the  copjx-r,  or  greater.  In  the  manufacture  of 
brass  either  of  two  processes  may  be  followed.  The 
direct  method  is  to  fiLse  the  zinc  in  a  crucible,  and 
gradually  add  the  copiKr  in  pieces.  But  this  jirocess 
is  attended  with  dis;ulvantage,  owin^  to  the  volatile 
and  o.xidizable  nature  of  zinc.  The  indirect  method 
of  forming  brass  is  that  which  is  generally  followed 
in  England  and  elsewhere,  and  consists  in  heating  in 
crucibles  or  pots  a  mixture  of  cjilamine  (carbonate  of 
zinc,  ZnOCOj),  charcoal,  and  thin  pieces  of  scrap  or 
grain  copper.  The  calamine  is  generally  first  cal- 
cined or  roasted,  so  as  to  expel  any  traces  of  sulphur, 
then  mixed  with  one  fourth  of  its  weight  of  charcoal, 
and  this  mixture  introduced  into  the  crucible,  after 
which  the  met;illic  cojjper  is  iliffused  through  the  mix- 
ture bj'  being  beaten  in  with  hammers  or  mallets. 
The  proportions  employed  are  3  parts  of  the  mixture 
of  calamine  and  charcoal  to  3  parts  of  copper;  and 
when  introtluced  into  a  furnace,  and  subjected  for  5 
to  24  hours  to  the  action  of  a  white  heat,  the  chaix-oal 
reduces  the  calamine  anil  separates  the  zinc,  which, 
combining  with  the  copper,  forms  3  parts  of  bra.ss, 
containing  about  2  of  copper  to  1  of  zinc.  For  ordi- 
nary purposes  brass  is  first  cast  into  plates  of  about 
100  pounds  weight,  and  i  to  i  inch  thick,  which  can 
be  readily  broken  up,  remelted,  and  cast  in  a  mold  of 
any  desirable  shape  or  size.  The  crude  casting  so 
obtained  is  generally  screwed  to  a  turning-lathe,  and 
turned  and  Iwred  into  the  required  form  with  iron 
tools. 

BRASSARDS— BRASSARTS.— The  name  of  the 
pieces  which,  in  plate-armor,  protected  the  upper  part 
of  the  anns,  and  united  the  shoulder  and  elbow  pieces. 
Brachiale  was  the  ancient  name  for  bra.ssards.  When 
the  front  of  the  arm  only  was  shielded,  the  pieces 
were  called  demi-bras.sjirds.  Brassards  or  armlets, 
made  of  cloth,  and  worn  on  the  ami,  are  nov.-  used 
as  a  badge  of  recognition  by  the  jursnunel  and  all 
members  of  the  military  and  international  ambu- 
lances in  time  of  war.  The  color  of  the  cloth  is 
white,  with  a  red  cross  woven  on  it,  which  is  the 
emblem  of  the  Society  for  the  Help  of  the  Sick  suid 
Wounded.  The  armlets  are  issued  on  the  commence- 
ment of  hostilities  by  the  Central  Committee  of  that 
Societj-,  and  duly  stamped  and  numbered,  so  as  to 
prevent  fraud.  The  term  brassar  is  also  applied  to  a 
piece  of  defensive  armor  for  the  arm. 

BRASSET. — A  ca.sque  or  head-piece  of  armor  much 
worn  in  ancient  times. 

BRASS-FITTING  MACHINE.— The  use  of  brasses 
entirely  unfitted  and  rough  from  the  sand  results  in 
great  wear  of  material  mid  of  the  lirasses,  in  hot 
brasses  and  the  accidents  entailed  thereby,  in  an  im- 
mense consumption  of  oil,  and  in  such  cxces.sive 
friction  as  greatly  to  increiuse  the  power  necessary  to 
draw  the  train.  The  ordinary-  method  of  fitting 
bra.s.ses  is  by  the  use  of  the  lathe  and  file,  and  the 
work  requires  the  labor  of  a  skilled  mechanic. 

The  machine  represented  in  the  drawing  has  not 
only  superseded  the  above-named  t(X)ls  for  the  pur- 
pose, in  all  well-equijiped  arsenals,  but  has  also  ren- 
dered the  accurate  fitting  of  brasses  a  cheap  process, 
r(r(iuiring  no  particular  exixTiencc  or  skill.  The 
principal  feature  of  the  apparatus  is  found  in  the 
emery-wheels,  which  arc  originally  turned  and  then 
kept  true  bv  a  jiatented  diamond  tool,  the  latter  being 
so  arranged  that  it  is  imjiossible  to  turn  by  it  any- 
thing except  the  geometrically  correct  circle  to  which 
the  ma,ster-meelianic  sets  it."  Wheels  of  20  inches 
diameter  are  used;  and  though  they  should  be  worn 
down  to  the  flange,  it  is  claimed  that  they  will  still 
grind  the  full  diameter  desired,  while  a  speed  of  from 
1080  to  1800  revolutions  is  all  that  is  required. 

The  diamond  tool,  A,  is  shown  in  its  frame,  in  the 
cngra\ing,  detached  from  the  ajiparatus  proper.     The 


BBATTICE. 


223 


BRAZING. 


tool,  it  will  be  observed,  swings  on  a  center  in  its 
frame,  and  can  be  adjusted  to  any  arc.  Once  set,  it 
can  only  turn  the  prescribed  arc  with  accuracy.  In 
order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  the  foreman  having  to 
set  the  tool,  a  gauge  is  also  furnished.  This  consists 
of  a  spindle  adjustable  with  a  nut  in  such  a  way  that 
its  two  points  rest  in  the  centers  on  which  the  dia- 
mond tool  revolves.  It  is  only  necessar3'  for  the  disk, 
B,  turned  accuratelj-  to  the  diameter  of  the  bearing, 
to  be  prepared,  and  this  the  apprentice  can  place  on 
the  spindle,  adjust  the  latter,  and  screw  down  the 
diamond  tool  until  it  touches  the  periiihery  of  the 
disk.  A  nut  is  then  fastened  on  the  diamond  tool, 
and  the  frame  is  lifted  on  the  ways  beneath  the  wheel, 
when  the  moving  of  the  handle  turns  the  face  of  the 
wheel  to  the  exact  circle  desired. 
To  adjust  the  brass  in  the  chuck,  C,  it  is  flist  set  on 


partments,  or  permits  one  to  be  an  up-cast  or  down- 
cast shaft,  and  the  other  a  hoisting  shaft. 

BRAVI. — Those  individuals  in  Italy,  but  especially 
in  Venice,  who  undertook  to  perform  any  djmgcrous 
deeds  for  money.  It  is  now  employed  chiefly  to  des- 
ignate hired  assassins.  The  Italians  also  gave  the 
name  of  Bran  to  those  fanatics  in  the  Turkish  anny 
who,  after  maddening  themselves  by  opium,  rushed 
upon  the  ranks  of  the  enemy,  and  so  met  death. 

BEAY. — A  tower  or  block-hou.se  in  the  outworks  of 
a  fortiticulion  liefore  the  port. 

BRAYETTE.— That  part  of  the  armor  which  covered 
the  ulidomen.  It  was  composed  of  steel  plates,  and 
ended  in  the  tas,sets. 

BRAZINO. — The  laboratory  process  of  uniting  to- 
gether two  pieces  of  brass,  two  pieces  of  copper,  or 
one  of  each,  by  means  of  a  hard  solder  partaking 


Brass-fitting  Machine. 


the  axle,  D.  The  chuck  is  then  placed  on  frame,  E, 
in  such  a  way  that  the  V's  (it.  Handle  F  then  moves 
a  cam  that  clamps  the  brass  between  the  jiiws,  G,  one 
set  of  which  swing  on  a  pivot  at  H.  The  bra.ss  is 
thus  adjusted  in  such  a  manner  that,  despite  the  ini- 
perfections  in  moldins,  it  is  ground  accurately  with 
the  least  removal  of  metal.  The  chuck,  C.  fits  into 
planed  guides  on  the  table,  I.  and  is  thus  brought  in 
exact  line  with  the  motion  of  the  wheel.  The  crank, 
J,  scrs'cs  to  move  the  table  to  and  fro  on  the  rods,  K, 
and  the  table  also  rises  and  falls  on  planed  ways,  lie- 
in<:  pressed  up  bv  springs.  The  hanil-wheel  gives 
vertical  adiustment  to  the  whole  bed  by  means  of  a 
chain  beneath  it.  There  is  a  ]nilley  by  which  a  siic- 
tion-fan,  to  remove  dust,  etc.,  may  be  driven.  The 
machine  is  claimed  to  be  capable  of  fitting  from  150 
to  ."iOO  brasses  per  dav.     Sec  Emt'r>i-nrinder. 

BRATTICE— BRETTICE.— A  vertical  wall  of  sepa- 
ration in  a  mining-shaft  which  penuits  ascending  and 
descending  currents  to  traverse  the  respective  corn- 


more  or  less  of  the  composition  and  properties  of  or- 
dinary brnns.  The  edges  or  parts  of  metal  to  be 
joined  are  first  filed  bright,  so  as  to  be  thoroughly 
cknn,  then  there  is  strewed  over  the  gap  or  crevice 
a  mixture  of  the  solder  and  Ijorax.  The  solder  em- 
ployed varies  in  composition  according  to  the  kind 
of  work,  and  may  be  rendered  more  fusible  by  the 
addition  of  a  larger  amotmt  of  zinc,  but  the  ge'nend 
proportions  are  (1)  16  copper,  16  zinc,  and  1  tin:  (2) 
12  bra.ss,  4  zinc,  and  3  tin;  or  (3)  18  brass,  3  zinc,  and 
2  tin.  Svhen  the  whole  has  been  fused  together,  it  is 
allowed  to  cool,  and  is  then  filed  down  to  a  coarse 
powder,  in  which  state  it  is  used.  The  borax  is  em- 
ployed to  form  a  glaze  over  the  brightene<l  surfaces, 
ami  thus  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  metal,  which 
would  seriously  interfere  with  brazing,  and  even 
stop  the  ojx'ration.  An  outward  coating  or  layer  of 
charcoal  is  likewise  serviceable  in  the  exclusion  of 
the  air  dining  the  brazing  of  large  pieces  of  metal. 
■\Vhere  a  very  high  heat  is  required  in  the  process,  a 


BB£ACH-BATTERI£S. 


224 


BBSACHINO. 


little  powdered  glu^  Is  mixed  ■with  the  iKirax.  The 
mixluri'  of  solder  iind  borax  may  be  applied  dry.  but 
it  is  iKtUT  to  moisten  it  with  water  and  to  lay  it  on 
the  tiletl  surfaees  with  a  spoon.  The  whole  is  then 
gently  lieated,  when  the  water  evaponites  and  leaves 
a  crust  of  Ixmix  and  solder.  The  work  may  now  be 
strongly  heatiil  liefore  the  blow-pipe,  or  over  a  clesir 
lire,  and  at  a  bright  red  heat  the  solder  fuses  and  the 
zinc  Itegius  to  burn  with  a  pale  blue  tluine.  At  this 
stage  the  solder  Jlimhcs  or  becomes  liquiil  enough  to 
permeate  the  .iuint  or  crevice;  but  should  it  be  tju-dy 
in  acting  thus,  several  slight  taps  will  insure  the 
proper  result.  The  whole  is  now  cooled,  and,  to- 
wanls  the  close,  the  articles  may  be  introiluced  into 
cold  water  for  more  rapid  reduction  in  temperature. 
Pieces  of  metal  which  have  undergone  the  process  of 
brazing  are  so  lirmly  united  that  they  may  be  rolled 
anil  re-rolled  without  the  parts  vielding. 

BREACH  BATTERIES.— Exposed  revetments  of 
masonry  may  be  breached  by  heavy  smooth-bore  guns, 
at  nuiges  from  400  to  600  yards,  aiid  batteries  thrown 
up  in  such  cases  arc  in  all  respects  like  those  for  en- 
tjlading  or  counter-battering.  When  the  revetments 
are  coveretl  from  distant  tire  by  an  earthen  mask,  the 
breach-batteries  must  be  placed  on  the  borders  of  the 
ditch,  cither  on  the  glacis  or  on  the  terre-pleins  of 
the  defenses,  at  points  where  no  obstruction  will  in- 
tervene to  prevent  the  tire  of  the  guns  from  being 
directed  at  a  point  of  the  wall  to  be  opened  low 
enough  to  form  a  breach  which  shall  be  practicable 
to  the  ascent  of  an  assaulting  column.  The  results 
of  tlie  recent  seiges  of  Forts  Pulaski  and  Wagner  are 
conclusive  upon  the  question  of  the  vulnerability  of 
the  best  ma.sonry  to  rifled  projectiles  at  long  ranges. 
The  former  work  was  breached  with  30-pounder  rifles  at 
about  1700  yards,  and  (Jeneral  Gillmore,  in  his  report, 
expresses  the  opinion  that  the  best-constructed  brick 
revetments  can  be  breached  with  satisfactory  rapidity 
at  ranges  of  2500  yarils.  The  range  of  the  batteries  of 
8-  and  10-inch  Parrott  gims  against  Fort  Sumter  was 
from  3500  to  over  -WOO  yards,  from  which  every  vul- 
nerable part  of  this  work  that  could  be  reached  from 
the  batteries  was  laid  in  ruins.  The  effect  of  these 
projectiles  tired  with  long  ranges  under  great  angles 
of  elevation,  upon  scarps  covered  by  earthen  masks 
placed  some  distance  in  advance  of  the  scarps,  cannot 
fail  to  be  productive  of  much  damage  wherever  the 
projectile  attains  the  scarp,  although,  from  the  un- 
certainty of  the  tire  on  a  hidden  object,  breaching  un- 
der such  circumstances  will  seldom  be  resorted  to 
owing  to  the  length  of  time  and  ex-penditure  of  am- 
munition that  would  neces-sarily  be  required  to  make 
a  practicable  breach  in  the  work.  These  batteries 
must  be  sunk  when  placed  on  the  borders  of  the 
ditches,  the  level  chosen  for  the  platforms  being  such 
as  to  subserve  the  object  in  \icw.  The  embrasures  in 
these  cases  are  usually  cut  out  of  the  parapet,  as  an 
ordinary  trench  has  generally  to  be  first  established 
as  a  preparatory  step  to  commencing  the  battery. 
The  forms  and  dimensions  adopted  for  other  sunken 
batteries  will  apply  to  these  cases,  with  such  modifi- 
cations as  may  be  demanded  by  the  site  of  the  bat- 
tery, the  field  of  fire,  and  the  position  of  the  point  to 
be  attained  by  the  fire. 

When  a  breach-battery  is  established  either  on  the 
glacis  or  upon  the  terre-plein  of  a  work,  its  gimswill 
generally  l)e  exiwsed  both  on  their  fiaiik  ami  rear  to 
the  fire  of  dangerous  commanding  ptiints,  from  which 
it  will  be  necessary  to  cover  them  by  traverses.  The 
number  of  traverses  and  their  position  will  depend 
upon  the  command  and  position  of  the  dangerous 
points.  To  cover  from  the  flank  fire,  if  the  com- 
mand of  the  dangerous  point  is  considerable,  like  that 
of  a  cavalier  within  the  enceinte  of  the  Ix'sieged.  it 
ma)'  be  necessary  to  place  a  traverse  between  every 
two  guns,  or  even  between  each  gun.  The  traverses 
used  in  such  cases  receive  a  thickness  of  fourteen  feet, 
or  ses'en  gsibions,  like  those  ff)r  covering  an  ordinary 
trench  from  an  enfilading  fire;  their  length  will  de- 
pend  upon  the  relative  positions  of  the  dangerous 


point  and  the  exterior  point  of  the  battery  to  be 
covered;  their  height  is  usually  not  greater  than  the 
Iraversi'S  for  the  ordinary  tn.iiches  that  serve  only  as 
communications.  When  the  reverse  of  the  Ixitterj'  is 
exix)seil  it  will  generally  arise  from  the  sjilient  posi- 
tion of  some  coniparalively  distant  point,  from  which 
a  slant  fire  may  be  brought  to  bear  on  this  part  of  the 
battery;  in  which  ciuse  it  will  generally  be  easy  to 
cover  the  part  exposed  by  running  out,  from  the  re- 
verse of  the  battery,  an  end  of  trench,  to  form  a  wing 
traverse  that  shall  intersect  the  lines  of  fire  of  the 
dangerous  point  upon  every  part  exposed.  The  guns 
of  lireach-batteries  should  be  so  placed  that  the  direc- 
tion of  their  tire  may  be  as  nesu-ly  perpendicular  as 
practicable  to  the  line  of  wall  to  be  breached;  and 
where  these  lines  are  oblique  to  each  oilier,  the  obli- 
quity shouUl  not  exceed  45  ,  otherwise  the  effect  of 
the  shot  will  be  greatly  diminished  and  the  operation 
retarded.  Besides  the  breach-batteries,  it  may  be 
neces.sary  to  place  counter-batteries  on  the  glacis. 
Their  object  will  be  to  counter-batter  mid  silence  the 
artillery  of  those  portions  of  the  defenses  which  can 
be  brought  to  bear  on  the  breach-batteries,  or  on  the 
passages  of  the  ditches.  These  counter- batteries  will 
usually  be  so  placed  as  to  fire  along  the  ditches  of  the 
defenses.  Their  arrangement,  in  all  respects,  will  be 
the  same  as  that  of  the  breach-batteries.  See  Bat- 
tern  X. 

BREACHING. — Escalade  being  ordinarily  very  dif- 
ficult, particularly  when  the  besieged  are  aware  of 
the  intention  of  tlie  besiegers,  the  latter  are  generally 
comi)elled  to  tlestroj'  a  portion  of  the  face  of  the  work 
to  obtain  an  entrance.  Such  an  opening  is  called  a 
breach;  and  to  effect  it  vdtix  artillery,  particularly  in 
a  well-constructed  work,  where  no  part  of  the  scarp- 
wall  is  visible  from  the  adjacent  ground,  within 
effective  range  of  siege-cannon,  breaehing-batteries  are 
established  either  on  the  crest  of  the  covered-tray  or 
on  the  glacis.  When  the  walls  of  fortified  places 
were  very  high  and  not  supported  by  terraces  or  ram- 
parts, stone  projectiles  were  used.  From  the  want  of 
sufficient  hardness  in  these  projectiles,  the  besiegers 
were  forced  to  commence  battering  at  the  top  of  the 
wall  where  the  least  resistance  was  offered,  and 
gradually  to  lower  the  shot  until  the  breach  reached 
the  wrecks  already  formed  at  the  ba.se  of  the  wall. 
When  the  style  of  fortification  was  changed,  this 
operation  became  very  laborious,  the  ascent  was  very 
steep,  and  the  breach  was  often  impracticable.  This 
method  was  abandoned  and  mining  substituted.  Iron 
projectiles  superseded  stone,  and  then  a  more  rapid 
mode  of  effecting  a  practicable  breach  was  suggested 
and  confirmed  by  experience.  Vauban  recommended 
increasing  the  size  of  the  hole  first  formed,  by  con- 
tinually tiring  at  its  sides  until  the  wall  should  fall; 
but  the  ballwiis  found  to  glance  into  it  and  injure 
but  slightly  the  untouched  portion  of  the  revetment. 
The  best  mode,  however,  as  found  by  experiment,  is 
to  cut  the  wall  up  into  detached  parts,  by  making  one 
horizontal  and  several  vertical  tissures,  and  tMittering 
each  part  down  separately,  as  indicated  in  the  draw- 
ing. The  ca.siest  man- 
ner of  making  the  cut 
is  to  direct  the  shots 
upon  the  same  line, 
and  thus  form  a  se- 
ries of  holes,  some- 
what greater  than  a 
diameter  apart,  and  then  to  fire  a  second  series  of 
shots,  directed  at  the  several  intervals  between  the 
first,  and  so  on,  until  an  opening  is  made  completely 
through  the  wall. 

The  first  cut  is  made  horizontally,  and  finished, 
which  will  be  known  by  the  earth  fallins;  through  it; 
the  vertical  cuts  arc  tlien  made,  there  being  one  at 
each  end  of  the  intended  breach.  These  cuts  are 
commenced  at  the  horizontal  cut.  and  raised  until  the 
wall,  isf)lated  from  its  supports,  sinks,  overturns,  and 
breaks  into  pieces,  which  become  covered  by  falling 
earth.     If  the  earth   be  sustained  by  its  tenacity. 


BB£ACH-KNIF£. 


225 


BREAKING-DOWN  MACHINE. 


loaded  shells  are  fired  into  it,  which,  acting  like 
small  mines,  cause  it  to  fall,  and  make  the  breach 
praetieabk,  or  of  easy  a.scent.  If  the  portion  of  the 
wall  between  the  vertical  ctits  should  not  be  over- 
thrown by  the  pressure  of  the  earth  behind,  it  must 
be  detached  by  a  few  volleys  of  solid  shot,  tired  at  its 
center.  This  will  speedily"  brinjr  it  down  in  a  mass. 
The  moment  the  wall  is  down  and  the  p:irapct  de- 
stroyed, the  breach  will  be  as  jx-rfcct  and  the  slope 
a.s  easy  of  ascent  as  it  can  be  nuule  by  the  fire  of  the 
batteries.  It  is  important  to  determiiie  the  height  of  i 
the  horizontal  cut  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  for, 
if  this  height  be  not  properly  chosen,  the  breach  may 
be  difficult  if  not  impraclieable.  If  too  high,  the 
ramp  composed  of  the  debris  will  lie  interceiited  by  a 
portion  of  the  wall;  if  too  low,  the  opening  wilfbe 
masked  by  the  debris  and  the  formation  of  the  cut 
impeded.  The  most  suitable  height  is  nearly  equal 
to  the  thickness  of  the  wall  where  the  cut  is  estab- 
lished. The  thickness,  where  not  known,  can  be 
deduced  from  the  dimensions  necessary  to  be  given 
to  the  wall,  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  earth  of  the 
rampart  and  parapet.  Tlie  time  nece.s.sary  to  make  a 
breach  depends  on  the  size  of  the  breach  to  be  made, 
the  material  of  the  scarp,  the  number  of  gtms,  etc. 
For  a  breach  of  20  to  30  yards  in  lenglb,  at  40 
yards  from  the  battery,  1500  shot  of  large  caliber  will 
be  required;  but  when  the  Itatlery  is  at  a  greater  dis- 
tjince,  a  greater  number  of  projectiles  will  be  neces- 
sar\-  on  account  of  the  diminished  accuracv  and  pene- 
tration. Thus,  at  500  or  titM)  yards  9000  to  10,000 
may  be  needed.  See  Effectx  of  Prujectiks,  Penetra- 
tion, and  Pmjii-lih'x. 

BEEACH-KNIFE.— A  weapon  VLsed  as  late  as  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  was  especially  common  in 
Austria  and  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  but  in  reitlity 
it  was  nothing  but  a  Kri/lhe-kidfi'.         '  '    . 

BREACH  OF  ARREST.— A  "crime  usually  punish-  I 
able  with  cashiering.  The  Articles  of  War  provide 
that  officers  charged  with  crime  shall  be  arrested  and 
confined  in  their  barracks,  quarters,  or  tents,  and  de- 
prived of  their  swords  by  the  Commanding  Officer. 
And  any  officer  who  leaves  bis  confinement  before 
lie  is  set  at  liberty  by  his  Commanding  Officer  shall 
be  dismissed  from  the  serWce. 

BREAD. — In  camps  and  in  barracks  of  any  size  in 
England  the  bread  for  the  army  is  baked  on  the  spot 
by  bakers  of  the  Supply  Sub-department  of  Control 
Organization.  Though  perhaps  a '  little  rough  in  its 
manufacture,  the  article  suiiplied  is  made  from  the 
best  ingredients,  and  is  gemiine  and  wholesome.  On 
a  march,  the  Control  Bakeries  supply  bread  at  the 
several  halting-places.  In  smaller  barracks,  bread 
has  to  be  obtained  liy  contract,  but  the  most  vigorous 
supervision  is  exercised  to  secure  proper  quality. 
Formerly  army-bread  was  notoriously  bad.  A  con- 
tractor would  sometimes  send  in  a  tender  so  low,  in 
order  to  obtain  the  contract,  that  be  could  not  possi- 
bly make  good  bread  at  a  profit;  and  then  he  relied 
on  small  fees  paid  him  by  the  soldiers  as  a  means  of 
obtjiining  better.  This  discreditable  state  of  things 
was  ascertained  by  a  Committee  of  Inquiry  some 
years  ago;  it  was  foiuid  that  the  average  of  army 
bread  was  not  equal  in  quality  to  that  of  work-house 
bread.  Steps  were  forthwith  taken  to  remedy  the 
evil;  experiments  were  made  to  determine  whether 
troops  could  bake  their  own  bread  in  the  field,  and 
the  re.sult  was  the  adoption  of  the  present  .system  of 
army  tmking.  With  the  improvement  of  the  bread 
a  vi.sible  amelioration  in  the  health  of  the  soldiers  has 
taken  place.  In  the  United  State;  army  the  troops 
do  the  bakintr  both  in  barracks  and  in  the  field. 

BREAD  AND  WATER.— The  diet  of  prisoners  and 
parties  under  charge  of  the  guanl.  An  authorized 
military  punishment. 

BREAK. — 1.  A  change  from  the  general  direction 
of  the  curtain  of  a  fortification  near  its  extremity,  in 
the  construction  with  orillons  ami  retired  tlanks.  2. 
A  commutator  or  apparatus  to  interrupt  or  change 
the  direction  of  electric  currents. 


BREAKER.— A  cup-shaped  covering,  usually  made 
of  lead,  which  .serves  to  break  a  tul)c  of  gla.ss  or 
plaster  of  Paris  at  the  proper  time  for  igniting  the 
charge  in  fuses  of  certain  coustruction.  See  Jv««- 
siaii  FiiKt'. 

BREAKING-DIAMETER.— The  diameter  of  a  piece 
at  the  instant  of  rupture  may  be  called  its  "  break- 
ingKliameter."  This  would  remain  the  same  for  the 
tangential  strain  :  but  if  we  consider  the  transverse 
strain  only,  this  diameter  increases  with  the  length  of 
stave.  For  a  certain  length  of  stave  under  pres.sure, 
say  two  or  three  calibers^  the  breaking-diameter  due 
to  the  transverse  strain  would  be  the  same  as  the 
breaking-diameter  for  the  tiuigential.  In  this  case 
there  would  be  a  tendency  to  rupture  l)0th  tan- 
genlially  and  transversely,  and  the  resistance  of 
the  metal  would  Ijc  called  fully  into  play  in  Inith 
directions.  For  greater  length  of  staves  the"  breaking- 
diameter  due  to  transverse  sti-ain  would  be  greater 
than  that  due  to  the  tangential,  and  the  piece  would 
nipture  tangentially  before  reaching  its  transverse 
"  l)reaking-<liameter,"  and  therefore  the  transverse 
resistance  would  not  be  called  fully  into  play.  For 
shorter  staves  the  re\erse  wiiuld  bethe  case. 

BREAKING-DOWN  MACHINE.— The  powder,  hav- 
ing been  incorporated,  is  taken  from  the  mills  in  open 
tubs  and  placed  in  small  magazines,  where  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  for  a  day,  in  order  to  give  the 
\iewer  time  to  examine  the  quality  of  the  cake,  and 
to  compare  the  production  of  one  mill  with  that  of 
another,  for  it  is  found  that  that  part  of  the  charge 
which  has  been  subjected  to  the  last  few  revolutions 
of  the  nmners  is  generally  a  little  drier  than  the  rest; 
therefore  allowing  the  whole  to  remain  exposed  for 
a  short  time  tends  to  equalize  the  moisture,  from  two 
to  three  per  cent  of  which  greatly  assists  the  opera- 
tion of  pressing.  The  incorporated  powder,  in  the 
condition  of  soft  cake,  has  now  to  be  broken  up  into 
pieces  of  a  uniform  size,  so  that  the  spaces  between 


Brealiinfr-down  Machine. 

the  plates  in  the  press-box  (hereafter  described')  may 
be  equally  filled  and  the  powder  subjected  to  the 
same  amount  of  pressure  over  its  whole  surface. 
Reducing  the  mill-cake  to  meal  of  a  tmiform  size 
also  assists  in  mixing  jfny  portions  that  may  be  more 
dense  tlian  others,  due  to  their  ha\Tng  been  under  the 
nnmers  and  receiWng  the  full  effect  of  the  incorpo- 
rating operation  up  to  the  last. 

The  breaking  down  of  the  mill-cake  is  effected  by 
the  breaking-down  machine,  which  consists  of  two 
gun-metal  side  frames,  supportinj:  two  pairs  of  gun- 
metal  rollers,  the  one  pair  being  mimediately  under 
the  other.  Tl^se  rollers  are  7i  inches  in  diameter,  and 
have  a  total  leiigth  for  operating  upon  the  cjike  of  2 
feet  6  inches.  The  surfaces  of  the  upper  pair  have 
grooves  of  1.05  inch  pitch,  cut  longitudinally  upon 
them  to  a  depth  of  \  inch.  These  rollers  work  at  a 
Sliced  of  twenty-five  revolutions  per  minute,  and  mo- 
tion is  imparted  to  them  by  means  of  a  main  driring- 
shaft  and  spur-gearing  connecte<l  with  the  motive  pow- 


BB£AKING  GROUND. 


226 


BREAKING  UP  AHUUNITION. 


cr.  The  back  roller  of  each  pair  works  in  n  sliding 
bejiring,  ami  is  pressed  forward  to  its  op|K)silo  roller 
and  kept  up  to  its  work  by  means  of  weighted  levers. 
This  is  a  s;ifety  arraugenieni,  and  is  provided  in 
order  to  admit  "of  the  rollers  opening  to  allow  any 
large  quantity  of  the  eake,  a  hard  lump,  or  any 
foriMirn  substlinee,  to  pa.ss  freely  through  them,  thus 
preventin;:  injury  to  the  maehinery,  and  iwssibly  an 
explosion.  There  is  also  a  seraix'f  attached  to  each 
pair  of  rollers  for  removing  from  them  as  ihey  re- 
volve anv  powder  that  may  uilhere  to  their  surfaces. 

To  prevent  the  dust  spreading  about  the  building 
when  the  machine  is  at  work,  the  rollers  are  inclosed 
in  sheet  copper  and  gun-metal  casings;  these  also  act 
as  spouts,  and  guide  the  meal  into  the  boxes  placed 
underneath  the  machine  for  its  reception. 

The  workinir  of  the  machine  may  be  described  as 
follows:  The  incorporated  mill-cake  is  brought  from 
the  magazines,  and  placed  in  a  wooden  hojjper  that 
holds  about  700  lbs.  Underneath  the  o|jea  side  of  this 
hopiwr  works  an  endless  band  of  strong  canvas,  hav- 
ing strips  of  leather  stitched  across  it  at  4  inches 
apart.  This  band  passes  over  two  drums,  the  upper 
one  being  driven  from  the  gearing  of  the  machine,  so 
that  when  in  ojieralion  this  baud  revolves,  and  car- 
ries a  portion  of  the  mill-cake  with  it  from  the 
hopper,  and  discharges  it  over  the  upper  drum  be- 
tween the  first  and  uppermost  pair  of  rollers.  After 
being  crashed  anil  passing  through  these,  it  falls  into 
the  second  pair  immediately  underneath,  where  it  is 
further  crushed  or  broken  up  into  pieces  of  the  re- 
quired size.  From  these  it  falls  into  the  spout,  and 
is  conveyed  to  the  boxes  placed  imderneath  for  its  re- 
ception. 

When  the  hopper  has  been  filled  with  mill-cake,  the 
attendant  retires  to  a  place  of  safety,  and  then  sets  the 
machine  in  motion.  After  working  for  about  half 
an  hour — which  is  .sufficient  time  to  break  down  an 
entire  charge  of  TOO  lbs.— he,  from  his  place  of  re- 
treat, stops  the  machine,  and,  after  waiting  for  a  few 
minutes,  enters  the  house,  empties  the  boxes,  and  re- 
moves the  powder  before  refilling  the  hopper.  The 
meal,  as  it  is  taken  from  the  boxes,  is  conveyed  in 
tubs,  and  placed  in  other  small  magazines,  from 
whence  it  is  taken  as  required  to  the  press-house  for 
the  purpose  of  undergoing  the  next  process.  All 
the.se  dangerous  operations  are  carried  on  in  separate 
buildings,  well  removed  from  each  other;  and,  as  a 
matter  of  precaution,  the  machine  is  entirely  con- 
structed of  gun-metal  and  wood,  excepting  the  shafts, 
which  are  of  wrought-kon  encased  in  copper.  See 
Ounpoitder. 

BREAKING  GROUND. — In  inilitaiy  operations,  the 
first  excavation  of  the  earth  to  form  intrenchments, 
as  at  the  commencement  of  a  siege.  It  is  apiJlicd 
also  to  the  striking  of  tents,  and  quitting  the  ground 
on  which  troops  have  been  encamped. 

BREAKING  ON  THE  WHEEL.— A  very  barbarous 
modi-  of  intlicting  the  punishment  of  death,  formerly 
in  use  in  France  and  Germany,  where  the  criminal 
was  placed  on  a  carriage- wheel,  with  his  arms  and 
legs  extended  along  the  spokes,  and  the  wheel  being 
turned  round,  the  executioner  fractured  bis  limbs  by 
sucf'cssive  blows  with  an  iron  bar,  which  were  re- 
peated till  death  ensued.  There  was  consiilerable 
variety  in  the  mode  in  which  this  punishment  was  in- 
flictecl,  at  dilferent  times  and  in  dilTerent  places.  By 
way  of  terminating  sooner  the  sulTerings  of  the 
victim,  the  executioner  was  sometimes  permitted  to 
deal  two  or  three  severe  blows  on  the  chest  or 
stomach,  known  as  roups  de  griire;  and  occasionally, 
in  France  at  least,  the  se^ntencc  contained  a  provision 
that  the  criminal  was  to  be  strangled  after  the  first  or 
second  blow.  Mercy  of  this  kind  was,  however,  not 
always  allowed  to  be  shown  to  the  victims  of  the 
wheel;  when  Patkul,  the  envoy  of  Peter  the  Great, 
was  put  to  death  on  the  wheel  Ijy  order  of  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden,  it  is  .said  that  the  officer  in  com- 
mand of  the  guard  was  cashiered  by  the  Swedish 
king  in  consequence  of  having  allowed  the  head  to 


be  struck  olT  l)cfore  life  wa.s  extinct  in  the  mangled 
limbs.  The  punishment  of  the  wheel  Wius  abolished 
in  France  at  the  Hevolution;  in  Germany  it  has  been 
occasionally  infiicled  dining  the  present  century,  on 
persons  c<>nvicl<-d  of  treason  and  parricide. 

BREAKING  UP  AMMUNITION.— In  breaking  up 
small-arm  anunimilion,  the  talilis  should  he  arranged 
agiiinst  the  sides  of  the  room,  and  in  front  of  them, 
on  the  floor,  boarils  one  foot  « ide  are  secured  on 
edge,  so  as  to  leave  a  space  of  three  feet  between 
them  and  the  tables,  inside  of  which  the  workmen 
stand  and  the  scraj)  pai>er  is  thrown.  By  these 
means  the  center  of  the  tioor  remains  clear,  and 
should  be  kept  wet.  Each  workman  shoidd  lie  pro- 
vided with  small  wooden  boxes  or  copper  pans,  one 
for  powder,  one  for  cai)s,  and  one  for  bullets.  The 
tables  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible,  counter- 
brushes  being  provided  for  that  purpo.se.  A  square 
copper  box,  with  screw  top  and  a  capacity  of  about 
100  iiounds  of  powder,  is  placed  at  one  side  of  the 
room;  into  this  the  men  empty  the  powder  obtained; 
a  large  copper  funnel,  18  inches  wide  at  the  top,  is 
used  to  prevent  the  powder  from  spilling  on  the  tioor. 
When  the  box  is  full,  it  is  carried  to  the  magazine  on 
a  hand-barrow,  the  contents  packed  in  liarrels  and 
piled  up.  One  man  is  detailed  to  collect,  cotuit,  and 
pack  the  caps,  sweep  the  fioor,  ami  keep  it  wet,  etc. 
Powder  should  be  removed  from  the  tables  and 
emi)tied  in  the  box  very  freciuently.  No  more  car- 
tridges than  are  actually  needed  to  work  on,  one  Iwx 
for  ^ach  man,  should  be  allowed  in  the  shoj)  at  a 
time.  A  space  on  the  table  three  feet  wide  is  allotted 
to  each  man,  a  partition  one  foot  high  being  the 
dividing-line.  The  box  containing  cartridges  is 
placed  on  the  table  to  the  left;  about  20  packages 
are  opened  at  a  time,  the  cartritlges  emptied  into  one 
end  of  the  bullet-])an.  which  should  beset  directly  in 
front  of  the  workman.  Take  a  cartridge  with  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  remove  the 
bullet  and  drop  it  in  its  jtan,  and  empty  the  powder 
in  the  recepUtcle  intended  for  it.  Burnside's  me- 
tallic, Maynard's  metallic.  Smith's  foil  and  rubber, 
Gallagher's  paper  and  wrapped  metal,  and  all  other 
metallic  cartridges  are  broken  up  by  the  hand- 
breaker,  unless  it  be  a  cartridge  otherwise  provided 
for.  Brass  shells,  before  being  j)acked,  should  be 
taken  to  an  open  place  on  the  ground,  some  distance 
from  the  buildings,  spread  out  two  or  three  inches 
deep  in  a  sj)ace  about  10  feet  square,  and  sprinkled 
witli  a  little  powder;  a  match  is  then  applied,  and 
any  powder  which  may  chance  to  Ik;  in  the  shells  is 
thus  burned  out.  Brass  shells  should  never  be 
soaked  in  water,  especially  those  lined  with  paper, 
for  they  are  never  afterwards  thoroughly  dried  until 
melted  in  the  crucible. 

The  litiKd-breako-  is  composed  of  brass  and  wood, 
and  is  7  inches  long.  The  blade  is  of  bra.ss,  \  inch 
thi<-k.  1  inch  wide,"and  4  inches  long;  oak  handle,  1 
inch  sijuare,  edges  rounded,  and  5  inches  long.  A 
slot  2  inches  long  is  sawed  into  one  end  of  the 
handle;  into  this  "slot  3  in- 
ches of  the  blade  is  inserted; 
two  holes  are  bored  through 
for  rivets  that  firmly  secure 
the  blade  in  its  place.  A 
hole  of  the  size  to  .suit  the 
ball  of  the  cartridge  to  be 
broken  up  is  drilled  llp-ough 
the  projecting  end  of  the 
blade  abo\il  ,\  in<h  from  the 
end.  In  using  this  instm- 
ineiit  hold  it  fiiinly  in  the 
left  hand  over  tlie  bullet- 
pan;  insert  the  bullet-end  of 
the  cartridge  in  the  bole  and 
pry  Ul)ward;  the  bullet  drops 
out  and  the  powder  is  dis- 
posed of  as  ])n-vi(iusly  di- 
rected. When  bniiking  up  sliellcartridges  with  a 
wad  between  the  bullet  and  i>owder,  the  bullet  should 


o 


<^s 


BREAKING  UP  AMMUNITION. 


227 


BREAKING  UP  AMMUNITION. 


be  removed  from  two  or  three  Iiundred  Ijefore  work- 
iiiir  at  the  ixnvder.  A  small  brass  pick  and  scrajjer 
coiiiljiiK'd  is  used,  willi  ilit-  edj;ts  and  iioiiit  sharp- 
cued,  with  which  the  wad  is  removed  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  shell  scraped. 

The  followiuir-ileseribed  machine,  consisting  of  a 
box,  drairer-frame,  drairer,  mit;i(uine,  Jirimj-lxiU ,  and 
firiitg-boH  bar,  is'  used  for  breaking  up  metallic  car- 
tridges: 

The  Ace,  2  feet  wide,  4  feet  long,  and  3  feet  deep, 
is  lined  with  Jinch  boiler  iron.  The  lining  should 
taper  inward  toward  the  Ixittoni  troin  lioth  ends 
and  sides,  forming  an  ol)long-shaped  fininel,  the 
bottom  opening  being  about  1  foot  wide  by  3  feet 
long.  At  each  end  of  the  box  inside,  screwed  on 
about  the  center,  is  an  upright  cleat,  oak,  2i  inches 
wide  by  2  inches  thick;  it  extends  from  the  bottom 
edge  of  the  box  to  witlnn  1  inch  of  the  toj).  A  rab- 
bet 1  inch  deep  and  li  inch  long  is  cut  out  of  the 
front  of  tlie  cleat  at  the  top;  the  shoulder  thus 
formed  serves  as  a  rest  for  the  magazine,  and  the  top 
of  the  cleat  answers  the  same  purpose  for  the  tiring- 
bolt  bar.  The  cleats  arc  covered  with  the  .same  kind 
of  iron  as  the  box  is  lined  with.  The  iron  shoidd  be 
cut  in  strips  and  screwed  on.  The  front  is  covered 
tirst,  the  c(>vering  extending  from  the  bottom  of  the 
rabbet  to  the  lower  end  of  the  cleat.  Cover  the  sides 
the  same  way,  except  that  the  strips  extend  to  the  top 
edge  of  the  box;  this  will  form  a  receptacle  at  the 
top  end  of  the  cleat,  and  .serve  as  a,  slide  for  the 


plate.    The  small  plate  is  then  riveted  to  the  large 

one,  the  rivet-holes  coming  between  the  large  ones. 
The  holes  for  the  cartridges  are  then  drilleil  through 
the  small  plate,  and  should  be  a  little  largT  in 
diameter  than  the  cartridge,  but  not  so  large  as  to 
destroy  the  shouliler  or  bearing  for  the  flange  of  the 
shell. " 

The  firing-bolt  bar  is  made  of  wood,  white  oak,  2i 
inches  wide,  3  inches  thick,  and  about  2  inches 
longer  than  the  magazine.  Holes  for  the  bolts 
should  be  bored  so  that  they  will  come  directly  op- 
ixisile  the  holes  in  the  magazine.  Care  must  Ix; 
taken  to  have  this  correct.  Iron  washers  are  screwed 
on  the  under  and  upper  sides  of  the  bar  over  each 
hole,  to  prevent  their  wearing  by  the  action  of  the 
bolts.     (Ko.  2  washers  for  bolts  aie  just  the  size.) 

Firing-boltii  arc  made  of  J-inch  round  bar-steel. 
They  are  7  inches  long;  about  6  inches  are  ttirncd  off 
in  the  lathe  to  lit  the  holes  in  the  bar;  the  other  inch 
forms  a  iicad,  which  is  the  tiring  end  of  the  bolt. 
About  2  inches  from  the  other  end  a  hole  is  drilled 
through  to  receive  a  pin.  The  bolts  are  then  put 
through  the  holes  in  the  bar  and  pinned.  This  gives 
them  a  play  of  4  inches.  The  tiring-end  of  the 
holt-head  end  should  be  hard,  and  the  striking  end 
soft. 

'X\\e  frame  upon  which  the  box  rests  is  made  of  2- 
ineh  pine,  and  is  1  foot  high  (the  box  is  designed  to 
set  inside  this).  Two  sides  and  one  end  are  closed. 
Cleats  are  nailed  inside,  about  1  inch  from  the  top 


.iMiiimmiiiiim  . 


X. 


^t-M 


©=^ 


Section. 


Section. 


End  View. 


magazine  and  bolt-bar  that  will  prevent  them  from  ; 
shifting  out  of  place.  The  cover  of  the  box  is  made 
of  the  sam(^  kind  of  iron  as  the  lining,  and  in  two  j 
parts,  forming  front  and  back  covers;  they  rest  on  | 
cleats  screwed  oi\  the  ends  of  the  box  inside,  and  ex- 
tend from  the  top  edge  of  the  perpendicular  cleat  to 
the  front  and  back  of  the  liox,  the  lower  end  being 
about  10  inches  below  the  top  edge  of  the  box;  the 
covers  thus  rust  on  an  angle  of  about  4.">  .  The  top 
edges  of  the  cover  should' tit  snugly  against  the  sides 
of  the  tiring-bolt  bar,  but  not  so  as  to  prevent  its 
being  taken  out  and  replaced  freely.  The  back  cover 
may  be  made  fiist,  as  it  is  not  necessary  to  remove  it; 
the" front  one,  however,  has  to  be  removed  at  every 
discharge  of  the  magazine,  and  for  this  reason  has  to 
be  a  little  loose.  Oak  strips  1  X  2  inches  are  screwed 
on  the  tojis  of  the  covers  at  the  lower  and  ui^jier 
edges  to  prevent  the  iron  from  warpinrr;  the  upper 
one  on  the  front  cover  also  serves  for  a  handle. 

The  manazine  is  made  of  iron,  has  two  plates 
riveted  tosetlier,  the  large  or  tipper  plate  to  be  i  inch 
thick,  2i  inches  wide,  and  long  enough  to  tit  in  the 
box  lengthwise,  its  end  resting  on  the  rabbet  cut  in 
the  cleat,  the  small  or  lower  plate  to  be  i  inch  thick 
and  \\  inch  wide.  Twenty  holes,  \  inch  in  diameter, 
are  drilleil  through  the  large  plate  on  a  center  line 
from  end  to  end!  They  should  be  one  inch  apart 
and  commence  about  6  inches  from  the  ends  of  the 


edce.  Upon  these  the  box  rests.  The  other  end  of 
the  frame  is  left  open  for  the  drawer. 

The  drairer  should  be  made  of  ,",ri"eh  boiler-iron 
and  water-tight,  and  so  constructed  that  when  it  is  in 
its  place  under  the  box  the  top  edges,  both  ends, 
and  sides  will  extend  as  far  as  possible  inside  the 
lower  edges  of  the  lining  of  the  box,  thus  preventing 
tlie  bullets  and  pieces  of  copper  from  dropping  be- 
hind the  drawer. 

Three  men  are  required  to  operate  thcmachine:  one 
to  load,  one  to  fire,  and  one  to  eject  the  tired  shells 
from  the  magazine.  An  open  box  .'5  feet  long  (an 
ordinary  musket-box  answers  the  puqiose)  i.s  set  at 
the  end" of  the  machine,  to  the  right,  across  the  open- 
ing, and  about  9  inches  from  each  end.  Toward  the 
center  a  tlat  strip  of  i-inch  bar-iron  is  attached,  the 
ends  projecting  about "lO  incites  over  each  side  of  the 
box.  These  are  to  rest  the  magazine  on  when  Ining 
charged,  and  when  the  shells  are  being  ejected. 
They  should  be  far  enough  apart  to  catch  the  maga- 
zine about  2  inches  from  the  ends,  so  as  not  to  m- 
terferc  with  the  holes.  Three  or  four  magazines  are 
required:  also  two  small  hanmicrs,  punch,  etc. 

Everything  is  now^  rcadv  to  commence  operations. 
The  loader  (operator  No.  i)  seats  himself  at  the  front 
of  the  shell-box,  takes  a  handfid  of  cartridges  m  his 
right  hand  and  charges  the  magazine:  passes  it  to  the 
tiring-operator  (No.  2),  who  places  it  on  its  rest  mthe 


BS£AKING  UP  AUMUNITION. 


228 


BREAKING  UP  AMMUNITION. 


firing-box;  takes  the  firing-bolt  bar  (which  maybe 
placed  on  the  back  cover  when  not  in  use),  sets  it  on 
the  matrazine  so  thai  the  heails  of  the  l)olts  drop  into 
the  lioles;  throws  down  the  front  cover,  that  has  in 
the  mean  time  been  lifted,  takes  the  hanmicr  from  a 
convenient  place  and  strikes  each  bolt  one  smart  blow- 
in  (luick  succession.  lie  then  lifts  ihe  cover  and 
rests  it  agsiinst  Ihe  front  of  Ihe  box  inside,  lakes  out 
the  liring-bolt  bar,  and  lays  it  on  the  back  cover; 
takes  out  the  magazine  and  passes  it  to  operator 
No.  3,  who  sit.s  directly  op|)Osile  the  loader.  IS'o.  3 
then  examines  it,  lo  ascertain  if  any  of  the  (-artridges 
have  mis.st'd  tire;  if  so.  he  takes  tliem  out  luid  jilaces 
Ihem  in  a  .small  box  for  that  purposi-.  turns  llie 
majrazine.  small  holes  up,  i)uiulies  the  remaining 
.shells  out  into  the  open  box,  and  then  slides  il  across 
lo  No.  1;  the  other  operations  in  the  mean  time  con- 
tinuing. The  drawer  may  contain  water  or  not. 
There  is  less  smoke,  however,  when  water  is  used,  as 
the  ignited  powder  is  sooner  extinguished.  When 
about  .jOOO  cartridges  have  Ix'cn  exniloded,  the  bullets 
are  removed  from  the  drawer  and  wa.shed,  and  what- 
ever pieces  of  copper  are  among  them  picked  out. 
Three  men  can  break  1(),(H)0  in  «  hours.  All  primed 
cartridges,  rim  and  center  tire,  can  be  broken  up  by 


turns  the  bag  wrong  side  out  and  cleans  it.     The 

strajiped  shot  are  taken  to  the  door  of  Ihe  labora- 
tory, where  Ihe  shot  which  still  require  cleaning  are 
sep.'irated  from  their  sabots  and  immersed  in  Ihe 
tub  of  water;  after  .standing  some  time  they  are 
washed  and  cleaned;  the  others  remain  strapped. 
The  serviceable,  reparable,  and  unserviceable  car- 
tridge-bags are  separated  from  each  other;  Ihe  last 
are  immersed  in  water  and  used  for  rags;  Ihe  i)ieces 
of  twine  are  tied  up  in  bundles;  Ihe  shells  arc  put 
a.side  to  lie  uidoaded  and  cleaned  in  a  like  manner. 

The  breaking  up  of  fixed  ammunition  requires 
many  precautions,  and  should  never  be  done  in  Ihe 
magazine,  but  as  much  as  ]H)ssil)le  in  the  open  air. 
Never  have  but  little  i)owiler  and  a  few  cartriilges  in 
the  shop  at  one  time. 

Cit It isters.— Turn  up  the  .slit  ends  of  Ihe  canisters 
by  means  of  a  small  chisel;  take  off  the  cover  and 
pull  out  the  balls  and  sawdust  into  a  Ixjx  by  means 
of  a  hook;  take  out  the  bottom  plate  and  straighten 
the  cylinder  with  a  mallet  on  an  an\il. 

/'(>(•^/i;r.v— Split  the  |iapcr;  take  out  Ihe  com- 
position, and  iiulverize  il  by  rolling  for  two  hours. 
It  may  be  made  to  burn  more  or  less  quickly  by  add- 
ing mealed  powder  or  sulphur. 


Rear  View. 


the  above  process.  The  flring-ends  of  the  bolts 
shoidd  be  pointed  for  the  latter.  Of  course  the 
larger  the  cartridge  the  more  necessary  it  would  be  to 
have  Ihe  box  larger  and  stronger. 

An  improvement  is  contemplated  for  the  purjiose 
f)f  preventing  the  pieces  of  copper  from  droi>))ing 
among  Ihe  bullets.  This  impro\emcnt  would  neces- 
sitate the  enlargement  of  the  Ikix,  and  instead  of  one 
drawer  Ihree  would  be  required.  The  box  would  be 
partitioned  off  lengthwise  into  three  compartments, 
the  top  edges  of  the  two  center  partitions  to  be  about 
•2  inches  below  the  points  of  Ihe  bullets  as  they  hang 
in  Ihe  magazine.  The  pieces  of  copper  always  strike 
the  cover  and  fly  towards  the  front  and  back  of  the 
box,  and  would  eonstquenlly  drop  down  the  side 
compartments,  the  bullets  dropping  down  the  center 
one. 

BnE.\KiNn  UP  Uk9ervice.\ble  Stokks. 

FiJ-ed  Amrnunition  for  Cannon.— \  paulin;  1  box; 
2  baiTcls;  1  knife;  2  brushes;  1  punch;  1  hammer; 
1  .scraiwr;  low;  a  tidj  half  full  of  water,  to  clean 
Ihe  balls;  stools. 

One  man  holds  Ihe  cartridge  over  Ihe  Iwx,  while 
another  cuts  the  twine  near  the  knot,  lakes  off  the 
strapped  shot,  brushes  il,  and  stands  il  on  the  pau- 
lin on  its  sjd)Ot;  ihe  first  man  pours  the  good  jiow- 
der   into  a  barrel,  Ihe  caked  jiowder  into  another, 


End  View. 

Unloading  SpnERic.\i,  Case  and  Shells — Bor- 
M.^A-N  Fuse. 

The  fi.xtures consist  of  tables,  protector,  water-boxes, 
drill-presses,  drill-braces,  drills,  etc.,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing.  The  tnbk  on  which  the  protector  is  |)laced 
is  about  3  feet  high,  an<l  is  necessarily  hea\y,  the  top 
being  6  feet  long,  21  feet  wide,  and  3  or"  4  inches 
thick.  The  protector  is  composed  of.  iron;  Ihe  lx>t- 
tom  and  toi)  plates  have  bent  ends,  4J  feet  long  and 
13  inches  wide.  Near  each  end,  leaving  space 
enough  between  them  and  the  bent  ends  for  the  ad- 
mission of  the  end  plates,  two  1  inch  bolt-holes  are 
drilled;  and  1«  inches  from  each  of  these,  towards 
the  center,  corresponding-sized  holes  are  drilled,  mak- 
ing eight  Ixilt-holes  in  each  plate.  These  holes  are 
extended  through  the  t:ible.  The  bottom  plate  is 
laid  on  the  table,  l)enl  ends  up,  and  its  front  edge 
flush  with  the  front  edge  of  Ihe  table;  the  end  plates 
(18  inches  long,  12  inches  high)  are  .set  edgewise  on 
the  bottom  plate  against  the  bent  ends;  the  top  plate 
is  laid  on,  bent  ends  downward.  The  bolls  are 
pa.s.sed  throtigh  from  l)enealh  Ihe  table,  thread-end 
upwani,  Ihe  nuts  are  adjusted  and  .screwed  down  to 
keep  the  plates  together,' and  Ihe  middle  or  parlilion- 
plates  are  fixed  in  jiosition.  Two  jiartilioii-plates 
are  necessary  in  consequence  of  the  front  plate  having 
a  hole  in  the  center,  a  partition  being  placed  each 


BKEAST-HEIGHT. 


229 


BEEECH-INSEETION. 


side  of  the  hole.  Three  compiirtnienls  are  thus 
formed  in  the  jtrotector,  l)ut  the  middle  one  beiujif  I 
usele:is  is  tilled  iu  with  a  block  ol'  wood.  A  hole  If 
inch  in  dianutcr  is  drilled  tliroiiirli  the  loj)  i)late  over  i 
the  center  of  each  of  the  working  conipartinents  for 
the  entrance  of  the  drills.  The  lower  edge  of  the 
front  i)late  rests  on  wooden  siipijoils;  the  upper 
cdire  ]>rojects  abovit  1  inch  above  the  surface  of  the 
to])  plate;  it  is  held  in  position  by  four  braces,  one 
lower  and  one  upper,  at  each  end.  The  outer  ends 
of  the  braces  are  boltetl  to  the  corners  of  the  plate, 
and  the  inner  ends  are  clamped  together  by  means 
of  a  screw-bolt  and  nut;  the  l)olt  pas.sing  through 
the  table  and  bolt-braees.  The  iruter-lmxes  are 
made  strong,  about  T  inches  deep.  They  are  16 
inches  long  and  10  inches  wide,  outside  measure- 
ment. The  ends  are  4  or  fi  inches  thick.  Hav- 
ing the  box  in  the  same  po.sition  in  its  compart- 
ment every  time  it  is  replaced  is  essential;  and  for 
this  purpose  strips  are  made  fast  to  the  botlcmi  jilate 
to  serve  as  guiiles  for  the  bo.x  to  slide  between.  The 
dnll-jinsiii'x  are  fixed  to  the  .table  at  each  end  of  the 
protector  anil  have  sliding  arms.  The  thread-end  of 
the  perpenilicular  bar  passes  through  the  table,  and 
by  means  of  a  nut  is  tirmly  fastened.  The  sliding 
aims  have  set-screws,  one  to  make  it  fast  to  the  per- 
pend i<ular  bar,  and  one  at  the  other  end  to  press  on 
the  drill  brace.  The  press  is  so  attached  to  the  table 
that  the  points  of  the  set-screws  are  in  a  direct  line 
above  the  drill-holes  in  the  top  plate.  The  drill- 
/)mcej<  are  iron;  one  end  having  a  socket  for  the  drill, 
and  the  other  end  is  countersunk  for  the  point  of  the 
set -screw.  Tim  flrilln  are  steel  and  are  about  10  inches 
long;  the  small  ones  are  i  inch  wide  at  the  drill-end 
and  pointed;  the  large  ones  are  If  inch  wide  and 
i  inch  thick  at  the  drill-end.  The  blade  has  a  round 
l)lunt  point  projecting  trom  its  center,  and  is  straight 
each  side  of  the  point,  with  slijrhtly  beveled  opposite 
eilges.  A  smaller  table  is  used  in  the  operation  of 
removing  the  iron  plugs,  the  water-box  for  this  pur- 
pose being  screwed  fast  to  the  surface  of  the  table;  a 
small  iron  wrench  with  two  teeth  to  tit  the  holes  in 
the  plug  is  used.  A  bench-vise  should  be  attached 
lo  this  table.  A  small  haiul-punch,  monkey-wrench, 
heavy  riveting-hammer,  and  a  small  1-ineh  cold- 
chisel  are  neces.sary  tools.  A  tub  or  iron  |)ot  to  hold 
water,  in  which  to  place  the  shells  after  having  the 
plugs  removed,  is  used.  When  coies/iot  are  being 
unloaded,  a  heavy  hand-hammer  is  needed  to  strike 
the  shell  on  the  outside  so  as  to  crack  the  casing  in- 
side. 

All  xp/irrual  pnrjectUe^  can  1)e  unloaded  by  the 
above  plain;  and  if  the  following  directions  are  care- 
fully followed  explosions  cannot  po.ssibly  occur: 

First.  Fl.t  the  shell  tirmly  by  means  of  a  W(M)den 
wedge  in  the  water-box.  Be  sure  that  the  ijuantity 
of  water  in  the  box  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  fuse; 
then  slide  the  box  in  its  compartment  in  the  protector 
so  that  the  location  of  the  fuse  is  in  a  direct  line  be- 
neath the  drill  hole. 

Second.  I'lace  the  point  of  the  small  drill  on  the 
center  of  the  fuse,  and  set  the  other  end  into  the 
socket  of  the  brace,  lower  the  brace  on  the  drill  to 
avoid  displacing  the  point;  bore  the  hole  through  the 
fuse  and  iron  plug,  if  a  Bormann  fuse;  remove  the 
drill  and  work  the  water  into  the  powder  with  a 
brass  wire;  set  the  large  drill  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  small  one,  and  remove  enough  of  the  fuse  lo  >m- 
cover  the  entire  surface  of  the  iron  jilug;  remove  the 
shell  from  the  box  and  put  in  the  water-'ub. 

Third.  The  .shell  is  taken  from  the  tub  by  another 
operator,  who  secures  it  in  the  fixed  water-box,  and 
with  the  cold-chisel  cut.s  through  one  side  of  the 
fuse;  he  then  strikes  one  end  of  the  ring  at  the  cut 
and  drives  it  in  toward  the  center  of  the  iron  phur; 
this  will  detach  it  from  the  thread  of  the  shell. 
With  the  toothed  wrench  extract  the  iron  plug.  The 
shell  is  rejilaced  in  the  tub  from  whence  it  is  subse- 
(juently  taken  and  the  powder  removed. 

Three  men  can   unload  from   100  to   115  shells, 


Bormann  fuse,  in  8  hours;  and  four  men  can  unload 
the  same  number  ol  case  in  the  same  lime.  Sec 
Aiiiniiinitio)!. 

BEEAST-HEIGHT.— The  inUrioriilotic  in  forlifica- 
tion,  sometimes  called  the  brta^l-hiiijlit,  is  the  part 
against  which  the  a.ssailed  natundly  lean  in  the  act 
of  tiling.  It  has  usually  a  slopeof  three  l)eri>en- 
dicular  lo  one  bsi-se.  This  is  a  result  of  ex|x;rience, 
being  the  most  con\enient  one  for  a  soldier  leaning 
forward  to  tire  over  the  parapet.  See  Fkld-fortifi- 
catiint. 

BEEAST  LINE.— The  rope  connecting  the  pontons 
of  a  military  1)ridge  in  a  straight  direction. 

BEEASTPLATE.— In  ancieiit  armor,  a  phileof  iron, 
steel,  or  other  metal,  so  fastened  as  lo  prolecl  the 
chest  or  front  of  the  wearer.  The  back-plate,  in  like 
maimer,  was  worn  to  protect  him  from  attack  from 
behind.  In  modern  European  annics,  almost  the  only 
representative  of  the  breastplate  is  the  front  half  of 
the  <•'//;•««.*,  worn  by  the  ctiirnsKkrs  in  certain  foreign 
Stales,  and  by  the  Household  Cavalry  (Lifeguards 
and  Horse-guards)  in  England. 

BEEASTWOEK.— In  fortitication,  a  hastily  con- 
si  rueted  earthwork  ;  not  so  high  as  to  need  a  Ixinguelte 
for  the  defenders  to  stand  u|ion,  but  sutlicient  to  af- 
fonl  shelter  when  they  are  standing  on  the  level  of  the 
ground  and  tiring  over  the  crest.  The  dry  ditch  or 
trench  from  which  the  earth  has  been  taken  to  form 
the  breastwork  affords  an  additional  defense.  A 
breastwork  is  midway  between  a  parapet  and  an 
epa  It  It' me  til  in  size  and  importance. 

BEEECH.— The  mass  of  solid  metal  behind  the 
bottom  of  the  bore  of  a  gun  extending  to  the  rear  of 
the  base-ring.  The  base  of  the  breech  is  a  frastum  of 
a  cone  or  spherical  segment  in  rear  of  the  breech. 
The  excess  of  metal  at  the  breech  is  to  enable  the  gun 
to  withstand  the  shock  occasioned  by  the  explosion 
of  the  gunpowder.  Small-arms  have  also  an  increase 
of  metal  at  the  breech.     See  Canium. 

BBEECHBLOCK.— A  movable  piece  at  the  breech 
of  a  breech-loading  gun,  which  is  withdrawn  for  the 
insertion  of  a  cartridge  and  closed  before  tiring,  to  re- 
ceive the  impact  of  the  recoil.  This  is  the  great 
problem  of  the  breech  loading  gim.  There  are  at 
least  one  hundred  species  of  breech-blocks,  cla.ssitied 
according  to  the  mode  of  moving  the  block  relativel.v 
to  the  barrel,  or  the  barrel  to  the  block.  See  Spring- 
Hell/  Rip. 

BEEECH  -  CASING. — A  component  part  of  most 
machine-guns.  It  is  usually  a  hollow  cylinder,  ex- 
tending from  the  front  end  of  the  lock-cylinder  to  the 
rear  portion  of  the  frame.  Flanges  on  its  sides  rest 
on  and  are  screwed  to  the  frame ;  near  the  rear  end 
is  a  partition  called  the  eliupfir<ir/m-plaU\  which  di- 
vides the  cylinder  into  two  parts  and  separates  the 
lock  -  cylinder  and  revolving -gear.  In  the  forward 
division  are  placed  the  cams  for  forcing  forward 
and  drawing  back  the  locks.     See  Qatling  Qun. 

BEEECHING. — 1.  The  breeching  of  a  gun  or  car- 
roiiade  is  a  strong  rope  by  which  the  recoil  of  Hie 
gun  is  cheeked  at  such  a  i)oiut  that  the  muzzle  is 
brought  wholly  within  the  port-hole,  where  the  sea- 
men can  sjxinge  and  reload  it.  2.  Harness  adapted  to 
the  wheel-horses  of  gun-carriages,  near  and  off,  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  slopping  of  a  gun  in 
motion.  Bnechings,  near  and  off,  are  strengthened 
with  a  lav  of  leather. 

BEEECH-INSEETION.— The  difficulties  of  securing 
perfect  weldings  in  coiled  wroughl-iron  tubes  have 
led  in  some  instances,  in  the  history  of  the  emiiloy- 
ment  of  linings  conslmeled  in  the  manner  and  on  the 
present  plan  of  muzzle-insertion,  lo  the  development 
of  grave  accidents  in  ser\ice,  tubes  being  blown  out 
and  the  muzzles  torn  off,  all  from  defective  welds. 
The  most  satisfactorv  and  secure  remcdj  for  this 
imperfection  undoubtedlv  lies  in  the  provision  of  a 
shoulder  on  the  tube  (in  front  of  the  charge),  the  gun 
being  reces.scd  for  it.s  reception.  An  otherwise  strong 
and  durable  construction,  emlxwlying  this  feature, 
must  accordingly  have  an  important  advantage  over 


BK££CH-LOAO£R. 


23U 


BREECHLOADEE. 


the  present  plan  of  muzzle-insertion,  in  which  no 
adecimile  provision  cun  be  made  to  prevent  the  de- 
structive effects  of  a  tulie  beini;  blown  out.  This 
accident  is  likely  to  occur  if  all  the  welds  are  not 
sound— a  perfection  which  it  is  imiKissible,  from  the 
nature  of  the  construction  of  coiled  wrouirht-iron 
tubes,  to  uniformly  and  certainly  attain.  Tlie  uni- 
form success  of  our  pre.si'nt  j;uns  is  in  a  measure  due 
to  excellence  of  work  and  care  in  manufacture;  but 
it  is  e\ident  that  a  decided  improvement  attains,  if 
■we  can  have  perfect  immunity  from  the  defect  alluded 
to  above,  while  securiufj  a  perfectly  reliable  construc- 
tion in  other  res|K'Cts.  A  consideration  of  the  ques- 
tion has  led  to  the  construction  of  a  gun  on  an  im- 
proved plan  of  hietcliiiigertioii,  having,  it  Is  believed, 
more  durability  than  the  present  plan  of  muzzle  in- 
sertion, and  securing  the  other  advantages  above 
quoted.  The  imperfections  of  breech-insertion,  in 
alterations  heretofore  made,  have  arisen  from  the 
mode  of  construction  employed,  to  wit,  separating 
the  breech-plug  from  the  strengthening  tube  shrunk 
on  the  inner  tube  or  lining;  also  from  the  solid  con- 
struction of  the  plug.  The  throwing  of  the  entire 
longitudinal  strain  on  to  a  breech  plug  by  depriving 
it  of  all  assistance  from  the  longitudinal  strength  of 
the  enveloping  jacket  produces  a  line  of  longitudinal 
■weakness  at  the  junction  of  the  tube  and  plug,  where 
the  longitudinal  anil  tangential  strains,  under  lire, 
combine  to  produce  rupture.  This  fact  is  well  estab- 
lished by  experiments  in  England. 

In  the  construction  under  consideration,  the  jacket 
is  shrimk  on  the  tube,  and  extends  continuously  with 


tion  of  the  general  features  of  the  construction.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  jacket  (I..')  inch  thick)  extends  to 
the  front  a  distance  of  about  40  inches  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bore,  thus  reinforcing  the  inner  tube 
(1.2.J  inch  thick)  to  a  greater  length  thiin  in  the  case  of 
the  B  tulx's  of  the  present  constructions,  and  con- 
sequently fully  strcngthcnhig  it  over  all  the  space 
where  the  pressures  are  at  all  dangerous. 

The  drawing  reiireseuts  a  10-inch  Hodman  smooth- 
bore gun,  with  its  lining  inserted  from  the  breech. 
The  giui  is  es.scntially  composeil  of  three  l)arts:  (A) 
the  original  10-inch  smooth-bore,  bored  out  to  receive 
the  lining;  (B)  a  lining  tube  of  coiled  wrought-iron 
(welded),  with  a  jacket  (C)  of  wrought-iron  with  its 
hollow  base  or  plug  extending  to  the  face  of  the 
breech;  and  the  breechplug  (I)).  The  bottom  of  the 
tube  is  closed  by  a  wrought-iron  ba.sc  or  cup  (F).  A 
shovilder,  on  the  inner  tube,  prevents  the  tulx?  from 
being  thrust  forward  by  the  effects  of  repeated  fir- 
ings, or  blown  out  from  imperfect  coil-welds.  A 
screw  collar,  K,  at  the  nuizzle,  gives  additional  .secur- 
ity, resisting  any  forward  thrust  of  the  metal  of  the 
tiibe  in  front  of  the  shoulders.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  play  between  the  cast-iron  body  and  tube  and 
jacket  "does  not  exceed  .01  inch  for  a  length  of  88 
inches  from  the  muzzle,  nor  .004  inch  from  this 
point  to  the  commencement  of  the  screw-thread. 
The  greatest  diameter  of  the  tube  and  jacket  is  14.7 
inches.  The  diameter  of  the  tulx-  from  the  muzzle- 
collar  to  the  first  shoulder  is  10..")  inches.  The  ma.xi- 
inimi  thickness  of  the  tube  and  jacket  Is  therefore 
3.35  inches,  and  the  minimum  thickness  of  the  tube  Is 


Ten-inch  Rodman  Smooth-bore  Gun,  with  Lining  inserted  from  the  Breech. 


n  uniform  thickness  from  a  point  a  short  distance  in  I 
front  of  the  trunnions  to  the  breech-cup  of  the  inner 
lube,  and  thence,  with  an  increased  thickness,  clear 
through  the  brcccli  to  its  face.  This  unbi'oken  con- 
tinuity, and  the  yielding,  hollow,  wrought-iron  l)reech 
Urns  formed,  give  all  the  strength  desirable  at  the 
bottom  of  the  bore  to  resist  the  combined  longitudinal 
and  tangential  strains  at  that  point;  and  the  breech 
portion  of  the  jacket,  by  its  hollow  form  being  per- 
mitted to  expanil  in  unison  with  the  tube  ■when  the 
latter  is  distended  under  the  strains  of  discharge, 
avoids  the  danger  of  rupture  liable  lo  result  from  the 
rigidity  of  a  solid,  imyielding  breech.  A  square-cut 
plus  thread  cut  on  the  breech  portion  of  the  jacket 
corresponds  with  a  minus  thread  <u1  on  the  cast-iron, 
each  to  form  the  union  of  one  with  the  other.  The 
area  of  cross-section  of  the  wrought-iron  is  such  as  to 
have  its  strength  pioijortional  lo  the  strength  of  the 
thread  on  the  cast-iron,  reference  being  had  to  the 
relative  strength  of  the  two  metals.  The  breech  por- 
tion of  the  jacket,  it  will  be  observed,  is  so  constructed 
as  to  overlap  the  bottoTU  of  the  tube  and  the  exterior 
portion  of  its  cnii.  The  longitudinal  thrust  con- 
sequently is,  at  this  ])oint,  princi))ally  borne  by  the 
wrought-iron  jacket,  and  not  by  the  sj'condarv 
breech  plug,  simply  used  to  close  the  holliiw  jiart  of 
the  former.  By  these  arrangements,  I  he  greatest  re- 
sistance is  secured  to  longitudinal  strains.  A  breech- 
plug of  ca.st-iron  completes  the  construction  of  the 
breech.  The  inner  tulw,  nhouMered  and  closed  at 
the  bottom  in  the  usual  maimer,  completes  the  men- 


1.2.5  inches.  The  rifling  of  the  gun  consists  of  15 
lands  and  grooves,  each  of  ecjual  width. 

Width  of  lands  and  grooves.' 8377  inch 

Depth  of  grooves 075 

Twist  uniform,  one  turn  in  40  feet.  The  rifling 
stops  at  a  point  10  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the 
bore,  and  the  diameter  of  the  unrifled  portion  of  the 
bore  is  equal  to  that  of  the  rifled  ]iortion  across  lands. 
The  old  vent  is  closed  (the  copijcr  l)usliing  haN-ing 
been  removed)  by  a  wro\ightiron  screw  plug,  and 
2.75  inches  nearer  the  muzzle  a  new  one  was  Ijored, 
parallel  to  the  vertical  plane  through  the  axis  of  the 
bore,  and  distant  therefrom  '^.50  inches.  The  axis  of 
the  vent  enters  the  bore  at  3.5  inches  from  the  bot- 
tom     See  Cimrcrted  Guns  i\n(\  Ordnance. 

BREECH  LOADER.— A  fire-arm  that  receives  its 
load  at  the  breech.  Breech-loading  small-arms  of  the 
new  system  may  be  divided  into  simple  brirrh-lmiders 
and  repiiitirs.  The  i)rincipal  jiarts  iieculiar  to  the 
former  are:  1st.  The  moiyihle  hricdi-blork,  by  which 
the  chamber  is  opened  and  dosed;  2d.  The  breech- 
fronit'  upon  which  the  breech-block  is  moiuited  and 
united  lo  the  barrel;  3d.  The  chambtr.  with  its 
counterl>i)red  recess,  to  receive  the  rim  of  the  cart- 
ridge; 4th.  Thvjirinr/-piii,  which  transmits  the  blow 
of  the  hammer  to  the  priming  of  the  cartridge;  5th. 
The  ritr(ictm\  by  which  the  cmiXy  case  is  removed 
after  firing.  In  addition  to  these  parts,  the  repeater 
has  a  magazine  attatched  to  it  to  contain  a  certain 


BBEECH  LOASEB. 


231 


BREECH  LOADEB. 


number  of  cartridges,  which  are  successively  brought 
into  the  chamber  by  peculiar  mechnnism. 

The  foregoing-named  parts  may  be  said  to  be 
essential  to  all  breech-loading  arms  in  which  the 
metallic  cartridge  is  used;  the  ditferent  ways  in 
which  they  are  combined  mark  the  different  systems 
now  in  vogue.  These  coml)inali«)ns  have  reference 
cliietly  to  the  modes  of  operating  and  locking  tbe 
breecb-block.  The  breech-block  may  Ik?  ojx'rated 
in  two  waj's:  1st,  by  rolatiuii,  where  it  swings  on  a 
hinge;  2d,  l)y  ulldiiiff,  where  it  moves  in  grooves. 
The  fonner  mode  is  generally  to  be  preferred,  as  the 
rubbing  surfaces  are  small,  and  the  iiower  is  ap- 
plied at  the  end  of  a  lever:  in  the  siune  way  that  it  is 
easier  to  close  a  hinged  door  than  a  sliding  one.  In 
the  rotjiting  breech-block,  the  position  of  the  hinge 
has  an  important  influence  on  the  facility  of  operat- 


slide.  There  is  another  system,  however,  in  which 
the  breech  is  opened  by  mo\-ing  the  barrel.  This 
system  is  better  adapted  to  sporting  than  to  militarj' 
guns. 

The  following  are  among  the  more  important 
conditions  to  be  fultilled  in  constructing  a  breech- 
loading  gun  of  the  new  .system,  vi/..:  1st.  The 
strength  and  imion  of  tbe  parts  should  be  such  as 
not  only  to  resist  repeated  discharges,  l)ut  the  t)urst- 
ing  of  a  cartridge-case,  which  sometimes  occurs 
from  defective  material  or  workmanship.  2d.  The 
locking  of  the  breech-block  should  not  only  he 
secure,  l)ut  all  the  part.s  by  which  it  is  effected  should 
work  freely — without  sticking.  ;ld.  The  parts 
should  be  so  ananged  that  the  hammer  cannot  strike 
the  firing-pin  until  the  breech-block  is  i)roperly 
locked.     4th.  The    piece    should    not    be    carried 


ft 


FiG.l. 


Fio. 


ing  the  block,  inserting  the  cartridge  and  -n-ithdraw-  | 
ing  the  emiity  shell,  and  the  most  suitable  position  is 
deemed  to  be  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  block.     In 
this  ca.se  the  motion  of  opening  and  closing  the  block  | 
is  natural  and  easy,  the  cartridge  is  pushed  into  its 
place  bv  the  block,  and  a  very  simple  retractor  serves  j 
to  withdraw  the  empty  shellafter  firing.     The  Allin  ; 
(Springfield   altered),  "Berdan.    Millbank,    Lamson, 
Kenungton,  Laidlev,  and  others  belong  to  this  class.  | 
In   the  last  two  named  the  hinge  is  below,  in  the  i 
others  it  is  above,  the  a.xis  of  the  block.     In  the  Sni-  I 
der  (Enfield  altered),  Warner,  Maynard,  and  others 
the  hinge  is  on  the  side  of  the  block;  while  in  the 
Peabody,  Roberts,  and  othei-s  it  is  in  rear.     In    the 
Prussian  Needle,  the  French  Chassepot,  Root,  ileigs. 
Sharp,  and  other  guns  the  breech-block  is  made  to 


FlQ.  3. 

loaded  with  the  hammer  resting  on  the  firing-pin. 
oth.  Avoid,  if  possible,  the  necessity  of  bringing  the 
hammer  to  the  full  cock  in  order  to  unlock  the 
breech-block.  6th.  The  working  parts  should,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  covered  from  dust  and  water. 
7th.  The  extractor  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  re- 
quire no  cuts  or  openings  in  that  part  of  the  cham- 
ber which  surrounds  the  body  of  the  cartridge-case. 
In  relation  to  muskets  and  fowling-pieces,  Mr. 
Greener,  of  Birmingham,  who  has  written  much  on 
the  subject,  disputes  the  usefulness  of  breech-load- 
ing; he  denies  that  it  is  more  safe,  more  accunite,  or 
more  forcible  than  muzzle-loading;  while  certain 
advantages  which  it  niav  possess  are.  he  thinks, 
counterbalanced  by  the  greater  cost  of  the  weapon. 
The  relative  merits   of   breech-  and  muzzle-loading 


BR££CH  LOADING  CANNON. 


232 


BREECH  MECHANISM. 


fowlinir-pieces  were  tested  in  1859-60  by  various 
trials,  uudcr  the  luanairenient  of  the  editor  of  The 
Fiehl,  and  resulted  in  favor  of  the  breeeh-loaders. 
The  deniaml  fur  the  latter  has.  in  eonse(iuenec, 
enornKiusly  inriejusetl.  The  drawinij  illustrates  tlie 
Fox  hreeeii-loadiiiijj  Kun,  one  of  the  most  s;itisfaclorv 
arms  yet  inventeil.  Fig.  I  shows  the  ]Hisitioii 
when  about  to  detaeh  the  barrels:  Fig.  IS,  «hen 
about  to  attaeh  the  barrels;  and  Fig.  2  shows  the 
stoek  and  barrel  apart.  The  various  breech-aetions 
and  distinguishing  features  are  notieed  in  various 
parts  of  the  Encyelopedia,  in  eoiuiection  with  cer- 
tain kinds  of  ordnance  and  small-arms  expres.sly  con- 
structed on  the  l)reeeh- loading  principle. 

The  introduction  of  breecii-loailers  in  the  United 
Slates  dates  properly  from  18().5,  from  wliich  date 
muzzleloading  arms  were  no  longer  manufactured 
at  the  Springlield  Armory.  A  short  time  Ixfore  the 
late  Rebellion,  the  Government  tested  a  number  of 
breech-loading  guns,  such  as  the  Burnside.  C'osmo- 
politan,  Gallagher,  Joslyn,  Merrill.  Maynard,  Smith, 
Lindner,  and  Sharp.  None  of  these  are  now  used 
except  the  Sharp  gun,  which  has  been  adapted  to 
the  metallic  cartridge.  During  the  war  the  Spencer 
rille  was  much  used  by  the  L.  S.  cavalry;  it  has  a 
magazine  in  the  butt  of  the  stock,  holding  7  car- 
triiiges  that  are  admitted  one  at  a  time  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  trigger-guard  used  as  a  lever.  The 
shell  of  an  exploded  cartridge  is  expelled  by  the 
same  movement.  It  may  be  used  also  as  a  single 
breech-loader,  but  the  magazine  must  first  be  shut 
otT.  The  Ilenrj-  gun  (not  to  be  mistaken  for  the 
Martini-Henry)  has  the  magazine  under  the  barrel. 
By  inovemeiits  of  the  lever  IT  metallic  cases  or 
cartridges  can  be  brought  into  the  chamber  in  suc- 
cession. This  gun,  like  the  Silencer,  can  be  used  as 
a  single  breech-loader  by  shutting  off  the  magazine. 
It  has  been  changed,  however,  by  ().  F.  Winchester, 
and  is  now  termed  the  Winchester  gim.  Among 
other  magjizine-gTins  may  be  mentioned  the  Ball, 
Fogarty,  and  Gardner  guiis.  The  well-known  Rem- 
ington gun  is  a  .single  breech-loader,  and  has  an  iron 
receiver  that  is  .screwed  to  the  breech  of  the  barrel, 
in  which  the  breech-block  and  lock  are  to  be  found. 
It  uses  metallic-cased  cartridges,  and  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Governments  of  Egypt,  Spain,  and 
several  other  countries. 

In  1866  the  Secretary  of  War  called  a  Board  of 
Officers,  General  Hancock  acting  as  President,  to 
report  the  form  and  calil)er  which  should  be  adopted 
for  breech-loading  muskets  and  carl)ines,  and  the 
method  of  converting  muskets  from  nuizzle-loading 
to  breech-loading  arms.  After  an  examination  of  'H 
different  breech-loading  muskets  and  IT  different 
breech-loading  carbines,  the  Board  reporteil  the  best 
caliber  for  miiskets  to  be  .45  of  an  inch,  the  best 
charge  of  powdei-  from  65  to  TO  grains,  and  the  best 
weight  of  ball  from  480  to  500  grains.  In  186i>,  a 
Board  of  Officers,  presided  over  by  General  Sclio- 
tield,  was  called  to  meet  at  St.  Louis  to  select  the  six 
best  patterns  of  muskets  for  infantry  and  carl)iues 
for  cavalry.  After  examining  a  great  nundjcr  of 
dllTerent  breech-loaders,  they  reported  that  the  only 
guns  suitable  for  military  .service  were  those  of  the 
Remington,  Springfield,  and  Sharp  systems.  These 
guns  were  tried  accordingly  until  18T2,  when,  in 
compliance  with  an  Act  of  Congress,  a  Board  of  Otfl- 
cers.  General  A.  II.  Terry  as  President,  was  ap- 
]K)inted  to  nieil  in  Ni-w  York  and  Siuingfleld,  "to 
recommend  a  bieecli-li>ading  system  for  muskets  and 
carbines  to  be  adopted  for  the  military  service,  which 
system,  when  so  adopted,  shall  be  the  only  one  to  be 
used  bv  the  Ordnance  Dejiartment  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  muskets  and  carbines  for  the  military  ser- 
vice." After  testing  over  lOU  breech-loading  guns, 
the  Board  reconunended  (.May,  18T;i)  that  the  S|iriiig 
field  breech-loading  system  be  adciplcd  f(jr  military 
service,  and  this  report  being  aipproved,  tliat  system 
is  now  used  by  the  Government  for  the  I'.  S.  anny 
and    militia.      This    breech-loader    has    u    receivei 


.screwed  to  the  breech  of  the  barrel.  The  shell  of 
the  exploded  cartridge  is  ejected  by  a  combine<l  cam 
and  spring  through  a  motion  of  the  hinge  in  the 
opening  of  the  breech-block.  The  fiiiug-|)in  goes 
through  the  breech-block  in  an  inclined  direction 
from  the  nos<'  of  the  hammer  at  the  side  to  the  center 
of  the  rear  of  the  (handier,  w  here  it  strikes  the  heail 
of  the  cartridge,  exploding  the  fulnunate  when  its 
rear  end  is  struck  by  the  hammer.  See  Spriugfidd 
Hijte. 

BSEECH-LOADING  CANNON.  —  Intimately  con- 
necteil  willi  tlie  suliji'ct  of  the  different  systems  of 
rifling  is  that  of  the  advantages  and  disjidvantages  of 
breech-loading  for  camion.  There  are  strong  argu- 
ments lx)lh  for  and  against  the  use  of  the  breech- 
loaders— .some  nations  using  them  altogether,  and 
others  not  at  all.  A  jirinciiial  advantage  claimed  for 
the  breech-loading  ginis  is  lapidity  of  fire,  but  the  re- 
sult does  not  seem  to  have  been  attained  in  the  large 
guns.  The  gun  can  be  loaded  when  run  out,  with- 
out exposing  the  men,  antl  worked  in  a  smaller  space 
by  limiting  the  recoil.  Any  igiuted  substance  left  in 
the  bore  can  lie  seen  and  removed;  and  there  is  no 
danger  of  the  jjrojectile  not  being  home.  The  breech- 
loading  gun  may  be  made  longer,  occasionally,  which 
is  a  great  advantage  where  there  is  difficulty  in  burn- 
ing the  powder;  moreover,  a  large  powder-chamber 
may  beemployed  for  the  better  burumg  of  the  charge. 
The  advantages  of  the  compressive  system  of  rifling 
may  be  claimed  in  favor  of  breech-loading. 

'fhc  breech-loading  cannon  is  heavier  and  more  ex- 
pensive than  one  loading  at  the  muzzle.  There  are 
more  parts  to  be  damaged.  In  heavy  guns,  far  from 
there  being  any  increased  facility  in  loading,  consid- 
erable force  has  to  be  used  and  applied  in  a  very 
careful  way  to  the  breech-closing  apparatus,  or  the 
gun  may  be  rendered  temporarily  unserviceable. 
Escape  of  gas,  fouling  or  corrosion  of  the  closing 
surfaces,  and  injury  to  the  delicate  Broadwell  ring  or 
gas-check,  are  among  the  contingencies  that  may  arise 
in  service.  Much  additional  labor  and  outlay  are  re- 
quired to  construct  and  fit  up  interchangeable  hollow 
screws  or  sliding  stoppers;  to  fit  and  renew  gas- 
checks;  to  apjily  opeinng  and  closing  apparatus, 
which  caimot  lie  very  sim|)le,  liut  which  must  be  very 
strong  and  ilurable;  to  faliricale,  keep  clean,  and 
tnaintain  all  these  parts  on  such  a  plan  that  two  or 
three  men  can  manipidate  them  with  ea.se  and  cer- 
tainty, and  without  unusual  risk  of  disaster  from  ex- 
citement or  carelessness;  and  of  such  .size  and  strength 
that  the  heaviest  iirojectiles  can  be  tired,  with  large 
charges  of  powder. 

The  adoi)lion  of  a  system  of  working  and  loading 
guns  by  hydraulic  power  must  have  an  importaTit 
bearing  u]iim  the  question  of  the  comparative  merits 
of  breech  and  nuizzle-loaders.  One  of  the  chief  ad- 
vantages claimed  for  breech-loaders  isthat  any  length 
of  bore  can  be  adojited  without  increa.sing  the  diffi- 
culty of  loading,  and  that  therefore  a  higher  duty 
tan  be  obtained  from  the  powder.  It  has  also  been 
urged  that  a  gun  of  larger  size  can  be  worked  in  a 
given  turret  as  a  breech-loader.  Successful  mechani- 
cal methods  for  loading  at  the  muzzle  would  seem  to 
negative  these  advantages.  The  stippression  of  wind- 
age and  the  power  of  placing  the  vent  in  the  breech- 
block are  important  advantages  claimed  for  breech- 
loaders. The  \cnt  is  a  serious  trouble  in  very  heavj- 
guns,  from  its  rt\y>U\  erosion  by  the  gases  of  discharge. 
But  it  is  claimed  that  the  windage  can  be  elfeclually 
suppresseil  in  many  muzzle-loading  systems  of  rifling 
and  pnijeeliles,  and  an  arrangement  has  been  devised 
for  stopping  altogether  the  jias.sage  of  gas  through 
the  vent,  thus  removing  the  difficulty  of  its  erosion. 
See  Onhinncf. 

BREECH  MECHANISM.— The  mechanism  used  for 
opening  and  closing  the  liieech  of  a  fire-arm  and  se- 
curing it  against  tlii'  escape  of  Ihega.s.  In  small  arms 
this  is  readily  accomplished.  The  use  of  the  metallii: 
cartridge-case  renders  any  siwcial  gas-check  unneces- 
sary, OS  the  case  itself  by  being  exi)ai}ded  against  the 


BB££CH  PIECE. 


283 


BEEOES  CHRONOGRAPH. 


■walls  of  the  chamber  serves  the  purpose.  The  vari- 
ous mechanisms  used  in  small-arms  have  heeii  cla.ssi- 
tied  as  foUows:  Isl.  Fi.\etl  chamlier;  2(1.  Movable 
chamber.  The  second  class  is  now  obsolete.  The 
tixed-ehamber  class  is  subdivided  into — 1st.  Barrel 
moves;  2d.  Breech-block  moves.  The  tirst  cla,ss 
comprises  many  of  the  shotguns  in  use;  the  second, 
the  l>est  known  of  military  arms.  Under  this  latter 
clas-s  are  the  following  sulxiivisions:  1st.  Sliding 
block;  2d.  Sliding  and  rotating;  'M.  Rotating  about 
an  a.vis.  We  find  excellent  guns  under  each  of  these 
classes,  which  are  further  subdivided  as  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  motions.  The  Sharp  may  be  taken  as 
typical  of  the  first  of  these  classes,  the  Hotchkiss 
magazine-gun  of  the  second,  ami  the  Springfield  of 
the  thiid.  A  similar  cla.ssification  may  he  made  for 
breech-loading  devices  in  heavy  orilnance,  but  the 
pioblem  here  is  not  so  simple.  The  pressure  is  much 
greater,  the  ma.ssi'S  of  metal  much  larger,  and  the 
cartridge  must  be  used  without  a  ca.se  to  check  the 
gas.  Breech-loaders  were  im|)0ssible  imtil  the  prob- 
lem of  checking  the  gas  had  been  solved.  Tlie  in- 
ventor of  the  first  successful  ga.s-check  was  an  Ameri- 
can, L.  W.  Broadwell,  now  residing  abroad.  The 
term  "  Broadwell  ring"  has  been  applied  to  all  .simi- 
lar devices.  This  is  a  steel  ring  which  tits  in  a  recess 
reamed  out  in  the  rear  of  the  chamlKir  and  abutting 
upon  the  brcech-lilock.  The  inside  of  the  ring  is  so 
shaped  as  to  l)e  pressed  by  the  gas  outward  and 
backward,  thus  closing  both  the  space  outside  the 
ring  and  between  it  and  the  block.  Broadwell  is  also 
the  inventor  of  a  breech  mechanism  which,  with  a 
few  modifications,  is  that  \ised  by  Krupp  for  all 
of  his  guns.  The  breech-block  slides  horizontally 
through  a  rectangular  slot  in  rear  of  the  chamber.  In 
the  Armstrong  l3reech-loader,  the  block  called  the 
vent-piece  is  taken  out  and  put  iu  through  a  rectangu- 
lar orifice  on  the  top  of  the  gun.  It  is  locked  in  place 
by  a  hollow  breech-screw.  The  French  vise  a  breech- 
screw  with  the  threads  cut  away  in  longitudinal  row  s. 
The  female  screw  being  similarly  arranged,  a  very 
smidl  rotation  enables  it  to  be  entirely  withdrawn. 
Among  American  devices  are  Thompson's,  a  breech- 
block which  rolls  to  the  side  and  opens  or  closes  the 
bore:  Sutcliffe's,  a  cylindrical  block,  with  its  axis 
parallel  to  the  one  hanging  on  a  pin  inojecting  from 
the  front  perijjhery  of  the  hollow  screw. — the  l>lock  is 
raised  and  locked  by  turning  the  screw,  and  falls  into 
a  recess  below  when  the  screw  is  half  turned  back: 
Mann's,  in  which  the  gun  rotates  upward  about  the 
trunnions  .something  like  a  shotgun:  and  many 
others. 

BREECH  PIECE. — A  solid  forging  of  wrought-iron. 
It  is  l)oied,  turned,  and  shrimk  on  to  one  end  of  the 
barrel.  The  breech-piece  of  the  larger  natures  is 
welded  to  the  coil  in  front  of  it. 

BREECH-PIN. — A  plug  screwed  into  the  rear  end 
of  a  barrel,  forming  the  bottom  of  the  charge-cham- 
ber. It  is  frequently  called  a  breech-plug  or  breerh- 
screir.     See  Bhink. 

BREECH-SCREW. — A  screw  comiiosed  of  a  body, 
tenon,  and  tang,  em]iloyed  to  close  the  bottom  of  the 
bore.  The  screw  usually  fits  into  the  thread  cut  in 
the  breech-piece,  and  is  worked  forward  or  back- 
ward by  the  lever  and  tappet  so  as  to  press  home  or 
release  "the  vent-i)ieee.  If  is  bored  hollow  to  allow  of 
the  charge  Ix'ing  pas.sed  through  in  loading  the  gun; 
the  dianieter  of  the  hollow  is  rather  larger  than  that 
of  the  jxiwder-ehamber.  It  is  made  of  steel  for 
20-pdrs.  and  lower  natures  of  gun,  of  wrought-iron 
or  steel  for  40-pdi-s. ,  and  of  wrought-iron  faced  with 
steel  for  the  T-ineh  guns.     See  Bmrh-pi k . 

BREECH-SIGHT.— With  the  exception  of  mortars, 
all  modern  jiieees  arc  furnished  with  two  sights,  a 
front  one  and  a  rear  one.  These  are  situated  either 
on  the  line  of  vietal,  or  slightlv  to  the  right  of  it  in  a 
plane  parallel  to  the  plane'of  tire.  The  front  sight  is 
securely  attached  t<j  the  piece  by  means  of  a  screw, 
and  for  the  heavier  class  of  guns  is  over  the  axis  of 
the  trunnions.   The  rear  sight  is  on  the  bR-ech,  fitting 


into  a  socket  attached  to  the  piece  with  screws,  and 
when  the  gun  is  to  be  discharged  is  removed  from  the 
socket.  For  the  10-  and  1.5-iiich  guns  the  breech-sight 
is  witliout  graduation,  and  serves  merely  to  give  di- 
rection to  the  piece,  the  elevation  iK-ing  given  by 
mcaas  of  the  ehcatintj-arc,  or,  when  i)ractical)le,  with 
the  quadrant  applied  in  the  muzzle. 

For  siege  and  Parrott  gmis  the  breech-sights  arc 
graduated  to  correspond  to  degrees  and  parts  of  de- 
grees of  elevation  of  the  axis  of  the  bfire,  and  have  a 
slide  to  move  up  or  down.  This  slide  has  a  screw- 
thread  cut  on  one  end  of  it,  upo|  which  works  a  nut 
with  four  short  anns;  through  each  of  these  arms  is 
a  small  hole  for  sighting.  'I'he  screw  ujion  the  slide 
is  for  the  purpose  of  giving  lateral  motion,  when  al- 
lowing for  ilrift.  Each  kind  of  gun  has  its  particular 
breech-sight,  but,  as  there  are  in  service  manv  of  old 
or  experimentiil  pattern,  they  should  be  verified  for 
the  particular  pieces  upon  which  they  are  to  l)e  used. 
This  is  done  by  <lirecting  the  piece  at  some  well-de- 
fined point  at  a  distance  of  1000  yards  or  more,  and 
on  the  same  hoiizontal  plane  with  the  axis  of  the 
trunnions.  A  straight-edge  and  spirit-level  applied 
to  the  face  of  a  trunnion  suffice  for  this  operation. 
Place  the  slide  of  the  breech-sight  at  any  degree  of 
the  gradtiation,  and,  sighting  through  it  at  the  object, 
give  the  i)iece  the  corresponding  elevation.  Insert 
the  gimner's  quadrant  into  the  Imre,  and  a.sccrtain 
from  it  the  inclination  of  the  axis  of  the  piece.  If 
the  reading  on  the  breech-sight  corresponds  to  that  of 
the  quadrant,  the  former  is  correct.  The  line  of  sight 
pas-*ing  through  the  zero  of  the  breech-sight  is  ])andlel 
to  the  line  of  fire. 

For  10-  and  15-inch  guns  an  cleniliiKj-nrc  is  used. 
This  consists  of  a  strip  of  brass  attached  to  the  base 
of  the  breech  parallel  to  the  ratchets.  It  is  graduated 
into  tlegiees  and  parts  of  degrees,  and  a  pointer,  at- 
tached to  the  ratchet-post,  indicates  the  elevation  or 
depression  of  the  piece.  AV'heu  the  jiointer  is  at  zero, 
the  axis  of  the  piece  is  horizontal.  Besides  the  grad- 
uation on  the  arc,  the  ranges  in  yards  for  the  ordinary 
charges  for  shot  and  shell  are  given.  In  batteries  for 
garrison  and  sea-coa.st  defen.se,  where  the  platforms  are 
fixed,  the  line  of  metal  may  Ix'  considered  as  perma- 
nent; but  with  siege-guns,  mounted  on  traveling-car- 
riages, the  wheels  are  liable  to  vary  in  position  from 
unevenness  of  ground  or  unequal  settling  in  newly- 
constructed  platfoniis.  This  line  is  constantly  chang- 
ing, and  approximates  the  higher  wheel  in  proportion 
to  the  ditfcrence  of  level  between  the  wheels;  hence, 
to  secure  accuracy  of  tire,  allowance  must  be  made 
by  obser%'ing  where  the  shots  strike  and  correcting 
the  aim  accordingly.  Deviation  from  this  cause  is 
alwavs  towards  the  side  of  the  lower  wheel. 

BREECH-WRENCH. — A  wrench  employed  in  turn- 
ing out  the  breech-pin  of  a  fire-arm. 

BREGER  CHRONOGRAPH.— This  apparatus,  or  a 
modification  of  the  Le  Boulenge  chronograph,  is 
intended  to  measure  the  interval  of  time,  T,  which 
elapses  between  the  successive  ru]itures  of  two 
electric  cuiTents.  It  is  principally  emiiloyed  to  de- 
termine the  velocity  of  i>roieetiles.  in  w  hich  case  two 
vertical  frames  are  placed  in  froiU  of  the  gun.  on 
each  of  which  is  stretched  the  conducting  wire  of 
one  of  the  two  currents.  In  traversing  the  frames 
the  projectile  cuts  the  circuits  and  causi-s  the  chrono- 
graph to  act.  The  distance.  D,  between  the  frames 
being  known,  the  mean  velocity  of  the  projectile 

during  the  time,  T,  is  V  =:  =■    AVhen  T  is  compressed 

iHJtwcen  0'.0.5  and  O'.lo  the  conditions  are  favorable, 
although  the  apparatus  may  be  used  to  measure  a 
shorter  time. 

The  chronograph  consists  of  a  vertical  colunm.  to 
which  are  affixed  two  electromagnets;  one  magnet  is 
actuated  l)y  the  current  of  the  first  frame  aM<l  sup- 
(lorts  an  armature  called  the  chronometer;  the  other 
is  actuated  by  the  current  of  the  second  fr;mie  and 
supports  an  armature  called  the  registrar.    The  chro- 


BS£0£B  CHBONOGRAPH. 


234 


BB£6£B  CHB0N06BAPH. 


nometer  is  a  long  cylindrical  brass  lube  terminating  at 
its  upiHT  I'Xlri'niity  in  a  piece  of  .soft  iron  and  bearin" 
at  its  lower  extri'niily  a  sleel  bob.  It  is  surrounded 
bv  a  zinc  or  copper  cylinder  calk-d  the  recorder, 
"fhe  registrar  is  of  the  same  weight  as  the  chro- 
nometer, and  is  a  tube  with  soft  iron  and  bob.  The 
cores  of  the  electro  magnets  and  the  soft  iron  of  the 
arntatures  terminate  in  cones  slightly  rounded  at 
their  vertices  in  order  that  the  armatures  when  sus- 
pended can  take  a  vertical  position.  When  the  re^s- 
trar  is  set  free  it  strikes  a  horizontal  plate,  which 
turns  upon  its  a.xi^^and  releases  a  s|iring  furnished 
with  a  square  knife,  which  strikes  the  recorder  and 


Breger  Chronograph. 

leaves  an  indentation  upon  it.  If  the  two  currents 
be  ruptured  simultaneously  the  indentation  is  found 
upon  the  recorder  at  a  "height,  h,  indicating  that 
since  the  chronometer  commenced  to  fall  the  time  t 

has  elapsed      t=  i/  —      It  's  e^^dcnt  that  t  is  the 

*    a 

time  required  for  the  apparatus  to  operate;  it  is  a 
systematic  retardation  iidierent  in  the  instnnnent. 
A  special  organ,  called  the  disjunclor.  permits  the 
simultaneous  niplure  of  the  circuits  to  be  produced, 
so  that  the  time,  /,  is  always  known.  A  very  simple 
de\ice  is  resorted  to  in  order  to  render  it  constant. 


If  the  current  of  the  registrar  is  not  rupttired  until 
after  that  of  the  chronometer,  and  if  an  interval,  T, 
has  elapsed  between  these  ruptures,  the  time  during 
which  the  chrono'ineter  will  fall  iK'fore  receiving  the 
indentation  of  the  knife  will  simply  he  augmented  by 
T;  and  calling  H  the  height  of  the  indentation,  we 
will  have 


«  +  T=V 


2H 


Thus  the  determination  of  any  interval,  T,  always 
comprises  two  operations:  the  measurement  of  the 
time,  t,  required  for  the  instrument  to  operate,  and 
that  of  the  time,  t  -j-  T.  The  difference  of  these 
two  measurements  gives  the  time  sought.  This  in- 
direct method  of  a.sccrtaining  the  result  is  the 
characteristic  of  the  instrument  and  explains  its 
accuracy.  When  the  rupture  of  the  currents  is 
produced  by  the  projectile,  the  portion  D  of  the 
trajectory  between  the  targets  is  regarded  as  recti- 
linear, and  the  mean  velocity,  V,  is 


V  = 


D 


V2(H-/0" 


A  table  may  be  calculated  giving  the  values  of  V 
for  different  values  of  D  and  H.  If  D,  h,  and  II 
have  been  accurately  measured  and  the  disjunctor 
has  ruj^tured  the  currents  at  precisely  the  same  in- 
stant, the  velocity,  V,  will  l)e  subject  to  no  error, 
])rovided,  however,  that  the  time  recjuircd  for  the 
operation  of  the  instrument  has  remained  the  same  at 
the  time  of  di.sjunclion  and  of  exi>erimcnt.  The 
time  necessary  for  the  operation  of  the  instrument  is 
composed,  first,  of  that  which  elapses  from  the  in- 
stant the  registrar  commenced  to  fall  until  the  blow 
of  the  knife  is  given  to  the  recorder  of  the  chro- 
nometer, and  this  first  part  will  necessarily  be  the 
s;ime  in  two  successive  operations  if  the  element  of 
the  recorder  which  receives  the  mark  falls  in  the 
same  vertical  line.  From  the  instant  that  the  current 
is  ruptured  until  the  armature  is  free  to  fall,  a  time,  6, 
elapses  which  is  called  the  retardation  of  demagnHiia- 
tioii;  therefore  'he  time,  t.  includes  also  the  algebraic 
difference  (<  —  0  of  the  retardation  of  demagnetiza- 
tion of  the  regist^-ar  and  chronometer;  but  as  both 
electro-magnets  are  similarly  constructed,  as  the 
weights  of  their  armatures  and  the  currents  that 
actuate  them  are  equal,  as,  in  a  word,  they  are  in  the 
same  magnetic  state,  the  limes  0  and  'i  are  sensibly 
equal.  In  fact,  these  times  do  vary  with  the  mode 
of  rupture,  and  conse(|Uently  when  a  projectile  is 
substituted  for  the  disjimctor,  but  by  liie  sjime 
quantity,  as  everything  remains  the  same  in  the  two 
electro-magnetic  systems.  It  will  be  remarked  that 
it  is  not  necessary  that  the  times  0  ami  0  should 
be  exactly  the  same,  but  only  that  their  difference 
should  remain  constant  in  the  successive  operations 
in  which  the  instrument  is  used.  The  suspension  of 
the  armature  is  effected  in  the  same  manner  as  with 
the  original  instrument.  In  the  instrument  .supplied 
to  the  i'niled  States  by  Mr.  Ilotchkiss  and  constructed 
I  by  Mr.  Froment,  several  details  have  been  improved. 
I  1st.  The  niagnetshave  been  jiroviiled  with  a  movable 
j  core,  worked  by  a  set-screw  and  coimler-screw.  This 
I  allows  a  more  perfect  regulation  of  the  currents  than 
j  when  the  rheostat  only  is  used.  2d.  The  instrument 
!  is  provided  with  a  spherical  spirit-level,  which  al- 
'  lows  to  place  it  vertically  without  difficulty.  3d. 
The  knife,  trigger,  and  indexes  are  all  ]>rovided  with 
set-screws,  enabling  lliem  to  be  ])erfectly  and  easily 
adjusted.  One  of  the  most  important  points  Ijeing 
j  the  constancy  of  the  currents,  Mr.  Froment  has 
I  studied  a  special  modification  of  the  Callot  battery 
for  the  use  of  the  chronograph.  Each  battery  is 
actuated  by  a  liattery  of  forty  elements,  coupled  in 
four  scries  of  ten.  This  l)alterv  will  work  for  scvcnd 
months  without  any  perceiitible  variation.  See  Li' 
lioulengi'  C/iroiwgrap/i. 


BEEITHAUPT  FUSE. 


235 


BRICKS. 


BREITHAUPT  FUSE.— This  fuse,  sometimes  called 
the  Field-artillery  fuse,  resembles  the  Bormann  in  its 
general  appearance,  and  is  made  of  a  mixture  of  tin 
and  lead.  The  body  of  it  is  formed  like  that  of  the 
Bormann;  but  the  outside  has  no  screw,  and  it  is 
placed  in  the  eye  of  the  shell  by  means  of  a  projection 
from  the  bottom,  which  is  threaded,  and  winch  screws 
into  a  corresponding  aperture  at  the  Iwltom  of  the 
eye.  The  composition  is  laid  m  exactly  the  same 
kind  of  u  channel,  which  communicates  with  the 
magazine  in  a  somewhat  different  way  from  the  Bor- 
mann fuse.  At  the  top  two  mortises  are  placed,  in 
which  the  prongs  of  the  screw-driver  tit  when  screw- 
ing or  miscrewing  the  fuse  from  the  shell.  In  the 
center  is  a  socket  with  the  thread  of  a  screw  to  re- 
ceive the  end  of  the  pregsure-screw,  which  is  made  of 
iron.  The  stopper  and  regulating  disk  is  cast  of  the 
siime  kind  of  metal  as  the  fuse,  and  has  through  its 
center  a  cylindrical  hole  for  the  jwssage  of  the  pres- 
sure-screw. A  small  priming-chamber,  in  the  form 
of  a  hopper,  is  placed  at  the  side,  one  of  the  lateral 
projections  of  which,  marked  with  a  red  line,  serves 
as  an  index  to  regulate  it.  A  small  projection  on  its 
surface  gives  a  hold  to  the  linger  to  turn  the  disk  on 
its  axis,  in  order  to  bring  the  index  opposite  the  re- 
quired point  on  the  scale  of  the  fuse.  A  iiiece  of 
pliable  leather  or  skin  is  jiasted  on  the  under  surface 
of  this  disk,  in  order  to  insure  contact  throughout 
and  preserve  the  composition  from  moisture.  The 
composition  is  prcs.sed  into  its  jilacc  by  machinery. 
It  is  meal-powder  for  Shrapnel  fuses,  but  ordinary 
fuse-composition  for  the  fuses  of  other  shells.  In 
the  first  case  the  fuse  burns  7  seconds;  in  the  second, 
14  seconds.  The  regulating  .scale  is  a  rondelle  of 
white  paper  pasted  on  the  outside  upper  edge  of  the 
fuse.  It  is  made  like  a  dial,  with  strokes,  half- 
strokes,  and  (juarter-strokes,  radiating  from  the  cen- 
ter, corresponding  to  intervals  in  the  combustion 
equal  to  1  second,  i  second,  J  second,  and  i  second. 
The  rondellcs  are  cut  with  a  stamp-iron  or  punch. 
Care  must  be  taken  in  pasting  the  scale  on  to  make 
the  zero  of  it  coincide  with  the  edge  of  the  solid  part 
where  the  magazine-vent  debouches  into  the  comjio- 
sition-channel.  The  priming  consists  of  a  small 
strand  of  quick-match,  bent'double,  with  the  bend 
tixed  in  the  priming-chamber  by  means  of  a  paste  of 
meal-powder.  The  ends  are  free,  so  that  when  the 
priming  is  imcapped  the  ends  project  outside  the  lit- 
tle hopper-shaped  chamber.  The  priming-cap  is  a 
small  circular-sided  trapezoid  of  gold-beater's  skin, 
■which  is  pasleil  over  the  priming-chamber  by  its  four 
edges  to  protect  the  priming  as  well  as  the  fuse-com- 
position from  dampness.  A  rontlelle  of  soft  leather 
is  cut  out  and  fitted  on  the  bottom  of  the  fuse  around 
the  bottom  stem,  as  a  packing  to  the  joint  between 
the  shell  and  fuse.  The  magazine  and  vent  leading 
to  the  fuse-composition  axe  filled  with  fine  powder, 
and  the  bottom  closed  with  a  thin  sheet  of  lead,  kept 
in  its  jilace  by  four  notches;  a  coat  of  varnish  being 
given  to  the  outside  to  keep  out  moisture. 

It  is  an  improvement  to  engrave  the  .scale  upon  the 
metal  itself  instead  of  placing  it  on  a  strip  of  paper, 
which  in  service  is  liable  to  be  worn  or  torn  off,  or 
the  graduation  made  illegible.  This  fu.se  was  in- 
vented after  the  Bormann  and  Baden  fu.ses  had  been 
extensively  adopted  by  different  nations,  and  the 
great  objection  to  its' adoption  was  the  extensive 
changes  retiuircd  in  the  ci/e«  of  the  shells  already 
maniifactured.  This  difficulty  was  obviated,  how- 
ever, by  transforming  the  Baden  into  the  Breitliaupt 
fuse  bv  means  of  some  slight  changes  which  did  not 
affect  "the  form  or  exterior  dimensions,  nor  its  scale 
or  coin|iositio!i-channel.     See  Fii»e. 

BREVET.— In  the  British  army,  a  promotion  of 
officers,  now  strictly  limited  in  its  application,  but 
Ix'fore  18o4  a  recognized  though  occasional  mode  of 
conferring  a  large  measure  of  general  promotion 
throughout  the  army.  It  took  place  under  various 
circumstances.  If  no  special  cause  interfered,  a  gen- 
eral promotion  by  brevet  used  in  former  times  to  be 


made  once  in  about  six  years;  but  in  more  recent 
years  it  was  limited  to  very  special  occasions,  as  a 
coronation,  the  birth  of  an  heir  to  tbe  throne,  the  ter- 
mination of  some  great  war,  etc.,  and  was  limited  to 
officers  who  had  some  particular  claim  to  promotion. 
The  officers  so  promoted  obtained  an  increase  of 
rank,  and  in  some  cases  pay,  even  if  they  had  never 
served  in  the  field.  A  brevet  was  deterniined  on  by 
the  Cabinet,  and  carried  out  by  the  Commander-in- 
Chief.  The  officers  expected  it,  as  one  of  the  im- 
plied conditions  on  entering  the  service,  and  it  bad 
formed  part  of  the  British  military  system  ever  since 
the  time  of  .James  II.;  but  it  was  unsiitisfactory,  Ix'- 
cause  the  fiow  of  promotion  caused  by  it  was  arbi- 
trary, imcertain,  and  much  liable  to  idjuse.  There 
were  brevets,  arismg  out  of  the  various  circimistances 
above  indicated,  in  1837,  1838,  1841,  1846,  18.')1,  and 
1854.  On  these  occa.<?ions,  Lieutenant-generals,  Ma- 
jor-generals, Colonels,  Lieutenant-colonels,  Majors, 
and  Captains  received  a  promotion  of  one  grade  in 
rank.  On  one  of  these  occasions,  200  Colonels  were 
at  once  made  Major-generals.  The  higher  the  rank 
the  higher  the  pay,  as  a  general  nile;  and  therefore 
the  cost  to  the  nation  is  always  increa.sed  for  a  time 
after  each  brevet.  Thus  the  brevet  of  1837  occasioned 
an  annual  increase  of  £11,000;  that  of  1838.  £7000; 
of  1841,  £1.5,000;  of  1846,  £21,000,  etc.;  but  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  death  and  sales  had  in  the  inter- 
vals cleared  off  perhaps  an  equal  number  of  officers 
at  the  higher  rates  of  pay.  In  1854  the  new  Major- 
generals  alone  involved  an  additional  charge  of 
£18,000  a  year.  This  description  applied  before 
1854.  In  that  year  general  brevets  were  abolished, 
a  fixed  establishment  of  General  Officers  being  sub- 
stituted. The  only  brevets  now  are  obtained  by  ser- 
vice of  five  years  as  Lieutenant  colonel  (making  the 
officer  brevet  Colonel  without  increase  of  jiay);  by 
distinguished  service  in  the  field,  applicable  to  Lieu- 
tenant-colonels, Majors,  and  Cajitains  (carrying  the 
substantive  my  of  the  higher  rank,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  Lieutenant-colonel);  and  by  succession,  when 
a  death  occurs  among  the  establishment  of  General 
Officers.  In  this  last  ease  there  is  no  brevet  promo- 
tion to  the  rank  of  Colonel,  but  the  senior  Major  in 
the  whole  army  and  Maiines  becomes  a  brevet  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel without  increase  of  pay,  and  the  senior 
Captain  a  brevet  Major  with  2«.  a  day  extra.  Offi- 
cers become  Major-generals,  in  accordance  with  their 

I  .seniority  as  brevet  Colonels,  and  it  will  be  seen,  from 
the  above  description,  that  the  brevet  rank  of  Colonel, 

j  which  is  the  stepping-stone  to  Major-general,  is  ob- 
tainable A.V  Si'riiee  only. 

'  In  the  I'nited  States  army  the  brevet  is  a  commis- 
sion giving  an  officer  a  nominal  rank  higher  than 
that  for  which  he  has  a  salaiy.  A  great  lumdx'r  of 
these  honorary  titles  were  bestowed  during  and  after 
the  ( ivil  War. 

BRICHE. — A  machine  of  war  used  in  ancient  times 
to  throw  stones;  now  obsolete. 

BRICKS. — The  earliest  examples  of  this  branch  of 
the  ceramic  art  were  doubtlessjhe  sun-dried  bricks  of 
Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylonia.  Remarkable  to  say, 
many  of  these,  which,  "in  a  northeni  climate,  the 
frosts  of  a  single  winter  would  destroy,  have  lx>cn 
preserved  for  some  3000  years  by  the  dry,  warm 
atmosphere  of  those  countries.     Sun-ljaked  bricks  of 

'  ancient  date  are  also  found  in  the  mud  walls  of  old 
towns  in  India.  Kiln-liaked  bricks  must  have  been 
the  products  of  a  later  time;  but  they  are  found  in  all 
the  chief  ruins  of  ancient  Babylonia,  where  they  were 
often  used  to  face  or  bind  together  walls  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  and  occasionallv  they  were  even  ornamented 
with  enameled  colors.  "  Burnt  bricks  were  employed 
in  the  foundations  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  (Gen.  xi.  3). 
These  ancient  bricks,  whether  baked  by  the  sun  or  by 
fire,  were  all  made  of  clav  mixed  with  grass  or  slniw. 
The  ancient  Greeks,  probably  owing  to  their  ixissess- 
ing  plenlv  of  stone,  cared  little  for  building  with 
burned  cliiy;  but  most  of  the  great  ruins  in  Home  are 
built  of  brick,  and  the  Romans  appear  to  have  intro- 


BBICKS. 


236 


BBICKS. 


duced  the  art  into  EnsrluiHl.  Interesting  liistorienl 
information  lias  \tevn  nlitaini'<l  from  I  lit-  imiircssions 
on  Homaii  and  csiiecially  on  Babylonian  Ipriiks.  In 
many  instances  the  Honian  bricks  found  in  Enurland 
have  bwn  removed  from  their  oritrinal  [wsition,  and 
employi'd  in  the  construction  of  liuildiiisrs  of  later 
date.  The  earliest  instance  in  which  liricks  of  the 
modern  or  Flemish  make  occur  iu  England  is  Little 
Weidiam  Hall,  in  Suffolk,  Vim. 

Clay  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  common 
bricks  is  at\  abundant  substance,  but  there  is  a  great 
dilTerencc  in  the  nature  and  ([uality  of  the  clays 
found  in  various  localities.  The  basis  of  clay  consist.s 
of  hydnttcd  silicate  of  alumina,  with  a  varying  pro- 
portion of  other  rainend  matters,  chicHy  free  silica 
(sand),  iron,  lime,  majrnesia,  and  potash.  Great  ad- 
vantasre  is  derived  from  digjrinir  clay  in  autumn,  and 
exposing  it  all  winter  to  the  disintegratins  action  of 
frt>st.  'Phis  is  not  always  attended  fo,  Init  when  neg- 
lected the  bricks  made  from  it  are  apt  to  be  unsound. 


Brick-making  Machine. 

and  faulty  in  shape.  The  next  process  is  that  of  tem- 
pering or  nuxiug  the  clay  into  a  homoireneous  paste, 
whicli  is  s<jnietimes  done  by  the  sparle,  but  more 
commonly  in  the  pug-mill  (at  least  in  England),  or 
by  crushing  between  a  pair  of  rollers;  often,  indeed, 
both  are  employed.  In  making  brick-s  by  the  old 
hand  process,  the  shape  is  given  by  a  mold  either  en- 
tirely of  woo<l,  or  of  wiMid  faced  with  metal,  and 
■without  top  or  Iwttom.  This  admits  of  the  clay  being 
])res.sed  into  it  by  a  tool  called  a  plane,  which  is  also 
\ised  to  producer  an  even  surface  on  the  upper  and 
lower  beds  of  the  brick,  by  working  off  the  su]H,'rtluous 
clav.  Sand  is  used  to  part  the  wet  clay  from  the  mold 
and  the  table  on  whicli  it  rests. 

Allhouirh  band-made  bricks  are  still  verj'  common, 
yet  machinery  is  now  always  employed  when  large 
(juantities  are  required.  Brick-making  machines  are 
of  two  leading  kinds;  one  chtss  of  them  being  con- 
stnicted  to  work  the  clay  in  a  wet  plastic  stale,  the 
other  class  requiring  it  to  lie  in  a  semi-dry  condition. 
Of  the  two  sorts,  the  wet-clay  machines  are  the  sim- 


pler, chcj>ix;r,  and  can  be  worked  by  less-skilled 
workmen.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dry -clay  machines, 
which  make  the  bricks  liy  forcing  the  clay  into  molds 
by  strong  pressure,  shorten  the  prcK-ess,  as  no  lime  is 
leiiuired  for  drying  them.  The  bricks  so  made,  too, 
are  not  only  of  a  more  perfect  shape,  but  they  can  be 
molded  into  any  fonn,  and  may  even  be  made  highly 
ornamental  at  a  very  slight  additional  cost. 

One  of  the  best-known  brick-machines  is  that 
which  bears  the  name  of  the  inventor,  .Martin,  and  is 
represented  in  the  drawing.  It  is  automatic  in  its 
conslniction,  grinds  and  tempers  its  own  clay,  and  is 
particularly  adapted  to  the  working  of  hard  and  heavy 
clay.  It  docs  ils  own  molding,  and  delivers  the  bricl^ 
in  front,  ready  for  the  carrier  to  place  them  on  the 
yard.  The  molds  are  delivered  by  the  ]x»wer  of  the 
machine  while  the  press  is  on;  therefore  it  does  not 
draw  up  the  bri<ks  while  delivering,  but  molds  them 
slilfer  tliau  any  other  machine,  and  delivers  them  with 
good,  square  corners  and  wellKletined  edges.  The 
lever  connected  with  the  haul-out  is  arranged  with  a 
movable  center,  held  by  a  friction-pulley,  so  that, 
should  any  stone  or  hard  substance  get  into  the  mold, 
or  the  moid  be  in  any  way  obstructed,  the  lever  sim- 
ply moves  forward,  gi\ing  time  to  remove  it  without 
stopping  the  machine,  aid  preventing  the  breaking  of 
molds  or  any  ])art  of  the  machinery.  Then,  by  raising 
the  small  lever  connected  with  the  friction-pulley,  the 
center  moves  back,  and  the  machine  operates  as  be- 
fore. The  capacity  of  the  steam-power  machine  is 
4(XK)  bricks  an  hour,  and  the  horsepower  25tX), 
although  in  many  instances  it  has  largelj'  exceeded 
that  number. 

The  green  bricks,  after  Ix-ing  carefully  dried,  either 
in  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat,  are  usually  baked  in  a 
kiln  with  a  suitable  arrangement  of  tires  and  tlues. 
Kilns  are  of  many  forms,  and  the  time  required  for 
firing  in  them  varies  from  40  to  60  hours  for  common 
red  and  white  bricks,  while  for  some  fire-bricks  150 
hours  are  neces.s;iry.  Where  kilns  are  not  used,  bricks 
are  burned  in  clamps,  the  clay  requiring  to  be  mixed 
tip,  in  the  process  of  tempering,  with  a  quantity  of 
ground  coal  sufficient  to  bum  them.  A  good  test  of 
the  character  of  a  clay  is  obtained  by  the  result  of 
tiring.  The  average  contraction  in  the  kiln  for  [ire- 
pared  clays  is  Ti  per  cent.  If  a  brick  contracts  much 
more  than  this,  the  clay  is  too  fusible;  if  less,  then  it 
is  likely  to  be  of  an  open  jwrous  body,  which  retjiins 
its  shape  well  during  the  firing  process.  All  brick 
clays  contain  iron,  and  the  color  of  a  burned  brick 
almost  entirely  depends  on  the  amount  of  it  which  is 
present;  thus  clays  containing  less  than  1  or  IS  per 
cent  of  iron  change  in  the  kiln  to  various  .shades  of 
cream-color  and  buff,  whilst  those  containing  more 
than  2  per  cent  range  in  color  from  yellowish  fawn 
to  dark  red.  Blue  bricks  arc  made  from  the  same 
clay  as  the  red.  by  controlling  in  a  peculiar  way  the 
supjily  of  air  in  firing,  and  by  carrying  the  heat 
slightly  further.  It  is  asserted  by  some  that  the  red 
is  changed  to  the  black  oxide  of  iron  in  the  process. 
Fire-bricks  are  made  from  clay  as  free  as  possible 
from  oxide  of  iron  and  alkaline  substances,  so  that 
there  may  be  no  tendency  to  fuse  in  the  kiln,  however 
high  the  heat.  Fire-clays  are  abundant  in  the  coal- 
measures,  some  of  fine  quality  being  found  alK)Ut 
Newcastle  and  Glasgow,  but  the  most  celebrated  is 
that  of  Stourbridge,  which  is  exported  to  all  parts  of 
the  world. 

Mortar  composed  of  lime  and  sand  is  the  common 
cement  for  brickwork.  It  should  Ix"  equallv  and  care- 
fully applied;  and  the  bricks  wetted,  in  order  that  the 
mortar  may  ailhere  more  firmly,  by  being  absorbed 
into  their  pores.  The  force  with  which  g(X)d  mortar 
is  capable  of  adhering  to  l)ricks  is  very  remarkable. 
It  is  found  to  lie  the  greatest  in  old  structures  that 
have  been  exposed  to  the  continuous  action  of  water. 
Such  bricks  are  Siiid  to  tx-  "  water-bound  "  by  work- 
men, and  can  s<-arcely  be  seiiarated  without  breaking 
the  bricks.  A  fundamental  principle  to  be  rigidly  ol) 
served  in  laying  all  kinds  of  brick  is,  that  no  tiro  con- 


BRICOLE. 


237 


B£IDG£H£ADS. 


tiguous  perpendicular  joints  shall  fall  immediately  be- 
low each  other.  The  mode  of  arranjrcment  of  the 
l)rick.s  to  effect  tliis  is  culled  the  bunil;  a  layer  or 
stratum  of  bricks  is  called  a  diurse.  Bricks  laid  with 
their  lengths  in  the  direction  of  the  course,  and  their 
sides  to  the  wall-face,  are  called  stritchem;  those 
laid  across  the  line  of  the  course,  with  their  ends 
forming  the  wall-face,  heudera;  a  layer  of  headers,  a 
heading  coil rx,';  of  stretchers,  a  stretching  course.  The 
two  kinds  of  bond  almost  exclusively  used  in  England 
are  the  English  and  Flemish  bond.  English  bond 
conMsts  of  alternate  stretching  and  heading  courses; 
Flemish  Ixjnd,  of  a  stretcher  and  header  laid  alternately 
in  each  course.  English  bond  is  the  strongest;  Flemish 
bond,  the  more  ornamental;  and  they  are  used  accord- 
ingly. There  are  two  other  kinds  of  bond  occasional- 
ly used — herrinji  bond  and  garden-irall  bond.  The 
former  is  applied  to  form  tlie  core  of  thick  walls, 
where  Flemish  bond  is  used  for  the  facing.  A  course 
of  bricks  is  laid  obliquely  at  an  angle  of  45  to  the 
face  of  the  wall;  then  above  it  another  coui'se  at  the 
same  angle,  but  inclined  in  the  opposite  direction,  so 
that  the  joints  may  crot^  the  tirst.  This  is  considered 
to  add  to  the  strength  of  Flemish  bond,  but  is  ob- 
jectionable on  account  of  the  triangular  interstices 
neces.s;irily  left  between  the  obIi(iue  bricks  and  the 
bricks  of  the  facing.  Garden-wall  bond  is  only  used 
for  9-inch  walls,  and  formed  by  laying  three  stretchers 
and  one  header,  and  so  on  in  each  course.  In  order 
to  strengthen  Flemish  Ixjnd,  bands  of  hoop-iron  are 
sometimes  laid  flatwise  between  the  courses.  This 
"  hoop-iron  l)ond  "  has  superseded  the  old  practice  of 
using  bond-timbers,  which  were  inserted  the  whole 
length  of  the  wall.  The  hoop-irou  should  be  slightly 
rusted,  to  secure  the  complete  adhesion  of  Ihe  mortar. 

In  constructing  arches  of  lirickwork  much  care 
and  skill  are  required.  A  wooden  centering  is  always 
used;  and  when  very  rude  work  only  is  required, 
common  bricks  are  laid  upon  the  centering,  and  the 
gaping  interstices  at  the  upper  ends  tilled  with  rough 
biick  wedges.  For  better  work  each  brick  has  to  be 
properly  iK'veled,  according  to  the  curve.  When 
semicircular  arches  are  made,  all  Ihe  bricks  require 
an  ei|ual  bevel,  and  therefore  bricks  molded  uniform- 
ly to  the  reciuired  angle  may  be  used;  but  for  other 
curves,  and  for  flat  arches,  each  brick  has  to  be  separ- 
ately shaped  by  the  bricklayer.  In  order  to  do  this,  a 
drawing  of  the  required  arch  is  made  of  the  full  size 
on  a  board;  the  bricks  are  laid  upon  this  side  by  side, 
and  shaped  to  Ihe  lines  of  the  drawing;  they  are  then 
transferred  to  their  corresponding  place  in  the  struc- 
ture. The  bricks  are  tirst  rudely  shai>ed  by  tlie  brick- 
axe,  then  finished  on  the  ri/bbinf/st'ote,  a  piece  of 
rough-grained  stotie  about  twenty  inches  in  diameter. 
In  all  kinds  of  brick,  the  walls  should  be  built  up 
level  throughout,  in  order  that  the  settlement  m;iy  be 
ecpial.  An  unequal  settlement  may  produce  a  rupture 
of  Ihe  wall. 

BRICOLE. — An  improved  kind  of  traces  used  by  Ihe 
French  in  drawing  and  maneuvering  artillery;  anal- 
ogous to  the  old  (Irag-rope,  but  having  the  addition 
of  a  leather  strap  or  girdle  with  a  buckle,  to  which 
the  drag  is  afli.xed,  aud  an  iron  ring  and  hook  at  the 
end  to  drag  by. 

BRIDGE. — In  gimnery,  two  pieces  of  timber  which 
go  between  Ihe  two  tpansoms  of  a  gtm-earriage.  Not 
useil  in  the  liiited  Slates  sernce.     See  Hridf/es. 

BRIDGE  CRANE.— Cranes  of  this  tyjie  are  designed 
for  operation  by  hand  or  power.  As  constructed  for 
general  yard-use,  a  bridge-crane  consists  of  a  station- 
ary bridge,  supported  at  each  end  by  a  suitable  trestle, 
and  jirovided  with  a  trolley  moving  transversely  on 
the  bridge.  The  load  is  carried  by  a  nuuiing  block 
suspended  from  the  trolley,  and  the  mechanism  for 
hoisting  and  traversing  is  attached  to  one  of  the  ver- 
tical frames  or  trestles" near  its  foot.  Cranes  of  this 
construction  are  built  of  capacilies  of  from  2  to  13 
tons  for  operation  by  hand,  and  of  any  desired  capa- 
city for  operation  by  power.  There  is  another  foriii 
of  bridge-crane,  in  "which  one  end  of  Ihe  bridge  Is 


supported  by  a  building  and  the  outer  end  by  a  frame 

or  trestle,  so  that  Ihe  frame  is  available  for  transfer- 
ring weights  into  or  out  of  the  building.  In  some 
ca.ses  a  crane  of  this  type  Is  placed  between  two  ad- 
joining buildings,  its  ends  being  sujiported  by  the 
adjacent  walls  of  each  building;  while  in  other  casta 
the  bridge  of  the  crane  is  carried  through  the  door- 
way of  a  building,  so  that  the  load  can  be  transferred 
from  a  truck  or  car  outside  of  the  building  to  .some 
point  within  it.  When  arranged  for  operation  by 
hand  it  is  built  entirely  of  iron,  and  is  provided  with 
mechanism  substantially  identical  with  thai  of  Ihe  jib- 
crane,  to  which  reference  is  made  for  further  ))articu- 
lars.  The  sjime  mechanism  Is  utilized  for  hoisting 
and  lowering  at  several  speeds,  and  for  causing  the 
trolley  to  travel  upon  the  bridge.  When  arranged 
for  operation  by  power  the  operating  mechanism  is 
located  within  the  building,  and  driven  Ijy  power 
taken  from  the  line  shafting.  The  levers  for  control- 
ling the  several  motions  are  placed  upon  Ihe  wall  of 
the  building  at  any  convenient  point  within,  and 
arranged  so  that  they  may  be  used  from  either  of  the 
several  floors.  The  operating  mechanism  is  substan- 
tially identical  with  that  employed  in  the  power 
traveling-cranes.  Cranes  of  this  type  are  available 
for  yard-uses  of  all  kinds  in  connection  with  foun- 
dries, machine-shops,  quarries,  etc.  They  are  jiarticu- 
larly  available  for  loading  and  imloading  heavy 
artillery  from  cars,  and  are  an  excellent  substitute  for 
the  pillar-crane.  As  compared  with  the  latter  tliey 
have  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  any  foundation 
except  that  necessary  to  resist  the  direct  pressure  due 
to  the  load.  They  may  be  made  to  span  two  or  more 
tracks  and  are  thus  available  for  transferring  loads 
from  one  car  to  another,  or  from  a  car  to  a  truck  or 
platform.     See  Cranes  and  Rotary  Bridr/e-crane. 

BRIDGE-EQUIFAGE.  —  The  United  States  bridge- 
equipage  is  composed  of  two  distinct  trains, — Ihe 
reserve  and  the  advance  trains.  The  former  is  intend- 
ed to  accompany  large  bodies  of  troo]is  in  the  field, 
and  is  provided  with  th»  material  for  Iheconslrucliou 
of  bridges  of  sufficient  capacity  to  pass  large  armies 
■with  their  heaviest  trains  over  rivers  of  any  size  and 
capacity.  For  these  the  French  ponton  is  adapted. 
The  advance-guard  train  is  intended  for  the  use  'of 
light  troops,  such  as  advance-guards,  cavalry  expedi- 
tions, etc.  It  is  organized,  both  as  regards  material 
and  carriages,  wiUi  a  view  to  rapidity  of  movement. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  capable  of  furnishing  a  bridge 
«-hich  will  fulfill  all  the  requirements  of  troops  en- 
gaged on  such  service.  For  this  train  the  canvas 
ponton  is  adapted.     See  Bridges. 

BRIDGE  -  HEADS.  —  The  works  planned  for  the 
defense  of  a  river  will  depend  on  the  object  to  be  at- 
tained, whether  it  be  simply  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  crossing,  or  to  give  the  as.siiiled  Ihe  means  of  a 
secure  communication  with  the  opposite  shore. 

The  points  most  fa\oralile  to  Ihe  passage  (if  the 
enemy  are  fords;  and  when  the  river  is  not  fordable, 
the  points  where  an  elbow  is  fonned,  the  re  entering 
being  towards  the  enemy.  To  guard  lhe.se  weak 
points,  works  should  be  placed  in  a  suitable  position 
to  prevent  the  enemy  from  approaching  Ihe  opposite 
bank;  and  in  the  ease  of  a  ford,  every  olistruction 
should  be  accumulated  on  these,  and  the  plan  of  Ihe 
works  should  be  so  arranged  that  their  fire  can  be 
concenlraled  on  the  ford;  and,  if  the  as-sjiiled  have 
cavalry,  a  free  space  should  be  left  between  Ihe  water 
and  the  works  for  the  cavalry  to  act  on;  the  olm-ct 
being  to  charge  the  enemy  whilst  crossing  the  ford  in 
di.sofder. 

To  keep  open  a  free  communication  with  the  oppo- 
site shore,  it  will  be  necessary  to  throw  up  wtjrks 
there  of  sufficient  strength  to  allow  the  a.ssaiUd  time 
to  effect  a  safe  retreat,"  should  they  be  attacked  by 
sui)erior  forces.  As  these  works  serve  to  cover  the 
bridges  in  the  rear,  thev  are  termed  tetes-de-pont,  or 
bridge-heads.  The  best  points  to  erect  a  bridge  head 
are  the  bends,  or  elbows  of  the  river,  Ihe  re-entering 
being  towards  the  assailed.     The  reasons  for  selecting 


SBIDOE  OF  BOATS. 


238 


BBIDGE  OF  BOATS. 


these  points  arc  tliat  the  bridge-head  may  Ix-  proleclcd 
by  a  good  tlaiik  and  cross  tire  from  the  opposite  sliore, 
which  from  ils  sliape  is  most  favorable  for  tliis  i)ur- 
jKjse;  secondly,  from  the  maimer  iu  «hicli  elbows  are 
formed,  the  point  occupied  by  the  bridgehead  will 
commonly  Ik-  eommandeil  by  the  opix>site  shore,  and 
sliould  the  enemy  succeed  in  obtaining  possession  of 
the  l)ridge-head,  "he  will  have  all  Ihe  disjidvantages  of 
a  ciimmanded  position;  thirdly.  Ihe  elbow  is  not  only 
unfavunible  to  the  eniiny,  by  prevc  nling  hitn  from 
placing  a  battery  in  a  position  to  destroy  the  bridge, 
but  it  also  may  prevent  tloaliug  bodies,  thrown 
into  the  eurreni  by  the  enemy  with  the  same 
view,  either  l)y  their  shock,  or  by  lire,  from 
coming  directly  in  contact  with  the  biidge,  as 
the  chances  are  that  tliose  l)odies  will  strike  one 
or  the  otlier  shore  before  reaching  the  bend. 

The  plan  of  a   bridge-head  should  be  care- 
fully studied  on  the  ground;  and  it  should,  as 
far  as  praclicable,  satisfy  the  following  condi- 
tions: 1.  Admit  of  a  defense  until  all  the  troops 
have  effected   a  safe  passage.     2.  Cover  the 
bridge  from  Ihe  enemy's  artillery,  so  thai  the 
retreat  may  not  be  cut  off  by  Ihe  destruclion 
of  the  l)ridge.     3.  Be  suilcil  to  the  end  in  view; 
if,  for  example,  its  object  is  to  afford  the  means 
to  small  detachments  of  making  incursions  on 
the  opposite  shore,  a  small  unimportant  work 
will  be  all  that  isretpiiied;  but  if  a  large  corps 
is  to  pass,  either  in  retreat  or  to  act  otiensi\e- 
ly,  then  the  works  should   be  arranged  with 
wide    intervals,  to    allow   the    troops    to   de- 
I)Ouch  in  mass,  and  display  readily  in  order  of 
battle.     4.  The  Hanks  of  the  works  should  rest  upon 
the  hanks,  to  prevent  their  being  tunied;  and.  when 
practicable,   they  should   be   protected   b}-   tlanking 
aiTangeinenIs  from  Ihe  opposite  shore,     ."j.  A  strong 
interior  redoubt  should  secure  the  bridge  against  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  enemy  to  obtain  posses- 
sion of  it  by  storming  Ihe  works. 

The  practicability  of  obtaining  flanking  arrange- 
ments from  Ihe  opposite  shore  will  materially  affect 
the  plan  of  the  bridge-head.  If  the  breadth"  of  the 
liver  is  over  one  hundred  yards,  not  much  reliance 
can  be  placed  on  a  flanking  arrangement  for  muslietry ; 
and  if  the  breadth  is  from  600  to  800  yards,  it  will 
still  admit  of  a  very  effective  flank  tire  of  artillery, 
but  not  greatly  beyond  this.  For  an  unimportant 
■work,  therefore,  wllich  can  be  flanked  by  musketry 


.suitable  distance  from  it  to  give  the  work  sullicienl 
interior  capacity,  and  of  I  wo  wings  which  close  the 
Hanks.  When  "the  flanking  from  the  opposite  shore 
is  iuetlicienl,  a  crotchet  is  added  to  each  wing  to 
defend  ils  ditch  and  sweep  in  flank  lheap|)roa<li  to  it. 
This  work  is  only  suitalile  where  a  large  detachment 
holds  the  point  it  defends. 

The  simple  crown  consists  of  a  central  bastion,  niid 
two  half-ba.stions  near  the  banks.  In  planning  this 
work,  the  banks  which  protect  the  central  bastion 
should  be  longer  than  the  other  two,  as  it  is  hardly 


Fio.  1.  -Plan  of  a  Priest-cap,  A,  for  a  Tote-de-pont  for  a  single  bridge,  B : 
C  C,  Batteries. 

from  the  opposite  shore,  a  redan  or  a  lunette  will  be 
a  very  suitable  form;  and  if  tlie  work  can  only  be 
flanked  liy  cannon,  a  priest-cap,  as  shown  in  F'{g.  1, 
or  a  redan,  with  (votrhtH,  or  flaidts,  near  the  extremi- 
ties of  Ihe  faces,  and  perpendieuhir  to  them,  arranged 
for  musketry,  will  be  a  very  suitable  form.  Xeither 
of  these  works,  however,  admits  of  sufficient  strength 
to  cover  a  very  important  point,  whose  loss  might 
compromise  the  safety  of  an  army  or  Ihe  success  of 
a  campaign.  The  best  arrangement  for  this  imrpose 
LS  either  a  liorn-irork,  shown  in  Fig.  2,  or  a  nimple.  or 
comjiUx  emini.  The  horn-work,  like  the  liriest-cap. 
Is  best  adapted  to  a  position  where  the  shore  for  .some 
distance  is  nearly  a  straight  line.  It  consists  of  a 
bastioned  front  nearly  iiarallel  to  the  shore  ami  at  a 


Fis.  2.— Plan  of  a  Horn-worlc  THte-de-pont.  A.  Traverse  to  cover 
outlet  in  the  curtain;  B  li,  Stoelcade  head  of  bridge;  C,  Outlets  on 
the  Flanks;  E,  Redan  covering  Outlet  at  A;  D,  Batteries. 

probable  that  the  enemy  will  attempt  nn  attack  on 
any  other  point  but   the   salient.     The  batteries  on 
the  opposite  shore  sliould  sweep  the  ground  imme- 
diately in  front  of  the  faces,  and  cross  their  fire  in 
advance  of   llie  sdient.     The  complex   crown-work 
consists  of  a  polygon  of  three  or  more  sides,  on  each 
of  which  a  bast  ion-front  is  constructed.     If  Ihe  bridge- 
head is  to  cover  Ihe  maneuvers  of  a  large  army,  either 
advancing  or  retreating,  a  strong  simple  crown,  with 
a  system  of  detached  lunettes,   about  600  yards  in 
front  of  it,  presents  a  ver>'  suitable  arrangcmenl.    The 
lunettes  may  be  arranged  as  in  the  system  of  General 
Rogniat.      The  central   bastion   of   the  crown-work 
should  be  armed  with  a  strong  batter}'  of  heavy  guns 
to  protect  the  lunettes;  and  heavy  batteries,  on  Ihe 
opposite  shore,  slioidd  sweep  the  ground  between  the 
lunetles    and    crown-work.      If    there    are 
islands  in  the  river  near  the  works,  they  may 
be  fortified  with  advimtage   to  flank  them. 
Besides  the  aiTangemcnls  already  mentioned, 
intervals  of  from  ten  to  twenty  yards  should 
be  left  between  the  shore  and  Ihe  works,  for 
the  troops  to  dclile  through;  the  interior  is 
covered  by  a  travei'se  in  rear  of  the  interval. 
A  small  tlefcnsivc  slockafle  shoidd  be  formed 
immediately  at  the  head  of  each  bridge,  to 
enable  a  company  of  picked  men  to  defenil 
it  until  the  bridge  can  be  cast  loose  from 
the  shore.     An  interval  of  at  least  100  yards 
should  be  left  between  the  bridges,  if  more 
than  one  is  used,  and  about  Ihe  same  distance 
.should  be  left  between  each  liridge  and  the 
wings  of  the  work.     There  are  no  works  that  demand 
more  cue  in  their  i>lan  and  construction   than  tOtcs- 
de-pont  on  imjKjrtant  points.     They  should  receive  a 
strong  iirofile  so  as  to  command  all  Ihe  approaches, 
and  be  flanked,  so  as  to  render  an  open  assault  im- 
practical ile. 

BRIDGE  OF  BOATS.— A  military  liridge  formed  of 
lioats,  barges,  etc.  .\s  there  arc  a  variety  of  shaped 
boats,  there  are  many  rules  for  their  construction, 
taking  into  consideration  the  s]iecies  of  rivers  to  be 
bridged,  Ihe  pressure  of  Ihe  water,  etc.  In  India, 
bridges  of  boats  are  generally  formed  from  the  boats 
of  the  country.  They  are  united  to  each  other  at  a 
distance  of  about  6  feet,  and  anchored;  they  are  then 
connected  by  planks  imd  thus  afford  a  safe  iia.s.sage. 


SBIDGES. 


239 


BRIDGES. 


BRIDGES. — An  army  moving  forward  oftentimes 
tiiids  its  march  intiTniptcfi  by  a  large  stream  or  river, 
intersecting  the  general  line  "of  advanec.  The  army 
may  be  cros.scd  over  either  by  fording,  by  ferrying, 
or  by  bridging  the  stream.  Which  of  these  methods 
shoidd  be  adopted  will  depend  upon  the  depth  of  the 
.stream,  its  width,  the  character  of  the  bottom,  the 
strength  of  the  ciirreni,  and  the  means  at  hanil. 

When  wishing  to  cross  a  narrow  but  deep  and 
rapid  river,  on  the  banks  of  which  trees  grow  long 
enough  to  reach  across,  one  or  more  should  be  felled, 
confining  the  trunk  to  its  own  bank,  and  letting  the 
current  force  the  head  round  to  the  opposite  side;  but 
if  the  river  be  too  wide  to  be  spanned  by  one  tret — and 
if  two  or  three  men  can  in  any  manner  be  got  across 
— let  a  large  tree  be  felled  into  the  water  on  each  side, 
and  placed  close  to  the  banks  opposite  to  each  other, 
with  their  heads  lying  iip-streamward.  Fasten  a 
rope  to  the  head  of  each  tree,  contin(!  the  trunks, 
shove  the  heails  off  to  receive  the  force  of  the  current, 
and  ease  off  the  ropes  so  tliat  the  branches  may  meet 
in  the  middle  of  the  river,  at  an  angle  pointing  up- 
ward. The  branches  of  the  trees  will  be  jammed  to- 
gether by  the  fon-e  of  the  current,  and  so  be  suffi- 
ciently united  as  to  form  a  toleralilc  commtniication, 
especially  when  a  few  of  the  up])er  branches  have 
been  cleared  away.  If  insufficient,  toward  the  mid- 
dle of  the  river,  to  beaf  the  weight  of  men  crossing, 
a  few  stakes,  with  forks  left  near  their  heads,  may  be 
tliru-st  down  through  the  branches  of  the  trees  to  sup- 
port them.  Fig.  1  shows  the  positions  of  three  tiees, 
a,  h,  c,  judiciously  selectctl  and  felled  so  as  to  have 
their  tops  unite  in  the  current  at  d. 


Fio,  1. 

When  a  river  which  cannot  be  forded  must  be 
cro.s,sed  by  animals  and  carriages,  a  bridge  becomes 
neccssjiry;  and  in  all  eases  it  is  better,  if  possible,  to 
cross  bya  bridge  than  by  a  ford,  unless  the  latter  be 
e.xceedingl}-  shallow.  Jlilitary  bridges  may  be  of  three 
kinds:  1st.  Fi.xed  structures  of  timber.  2d.  Floating- 
bridges.  3d.  Flying-bridges.  Timber  bridges  may 
be  either  supported  on  piles  or  on  trestles.  Pile- 
bridges  are  the  most  secure,  and  where  bridges  are 
required  to  remain  in  use  for  a  considerable  iJeiiod, 
as  those  which  may  be  constructed  on  the  lines  of 
communication  of  an  army,  with  its  l)a.se  of  opera- 
tions, this  form  of  bridge  will  generally  be  adopted. 
To  construct  a  good  i)ilebridge  over  a  considerable 
river  much  skillc<l  labor  is  neces.sary,  and  an  ample 
supply  of  materials  essential.  When  the  bottom  of 
the  channel  is  timi,  and  the  river  not  subject  to  floods, 
a  pile-bridge  may  be  constructed  without  difficulty, 
and  will  Ije  very  durable.  The  piles  must  be  driven 
by  an  engine,  which  may  be  constnicled  of  an  8inch 
or  lO-inch  shell  nm  full  of  lead,  suspended  by  a  rope 
over  a  pulley.  This  may  be  worked  by  hand,  and 
will  drive  piles  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  allow  of  the 
passage  of  the  heaviest  artillery'  over  the  bridge.  The 
pulley  of  the  pile-engine  should  be  supported  on  a 
framework  some  16  feet  hiirh,  which  may  be  made  to 
act  as  a  guide  to  the  shell  during  its  fall,  and  also  for 
the  pile  while  it  is  being  driven.  This  framework 
should  be  erected  upon  a  large  flat-bottomed  boat.  If 
such  a  boat  is  not  to  be  procured,  a  raft  must  be  made 


to  answer  the  purpose.  M'hen  timber  of  a  considera- 
ble length  can  t)e  iirocured  for  the  joists  of  tlie  bridge, 
it  will  lie  advisable  to  make  the  intervals  between  the 
piers  or  rows  of  piles  as  great  as  the  length  of  the 
joists  will  allow,  so  that  the  current  of  theriver  mav 
be  impeded  as  little  as  possible,  and  its  action  on  tlie 
bridge  be  reduced  loaminimum.  By  this  arrangement, 
too,  as  much  space  as  possible  is  given  for  thepas.Mige 
of  floating  bodies,  and  the  danger  of  their  damaging 
the  I)riilge  is  proportionately  (liminished.  When  all 
the  piles  have  been  driven  as  far  as  the  power  of  the 
engine  can  accomplish,  they  must  be  sjiwii  off  to  tW 
-sjime  level,  and  the  superstructure  of  limber  be 
strongly  and  carefidly  tilted.  With  bays  of  20  feet 
and  a  roailway  14  ftet  wide,  there  mu.'-'t  be  at  least 
tive  or  si.\  licams  not  less  than  T  inches  by  8.  With 
wider  bays,  timbers  of  larger  dimensions  will  be 
necessary.  The  planking  shovdd  not  be  le.ss  than  2 
inches  thick,  laid  transversely.  Bridges  on  piles,  for 
the  passage  of  infantrj'  over  shallow  rivers  onlj-,  may 
be  expeditiously  constructed,  as  the  pijcs  may  be 
slight — 6  inches  in  diameter  would  sufhce — andthcy 
can  be  driven  liy  hand  by  heavy  mauls,  or  by  two 
men  using  a  beetle.  Here  the  pile  is  r^et  and  kept  in 
its  |)lace  by  means  of  two  spars  of  jilanks  resting 
their  extremities  upon  a  stool  placed  on  the  bank.  A 
plaidi  is  then  laid  across,  on  which  one  or  two  men 
ma^-  stand  to  drive  the  pile.  The  weight  of  the  men 
may  be  increased,  if  uecessarj',  bj-  stones  placed  on 
the  platform  assisting  to  force  the  piles  into  the 
ground.  When  one  row  of  piles  is  placed,  and  the  floor 
laid  to  a  crossbeam  fi.xed  ujion  them,  another  row- 
may  be  set  and  driven  in  the  sjime  manner,  fixing  the 
stool  on  that  |)art  of  the  floor  which  will  thus  have 
been  completed.  Piles  driven  in  this  way  may  be 
safely  deitended  upon  to  Jiear  infantry  w  ith  a  front  of 
two  or  three  tiles  in  open  ranks,  not  keeping  step. 

AVhen  rivers  are  shallow  and  not  liable  to  sudden 
floods,  and  when  their  channels  are  tirni  and  even, 
very  useful  bridges  may  be  constructed  on  trestles. 
Trestles  for  this  purpose  .should  each  consist  of  a 
stout  transom  or  ridge-piece  .some  8  inches  square  and 
16  feet  long:  to  this  should  be  fitted  four  legs  adapted 
to  the  depth  of  the  river  slanting,  outward  from  the 
vertical,  and  strengthened  by  diagonal  bracing.  For 
large  bridges  it  will  be  found  aihanfageous  to  add  an 
additional  pair  of  legs  to  each  trestle.  These,  from 
the  difficulty  of  fitting  six  legs  to  the  uneven  suiface 
of  the  Ijottom  of  the  river,  should  not  he  attached 
until  the  trestle  is  placed  in  ]K)sition;  Ihey  should  then 
be  driven  into  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  their  upper 
extremities  should  be  firmly  nailed  to  the  lidge-piece. 
When  the  different  parts  of  the  trestles  arc  all  prepared 
beforehand,  they  can  be  speedily  put  together  and 
the  l)ridge  comijleted  with  great  expedition.  Fascines 
may  be  vised  for  flooring  v hire  jilaiik  cannot  be  ob- 
taiiied.  If  there  be  a  strong  current,  a  cable  should 
be  stretched  across  the  ri\er  on  each  side  of  the 
bridge,  and  the  trestles  be  firmly  lashed  to  them.  It 
may,  moreover,  sometimes  be  iiece.s.sary  to  load  the 
trestles  with  shot  or  stones,  to  keep  Ihcin  in  their  y<o- 
sition  until  the  flooring  is  laid  upon  them. 

Boats  of  almost  any  kind  w  ill  make  a  senMceable 
bridsrc.  For  wide  rivers  the  boats  should  be  large. 
The  boats  of  which  a  bridjfc  is  constructed  should,  if 
possible,  be  neariy  of  the^^Muie  size,  unless  ihey  arc 
all  very  large,  and  then  variations  in  dimensions  will 
be  of  "little  consequence.  Should  .some  be  large 
and  some  small,  the  passage  of  large  bodies  of  troops, 
of  hea\y  ginis  and  anununilion-wagons  will  depress 
them  uneqtially,  causing  the  flooring  of  the  bridge  to 
a.ssimie  an  irre'irular  line,  straining  and  injuring,  and 
in  st>me  cases  fracturinc,  the  timber  and  destroying 
the  bridge.  When  boats  all  of  the  same  size  cannot 
be  obtained,  the  larger  boats  should  be  placttl  at 
wider  intervjils,  so  that  they  may  sustain  a  heavier 
weight,  proportioned  to  their  greater  capacity,  during 
the  passaire  of  troops,  and  be  depressed  to  an  equal 
distance  with  the  smaller.  The  superstructure  will 
consist  of  balks  of  timber  laid  across  the  gunwales  of 


BBIOOES. 


240 


BBIDOES. 


the  boals,  anii  swun-lv  fastened,  and  tlie  flooring  of 
planks  laid  tninsversely  over.  A  certain  riijidity  re- 
sults from  this  arran^remenl ,  by  which,  if  the  boats 
were  subject  to  much  nuiiioii.  the  bridge  would  be 
sjx^tlily  destroyed.  In  tidal  rivers,  where  a  consid- 
erable swell  must  generally  be  encountered,  this  man- 
ner of  securing  the  timbei's  will  not  answer.  In  this 
case  it  will  be  foimd  athanlageous  to  erect  a  trestle 
or  sup|)ort  in  the  center  of  each  Iwat,  over  which  the 
timlx'rs  may  be  Iwlted  to  each  other:  thus  each  boat 
will  be  allowed  independent  motion,  and  this  will 
not  endanger  the  fracture  of  the  bridge.  The  boats 
should  Ik'  moored  head  and  stern,  and  should  1k'  kept 
at  their  relative  distances  by  limbers  tixed  at  the  head 
and  at  the  stern,  stretching  across  the  bays,  so  as  to 
remove  unneces-sary  strain  from  the  timbers  of  the 
bridge.  The  timbers  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible 
square,  and  of  dimensions  i)roportioned  to  the  space 
of  the  intervals.  With  good  timlxTS,  8  inches  by  6, 
20  feet  may  be  allowed  from  trestle  to  trestle.  The 
width  of  the  bridge  shoukl  also  be  proportioned  to 
the  dimensions  of  the  tinilxTs.  \Vith  live  l)alks  of  7 
inches  by  8,  the  bridge  should  not  e.\cced  l-I  feet  in 
width.  If  too  wide  there  will  be  danger  of  the  beams 
being  broken  by  the  overcrowding  of  troops  on  the 
bridge. 

When  there  is  no  regular  ponton-train,  and  boats 
cannot  be  procured,  rafts  may  be  used  in  place  of 


in  this  ca-se  is  the  siune  as  that  of  a  kite  in  the  air. 
In  the  .sei^ond  case,  the  cable  stretched  across  the 
stream  nmst  be  carefully  secured  when  the  current  is 
great.  The  ma.xiniuni  pull  of  the  raft  will  be  SV*, 
in  which  S  is  the  area  of  the  immei>ied  side  of  the  raft 
in  square  feet,  and  V  the  velocity  of  the  current  in 


Fia.  2. 

boats.  These  rafts  may  be  made  of  otsAs,  which,  if 
properly  arranged  and  securely  lashed,  will  aaswer 
all  the  purposes  of  pontons.  To  make  the  raft,  the 
casks  are  placed  in  a  row,  side  by  side,  with  the 
bungs  up;  two  rails  or  .saplings  called  gunnels  are 
laid  along  them  about  foin-  inches  from  each  end. 
Slings  of  strong  rope  are  pas,sed  under  the  casks, 
from  end  to  end  of  the  giuniels.  The  ends  of  the 
sling  should  be  made  fast  to  the  gunnel,  by  means  of 
the  buii'liiu:  nudjiri/ierwnn'n  bend.  Between  the  casks 
there  are  brace  lashings,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  In  the 
absence  of  sullicient  rope  the  gunnels  must  be  nailed 
or  spiked  to  the  c-a.sks;  liul  the  use  of  nails  or  spikes 
in  rafts  or  floating  bridges  is  to  be  avoided  when  pos- 
sible, as  they  admit  of  insutlicient  play.  To  deter- 
mine the  number  of  casks  required  to  construct,  a  raft 
that  will  sui)i)ort  N  poimds,  lind  the  solid  contents  of 
one  cask  in  cubic  inches  and  multiply  it  by  the  speci- 
fic gravitv  of  water,  from  the  |)r<iduct  .subtract  the 
weight  of  the  cask;  the  remainder  will  Ix'  the  weight 
it  will  su|)port  without  siidving.  Take  a  suflicicnt 
number  of  ca.sks  to  bring  this  weight  up  to  N  jiounds. 
Unfordalile  streams  may  be  readily  cros.sed  by 
means  of  flyingliridges  or  rafts,  when  there  is  sufli- 
cicnt current  and  when  ropes  and  timber  are  handy. 
The  flying-bridge  or  raft  may  be  .successfully  navi- 
gated by  attaching  it  to  a  swinging  cable  made  fast 
up  stream,  or  by  making  it  fast  to  a  traveler  running 
on  a  cabli'  stretched  across  the  stream.  In  the  tirst 
ca.si',  the  lower  end  of  the  cable  should  terminate  in 
a  bridle.  On  leaving  the  .shore,  the  end  of  the  bridle 
farthest  from  it  is  gathered  in,  while  the  other  one  is 
slackened,  and  the  raft  shoots  across  tb<'  stream.  To 
re-cross,  tlie  end  of  the  bridle  farthest  from  the  shore 
is  hauled  in  and  the  other  again  slackened.  The 
same  may  be  ctfecled  by  means  of  rudders  as  shown 
in  Fig.  ;!,  the  cable  being  made  fast  to  the  raft  about 
one  thiril  of  il.s  length  from  the  bow,  while  it  is  kejd 
headed  obliquely  up  slreiuii.    The  principle  of  action 


Fig,  3. 

feet  per  second.  To  insure  proper  progress,  the 
velocity  of  the  current  should  not  be  less  than  two 
miles  per  hour.  Referring  to  Fig.  4,  the  component 
cif  the  force  of  the  current  which  tends  to  force  the 
raft  directly  across  the  stre;im  may  lie  readily  traced. 
If  the  raft  is  kept  on  the  course  MN,and  the  current 
is  running  in  the  direction  AX,  it  is  plainly  seen  how 
such  a  force,  AB,  is  divided  into  two  com])onents, 
AC  and  AD,  acting  parallel  and  perpendicularly  to 
MN.  The  component  AD  is  again  subdi\ided  into 
two  components,  AE  and  AF,  acting  parallel  and 
perpendicularly  to  AX.  DE  =  AF 
is  the  component  of  the  power  of  the 
current  tending  to  force  the  raft 
across  the  stream.  To  produce  the 
best  effect,  the  side  of  the  raft  should 
be  kept  at  an  angle  of  55  with  the 
direction  of  the  current,  or  BAC  = 
55'.  The  cal)Ie  may  be  tjiken  across 
the  stream  by  a  swimmer,  or  by 
means  of  a  lobstick — made  by  split- 
ting a  stick,  inserting  a  rock  or  peb- 
ble, and  lashing  the  slick  with  twine. 
A  small  line  is  flrst  made  fast  to 
the  ca>)le,  the  end  of  which  is  sent  across;  where- 
upon the  end  of  the  cable  is  drawn  over.  Under 
certain  circumstances, the  small  line  maybe  sent  over 
by  means  of  an  arrow,  rocket, or  kite. 

The  mountain  streams,  during  the  seasons  of  high 
water,  remain  above  the  fordingstage  for  several 
weeks,  anil  often  render  it  necessary,  when  time  is 
an  important  element,  to  cross  them  by  swimming 
or  ferrying  rudely-constructed  boats  or  rafts.  Tim- 
ber rafts  may  be  quickly  constructed  in  a  wooded 
country.  The  size  and  description  of  the  timber 
must  determine  the  luiniber  of  layers  there  should 
be.  The  cubic  conteiUs.  in  feet,  of  round  timber  = 
L  (G-  X  .07958),  in  which  L  =  length  of  the  log  in 


Fio.  4. 

feet,  and  G  is  the  mean  between  the  girths  at  both 
ends  in  feet.  The  floating  power  of  any  log  may  be 
readily  calculated  when  ilie  specific  gravity  of  the 
wood  is  known.  The  raft  of  logs  has  little  biioyancy, 
wants  general  manageability,  and  is  inapplicable 
when  the  passage  of  a  river  is  likely  to  be  contested 
with  animation.  Its  merits  are  that,  at  the  expense 
of  time,  it  can  be  constructed  with  less  experienced 
workmen;  it  s;ives  tarriage,  as  it  can  only  be  made 
of  materials  near  the  spot.  It  is,  however,  an  in- 
different substitute  for  boats,  pontons,  or  ca.sks.  An 
independent  raft  will  rcijuire  two  rows  of  trees,  at 
least,  to  float  as  many  men  as  can  stand  uix)n  it,  and 


BBIDOE-TBAm. 


241 


B£IOAD£. 


the  logs  are  best  bound  together  by  withes  or  ropes, 
and  stiffened  with  cross  and  diagonal  traces. 

As  sliown  in  Fig.  1,  large  trees  may  be  felled  to 
enable  infantry  to  cross  narrow  streams,  placing  them 
so  that  their  butts  may  rest  upon  the  banks  with  the 
tops  directed  obliquely  up  the  stream;  if  one  is  not 
long  enough,  others  mav  be  floated  down  so  as  to  ex- 
tend across,  being  guided  and  secured  by  ropes:  a 
footway  may  be  formed  by  laying  planks,  fascines, 
or  hurdles  over  them,  and  their  branches  should  l)e 
chopped  off  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  water  and  in- 
tertwined below;  poles  also  may  be  driven  into  the 
bed  of  the  river,  to  aid  in  supporting  the  trees  by  at- 
taching the  boiighs  to  them.  Whni-eiin-ut;ies  used  to 
form  a  foot-bridge  may  be  connected  by  beams;  or  a 
single  pair  of  wheels  with  an  a.xlctree  to  admit  two 
strong  posts  may  be  attached  and  placed  in  the  center 
of  the  stream  if  it  is  not  too  wide,  i'oles  reaching 
from  each  bank  may  be  secured  to  the  posts,  and  the 
wheels  would  act  as  a  trestle.  With  a  flooring  over 
the  poles,  a  slight  bridge  could  be  rajiiilly  con.structed 
for  an  advanced-guard.  Hiik  bnntH  are  made  of  four 
buffalo-hides  strongly  sewed  together  with  buffalo- 
sinew,  and  stretched  over  a  basket-work  of  willow  or 
Cottonwood  8  feet  long  and  .5  feet  broad,  with  a 
rounded  bow,  the  seams  then  being  covered  with 
ashes  and  tallow.  E.xposed  to  the  sun  for  some 
hours,  the  skins  contract  and  tighten  the  whole  work. 
Such  a  boat  with  four  men  in  it  draws  only  four 
inches  of  water.  Inflated  skiitu  have  been  used  since 
the  earliest  times  for  crossing,  and  if  four  or  more  are 
secured  together  by  a  frame,  they  form  a  very  buoy- 
ant raft.  CfiDrai  (rendered  water-proof  by  a  compo- 
sition of  pitch  8  lbs.,  beeswax  1  lb.,  and  tallow  1  lb., 
boiled  together  and  laid  on  quite  hot)  will  serve  as  a 
raft  or  ponton,  if  placed  over  framework  or  wicker 
work.     See  Military  Bridge  and  Ponluti. 

BEIDGE-TSAIN. — A  bridge-equipment  or  ponton- 
train,  consisting  of  a  military  bridge  composed  of  por- 
table boats. 

BKIDLE. — An  instrument  with  which  a  horse  is 
governed  and  restrained,  consisting  of  a  bead-stall,  a 
bit  and  reins,  with  other  appendages,  according  to  its 
particular  fonn  and  uses. 

BRIDLE-AEM  PKOTECTOB.— The  term  for  a  guard 
used  by  the  cavalry,  which  consists  in  ha\-ing  the 
sword-hilt  above  the  helmet,  the  blade  crossing  the 
back  of  the  head,  its  edge  directed  to  the  left  and 
turned  a  little  upwards,  in  order  to  bring  the  mount- 
ing in  a  proper  direction  to  protect  the  hand. 

BEIDLE-BIT.— Bridle-bits  are  of  great  antiquity, 
as  is  proved  by  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  paintings 
and  sculptures.  Xenophon  (400  B.C.)  describes  sev- 
eral kinds,  smooth,  sharp,  and  toothed.  The  curb  is 
a  modern  invention,  and  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  the  Continent  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
Etruscan  and  Grecian  sculpture  represent  the  bridle 
substantially  as  we  yet  have  it.  The  Greeks  had  a 
severe  bridle,  armed  with  teeth,  whioh  came  over  the 
nose  like  the  carezon,  a  European  bit  but  little  known 
among  us.  Another  rough  bit  was  aUso  known  as  a 
lupiifiiii,  owing  to  its  sharp  prongs  like  wolves'  teeth. 
Bridle-bits  may  be  classed  under  three  heads  :  giinjflex, 
curb-bit*,  and  ittiff  bits.  The  snartle  has  two  bars, 
jointed  together  in  the  middle  of  the  mouth,  and  has 
rings  at  the  ends  for  the  rein.  It  sometimes  has 
cheek-pieces,  to  keep  the  ring  from  pulling  into  the 
mouth  of  the  animal.  The'curb-bit  constsls  of  the 
cIuek-pieeeK  or  branches  with  eyes  for  the  clwek-strups 
and  for  the  reins,  and  boles"  for  the  curb-chain  ;  a 
iiiottth-piecf,  uniting  the  cheek-pieces  and  forming  the 
bit  proper  ;  sometimes  a  bar  uniting  the  lower  ends 
of  the  branches;  .and  a  curbehniii.  In  the  Mexican 
bit,  the  curb-chain  and  its  strap  are  replaced  by  a 
curb-ring.  By  means  of  the  branches  of  a  bit  a 
leverage  is  obtained  upon  the  horse's  jaw,  the  curb- 
chain  behind  the  jaw  forming  the  fidcrum.  The 
Whitman  bit  with  snap-hook  attachment,  used  in 
the  Uniteil  States  army,  is  to  be  commended  for  iU 
lightness,  elegance,  economy,  and,  above  all,  strength. 


It  combines  the  common  riding-bit  and  bradoon-bit 
in  one,  makes  it  easier  for  the  horse,  and  at  the  s;imc 
time  invests  the  rider  with  a  greater  control  over  the 
horse  than  by  means  of  other  bits.  With  a  proper  hal- 
ter this  bit  only  requires  a  pair  of  reins  and  curb  to 
fonn  a  perfect  bridle.  A  large  numlxT  of  contrivances 
have  been  patented  for  giving  a  greater  command 
over  the  horse,  by  means  of  pulling  the  bit  upward 
into  the  angle  of  the  mouth  instead  of  pulling  against 
the  jaw.  ; 

BEIDLE-REIN.— A  rein  passing  from  the  hand  to 
the  bit,  or  from  the  check-hook  to  the  bit  ;  or,  in 
wagon-harness,  from  the  top  of  the  hames  to  the  bit. 
The  bridle-rein  may  Ix;  a  c/wrA-rein,  gdf/n'm,  or  a 
ridinij-ltridle  rein  ;  the  latter  a  »n<iffle  or  curb-rein,  ac- 
cording to  the  kind  of  bit. 

BElboON.  The  snattie-bit  and  rein  u.sed  in  Euro- 
pean military  equipments  in  connection  with  a  curb- 
I)it  which  has  its  own  rein.  In  the  United  States  the 
term  is  sonutimes  applied  to  a  simple  snartle  without 
cross-bars,  and  ha\ing  a  rein  attiiclied  to  its  rings. 

BEIGADE. — In  the  military  service  a  brigade  is  a 
group  of  regiments  or  battalions  combined  into  one 
body.  When  a  British  army  takes  the  field,  it  is 
customary  for  three  battalions  to  form  a  brigade,  and 
two  Ijrigades  a  dirisi'in.  Thus,  at  the  battle  of  the 
Alma  each  of  the  live  divisions  of  British  infantry 
comprised  two  brigades;  and  of  these  ten  brigiides, 
nine  consisted  of  three  battalions  each,  the  tenth 
being  somewhat  stronger.  It  is  nothing  more  than  a 
temporary  grouping,  which  can  be  broken  up  when- 
ever the  Commanding  Orticer  thinks  fit.  The  House- 
bold  Troops,  compri.sing  the  Hoi-se-guards,  Life- 
guards, and  Foot-guards,  are  sometimes  called  the 
Household  Brigade. 

In  the  United  States  army  the  brigade  may  be 
formed  in  one  or  two  lines.  The  distance  between 
the  lines  varies  both  with  the  nature  of  the  ground 
and  the  state  of  the  action.  If  on  the  offensive,  the 
second  line  is  held  at  close  supporting  distance;  if  on 
the  defensive,  it  is  held  at  sufficient  distiincc  in  the 
rear  to  enable  the  first  line  to  reform  behind  it,  and 
to  prevent  the  enemy  from  passing  over  it  with  the 
first  line,  should  thatline  be  driven  back.  Battalions 
arc  designated  from  the  right  when  in  line,  and  the 
head  when  in  column, /r*<  battalion,  second  battalion, 
and  so  on.  If  in  two  lines,  the  battalions  of  the  first 
line  are  designated  from  the  right  first  and  second; 
those  of  the  second  line,  third  mv\  fourth.  If  in  two 
columns,  the  battalions  last  in  the  front  line  are  desig- 
I  nated  from  the  head  of  the  column //•«<  and  secemd; 
those  of  the  second  line,  third  and  fourth.  These 
designations  change  whenever,  in  facing  to  the  rear, 
the  left  of  the  line  becomes  the  right,  and  the  rear 
the  head  of  the  column.  The  battalion  movements 
incident  to  the  commencement  and  comiiletion  of  all 
brigade  evolutions,  the  advance  in  line,  and  all  move- 
ments in  double  time,  are  executed  in  the  cadence<l 
step.  The  remainder  of  the  time,  imless  otherwise 
(  ordered,  each  Colonel  marches  his  battalion  in  the 
'  route-step.  When  not  in  the  route-step.  Colonels 
t  cause  their  pieces  to  be  carried  habitually  at  a  right 
\  shoulder.  The  brigade  is  formed  on  the  principles  of 
successive  formations,  and  is  presenied  to  the  General 
by  the  Adjutant -general,  as  explained  for  the  AdjuUuit 
of  a  battalion,  the  Colonels  repeating  commands. 
The  General  takes  post,  facing  the  line,  about  seventy 
yards  in  front  of  its  center. 

At  forms  of  ceremony  the  pioneers  arc  postetl 
twelve  yards  to  the  right  of  the  first  battalion,  the 
band  twelve  yards  from  the  right  of  the  pioneers.  In 
the  evolutions  the  band,  and  the  regimental  bands, 
take  anv  position  prescribed  on  the  parade-ground. 
In  line  "of  battle,  composed  of  several  brigades,  the 
Generals  of  briirade  place  themselves  atout  seventy 
yards  in  rear  of  the  centers  of  their  brigades.  In 
"column,  thev  hold  them.selves  at  the  beads  of  their 
brigades.  In  brigade  evolutions,  the  General  gties 
wherever  his  presence  is  necessarj-.  The  General  is 
attended  by  his  personal  Staff;  the  Adjutant-general 


BBIOASS  DEPOT. 


242 


BRIOANSIITE. 


riding  on  his  left,  bis  Aidcs-rte-camp  in  roar,  the  senior; 
on  Ihc  right.  On  the  march,  the  remaining  members 
of  his  Staff  march  according  to  rank  iu  rear  of  the 
Aides-de-camp,  the  senior  of  each  ranli  on  the  right. 

The  Colonels,  unless  otherwise  directed,  repeat  all 
the  commands  of  the  General.  Each  preparatory 
command  of  the  General  is  repeated  as  .soon  as  it  is 
given;  the  last  preparatory  command  having  been 
repeated,  the  Colonels  at  once  add  such  commands, 
and  execute  such  movements  in  their  battalions,  as 
may  be  necessary  before  the  general  movement.  The 
General  looks  to  the  prompt  execution  of  these  pre- 
paratory movements,  and  rectifies  every  error  that 
may  Wcommilted  by  the  Colonels.  The  Lieutenant- 
colonels  and  Majors"  repeat  the  general  conunands, 
and  the  commands  of  execution,  jis  often  as  the  wind 
or  noise  of  anns  may  prevent  them  from  being  easily 
heard  from  one  battalion  to  another. 

In  successive  formations,  the  line  of  battle  is  deter- 
mined by  Staff-officers,  three  in  number,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  The  first  officer,  at  the  preparatory  com- 
mand of  the  General,  i)Osts  himself  at  the  point  of  rmt 
for  the  first  battalion,  facing  in  the  direction  the  line 
is  to  extend;  the  second  posts  himself,  facing  the  first, 
lit  the  jMint  of  rest  for  the  second  battalion;  the  third 
posts  hiuLself,  covering  the  other  two,  at  \\xe  point  of 
rest  for  the  third  battalion;  the  first  then  moves  at  a 
giillop  and  posts  himself  for  the  fourth  battalion 
Should  there  Ije  more  than  four  battalions,  the  Staff- 
officer  for  the  second,  as  soon  as  the  head  of  this 
battalion  arrives,  hastens  to  mark  the  jioint  for  the 
fifth,  and  .so  on.  If  the  formation  be  central,  the 
]x>ints  of  rest  are  marked  in  both  directions  from  the 
battalion  first  on  the  line.  In  brigade  evolutions, 
successive  formations  embrace,  besides  the  formation 
from  column  into  line,  changes  of  front,  formation 
into  line  from  erhdim,  and  t?i€  formation  from  tine  into 
single  and  double  rank. 

In  the  British  service  the  artillery  is  divided  into 
two  brigades,  which  consist  of  seven  batteries  each, 
under  the  command  of  a  Colonel. 

BBIOADE  DEPOT.— The  headquarters  of  a  sub- 
district  of  tlie  army.  Under  the  new  localization  of 
the  British  arm}',  the  military  districts  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  are  divided  into  13  districts, 
which  are  subdivided  into  70  infantry  and  13  artillery 
sub-districts,  and  2  cavalry  districts.  The  infantry 
sub-districLs,  as  a  nile,  correspond  with  the  several 
Counties  into  which  the  United  Kingdom  is  divided. 
In  connection  therewith  the  following  arrangements 
have  been  made:  To  each  infantry  sub-district  are 
assigned  2  battalions  of  Infantry  of  the  Line,  one  of 
which  is  ordintirily  at  home,  and  the  other  abroad. 
The  battalioiLs  are  linked  together  for  the  purposes 
of  enlistment  and  service.  In  each  infantry  sub-dis- 
trict is  located  a  brigade  depot  under  the  command 
of  a  Lieutenant-colonel,  composed  of  3  companies 
from  each  of  the  Line  Battiilions  assigned  to  the  sub- 
district.  The  Line  Battalions,  Militia  Battalions,  the 
Brigade  Depot,  the  Ritle  Volunteer  Corps,  and  the  In- 
fantry of  the  Army  Reserve,  constitute  the  infantry 
sub-district  brigade,  and  the  whole,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Line  Battalion,  are  under  the  command  of 
the  olHcer  commanding  the  brigade  depot.  A  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel is  appointed  to  each  artillery  sub-dis- 
trict, and  he  is  invested  with  the  command  of  the 
Auxiliary  and  Reserve  Forces  of  artillery  of  the  sub- 
di.strict.  The  cavalrj'  of  tlie  Auxiliary  Forces  is  di- 
vided, as  before  stated,  into  two  districts.  A  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel is  ai)poiiil(cl  to  each  district,  who  is 
invested  with  the  command  of  the  Yeomanry  regi- 
ments ami  of  the  corps  of  Light  Horse  an(l  Mounted 
Rifle  Volunteers  within  his  district.  The  veKiments  of 
Guards,  the  BOth  Ritles,  and  the  Ritle  Brig;ide  are 
outside  the  sub-district  organization — i.e.,  they  have 
no  special  connection  with  any  territorial  sub-district. 
The  depot  of  the  Guards  contin\ies  as  at  present  con- 
stituted. The  (iUth  Rifie  Brigade  have  one  consolidated 
depot  at  Winchester. 

The  above  explains  the  organization,  as  laid  down 


by  the  warrant,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  sub-dis- 
tricts. It  is  further  directed  that  iu  exercising  au- 
thority over  the  auxiliary  and  reserve  forces,  otiicers 
appointed  to  command  must  remember  that  these 
forces  have  been  enrolled  under  conditions  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  regular  army.  They  must 
therefore  take  great  care  not  to  exceed  the  i)ower8 
conferred  upon  them  by  law,  and,  in  exercising  the 
])owers  which  they  do  possess,  must  endeavor  to 
carry  with  them  as  far  as  jxjssible  the  opinions  of  the 
Commanding  Otiicers  of  the  Auxiliary  Forces.  In  all 
cases  of  iloubt,  the  warrant  says,  they  wfil  do  well 
to  refer  to  the  Inspector-general  of  the  Auxilijiry 
Forces.  It  is  ordered  in  the  Queen's  Regulations 
that  "a  mess  shall  be  established  at  the  headquarters 
of  each  brigade  dejxjt,  which  will  be  credited  with 
one  fifth  of  the  contributions  of  the  Company  Officers 
of  each  Line  Battalion  belonging  thereto,  asse.s.sed 
agreeably  to  paragraphs  32  and  83,  as  well  as  with 
the  annual  subscriptions  of  the  .officers  of  two  com- 
jianies  thereof.  The  Lieutenant-colonel,  the  Major 
imd  Staff  will  pay  subscri])tions  only.  The  two  com- 
panies of  the  Line  Battalions  will  bring,  on  joining  a 
i)rigade  depot,  a  sum  of  'M.,  for  the  purchase  of  such 
articles  of  equipment  as  may  be  nece.s.sary,  or  in  lieu 
thereof  a  sutticient  amount  of  mess  property."  The 
plan  adopted  in  forming  the  brigade  depots  was  to 
associate  with  the  militia  of  each  County  certain  Line 
Battalions,  selecting  as  far  as  possible  such  regiments 
as  had  any  connection  with  the  County,  besides  such 
volunteers  and  army  reserves  as  may  be  in  each 
brigade  district.  Each  brigade  has  its  depot  stationed 
permanently  in  the  district  it  belongs  to;  the  Line 
Battalions  are  moved  as  the  ser\'ice  may  require,  one 
being  at  home  and  the  other  abroad;  the  militia  arc 
embodied  periodically  as  heretofore;  but  all  recruits 
for  either  branch  of  the  serWce  are  intended  to  ])ass 
through  the  same  hands,  and  to  receive  their  training 
together.  The  Cavalry,  Artillery,  Engineers,  Guards, 
and  Rifies  are  exceptions  to  these  arrangements,  and 
remain  not  localized. 

BRIGADE-INSPECTOE.— An  ofticer  whose  duty  it 
is  to  ins])ect  troojis  in  companies  before  they  are  mus- 
tered into  the  service. 

BRIGADE-MAJOR.— A  military  officer  who  exer- 
cises duties,  in  a  brigade,  analogous  to  those  of  the 
Adjutant  of  a  Regiment.  He  attends  to  matters  of 
discipline,  and  to  the  personal  movements  of  the  men. 
When  regiments  or  battalions  are  brigaded,  a  Brigjide- 
major  is  appointed,  usually  from  among  the  Captains. 
He  conveys  orders,  keeps  the  rollster  or  roster,  in- 
spects guards  and  pickets,  and  direct.s  exercises  and 
evolutions;  but  he  nevertheless  remains  on  the  books 
of  a  particular  regiment,  and  returns  to  his  regimental 
duties  when  the  brisrade  is  broken  up. 

BRIGADIER— BRIGADIER  GENERAL.— An  officer 
in  rank  next  above  a  Colonel.  He  commands  a  bri- 
gade. In  the  British  service  the  Brigadier  is  an  offi- 
cer of  a  regimcnit  (usually  a  Colonel  or  Lieutenant- 
colonel),  who,  for  a  limited  time  and  for  a  special 
service,  is  placed  ujjon  brigade  duties.  He  is  then  a 
General  or  Commander  of  a  Brigade,  which  usually 
contains  his  own  regiment  as  one  of  the  number. 
When  the  brigade  is  broken  up,  he  falls  back  to  his 
Colonelcy,  unless  his  services  lead  to  his  promotion 
to  the  rank  of  Major-general. 

BRIGAND.— A  species  of  irregular  foot-soldiers, 
fnquenlly  mentioned  by  Froissart.  From  their  plun- 
dering prnjiensities  comes  the  modem  use  of  the  tenn. 
Somclimcs  written  Tirii/tiii.i. 

BRIGANDINE  —  BRIGANTINE.  —  An  article  of 
armor  worn  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  an 
a.s«eml)lage  of  small  [ilates  of  iron,  sewed  upon 
quilted  linen  or  leather,  and  covered  with  a  .similar 
substance  to  hide  the  glittering  of  the  metal.  It 
formed  a  sort  of  coat  or  timic.  The  brigandine  was 
named  from  the  lirifjans,  a  kind  of  light  armed  irregu- 
lar corps,  employed  something  like  llie  Cossacks  and 
Bashi-bazouks  of  recent  days,  and,  like  them,  addicted 
to  marauding  and  i)ilferiug;  hence  the  word  brigand. 


3BINS  D'EST. 


243 


BBITISH  ABHT. 


BBIKS  D'EST.— Large  sticks  or  poles  resembling  ' 
imiill  iiicket-s,  with  iron  at  each  end.     They  were 
OLseil  to  cross  ditches,  particularly  in  Flanders. 

BBI8E-MUE.— A  heavy  piece  of  ordnance  which 
was  used  during  the  fifteenth  centurj'  to  batter  down 
walls,  etc. 

BBISUBE. — In  fortification,  any  part  of  a  rampart 
or  parajjtt  which  de\iatcs  from  the  general  direction. 

BEITANNIA  METAL.— The  present  composition 
of  britannia  metal  at  Birmingham  is  usually  90  tin  + 
8  antimony  +  2  copper,  without  any  zinc  of  bismuth; 
although  "some  manufacturers  deviate  a  little  from 
this  formula,  by  ailding  one  or  Ixith  of  the  melals  last 
named.  The  manufacture  was  begun  at  Shedield  by 
Hancock  and  Jessop,  in  1770;  it  reached  Birmingham 
towards  the  close  of  the  century,  and  made  gradual 
progress.  At  first  the  articles  were  made  by  stamp- 
ing with  dies,  and  soldering  up  into  form;  this  lx;ing 
a  .slow  operation,  rendered  the  articles  expensive. 
Afterwards  the  curioiLs  process  of  iiulal  spinning 
-was  introtluced;  and  this,  with  the  subsidiary  opera- 
tion of  swa''ging,  rendered  a  great  rtnluction  in  price 
j)0ssible.  In  the  .spinning  process,  a  thin  sheet  or 
piece  of  britannia  metal  is  placed  upon  a  wooden 
model  shaped  like  the  article  to  lx>  made;  the  model 
is  made  to  rotate  in  a  lathe;  and  burnishers  and  other 
tools  are  employed  to  press  the  yielding  metal  into 
all  the  curvatures  of  the  model.  Ductility  is  an 
•es.sential  qualitj'  to  the  attainment  of  this  end  with 
the  metal;  how  complete  it  is  may  be  seen  in  such 
articles  as  britannia-metal  teapots  and  dish-covers, 
the  principal  forms  of  which  are  not  given  by  ham- 
mering, stamping,  or  ca.sting,  but  by  spinning. 
Besides  spinning  and  swagging,  the  processes  include 
stamping,  soldering,  casting,  and  polishing.  When 
electro-plating  was  introduced,  an  increased  use  of 
britannia  metal  arose,  as  it  forms  a  good  ground  or 
basis  for  the  deposited  silver.  Britannia-metal  spoons 
and  ladles,  made  by  ca.sting,  stamping,  and  burnish- 
ing, have  been  nearly  driven  out  of  the  market  by 
German  silver;  but  the  former  metal  is  largely  used 
for  many  purposes  in  the  laboratory. 

BBITISH  AEMY.— Like  other  modern  armies,  the 
British  army  originated  in  the  feudal  .system.  When 
regal  power,  tempered  by  a  Parliament,  superseded 
that  system,  the  people,  according  to  their  rank  in 
life,  were  ex'pected  to  provide  them.selves  with  certain 
kinds  of  weapons  and  defensive  armor.  The  Justices 
of  the  Peace  were  empowered  to  see  to  these  militarj- 
duties  of  the  people.  When  the  nation  was  either 
actually  engaged  in  war,  or  apprehensive  of  invasion, 
the  Sovereign  issued  commissioas  to  experienced  offi- 
cers, authorizing  them  to  draw  out  and  array  the  fit- 
test men  for  ser\nce  in  each  County,  and  to  march 
them  to  the  sea-coast,  or  to  any  part  of  the  countr3' 
known  to  be  in  most  danger.  It  was  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.  that  Lord-lieutenants  and  Deputy-lieu- 
tenants of  Counties  were  first  appointetl  as  standing- 
officers  for  assembling  and  mustering  the  military 
force.  During  the  earlier  years  of  tlie  Tudors,  con- 
tracts were  made  by  the  K:ng  with"  Captains,"  who 
undertook  to  provide,  clothe,  and  feed  so  many  fight-  ! 
ing-men  for  a  given  money-allowance;  but  the  power 
intrusted  to  the  Lord-lieiitenants  gradually  changed 
this  system,  in  relation  at  least  to  home-defense.  In 
the  reign  of  C.'liarles  I.  the  important  (|UPstion  arose 
whether  tlie  King  of  England  did  or  did  not  possess 
the  right  to  maintain  a  military  force  without  the  ex- 
press consent  of  Parliament.  This  question  was  all  : 
the  more  bitterly  discussed  when  the  King  billeted 
Lis  soldiers  on  tlie  people.  After  the  troubles  of  the 
civil  wars  and  the  commonwealth,  Charles  II.  found 
himself  compelled  to  agree,  on  his  restoration,  to  the 
abandonment  of  all  the  army  except  a  kind  of  iKjdy- 
guard  or  household  brigade  of  5000  men,  siuictioned 
by  the  Parliament.  Iii  the  thirteenth  year  of  his 
reign  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  statute  declaring 
that  "the  sole  and  supreme  iMwer,  government, 
command,  and  disposition  of  the  militia,  and  of  all 
iorces  by  sea  and  land,  and  of  all  forts  and  places  of 


strength,  is  the  imdoubted  right  of  His  Majesty;  and 
both  or  either  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  cannot  nor 
ought  to  pretend  to  the  same."  Both  Charles  II.  anil 
James  II.  found,  however,  to  their  mortification,  that 
this  statute  did  not  in  elTect  give  them  so  much  real 
military  command  as  they  had  wished  and  intended 
— becau.sc  the  Commons,  by  holding  the  purse,  virtu- 
allv  held  the  power. 

It  was  in  the  time  of  William  and  Mary  that  the 
real  basis  for  the  modem  British  army  was  faid.  The 
declaration  of  rights  settled,  in  positive  terms,  "that 
the  raising  and  keeping  of  a  standing  army  in  time  of 
peace,  without  consent  of  Parliament,  isVontrary  to 
law."  The  fir.st  Mutiny  Act  was  pas-sed  in  1689,  to 
last  for  six  months  only;  but  it  has  Ix'cn  annually  re- 
newed ever  since,  except  in  three  particular  years; 
and  it  constitutes  the  warrant  on  which  the  whole 
militarj-  system  of  England  is  exerci.sed  by  tlie  Sov- 
ereign, with  the  consent  of  Parliament.  Since  then, 
with  only  three  interruptions,  the  Ministers  of  the 
Crown  have  annually  applied  to  Parliament  for  per- 
mission to  raise  a  military  force,  and  for  money  to 
defray  the  expenses.  The  Sovereign  can  make  war, 
and  can  bestow  military  employments  and  honors; 
but  the  Commons,  as  the  representatives  of  the  tax- 
pajing  nation,  provide  a  check  on  the  gra.sping  by 
courtiers  of  military  pri\-ilcges.  The  law  on  anny 
regulation  has  tieen  re\-ised,  and  the  British  anny 
made  the  subject  of  special  legislation  in  the  Army 
Discipline  Bill  pas.sed  in  1879.  The  great  distinction 
Ijelween  the  British  army  and  that  of  almost  every 
other  State  in  Europe  is  that  the  ser\ice  is  Toluntnry. 
The  subjects  of  the  Crown  engage,  bj-  free  choice,  to 
serve  in  the  army  for  a  definite  tiumber  of  ycai-s.  In 
the  rare  cases  where  forced  service  by  ballot  is  ob- 
tained, it  is  in  the  militia,  not  the  regular  army.  The 
British  soldier  has  much  hard  colonial  life  to  bear, 
and  many  long  voyages  to  make;  he  is,  moreover, 
almost  entirely  shut  out  from  the  chance  of  being  a 
commissioned  officer.  As  a  consequence,  the  ranks 
are  mostly  filled  from  the  more  necessitous  classes  of 
the  communitj' — by  those  who,  from  want  of  steady 
habits  or  of  education,  are  the  least  fitted  for  indus- 
trious pursuits;  whereas  in  France  and  many  other 
foreign  countries  the  profession  of  amis  is  regarded 
as  an  honorable  one,  of  which  even  the  private  sol- 
dier feels  proud.  Mr.  De  Fonblanque,  comparing 
the  peace  establishments  of  the  chief  European  armies 
in  1857,  found  that  of  England  to  be  the  sTnallest  in 
ratio  to  population,  but  the  most  costly  in  relation  to 
its  strength.  The  English  ratio  was  1  in  128;  the 
French,  1  in  95;  the  Prussian,  1  in  80;  the  Rus,sian, 
1  in  72;  the  Austrian,  1  in  68.  An  English  private 
soldier  costs  the  country  £52  per  annum;  French, 
.£36;  Pmssian,  £31;  Au-strian,  £18  10*.;  Russian, 
£13  5«.  The  English  cost  per  man  is  still  higher 
now  than  it  was  in  1857,  on  account  of  increased  at- 
tention being  paid  to  the  well-being  of  the  soldier. 

The  British  arm}-,  in  all  its  completeness,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  commanded  by  the  Sovereign,  a.ssisted  by 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  in  .some  matters,  and 
by  the  Officer  Commanding  in  Chief  in  others.  The 
component  elements  are  the  Household  Troops;  ihcln- 
fantry  of  the  Line;  the  Cavalry  of  tlie  Line;  the  Ord- 
nance Corps,  comprising  artillery  and  engineere;  other 
bodies  of  native  troops,  maintained  out  of  the  reven- 
ues of  India;  the  Militia;  the  Yeomanry  Cavalr\-;  the 
Reserve;  the  Volunteer  Artillerj- and  Riiics;  and  some- 
times, during  war.  Foreign  Legions.  The  "peace 
establishment"  of  the  British  army  varies  acconling 
to  the  political  aspect  of  affairs  abroad,  and  to  the 
strength  of  the  economizing  principle  at  home.  In 
1814,  when  England  w-as  engaged  in  tremendous  con- 
tests abroad,  the  regular  anny  reached  200.000  nun, 
exclusive  of  Fencibles,  Foreign  Legions,  and  Jlilitia 
In  the  first  few  years  after  the  temiination  of  the 
great  war  agaiast  Napoleon,  the  reductions  in  the 
British  army  involved  the  compulsor)-  retirement  of 
no  less  than  10,000  military  officers,  who  thereupon 
went  on  half-pay;  these,  by  filling  vacancies,  trans- 


BBITTEN  QTTS. 


244 


BBOADWELL  BIKO. 


fers,  and  ilcatbs,  have  nearly  disapponrcil.  The 
elasticity  which  permits  the  eulargemeiit  or  contrac- 
tion of  tlie  army  arises  from  varyinj;  not  so  much 
the  number  of  regiments  as  the  nunilxT  of  battalions 
in  a  regiment,  of  companies  in  a  battalion,  or  of  men 
in  a  company.  If  we  compare  the  strength  of  the 
regular  army  at  various  periods  Ix'tween  IX'M  and 
1879,  we  shall  lind  that  llic  actual  number  of  regi- 
ments has  varied  but  little,  the  (inference  of  strength 
being  made  up  in  the  three  modes  just  mentioned. 

The  strength  of  the  British  army  declined  from 
181.5  to  18U5,  since  which  last  mentioned  year  it  has 
incresused.  These  augmentations  have  been  occa- 
sioned partly  by  the  contests  in  China,  India,  KatTra- 
ria,  Persia, "the  Crimea,  Afghanistan,  and  Zululaud, 
and  partly  by  a  sense  of  insecurity  amid  the  vast 
armaments  of  the  Continent.  In  comparing  the 
strength  of  the  forces  at  different  periods,  much  con- 
fusion is  apt  to  arise  from  different  modes  of  inter- 
preting the  words  "  British  army."  This  designation 
may  include  the  whole  of  the  Royal  troops  in  India, 
whether  supported  out  of  Imix-rial  or  of  Indian  rev- 
enues; it  may  include  the  Militia,  the  Volunteers,  the 
Yeomaniy  Cavalry, the  Foreign  Legions — or  it  may  ex- 
clude any  one  or  more  of  these.  The  "  British  army" 
and  the"  Military  Force  of  the  British  Empire"  are 
often  treated  as  convertible  tenns;  to  the  production 
of  much  confusion  where  actual  numbers  are  given. 
In  the  following  table,  relating  to  the  official  year 
1879-80,  it  is  shown  of  what  component  elements  the 
British  army  consists.  The  Militia  and  the  Volunteer 
Corps  are  not  here  included. 

Home  Total 

and  India.  British 

Colonies.  Army, 

Horse-artillerr 3,131  2,478  =  5,609 

Cavalry,     includiug    Household 

Cavalry 12.907  4,312  =  17.319 

Artillery 19,225  9,667  =  28,892 

Engineers 5.198  428  =  .5,6s;6 

Infantry,  including  Foot-guards.  76..366  45,768  =  122,134 

Service  Corps 2,990         =  2,990 

Colonial  Corps 2,485         =  2,485 

Army  Hospital  Corps 1,745         =  1,745 

Additional  force  in  consequence 

of  reinforcements  to  Natal 3.900         =  3,900 


127,947        62,653 


190,600 


Under  the  column  "India"  are  included  only  those 
troops  of  the  Royal  army  which  are  lent  to  India,  and 
paid  for  out  of  Indian  revenues;  the  other  milit;iry 
forces  in  that  region  are  enumerated  under  East 
India  Akmy.  Of  the  total  190,600,  7980  are  officers; 
16,5.50  non-commissioned  officers,  drummers,  and 
trumpeters;  and  166,070  rank  and  file.  There  are 
voted  for  the  use  of  this  army  11,325  horses.  The 
total  cost  cannot  well  be  estimated  per  head;  because, 
beside-s  pay  and  sustenance  for  the  soldiers,  there  are 
stores  and  wages  for  fortifications  and  military  build- 
ings, military  weapons  and  combustibles,  and  the 
various  kinds  of  half  pay  and  pensions.  The  total 
expenditure  sanctioned  by  Parliament  may,  however, 
conveniently  be  thrown  under  four  headings,  and 
given  in  round  numbers  as  follows: 

Pay  and  allowance  of  cntnliatants £4,944,200 

Auxiliary  and  Reserve  Fon'es 1.258,500 

Stores  and  works  of  every  kind 6,817,200 

Pensions,  Militia,,Volunteers,  etc 2^625,800 


£15,M5,700 


This  is  the  charge  for  a  Pmce  Establishment,  in 
which  to  admit  of  expansion  for  actual  war,  the 
upper  ranks  (which  aiiinol  be  summarily  creiited)  are 
di.sproporlionately  large. 

All  the  component  elements  of  the  anny,  in  prr- 
aonnel  and  materu'l,  and  tlut  organization  aiul  duties 
of  the  troojis,  will  be  foimd  noticed  under  their 
proper  headings.     See  Armi/. 

BBITTEN  GUN.— This  "gun  has  five  shallow 
grooves,  and  the  projectile  is  cxpfiiiiUng,  being  made 
of  iron,  but  having  a  lead  envelope  and  a  wooden 
sabot.  The  shell  loads  easily,  being  less  in  diame- 
ter  than   the  bore ;   but    when    the   gun  is    fired, 


the  ga.s  drives  the  saliot  against  the  envelope  and 
expands  the  lead  into  the  grooves,  .so  that  the  .shot 
acquires  a  rotatory  motion.  The  wooden  sabot  is 
now  replaced  by  an  iron  s/ioc  pure,  which  is  soldered 
to  the  soft-metal  envelope  ;  it  is  not  liable,  like  the 
siibot,  to  jiartial  .separation,  and  serves  to  protect  the 
soft  metal. 

BBITTEN  PROJECTILE.— The  most  novel  imd  val- 
uable part  of  this  ]ii(iji(tile  is  the  fastening  of  a  lead 
ring  to  an  iron  shot,  by  zinc  solder,  .so  firmly  that  the 
explosion  will  not  strip  it  off.  The  jirocess  of  coating 
is  as  follows  :  The  iron  projectile  is  heated  to  a  dull-reu 
heal,  dipped  in  sal-ammoniac,  which  thoroughly  cleans 
the  surface,  held  for  al)out  two  minutes  in  a  bath  of 
melted  zinc  alloyed  with  antimoi'V.  and  then  jilaced 
in  a  bath  of  melted  lead,  hardened  with  zinc  or  tin,  for 
three  or  four  mimiles.  It  is  finally  plai'ed  in  an  iron 
mold,  and  lead  from  the  last  bath  is  jioured  around  it. 
The  projectile,  thus  coatcil,  is  squeezed  out  of  the  mold 
by  a  screw.  A  wooden  plug,  usually  screwed  to  the 
bottom  of  this  projectile,  is  driven  against  the  lead, 
and  causes  it  to  expand  into  the  grooves.  The  amount 
of  projection  on  the  ring,  as  the  jirojectile  Wiis 
formerly  constructed,  regulated  the  pressure  of  the 
lead  against  the  bore,  and  was  adjusted  so  as  to  just 
stop  windage  without  wasting  power  or  straining  the 
gun.     See  Britten  Chin. 

BRIZUBE.— A  term  used  with  Brise  and  Brize,  ia 
Heraldry,  to  indicate  that  a  charge  is  bruised  or 
broken.     See  liDtnpii. 

BROACH. — A  tapering  steel  tool,  of  prismatic  form,, 
and  whose  edges  are  used  for  reaming  out  holes.  It 
is  particularly  used  by  armorers  in  enlarging  holes  in 
the  small  parts  of  fire-arms,  etc.  When  smooth,  it  is 
no  longer  a  broach,  but  a  burnisher,  and  is  u-sed  for 
burnishing  pivot-holes.  The  number  of  sides  vary  : 
the  smaller  the  numlxT,  the  more  salient  is  the  edge. 
The  end  of  a  broach  has  as  many  facets  as  the  shaft 
has  sides,  and  the  tjing  is  4-sided. 

BROAD  ARROW.— The  English  Government  mark, 
stampetl,  cut,  or  otherwise  fixed  on  all  solid  materials 
used  in  Her  Majesty's  ships  or  dock-jards,  and  on 
government  stores  generally,  in  order  to  prevent  em- 
bezzlement. The  origin  of  the  mark  is  obscure. 
Previous  to  the  year  1698,  the  Naval  Authorities 
prosecuted  a  dealer  in  marine  stores,  for  having  in 
his  posses,sion  certain  stores  bearing  the  broad  arrow 
of  His  Majesty.  The  defendant  allowed  the  e\idcnce 
against  him  to  go  on,  and  when  asked  what  he  had  to- 
Siiy,  replied  that  it  was  very  carunin  that  the  king  and 
he,  as  a  dealer,  should  both  have  the  same  private 
mark  on  their  jiroperty.  The  receiver  of  stolen 
goods  was  acquitted,  and  this  led  to  the  passing  of  the 
Act  that  persons  in  possession  of  naval  stores  or 
goods  of  any  kind  marked  with  the  broad  arroir,  or 
other  marks  therein  mentioned,  and  usually  employed 
in  marking  naval  stores  for  the  navy,  .shall  forfeit 
all  such  goods  and  £200,  and  also  pay  costs.  The 
mark  is  for  iron,  wood,  etc.,  while  the  color-thread 
is  for  sailcloth  and  ropes,  which  enables  the  Govern- 
ment to  identify  the  smallest  piece  of  such  articles. 

BROAD-AXE. — A  militarj'  weapon  used  in  ancient 
times.     Now  obsolete. 

BROADSWORD.— A  sword  with  a  broad  blade,  for 
cutting  only,  not  for  stabbing,  and  therefore  not 
sharp  at  the" point,  like  a  saber.  It  is  but  little  used 
in  the  service.  This  weapon  is  better  known  under 
the  name  of  dai/more. 

BROADWELL  RING.— A  steel  ring  fitting  into  a 
lodgment  called  the  ring  reces,s.  The  jiressure  of  the 
powder-gas  expands  tht>  ring  agjiinsl  the  walls  of  the 
bore  and  the  face  of  the  screw-plug,  thus  preventing 
the  escape  of  the  ga.s.  The  French  guns  of  old  model 
had  the  gas-check  fixed  to  the  axis  of  the  brcech-jilug, 
but  this  led  to  difficulties  of  working,  particularly 
when  using  very  ((uick  powder,  and  wlien  the  initial 
velocities  become  considerable.  These  guns  had 
two  loilgmeuts  for  the  gas-check,  the  one  nearer 
the  breech  being  reserved  for  the  time  when  degra- 
dations of  the  bore  at  the  other  had  occurred  sulfl- 


SBOILINO. 


245 


BBONZE. 


cienlly  to  prevent  a  complete  closure.  This  chaoge 
■was  verj'  efficacious  in  prolonging  the  life  of  the 
piece,  and  only  required  a  shorter  axis  for  the  new 
gas-check.  In  the  model  of  1871  only  one  lodgment 
IS  made  in  the  gun  ;  the  gas-check  is  of  the  same 
shape,  but  is  placed  by  hand  in  the  lodgment,  and 
driven  up  by  the  breech-screw.  It  remains  m  place 
throughout  the  firing.  The  central  opening  is  made 
of  the  same  diameter  as  the  powder-chamber,  and  the 
side  is  strengthened  by  a  projection.  It  freely  admits 
the  pas.sage  of  the  ammunition.  In  the  large  guns 
the  gas-checks  are  made  of  copper,  and  in  the  small 
ones  of  steel.     If  destroyed,  they  are  ea.sily  renewed. 


'The  screw-plug  is  made  of  steel,  and  around  its  cir- 
cumference is  cut  a  screw-thread,  corresponding  to 
the  one  cut  around  ttie  .screw -Ix)x  in  the  tube  ;  the 
plug  and  screw-box  are  reciprocally  slotted  in  three 
places,  so  that  it  can  be  shoved  down  to  its  licarings 
by  hand  before  engaging  the  threads.  In  cutting  the 
slots  on  the  plug,  the  outer  thread  is  not  cut  through, 
and  prevents  the  plug  from  entering  beyond  the 
point  where  the  threads  vdU  take  each  other  fairly. 
The  plug  is  revolved  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pinion, 
one  on  the  end  of  the  lever-handle  and  the  other  on 
the  face  of  the  breech.  Two  t\irns  bring  the  handle 
vertical  with  the  blanks  on  the  plug  oppo.site  the  full 
threads  in  the  screw-tx)x.  The  plug  is  withdrawn 
from  the  screw-box,  and  slides  on  to  a  curN'ed  bracket 
hinged  to  the  right  side  of  the  breech,  on  which  it  is 
swung  around,  leaWng  the  breech  clear  for  loading. 
A  bronze  bearer,  hinged  to  the  other  side  of  the 
breech,  can  now  be  swung  around  and  pushed  into 
the  screw- box.  This  serves  to  guide  the  projectile 
and  cartridge  clear  of  the  threads,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
On  the  iinier  face  of  the  plug  a  circular  nos<--platc  is 
fitted,  which  is  held  in  position  by  the  nose  plate 
stem  which  passes  through  a  hole  in  the  center  of  the 
plug,  and  is  set  up  with  a  screw-nut  in  the  recess  of 
the  plug.  The  vent  is  axial  through  the  center  of 
the  nose-plate  stem  :  there  is  no  miiI -check.  To 
olnnatc  the  danger  re- 
sulting from  a  neglect 
to  screw  up  flic  plug 
when  the  breech  is 
closed,  the  lock-laniard, 
which  has  a  Ijob  on  it, 
is  made  to  pa.ss  through 
the  eye,  e  (Fig.  2),  of  a 
piece  of  iron  fixed  to 
the  bivccli.  When  the 
handle  is  not  in  its  place, 
that  is,  when  the  plug  is 
not  properly  screwed  in, 
a  spring,  b,  closes  the 
eye  and  does  not  allow 
the  lx)b  to  pa.ss.  When  the  handle  is  in  position  with 
the  plug  screwed  up,  it  opens  the  eye  and  allows  the 
bob  to  pass,  when  the  gun  can  be  fired.  See  Gas- 
check. 


Fio.  2. 


BROILING. —A  convenient  and  expeditious  mode 
of  cooking  small  pieces  of  meat,  by  troops  in  the 
field,  by  laying  them  on  a  gridiron  over  a  bright  fire 
or  even  on  the  coals  themselves.  This  is  perhaps  the 
most  primitive  mode  of  preparing  meat  for  eating,  as 
may  l)e  supposed  from  the  great  ease  and  simpHcity 
with  which  the  oiwration  is  managed.  Broiling  is, 
in  fact,  a  quicker  sort  of  roasting.  '  The  albumen  of 
the  outside  being  sealed  up  at'  once,  the  meat  is 
rendered  extremely  nutritious,  and  therefore  this  pro- 
cess is  much  to  be  recommended.  But  fo  broil  meat 
so  as  to  preserve  its  odor,  juice,  and  tiavor  re(|uires 
care.  The  meat  should  be  i)re])ared  for  the  cridiron 
by  lieing  Ix-atcn  slightly  with  the  rolling-iiiii,  trim- 
med of  su|X'rtiuous  fat  and  skin,  and  cut  «>  as  to  look 
Will  on  the  dish.  The  lire  should  be  perfectly  clear, 
and  of  a  red-hot  surface  to  answer  to  the  size"  of  the 
gridiron,  that  all  parts  of  the  meat  may  be  equally 
cooked.  .lust  before  setting  the  giidiroii  over,  some 
salt  should  be  sprinkled  on  the  "fire  to  prevent  the 
flare.  The  gridiron  should  be  perfectlv  clean  and 
smooth,  being  always  rubbed  when  it  is  put  away; 
and,  before  using,  it"  should  Ijc  wanned,  peasi'il  wiih 
suet,  and  rubbed  again  wiUi  paj^er.  When  it  is 
placed  on  the  fire,  the  back  should  be  higher  than 
the  front.  The  meal  should  never  be  touched  with  a 
fork,  but  turned  rapidly  with  the  broiling-tongs;  and 
when  sufficiently  done,"should  be  .servwl  Immediately 
on  a  verj-  hot  dish,  being  sea.'ioned  according  to  taste. 
In  large  ranges  in  the  garrison  there  should  be  a 
broiling-stove,  and  an  apparatus  for  broiling  suited  to 
il;  by  this  the  heat  of  the  fire  can  be  easily  regulated. 
But  for  all  ordinan,-  purposes,  a  fire  of  charcoal,  or  of 
common  coal,  and  a  grooved  gridiron  to  preserve  the 
gravy,  are  all  that  is  necessarj'. 

BROKE. — The  sentence  of  a  Court-Martial  depriv- 
ing an  Officer  of  his  commission,  or  a  Non-com- 
missioned Officer  or  Warrant-officer  of  his  warrant. 
Also  said  of  a  Non-commissioned  Oflicer  being  re- 
duced bv  ordo!-. 

BROKEN  LINE  OF  BATTLE.— A  line  of  battle  in 
which  some  of  the  fiaitions,  as  brigades,  diWsions, 
etc.,  are  .separated  by  the  nature  of  the  ground  so 
that  it  is  not  practicable  to  form  upon  it  a  continuous 
line.  This  arrangement  is  sometimes  known  as  a 
line  of  Iiattle  vith  intenah.  It  follows  that  in  a  line 
of  battle  of  this  kind,  the  different  corps  or  divisions, 
being  separated  from  each  other,  cannot  give  that 
mutual  aid  and  assistance  which  is  so  essential  to 
success.  It  is  therefore  an  arrangement  which  is  not 
to  be  recommended  except  under  jxculiar  circum- 
stances. When  used,  it  is  more  generally  employed 
for  a  defcn.sivo  than  for  an  offensive  battle,  and 
especially  under  the  circumstances  where  it  becomes 
neces.saiy  to  give  a  great  extent  to  the  line  of  defense. 
Although  the  fractions  on  the  same  line  c.innot  come 
to  each  other's  assistance,  great  care  is  taken  lo  have 
the  reserve  so  placed  that  it  may  have  free  and  easy 
ac<  ess  to  all  parts  of  the  line. 

BRONCO. — The  name  applied  to  the  Mexican  pony, 
extensively  reared  and  used  west  of  the  Rocliv 
Mountains.  The  power  of  endurance  of  these  ani- 
mals is  veiT  great,  and  they  are  well  adapted  lo  the 
cavalrj-  service  in  Uio  rugged  and  arid  coimtry  of  the 
AVestern  frontier. 

BRONZE. — Bronze  is  a  mixture  or  alloy  of  copjier 
an<l  tin.  That  particular  sort  of  bronze  formerly 
used  for  gims  is  often  called  gim-metal,  and  consists 
of  about  90  parts  of  copixr  and  10  of  tin  Bronze  is 
a  tough  and  tenacious  metal,  but  when  cast  or 
founded  in  the  ordinary  way  it  is  comparatively  soft 
and  is  easily  indented  and  damaged  by  the  projectile. 
When  heated,  as,  for  instance,  by  rdjiid  tiring,  this 
metal  l)ccomcs  still  softer  and  so  more  readily  dam- 
aged. For  the  small  smooth-bore  gims  formerly  tise<l 
in  the  field  bronze  answered  tolerably  well,  as  the 
weight  of  shot  was  comparatively  small  ;  but  with 
rifled  guns  using  much  luinier  charges,  bronze  is  not 
found  to  be  a  sufficiently  gooil  material.  Besides  the 
faults  above  mentioned,  which  are  inherent  to  bronzo 


BRONZE. 


246 


BEONZE. 


cast  in  the  ortUmiry  wny,  even  when  the  casting  is 
sound,  (his  alloy  has  the  serious  tiefeet  of  never  l)eing 
quite  homogeneous.  The  tin  has  a  much  lower  melt- 
ing ]X)itil  than  copper  (442  F.  as  compared  to  1800' 
F.),  while  its  s|K'citic  gravity  is  also  very  dillerent 
(and  although  lietinite  alloys  cjin  he  fountf,  they  are 
not  represented  by  the  al)ove  i)roportion,  nor  such  sis 
would  answer  lor  gun-inetals).  While  cooling,  the 
two  metals  fonning  the  alloy  seem  to  separate  more 
or  less  from  one  another,  the  tin  liquating  or  sweating 
out  in  parts  and  causing  white  spots  or  blotches  called 
"tin-spots,"  which  are  readily  acte<l  upon  by  the 
p)Owder-gas  and  eaten  away,  leiuTng  flaws  or  holes  in 
the  bore  of  the  gun.  In  rifled  guns  this  defect  is 
much  more  serious  than  in  smooth-bore  pieces,  for 
the  grooves  cut  in  the  bore  lay  open  a  further  surface 
and  exjwse  more  tin-spots,  while  the  powder-gas  acts 
with  greater  force  (on  account  of  the  larger  charges 
and  heavier  projectiles  used),  and  eats  away  the  .spots 
more  quickly.  With  smooth-bore  bronze  guiLS  much 
inconvenience  was  ocuisioned  by  the  softness  of  this 
alloy,  especially  when  heated  by  rapid  firing;  and  as 
experience  was  gained  concerning  rifled  ordnance  in 
the  field,  it  was  foimd  that  the  defects  inherent  to 
ordinary  bronze  were,  as  mentioned  above,  still  more 
serious  in  .such  pieces.  Their  accuracy  was  affected 
by  much  firing,  and  the  greater  pressure  in  the  pow- 
der-chamber quickly  developed  flaws  by  burning  out 
the  tin-spots.  The  cutting  of  the  grooves  also  laid 
bare  many  of  these  spots,  which  otherwise  would  not 
have  been  apparent. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  discover  a 
modification  of  bronze,  or  some  analogous  alloy,  suf- 


iron  mold)  showed  n  tenacity  of  about  25  tons  per 
sijuare  inch.  Notwithstanding  this,  however.  Colo- 
nel l{<5s.set  concluded  that  it  was  not  adWsjible  to  em- 
ploy such  an  alloy  in  gun-manufacture  on  account  of 
the  unstable  character  of  phosphiirus,  and  the  great 
(iilficulty  of  securing  uniformity  of  re.siUt  in  the  mix- 
ture of  this  element  with  bronze.  Russia,  too,  has- 
been  making  much  advance  in  the  working  of  bronze, 
and  is  manufacturing  some  pt)werful  ex-perimental 
field-guns  (LavToflf  guns)  of  this  alloy  treated  in  the 
sjime  way  as  described  with  regard  to  the  Austrian 
"  I'chatius"  field-pieces. 

In  Austria  great  attention  has  always  been  paid  to 
brony.e  and  analogous  alloys,  and  General  Von  Ucha- 
tius,  the  Director  of  the  Gun-foundry  at  Vienna,  has 
for  years  studied  the  subject.  In  a  lecture  lately  de- 
livered by  him,  he  tells  us  that  about  three  years  ago 
his  attention  was  particularly  called  to  a  fragment  of 
bronze,  cast  under  pressure,  which  the  Archduke 
^Villiam  had  brought  from  Russia.  lie  found  the 
properties  of  this  inetal  so  far  superior  to  those  of 
bronze  cast  in  the  ordinarj'  way  tliat  he  was  led  to 
researches  which  resulted  in  his  casting  bronze  in  an 
iron  mold,  or  chill-casting,  and  at  the  same  time 
chilling  the  interior  of  the  mass  by  means  of  a  core  of 
solid  copper,  or  otherwise.  This  bronze,  which  is  an 
ordinary  alloy,  containing  8  per  cent  of  tin,  can  be 
forged  cold,  and  po.s.scs.scs  man.y  of  the  properties  of 
steel,  and  has,  consequently,  been  termed  "  bronze- 
steel";  it  possesses,  however,  apparently,  the  advan- 
t^ige  over  steel  of  being  a  safer  material  when  em- 
ployed alone.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  me- 
chanical properties  of  United  States  bronze: 


Nature. 

Composition. 

Density. 

Tenacity 

per  sq. 

mch. 

Limit  of 

elasticity 

per  sq." 

inch. 

Elo.ngation. 

Hard- 

Ulti- 
mate. 

Elastic. 

ness. 

y,   -   ,-                                  1   P^pppch  sfiimrft 

90  parts  copper.... 
10  parts  tin 

8.765 
8.444 

Lbs. 
46,500 
27.400 
60,000 
29,8.59 
42,754 

Lbs. 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 

0.8.  Navy  guns -j  Qun-head?... ..."....: 

Do 

8.497 

8.M7 

8.766 

8.800 

8.4142 

8.79T3 

TT  o    »       -rt«T,i Small  bars 

90  parts  copper.  . . 
10  parts  tin 

4  57 

U.S.  Army  fleld-guns..-^   Finished  gua 

5.94 

1   Small  bars 

52,000 

55,800 
50,SJ1 

Reed  bra«s  (South  Boston  Iron  Company) 

West   Point    fomidry   bronze,    for   life-saving  ( 

Copper,  zinc 

90  parts  copper 

9,000 
17,000 
20,000 

24 

56 
42 

100 

200 
200 

6.27 
4.57 

South  Boston  Iron  Company  bronze,  condensed  1 

Uucondensed 

Condensed 

8  .WIS 
8.7065 

35,810 
51,571 

5.40 

18.00 

ficiently  hard,  elastic,  and  strong  for  the  purpose  re- 
quired; but  as  yet,  unless  the  bronze-steel  mentioned 
below  be  a  success,  all  these  attempts  have  failed. 
It  has  also  been  attempted  to  improve  its  quality  both 
in  hardness  and  homogeneity  by  altering  the  propor- 
tions of  the  two  constituents,  and  by  adding  small 
portions  of  other  metals  or  non-metals,  such  as  man- 
ganese and  phosphorus.  Phosphor-bronze  contain- 
ing small  quantities  of  phosphorus  has  been  exten- 
sively tried,  and  gives  a  metal  of  more  uniform  char- 
acter and  also  stronger  than  bronze.  In  1872  an  ex- 
haustive trial  was  undertaken  at  Bourges  by  the 
French  Government  with  4-pdrs. ;  four  of  these  pieces 
were  cast,  two  being  of  onlinarv  bronze  and  two  of 
an  alloy  of  i)liosphor-bronze.  'f  he  superiority  of  the  : 
latter  over  the  guns  cast  from  orilinary  bronze  was  so 
slight  that  the  Committee  carrying  on  "the  experiments 
concluded  that  any  advantages  were  more  than  neu- 
tralized by  the  necessity  of  adding  the  phosphoms  iu 
very  exact  proportions,  and  so  further  complicating 
themainifa<'ture  of  bronze  .sruns.  Colonel  R<j.s.set,  of 
th<'  Italian  Artillery,  Superinten<lent  of  the  Arsenal  at 
Turin,  has  for  some  years  past  been  carrying  on  a 
series  of  interesting  trials  with  regard  to  lironze  and 
other  metals  in  the  Arsenal  at  Turin,  where  a  7..5c. 
gun  of  phosphor-bronze  was  tested  in  comparison 
with  others  of  ordinary  bronze.  This  gun  stood  the 
trial  well,  and  the  alloy  from  which  it  was  cast  (in  an 


The  work  done  in  stretching  to  the  elastic  limit, 
and  the  point  of  fracture,  is  less  for  ordinary  bronze 
than  for  wrought-iron  of  maximum  ductility,  and  for 
low  steel.  This  defect,  added  to  the  costliness  of 
bronze,  to  the  various  embarrassments  experienced  in 
the  casting  of  large  mas.ses,  its  softness  and  conse- 
((uently  rajiid  wear  and  compression,  and  to  its  injury 
b\'  heat,  has  not  warranted  its  employment  for  large 
calibers  and  high  charges.  The  mean  ultimate  cohe- 
sion of  bronze,  according  to  European  authorities  and 
the  experiments  of  the  United  States  Government,  is 
aljout  33,000  pomids  per  square  inch.  Rifled  bronze 
guns  would  l)e  naturally  more  liable  to  rapid  deterio- 
ration than  smooth-bores,  as  the  w<'ights  of  projectile 
and  charge  are  much  greater  in  the  former  in  com- 
jnirison  to  the  area  acted  upon,  and  consequently  the 
local  heating  at  the  seat  of  the  charge  is  much  more 
intense,  thus  tending  to  separate  the  copper  and  tin 
more  or  less  from  each  other,  forming  those  tin-spots 
and  jiorous  patches  which  injure  the  strength  of  the 
material.  The  reduction  of  windage  also,  in  the 
rirte-gnn,  would  tend  to  increase  this  local  heating, 
and  it  must  Ix;  remembered  that  bronze  becomes  hot 
very  easily,  and  tin  melts  very  soon  (442°  F.);  more- 
over, the  grooves  in  a  rifle-gun  o))en  out  many  tin- 
spots  which  would  remain  unexposed  in  a  smooth- 
Iwre.  See  Cannoii-metaU,  Vmitpramsd  Bronze,  and 
Pho»phor-brome. 


BBONZE  GUH8. 


24^ 


BBONZ£  OXmS, 


BBONZE  GUNS.— The  circumstances  of  chief  diffi- 
culty and  import;ince  in  the  manipulation  of  bronze 
affectinjr  the  production  of  cannon  are:  1.  The  chemi- 
cal constitution  of  the  alloy  as  intiucncinij  the  balance 
of  hardness  and  tenacity.  2.  Its  chemical  constitution 
and  other  conditions  influencing  the  segregation  of 
the  cooling  mass  of  the  gun  when  cast  into  two  or 
more  alloys  of  different  and  often  variable  constitu- 
tions. 3.  The  effect  of  rapid  and  slow  cooling  and  of 
the  temperature  at  which  tlie  metal  is  fused  and  poured. 
4.  The  effect  due  to  repeated  fusions  and  to  foreign 
constituents  in  minute  proportions  entering  the  alloy. 
In  bronze,  suflicient  hardness  must  be  secured  to 
resist  longest  the  abrasions  of  projectiles  and  deflagra- 
tion of  powder;  along  with  the  greatest  ultimate  tena- 
city, there  must  be  certain  rigidity  and  ductility  with 
ultimate  cohesion;  hardness  and  rigidity  increase  with 
the  proportions  of  tin;  ductility  and  tenacity  with  that 
of  the  copper,  but  not  in  direct  ratio;  .specific  gravity 
increa.ses  with  copper.  The  fusibility  is  greater  than 
copper,  and  less  than  tin;  ultimate  colii-sion  less  than 
that  of  tough  copper,  but  greater  than  that  of  tin; 
ductility  greater  than  tin,  but  less  than  copijer;  hard- 
ness greater  than  either.  In  consequence  of  the  dif- 
ference in  the  fusibility  of  tin  and  copper,  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  alloy  depends  much  on  the  nature  of  the 
furnace  and  treatment  of  the  melted  metal.  Bj-  these 
means  alone  the  tenacity  of  bronze  has  Ix'cn  carried  at 
the  Wa.shiugton  navy -yard  as  high  as  60,000  lbs. 

The  first  step  in  tJie  fabrication  of  bronze  guns  at 
the  foundry  is  to  make  an  accurate  working  drawing 
of  the  gun,  on  a  convenient  scale,  showing  all  lines 
clearly  and  with  all  its  dimensions  distinctly  marked. 
The  subsequent  steps  vary  according  to  tlie  method 
proposed  to  be  used  in  casting,  formerly  bronze 
guns  were  cast  in  loam  or  sand  molds,  but  these  have 
been  superseded  by  a  thick  mold  of  cast-iron,  called  a 
chill.  When  cast  in  chills,  bronze  is  denser,  stronger, 
and  more  uniform  than  in  sand;  there  is  less  liability 
of  a  separation  of  tin,  or  forming  of  a  tin-copper  alloy 
differing  from  bronze.  A  description  of  the  process 
of  casting  in  .s<ind  will  supply  details  required  for  an 
understanding  of  the  chill-ca.sting.  W/uii  a  cnsliiuj  U 
desired  in  siiiid,  a  wooden  pattern  of  the  gun  is  made, 
following  the  shape  of  the  drawing,  but  larger  in  all 
its  dimensions,  both  by  the  shrinkage  of  the  casting 
and  also  by  the  amount  allowed  for  finishing,  of 
never  less  than  1  inch  over  the  finished  diameter. 
The  pattern  is  also  made  longer  than  required  for  the 
gun-casting,  to  form  a  sinking-head  of  a  diameter 
about  equal  to  that  of  the  gun  at  the  muzzle,  and  with 
a  volume  or  weight,  for  ordinarj"  guns,  a1)out  one 
third  that  of  the  whole  casting.  This  sinking-head 
supplies  fluid  metal  to  the  casting  as  the  latter  cools, 
and  receives  any  cinder  or  dross  that  would  otherwise 
remain  in  and  injure  the  casting.  The  sinking-head 
is  cut  off  as  soon  as  practicable  after  casting.  The 
pattern  is  formed  by  planing  the  surfaces  of  moderate- 
ly thick,  clear  plank,  and  gluing  pieces  of  different 
widths  together,  the  widest  next  the  center  of  the 

Eattern,  until  a  sufficient  thickness  is  obtained  f^reach 
alf  the  entire  pattern,  divided  longitudinallj-.  Two 
or  more  steadying- pins  are  then  fixed  in  one  half  of 
the  rougli  pattern,  with  corresponding  holes  in  the 
other  half,  the  surfaces  ha\-ing  been  fitted  neatly  to 
each  other.  The  halves  are  clamped  firmly  together, 
carefully  centered  and  turned  in  a  lath  to  the  proper 
dimensions.  All  projecting  parts  not  annular  must 
he  attach(;d  to  the  patteiTi  in  separate  pieces  fitted  to 
the  turned  surfaces  of  the  partly  finished  pattern. 
Thus,  separate  pieces  are  turned  for  the  trunnions. 
Including  the  rimbases,  the  siglit-ma.sscs,  etc.,  and 
fastened  to  the  pattern  in  their  proper  positions  by 
pins  in  the  wood,  so  that  they  may  be  readily  re 
niovcil.  The  whole  pattern  is  carefully  finished  and 
smoothed  with  sand-paper,  the  angles  and  corners 
well  rounded,  and  varnished  to  protect  the  wood  from 
the  moisture  of  the  Rjind.  The  pattern  and  loose.: 
pieces  are  legibly  marked.  i 

The/<M/fc  is  longer  than  the  entire  pattern  including  I 


the  sinking-head,  and  contains  sufficient  sand  around 
the  pattern  to  permit  proper  ramming  and  to  make 
the  mold  sufficiently  secure,  leaving  room  enough  for 
the  runner  or  gate"  at  the  side  of  the  patteni.  The 
fla.sk  Is  of  hexagonal  shape,  divided  longiluduially  in 
two  parts;  each  half  has  strong  longitudinal  flanges, 
and  is  strengthened  crosswise  by  ribs  running  from 
flange  to  flange.  Each  side  of  the  half  fla.sk  which 
adjoins  the  flange  is  solid,  but  the  third  side,  which 
lies  uppermost  in  molding,  is  open  save  where  the  ribs 
ero.ss  it.  This  opening  from  one  end  to  the  other  is 
for  ramming,  and  is  closed  by  movable  plates,  which 
are  held  down  upon  the  sand  by  means  of  wedges 
ilriven  under  the  ribs.  For  mvlding,  half  of  the  pat- 
tern is  laid  upon  a  flat  surface — "  follow-bourd" — 
which  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  flask.  The  latter 
is  placed  over  the  half  pattern.  AV ell-tempered  .sjmd 
mixed  with  clay  and  beer-lees  is  then  nmimed  uni- 
formly all  around  and  over  the  pattern,  so  as  to  be  of 
equal  density  and  hardness  throughout.  The  loose 
Iilates  are  then  keyed  down,  the  flask  raisiil  and 
turned  over,  and  the  surface  of  the  sand  closely 
sprinkled  with  fine,  imadhesive  parting-sand.  The 
second  half  of  the  pattern  is  laid  exactly  on  the  firet 
and  kept  in  place  by  the  steadying-pins;  the  other 
half  of  the  flask  put  on,  keyed  to  its  fellow,  tilled 
with  sand,  and  rammed  evenly  round  as  before  and 
its  plates  keyed  down.  The  two  halves  of  the  flask 
are  then  separated,  the  pattern  removed,  the  main 
runner  cut  with  a  suitable  tool  along  the  sand  on  the 
surface  where  the  flasks  part,  being  made  funnel- 
shaped  at  the  top.  Half  the  runner  lies  in  each  part 
of  the  flask,  the  main  gate  is  cut  from  the  bottom  of 
the  runner  into  the  mold,  and  other  gates  above  it. 
The  main  gate  is  cut  tangent  to  the  circumference  of 
the  mold,  that  the  metal  as  it  rises  may  receive  a  ro- 
tary motion.  The  mold  is  put  into  a  drjingoven, 
rai.sed  to  a  high  heat,  300  degrees  or  more,  and  thor- 
oughly dried.  The  whole  surface  of  the  sand-mold 
is  carefully  coated  with  a  wash  of  graphite,  fire-clay, 
and  molasses  and  water,  and  the  mold  dried  afiain  for 
a  few  houi-s.  When  it  is  ready  for  the  casting  the 
flask  is  placed  in  the  pit  upright  on  end. 

When  a  chill  is  used,  the  process  is  as  follows:  The 
chill  conforming  to  the  curves  of  the  pattern  unites 
the  functions  of  the  flask  and  of  the  sand-mold,  and 
by  its  high  conducting  power  rapidly  extracts  the 
heat  of  the  metal  cast  within  it.  The  working  draught 
of  the  gun  being  made  as  before,  a  drawing  of  the 
chill  is  made  giving  the  dimensions  required.  From 
this  the  pattei-n  is  prepared,  so  much  being  addtd  to 
even,-  dimension,  that  when  cold  after  casting  the  in- 
terior sizes  of  the  chill  may  be  those  required  by  the 
ca.sting  of  the  gun.  The  "chill  is  best  dividctl  longi- 
tudinally into  halves  on  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  fhe 
trunnions,  and  also  horizontally  into  two,  or,  if  the 
gun  is  long,  into  more  sections,  the  lower  two  of 
which,  one'on  each  side,  contain  thereces.ses  forming 
the  trunnions  and  rimba.ses.  Four  pieces  are  provided 
with  flanges  for  clamping  them  together.  An  addi- 
tional section,  added  for  the  cascabel.  is  made  with  a 
broad  flange  upon  which  the  whole  chill  when  keyed 
together  st'curely  stands.  The  gun-casting  proixT  is 
thus  inclosed  in  a  cast-iron  mold,  and  is  quickly 
chilled.  The  sinking-head  is  molded  in  dry  sand, 
that  it  mav  remain  liquid  to  feed  the  casting  as  long 
as  possibfe.  The  pattern  for  the  sinking-head  is  a 
cvlindrical  piece  of  wood,  of  proper  diameter  and 
length,  which  is  placed  within  a  long  cylindrioil 
flask,  open  at  both  ends,  and  withdrawn  after  the  .sand 
has  been  rammed  around  it.  This  flask,  or  '•pot," 
is  made,  fitted,  and  fa.stened  to  the  top  of  the  chill 
Two  patterns  are  requisite  for  the  chill  proper,  and 
one  for  the  base.  They  are  made  frt)m  the  projicr 
drawing  like  those  for  o"rdinary  sand-castings,  die  in- 
ternal dimensions  being  fixed  as  in  the  method  pre- 
viously described,  bv  the  shrinkage  of  the  alloy  and 
the  amount  left  for  "finishing.  The  walls  of  the  chiU 
mav  be  from  2A  to  3i  inches  thick.  After  the  castings 
are"  made  they  are  carefully  smoothed  or  bored  out 


fiBONZ£-ST££L. 


248 


BB0NZ£.8T££L. 


■when  practicable;  and  all  corners,  especially  in  ibe 
trunnion-molds,  likclv  to  retain  pis  or  to  catch  dross 
in  i-nstinj:  uR'  carefully  snuMithed  over  and  rounded, 

W/i,ii  ii  c<i,sliiig  M  I'/  b(  iiiiule,  the  parts  of  the  chill 
are  cleaned,  fi\slened  together,  covered  inside  with  a 
wash  of  tire-day,  molasses  and  water,  and  heated  to 
a  niwlerately  lii!:h  heal  in  an  oven.  At  casting,  the 
chill  is  brought  out  and  the  sinking-head  mold 
keye<i  to  it.  The  metal  may  be  poured  direct  into  the 
mold  or  through  a  si'panite  runner  at  the  side  opening 
into  the  chill  "at  the  bottom.  If  poured  direct,  the 
stream  falls  from  the  top  straight  downwaifl  from  a 
small  1ki,\  lined  with  .sand,  which  receives  the  metal 
from  the  ladle.  If  a  side  runner  is  used,  it  is  divided 
longitudinally:  the  halves  are  fastened  together  by 
tlauges  and  liolts.  The  base  of  the  chill  is"  fitted  to 
receive  the  runner,  which  is,  at  the  bottom,  contained 
in  a  ca.st-iron  liox  twlted  to  the  chill  and  leading  hori- 
zontally into  the  opening.  Each  half  of  the  pijie 
receives  the  sand  fortlienmner,  which  is  also  molded 
as  above  and  dried  in  an  oven.  The  side  runner  has 
the  advantage  of  keeping  the  metal  cleaner  in  the 
casting  tlirough  the  rotary  motion  imparled  by  the 
stream  flowing  into  the  mold  tangentially,  but  it  is 
apt  to  leave  the  sinking-head  too  cool,  and  hence  the 
latter  is,  in  any  case,  best  poured  direct  after  the  mold 
or  chill  has  been  filled  above  the  top  of  the  gun. 

Jil/r  ranting  it  is  most  convenient  to  place  the  chills 
or  flasks  in  a  pit,  P,  in  such  a  position  as  to  lie  easily 
reached  by  the  crane-ladle,  O,  used  for  pouring.    The 


pit  may  contain  several  chills  at  once,  and  the  crane, 
M,  commands  Ixilh  the  furnace  .nnd  the))il.  As  soon 
as  the  lircmze  is  melled  the  liidle  is  brought  beneath 
the  tapping-hole,  X,  the  metal  tapped  into  it,  and  the 
ladle  swung  around  over  the  chills.  Tin  fiiriKtff  is 
reverbcratorj-,  fired  with  soft  bilununous  coal,  and  is 
so  conslnicted  that  the  metal  as  it  mells  nms  into  a 
pool  at  the  end  furthest  from  the  lire,  thus  remoxing 
it  from  the  immediate  action  of  the  flame.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  furnace  is  made  of  fire-clay  rammed  hard. 
A  door  of  convenient  size  is  placeil  in  the  side  of  the 
furnace  for  charging,  taking  samples  of  molten  metal 
for  test,  etc.,  and  the  tapping-hole  is  usually  placed 
under  it  for  convenience  of  acress.  The  furnace  is 
charged  by  laying  the  metal  selected,  which  may  be 
either  old  guns  or  sinking-heads,  or  new  cojjper.  or 
chips  from  the  latlie,  on  iKiards  on  the  lH)ttom  of  the 
furnace,  disiributing  it  carefully  s(j  as  to  expose  all 
pieces  properly  to  the  flame,  that  they  may  come  into 


fusion  at  about  the  same  time.  The  copper  is  charged 
as  Iwught  ir  pigs,  Ijut  guns  and  heads  are  cut  up  into 
pieces  of  convenient  size.  The  tin  is  charged  in  the 
shape  of  small  ingots  recast  for  the  purpose,  alxmt  1'2 
inches  long  by  i  mch  square. 

The  roiiijkiiition  of  (he  charge  is  varied  to  suit  the 
metal  u.sed,  but  the  total  weight  must  be  sufficient  to 
cast  the  gun  and  sinking-head  an<l  leave  some  surplus. 
For  the  'Si-inch  rifle  cist  in  187(5  the  charge  was  as 
follows: 

Pounds. 

Old  guns  cut  up 2650 

New  copper  in  ingots 830 

Tin,  in  small  bars 104 

Total  351M 

The  whole  casting  weighed  3126  jiounds,  for  a  fin- 
ished weight  in  the  gun  of  1323  pounds.  The  riser 
when  cut  off  weighed  TOO  pounds,  and  there  was  a 
waste  in  the  furnace  of  1.6  per  cent.  After  the  old 
bronze  or  copper  has  been  charged,  the  furnace  is 
closed  and  fired  up  genlly  at  first  and  more  strono:ly 
as  the  metal  shiks  down  away  from  the  flame,  which 
must  always  1h>  kept  smoky,  i.e.,  of  a  reducing  char- 
acter. Wiien  the  bronze  or  copper  is  melted  the  tin 
is  added  ;  it  is  thrown  into  the  bath  at  dlffereut 
lioints  and  worked  under  the  surface  as  much  as  jios- 
sible,  as  it  floats  buoyantly  till  alloyed.  The  bath  may 
be  stirred  thoroughly  wiih  an  iron  bar,  or,  if  much 
old  metal  be  iised,  with  a  pole  of  green  wood.  After 
the  metal  is  wholly  melted  it  is  kept  in  fusion  for  some 
time — about  htdf  an  hour — in  order  that  a  thorough 
alloy  may  be  effected,  and  a  proper  temperature  be 
reached  for  casting.  The  alloy  is  examined  for  its 
cold  fracture  by  means  of  specimens  taken  out  of  the 
furnace  in  a  small  ladle.  When  the  fracture  is 
brought  to  the  proper  yeilow-red  color,  judged  by  ex- 
perience, and  the  heat  has  reached  the  proper  point, 
the  bronze  is  ready  for  casting.  For  the  gun  alwve 
quoted,  the  furnace  was  lighted  at  8  a.m.,  the 
metal  melted  at  10.25  a.m.,  and  the  casting  was  made 
at  11.30  A.M.,  or  in  3  hours  and  30  minutes  in  all. 

The  tendency  of  bronze  to  separate  into  alloys  of 
different  composition  is  so  strong  that  specimens  taken 
at  different  heights  in  the  mold  exhibit  very  different 
densities  and  strengths.  A  series  of  specimens  cast  in 
the  same  .sand-mold  with  the  gun  and  contiguous  to 
it.  but  separate  from  the  gun-casting  proper,  showed 
a  constant  decrease  of  strength  from  the  cascabel  to 
the  siuking-head,  as  follows: 


AVBRAOB. 

Bottom 
of  sink- 
ing-head. 

Side 
speci- 
men A. 

Side 
speci- 
men B. 

Side 
speci- 
men C. 

Finished 

gun  as  a 

whole. 

Densitv 

Tenacity 

8.440      '  8.597 
26  760    <   .19  S(U 

8.B60 
41,974 

8.686 
43,062 

8  649 

The  average  density  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-four 
34-pounder  bronze  howitzers,  made  for  the  Xavy  De- 
partment ill  1863  and  1864,  between  the  South  Boston 
foundry-numbers  1417  and  1693,  was  8.722,  and  aver- 
age tenacity  ■'ill. (141  pounds  per  scpiare  inch.  The 
averages  of  forlv-five  guns,  from  No.  434  to  478,  in- 
clusive, were  (lensity  8.653,  and  tenacity  33,665 
pounds  per  square  inch.  On  the  other  hand,  nine 
guns  included  in  the  first  series,  and  made  between 
foundry-numbers  15.56  ;uid  1615,  exhibited  an  average 
densitv  of  8.804.  aiul  an  average  tenacity  of  60,6l0 
IxuinJs  to  the  s(|uareinch.  See /)<"«»  Field-gun,  Ord- 
niinri',  and   I'rlmtiiiK  (hit). 

BRONZE-STEEL.— This  name  is  given  to  the  metal 
obtained  by  the  process  of  General  Von  Uchatiusof  the 
Ausiri;in  service,  anil  Lavroff  in  the  Russian  service. 
The  metal  is  obtained  bycnsling  bronze  in  a  chill- 
mold  and  forging  it  cold.  The  guns  are  made  by 
casting  on  a  core  in  a  chill  mold.  The  gun  is  then 
inclosed  in  a  steel  casing,  and  the  bore  expanded  by 


BEONZINO. 


249 


BBOWNINO. 


forcing  in  steel  mandrels  slightly  tapered,  and  grad- 
ually increasing  in  size,  by  which  tin-  diameter  of  the 
bore  is  increased  5  or  6  per  cent,  and  tlic  Imrdncss  in- 
creased. This  has  the  effect  of  ])iittnig  the  interior 
metal  in  a  state  of  compression,  and  llie  exterior  in  a 
state  of  tension,  while  the  metal  has  almost  the 
strength,  hardness,  and  elasticity  of  steel.  See  Bronze 
anil  ffUvl. 

BRONZING. — The  process  of  covering  articles  so  as 
to  conmiimicate  to  them  the  apiieanmce  of  ordinary 
bronze.  Gun-barrels  are  bronzed  by  acting  upon 
them  with  the  chloride  or  butter  of  antimony  {hronz- 
jHi/ salt),  or  with  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acids,  when 
the  surface  of  the  iron  gets  partially  eaten  into  and 
covered  with  a  thin  film  of  o.xide;  after  whieli  tlic 
gun-barrel  is  thoroughly  cleaneti,  oiled,  and  bur- 
nished. A  browni.sh  shade  is  thus  communicated  to 
the  barrel,  which  protects  it  from  rust  and  at  the 
Siime  time  renders  it  less  conspicuous  to  an  enemy. 
In  the  bronzing  operation  known  as  the  Damascus, 
the  barrel  is  treated  with  dilute  nitric  acid  and  vin- 
egar, to  which  sulphate  of  copjx-r  has  been  added. 
The  result  is  that  metallic  copper  is  deposited  ir- 
regularly over  the  iron  surface;  and  when  the  latter 
is  wa.shed,  oiled,  and  well  rubl»ed  with  a  hard  brush, 
a  very  pretty  aj)i>earance  is  commimicated  to  the 
barrel.     See  lin^iriiinii. 

BROOKE  HOOPED  GUN.— A  cast-iron  gim,  hooped 
with  wrought-iron  rings.  Although  slightly  hooped, 
the  tine  quality  of  material  insures  considerable  en- 
<lurance.  One  gim  is  stated  to  have  tired  double 
charges  without  injury.  The  T-inch  gun  (all  other 
calibers  are  similar  in  design)  is  used  with  14  pounds 
of  powder  and  an  80-pound  shell.  The  following  are 
its  particulars: 

Total  length 146.0.5  inches. 

Length  of  bore 119.90      " 

Length  of  wrought-iron  rein- 
force  ■. 30.00      " 

Length  muzzle  to  center  of 

tnnmions 80.50      " 

Length  center  of  trunnions  to 

forward  end  of  reinforce. . .     10.90      " 

Diameter  of  bore 7.00      " 

Diameter  of  muzzle 14.55      " 

Diameter  of  cylindrical  ]iart 

of  casting  under  reinforce..     S7.20      " 

Diameter  over  reinforce 31.20      " 

The  rifling  consists  of  seven  grooves  -^  inch  deep, 
veni'  slightly  rounded  at  the  corners,  with  one  turn 
in  forty  feet.  The  grooves  vanish  as  they  approach 
the  chanil)er.  The  gtm  reseml)les  Parrotf's  in  shape 
and  construction,  except  that  the  reinforcing  band  is 
made  u]!  of  rings  not  welded  together.  See  Ordimiirf. 
BROTH. — An  infusion  or  decoction  of  vegetalile 
■and  animal  substances  in  water.  It  is  customary  in 
the  army  to  use  more  or  less  meat,  generally  ox-flesh, 
with  bone,  and  certain  vegetables,  as  cabliage,  greens, 
turnips,  carrots,  jjeas,  beans,  onions,  etc.  The  whole 
are  mixed  together  in  cold  water,  heat  slowly  aii]ilied, 
and  the  materials  allowed  to  simmer  f:;r  sonx'  hours. 
The  meat  yields  up  certain  ingredients,  whilst  others 
are  retained  in  the  residual  flesh.  The  following 
will  illustrate  this :  Ox-flesh  heated  with  water 
yields  to  the  water  albuminous  matter,  gelatine,  kre- 
iifinc,  extractive  matters  or  osmazomc,  lactic  acid,  salts, 
fat,  and  saccharine  matter;  and  leaves  in  the  l)oiled 
me;it  flbrin,  coagulated  albumen,  gelatinous  tissue,  fat, 
and  nervous  matter.  The  vegetables  yicM  albumi- 
nous constituent.s,  coloring  and  mucilaginous  matter, 
and  volatile  oils  and  sjilts.  The  real  nutritive  mate- 
rial present  in  broth  is  less  than  is  generally  thought, 
though  it  aids  in  satisfying  the  cravings  of  the  ajipe- 
tite.  In  the  hospital,"  however,  the  form  of  broth 
known  as  l)eef-tca  is  of  great  imiuirtancc.  as  it  aflfords 
the  weak  and  sickly  stomach  a  light  jjalalable  article 
of  cliet  at  ;i  time  when  stronger  food  would  do  the 
weakened  system  much  harm. 

BROUGHTON  GUNS.— A  variety  of  very  excellent 
anas  bearing  this  name  have  been  mventcd  and  tested, 


— three  of  which  compare  verj'  favorably  with  the 
well-known  arm.s  of  their  respective  systenis. 

No.  1  is  a  breech-loading  nfle  having  a  tixed  cham- 
ber closed  by  a  movable  breech-block  rotating  al)out 
a  vertical  axis  at  90  degrees  to  the  axis  of  the  barrel, 
and  not  in  the  plane  of  the  a.xis  of  the  barrel  (all  to 
the  right  and  in  front).  This  piece  is  opened  by 
drawing  back  the  firing-bolt  to  cock  the  |)iece,  and 
pressing  down  on  the  thumb-piece  to  liberate  a  spring- 
catch  in  the  breech-block  from  its  notch  in  the  re- 
ceiver, and  to  allow  the  block  to  swing  outwar-l  and 
fonvard  until  nearly  parallel  to  the  barnl.  The 
guard  is  connected  with  the  receiver  by  an  underctit 
groove  in  front  and  a  .spring-catch  in  rear,  and  when 
detached  from  the  gun  carries  with  it  the  lock 
complete. 

Ko.  2  is  a  breech-loading  rifle  having  a  fixed  cham- 
ber closed  by  a  movable  breech-block  which  rotates 
about  a  horizontal  axis  at  90  degrees  to  the  axis  of 
the  barrel,  lying  alwve  the  axis  of  the  band  and  in 
front.  This  piece  is  opened  by  cocking  the  )iiece  so 
as  to  withdraw  the  nose  of  the  hannncr  from  the 
counter-bore  of  the  firing-pin  hole,  and  dien  pressing 
forward  the  latch-lever,  which  passes  through  tlie 
firing-pin,  until  the  head  of  the  ]iin  is  disengaged 
from  the  corresponding  cavity  in  the  receiver,  and 
the  breech-block  is  free  to  swing  ujiward  and  for- 
ward over  the  barrel.  The  action  does  not  differ  ma- 
terially from  that  of  the  Springfield. 

Xo.  3  is  a  breech-loading  rifle  having  a  fixed 
chamlx-r  closed  by  a  movable  breech-block  which  ro- 
tates about  a  horizontal  axis  at  90  degrees  to  the  axis 
of  the  barrel,  lying  below  the  axis  of  the  barrel  and 
in  front,  being  moved  from  Ix'low  by  a  lever.  By 
the  first  motion  of  depressing  the  lever,  which  is 
pivoted  on  the  breech-block  near  its  rearmost  comer, 
its  upper  end  prc.s.ses  back  the  locking-brace  from 
mider  the  lock.  It  thus  allows  the  block  to  swing 
downward  and  backward,  as  .soon  as  by  the  contin- 
ued motion  of  the  lever  it  strikes  the  under  surface 
of  the  block  so  as  to  cause  its  revolution  aI)out  the 
block-pin,  and  to  cx]K)se  the  chamber  for  the  insertion 
of  the  charge.  As  the  locking-brace  is  pushed  back 
it  also  lirings  the  hammer  to  the  half-cock. 

BROW-BAND.— A  band  of  a  bridle,  head -stall,  or 
halter,  which  passes  in  front  of  the  horse's  forehead, 
and  has  loops  at  its  ends,  through  which  pass  the 
check-straps, 

BROWN  BESS.— A  very  ancient  and  quite  renowned 
smooth-bore  fire-arm.  This  mn.skel  helped  to  win 
the  battles  of  Marlborough  and  old  Fritz,  of  Welling- 
ton and  Xppoleon,  and  figures  largely  in  militarj" 
history. 

BROWN  BILL. — The  ancient  weapon  of  the  Eng- 
lish loiit-sohliers,  resembling  a  battle-axe. 

BROWN  COAL. — A  mineral  substance  of  vegetable 
origin,  like  common  coal,  l)ut  differing  from  it  in  its 
more  distinctly  fibrous  or  woody  fonnation,  which 
is  sometimes  .so  perfect  that  the  original  structure  of 
the  wood  can  be  discerned  by  the  microscoiH',  while 
its  external  fonn  is  also  not  unfreciuently  preserved. 
In  this  state  it  is  often  called  iriuHl-nntl ;  and  it  some- 
times occurs  so  little  mineralized  that  it  may  be  u.sed 
for  the  purposes  of  wood,  as  at  Vitry,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Seine,  where  the  wood-work  of  a  house  has  ln'cn 
made  of  it.  From  this  to  the  most  ix'rfcctly  miner- 
alized state  it  occvirs  in  all  different  stages.  It  is 
often  brown  or  brownish  black,  more  rarely  gray.  It 
bums  without  swelling  or  nnmiiig,  witli  a  weaker 
flame  than  coal  ;  emits  in  burning  a  smell  like  that 
of  peat,  and  leaves  an  ash  more  resembling  that  of 
wood  than  of  coal.  Wherever  it  occurs  in  sullicient 
abundance  it  is  used  for  fuel,  although  verj-  inferior 
to  common  coal.  Borey  coal,  so  called  from  Bovcv 
Tracey,  in  Devonshire,  where  extensive  ix'ds  of  it 
occur,"  and  where  it  has  long  Ix-cn  wrought,  is  brown 
coal,  and  often  exhibits  the  woody  stmclure  vei-y 
beautifully.     See  Coal. 

BROWNING.— Browning  is  the  coating  given  to  a 
gun  to  protect  it  from  the'action  of  the  atmosphere, 


BBOWN  FIOMENTS. 


250 


BBOWN  SIGHT. 


and  to  prevent  the  surface  from  reflecting  the  sun- 
light. The  process  of  browning  small-arms  consists 
in  forming  a  coat  of  rust,  with  a  mixture  of  such 
inaterials  as  tipirits  of  iriiu;  blue  vitriol,  tiiifttire  of 
»ted,  nitric  acid,  etc.,  on  tlie  clean  surface  of  the  biir- 
rel,  and  then  rubbing  it  well  with  a  »teH  ncnitc/i-c/ird 
until  it  has  a  metallic  luster.  This  operation  is 
repeated  about  a  dozen  times,  until  the  coating  has  a 
deep  brown  color.  The  barril  is  then  washed  with 
boiling  water,  to  disst)lve  away  any  of  the  corroding 
mixture  that  may  remain,  imd,  when  cold,  is  covered 
with  spenn-oil.  AVhen  the  browning  has  l«?en  worn 
away  in  places,  it  may  be  entirely  removed — fii-st  by 
boiling  in  lime-water,  to  remove  the  varnish  or 
grease,  and  then  soaking  in  vineg-ar,  which  loosens 
the  browning  so  that  it  can  be  wiped  away  with 
a  rag. 
The  following  method,  embodj'ing  seven  operations. 


Fig.  1. 

is  used  for  browning  small-arms  at  the  National 
Armorj': 

First  Operation.— The  first  operation  with  the  barrel 
is  to  oil  the  bore  wdth  pure  sperm,  and  plug  each  end 
to  prevent  the  entrance  of  cither  lime-icaUr,  boiling 
water,  or  the  browning  mixture. 

Secvnd  Operation.— V\&ce  a  number  of  the  barrels  in 
a  tank  of  boiling  ^Hf-watcr,  and  allow  them  to 
remain  thirty  minutes,  until  all  grea.se  is  removed. 
After  this  brush  off  the  lime  with  a  clean  brush,  and 
avoid  touching  the  barrels  with  the  hand. 

Third  Operation. — Apply  evenly  with  a  clean  fine 


Fio.  2. 

sponge  a  coating  of  the  browning  mixture";  the  bar- 
rels are  then  placed  on  a  rolling  or  movable  frame 
(Fig.  1).  The  frame  is  then  rolled  into  the  steam-case, 
having  received  its  complement  of  liarrels. 

Fourth  Operation. — Kusting  the  barrels  is  accom- 
plished in  six  or  seven  hours  in  the  steam-case,  at  a 
temperature  of  85'  and  humidity  of  70  ]jer  cent, 
determined  by  the  thermometer  and  psychrometcr.' 
By  reducing  the  supply  of  steam  the 'barrels  can 
remain  for  a  greater  length  of  time  (overnight). 

Fifth  Operation.— \\vma\e  the  barrels  from  the 
steam-case  and  iMace  them  in  the  hot-water  tank 
(water  heated   by  coils  of  steam-pipe),  where  they 


remain  iea  fifteen  minutes,  when  all  trace  of  acid  dis- 

apiK-ars. 

Sijcth  Operation. — An  expert  operative  then  passes 
the  barrel  obliquely  acro.ss  the  surface  of  a  revolving 
brus/i-icheel,  thereby  removing  all  loose  particles  of 
oxide  (Fig.  2).  This  wheel  is  about  twelve  inches  in 
diameter  ancl  four  or  live  inches  thick,  set  on  peri- 
phery with  Russia  bristles,  and  has  about  eight  or 
nine  hundred  revolutions  per  minute. 

S-'fenth  Operation. — The  operative,  after  brushing 
the  barrel  (which  is  accomplished  in  a  few  mo- 
ments), in  like  manner  holds  it  obliquely  across  the 
face  or  surface  of  the  card-wheel  (the  teeth  of  which 
are  Ix'nt  backward)  until  the  surface  of  tlie  ban-el  is 
carded  or  bvimished  evenly.   The  card-wheel  (Fig.  2)^ 


FiQ.  3. 

revolving  at  the  same  rate  as  the  brush-wheel,  accom- 
plishes its  work  in  a  few  moments.  After  the  seventh 
operation  the  barrels  are  ready  to  receive  the  second 
coat  of  browTiing,  when  the  seven  operations  before 
enumerated  are  repeated.  In  like  manner  the  third 
and  fuurth  applications  of  the  mixture  are  followed 
by  the  several  steps  before  noted. 

The  browning  of  bayonets,  bayonet-scabbards,  bay- 
onet-clasps, and  ramrods  is  accomplished  in  the  same 
general  manner  as  for  barrels  (Fig.  3).  For  con- 
venience a  steel  spring  handle  is  used  to  hold  the 
rammer.  After  the  varioas  parts  are  browned  they 
are  well  coated  with  cosmoline  or  olive-oil. 

To  Broirn  a  G-un. — Scrape  clean  ;  scnib  with  fresh 
water,  .sand,  and  canvas ;  allow  to  dry  ;  wipe  off  ; 
apply  a  strong  solution  of  salt  and  vinegar  three  or 
four  times  a  day  for  two  days,  or  until  a  good  coat  of 
rust  is  formed  ;  allow  to  dry,  then  rub  lightly  with 
old  canvas  ;  apply  a  thin  coat  of  the  following  mix- 
ture, rubbing  it  in  well  :  4  lbs.  beeswax,  melted  and 
strained  ;  .50  oz.  pure  vilrol  (white),  or  1  oz.  pul- 
verized alum  ;  1  gallon  spirits  of  turiientinc.  Allow 
to  dry  until  next  day  ;  then  put  on  another  thin  coat, 
and  when  dry  rub  with  a  clean  cotton  cloth.  In  case 
of  a  (lull  apjK'arance,  by  reason  of  ha\ing  been  han- 
dled, rub  over  with  a  cotton  cloth  and  siiirits  of  tur- 
poiitiiu'.  and  then  with  a  drv  cloth.     See  Bronzing. 

BROWN  PIGMENTS.— Substances  in  which  the 
thiee  ])i'iniaiy  colors  unite  in  luiecjual  proportions, 
red  being  in  excess.  Brown  pigments  are  chiefly 
mineral,  and  are  u.sed  in  the  laboratory,  sometimes  in 
a  raw  but  usually  in  a  burned  state.  The  most  im- 
portant are  bister,  asplialtuni,  umber,  terra  di  sienna, 
.Mars  l)r(iwn,  C'assel  earth,  and  brown  madder. 

BROWN  SIGHT.— A  valuable  iinprovenKiit  in  the 
rear-sight  on  the  U.  S.  service  rille  lias  been  recently 
proposed  by  Lieutenant  W.  ('.  Brown,  V.  S.  Army. 
The  rear  edge  of  the  buckhorn  plate  is  t)eveled  nearly 
or  quite  to  a  .sharp  edge,  and  the  graduation  for  wind- 
allowance  being  brought  down  to  this  edge,  the 
p{)inls  and  fractions  thereof  are  easily  read  against 
the  outer  edge  of  the  leaf.  To  further  facilitate  the 
reading  of  fractious  of  a  point,  a  straight  line  has- 


BEUCE  STOP. 


251 


BUCCANEEBS. 


been  drawn  on  each  branch  of  the  leaf,  and  at  such  a 
distance  therefrom  us  to  coincide  with  the  outer 
division  when  the  wind-gauge  is  at  zero.  See  Point- 
iiKj  and  8i(/lit. 

BKUCESTOP.— A  stop  intended  to  .sustain  the 
Springlield  breech- block  in  the  position  of  loading, 
when  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  is  elevated,  or  the  piece 
is  much  shaken,  as  on  horseback  at  a  trot.  It  con- 
sists of  a  spring  and  spindle  like  those  ased  for  the 
ejector,  and  lying  in  a  counterbore  on  the  oppasile 
side  of  the  receiver.  When  the  block  is  open,  the 
point  of  the  spintUc  lies  within  a  shallow  cavity  in 
the  front  surface  of  the  hinge  on  the  breech-block, 
and  is  pressed  against  it  by  the  spring  with  sufficient 
force  to  hold  it  up,  and  yet  to  permit  the  pressure  of 
the  hand  jiroperly  a]iplied  to  easily  close  the  piece. 

BRUGEEE  POWDEK.— An  explosive  compound  of 
ammonium  picrate  and  niter.  It  has  been  experi- 
mented with  for  use  in  shell  in  Enjrland,  as  it  acts 
when  strongly  confincil  more  violently  than  gim- 
powder.     See  Exphmce  Agents  and  Pirrates. 

BBUNEL  TARGET.— A  canvas  target  used  by  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  Rifle  Association  at  Ottawa. 
The  framework  of  the  target  is  made  of  iron,  about 
one  inch  thick,  and  sharpened  like  a  V  in  front.  The 
target  moves  up  and  down  along  two  iron  guide-rods, 
having  a  counterbalancing  weight  attached.  When  the 
target  is  hit,  the  marker  (sheltered  by  a  parapet  and 
trench)  draws  it  down  the  guide-roils,  until  it  stands 
before  him.  He  then  hangs  in  the  bullet-hole  a  card- 
board disk  (provided  with  a  wire  hook),  painted  to 
indicate  its  value,  lifts  the  handles,  and  raises  the 
target  to  view  again.  The  marker  repeats  this  opera- 
tion at  each  hit,  taking  the  disk  out  of  the  former 
hole,  patching  that  hole  up,  and  hanging  the  disk  in 
the  new  hole.  These  disks  may  be  shot  through  and 
through  several  times,  and  wlicn  worn  out  may  be 
cheaply  replaced.     See  Tarr/et. 

BBUNIA. — A  coat  of  mail  worn  by  the  early  Franks. 
It  was  a  short  and  tight  species  of  paleM,  more  or  less 
closely  covered  with  small  pieces  of  metal  sewn  upon 
the  fabric  of  which  the  piece  of  armor  was  com- 
posed. 

BRUNSWICK  BLACK.— A  varnish  employed  for 
coating  over  coarsely  finished  iron-work.  It  is  main- 
ly compounded  of  lamp-black  and  turpentine,  and 
when  applied  with  a  brush  quickly  dries,  and  leaves 
a  shining  jet-l>lack  surface. 

BRUNSWICK  GREEN.- A  pigment  used  in  the 
laboratory,  and  consisting  of  the  liydrated  chloride 
and  o.xide  of  copper  (CuCl,3CuO,4HO).  It  may  be 
prepared  (1)  by  acting  upon  metallic  copper  with 
common  salt  and  diluted  .sulphuric  acid;  (3)  by  act-  ; 
ing  upon  metallic  copper  with  moistened  sal-am- 
moniac; or  (3)  by  mixing  sulphate  of  copper  and 
common  salt  into  a  paste  with  water.  It  is  found 
native  at  Atacama,  in  Peru,  in  the  fonn  of  a  green 
sand,  hence  the  name  Alacamite. 

BRUNSWICK  RIFLE.— This  rifle,  with  back-action 
book-lock,  was  intnidueed  into  the  English  army  in 
the  reign  of  William  IV.  Its  weight  v.ith  sword- 
bayonet  and  scabt)ard  was  11  pounds  'li  oiuices; 
weight  of  barrel,  3  pounds  14  ounces;  length  of 
barrel,  3^  feet;  number  of  grooves,  2,  making  one 
turn  in  the  length  of  the  barrel;  weight  of  Inillet 
(which  was  spherical  and  belted),  5.")"  grains;  diame- 
ter, .696  inch;  charge  of  powder,  2i  drams.  This 
rifle,  from  the  ball  ha\ing  a  belt  round  it  with  a 
patch  to  prevent  it.s  "stripping,"  was  foimd  an  in-  ; 
convenient  weapon,  in  consequence  of  the  delay  ex-  i 
perienced  in  placing  the  belted  ball  jiroperly  in  the  | 
grooves,  without  which  loading  was  impos.sible. 
The  rifle  soon  fouled,  and  its  shooting  beyond  400 
yards  was  wild. 

BRUNT.— The  troops  who  sustain  the  principal 
shock  of  the  enemy  in  action  are  said  to  bear  the 
brunt  of  the  battle.  i 

BRUSHWOOD.— Rough,  low,  close  thickets;  under 
wood,  branches  of  trees  cut  off.  The  use  it  is  put  to 
is  in  making  gabions,  fascines,  and  pickets.    Brush- 


wood for  the  above  purposes  should  not  exceed  IJ 
to  2  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt  or  thick  end. 
Brushwood  is  cut  and  tied  up  in  bundles,  weighing 
from  40  to  .50  lbs.  each. 

BUCCANEERS.— A  celebrated  association  of  piratical 
adventurers,  who,  from  the  commencement  of  the  sec- 
ond quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth,  maintained  themselves  in  the  C'aribt)ean 
Seas,  at  tirst  by  systematic  reprisals  on  the  Spaniards, 
latterly  by  less  justifiable  and  indiscriminate  piracy. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Carilibee  bmimii,  a 
term  for  preserved  meat,  smoke-dried  in  a  peculiar 
manner.  From  this  the  French  adventurers  formed 
the  verb  houcaner  and  the  noun  hiniainier,  which  was 
adopted  by  the  English;  while,  singularly  enough, 
the  French  used,  in  preference,  the  word  flibvuHer, 
a  corruption  of  our  "freelwoler."  The  Buccaneers 
were  also  sometimes  called  "  Brethren  of  the  Coast." 
The  aiTogant  assumption  by  the  Spaniards  of  a  di 
vine  right— sanctioned  by  the  Pope's  Bidl— to  the 
whole  New  World  was  not,  of  course,  to  be  tolerated 
by  the  enterprising  mariners  of  England  and  France; 
and  the  enormous  cruelties  practiced  by  them  upon 
all  foreign  interlopers,  of  which  the  liistorj'  of  that 
time  is  full,  naturally  led  to  an  association  for  mutual 
defense  among  the  adventurers  of  all  other  nations, 
but  particularly  among  the  English  and  French.  The 
fundamental  principles  of  their  policy — for  they,  in 
course  of  time,  formed  distinct  communities — were 
close  mutual  alliance,  and  mortal  war  with  all  that 
was  Spanish.  Their  simple  code  of  laws  bound  them 
to  a  common  participation  in  the  necessaries  of  life; 
locks  and  bars  were  proscribed  as  an  insult  to  the 
general  honor;  and  every  man  had  his  comrade,  who 
stood  by  him  when  alive,  and  succeeded  to  his  pro- 
perty after  his  death.  The  principal  center  of  their 
wild  and  predatory  life  was  for  some  time  the  Island 
of  Tortuga,  near  St.  Domingo.  When  they  were  not 
hunting  Spaniards,  or  being  hunted  themselves,  their 
chief  occupation  and  means  of  subsistence  was  the 
chase.  From  the  flesh  of  wild  cattle  they  made  their 
"boucan";  their  skins  and  tallow  they  sold  or  bar- 
tered to  Dutch  and  other  traders.  The  histoiT  of 
these  men  embraces,  as  may  be  supposed,  narratives 
of  cruelty  and  bloodshed  unsurpassed  in  the  annals  of 
crime.  It  has,  however,  not  a  few  stories  of  high 
and  romantic  ad\'enture,  of  chivalrous  valor,  and 
brilliant  generalship.  Among  the  "  Great  Captains" 
whose  names  figure  most  prominently  in  the  records 
of  buccaneering,  were  the  Frenchman  ^lontbars,  sur- 
named  by  the  terrible  title  of  "The  Exterminator"; 
and  his  countrymen,  Peter  of  Dieppe,  .surnamed  "  The 
Great" — as  truly,  perhaps,  as  others  so  distinguished 
— and  L'Olonnas,  Michael  de  Busco,  and  Bartolo- 
meo  de  Portuguez,  Mansvelt,  and  Van  Horn.  Pre- 
eminent, however,  among  them  all  was  the  Welsh- 
man, Henrj'  Morgan,  wlio  organized  fleets  and 
armies,  took  strong  fortresses  and  rich  cities,  and  dis- 
played throughout  the  bold  genius  of  a  born  Com- 
mander. He  it  was  that  led  the  way  for  the  Bncca- 
ucei's  to  the  Southern  Ocean,  by  his  daring  march  in 
1670  across  the  Lsthnuis  of  Panama  to  the  city  of  that 
name,  which  he  took  and  phmdcred  after  a  desperate 
battle.  This  brilliant  but  most  unsenipulous  person- 
age was  knighted  by  Charles  II.,  and  became  Deputy 
Governor  of  Jamaica.  A  higher  subordination  of 
the  love  of  gohl  to  the  passion  for  di.minlon  In  him 
might  probably  have  made  him  Emperor  of  the  West 
Indies,  some  dream  of  which  seems  at  one  time  to 
have  occupied  his  mind.  In  1680  and  1681)  extensive 
buccaneering  expeditions  were  made  to  the  Pacific, 
even  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  China,  of  which  the  best 
record  is  prescried  In  the  lively  pages  of  AVilliam 
Dumpier,  him.Hlf  an  imiX)rtant  partner  in  these  Ixild 
adventures.  The  war  lietween  France  and  Britain, 
after  the  accession  of  William  III.,  dissolved  the  an- 
cient alliance  of  the  French  and  English  Buccaneers. 
After  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  and  the  acces.sion  of  the 
Bourbon  Philip  V.  to  the  Spanish  crown  (1701),  they 
finally  disappeared,  to  make  way  for  a  race  of  mere 


SUCCELLABBII. 


252 


BUFFINGTON  MAOAZINE-OUK. 


cut-thronts  luul  ^•ulga^  (li'spcradoes,  not  yd  utterly  ex- 
tinct. Tlic  hist  great  eveut  in  tlieir  history  was  the 
capture  of  Carthageuu  in  1697,  where  the  booty  was 
enormous. 

BUCCELLAHII. — An  order  of  soldiery  wider  the 
GriU  Kinperors,  ap|H)inled  to  u:uard  and  dislriliutc 
the  anuiiunili(in-l)read,  thouirh  authors  are  somewhat 
divided  as  to  their  otliee  and  quality. 

BUCEPHALUS. — The  favorite  eharcerof  Alexander 
the  Great;  probahly  also  the  n  imeof  a  peculiar  breed 
of  horst'S  in  Thessiily.  Accoidinj;  to  tradition.  Alex- 
ander in  his  Ixiyhood  wsis  the  first  to  break  in  the 
steed  Bucephalus,  and  thus  fultilled  the  condition 
stated  by  an  oracle  as  neees.sary  for  irainiiijj:  the  crown 
of  JIacedon.  The  town  Bucephalia.  on  the  river 
Hydaspes.  in  India,  was  founded  neiir  the  grave  of 
Biicephalus,  which  died  during  Alexander's  Indian 
Expedition. 

BUCK-AND-BALL  CARTRIDGE.— A  small-arm  car- 
tridge containinija  rimml  niusUet-l>alland  three  buck- 
shot, formerly  much  used  in  smooth-ljore  muskets, 

BUCKLE.— A  metal  instrument,  consisting  of  a  rim 
and  tongue,  \ised  tor  fastening  straps  or  bauds  iu 
equipments  and  harness.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
last  centurj'  the  maiuifacture  of  buckles  was  carried 
on  most  extensively  in  Birmingham,  there  being  at 
one  time  not  less  than  401)0  people  employed  iu  that 
town  and  its  \icinity,  who  turned  out  2,5l)0,0(K)  pairs 
of  buckles  annualh",  at  the  average  value  of  2s.  6d. 
per  pair. 

BUCKLE  PROJECTILE.— In  this  projectile,  a  cup  of 
lead  at  the  base  of  the  shot  is  held  iu  place  by  a  thin 
brass  sleeve  which  is  forced  into  the  grooves  of  the 
gun. 

BUCKLER. — In  old  armor,  a  kind  of  shield  worn  on 
the  lift  ann.  The  bucklers  worn  by  the  liaMati.  or 
spearmen,  among  the  ancient  Romans,  were  about  4 
feet  long  by  3t  in  width,  made  of  boards,  covered 
on  the  inside  with  linen  and  sheepskin,  and  on  the 
outside  with  iron  ])late.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
buckler  was  round,  oval,  or  square  in  shape,  and  was 
frequently  made  of  wicker-work  or  of  hide,  strength- 
ened by  metal  plates. 

BUCKSHOT.— A  kind  of  leaden  shot,  larger  than 
swun-shol,  now  used  in  hunting  game,  but  formerly 
used  in  military  service.  Those  employed  for  making 
musket-cartridges  weighed  about  160  or  170  to  the 
pound:  15  (sometimes  12),  or  a  caliber  .69  ball  and 
3  buckshot,  were  put  in  a  cartridge.  Buckshot  are 
Usually  made  by  molding  or  compression. 

BUCKSHOT -CARTRIDGE.  — A  cartridge  usually 
containing  12  liuckshot,  arranged  in  four  layers. 
The  layers  are  kept  in  proper  position  by  passing 
one  half-hitch  of  the  choking-thrcad  between  every 
two  layers;  the  thread  is  lirml)-  secured  by  jjassing 
two  half-hitches  around  the  upper  layer.  For  rifle- 
arms,  the  shot-end  of  the  cartridge  should  be  dipped 
in  the  composition  commonly  used  for  lubiicating 
bullets;  with  this  precaution  all  leading  of  the 
grooves  will  be  avoided.  In  the  United  States  buck- 
shot-cartridges are  principally  used  in  Indian  war- 
fare, and  especially  in  night-tiring.  Until  very  re- 
cently, they  were  nnich  used  in  military  service,"  and 
were  adapted  to  a  variety  of  arms. 

In  England  this  cartridge  is  \ised  with  the  Snider 
arms  of  .577  bore.  The  cartridge  for  the  muzzle- 
loader  consists  of  two  jiaper  cylinders,  one  containing 
21  drams  of  K.  F.  G.  powder,  the  other  containing 
12  l)ucksliot,  weighing  about  220  to  the  i>ouMd,  Buck- 
shot-cartridires  for  the  breech-loaders  are  similar,  and 
are  issued  to  convict-warders,  ^kk  Multibdll  Cartrnlr/e 
and  Wii'jlit  Mnltibiill  Citrtridge. 

BUCKSKIN. — A  fanciful  name  for  a  heavy-made, 
strong-twilled  woolen  fabric  for  military  trouserings, 
highly  milled  to  about  the  usual  wiilth  for  siich 
goods — 27  inches;  and  cropped  and  finished,  with  the 
pile  or  nap  so  shorn  as  to  show  llie  texfure  through  it 

BUDGE  BARREL.— A  small  copper-bo\md  l)anel 
Inning  only  one  head,  its  mouth  iK-iiig  closed  by  a 
leathern  bag  with  a  cap  and  draw-string.     It  is  used 


for  supplying  the  guns  of  forts  and  siege-batteries 
with  cartridges  from  the  magazine. 

BUFF. — The  leather  of  which  belts  and  certain 
equipments  are  usually  made.  The  following  is  the 
prcx'csw  i)ursued  iu  its  i)reparation: 

Buff  or  "  losh  "  leather  is  maimfactured  chiefly 
from  the  hide  of  the  buffalo.  The  process  of  soften- 
ing, removing  the  hair,  cleansing,  etc.,  is  precisely 
the  same  as  that  for  common  leather  (ride  Leather), 
until  the  "  pelt"  is  ready  for  tanning,  when  it  has  to 
be  prepared  for  a  process  of  oiling.  This  is  done  by 
carefully  removing  or  forcing  off  the  upper  gndn  of 
the  hide,  wiiich  renders  both  sides  of  it  as  nearly 
alike  as  possible.  The  hides  are  then  subjected  to 
the  process  of  "  brtmning,"  that  is,  being  steeped  in 
fermented  bran  from  four  to  twelve  hours,  according 
to  the  atmosphere.  They  are  then  wrung  out  or 
scraped  over,  and  subjected  to  the  pulling  mill  or 
stocks  for  two  or  three  hours;  afterwards  they  are 
spread  out  and  oiled.  Cod-oil  is  the  best  for  this 
purpose.  The  oiling  is  repeated  during  the  first 
three  or  four  da\s  until  each  hide  has  absorbed 
J  of  a  gallon.  For  the  following  three  weeks  the 
hides  are  subjectetl  to  alternate  soaking  and  drying, 
in  which  greatcareand  attention  are  required,  'fhey 
arc  then  exposed  to  a  heating  i)roce.ss,  in  hot-houses 
prepared  expressly  for  the  purpose,  for  two  or  three 
days,  the  heat  not  exceeding  lisO'  Pidirenheit.  Hav- 
ing arrived  at  this  stage,  the  oil  has  now  to  be  ex- 
tracted, which  is  effected  by  a  solution  of  potassa,  in 
mills  constructed  for  this  ]>ur])ose.  The  buff  is  next 
carefully  cleaned  from  all  alkaline  matter  by  fre- 
quent washings,  and  each  hide  hung  uji  sei)arately  to 
dry.  The  facing  or  surface  is  completed  by  rubbing 
both  sides  with  pumice-stone,  and  the  buff  is  then  in 
a  lit  state  to  be  cut  up  into  accouterments. 

BUFFALO. — An  animal  of  the  ox  tribe,  very  use- 
ful as  a  pack-animal.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East  In- 
dies, where  it  has  long  been  domesticated,  and  whence 
it  was  carried  to  Egypt  and  the  south  of  Europe.  It 
was  jntrotluccd  into  Italy  al)0ut  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century,  and  is  now  very  generally  used  as  a  beast  of 
burden  in  that  country,  as  it  is  also  iu  India.  It  is 
used  in  India  to  a  very  great  extent  by  the  military  in 
field  operations.     See  Patk-nnimdls. 

BUFF  COAT. — A  close  military  outer  garment,  with 
short  sleeves,  and  laced  tightly  over  the  chest,  made 
of  buffalo-skin,  or  other  thick  and  elastic  material, 
worn  by  soldiers  in  the  seventeenth  century  as  a  de- 
fensive covering. 

BUFFER. — A  contrivance,  as  applied  in  the  service 
of  artillery,  for  checking  the  recoil  of  hea\-y  guns. 
The  hydraulic  buffer  consists  of  a  wrought-iron  cylin- 
der, clo.sed  at  one  end,  the  other  end  fitted  with  a  cap 
and  stuffing-box,  through  which  a  piston-rod-passes. 
The  piston  fits  well  into  the  cylinder,  and  is  per- 
forated with  four  small  holes,  the  size  of  \vhich 
varies  with  the  size  of  the  gun.  The  cylinder  is  tilled 
with  l{jingoon  oil  or  with  ^yatcr,  enough  air-space 
being  left  to  act  as  an  elastic  buffer,  winch  takes  off 
the  ^iolence  of  the  first  impact  of  the  ])iston  on  the 
oil.  The  cylinder  is  firmly  attached  to  the  platform 
on  which  the  carriage  recoils,  and  the  end  of  the  pis- 
ton-rod to  the  caiTiage  itself;  so  that  on  the  discharge 
of  the  gun,  the  carriage  drives  the  piston  through  the 
oil  or  water  with  great  velocity,  gradually  bringing 
the  gun  and  carriage  to  rest  in  the  required  distance. 
See  Hiniir  and  Piiriima/ir  Buffer. 

BUFFING  AND  POLISHING  MACHINE.  — One 
having  a  wheel  covered  wilb  InitT-lciithcr,  though  not 
usually  made  out  of  cow-bide.  The  leather  holds 
the  polishing  material,  crocus,  rouge,  or  w  hat  not. 
Bufling  has  come  to  mean  polishing,  from  the  de- 
rived name  of  the  material  which  is  used  in  applying 
the  ])0lis!iinLr  material. 

BUFFINGTON  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gtin  be- 
louirs  to  that  system  in  which  a  fixed  chamber  is 
closed  liy  a  movable  breech-block,  sliding  and  rotat- 
inir,  and  oiienited  by  a  lever  from  below.  The  re- 
ceiver, to  \vhich  the  barrel  is  attached  iu  the  usual 


BUFF  JEEKIN. 


253 


BUILT-UP  GUNS. 


■way,  has  a  vertical  slot  entirely  through  it  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  breech-block,  and  two  grooves,  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  on  the  inner  surface  of  each 
side.  In  these  grooves  the  flattened  ends  of  pivots 
passing  through  the  breech-block  slide.  The  various 
points  of  the  breech-block,  not  in  the  a.\es  of  the 
pivots,  thus  describe  arcs  of  ellipses  when  the  block 
IS  opened  or  closed.  The  block  is  hollowed  out  to 
receive  the  hammer,  mainspring,  etc.  The  hammer 
is  slotted  to  receive  one  branch  of  the  mainspring 
which  abuts  against  a  pin.  The  other  branch  bears 
against  a  similar  pin  through  the  breech-block.  The 
piece  is  locked  by  lugs  projecting  from  pieces  screw- 
ed to  the  sides  of  the  receiver,  i)artly  across  its  top 
and  entering  grooves  on  the  hammer.  The  tiring-pin 
is  retracted,  when  the  block  is  unlocked  or  the  ham- 
mer cocked,  by  a  slot  which  receives  the  head  of  the 
pin.  The  extractor  is  a  bent  spring  hook  secured  at 
it.s  rear  to  the  breech-block  by  a  jjin  and  supporte<l 
at  its  front  by  a  pivot.  In  order  to  open  the  Ijlock,  it 
is  necessary  to  draw  back  the  hanuner  to  a  point  a  j 
Httle  beyond  the  full  cock,  and  then  control  the 
motion  by  a  lever.  Should  the  hammer  Ix;  let  down 
while  the  block  is  open,  it  is  cocked  in  the  act  of 
closing  by  the  edges  of  a  surface  striking  on  projec- 
tions on  the  inner  rear  surface  of  the  recei  ver.  The 
magazine  is  in  the  tip-stock.  It  is  provitled  with  two 
cartridge  stop-springs.  The  carrier  is  made  of  sheet  , 
steel  brought  to  a  spring  temper,  and  is  secured  to 
the  breech-block  by  a  pivot.  When  the  breech- 
block Is  closed  the  carrier-block  descends,  its  spring 
keeping  it  in  contact  with  the  breech-l)lock,  bears 
down  on  a  stop  spring,  and  slides  under  the  end  of 
the  magazine-tube.  As  it  pa.s.sea  under  the  tulx;  in- 
clined planes  raise  the  ends  of  a  cros,s-piece  riveted  to 
the  stop-spring,  when  a  cartridge  is  forced  by  the 
magazine-spring  into  the  carrier.  A  cut-off  enables 
the  piece  to  be  used  as  a  single-loader.  As  a  maga- 
zine-gim,  three  motions  are  necessarj-  to  operate,  viz., 
opened,  closed,  fired.  As  a  single-loader,  four 
motions  are  necessjirj',  ^iz.,  opened,  loaded,  closed, 
fired.  This  gun  carries  .six  cartridges  in  the  maga- 
zine and  one  in  the  chamber.      See  Magazine-gun. 

BUFF  JESKIN.— Originally  a  leathern  waistcoat; 
afterwards  one  of  a  buff  color,  worn  as  an  article  of 
dress  by  Sergeants  and  Catchpoles;  used  also  as  a 
dress. 

BUFFLETIN.— A  stout  covering  for  the  hotly,  hav- 
ing a  very  high  stock.  It  took  the  place  of  the  cui- 
rass in  (Germany  and  in  France  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War. 

BUFF-STICK.— A  wooden  stick  covered  with  buff- 
leather,  used  by  soldiers  in  cleaning  their  equip- 
ments. 

BUGLE— BUGLE-HOEN.— A  very  old  Saxon  horn, 
now  used  by  numy  infantry  regiments.  By  its 
soundings  their  maneuvers  are  directed,  either  in 
advancing,  skirmishing,  or  retreating.  The  calls  to 
quarters  and  academic  duties,  at  the  United  Stiitcs 
Military  Academj',  have  for  many  years  been  soimd- 
etl  on  the  bugle. 

BUOLEB. — One  who  plays  the  bugle.  In  the 
United  States  ser\ice  the  buglers  are  enlisted  men, 
in  the  Drum  Corjis  or  attached  to  Companies. 

BUILT-UP  GUNS.— No  modern  theory  of  construct- 
ing guns  can  be  called  new,  since  guns  are  in  exist- 
ence that  have  been  either  recovered  from  wrecks,  or 
preserved  in  other  ways,  showing  every  variety  of 
coils,  hoops,  casting,  wire-binding,  and  so  on,  as  far 
as  the  appliances  then  in  iLse  could  furnish  the  quon- 
dam inventors  with  means  of  carrjing  their  inven- 
tions into  effect.  That  in  which  novelty  has  iK-en  at- 
tjtined  is  the  improvement  of  proces.se«  by  which 
large  castings  or  forgings,  accurate  turning  and  iMir- 
ing,  can  be  secured,  or  by  which  chemical  knowledge 
can  l)e  brought  to  bear  on  the  manipulation  of 
metals;  but  no  such  progress  can  make  a  built-up 

fun,  or  machine  of  any  .sort,  .stronger  than  a  perfectly 
omogeneous  one,  in  which  the  varjing  strains  are 
closely  calculated  and  properly  met  "by  the  scientific 


disposition  of  the  necessary  stiren^.  The  terms 
"  built-up"  and  "hooped  "are  applied  to  those  can- 
non in  which  the  principal  parts  are  formed  sepa- 
rately and  then  united  in  a  peculiar  manner.  They 
are  not  necessarily  composed  of  more  than  one  kinil 
of  metal ;  some  of  the  most  important  are  made  of 
steel  alone;  and  they  may  be  made  by  welding  or  by 
screwing  the  parts  together,  and  by  shrinking  or 
forcing  one  part  over  another.  The  object  of  this 
method  of  manufaetiu-e  is  to  correct  the  defects  of 
one  material  by  uniting  with  it  opposite  qualities  of 
the  same  or  other  materials.  Tlie  defects  which 
follow  the  working  of  large  ma.s.ses  of  iron  or  steel, 
such  as  crystalline  structure,  false  welds,  cracks,  etc., 
are  avoided  by  first  forming  the  parts  in  small  ma.s.scs 
of  good  quality  and  then  uniting  them  sepanitely. 

In  considering  the  effect  upon  a  yielding  material 
of  any  force  which  may  Ix;  ajiplied,  the  rate  of  ajv 
plication  of  the  force,  or  the  time  which  elapses  from 
the  instant  when  the  force  begins  to  act  until  it  at- 
tains its  maximum,  should  not  be  neglected;  for, 
with  equal  ultimate  pressures  per  square  inch  of  sur- 
face, Uiat  force  will  be  most  severe  upon  the  gun 
which  attains  this  pressure  in  the  shortest  period  of 
time.  The  most  obvious  metho<l  of  enabling  a  gun 
to  sustain  a  greater  elastic  pres.sure  is  simply  to 
thicken  its  sides,  thus  increasing  the  area  of  the  parts 
to  be  torn  asunder.  ThLs  rule  has  been  found  to 
work  practically  with  guns  of  small  calitxr;  but  in 
larger  gtms  it  does  not  work,  from  the  fact  that,  in 
cast  guns,  of  whatever  metal,  the  outside  helps  but 
very  little  in  restraining  the  explosive  force  of  the  pow- 
der, the  strain  not  being  communicated  to  it  by  the 
intervening  metal.  The  consequence  is  that,  in  large 
guns,  the  inside  is  split  while  the  outside  is  scarcely 
straine<i.  This  split  rapidly  increases,  and  the  gim 
ultimately  bursts. 

If  we  take  any  transverse  section  of  a  gun,  any 
unit  in  length,  and  suppose  the  metal  to  be  divided 
into  any  numljer  of  concentric  rings,  it  will  be  evident 
that  the  greater  the  distance  of  any  ring  from  the  axis 
of  the  gun,  the  less  will  it  be  .stretchc-d  by  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  bore  when  the  piece  is  discharged,  and 
consequently  the  less  will  it  contribute  to  the  general 
strength  of  the  gun.  If  the  strain  uiwn  the  bore  from 
the  discharge  \k  considered  merely  as  a  pressure — 
statical  force — the  resistance  offered  to  it  by  any  two 
rings  will  be  inversely  proportional  to  the  s<juare  of 
their  circumferences  or  distances  from  the  axis  of  the 
gun.  It  will,  therefore,  appear  that  there  is  a  certain 
limit  beyond  which  it  would  be  useless  to  increa.se  the 
thickness  of  the  metal;  \tz.,  when  the  force  e.xerted 
on  the  surface  of  the  bore  would  be  sufficient  to 
rupture  the  interior  portions  of  tlie  metal  before  the 
strain  acteil  to  any  extent  upon  the  exterior  parts. 
Any  arrangement  of  the  parts  by  which  the  explosive 
strain  is  distributed  equally  over  the  entire  thickness 
of  the  piece  necessarily  brings  a  greater  amount  of 
resistance  into  play.  In  order  to  obtain  the  requisite 
resistance,  and  wiih  a  moderate  thickness  of  metal,  it 
is  desirable  to  equalize,  as  far  as  possible,  the  strain 
upon  every  portion  of  the  metal. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  accomplishing 
this,  viz.:  first,  by  giving  the  e.xterior  portions  a 
certain  initial  kngion,  gradually  decretu-iing  and  pa.ss- 
ing  into  compression  towards  the  interior,  which  is 
done  by  shrinking  heated  iron  liands  or  tubes  around 
the  parts  to  lie  compressed,  or  by  slipping  a  lul)e  into 
the  tore,  which  has  been  slightly  enlarged  by  heat.- 
.secondly,  by  means  of  the  system  of  ran/iiig  eltm- 
ticity:  this  "is  accomplished  by  placing  that  metal 
which  stretches  most  within  its  elastic  limit  around 
the  surface  of  the  bore,  so  that  by  its  enlargement 
the  explosive  strain  is  transmitted  to  the  other  parts. 
These  two  methods  of  equalizing  strains  without  an 
inordinate  increase  of  thickness  are  so  important  that 
they  deserve  more  than  a  passing  notice.  They  are 
called  the  systems  of  Initial  Tension  and  Varying 
Elasticity.  'Some  gun  makers  use  the  one,  some  the 
other,  some  a  combination  of  the  two,  and  even  in 


BirXOHS. 


254 


vmxvt. 


our  own  liollow-cast  jnins  the  idea  of  initial  tension 
is  one  of  primiirv  ini[X)rtance. 

It  will  be  oWrved  tlmt  Iniilt-up  jrun-oonstructions 
are  alone  considenxi  iis  atlonlinir  a  reasonable  solu- 
tion of  the  problem;  that  steel  tiilies  in  conil)iniition 
■with  wrousrht-iron  or  stwl  constitute  the  pn)minent 
tjnxs;  that  breech-loadiiii;  systems,  usins  the  inter- 
rupted screw  or  French  pattern,  are  nipiilly  super- 
se<ling  muzzleloadinjr  guns;  and,  tinally,  the  more 
advance<i  opinions  lead  strongly  to  the  belief  that  the 
true  direction  in  which  projrress  is  to  lx>  made  and 
light  guns  secured,  combining  great  strength  wiOt 
high  power,  ri'sulling  from  the  use  of  large  charges  of 
powder  and  hea\'>'  projectiles,  and  in  bores  ranging 
from  26  to  30  csililwrs  in  length,  is  to  iutroiluce  a 
greater  degree  of  subdivision  than  found  in  the  pres- 
ent systems  by  the  use  of  steel  wires  superiniijosed 
on  steel  tubes,  which  in  their  turn  are  jackctecl  and 
finished  extemallj'  by  steel  bands.  See  ArmMroTig 
Oitnn,  BUikely  Oun,  Cannon,  Fraser  Gun,  Initial 
TenJtiim.  Ordnance,  Palliner  Onn,  Parsons  Oun,  Vary- 
ing EltiJ-tifily,  and  Wovlirich  Gun. 

BUKORS.— Kettledrums  of  the  Swedish  cavalry. 
Tliey  do  not  dilTer  materially  from  the  usual  kinds. 

BVLLABD  KIFLE.— A  repeating  rifle  recently  in- 
troduced by  a  Mr.  Bullard,  who  was  for  five  years 
master-mechanic  at  the  well-known  Smith  &  Wesson 
AVorks.  The  action  of  this  ritie  is  positive  and  not 
dependent  upon  springs.  It  is  self-cocking,  with  a 
solid  breech-block  behind  the  bolt,  which  must  be  in 
place  and  securely  locked  before  it  is  possible  for  the 
hammer  to  reach  the  tiring-pin.  It  is  passible  to  tire 
thLs  ritle  with  very  great  rapidity,  from  the  fact  that 
it  works  easily  and  smoothly  by  reason  of  its  direct 
leverage  on  the  work  to  be  done,  the  heaviest  work  being 
done  with  the  best  leverage,  as  in  extracting  the  car- 
tridge, which  is  started  when  the  lever  is  in  position 
to  exert  the  greatest  strain.     Cocking  the  hanuner  is 


tiring-pin  until  the  brace,  C,  is  in  its  proper  place. 
It  will  also  Ix'  observe<I  that  it  is  impossible  to  dis- 
arrange the  parts,  as  all  are  pinned  and  hinged  to- 
gether, and  that  there  are  no  sliding  surfaces. 

To  dismount  the  gun,  take  out  tang-screw  :  half- 
cock  hammer  and  take  out  lock  friune  and  hammer- 
screws  ;  ])ull  out  lock-frame  down  and  backwards; 
disconnect  links  from  brace ;  take  out  side-plate 
screws  and  remove  side  jilate;  remove  carrier-lever 
spring ;  take  out  guard-lever  bolt  ;  take  cut  ex- 
tractor-pin and  remove  extractor  ;  push  back  i)in  be- 
fore removing  the  bolt ;  draw  out  guard-lever  with  its 
connections ;  take  out  breech-block  bolt ;  take  out 
breech-block  ;  draw  out  carrier-lever  imd  take  out 
carrier.     The  gun  is  a.s.semblcd  by  reversed  operations. 

To  remove  the  barrel,  take  out  the  magazine-plug 
screw  and  the  two  tip-screws,  pull  out  the  magazine- 
tube,  and  take  off  the  fore-arm.  If  the  bolt  lias  not 
been  pre\iously  removed,  pull  it  back  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  breaking  of  the  extractor  while  unscrewing 
the  barrel. 

To  load  the  gun,  cnrrj'  the  guard-lever  forward  as 
far  as  it  will  go,  and  then  insert  the  cartridges  in  the 
magazine  through  the  opening  under  the  carrier. 

To  use  the  gun  as  a  single-loader,  carry  the  lever 
as  far  forward  as  is  necessarj-  to  extract  the  spent 
shell,  remove  the  shell,  and  insert  another  cartridge  in 
the  chamber  of  the  gun;  or,  carry  the  guard-lever  as 
far  forward  as  it  will  go  and  insert  a  cartridge  in  the 
magazine  through  the  opening  under  the  carrier. 

If  the  top  cover  is  drawn  "back,  the  magazine  can 
be  quickly  loaded  by  simply  pressing  against  the 
under  side  of  the  carrier,  which  will  force  it  up,  ex- 
posing the  entrance  to  the  magazine,  and  also  place 
the  hammer  at  half-cock.    See  Magazine-gun. 

BULL-DOG. — A  refractory  material  used  as  a  lining 
for  the  toshes  of  puddling  or  smelting  furnaces.  It  is 
a  decomposed  protosilicate  of  iron. 


also  done  by  direct  leverage  inside  the  receiver  or 
frame  instead  of  a  sliding  motion  of  bolt  or  firing-pin 
on  and  over  the  top  of  the  hammer,  which  is  very 
often  liable  to  grind  and  always  makes  the  arm  work 
hard  and  unpleasantly.  This  rifle  has  been  fired 
twelve  shots  in  five  seconds,  using  the  U.  8.  Govern- 
ment cartridges.  The  magazine  is  charged  from  the 
under  side,  and  it  can  be  done  with  equal  facility  by 
a  right-  or  left-handed  person.  And  as  there  are  no 
holes  or  spring  covers  on  the  side,  it  is  not  possible  to 
have  it  clogged  by  passing  through  bnish  or  laying  it 
on  the  ground  or  in  trenches,  etc.  It  is  also"  much 
easier  to  load  on  horseback  than  any  other  gun,  as 
there  is  more  choice  of  position  than  "when  the  open- 
ing is  on  the  si<le.  It  can  be  loaded  as  a  sinsrle-loader 
cither  top  or  bottom,  leaving  the  magazine  full  at  all 
times  for  an  emergency.  The  drawing  shows  the 
working  parts  of  the  arm,  in  position  after  tiring. 
The  breech-block,  A,  is  held  finnly  in  place  by-tlic 
brace,  C,  which  is  pivoted  and  cradled  on  the  ham- 
mer-pin and  lock-frame.  C  is  lirouL'ht  into  place 
and  flrmly  held  l)y  the  links,  I?  (only  one  sliown'), 
which  are  connected  by  strong  pins  to  the  guard- 
lever,  D.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  drawing  that  it  is 
absolutely  impossible  to  get  the  hammer  to  strike  the 


BULLET. — The  leaden  projectile  discharged  from 
a  musket,  fowling-piece,  pistol,  or  similar  weapon. 
When  the  smooth-bore  muskets  alone  were  used,  the 
bullets  were  made  by  casting.  Molten  lead  was 
poured  into  molds;  and  the  molds  were  dipped  in 
cold  water,  to  hasten  the  solidification  of  the  lead. 
The  molds  were  cooled  after  every  few  times  of 
using;  and  the  lead  was  heated  only  just  to  the 
degree  for  maintaining  fluidity.  Bullets  are  now, 
however,  made  more  expeditiously,  and  more  truly 
.spherical  in  form,  bv  compressing -machines,  one 
fonn  of  which  has  been  invented  by  Mr.  CJeorge 
Napier.  The  lead  is  first  fashioned  into  a  rod  abo\it 
a  yard  long  by  five  or  six  eighths  of  an  inch  thick; 
this  rod  is  jiassed  between  rollei-s  to  condense  it;  then 
iM'tween  other  rollers  to  i)rcss  it  into  a  row  of  nearly 
globular  pieces;  then  a  spherical  die  gives  the  proper 


BITILET-EXTBACTOB. 


255 


BTILL8ETE. 


form  to  each  of  these  pieces;  and,  lastly,  a  treadle- 
worked  punch  separates  them  into  bullets.  With 
•one  of  these  machines  and  two  dies,  nine  boys  can 
make  40,000  bullets  in  a  day. 

Spherical  bullets  for  the  old  muskets,  carbines, 
and  pistols  varied  from  14  to  20  to  the  pound,  and 
from  .60  to  .68  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  There  is 
a  particular  ratio,  depending  on  the  specific  sravity 
of  lead,  by  which  the  number  to  the  poimd  will  frfve 
the  diameter,  or  vice  tenia.  Such  bullets  are,  how- 
ever, becoming  every  year  less  and  less  used  in  the 
army,  being  superseded  by  other  forms  better  suited 
for  rifles.  These  forms  are  singularly  numerous. 
Robins'  bullet  was  egg-shaped,  with  the  center  of 
gravity  at  the  larger  end;  Beaufoy's  was  ovoid,  with 
a  hemispherical  cavity  at  one  end;  Man  ton's  was  a 


after  every  few  times  of  using;  and  the  lead  was 
heated  only  just  to  the  degree  for  maintaining 
fluidity.  Very  few  bullets  are  molded  at  the  present 
time,  since  they  are  made  more  e.xpeditiouslj-,  and 
truer  in  form,  by  compression.  When  molding, 
use  1  part  of  tin  to  16  of  lead,  and  keep  the  molds 
very  hot  and  the  handles  tight  together.  It  often 
happens  that  the  handles  become  too  hot  for  comfort 
and  are  not  held  together  projierlj'.  The  result  is  a 
bullet  that  Ls  not  round  and  one  that  will  not  fit  the 
shell.  See  that  the  grooves  of  the  bullets  are  filled 
with  beef-tallow  or  Japan  wax;  wipe  off  all  surplus 
grea.se  before  loading.  When  pressing  the  bullet 
mto  the  shell,  see  that  it  is  forced  into  the  chamber 
of  the  reloading  tool  as  far  as  it  will  go. 
The  tlrawiug  represents  an  effective  mold.     The 


Bullet-mold. 


spherical  ball  put  into  a  wooden  cup,  with  projections 
on  the  exterior;  Greener's  was  oval,  with  a  plug  of 
mixed  metal  driven  into  a  hole  barely  large  enough 
for  it;  Xorton's,  Delvigne's,  Minie's,  and  others  are, 
or  were,  of  various  elongated  shapes,  mostlj-  with 
some  kind  of  plug,  which,  driven  into  the  lead  by 
the  force  of  the  explosion,  causes  it  to  fill  up  the 
grooves  in  the  rifling  of  the  barrel.  This  expanding 
or  dilating  action  has  been  claimed  by  manj-  inventors; 
but  the  English  Government  in  1857  awarded  Mr. 
Greener  £1000,  as  the  person  who  had  practically 
solved  the  diflicuity  as  far  back  as  1836.  The  bullets 
for  the  Enfield  rifles  are  now  made  with  extraordinary 
speed,  by  machinerj'  of  beautiful  construction.  The 
machine  draws  in  a  coil  of  leaden  rod,  unwinds  it, 
cuts  it  to  the  required  length,  stamps  out  the  bullets 
■nith  steel  dies,  drops  them  into  boxes,  and  convej's 
them  away.  Each  machine,  with  its  four  dies, 
makes  7000  bullets  per  hour;  and  four  such  machines, 
in  an  ea-sy  day's  work,  turn  out  300,000  bullets.  So 
nearly  are  the  machines  automatic  that  one  man 
can  attend  them  all.  Other  machines,  attended  by 
children,  produce  an  equal  number  of  little  lx)xwoo<l 
plugs  for  tilling  the  cavity  at  the  hinder  end  of  the 
bullet.  See  Obhng  BnUet.  PereitmoniuUets,  Pro- 
jectiles, Rnunfl  BiilM.  and  Shot. 

BULLET-EXTEACTOB.— A  pair  of  pinchers  with 
projecting  claws,  adaiited  to  imbed  themselves  in  a 
bullet  so  as  to  draw  it  from  its  bed  and  extract  it. 
When  closed  these  form  a  smooth,  blunt  surface, 
like  a  probe,  and  are  opened  against  the  bullet  so  as 
to  spread  apart  the  vessels  which  might  oppose  the 
retraction. 

BULLET-HOOK.— A  hook-ended  tool  for  extracting 
bullets.  An  iron  bullet-hook  was  disinterred  at 
Pompeii  in  1819  by  Dr.  Savcnko,  of  St.  Petersburg. 
It  was  in  company  witli  a  number  of  surgical 
instruments. 

BTJLLET-LADLE.— One  for  melting  lead  to  run 
■bullets.  It  is  usually  a  hemispherical  ladle  with  a 
.spout,  but  in  one  case  the  ladle  has  a  hole  in  the 
bottom  guarded  by  a  spring  plug  and  opersited  by  a 
trigger  on  the  handle;  in  another  case  a  part  of  the 
ladle  is  covered,  and  the  lead  thus  flows  out  at  a 
guarded  opening  which  keeps  liack  the  dross  of 
oxide. 

BULLET  -  MOLD  —  BULLET  MOULD.— When  the 
smooth-bore  muskets  alone  were  used,  all  bullets 
were  made  by  casting  or  molding.  Molten  lead 
was  poured  into  molds  of  the  desired  shape;  and  the 
molds  were  dipped  in  cold  water,  to  hasten  the 
solidification  of  the  lead.     The  molds  were  cooled 


melted  lead  is  poured  into  the  mouth  at  the  top,  is 
trimmed  just  as  solidification  begins,  and  the  mold 
is  locked  by  piessing  the  handles  towards  each  other. 
After  solidification  the  handles  are  pre,«scd  apart,  the 
mold  opens,  and  the  bullet  is  withdrawn.  After  the 
bullet  is  taken  from  the  mold  it  is  swaged  in  a  die 
to  the  proper  size  and  shape. 

BULLET-PBOBE.— A  soimd  for  exploring  tissue  to 
find  the  situs  of  a  bullet.  It  is  usually  a  soft  steel 
wire  with  a  bulbous  extremity.  Kelaton  used  a  sound 
with  a  file-like  extremity  which  might  receive  trr  ces 
of  the  bullet,  in  cases  where  there  is  doubt  of  the 
character  of  the  body  with  which  it  is  brought  in 
collision.  He  afterwards  used  a  i<(mde  with  a  termina- 
tion of  an  clive-shaped  body  of  white  unvarnished 
porcelain,  which  would  receive  a  black  mark  by  con- 
tact with  the  bullet. 

BULLET-SCEEW.— A  screw  at  Ujc  end  of  a  ramrod 
to  ]xnetrate  a  bullet  and  enable  the  latter  to  be  with- 
drawn from  the  piece.     See  Ballscnir. 

BULLET-SHELL.— An  explosive  bullet  for  small- 
anns.  Jncobs's  liuUet-shells,  used  with  tlie  rifle  of 
General  Jacobs  of  the  East  India  service,  have  an  in- 
closed copper  tube  containing  the  bursting-charge, 
which  may  be  of  fulminate  or  common  powder,  and 
is  exploded  by  a  percussion-cap  or  globule  on  striking 
In  experiments  made  with  them  at  Enfield  in  1857, 
caissons  were  blown  u]i  at  distances  of  '20O0  and  2400 
yards,  and  brick  walls  much  damaged  at  those  dis- 
tances by  their  explosion. 

BULLOCK. — This  beast  is  admirable  for  slow 
draught,  especially  over  rough  roads,  or  through  for- 
ests, or  other  places  where  there  are  no  roads.  Bul- 
locks stand  fire  better  than  any  other  animals,  and 
used  to  he  employed  in  India  for  draught  in  field-bat- 
teries. They  must  not  be  hurried;  their  ordinarj- 
pace  is  from'  2  to  2i  miles  an  hour.  If  u.sed  over  hard 
roads  the)'  require  shoeing.  They  neetl  but  little  care, 
and  thrive  on  poor  food.  They  attain  their  prime  at 
six  years;  the  age  is  known  by  the  annular  swell- 
ing "on  the  horns,  allowing  three  j'cars  for  the 
first  ring  and  one  year  for  each  of  the  others.  They 
are  at  present  used  in  many  parts  of  India  and  else- 
where as  pack-animals,  and  carry  a  load  of  2(K)  jxiunds 
with  comparative  ease.  Sec  Draug/it-animah  and 
Plll•k^-^l>iimllh. 

BULLS-EYE. — In  gimnery  and  archery,  the  center 
of  the  target.  In  England  the  Inill's-eye  is  a  black 
rectangular  figure  on  a  white  ground  which  is  painted 
on  targets,  var.ting  in  size  according  to  the  distance 
at  which  the  target  is  placed,  and  "according  to  the 
class  of  marksmen  tiring  at  it.     Outside  the  bull's-eye 


BTTLWABK. 


256 


BTTEEAU  OF  MILITABT  JTISTICE. 


is  a  while  spjice  lx>undi-(l  liy  rectanjnilar  Ijlack  linos. 
The  space  within  tliese  lines  anil  IxMween  them  anil 
the  bull's-eye  is  called  the  center.  Outside  these  lines 
is  the  remainder  of  the  tarj.'et.  In  the  United  Stales 
the  smallest  circle,  always  painted  hlack,  is  called  the 
buU's-eve.  The  rinfr  embraced  between  Ihe  buUs- 
eye  and  the  circunifercuce  of  the  next  larger  circle  is 


Bull's-eye, 

called  the  c^nUr;  and  the  ring  between  the  second 
and  third  circles  (regulation  target)  is  called  the 
inner,  the  space  outside  Ihe  larger  circle  being  called 
the  oiiUr.  In  the  target  represented,  the  space  be- 
tween the  second  circle  and  the  vertical  lines  is  the 
iniifr,  and  the  space  outside  the  vertical  lines  is  the 
ouUr.     See  Targets. 

BULWARK, — Tlie  old  name  for  a  rampart  or  bas- 
tion. In  a  ship  the  bulwarks  are  the  boarding  above 
the  level  of  the  upper  deck,  nailed  to  the  outside  of 
the  limber-heads  and  stanchions.  In  ordinarv  vessels 
they  form  a  parapet,  protectin.g  the  seamen  from  the 
waves,  and  prevent  loose  articles  from  being  swej)! 
off  the  deck;  in  men-of-war  they,  in  addition,  serve  to 
protect  the  men  from  an  enemy's  shot.  In  an  inquiry 
made  a  few  years  ago  concerning  the  availabiliU'  of 
merchant-steamers  as  ships  of  war,  it  was  found  that 
the  bulwarks  would  not  afford  sufficient  protection 
to  the  men  from  musket-shot;  but  that  if  hammock- 
stanchions  were  lixed  all  round  the  bulwarks,  and  the 
men's  hammocks  placed  in  a  netting  upheld  thereby, 
a  very  nooA  protection  might  be  obfained. 

BHMFOED  GUN,— A  ceUbrated  gim  cast  at  South 
Boston  in  1846,  It  is  a  12-inch  smooth-bore,  having 
the  following  particulars: 

Total  length 134,00  mches. 

Length  of  bore  and  chamber,  116,20  " 
Diameter  over  the  chamber, .  38.20  " 
Weight 25,510  lbs. 

Before  it  was  hooped  the  greatest  enlargement  of 
the  chamber  with  20,  25,  and  28  pounds  of  powder 
and  a  15il-potmd  shell,  after  ninety-three  tires,  was 
.005  inch,  and  the  greatest  enlargement  at  the  lodg- 
ment of  the  shell  ,074  inch.  The  maximum  range 
in  riciKhet-tire,  with  181-pound  shell  and  28  pounds 
of  powder,  was  58(X)  yards.  This  gun  was  hooped  in 
1802  with  wrought-iron  rings  about  1  inch  wide  each, 
making  a  reinforce  31  ■{  inches  long,  4  inches  thick, 
and  46  inches  in  total  diameter. 

BUNG-STOPPERS.— In  submarine  mining,  bung- 
8to]>pers  are  the  contrivance  for  closing  the  hole  in 
the  case  througli  w  hich  the  charge  isinserted,  and 
through  which  the  insulated  wires  pass  from  the  fuse 
to  the  caljle  leading  to  the  fort.  The  essential  condi- 
tif)n  to  be  fullilled  is  to  have  it  water-tight  anil  keep 
the  arrangement  in  proper  condition  for  ignition  at 
any  moment  reiiuired;  it  should  likewise  1m'  callable 
of  licing  unscrewed,  so  that  the  fusi?  may  be  taken 
out  for  examination  and  replacement  if  defective. 

Various  forms  of  stoiipers  have  been  devised,  the 
principal  feature  of  each  l>einga  stulling-box,  in  wliich 
gutta-percha  packing  is  used.  When  regularly-con 
stnicted  mines  are  supplied  for  service,  stoppers  will 
accompany  them.  For  extemporized  mines,  any  de- 
vice which  will  hold  the  insuluted  wires  and  at  the 


same  time  keep  the  water  from  the  charge  will  an- 
swer. A  composition  composed  of  1  part  of  tallow, 
8  of  pitch,  and  1  of  beeswax  will  be  found  good  for 
lightening  the  .ioints.  It  iK'Comes  plastic  at  about 
150  F.  The  addition  of  a  little  gulla-iKMcha  hardens 
the  composition  and  renders  it  less  liable  to  be  iilfect- 
ed  by  atmospheric  heat. 

BUNK. — The  term  emjiloyed  by  soldiers  for 
a  bed,  or  place  for  bedding. 

BUNTINE,— A  thin  woolen  material,  of 
which  flags  and  signals  of  stations  are  made. 
Also  written  Biintiiiy. 

BUOYS, — Buojs  are  used  for  temporarily 
marking  the  positions  of  mines,  circuit-closers, 
etc.  Small  nut-buoys  of  iron  are  the  l)est;  but 
when  these  are  not  to  be  had.  empty  casks, 
such  us  beer-kegs,  well  lashed  with  rope,  are 
convenient  to  handle,  and  answer  every  pur- 
pose. In  all  cases  they  must  be  sufficiently 
large,  or  have  enough  of  flotation,  to  secure 
the  mooring-cable  or  other  object  which  they 
are  intendeil  to  hold. 

BURDEN  OF  PROOF.— In  legal  procedure, 
the  obligation  to  establish  by  evidence  certain 
disputed  facts;  and,  as  a  general  rule,  this  Ijurden  lies 
on  the  party  assertinir  the  affirmative  of  the  issue  to  be 
tried  or  question  in  dispute,  according  to  the  maxfm, 
Ei  incumbit  pnihutui  qui  (licit  iwn  qui  negat ;  that  is, 
proof  is  incumbent  on  him  who  asserts,  not  on  him 
who  denies.  The  principle  of  Ihe  law  is  that  the 
burden  of  proof  is  on  the  party  who  would  fail  if  no 
evidence  were  adduced  on  either  side.  Accordingly, 
it  almost  always  rests  on  the  plaintiff  in  an  action,  or 
on  the  party  asserting  the  facts  on  which  the  result  of 
the  litigation  must  depend.  In  one  ca.se  tried  before 
the  late  Baron  Alderson,  that  learned  .ludge  laid 
down  that  the  proper  test  was.  Which  piirty  tcmtld 
be  successful  if  no  et-i<lence  at  all  irere  gicen  f — the 
burden  of  proof,  of  course,  falling  on  the  party  not  in 
that  position.  This  test  hits  since  been  generally 
adopted  and  applied;  but  Mr.  Best,  in  his  work  on 
the  Principles  of  Ecidence,  improves  on  it  by  the  sug- 
gestion that  in  strict  accuracy  the  test  ought  to  be, 
"Which  party  would  be  successful  if  no  evidence 
at  all,  or  no  >m>re  ecidence,  as  the  ca.se  may  be,  were 
given'?" — a  consideration  on  which  the  discretion 
and  judgment  of  counsel  frequently  de|)end.  But 
although  such,  in  general,  is  the  position  of  the  plain- 
tiff, it  sometimes  happens  that  the  burden  of  pnwf  is 
imposed  on  the  defendant,  and  in  consequence  of  his 
having  the  affirmative  of  the  material  issue  to  be 
tried. 

It  is  this  rule  as  to  the  burden  of  jiroof  that  demon- 
strates the  real  nature  of  Ihe  plea  of  Not  ijuiltt/  in  a 
criminal  prosecution,  and  which  divests  that  plea  of 
the  objections  to  it  which  are  frequently  heard  ex- 
pressed by  overscrupulous  sentimentalists;  for  the 
meaning  of  that  plea  is  not  necessarily  an  assertion 
by  the  prisoner  that  he  is  absolutely  guiltless  or  iimo- 
cent,  but  that  he  wishes  to  be  tried,  and  that  as  the 
burden  of  proof  is  on  the  prosecutor,  while  he  has 
meanwhile  the  presum]itionof  innocence  in  his  favor. 
— Besides  Ihe  work  referred  to,  see  on  the  subject  of 
this  article  Slarkie  on  the  Tmip  if  Eriilencc  in  Kiig- 
liind.  and  Dickson  on  the  same  subject  in  Scotland. 

BUREAU  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE.— In  the  Iniled 
States  ser\nce  this  Bureau  consists  of  one  Judge  Ad- 
vocate General,  with  the  rank,  pay,  etc.,  of  Bri.tnidier- 
general.  The  riiiorts  which  tlie  .ludge  Ailvocate 
General  mav  make  upon  cases  requiring  the  action 
of  the  President  are  addressed  to  the  Secn'larv  of 
War,  and  forwanlid  through  the  General  of  the 
Army,  for  such  remarks  and  lecomnienilations  as  he 
may  see  lit  to  make.  The  original  proceedings  of  all 
General  Courts- Jlartial,  Courts  of  Inquiry,  and  Mili- 
tary Commissions,  after  the  deci.sion  thereon  of  the  re- 
viewing iiuthorilv,  and  all  proceedings  that  require  the 
decision  of  Ihe  t'residint  under  Ihe  Articles  of  War, 
and  copies  of  idl  orders  contii-minL'.  disapprovinc^or 
remitting  the  sentence  of  Courts-Martial  or  Military 


BUEEATJX  OF  THE  WAE  DEPARTMENT. 


^07 


BUENSIDE  CABBINE. 


Commissions,  are  forwarded  direct  to  and  filed  in  the 
Bureau  of  Militarj-  Justice.  Communications  i^- 
lating  to  questions  of  military  justice,  or  proceedinifs 
of  Military  Courts,  upon  wliich  the  opinion  of  the 
Judge  Advocate  General  is  desired,  are  forwardeil 
through  proper  channels  to  the  Adjutant  General 
when  such  questions  cannot  be  decided  by  an  inter- 
mediate authority.  Questions  of  an  abstract,  general 
character  are  not  considered.  Judge  Advocates  for- 
-,vard  to  the  Judge  Advocate  General,  at  the  end  of 
each  month,  a  list  of  all  cases  trieil  and  to  be  tried  ! 
within  their  jurisdictions.  See  Judge  Advocate  Gen- 
eral. I 

BUREAUX  OF  THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT.— During 
the  absence  of  the  Chief  of  any  Military  Bureau  of 
the  War  Department,  his  duties  in  the  bureau,  pre- 
scribed by  law  or  regulations,  devolve  upon  the  officer 
of  his  Department  empowered  by  the  President  to 
perforin  them  in  his  absence.  See  Military  Depart- 
ments throughout  this  work  under  appropriate  head- 
ings j 

BURGESS  MAGAZINE-GUN.— I'his  gun  belongs  to 
that  system  in  which  a  fixed  chamber  is  closed  by  a 
bolt,  sliding  in  line  with  the  axis  of  the  barrel,  and 
operated  by  a  lever  from  below.  The  Iwlt  is  a  single 
piece,  the  rear  of  which  serves  as  a  guide  to  its  mo- 
tion by  sliding  in  grooves  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
receiver.  The  bolt  is  locked  by  the  interposition  of  i 
a  portion  of  the  breech-bolt  lever,  between  its  head 
and  the  rear  of  the  receiver.  The  firing-pin,  which 
is  in  this  portion  of  the  lever,  passes  through  the  ' 
pivot  and  prevents  it  moving  eitlier  way.  The  firing- 
pin  is  retained  in  the  lever  by  a  screw.  The  ejector 
lies  in  a  groove  across  the  front  of  the  bolt,  just  be- 
low the  firing-pin  hole;  its  rear  terminates  in  a  split 
spring,  which,  by  friction  against  the  side  of  an 
undercut  groove  in  the  side  of  the  bolt,  retains  it  in 
position.  The  ejector  is  driven  forward  against  the 
under  side  of  the  head  of  the  cartridge,  when  the 
lever  is  thrown  open  by  its  rear  striking  against  a 
.shouldor  on  the  inner  rear  svu'facc  of  the  receiver. 
The  bottom  opening  in  the  receiver  is  clf)sed  by  a 
plate,  called  the  lever  guide;  its  rear  is  tenninatcd  by 
a  piece  the  tenon  of  which  enters  a  corresponding 
mortise  in  the  plate.  An  elongated  hole  in  the  tenon, 
through  which  passes  the  pin  connecting  the  pieces, 
permits  motion  of  the  smaller  jiart  to  and  from  the 
plate.  A  spiral  spring  is  comprised  between  the  two 
pieces.  The  motion  of  the  lever  in  opening  and  clos- 
ing is  a  sliding  one.  The  carrier  is  pivoted  on  two 
short  screws  through  the  sides  of  the  receiver.  It  is 
operated  by  a  hooked  projection  on  the  bolt-head, 
which,  sliding  under  it,  sujiports  it  until  the  forward 
motion  of  the  lever  is  nearly  completed,  when,  by 
striking  against  the  surfaces,  the  carrier  is  rotated 
about  the  pivot-screws,  its  front  descending  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  magazine,  which  is  in  the  tip-stock. 
When  the  lever  is  closed,  the  projecting  hook,  ])ass- 
ing  out  of  the  recess,  slides  under  the  carrier,  raising 
it  to  a  position  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  barrel,  when 
its  upward  motion  is  limited  by  pins  projecting  from 
the  inner  surfaces  of  the  receiver.  The  hammer  is 
cocked  by  the  backward  motion  of  the  bolt  when  the 
lever  is  thrown  forward.  The  piece  is  fired  by  a 
center-lock  of  the  usual  pattern.  The  magazine  is 
loaded  through  a  side  cover  in  the  recei%'er.  Xo 
wiping-rod  is  provided,  and  there  is  no  cut-off  to  the 
magazine.  As  a  magazine-gun,  three  motions  are  nec- 
essary to  operate  it,  viz  ,  opened,  closed,  fired.  As  a 
single-loader,  four  motions  are  necessary,  viz.,  opened, 
loaded,  closed,  fired.  This  gun  carries  ten  cartridges 
in  the  magazine  and  one  in  the  chamber.  See  Mngn- 
zini'-nmi. 

BURGONET.— A  helmet  that  dates  from  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  It  has  a  rounded  cro^vn  with 
a  crest,  and  is  distinguished  by  a  shade  over  the  eyes, 
cheek-pieces,  and  a  neck-giiard.  Also  written  Bur- 
gund  wnd  H'lrgoniiU'. 

BURGOYNE.— An  instrument  formed  by  the  com- 
bination of  a  spade,  axe,  and  mantlet.     It  is  intended 


to  form  a  portion  of  the  equipment  of  a  soldier,  and 
to  be  used  for  digging  rifle-pits,  etc.  When  used  as 
a  mantlet  against  bullets,  the  soldier  fires  through  a 
small  hole  in  the  blade.  The  handle  is  jointed  to 
facilitate  packing. 

BURLEY. — A  common  name  for  the  butt  end  of  a 
lance. 

BURNING.— Joining  metals  by  melting  their  adja- 
cent edges,  or  heating  the  adjacent  edges  and  nmning 
into  the  intermediate  space  some  molten  nulal  of  the 
,  same  kind.     The  process  differs  from  soldering  in 
j  this;  In  burning,  a  heat  is  required  sullicient  to  melt 
1  the  original  metal,  and  a  flux  is  si'ldom  used.     In 
soldering,  a  lower  heat  is  used  and  a  more  fusible 
metal  employed,  assisted  by  a  flux.     The  superior 
quality  of  hitrniiig  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  joint 
will  withstand  the  same  heat  as  the  body  of  the  ar- 
ticle.    Cast-iron  is  frequently  united  by  Imniing.     It 
was  first  i>racticed  by  the  native  smiths  of  India  and 
China,  who  occasioned  much  surprise  to  their  Occi- 
I  dental  neighbors  by  the  way  in  which  they  mended 
cast-iron  kettles  and  pots  which  were  supposed  to  be 
irretrievably    ruined.      The    first    notice    of    it    by 
Europeans  appears  to  have  been  by  Van  Braam,  in 
ITO-l-y.j,  who  was  attached  to  the  Dutch  Emba.s.sy  at 
I'ekin,  and  who  afterwards  settled   in  the   United 
States. 

BURNISHING.— The  process  of  giving  a  peculiar 
luster  to  a  gun-barrel  or  other  part  of  a  rifle  by  rub- 
buig  it  with  a  piece  of  steel.  It  is  generally  forbidden 
in  tlie  service  as  injurious  to  the  gun. 

BURNS  AND  SCALDS.— These  injuries  are  not  un- 
fre(iueut  in  the  laboratory  and  field.  They  are  nmch 
the  same  in  both  cases;  therefore  the  din'Ctions  for  the 
treatment  of  burns  will  be  applicable  Aw  to  scalds. 
These  injuries  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  1. 
Burns  resulting  in  .simple  rechiess  of  the  skin;  2. 
Burns  resulting  in  vesication  or  blistering;  3.  Bums 
resulting  in  sloughing,  or  death  of  the  part.  The 
first  object,  after  the  accident  has  occurred,  is  to  re- 
lieve the  suffering;  and  cold  apjilied  either  in  the  form 
of  ice  or  water  seems  in  most  cases  to  have  almost  a 
specific  power  in  allaying  pain  and  checking  the  ad- 
vance of  inflammation.  In  other  cases  moderate 
warmth  is  found  more  efficacious,  and  we  must  be 
guitled  mainly  by  the  sensations  of  the  sufferer  as  to 
which  of  these  remedies  we  make  use  of.  In  very 
severe  cases  opium  or  chloroform  may  he  employed. 
But  if  the  injury  the  body  has  received  l)e  very 
serious,  the  patient  complains  less  of  pain  than  of  colli ; 
be  shivers,  is  much  depressed,  and  must  be  well  sup- 
plied with  stimulants,  to  prevent  his  dying  from  the 
shock.  The  best  local  ajjplication  is  tiie  Carron  oil, 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  famous  iron-works, 
where  it  has  been  u.sed  for  many  years.  It  consists 
of  e(|ual  parts  of  olive-oil  and  lime-water,  and  should 
be  ajiplicd  on  linen  rags  or  cotton-wool.  Blisters  may 
be  ]ii'i(ked  and  the  contained  sennn  allowed  to  trickle 
away,  but  on  no  account  is  the  raised  skin  to  lie 
removed.  The  dressings  should  not  lx>  changed 
oftener  tliiin  cleanliness  requires;  and  as  each  portion 
of  the  old  dressing  is  removed,  it  nmst  at  once  be  re- 
placed with  fresh,  so  that  as  little  expasure  as  possible 
of  the  burned  surface  may  take  place.  The  main 
jirinciple  of  treatment  is  exchision  of  the  air  from  the 
iiijure<l  part;  and  so  Ions:  as  this  is  effected,  it  matters 
but  little  what  remedial  agent  is  employed.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  in  the  treatment  of  a  sore  resulting 
from  a  burn,  that  the  contraction  of  the  scar  does  not 
cause  distortion  of  the  neighboring  parts. 

BURNSIDE  CARBINE.— An  arm  fonnerly  used  in 
tlic  niilitary  service.  It  has  a  movable  chamber  w  liich 
opens  by  tviruing  on  a  hinge.  A  bra.ss  cartridge-case 
is  used  which  packs  the  joint  and  cuts  off  the  escape 
of  the  gas.  The  advantages  of  this  arm  are  its 
strength,  waterproof  cartridges,  perfectly  tight  joint, 
and  working  machinery.  Its  disadvantages  are  the 
cost,  and  difficulty  of  getting  the  cartridges.  When 
first  made,  the  metallic  case  of  the  Burnside  cartridge 
(either  of  bra-ss  or  steel)  was  capped  at  the  larger  end 


BTrSNT  ITHBEB. 


258 


BUTLEB  FBOJECTILE. 


with  11  k".iil  riiis.  The  case  was  slijrhtly  conical,  with 
a  siimll  hole  at  the  smaller  eiui.  The  mauuer  of  in- 
serting the  cartridge  and  extracting  the  shell  after 
tiring  was  similar  to  that  employed  at  the  present 
time.     Sw  Cnrhinf. 

BUBNT  UMBEB.— A  pigment  of  a  russet-brown 
color.  It  is  semi-transparent,  mixes  well  with  other 
pigments,  and  dries  (luickly.  It  is  obtained  liv  burn- 
ing uml)er,  an  ocherous  earth  containing  niaiigaiiese, 
and  deriving  its  name  from  the  place  where  it  was 
lirst  discovered — I'mbria,  in  Italy. 

BUBQUB. — A  kind  of  cnirass  which  in  ancient  times 
was  worn  with  the  brig-antine. 

BUBB. — 1.  In  gunnery,  a  round  iron  ring  which 
serves  to  rivet  the  end  of  the  bolt,  so  as  to  form  a 
round  head.  2.  ^Vny  roughness  or  uneveuness  ob- 
scrx'ed  in  the  barrels  of  guns  after  manufacture,  or  on 
balls  which  have  been  cjist,  or  on  the  edge  of  tools 
when  ground,  or  in  woodwork  when  turned,  caused 
by  the  inequality  of  the  libers  of  the  material. 

"BTJBBEL-SHOT. — A  medlev  of  shot,  stones,  chunks 
of  iron,  etc.,  to  be  projected  from  a  cannon  at  short 
range.     Frequently  called  itiiergency-shot. 

BUESTIKG-BAGS. — Bags  for  the  bursting  charges 
of  common  shell.  In  order  to  prevent  the  liability  to 
occitsional  premature  bursts  when  firing  filled  com- 
mon shells  from  M.L.R.  guns  of  7-inch  caliber  and 
\ipwarils,  it  h.as  been  found  necessarj'  to  inclose  the 
burstimr-charire  in  a  serge  bag. 

BUBSTING-CHABGE.— 1.  A  small  charge  of  fine 
powtler,  placed  in  contact  with  a  charge  of  coarse 
powder  or  uitrolemn  to  insure  the  ignition  of  the  lat- 
ter. It  is  usually  fired  by  voltaic  means. — 2.  The 
charge  of  powder  requireil  for  bursting  a  shell  or  case- 
shot;  it  may  be  poured  in  loose,  or  placed  in  a  burster- 
bag. 

BTJBTON. — A  peculiar  style  of  tackle.  It  has  at 
least  two  movable  blocks  or  pulleys  and  two  rojics. 
The  weight  Ls  suspended  to  a  liook-block  in  the  bight 
of  the  running  part.  This  arrangement  of  cords  and 
pullej's  is  suscejitible  of  great  variation,  so  as  to  in- 
crea.se  in  a  twofold,  fourfold  ratio,  or  otherwise. 
Each  pulley  has  but  one  sheave,  and  there  are  as 
many  ropes  as  movable  pulleys. 

BUETON  MAGAZINE-GUN.— In  principle  this  gun 
does  not  differ  from  the  Ward-Burton.  The  points 
of  diiTercncc  in  construction  areas  follows:  The  joint 
between  the  body  of  the  boll  and  its  head  is  trans- 
ferred in  this  gun  to  the  rear,  so  that  the  body  of  the 
bolt  takes  the  place  of  the  head,  while  the  rear  portion 
serves  simply  to  lock  it.  As  the  body  of  the  bolt 
does  not  rotate,  the  .sear-bolt  slot  at  right  angles  to  its 
axis  is  dispensed  with,  giving,  it  is  claimed,  a  stronger 
bolt.  The  extnictor,  though  called  a  lever-extractor, 
is  a  spring  hook  pinned  to  the  bolt  near  its  front. 
The  rear  of  the  extractor  is  thickened  so  as  to  bear 
against  a  cam  on  the  firing-pin,  which  prevents  the 
descent  of  its  rear  with  the  corresponding  rise  of  its 
front.  In  withdrawing  a  shell  the  spring  can  oidy 
be  from  the  front  portion  alone.  The  trigger-spring 
serves  also  to  hold  the  carrier  in  place.  The  carrier 
is  composed  of  two  i)rincipal  parts,  separated  at  front 
by  a  flat  spring.  The  lower  portion,  which  is  pivoted 
at  its  rear  to  the  upper,  has  on  its  front  a  sort  of  fin- 
ger, which  may  be  made  to  pass  through  a  slot  in  the 
upper  portion  so  as  to  jiroject  partly  across  the  mouth 
of  the  magazine,  cutting  oil  the  escape  of  cartridges 
by  simi)ly  turning  a  set-screw  in  rear  of  the  pi\-bt. 
The  motions  are  the  sjune  as  in  the  Ward-Burton. 
This  gun  carries  eight  cartridges  in  the  magazine  and 
one  in  the  chamber.     See  Mdfjazint-niin. 

BUSBT. — The  head-dress  worn  by  the  artillerv  and 
hus.sars  in  the  British  army.  It  consists  of  a  fur  bat, 
with  a  bag  hanging  from  the  top  over  the  right 
shoulder.  The  bag,  which  is  made  of  the  sjime  color 
as  the  facings  of  the  regiment,  appeai-s  to  be  of  Hun- 
garian origin,  and  intended  to  ward  off  a  sword-cut. 
In  India  the  artillery  whose  head-dress  in  Europe  is 
a  busby  do  not  wear  it,  but  are  provided  with  wicker 
helmets  covered  with  white  cloth.     The  head-dress 


worn  by  the  fusiliers  is  called  a  "busby,"  and  is 
made  of  black  raccoon-skin  for  the  olhcers,  and 
of  sealskin  for  the  non-commissioned  officers  and 
men. 

BUSHEL. — A  dry  measure  for  gntin,  etc.  The 
quarlcr  contains  H  bushels,  and  the  bushel  8  gidlons, 
the  gallon  measuring  277.274  cubic  inches,  and  hold- 
ing 10  pounds  avoirdupois  of  distilled  water.  Hence 
the  imperial  bushel  contains  80  pounds  of  water,  and 
measures  2218.2  cubic  inches.  The  old  Winchester 
bushel  measured  2150  cubic  inches;  hence  33  Win- 
chester bushels  equals  33  imperial  bushels  nearly. 

The  following  weights  and  estimates  are  often"  valu- 
able when  i)urchasing  supplies  in  the  field:  One 
bushel  of  wheat  w  eiglis  tiO  pounds;  of  rye,  .'58  jwuniLs; 
of  barley,  54  ])ounds;  of  oats,  42  pounds;  of  beans, 
62  pounds;  of  peas  and  maize,  (56  ix>unds;  of  pota- 
toes, 60  jjounds;  of  onions,  56  pounds.  About  50 
pounds  of  wheat  and  30  pounds  of  oats  go  to  the 
cubic  foot.  One  cubic  yard  of  well-pre.s.scd  hay 
weighs  225  pounds;  one  cubic  yard  of  straw  weighs 
145  pounds;  one  cubic  yard  of  grain  will  average  20 
bushels.  The  following  numbers  of  bushels  will 
safely  go  to  the  acre;  wheat,  rye,  and  beans,  25;  oats, 
45;  barley.  37J;  peas,  25;  maize,  30;  potatoes,  250. 

BUSHING.— When  a  pure  copper  vent  is  fixed  in 
a  gun,  the  gun  is  said  to  be  biis/ud.  It  is  done  by 
drilling  a  hole  in  the  piece  where  the  vent  is  usually 
placed,  about  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  screwmg 
therein  a  piece  of  wrought  copper,  with  a  vent  of  5  of 
an  inch  through  the  center  of  it.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  vent-bushes — a  cuiie  and  a  t/innigk  vent.  The 
first  is  used  when  the  gun  is  new,  and,  if  practicjible, 
when  re-vented;  the  latter  when  the  cone  of  the  bush 
is  not  sufficiently  large  to  remove  the  wear  roimd  the 
bush. 

BUSHING  TENTS.— A  method  re-sorted  to  when  the 
soil  will  not  hold  well,  or  in  stormy,  blowing  weather. 
It  is  generally  necessiiry  under  these  circumstances  to 
biis7i  the  main  outer  ropes  of  the  tent,  which  is  effected 
by  burying  to  a  sufficient  depth  under  the  groimd  a 
strong  busli  at  each  angle  of  the  tent,  to  which  ropes 
are  attached. 

BUSHWHACKEBS.— A  term  much  in  u.se  in  the 
War  of  the  Heliellion  (though  well  known  before)  to 
indicate  men  who  pretended  peace  or  neutrality,  l>ut 
who  were  ready  to  make  secret  attacks  whenever 
opportunity  otl'ered.  They  were  numerous  in  some 
Western  Siates,  where  many  of  them  were  summarily 
shot  as  outla\ys. 

BUSKINS.— A  kind  of  shoe,  or  half-boot,  adapted 
to  either  foot,  and  fonnerly  part  of  the  Roman  dress. 
They  arc  now  \voru  by  some  European  annies. 
The  ancient  tragedians  wore  buskins  (rot/iiiriti),  often 
with  thick  soles,  to  add  to  their  stature.  Hence  the 
buskin  is  often  put  for  tragedy,  as  the  sock  (xoceiis, 
a  flat-soled  shoe)  for  comedy.  In  ancient  sculpture, 
Diana,  and  hunters  in  general,  as  well  as  men  of 
rank  and  authority,  are  represented  in  buskins  often 
highly  ornamented. 
t  BUTIN. — Booty  or  piiiage.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  French  Monarchy,  and  for  a  long  time  after  its 
establishment,  a  particular  s|)ot  was  marked  out  by 
the  Prince  or  General,  to  which  all  persons  lielong- 
mg  to  the  victorious  armj'  were  directed  to  bring 
j  every  species  of  booty  that  might  have  fallen  into 
their  hands.  This  booty  was  not  <li\i<led,  or  appro- 
[  priated  according  to  the  will  anil  iileasure  of  the 
Prince  or  General,  but  was  thrown  into  dilTereiit  lots, 
and  drawn  for  in  common.  The  soldiers  who  dis- 
tribnteil  iliese  spoils  were  called  B\itiniers. 

BUTLEB  PEOJECTILE.— This  projectile  consists  of 
a  cast-iron  body  having  a  doulile-lipped  expanding 
ring  attached  by  a  screw-thread  to  its  ba.se.  Upon 
discharge,  the  powder-gases  entering  the  cannelure 
of  the  ring  expand  the  outer  lip  into  the  grooves 
commimiealing  rol;ili<)ii  to  the  inojeetile,  and  press- 
ing the  inner  liii  lightly  against  the  base  of  the  pro- 
jectile tends  to  prevent  stripping.  The  ring  may  be 
of  brass  (75  parts  of  copper  to  25  of  tin)  or  of  an 


BUTT. 


259 


BUTTON. 


alloy  of  copper,  tin,  and  brass,  the  brass  being  fused 
with  the  copper. 
The  Butler  canister  consists  of  a  hollow  cj'linder  made 


up  of  truncated  iron  wedges  inclosed  in  an  envelope 
of  tin.     The  cylinder  is  closed  at  the  bottom  with  a 
lead  cup  inclosing  a  disk  of  wood,  and  at  the  top 
with  a  sheet-iron  plate,  disks  of 
tin  being  employed  on  the  out- 
side at  both  eii(is  to  facilitate 
soldering.     The  interior  of  the 
cylinder  is  filled  with  the  round 
iron  balls.     See  Ex/xi  nding  Pro- 
jectiles and  Prrijectiks. 

BUTT.— 1.  In  gunnery,  a  solid 
earthen  parapet,  to  tire  against 
in  the  pro\'ing  of  guns,  or  in 
practice.  2.  That  extremity  of 
a  musket  which  rests  against 
the  sho\dder  when  the  piece  is 
brought  up  to  the  position  of 
firing.  The  term  butt  end  is 
usumIIv  emplnved  in  this  .sense. 

BUTTEEIS.— A  knife  with  a 
bent  shank,  used  by  farriers  to 
pare  the  hoofs  of  horses.  It 
has  a  blade  like  a  chisel,  and 
is  oix'rated  by  a  thrust  move- 
ment, the  handle  resting  against 
the  shoulder.  The  term  is  prob- 
ably from  the  French  boutoir  ; 
provincial,  6owtam«.  Some  old 
Roman  paring-implements  of 
iron  are  yet  extant. 

BUTTON. — 1.  In  gunnerj',  a 
part  of  the  cascabel,  in  either 
a  gun  or  a  howitzer,  being  the 
bind  part  of  the  piece,  made 
roimd  in  the  form  of  a  ball. 

2.  A  part  of  the  uniform; 
used  both  for  ornament  and 
for  buttoning.  In  the  United 
States  army  the  button  is  pre- 
scrilx,-d  as  follows: 

For  General    Officers,  Store- 
keepers, and  Officers  of  the  General  Staff. — Gilt,  con 
vex,  with  spread  eagle  and  stars,  and  plain  border 


large  size,  seven  eighths  of  an  inch  in  exterior  dia- 
meter; small  size,  one  half  inch. 

For  Officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers. — Gilt,  nine 
tenths  of  an  inch  in  exterior  diameter,  slightlj-  con- 
vex; a  raised  bright  rim,  one  thirtieth  of  an  inch 
wide;  device,  an  eagle  holding  in  his  beak  a  scroll, 
with  the  word  "  Essayons,"  a  bastion  with  embntsures 
in  the  distance  surrounded  by  water,  with  a  ri.sing 
sun— the  figures  to  be  of  dead  gold  upon  a  bright 
field.  Small  buttons  of  the  same  form  and  de\Tce, 
and  fifty -five  hundredths  of  an  inch  Lq  exterior  di- 
ameter. 

For  Officers  of  the  Ordnance  Department.  —  GWt, 
convex,  plain  border,  cross  cannon  and  bombshell. 


Button-shank  Machine. 


with  a  circular  scroll  over  and  across  the  cannon, 
containing  the  words  "  Ordnance  Corps;"  large  size, 


Engineer. 


Cavalry. 


Infantr>. 


Ordnance. 


BUTTOH. 


260 


BTITTOK. 


Maine. 


South  Carolina. 


New  Hampshire. 


Connecticut. 


Maryland. 


Georgia. 


Ohio.  Missouri. 

seven  eighth.s  of  an  inch  in  exterior  diameter;  small 
size,  one  half  inch. 

Ki/r  Officen  of  Artillery,  Infantry,  and  Ciimlry. — 
iGilt,  convex;  device,  a  .spread  eagle  with  tlie  letter 
A,  for  Artillery — I ,  for  Infantry — C,  for  Cavalrj',  on 
the  shield;  large  size,  seven  eighths  of  an  inch  in  ex- 
terior diameter;  small  size,  one  half  inch. 

Aides-dc-Vdinp  may  wear  the  liutton  of  the  General 
Staff,  or  of  their  regiment  or  corps,  at  their  option. 

For  all  EnlMfd  Men. — Yellow,  the  Siime  as  is  used 
by  the  Artillery,  etc.,  but  omitting  the  letter  in  the 
shield. 

The  various  State  buttons,  full  size,  are  shown  in 
the  drawings  above. 

The  history  of  button-making  is  in  many  ways  a 
curious  one.  Dating  no  further  back  as  a  triKle  of 
any  importance  than  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  it  has 
undergone  several  extraordinary  changes,  produced 


Massiichusetts. 


New  York. 


New  Jersey. 


North  Carolina, 


Mississippi. 


Arkansas. 


Kentucky. 


Michigan.  Wisconsin. 

chiefly  by  the  ever-varying  fa.shions  in  dress,  but  alsc 
by  soine  simple  though  ingenious  inventions,  as  well 
as  by  foreign  competition.  In  Groat  Britain,  Bir- 
mingham has  always  been  the  principal  seat  of  the 
button-manufacture.  What  has  l)ccn  called  the 
"  Augustan  Age"  of  button-making  in  that  city  in- 
cluded the  latter  portion  of  last  and  the  early  i)art  of 
the  present  century,  when  even  tradesmen  wore  coats 
"loaded  with  innumerable  gilt  buttons,"  and  when 
employers  on  a  moderate  scale  in  this  manufacture 
were  making  incomes  of  from  £20(10  to  taOOO  a  year, 
and  their  workmen  from  £3  to  £4  pPr  week.  Karly 
in  the  presiMit  century  Mr.  B.  Sanders  intro<liiced 
the  cloth-covered  button,  which  initiated  the  change- 
from  those  made  of  mtUil,  and  by  which  he  rapidly 
made  a  tortune.  His  son  in  ISi.'i  ctTected  the  ap- 
parently trivial  but  really  ingenious  improvement  of 
making  it  with  a  canvas  tuft  instead  of  a  metali 


BUTTBESS. 


261 


CAB1TLZ. 


shank,  by  which  both  the  button-holes  and  the  gar- 
ment itself  were  less  subject  to  injuiy.  This  kind  of 
button  had  an  enormous  sale,  and  is  still  much  used. 
A  further  alteration  was  made  on  it  by  Mr.  W. 
Elliott,  who  patented  in  1837  a  mode  of  covering 
the  button  witli  silk,  having  a  pattern  in  the  center, 
the  demand  for  which  was  at  one  time  so  great  that 
sixty  looms  were  employed  iu  London  in  making  the 
special  material  reciuired  for  them.  Metal  buttons, 
although  not  relatively  so  im])ortant  as  fonnerly, 
have  never  ceased  to  form  a  prominent  section  of  the 
trade.  They  are  a  numerous  class,  and  include  all 
sorts  for  uniforms,  troaser-buttons,  fancy  buttons 
which  arc  gilt,  stamped,  chased,  or  enameled,  ami 
many  cheap  varieties  in  iron  and  other  metals  for 
export.  Numerous  kinds  of  composite  buttt)ns  are 
also  partly  composed  of  metal.  Glass  buttons  form 
another  interesting  branch,  carried  on  to  a  consider- 
able extent  in  Birmingham,  Init  more  largely  in 
Bohemia  and  Paris;  so  also  do  porcelain  buttons, 
which,  although  an  English  invention,  are  now 
almost  exclusively  made  in  France.  Vulcanite  but- 
tons have  l)een  extensively  made  in  the  United 
States.  As  to  other  materials,  a  Birmingham  manu- 
facturer siiys  it  were  easy  to  write  out  a  long  list 
from  which  buttons  have  been  made,  but  very  diffi- 
cult to  name  one  from  which  they  have  not  been 
made. 

Briefly  described,  the  processes  in  making  the  mili- 
tary bra.ss  buttons  are  as  follows:  Circular  disks, 
called  "blanks,"  are  first  cut  out  of  sheet-brass  or 
other  metal  by  means  of  fly -presses,  usually  worked 
by  girls.  The  fly-press  consists  of  a  vertical  iron 
screw  with  a  triple  thread,  to  which  screw  is  at- 
tached a  horizontal  arm,  bending  downwards  at  the 
tnd  to  form  a  handle.  A  pimch  attached  to  the 
press  rises  and  falls  with  the  motion  of  this  handle, 
and  rapidly  cuts  out  the  blanks.  When  large  quan- 
tities of  one  pattern  are  required,  a  self-feeding,  self- 
acting  machine  is  used,  wliieh  cuts  out  the  blanks  in 
rows  at  one  blow,  turning  them  out  at  the  rate  of 
2000  gross  per  daj'.  After  teing  annealed,  the  blanks 
are  next  made  convex  by  a  blow  from  a  stamp.  The 
shanks  are  formed  of  wire  by  a  separate  machine 
shown  in  the  drawing,  which  cuts  off  pieces  and 
bends  them  into  loops  of  the  required  fomi.  When 
these  are  soldered  on,  the  buttons  are  dressed  on  a 
Jathe.     They  are  then  gilded  and  burnished;  some, 


however,  are  only  lackered;  and  some,  though  gilt, 
are  finished  in  a  dead  or  fro.sted  style. — "Shell" 
buttons  are  those  with  a  convex  face,  a  flat  or  con- 
vex back,  and  hollow.  These  are  made  of  two 
blanks,  that  forming  the  face  being  larger  than  the 
back  to  which  tlie  shank  is  attached.  These  blanks 
are  pres-sed  into  the  required  shape  by  dies  worked 
in  the  fly -press,  and  then,  by  another  die,  the  edge  of 
the  larger  blank  is  lapped  over  the  smaller,  and  thus 
attached  without  soldering.  Militnry  and  other  Imt- 
tons  having  a  device  in  strong  relief  are  stamped  by 
a  die  placed  in  a  stamitiiigiiress. 

BUTTEES8.— A  counterfort  or  sustaining  wall  or 
pillar,  built  agauist  and  at  right  angles  to  the  wall  to 
which  it  forms  a  revetment.  In  the  classical  style 
there  were  no  buttresses,  their  place  being  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  supplied  by  pilasters,  anta',  etc.  The 
different  stages  of  Gothic  architecture  are  marked  by 
the  form  of  buttresses  employed,  almost  as  distinctly 
as  by  the  form  of  the  arch.  The  Norman  buttress 
was  broad,  often  semicircular,  sometimes  dying  into 
the  wall  at  the  top,  and  never  projecting  from  it  to 
any  great  extent.  Early  English  b\ittres.ses  project 
much  more  twldly,  and  are  considerably  narrower, 
than  the  Norman.  They  are  frequently  broken  into 
stages,  which  diminish  in  size  as  they  ascend.  In  the 
decorated  style,  this  division  into  stages  is  almost  in- 
variable, the  buttress  being  often  supplied  with 
niches  tenninating  in  pinnacles,  and  verj'  higlilj'  or- 
namented with  carving,  statues,  etc.  In  the  lurpen- 
dicular  style  they  retain  the  forms  which  had  Ijeeii  in- 
troduced during  the  decorated  period,  the  ornamenta- 
tion of  course  being  varied  to  suit  the  character  of 
the  style.  Flying-buttre.s.ses — i.e.,  buttresses  in  the 
form  of  a  sloping  arch,  connecting  the  upper  and 
central  portions  of  an  arelied  structm-e  witli  the 
vertical  buttresses  of  the  outer  walls — were  introduced 
into  England  at  the  period  of  the  early  English,  though 
they  existed  on  the  Continent  jircviously,  where  they 
continued  to  be  u.sed  to  a  greater  extent.  They  were 
also  veiy  common  in  Scotland.  In  England  they  are 
generallv  called  arch-buttre.sses. 

BYL.— One  of  the  early  Norman  arms,  resembling  a 
war-hatchet.     Now  obsolete. 

BYRNIE.— A  name  apjilied  to  the  very  ancient  Eng- 
lish body-armor.     Now  obsolete. 

BTSSA. — An  ancient  cannon  for  throwing  stones. 
The  byssa  was  a  formidable  weajjon  in  its  time. 


c 


CABACLE.— A  military  coat  worn  by  the  modem 
Grecians.     Now  obsolete. 

CABAL. — A  term  cmiiloyed  to  denote  a  small,  in- 
triguing, factious  party  in  the  State,  and  also  a  union 
of  several  such,  which,  for  political  or  ]icr.sonal  ends, 
agree  to  modify  or  .sacrifice  their  principles.  The 
word  was  u.sed  to  describe  an  English  Ministry  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  the  initials  of  whose  names  com- 
posed Cabal — viz.,  Clifford,  Ashley,  Buckingham, 
Arlington,  and  Lauderdale.  This  was  not  the  origin 
of  the  word,  however,  as  some  have  su]iposed,  but 
merelj'  the  ingenious  application  of  a  word  pre\-iously 
in  use,  and  which  appears  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  French  caliale,  possessing  a  very  similar  significa- 
tion. 

CABAS. — 1.  A  basket  made  of  rushes,  used  in  an- 
cient Languedoc  and  Kous.sillon  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  stores  and  ammunition.  3.  A  large  shield 
or  buckler  which  .serveil  to  protect  the  archers  who 
attacked  in  intrenchments. 

CABASSET.— The  common  infantrj-  head-piece  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  a  light  mrm'oii.  or  iron 
cap,  with  a  wide  brim  that  was  nuich  lowered.  It 
■was  frequently  called  cenelU-rc,  because  it  only  cov- 


Also  ■written  Cabatet 


ered  the  upper  part  of  the  head, 
and  Capndte. 

CABINET.— The  Heads  of  Departments  who  are 
the  immediate  ad\isers  or  counselors  of  the  Chief  Ex- 
ecutive. In  the  United  States  the  Cabinet  consists  of 
the  Secretaries  of  State,  Treasury,  War,  Navy,  and 
Interior,  the  Attorney  General,  and  the  Postmaster 
General.  They  meet  whenever  desired  by  the  Presi- 
dent, but  not  publicly.  No  minutes  are  kept  of  their 
doings,  nor  are  the  names  of  those  present  recorded. 
The  President  presides;  and  he  may  at  any  time  re- 
quire in  writing  the  opinion  of  any  of  the  members 
upon  matters  concerning  his  Department.  But  the 
Cabinet  has  no  responsibility,  as  that  rests  with  the 
President  alone. 

CABOCHED— CABOSSED.— An  heraldic  term,  from 
the  old  French  word  rahiirht',  mean- 
ing the  head.  When  the  head  of  an 
animal  is  borne,  without  any  part  of 
the  neck,  and  exhibited  full  in  face, 
it  is  said  to  lie  caboched  or  cabossed. 
See  Ileralilry. 

CABtlLE.— A  machine  of  war,  tised  in  eiu-ly  times, 
but  mostly  during  the  twelfth  century,  to  throw  stones 


CACHE. 


262 


CADENCE. 


CACHE. — A  hiding-place,  usually  a  cavity,  natural 
or  artitieiul,  in  the  ground  or  among  rocks,  where 
voyagers,  explorers,  and  troops  stow  proxisions  or 
records,  to  l)c  found  by  themselves  or  others.  If  con- 
taining provisions,  the  cache  needs  to  be  very  strong 


Cacolet. 


to  resist  the  depredations  of  animals.  The  name  was 
early  used  by  parties  of  travelers  in  the  great  Western 
Prairies  of  the  United  States.  Designing  to  return  on 
their  tracks  after  crossing  the  Rocky  Mountains,  they 
disburdened  themselves  of  whatever  articles  coiild  be 


spared,  and,  to  conceal  them  from  the  Indians,  con- 
structed places  of  deposit  in  the  wilderness.  The 
making  of  a  cache  is  a  matter  of  much  labor  and  in- 
genuity. A  hole  is  dug  to  a  tkpth  of  perhaps  6  or  8 
feet  and  several  feet  broad,  and  then  the  articles  being 
interred,  the  surface  is  replaced  witli  the  utmost  pos- 
sible rare.  The  excavated  earth  is  also  carefully 
removed,  so  as  to  leave  no  trace  whatever  of  the  ex- 
cavation. The  situiition  of  the  cache,  however,  is 
known  to  the  party  by  some  landmark,  and  returning 


are  used  for  carrying  the  sick  or  woimded  in  the  day 
of  battle.  The  most  approved  pattern  weighs  58 
pounds  the  pair.  The  pack  weighs  the  same.  Add 
the  weight  of  two  men,  say  1.50  pounds  each:  total 
weight  to  be  carried,  more  than  400  pounds — rather 
an  excessive  weight  for  any  but  a  large-built  mule  or 
horse.  The  drawing  shows  some  of  the  details  of 
the  French  ami  British  Crimean  cacoliU.  This  nature 
of  chair  is  very  tiring  for  the  sick  man,  and  it  is, 
moreover,  very  difficult  to  place  hint  in  the  cufnU  t. 

In  1801  the  United  St;ites  Qmirtermaster's  Depart- 
ment i)urchased  a  number  of  ntaihts  of  the  jjattem 
used  in  the  French  army,  and  emjjloyed  a  French 
agent  to  give  instruction  in  their  use,  and  purclia.sed 
animals  specially  adapted  for  their  transport.  The 
Quartermaster-general  has  remarked  that  these  horses 
and  mules  were  gradually  appropriated  as  draftani- 
mals,  and  that  the  eacoU'ta  were,  for  the  most  part, 
condemned  as  unserviceable. 

A  very  convenient  litter  used  by  the  FVench,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  but  never  .s:Uisfactorily  tested 
in  the  United  States,  was  so  constructed  as  to  be  read- 
ily detached  from  the  pack-saddle  and  unfolded  to 
form  a  comfortable  bed  for  the  patient.  This  like 
all  other  forms  of  aicolct  has  been  considered  un- 
suited  to  the  requirements  of  field-service  in  this 
country.  Scarcely  a  word  in  favor  of  them  is  to  be 
found  in  any  reports  of  the  Medical  Directors  or  Field- 
surgeons.     See  A)nbulance. 

CADASTRAL.— A  term  derived  from  the  French 
word  cadastre,  a  register  of  lands,  or  from  cadrer,  to 
square,  and  signif  jnng  a  survey  on  a  large  scale,  such 
as  has  been  adopted  of  late  years  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe,  and  is  now  used  in  England  in  the  ordnance 
maps.  The  measurement  corresponds  so  nearly  to 
2.5  inches  to  the  mile  that  it  is  usually  spoken  of  as 
the  25-inch  scale.  It  has  the  further  advantage  of 
bearing,  within  a  very  small  frac- 
tion, the  proportion  of  one  inch  to 
an  acre.  A  cadastral  as  opposed  to 
a  topographical  map  may  be  defined 
to  be  one  on  which  the  subjects 
represented  agree,  as  to  their  rela- 
tive position-s  and  dimensions,  with 
the  objects  on  the  face  of  the  coun- 
try; while  a  topographical  map, 
drawn  on  a  .small  .scale,  exaggerates, 
for  the  sake  of  distinctness,  the  di- 
inen.sions  of  houses,  and  the  breadth 
of  roads  and  streams,  and  is,  owing 
to  its  smaller  size,  neces-sarily  less 
-'  '~  correct  than  a  cadastral  plan. 

CADENCE.— 1.  A  unifomi  time 
and  pace  in  marching,  indispensable 
to  the  correct  movements  of  troops  in  large'  bodies. 
2.  In  music,  cadence  is  the  finish  of  a  plira.se,  of 
which  there  are  three  principal  species,  viz.,  the  whole, 
the  half,  and  the  interrupted  cadence.  The  whole 
cadence,  which  finishes  on  the  harmony  of  the  tonic, 
is  also  calletl  the  perfect  cadence,  smd  is  always  used 
at  the  end  of  a  comiiosition,  and  frequently  called  the 
final  cadence.  In  its  most  perfect  use  it  consists  of 
three  chords — the  one  before  the  final  being  always  the 
dominant.   The  half -cadence,  also  called  the  imperfect 


i 


3h 


2?=^ 


-«— i- 


m 


Cadences. 


months  afterwanls,  they  probably  find  its  contents 
undisturbed. 

CACOLET.— A  folding-chair  made  to  he  slung  on  a 
pack-saddle,  one  on  each  side  of  an  animal.     They 


cadence,  istised  to  mark  the  termination  of  an  idea  or 
phrase,  like  the  colon  and  semicolon;  showing  a  con- 
siderable division,  but  at  the  same  time  that  a  continua- 
tion is  neccs-sary.   The  harmony  of  the  half-cadonce  is 


CADENCY. 


263 


CADET. 


the  reverse  of  the  whole  cadence,  as  it  falls  from  the 
tonic  to  the  dominiint,  and  sometimes  to  the  subdomi- 
naut  as  in  a.  In  Uie  mterniptcd  cadence,  the  prepara- 
tion for  the  ordinary  perfect  cadence  is  made;  but  in- 
stead of  the  harmony  of  the  tonic  following  the  domi- 
nant, another  harmony  quite  strange  is  introduoedj  so 
that  the  ear  is  deceived.  The  more  iiarlicular  tlie 
preparation  for  the  usual  cadence  is  made,  the  more 
strange  anil  unexpected  is  the  interruiition,  which  can 
be  made  in  so  many  ways  that  Keicha,  in  las  TmiUi 
de  Haute  Cimiposithn,  Mimcale,  gives  Vl'-i  interrupted 
cadences.     Tliose  generally  in  u.se  are  written  in  b. 

CADENCY.— The  marks  by  which  the  shields  of 
the  younger  members  of  families  are  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  elder,  and  from  each  other,  is  an 
extensive,  and,  in  so  far  as  that  term  can  be  applied 
to  Ueraldrj'  at  all,  an  important  branch  of  the  science. 
No  distinction  is  usually  made  by  writers  on  Heraldrj-, 
and  probably  the  practice  of  heralds  in  general  scarcely 
admits  of  any  being  made,  between  nuokx  of  cadeney, 
differences,  diMinclions,  or  even  bri/mren,  lliough  the 
last  term  is  pretty  constantly,  and  quite  appropriately, 
used  to  include  not  only  ditferences  in  general,  but 
also  abatements  or  bearings  Ijy  which  the  arms  of  the 
family  are  broken  or  diminished.  But  there  is  a 
manifest  convenience  in  the  practice  which  is  usually 
followed  in  Scotland  of  aiiproprialing  the  label,  the 
crescent,  the  mullet,  and  the  rest  of  the  series  of 
marks,  commonly  known  as  marks  of  cadency,  to  the 
purpose  of  distinguishing  the  sons  from  the  father, 
and  from  each  other,  during  the  father's  lifetime; 
and  of  adopting  other  distinctions — such  as  the  bor- 
dure  of  various  kimls,  the  chief  engrailed,  embattled, 
and  the  like,  as  ditferences  between  the  coats  of 
brothers,  after  the  ileath  of  their  father,  and  of  the 
houses  descended  from  them.  Another  very  common 
mode  of  differencing  the  shielils  of  brothers  in  early 
times  was  by  changing  the  tinctures;  but  this  is  now 
regarded  as  too  extensive  a  change  for  such  a  pur- 
pose. The  method  of  differencing  by  means  of  the 
ordinary  marks  of  cailency  will  be  understood  from 
the  accompanying  illustration.  Fanciful  reasons  have 
been  imagined  by  heralds  for  assigning  these  different 


Second  HotU'\ 

Distinction  of  Houses: 

In  the  First  House,  the  first,  secoud.etc.  sons  are  denoted  by 
1,  till-  label;  2.  the  crescent;  .3.  the  mullet;  4.  th«-  martlet; 
5.  the  .innulet;  6.  the  Heurde-lis;  7.  the  rose  inot  flpured  in 
the  cuti;  8.  the  cross  innline;  9.  the  double  qimtrefoil.  In 
the  Second  House,  or  family  of  the  second  son,  the  first 
son  is  denoted  by  (ll  the  crescent,  with  the  label  upon  it; 
the  second,  by  1 2'l  the  crescent,  with  the  crescent  upon  it; 
and  so  on.  lit  the  Tliinl  House,  or  family  of  the  third  son, 
the  first  son  is  denoted  hv  the  mullet,  witli  the  label  upon 
it;  the  second,  by  the  mullet,  with  the  crescent  upon  it; 
and  so  on. 

marks  to  the  different  sons.  The  differences  at  present 
used  by  the  royal  fitmily  will  be  founil  in  most  of  the 
peerages.  The  rule  with  regard  to  them  seems  to  be 
that,  unlike  subjects,  they  all  bear  the  label  of  three 
points  argent;  but  the  label  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  is 
plain,  whilst  those  of  the  other  princes  and  princes,ses 
are  charged  with  crosses,  flemsde-lis,  hearts,  or  other 
figures,  for  the  stike  of  distinction.  One  of  the  most 
frequent  rea.sons  for  matriculating  the  arms  of  the 
vounger  branches  of  f;unilies  <if  distinction  in  the 
Lord  Lyon's  Register,  is  tluit  they  niiiy  lie  jiroperly 
distingiiished  from  those  borne  by  the  head  of  the 
house.     See  Heraldry. 


CADET. — A  term  applied  in  a  general  sense  to  a 
junior  menilier  of  a  noble  family  as  distinguished 
from  the  eldest  ;  and  in  France,  any  officer  junior  to 
another  is  a  Cadet  in  respect  to  him.  In  a  strict  niili- 
tiiry  sense,  however,  a  Cadet  is  a  youth  studying  for 
the  public  service.  In  Englimd,  military  cadelship 
has  presented  two  aspects,  according  as  it  Is  related 
to  the  East  Intlia  Company's  or  to  the  Koyal  service. 
When  the  Company  posse.s.sed  political  and  military 
authority  in  hulia,  there  were  about  5000  English 
officers  in  their  pay.  Those  who  conimandctl  the 
Company's  own  regiments  had  been  professionally 
educated  by  the  ComiJany.  A  youth,  nominated  by 
the  Directors,  was  exammed  as  to  his  protieieney  in 
an  ordinary  English  education,  and  admitted  between 
the  ages  of  14  and  18  to  Atldiseombe  School  or  Col- 
lege, near  Croydon.  If  a  prtibatifin  of  six  months 
residted  satisfactorily,  he  entered  U|)on  a  two  years' 
course  of  study.  If  he  i)as.sed  through  this  ordeal 
well,  he  became  a  Cadet  in  the  Company's  service, 
recei\ing  jiay  or  salarj',  and  Ix'ing  available  for  ser- 
vice in  Inilia,  as  opportunity  might  offer.  The  .sys- 
tem of  Indian  Ciidetsliip  umierwenl  varicais  modilica- 
tions  by  the  introduction  of  comix'tition  in  the 
appointments,  and  by  the  transference  of  the  Com- 
p;niy's  powers  to  the  Crown  ;  and  cciised  in  IHOl, 
when  the  accession  of  fresh  officers  to  the  local  Indian 
armies  was  stopped.  The  second  aspect  of  military 
cadetship  in  England,  adverted  to  above,  is  that  of 
the  Royal  or  t^ueen's  Cadets. 

Cadets  at  the  United  States  Milil.nry  Academy  are 
subject  to  the  Kules  and  Articles  of  War.  Each 
Cadet,  u])on  his  admission,  is  retiuired  to  take  the 
oath  of  office  prescribed  by  Act  of  Congress  of  .luly 
2,  1862,  and  before  rereiring  his  varrnnt  shall,  in 
the  ]iresence  of  the  Sujieriritendent,  or  of  some  officer 
dcimted  by  him,  subscribe  to  an  engagement  in  the 
following  form  ; 

I, ,  of  the  State  of ,  aged years 

months,  having  been  selected  for  appointment  as  a 

Cadet  in  ilie  Military  Academy  of  the  L  uiled  States,  do 
hereby  enjjage.  with  the  consent  of  my  (Parent,  or  Guar- 
dian), in  the  event  of  my  receiving  such  appointment,  that  i 
will  serve  in  the  .\rmy  of  the  United  States  for  eight  years, 
mdess  sooner  discharged  by  competent  authority.    And  "I, 

,  DO  SOLEMNLY  SWEAR,  that  I  will   support  the 

Constitution  of  the  United  Slates,  and  bear  true  allegiance  to 
the  National  Government  ;  that  I  will  nuiintt'iu  and  defend 
tlie  sovereignty  of  the  United  States  paramount  to  any  and 
all  allegiance,  sovereignty,  or  fealty  I  may  owe  to  any  State, 
county,  or  country  whatsoever:  and  that  I  will  at  all  times 
obey  the  legal  orders  of  my  superior  ofllcers  and  the  rules 
and  articles  governing  the  armies  of  the  United  States." 

Sworn  and  subscribed  to,  at ,  this day  of , 

eighteen  hundred  and  ,  before 

The  punishments  to  which  a  Cadet  is  liable  are 
comprised  in  the  three  following  classes,  ^^z. ;  1st. 
Privation  of  recreation,  etc. ;  extra  duty  (not  guard ) ; 
rcpiimands ;  arrests,  or  confinement  to  his  room  or 
tent,  or  in  the  light  prison  ;  reduction  of  officers  or 
non-commissioneil  officers.  2d.  Confinement  in  dark 
prison.  3d.  Suspension  ;  dismission,  with  the  privi- 
lege of  resigning  ;  public  dismission.  The  pmiish- 
ments  of  tht^first  cla.ss  mentioned  may  be  inflicted  by 
the  Superintendent ;  these  of  the  second  class  only  by 
\-irtue  of  the  sentence  of  a  General  Court-Martial, 
except  in  cases  of  mutinous  conduct,  or  breach  of 
arrest ;  and  those  of  the  third  class  only  by  the  Sec- 
retarv  of  War. 

When  a  Ciidet  shall  receive  a  regular  degree  from 

!  the  Academic  Board,  after  going  through  the  clas-ses, 
he  is  considered  as  among  the  candidates  for  a  com- 
mission in  the  Engineers,\)rdnancc.  Artiller> ,  Infan- 

'  try,  or  Cavalry,  according  to  the  <Iuties  he  may  be 
judged   competent    to  perform.      General   ^  mtield 

:  Scott  said  :  "  I  irivc  it  as  my  fixed  (-pinion  that,  l)Ut 
for  our  gradtititeil  Cadets,  the  w:ir  between  the  I  nitetl 
States  aiid  Mexico  might,  and  probably  would,  have 
lasted  some  four  or  live  ve:irs,  with,  in  its  first  half, 
more   defeats  than   victories   falling  to  our    J^'jarp; 

I  whereas,  in  less  than  two  campaigns,  wc  conquered  a 


CADETS'  C0LL£6E. 


264 


CAISSOH. 


great  country  and  a  peace,  without  the  loss  of  a  sin- 
gle battle  orskirmish."  See  Rnyal  MUitary Academy, 
aiiitlAiiml.  iylaff  dAUge,  and  United  Statu  Military 
Aciidiiiiy. 

CADETS'  COLLEGE.— A  college  with  this  desigua- 
tioii  was  establishud  in  18-58  by  a  renuKlelins  of  tlic 
Junior  Department  of  the  Hoyal  Military  C'oUcire  at 
Siindliurst.  Its  objects  were  to  give  a  sound  military 
education  to  youths  intended  for  the  army,  and  to 
facilitate  the  obtaining  of  coniniissious  when  the  edu- 
cation -was  tinished.  The  age  of  admission  was 
between  16  and  19.  The  fiieuds  of  a  youth  able  to 
pay  the  sums  of  money  presently  to  be  named 
applied  to  the  Commander-in-Chief  for  iwrraission  to 
place  the  youth  on  the  list  of  Candidates ;  this  per- 
mission W!is  usually  minted  on  production  of  siitis- 
factorj'  certificates  and  references.  The  youth  might 
go  upfor  examination  on  any  half-year.  The  list  of 
subject.s  included  English  composition.  Continental 
languages,  mathematics,  history,  geograi^hy,  natural 
sciences,  experimental  sciences,  and  drawing.  After 
the  examination,  the  Candidates  were  reported  to  the 
Commander-in-Chief  in  their  order  of  merit.  Those 
who  had  the  most  marks  were  admitted  tis  Cadets  as 
soon  as  vacancies  occurred  in  the  College.  When 
entered,  they  studied  for  two  years  on  a  great  variety 
of  subjects  connected  with  militarj-  science  and  jirac- 
ticc.  The  friend  supjilied  clothing,  books,  and  instru- 
ments. The  annual  payment  for  education,  board, 
and  lodging  varied  from  €100  per  annum  down  to 
£20  ;  the  highest  sum  being  demanded  for  "  the  sons 
of  private  gentlemen,"  while  the  lowest  was  deemed 
sutlicient  for  "  the  sons  of  officers  of  the  army  or 
navy  who  had  died  in  the  ser\ice,  and  whose  fami- 
lies were  proved  to  be  left  in  pecuniar}'  distress." 
Twenty  of  the  youths  were  "Queen's  Cadets,"  sons 
of  officers  "who  had  fallen  in  action,  or  h;id  died 
from  the  elTects  of  active  service,  and  liad  left  their 
families  in  reduced  circumstances."  These  twenty 
Cadets  were  admitted  and  educated  gratuitously. 
This  system  was  abolished  in  1870.  Sul)-lieutenants 
of  cavalry  and  infantrj',  styled  "Student  Officers," 
who  have  done  duty  with  a  regiment  for  about  12 
months,  are  now  required  to  attend  the  College  at 
Sandhurst,  and  go  through  a  course  of  study  for  a 
year.  At  the  end  of  it,  on  passing  a  sjitisfactory 
examination,  they  are  promoteil  to  the  rank  of  Lieu- 
tenant, and  rejoin  tlieir  regiments. 

CAGE  DE  LA  BASCULE^— A  space  into  which  one 
part  of  a  drawbridge  falls,  whilst  the  other  rises  ami 
conceals  the  gate. 

CAIMACAN. — A  Turkish  officer  corresponding  with 
Lieutenant  or  Lieutenant -governor.  The  Cainia- 
can  of  Constantinople  is  the  Lieutenant  of  the  Grand 
Vizier,  whom  he  represents  in  processions.  Such 
officers  also  act  as  Governors  in  the  principal  towns. 
Also  written  Kainuikam. 

CAIRN — CABN. — A  Celtic  word,  signifying  a  pro- 
tuberance, a  heap,  a  pile.  In  that  sen.se  it  appears  in 
the  names  of  hills  and  other  natural  objicts  in  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  Wales,  Cornwall,  and  Brittany. 
It  is  also  applied  to  artificial  heaps  of  unhc\vn 
Stones,  which,  among  arclueologists,  have  come 
to  Ix! generally  known  as  "  cairns."  There  are 
several  kinds  of  cairns.  The  simplest  and 
most  common  form  seems  to  be  a  conical  pile 
of  stones  of  no  great  size.  Next  is  what 
may  be  called  the  fence  or  ringed  cairns — a 
heap  of  stones  girdled  ro\md  by  large  uidiewn 
stones  set  upright  in  the  ground.  Some 
cairns  have  two  and  a  very  few  have  three 
such  concentric  girdles ;  in  some  instances 
there  are  concentric  rows  of  tiiiright  stones 
within  the  cairn.  Many  cairns  are  found  in  the 
7ieightiorhood  of  the  circles  of  \inbewn  stone  pillars 
which  antiipiaries  used  to  style  "  Druidieal.  '  In 
a  few  instances  cairns  .'Wc  found  at  the  end  of 
an  avenue  of  standing  stones.  Some  cairns  arc 
fenced  round  by  a  nan-ow  ditch  and  a  small  earthen 
rampart.     A  verj-  few  cairns  have  unhewn  flat  stones 


on  their  tops ;  a  still  smaller  number  are  surmounted 
by  an  unhewn  stone  pillar.  A  few  are  oblong  in 
shape.  Cairns  were  erected,  doubtless,  for  sevend 
Ijurposcs.  It  appears  from  record  that  they  were 
often  raised  to  distinguish  the  marches  or  boundaries 
of  lands.  One  cairn,  near  Balmond,  on  the  High- 
land Dee,  is  said  to  have  been  erected  as  a  nmstering- 
place  for  the  men  of  Strathdee,  who  took  its  name, 
Ciiirn-na-cuimhne,  or  "  Cairn  of  Remembrance,"  for 
their  slogan  or  war-cry.  In  later  times,  places  where 
great  crimes  had  been  committed  were  marked  by 
cairns  ;  thus,  "  Mushet's  Cairn,"  in  the  Queen's  Park, 
at  Edinburgh,  shows  the  spot  where  a  wife  w;is  mur- 
dered by  her  husband,  under  circumstances  of  pecu- 
liar atrocity,  in  1720.  But  that  the  great  puriwse  of 
the  cairn  was  sepidchnd  is  shown  by  the  human 
remains  found  in  so  many  of  them.  "Dhjectin  et 
erulM,  OSM  iitceniuiitiir,  tl  r/ititjusdam  honor  nominis 
adhuc  manet,"  says  Hobert  Gordon  of  Straloch,  writ- 
ing of  Scotch  cairns  in  IG'A.  "  For  the  cainis  or 
heaps  of  stones  in  several  parts  of  Ireland,"  wrote 
Thady  O'Roddy  in  lt)17,  "  some  of  them  weie  heaped 
as  monuments  of  battles,  some  nwde  in  memory  of 
some  eminent  jiersons  buried  in  such  a  place."  A 
Highland  suppliant  would  have  .said  to  his  bene- 
factor: Curri  mi  eliich  er  do  charne—"  I  will  add  a 
stone  to  your  cairn."  The  bones  found  in  cairns  are 
generally  calcined  or  half-burned,  and  inclosed  either 
in  what  are  called  cists — small  rude  coffins  of  unhewn 
stones — or  in  earns  of  earthenware,  which,  again,  are 
in  many  cases  protected  by  stone  cists.  Along  with 
the  l)ones  are  often  found  flint  arrow-heads,  flint  axe- 
heads,  stone  hammers,  stone  rings,  glass  beads,  im- 
plements of  bone,  bones  of  horses  and  oxen,  spear- 
heads, and  other  weapons  of  bronze.  In  some 
instances  human  Imnes  are  found  unburned,  inclosetl 
in  stone  cists  about  3  feet  long,  or,  more  rarely,  of  the 
full  size  of  a  man.  In  one  case  as  many  as  seventeen 
stone  cists  were  found  in  one  cairn. 

CAISSON. — 1.  A  carriage  used  to  transport  amniu- 
nition;  in  light  field-batteries  there  is  one  caisson  to 
each  piece,  in  heavy  batteries  there  are  two.  The 
ammmiition  is  contained  in  three  chests — two  mounted 
on  the  body,  and  one  on  the  limber.  The  number  of 
rounds  for  each  chest  varies  with  the  caliber  of  the 
piece,  as  follows,  viz. : 

6-pdr.  gun  and  Sinch  rifle-gun 50 

12  pilr.  gun 32 

12-pdr.  howitzer 39 

24-pdr.  howitzer 23 

32-pdr.  howitzer . .  15 

The  whole  number  of  rounds  for  each  piece  may  be 
a.scertained  by  multiiilnng  the  above  numbers  by 
four.  The  caisson  is  comjiosed  of  a  body  and  a  lim- 
ber. The  body  is  composed  of  one  m  iddle  and  two  side 
rails  (1),  one  stock  (2),  and  one  (ulelree  (3).  It  carries 
two  ammunition-chests  (4,  5),  a  spare  ir/ieel  (6),  which 
fits  upon  an  iron  axle  arm  attached  to  the  rear  end  of 
the  middle  rail,  one  spare  pole  (7),  fastened  to  the 


Artillery  Caisson. 

under  side  of  the  stock,  and  a  spare  handspike.  The 
spare  articles  are  neeiled  to  replace  broken  parts. 
The  caisson  also  carries  a  fiiliiig-<ixi ,  sfmnl,  and  jiick- 
a.n\  to  remove  obstructions,  rejiair  roads,  etc.,  a  tar- 
paulin strapix-d  on  to  the  limber-chest,  a  tar-bucket, 
and  a  wati-rinfi-biicket.  See  Field-carriages. 
2.  In  engineering,  a  hollow  bos  of  iron  or  wood, 


CAK£-POWD£B. 


265 


CALCULUS. 


open  at  the  bottom,  sunk  where  piers  arc  to  be  placeil. 
The  largest  caisson  yet  sunk  was  for  the  tower  of  the 
Brooklyn  bridce  on  the  New  York  side.  At  the 
bottom' it  was  172  feet  long  and  102  feet  wide,  with 
an  air-chamber  9+  feet  high,  the  roof  22  feet  thick, 
and  the  sides  carried  up  82  feet  from  the  lower  edge. 
It  had  a  cofferdam  in  the  upper  part;  was  built  of 
timlxT  lineil  with  boiler-iron,  and  bolted  together.  In 
its  construction  there  were  used  of  lumber,  board 
measure,  4,200,000  feet,  and  of  iron,  including  bolts, 
620  tons.  When  completed  it  weighed  13,271  tons, 
and  there  were  30.000  tons  of  masonry  laid  within  it. 
There  were  two  double  air-locks  extending  into  the 
air  chamber,  in  which  were  steam-pipes  to  keep  an 
even  temperature.  Two  shafts  pas.sed  up  through  well- 
holes  in  the  masonry,  with  an  elevator  in  one  jmd  two 
spiral  stairways  in  the  other.  Below  the  lowe.st  edge 
of  the  caisson  extended  two  water-shafts,  each  7i  feet 
in  diameter,  in  which  dredges  and  scoops  grappled 
the  stones  and  soil,  raising  their  loads  to  cars  above, 
which  convej-ed  the  refuse  away.  At  the  same  time 
sand  and  fine  dirt  were  blown  out  by  air-pressure 
through  forty  or  more  pipes  in  various"  parts  of  the 
structure.  The  interior  was  illuminated  by  gas,  and 
constant  communication  by  telegraph  was  kejit  up 
with  the  workmen  inside.  There  were  four  shafts, 
each  2  feet  in  diameter,  for  the  introduction  of  male- 
rial  for  the  concrete  with  which  the  whole  interior 
was  finally  filled.  The  cais,son  was  sunk  78  feet  be- 
low mean  tide,  a  work  that  required  a  presssue  of  34 
pounds  per  square  inch  in  addition  to  the  normal 
pressure  of  air;  and  to  supply  this  addition,  thirteen 
large  compres.sors  were  used.  The  earliest  caissons 
for  such  purposes  were  used  in  England  in  1738-40 
in  laying  the  foundations  of  the  Westminster  bridge 
over  the  Thames. 

CAKE-POWDER.— Gunpowder  which  has  become 
lumpy  from  ha\ing  imbibed  moisture.  In  this  state 
little  permanent  good  can  be  done  to  it  by  reeling  and 
redrying  it,  unless  it  is  u.sed  at  once,  as  after  a  time  it 
absorbs  more  moisture  than  it  did  before;  powder, 
therefore,  in  this  state  should  not  be  re-stowed.  This 
does  not  apply  to  pebble-powder,  the  grains  of  which 
are  too  large  to  cake. 

CALABAS. — An  early  light  form  of  musket  with  a 
■wheel-lock.  Bourne  mentions  it  in  1778.  Also  writ- 
len  Calabuss. 

CALATBAVA. — An  order  of  knighthood  in  Spain, 
instituted  at  Calatrava.  The  statutes  of  the  Order, 
framed  by  the  C'hai)ter-general  of  the  Cistercian 
monks,  were  sjmctioned  by  the  Bishop  of  Toledo  in 
1164,  and  afterwards  by  the  Pope.  At  subsequent 
periods  manj-  pri\'ileges  were  adtled  After  the  death 
of  the  king,  their  patron,  some  of  the  knights  were 
no  longer  willing  to  obey  the  abbot,  and  they  conse- 
quently separateil  themselves  from  the  monks,  and 
elected  a  Grand-master,  Don  Garcias  dc  Redon.  At 
a  later  period  they  again  united  themselves  to  the 
Cistercians,  after  they  had  gained  rich  possessions 
from  the  floors  both  in  S[)ain  and  Portugal.  When 
Castile  had  fallen  into  anarchy,  and  the  other  king- 
doms were  exhausting  themselves  by  internal  feuds, 
the  war  against  the  unbelievers  was  almost  entire- 
ly carried  on  by  the  Knights  of  Calatrava.  Their 
almost  uniform  success,  however,  gave  rise  to  rash- 
Bcs-s;  the  knights  were  defeated  by  Emir  Jacob  Ih'Ii 
Yuseff,  nearly  all  of  them  perished,  and  Calatrava 
■was  occupied  by  the  Moors.  After  this  disaster  the 
knights  transferred  their  seat  to  the  Castle  of  Salva- 
tierra,  by  the  name  of  which  they  passed  for  a  long 
time  afterwards.  A  truce  of  twelve  years  ha\ing  been 
concluded,  during  which  the  order  was  re\"ived,  the 
knights  were  able,  at  the  battle  of  Las  Navas  de  To- 
losa^  in  1212,  again  to  turn  the  tide  in  favor  of  the 
Christians.     Thev  then  returned  to  CalatRiva. 

CALCANS.— The  bucklers  of  the  Turks.  These 
were  worn  and  so  called  durins  the  Jliddle  Ages. 

CALCINATION  — CALCINING.— The  process  of 
heating  or  roasting  in  furnaces  or  in  heaps  the  various 
nietallic  ores.    It  is  resorted  to  as  the  fii^st  stage  in 


I  the  extraction  of  the  majority  of  the  common  metals 
from  their  ores,  and  is  essentially  a  process  of  oxida- 
tion. 

CALCIUM. — The  metal  present  in  chalk,  stucco,  and 
other  compounds  of  lime.  It  maj'  be  obtained  by 
passing  a  powerful  current  of  voltaic  electricity 
through  fused  chloride  of  calcium  (CaCl),  when  the 
metal  si'parates  in  minute  globules.  It  is  a  yellowidi- 
white  metal,  can  be  rolled  into  .sheets,  anil  hammered 
into  leaves,  and  is  intennediate  between  lead  and  gold 
in  hardness.  It  is  represented  by  the  symlwl  Ca,  has 
the  atomic  weight  or  equivalent  30  (new  system,  40), 
and  luis  the  density  1..578,  or  nearly  half  as  heaNy 
again  as  water.  At  ordinary  tcmiwratures  it  slowly 
tarnishes  by  oxidation;  and  when  placed  in  contact 
with  water  it  rapidly  decomposes  the  water  (HO), 
forming  lime  (CaO),  whilst  hydrogen  escaix;s.  To  be 
retained  bright,  calcium  must  Ije  kept  under  the  sur- 
face of  naphtha.  At  a  red  heat  it  melts  and  bums 
with  a  dazzling  white  light,  accompanied  bj^  scintil- 
lations. 

CALCULUS. — The  infinitesimal  calculus,  otherwise 
sometimes  called  the  transcendental  analysis,  is  a 
branch  of  mathematical  science  which  commands,  by 
one  general  method,  the  most  difiieult  jiroblems  in 
gunnery  and  physics.  The  merit  of  the  invention  of 
this  powerful  mathematical  instrvmient  has  been 
claimed  for  Leilinitz,  but  is  undoubtedly  due  with 
equal  justice  to  Xcwton,  who  laid  the  fovmdations  for 
it  in  that  celebrated  section  of  his  Pi-ineipia  in 
which  he  demonstrates  the  chief  theorems  reg:irding 
the  ultimate  values  or  limits  of  the  ratios  of  variable 
quantities.  The  \iew  of  one  cla.ss  of  writers  is  that 
these  distinguished  men  invented  the  calcidus  simul- 
taneously and  independently;  audit  is  the  fact  that 
Leibnitz's  system  is  unfolded  from  premises  differing 
somewhat  from  those  of  Newton.  Another  class  of 
writers  hold  that  Newton  is  the  real  inventor,  and 
that  to  Leibnitz  no  more  can  be  conce<ied  than  that 
he  was  the  first  who,  using  the  suggestions  of  New- 
'  ton's  genius,  gave  a  svstematic  statement  to  the  i>rin- 
ciple  of  the  transcendental  analjsis,  and  invented  its 
appropriate  sjTTibolic  language.  He  had  the  doctrine 
of  limits  before  him  when  lie  wrote,  and  did  little 
more  than  unfold  more  fully  the  logic  of  the  processes 
therein  suggested,  and  exhibit  them  in  algebniical 
fonns.  The  calculus  is  oidy  apiilicable  where  num- 
Iwrs  have  the  continuous  character— i.e.,  where  they 
are  or  may  be  conceived  as  being  variable.  If  two 
unknown  quantities  are  connected  by  a  single  equa- 
tion only,  we  clearly  have  the  condition  sjitisfied,  as 
I  where  y  and  j  are  connected  Ity  the  equation 

where  i'^is  a  sign  denoting  some/M«c?WH  of  x,  as  tan. 
I  r,  COS.  J-,  T-,  etc.  This  equality  "may  be  satisfietl  by 
innumerable  values  of  y  and  .r.  One  question  which 
the  calculus  solves  is,  how  does  >/\nTy  when  j- varies? 
To  solve  it,  and  at  the  s;une  time  show  how  the  doc- 
trine of  limits  affects  the  definition  of  a  differential, 
suppose  r,  y.  and  x  +  Dj;  y  +  Dy,  to  lie  two  paira 
of  values  of  the  variables  which  satisfy  the  above 
equation;  then 

(2)    y  =  F(i\    and  (3)    y  +  By  =  F{x  +  Dx). 
From  (2)  and  (3)  we  have,  by  subtraction, 
(4)     Dy  =  F(x  +  J>x)  —  Fix); 
whence  we  have  the  ratio 

Dy      F(x+Dx)-F(x) 

Dx~  Dx 

#his  ratio  will  generallv  change  in  value  as  Dx  and 
Dy  dimini-sh,  till,  as  t"hey  both  vanish,  which  they 

must  do    simultaneously,   it    assumes  the  form  ^. 

Taking  this  form,  it  ceases  to  have  a  determinate 
actual  value,  and  it  Is  necessary  to  resort  to  the 

'  method  of  limits  to  ascertain  the  value  to  which  it 
was  approachins  as  Dx  and  Dy  approached    zero. 

1  Let,  then,  dx  atkl  dy  be  any  quantities  whose-  rano 


CALEBASSEBIE. 


266 


CALIBEB. 


dx^ 


F"{x), 


is  equal  to  the  limiliug  ratio  of  the  iucrcments  Dx, 
Dy,  so  that 

|^  =  Umit^ 
tlx  Dx 

as  Di  and  Dy  approach  zero.  Then  dx  and  dy  arc 
the  diffeR'ntials  of  x  and  y.  It  may  ho  observed  that 
where  x  and  y  are  connected  as  above  they  cannot 
vary  independently  of  one  another.  In  the  case  as- 
suincd,  X  has  been  taken  aswliat  is  calhdthe  iiide]Kn- 
dent  variable,  the  question  being,  how  does  y  vary 
when  X  varies'/  If  .v  were  made  the  inde|X'ndent  van- 
able,  it  -would  be  "necessary  to  solve  the  equation 
y  =  F(x),  if  possible,  so  as  to  express  x  in  terms  of 
y.    The  result  would  be  an  equation  x  =  ip(y).     This 

beincr  obtained,  we  should  find  —-  =  limit  ^^  as  be- 

^  dy  py 

fore.  It  will  be  seen  that  on  this  view  differentials 
are  defined  merely  by  their  nitio  to  one  another. 
Their  actual  magnitude  is  perfectly  arbitrary.  This, 
however,  does  not  rentier  an  equation  involving  dif- 
ferentials indetenninate,  since  their  relative  magni- 
tude is  definite,  and  since,  from  the  nature  of  the 
definition,  a  differential  cannot  appear  on  one  side  of 
an  equation  without  another  connected  with  it  appear- 
ing on  the  other. 

The  idea  of  a  differential  being  once  comprehend- 
ed, the  reader  will  be  able  to  understand,  in  a  gen- 
eral w-ay,  the  main  divisions  of  the  calculus,  which 
we  shall  now  briefly  delineate.  So  nmch  is  clear 
from  what  has  been  stated,  that  there  must  be  two 
main  di\isions — one  by  which,  the  primary  quantities 
being  known,  we  may  determine  their  differentials; 
and  another  by  which,  knowing  the  differentials,  we 
may  detect  the  primary  quantities.  These  divisions 
constitute  the  Differentiiil  Calculus  and  Integral  Cal- 
culus respectively. 

1.  The  Differential  Calculus. — Recurring  to  the 
formula  already  given,  we  know 

dy      ,.    .by      ,.       F(x  +  Dx)  —  F{x) 

-f-  =  limit  ^  =  limit  -— ^ — ■ — =,- ^—. 

dx  Dx  Dx 

It  is  clear  that,  in  the  general  case, 

F(,x  +  Dx)  —  F{x) 

Dx 

at  the  limit  will  still  be  some  function  of  .r.     Calling 

it  F(x),  we  have  generally  ~-  =  ^'i')-     ^'(f)   is 

called  the  first  differential  coefflcient  of  y  or  F(x). 
Being  a  function  of  x,  it  may  be  again  differentiated. 
The  result  is  written 


F"ir)  being  the  second  differential  coefficient  of  y  or 
F{_x);  and  again  F  '{x)  may  be  a  function  of  x,  and 
so  capable  of  differentiation.  Now  it  is  the  object  of 
the  differential  calculus  to  show  how  to  obtam  the 
varioiis  differentials  of  those  few  simiile  functions  of 
quantity  which  are  recognized  in  analysis,  whether  ; 
they  are  presented  singly  or  in  any  forni  of  combina- 
tion. Such  functions  are  the  siim,  dilTerence,  pro- 
duct, and  quotient  of  variables,  and  their  powers  and 
roots;  exponentials,  logarithms;  and  direct  and  in- 
verse circtilar  functions.  The  calculus  so  far  is  com- 
plete as  we  can  differentiate  anv  of  those  functions  or 
any  combination  of  them— whetlier  the  functions  l)e 
explicit  or  implicit;  and  with  equal  case  we  may  dif- 
ferentiate fheni  a  second  or  any  niimlx'r  of  times. 
This  calculus  is  capable  of  many  interesting  appli- 
cations as  to  problems  of  maxima  and  minima,  llilk 
tracing  of  curves,  etc.,  which  cannot  here  be  particu- 
larly noticed. 

2.  T/ie  Integral  Calculus  deals  with  the  inverse  of 
the  former  problem.  The  former  was:  Given  F{x), 
to  find  F\x),  F  ■  (.r),  and  so  on.  The  present  is  iii 
the  simplest  case — viz.,  that  of  an  explicit  function: 

Given  -£  =  F'(x),  to  find  F(x).    The  methods  of  the 


integral  calculus,  iiLstead  of  being  general,  are  little 
better  than  artifices  suited  to  particular  cases;  no 
]>opular  view  can  be  given  of  these.  In  many  cases 
inlegnition  is  (juite  inijx)ssible.  The  e.xi)lanation  of 
iulegratioH  by  juirlg,  by  approxiiiuttion,  defiiite  inte- 
grals, and  singular  solutiitns,  is  far  beyond  the  scope 
of  the  present  work.  The  reader  is  referred  to  any 
of  the  numerous  text-books  on  the  subject.  The  in- 
tegral calculus  has  a|)plicalions  in  almost  eveiy 
branch  of  mathematical  and  physical  science.  It  is 
specially  of  use  in  determining  the  lengths  of  curved 
lines,  the  areas  of  curvetl  surfaces,  and  the  solid  con- 
tents of  regular  solids  of  whatever  form.  The  whole 
of  the  lunar  and  planetary  theories  may  be  lie.scribed 
as  an  aiiiilication  of  the  integral  calculus,  especially 
of  that  branch  of  it  which  deals  with  the  integration 
of  differential  equations.  It  is  applied,  too,  in  hydro 
statics  and  hyilrodynamics,  antl  in  the  .sciences  of 
light,  sound,  and  heat.  In  short,  it  is  an  instrument 
without  which  most  of  the  leading  triumphs  iu  phy- 
sical science  could  never  have  been  achieved. 

CALEBASSERIE.— A  Belgian  method  of  remelting 
iron  in  a  sort  of  cupola  furnace,  with  good  results. 

CALIBER— CALIBRE.— A  technicar  name  for  the 
diameter  of  the  bore  of  a  fire-arm.  whether  a  piece  of 
ordnance  or  a  small-arm.  The  ordnance  from  which 
solid  shot  are  projected  are  usually  denoted  by  the 
weight  of  each  shot,  as  24-pounder,  68-pounder,  etc.; 
but  mortars,  and  such  guns  as  i)roject  shell  or  hollow 
shot,  are  more  usually  denoted  by  the  caliber,  such 
as  13-inch  mortar,  10-inch  shell-gun,  etc.  The  cali- 
ber of  the  chief  kinds  of  tire-arms  will  be  noticed 
under  the  proper  headings;  l)Ut  it  may  here  be  ob- 
served, generally,  that  the  caliber  of  ordnance  has 
been  greatly  increased  ^^^thin  the  last  fifty  yeai-s, 
partly  by  boring  up  old  guns  and  partlj-  by  casting 
new. 

Three  important  points  are  to  be  considered  in  de- 
termining the  caliber  of  small-arms  :  1st.  The  cali- 
ber should  be  as  small  as  po.ssible,  to  enable  the  sol- 
dier to  carry  the  greatest  nuni1)er  of  cartridges;  with 
the  present  calilxT,  the  number  of  musket-cartridges 
is  limited  to  40;  the  total  weight  of  which  is  about 
31  lbs.  2d.  To  diminish  the  amoimt  of  ammuuitioa 
required  to  supply  the  wants  of  an  army,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  confusion  that  is  liable  to  arise  from  a  vari- 
ety of  calibers,  there  should  not  be  more  than  two 
for  all  arms  of  the  same  service,  viz.,  one  for  the 
musket  and  one  for  the  pistol.  3d.  This  ijoint  relates 
to  the  force  and  accuracy  of  the  projectile.  The  in- 
troduction of  elongated  projectiles  affords  the  means 
of  increasing  the  accuracy  and  range  of  fiBe-arms, 
without  increasing  the  weight  of  the  projectile,  sim- 
ply by  reducing  the  caliber,  which  diminishes  the 
surface  opposed  to  the  air.  Too  great  reduction  of 
caliber,  however,  gives  a  very  long  and  weak  jtrojec- 
tile;  and  besides,  the  effect  of  a  projectile  on  an 
animate  object  depends  not  oidy  on  its  ix'iietration, 
but  on  the  shock  communicated  by  it  to  the  nervous 
system,  or  upon  the  surface  of  contact.  A  projectile 
of  very  small  caliber,  having  but  little  inertia,  docs 
not  expand  well  into  the  grooves  of  the  bore  by  the 
action  of  the  ]x)wder;  it  is  not,  therefore,  suited  to 
the  present  method  of  loailing  at  the  muz;'.Ie. 

Tile  caliber  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  will  be  deter- 
mined to  a  great  extent  by  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  intended.  It  is  necessiuy  in  the  first  [ilace  to  de- 
cide the  amoimt  of  powiler  in  the  charge,  and  how 
much  ex|>ansive  action  is  to  be  allowed  for  each 
))Ound  of  powder.  The  interior  capacity  of  the  bore 
being  determineii.  the  question  then  is  to  fix  the  rela- 
tion between  the  diameter  and  length.  The  ca|>aeity 
increases  with  the  square  of  the  former  and  with  the 
first  jiower  of  the  latter.  The  solution  of  this  prob- 
lem will  be  hirgely  govi  rned  by  considerations  affect- 
ing the  projectile.  Assuming  its  weight  to  be  fixed, 
its  length  will  determine  it-s  diameter,  so  that  a  long 
shot  implies  a  small  bore.  A  lengthened  projectile 
has  both  advantages  and  disaiivantages:  It  meets  with 
less  atmosiiheric  resistance  and  therefore  loses  le&s. 


CALIBER-COUFASS. 


26; 


CALLING  FOETH  MILITIA. 


energy  in  its  flight.  It  has  greater  penetration  be- 
cause it  has  a  smaller  hole  to  make.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  lengthening  of  a  shot  increa-ses  its  tendency 
to  crush  or  break  ou  striking.  Used  as  a  shell  a  long 
projectile  contains  le.ss  powder  than  a  short  one  of 
equal  weight  and  larger  diameter,  and  is  more  liable 
to  break  by  impact  before  explosion.  Finally,  a  long 
projectile  re(piires  more  rapid  rotation  to  steady  it, 
and  this  involves  a  greater  expenditure  of  power  in 
producing  rotation.  The  question  of  Cidiber  is  there- 
tore  a  very  complex  one,  and  it  can  only  be  settled 
by  a  compromise  of  conflicting  considerations.  The 
tendency,  recently,  lias  been  towaril  a  reduction  in 
the  caliber  of  guns  for  armor-piercing,  this  accom- 
panied, however,  by  a  proportional  great  increase  of 
power.     See  Cdnwiii  antl  Ordiianee. 

CALIBER-COMPASS.— A  form  of  calipers  adapted 
to  measure  the  sizes  of  bores.  Another  kind  is  used 
for  measuring  shot  and  shell.  Also  written  Culiper- 
coiiipiinx.     See  Ci(///)(7's  and  Shell-gau{)c: 

CALIBEE-BULE. — A  gunner's  calipers,  having  two 
scales  to  delermine  the  weight  of  a  ball  from  its  diam- 
eter, and  con\ersely.     Also  WTittcn  Cnlibrc-ride. 

CALICO  BAGS.— A  nature  of  bag  used  in  England, 
in  and  attached  to  the  interior  of  metal-lined  and 
brass  pentagon  cases,  for  the  preservation  of  loose 
powder  in  a  damp  climate  when  it  cannot  be  pre- 
served in  ordinary  baiTcIs. 

CALIGAE.— A  "kind  of  half -boots  worn  by  the  Ro- 
man soldiers.  Such  soldiers  were  sometimes  called 
CnU(jiiti. 

CALIPERS. — An  instnmient,  jointed  like  a  pair  of 
dividers,  but  with  arched  legs,  and  adajited  for 
taking  the  diameters  of  convex  or  concave  bodies. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  an  artificer  of 
Nuremberg  in  1.540.  Numerous  instruments  of  this 
cla.ss  have  been  devised  for  different  clas.ses  of  work. 
Gunners'  calipers  are  intended  for  measuring  the 
bore  or  caliber  of  guns  and  projectiles.  A  scale  like 
a  sliding-rule  has  different  sets  of  numbers  engraved 
on  it,  to  exhibit  the  corresponding  diameters  in  inches 
and  weights  in  pounds.  The  graduation  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  rule  that  with  balls  of  the  same 
metal  the  weights  of  the  balls  are  as  the  cubes  of 
their  diameters.  Calipers  for  insjiecting  hollow  pro- 
jectiles comprise  those  for  measuring  the  thickness 
of  metal  at  the  bottom,  at  the  .sides,  and  at  the  fuse- 
hole  reinforce.  The  first  consists  of  a  semicircular 
arm  having  a  diametrical  sliding  index;  the  second, 
of  a  .similar  arm  pivoted;  and  the  third,  of  a  gradu- 
ated bar  with  a  stationarj-  and  a  sliding  toe. 

The  drawing  shows  a  micrometer  caliper  adapted  for 
the  small  work  in  the  arsenal.     For  all  sizes  less  than 


Micrometer  Caliper. 

one  inch  diameter  this  caliper  will  be  found  a  reliable 
and  convenient  substihite  for  the  vernier  caliper, 
and  will  prove  invaluable  to  armorers  engaged  on 
small  ami  fine  work.  The  binding  and  adjusting 
screws  furnish  the  ready  means  of  compensating  for 
any  wear  resulting  from  use.  Being  small  and  light, 
it  can  be  used  as  a  pocket-tool.  Although  graduated 
to  read  to  thousandths  of  an  inch,  half  and  quarter 
thousandths  are  readily  obtained. 

A  calipers  designed  especially  for  ti.sc  in  connec- 
tion with  the  construction  of  tubes  for  8  inch  con- 
verted rifles  consists  of  a  curved  steel  plate  and  two 
attached  measuring-points  movable  along  the  same 


right  line.  One  of  these  points  is  fastened  to  n  rod 
which  slides  in  a  socket  attached  to  the  steel  plate. 
The  rod  is  designed  to  occupy  one  of  two  positions, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  diameters  to  be  measured, 
and  is  secured  in  either  of  these  positions  by  a  clamp- 
screw.  At  the  other  end  of  the  curved  plate  Ihc 
second  measuring- point  tenninates  a  graduated  limb, 
which,  'oy  lyeans  of  a  vernier  and  sliding  microscoix-, 
can  be  read  to  .001  inch.  This  linil)  is  fitted  with  a 
clamp  and  slow-motion  screw,  and  has  two  sets  of 
graduations,  the  one  above  the  other;  the  lower  read 
from  about  9  inches  to  14  inches,  and  the  upper 
from  about  12  inches  to  17  inches.  The  lower 
graduations  arc  used  when  the  rod  opposite  is  pushed 
in  and  clamped  at  its  inner  limit;  the  upper  gradua- 
tions, when  the  rod  is  pulled  out  and  clamped  at  its 
outer  limit.  In  making  nice  measurements,  it  is  in- 
dispensable that  the  plane  of  the  instrument  Vie  kept 
at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  tube.  This  is 
secured  by  a  wooden  guide,  which  is  held  in  rear 
of  the  instnmient  and  is  slid  along  the  tul)e  from 
one  position  to  another.  The  ba.se  of  the  guide  has 
the  same  curvature  as  the  exterior  of  the  tube,  and  is 
held  firmly  upright  by  two  projecting  amis  extend- 
ing in  rear  from  either  side,  and  which  rest  on  the 
surface  of  the  tulx-.  By  keeping  the  curved  plate  of 
the  calipers  in  contact  with  the  face  of  the  guide,  its 
true  position  is  secured.  See  Gauge  and  Iimpection 
of  Ordriancf. 

CALIVEB. — A  hand  gun  or  arquebuse — supposed 
by  many  to  be  the  old  name  for  the  matchlock  or 
carabine.  It  was  so  called  because  the  bore  was  of  a 
fixed  size,  in  order  that  the  common  stock  of  bullets 
might  fit  everj'  piece  in  a  regiment.  It  was  of 
greater  caliber  than  the  arquebu.se,  was  lighter  than 
the  musket,  and  was  fired  without  a  rest. 

CALK. — A  projection  from  a  shoe  or  clog  which 
digs  into  the  ice  or  frozen  grounil  to  prevent  slipping. 
The  word  is  al.so  allied  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  word 
calc,  a  shoe;  or  the  Latin  calrar,  a  spur.  In  a  horse- 
shoe the  calk  consists  of  a  downward  projection  from 
the  heel,  made  by  turning  over  the  iron  of  the  heel  and 
I  sharpening  it.  The  calk  attached  to  a  boot  consists 
of  a  plate  with  spui-s  which  project  a  little  below  the 
i  heel. 

j  CALL. — A  niilitarj-  musical  term,  meaning  a  signal 
on  the  drum,  bugle,  or  trumpet  for  the  assembling 
of  troops,  etc. 

CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA.— Congress  has  power 
to  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the 
laws  of  the  Union,  suiipress  insurrections,  and  repel 
invasions.     By  Act  of  Congress,  February  28,  179.5, 
the  President  is  authorized  to  call  forth  the  militia 
whenever — "  1.  The  United  States  shall 
be  invaded  or  be  in  his  judgment  in  im- 
minent danger  of  invasion  (from  any 
foreign  nation  or  Indian  tribe);  and  to 
issue  his  orders  for  that  purpose  to  such 
officer  or  officers  of  militia  as  he  may 
think  proper.     2.  In  cjise  of  an  insur- 
rection in  any  State  against  the  govern- 
ment  thereof,   on  application  of    the 
Legislature  of  such  State,   or  of   the 
Executive  (when   llie  Legislature  cjin- 
not   be   convened).     3.   AN  henever  the 
laws  of    the    United    States  shall   be 
opposed,  or  the  execution  thereof  ob- 
structed in  any    Stale,  by   combinations  too  [wwcr- 
fiil    to    be    supi>res,scd   "by    the   ordinary-   course   of 
judicial  proceedings,  or  by  the  powers  vested  in  the 
Marshals;  but  whenever  it  may  be  necessarj-,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  President,  to  me  the  military  force 
hereby  directed  to  be  called  forth  in  case  of  insurrec- 
j  tion  or  obstruction  to  the  laws,  the  President  shall 
j  forthwith,  by  proclamation,  command   such   iiisur- 
j  gents  to  disperse,  and  retire  peacealdy  to  their  re- 
I  spective  abodes  within   a  limited   time."     In  cases 
where  it  is  lawful  for  the  President  to  call  forth  the 
militia,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  him  to  employ  for  the 
!  same  purposes  such  part  of  the  land  or  naval  forcea 


•CALONES. 


268 


CAMEL. 


of  the  Uiiitetl  States  as  shall  be  judged  necessjir}', 
flaring  Jirst  obgerrtd  all  tlu  prerequmUa  of  the  law  in 
that  rifij)>ft.     See  Militia. 

CAL0NE8.— A  term  aiiiilicd  to  menials  of  the  Ro- 
man armies;  also  slaves  beloiiffin,!?  to  the  lioman  sol- 
diers, wild  followed  their  masters  to  the  wars. 

CALOSIEKS.— Soldiers  of  aneieiit  KjrM>l.  "ho  with 
the  Ilcrmotvbes  composi'd  the  particular  jruard  of 
tin-  Uiiiir, 

CALOTTE.— The  back  pl^ite  of  a  sword-handle;  the 
cap  of  a  pistol;  a  s|ieeies  of  skull-cap  worn  by  French 
cavalry,  sjiber-proof  and  made  of  iron  or  dressed 
leather. 

CALOTTES.— Caps  and  iron  fniraeworks  of  the 
sevenleenlh  and  ci^diteenlh  centuries,  which  were 
used  inside  other  hat-;  or  helmets. 
CALTHOBP— CALTHEOP.— An  obstacle  in  military 
■warfare,  consisting  of  a 
fourjironged  piece  of 
iron,  each  (jroni;  about 
four  inches  in  length. 
When  it  is  wished  to 
check  the  approach  of 
the  enemy's  cavalry 
over  a  plain,  or  of  his 
besiegers  in  the  ditch 
of  a  fortification,  cal- 
thorps  are  sometimes 
thrown  down ;  from 
their  shape,  one  prong 
is  sure  to  stand  up- 
right, and  may  work  terrible  mischief  to  the  enemy's 
horses  or  men.  Obstacles  of  other  kinds  having  the 
same  object  In  view,  as  small  pickets,  are  sometimes 
used.  Ordinuiy  harrows  turned  upside  down  with 
the  teeth  ui>wards  and  the  frames  buried;  planks 
with  spikes  driven  into  them,  placed  so  as  to  have  the 
points  upwards,  etc.,  may  be  used  when  practicable. 
Also  written  (/altraji.     See  Croif's-feti. 

CALTHKOP  KNIFE.— A  weapon  about  nine  inches 
long,  used  in  Saxony  during  the  Seven  Years'  War. 
These  knives  were  screwed  on  to  beams  of  wood  and 
placed  under  water  in  moats.  The  hole  in  the  blade 
wa-s  intended  to  put  a  piece  of  stick  through,  so  as  to 
form  a  handle  to  screw  the  knife.  Sometimes  writ- 
ten Culth/irp  Knife. 

CALUMET.— the  peace-pipe  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians.  It  is  a  tobacco-pipe  having  a  stem  of 
reed  about  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  decorated  with 
locks  of  women's  hair  and  feathers,  and  a  large  bowl 
of  polished  marble.  It  plays  an  important "jiart  in 
the  conclusion  of  treaties,  of  which,  indeed,  it  may 
be  descrilied  as  the  ratifier.  After  a  treaty  has  been 
signed,  the  Indians  till  the  calumet  with  the  best  to- 
bacco, and  present  it  to  the  representatives  of  the 
parly  with  whom  they  have  been  entering  into  alli- 
ance, themselves  smoking  out  of  it  afterwards.  The 
presentation  of  it  to  strangers  is  a  mark  of  hospitality, 
and  to  refuse  it  would  be  considered  an  act  of  hostili- 
ty. When  a  tribe  wishes  to  go  to  war,  messengers 
are  sent  to  numerous  other  tribes  asking  for  warriors 
for  the  expedition.  The  calumet  (sacred  and  public 
projierty)  goes  with  the  missi<jn.  'l''he  whole  subject 
is  thoroughly  discussed  in  council,  and  such  tribes  as 
grant  the  request  accept  the  pii)e  and  smoke. 

CAM.— In  gun-machinery,  a  curved  plate  or  groove 
bv  which  motion  is  communicated  and  controlled. 
The  movini:  plate  or  groove  is  a  drirer  ;  the  rod,  bar, 
or  other  thing  moved  is  called  the  foWnrer.  The  fol- 
lower is  held  against  the  driver  by  it.s  weight,  or  by  a 
.spring  or  other  device.  The  rariii  of  the  driver  "de- 
termine by  their  length  the  motion  of  the  follower, 
and  the  angles  which  they  make  with  some  one, 
chosen  us  a  i)a.se  of  calculation,  lix  the  time  at  which 
change  of  lufition  occurs.  For  example,  it  may  be 
desired  that  the  follower  shall  move  upward,  and 
then  downward,  with  a  uniform  velocity.  From  the 
center  of  the  driver  any  convenient  number  of  radii 
may  be  drawn,  dividing  equally  the  ;i()()  of  angidar 
space.     On  one  of  these  radii  we  mark  the  distance 


from  the  center  of  the  driver  at  which  the  jwint  of 
the  follower  will  stand  when  in  its  position  nearest  to 
that  center.  Upon  the  op])osite  radius,  distant  18t>' 
from  the  tirst,  the  point  is  marked  which  gives  the 
farthest  position  of  the  follower;  the  dilTerence  be- 
tweer.  the.se  radii  being  divided  into  as  many  equal 
l>arls  as  we  have  made  angular  spaces  in  the  180', 
we  increase  the  length  of  each  radius  in  succession, 
beginning  with  tlie  shortest,  by  one  of  thosi'  parts, 
ami  «'c  draw  a  curve  connecting  the  ends  of  the  radii 
so  terminated.  Of  course  the  greater  the  number  of 
parts  chosen  for  the  division  of  the  angular  space  and 
of  the  diifereiice  of  the  first  and  last  radii,  the  more 
accinately  will  the  curve  !«■  drawn.  The  edge  of  the 
driving-plale  being  cut  to  this  curve,  the  follower  be- 
ing made  to  press  couslantlj-  ag-ainst  it,  and  the  driver 
being  turned  with  a  uniform  rotation,  the  follower 
will  move  through  its  limited  space  with  an  equable 
motion,  because  the  radii  of  the  driver  increase  by 
constant  amounts,  at  constant  intervals  of  time.  If 
the  curve  is  reverseil,  the  second  part  being  the  sym- 
metrical opposite  of  the  first  ])art,  the  follower  will 
descenil  as  uniformly  as  it  rose.  The  cam  thus 
drawn  is  one  of  frequent  use,  and  is  called  the  heart- 
shaped  cam.  To  avoid  friction  the  end  of  the  fol- 
lower often  carries  a  roller  which  works  against  the 
surface  of  the  cam;  in  this  case  the  cam-surface  is 
found  by  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  that  above  de- 
sciibed,  at  a  constant  distance  equal  to  the  radius  of 
the  roller.  If  we  wish  the  follower  to  rest  at  any 
part  of  a  cycle  of  motion,  the  radii  for  that  time  will 
be  made  equal,  and  the  corresponding  cam  surface 
will  be  a  circular  arc;  the  time  will  be  such  a  part  of 
that  of  a  complete  cycle  as  the  angle  between  the 
radii  of  the  ends  of  this  arc  is  of  360  .  The  cam- 
plate  has  .sometimes  a  groove  cut  upon  its  fl.at  side, 
and  the  end  of  the  follower  runs  in  the  groove.  A 
spiral  groove  m;iy  be  cut  into  the  surface  of  a  cylin- 
der as  in  a  screw;  if  a  follower  be  inserted  in  this 
groove  it  will  be  driven  forward  as  the  cylinder 
turns;  when  the  groove  reaches  the  end  of  the  cylin- 
der, it  may  turn  back,  and  cause  the  follower  to  re- 
turn with  the  same  motion,  or  if  the  pitch  of  the 
groove  be  made  shorter  or  longer,  the  return  of  the 
follower  will  be  changed  accordingly.  By  a  judicious 
construction  and  arrangement  of  cams,  almost  every 
variety  of  motion  may  be  jiroduced  with  the  greatest 
precision  as  to  time  and  amount.  A  cam-form  which 
does  not  make  a  complete  revolution,  but  after  monng 
a  short  distance  in  one  direction  oscillates  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  is  called  a  !ry»r.  A  familiar  exam- 
ple may  be  seen  in  the  engine-room  of  a  steamlwat.  in 
the  rocking  arms  which  raise  and  let  fall  the  valve- 
rods.  See  the  various  descriptions  of  gun-machinery 
and  engines  throughout  this  work. 

CAMAIL. — A  neck-guard  of  chain,  added  to  the 
baseinet.  The  word  is  either  corrupted  from  cap- 
mail  or  owes  its  origin  to  the  camail  resembling  the 
lower  part  of  the  capuchon,  ciaumonly  worn  by  all 
classes,  but  which  among  the  higher  ranks  was  made 
of  camel's  hair,  and  therefure  termed  cuincliii  by  the 
French,  from  whence  our  word  cmnlit.  afterwards 
applied  lo  ;ni  inferior  slutT  made  in  imitation  of  it. 

CAMBRIDGE  ASYLUM.— A  charitable  institution 
fotmd(  il  by  the  father  of  the  ])re.sent  Puke  of  Cam- 
bridge to  form  a  home  for  one  widow  of  each  British 
regiTuent.  It  is  not  yet  comiileted,  and  is  only  capa- 
ble of  receiving,  at  jiresent,  about  fifty  widows. 

CAMEL. — The  camel  is  of  great  value  as  a  ])ack- 
animal,  and  is  admirably  adajMed  for  carrying  long 
articles,  such  as  .scaling-ladders,  ponlcms,  etc.  Of  the 
two  species,  that  known  as  the  Arabian  camel  has 
only  one  hump  on  the  back,  whilst  the  Bactrian 
camel  has  two.  Some  confusion  has  arisen  from  the 
occa.sional  employment  of  the  name  dromeihirji  as  a 
designation  of  the  lurtuer  species,  il  being,  however, 
more  properly  limited  to  a  particular  variety  of  that 
species,  more  slender  and  graceful  than  the  ordinary 
variety,  and  of  nnicli  greater  fieelness.  BulTon's  no- 
tion, that  the  hump  is  u  badge  of  servitude,  and  the 


CAMELOITN. 


269 


CAMERA  LUCIDA. 


consequence  of  barsh  treatment  throughout  many 
generations,  is  singularij'  at  variance  with  what  we 
know  of  its  uses.  The  hunip  is  a  wonderful  provi- 
sion of  nature,  to  adapt  the  animal  to  the  endurance 
of  long  abstinence  from  food,  or  subsistence  on  very 
scimty  supplies,  to  which  it  is  often  subjected  in  the 
desert,  and  without  a  capacity  for  which  it  would  be 
comparatively  of  little  value  to  man;  and  the  wide 
deserts  across  which  he  journeys  and  transports  his 
merchandise  by  its  aid  wouM  be  altogether  unpass- 
able.  The  hump  is,  in  fact,  a  store  of  fat,  from 
which  the  animal  draws  as  the  wants  of  its  system 
require;  and  the  Arab  is  very  careful  to  see 
that  the  hump  is  in  good  condition  before  the 
commencement  of  a  journe}-.  After  it  has 
been  much  exhausted,  three  or  four  months 
of  repose  and  abundant  food  are  necessary  to 
restore  it.  The  backbone  of  the  camel  is  as 
.straight  as  that  of  other  quadrupeds. — An- 
other very  interesting  adaptation  to  the  desert 
is  to  be  noticed  in  ihe  thick  sole  which  pro- 
tects the  feet  from  the  burning  .sand,  and  in 
callosities  of  similar  use  on  the  chest  and 
on  the  joints  of  the  legs,  upon  which  the 
camel  rests  when  it  lies  down  to  repose,  or 
kneels,  as  it  does  for  various  purposes,  jmd 
is  taught  to  do  that  it  may  be  loaded,  or 
that  its  rider  may  mount  upon  its  back. — 
The  wedge-shaped  cutting-teeth  of  the  lower 
jaw  are  also  particularly  fitted  for  browsing 
on  shrulrby  plants,  such  as  the  desert  pro- 
duces— the  camel's  thorn,  tamarisk,  etc., 
which  form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the 
camel;  the  eyes  are  furnished  with  long  eye- 
lashes, to  protect  them  from  the  glare  and 
from  the  drifting  sand,  whilst  the  exclusion 
of  the  Simd  from  the  nostrils  is  also  prodded 
for  by  a  power  of  closing  their  obli(iue  open- 
ings at  will.  But  most  interesting  of  all  is 
the  provision  made  for  the  endurance  of  long 
drought,  by  the  lining  of  the  inside  of  the 
second  stomach,  or  honeycomb-bag,  and  of  a 
portion  of  the  first  stomach  or  paunch,  with 
great  mas.ses  of  cells,  in  which  water  is  stored 
up  and  long  retained.  This  store  of  water 
is  well  known  to  the  Arabs,  who,  when  sore 
pressed  by  thirst,  sometimes  avail  themselves 
of  it  by  killing  some  of  the  camels  of  the 
caravan. 

The  Arabian  camel  carries  twice  the  load  of  a 
mule.  The  Bactrian  camel  is  sometimes  loaded  with 
1000  or  even  1500  lbs.  weight,  although  not  generally 
with  .so  much.  The  East  India  Company  had  at  one 
time  a  corps  of  camels,  each  mounted  by  two  men, 
armed  with  musketoons.  The  use  of  the  camel  for 
the  ccmveyance  both  of  ti-avelers  and  supplies  has 
won  it  the  name  of  the  ship  of  thf  diwrt.  A  caravan 
sometimes  contains  1000,  sometimes  even  4O00  or  5000 
camels.  The  supply  of  food  carried  with  the  caravan 
for  the  use  of  the  camels  is  very  scanty:  a  few  beans, 
dates,  carob-)X)ds,  or  the  like,  are  all  that  they  receive 
after  a  long  day's  march ,  when  there  is  no  herbage  on 
which  they  may  browse.  The  pace  of  the  loaded 
camel  is  steady  and  imiform,  but  slow;  it  proceeds, 
however,  from  day  to  day,  accomplishing  journeys 
of  hundreds  of  miles  at  a  rate  of  aliout  2i  miles  per 
hour.  Some  of  the  slight  dromedaries,  however,  csui 
carry  a  rider  more  than  100  miles  in  u  day.  The  mo- 
tion of  the  camel  is  peculiar,  jolting  the  rider  in  a 
manner  extremely  disagreeable  to  those  who  are  un- 
accustomed to  it ;  both  the  feet  on  the  sjime  side  being 
successively  raised,  so  that  one  side  is  thrown  for- 
ward and  then  the  other.  Camels  are  particularly 
handj-  for  fording  rivers  that  are  deep  but  not  rapid; 
and  where  the  bottom  of  the  river  is  shifting  s;ind,  Ihe 
passage  of  a  number  of  camels  over  it  renders  it  hard 
and  tirm.  The  average  weight  of  the  camel  is  about 
IITO  pounds.     See  Paek-aidmah. 

CAMEL-GTJN.— When  guns,  like  the  Gatling  gun, 
accompany  expeditions  in  which  it  is  impossible  to 


use  wheeled  vehicles,  they  are  carried  on  mules, 
horses,  or  camels.  The  guns  designed  for  such  use 
are  called  "  camel-gims,"  and  are  lighter  and  shorter 
than  the  field-guns,  but  fire  the  musketcartridgc  and 
have  the  musket  range.  Each  gun  with  its  carriage 
or  tripotl  is  carried  on  pack-saddk-s,  and  fifteen  or 
twenty  loaded  feed-ca.ses  can  be  carried  on  the  same 
saddles.  The  ammunition,  with  additional  feed- 
cases,  should  be  carried  on  the  animals  which  march 
directly  in  rear  of  those  which  carry  the  gun  and 
tripod.  The  drawing  .shows  the  new-model,  mus- 
ket-caliber, five-banel  Gatling  gun,  mounted  on  its 


New-model  Five-barrel  Gatling  Gun. 


tripod  and  ready  for  action.  Its  weight  is  100 
pounds,  and  fires  800  shots  per  minute.  It  is  designed 
for  transportation  by  mules  or  camels,  or  on  the 
shoulders  of  men  for  short  distances.  The  Gatling 
gun  and  its  tripod  are  verj'  conveniently  transported, 
in  the  United  States,  in  a  packing-box  invented  by 
Mr.  James  Madi^n.  This  Ikjx  with  the  old-model 
Gatling  gun  is  indeed  requisite  on  account  of  the 
many  projecting  parts  that  woidd  be  exposed  to  the 
danger  of  being  broken  or  damaged  in  timber,  or 
clogged  with  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  in  the  bmsh.  The 
box  is  adapted  to  the  shape  and  size  of  the  gun  and 
fixtures,  and  is  so  arranged  internally  that  the  motion 
of  the  pack-animal,  when  on  the  march,  will  not 
chafe  or  disarrange  any  of  the  parts  of  the  gun  or  its 
appurtenances.  The  box  is  constructed  and  adapted 
for  use  with  a  pivoted  pack-siddle,  the  upper  arms  of 
which  have  been  arranged  for  this  purpose,  so  as  to 
bring  the  weight  of  the  lx)X  as  low  as  possible,  and  to 
support  it  firmly.     See  Oatling  (fun. 

CAMEEA  LUCIDA. — An  optical  instrument  con- 
sti-ucted  of  various  forms,  and  for  various  purposes. 
Dr.  WoUaston's  in.strument.  intended  to  facilitate  the 
perspective  delineation  of  oljjects,  consists  of  a  small 
quadrilateral  prism  of  glass,  of  which  AB  in  the 
drawing  is  the  perpendicular  section,  held  in  a  brass 
frame,  which  is  att;iched  to  an  uprijrht  rod,  ha\-ing  at 
its  lower  end  a  scR'w<lamp  to  fix  it  to  the  eilgc  of  a 
table.  The  prism  being  at  Ihe  height  of  about  a  foot 
from  the  table,  has  its  upper  face  horizontal.  Two 
of  its  faces,  as  in  the  figure,  are  at  a  right  angle  at  A; 


CAMEKA  OBSCUKA. 


270 


CAUZBOITIAN  B£OIHEKT. 


the  contiguous  faces  miikc  respectively  with  than 
angles  of  tJTl  ;  so  that  the  renuiiuing  ol)tuse  angle  at 
B  eontains  135  .  liiiys  coming  from  an  object,  PQ, 
and  falling  nearly  perpenilicularly  on  the  first  surface, 
enter  the  prism,"  and  undergo  totjil  reflection  at  the 
contiguous  surface;  they  then  fall  at  the  same  angle 
on  the  next  surface,  aiid  are  totally  retieeted  again; 
liuallv,  they  emerge  nearly  perpendicularly  to  the  re- 
maining surface.  An  eye.  as  in  the  tigure,  then  re- 
ceives the  emergent  pencil  through  one  part  of  the 
pupil,  so  that  an  image,  pq,  of  the  object  is  seen  pro- 
jected upon  a  sheet'of  paper  upon  the  table.  The 
rays  from  the  drawing-iMiacil  passing  the  edge  of  the 


prism,  enter  the  other  part  of  the  pupil;  and  the  pencil 
and  image  being  seen  together  ujiou  tlie  paper,  a 
sketch  oi'  the  latter  can  be  taken.  There  is,  however, 
a  practicid  ditBculty — the  image  and  the  drawing- 
pencil  are  at  distances  sensibly  dilTerent  from  the 
eye,  and  so  cannot  be  seen  together  distinctly  at  the 
same  time.  To  obviate  this,  a  plate  of  metal,  with  a 
small  aperture  as  an  eye-hole,  is  placed  at  the  edge 
under  the  eye,  so  that  tlie  rays  through  the  prism,  and 
those  from  the  drawing-pencil,  which  both  pass 
through  the  eye-hole,  form  only  very  small  pencils. 
By  this  the  difficulty  is  greatly  diminished.  It  is 
still,  however,  ditflcult  to  use  the  instrument  satisfac- 
torily; and  though  many  acquire  great  readiness  in 
its  use,  others  have  never  been  able  to  attain  the  same 
facility.  The  instrument  is  remarkable  for  its  small 
bulk  and  portabilitj-.  A  good  one  will  pack  in  a  box 
8  inches  by  3,  and  A  inch  ileep.  Besides  this  form  of 
the  instrument,  which  is  the  most  common,  there  are 
others.  Its  simplest  form  is  merely  a  piece  of  smooth 
glass  fixed  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  horizon.  An 
image  from  a  horizontal  object  falling  on  this  glass 
will  be  perfectl)'  reflected,  and  that  in  the  vertical,  so 
that  the  eye  looking  vertically  down  will  see  the 
image,  and,  owing  to  the  transparency  of  the  glass, 
the  artist  will  be  able  to  trace  it  out  upon  paper  below. 
In  this  Ciise,  however,  the  image  will  be  inverted. 

The  optigraph  is  an  instrument  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, bur  of  dilTcrent  construction. 

CAMERA  OBSCURA.— An  instrument  invented  by 
Baptista  Porta  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  known 
in  its  simplest  form  as  a  familiar  toy,  consisting  of  a 
rectangular  box,  fm-nishcd  at  one  end  with  a  lens 
whose  fo<,-al  length  is  equal  to  the  length  and  depth 
of  the  box;  at  the  opposite  end  of  which  a  plane  re- 
flector is  placed  at  an  angle  of  45',  which  throws  the 
image  of  any  objects  to  which  the  lens  may  be  di- 
rected on  a  piece  of  ground  glass  on  the  top  of  the 
box  in  a  non-inverted  position,  so  that  they  may  be 
^^ewed  or  sketched  from  as  in  nature.  The  camera 
obscura  being  now  an  in(lis]ieiisal)]e  article  in  the 
practice  of  photography,  has  received  a  number  of 
recent  improvements,  which  make  it  rank  as  a 
scientific  instrument.  The  principle,  however,  in- 
volved in  the  simplest  and  most  retined  forms  is  the 
same,  and  may  be  illustrated  and  made  intelligible  bv 
the  following  experiment:  Let  a  small  hole  be  bored 
in  a  window-shutter,  and  the  room  be  darkened.  If, 
now,  the  beam  of  light  entering  the  room  by  Ibis  hole 
Ije  intercepted  by  a  sheet  of  white  jiajier.  held  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  hole,  an  inverted  image  of  objects 


without  will  be  seen  upon  the  paper.  By  placing  a 
small  convex  lens  over  the  hole,  this  image  is 
rendered  much  more  distinct,  or  sliarp,  in  photo- 
graphic language.  Moreover,  it  will  be  found  that 
at  a  certain  distance  from  the  hole  the  image  attains 
a  maximum  degree  of  sharpness;  and  that  if  the 
paper  be  removed  from  this  point  to  any  position  either 
nearer  to  the  hole  or  further  from  it,  the  image  be- 
comes indistinct  and  confused.  At  the  point  of 
greatest  distinctness  the  image  is  said  to  be  focused. 
Such  being  the  jirinciple  of  the  camera,  it  is  evident 
that  in  practice  the  instrument  may  a-ssume  many 
forms,  provided  always  that  it  coasists  of  a  darkened 
box  or  chamber  having  a  hole  at  one  end  for  the  inser- 
tion of  a  lens,  or  conibinatioii  of  len.ses,  and  at  the 
other  a  screen,  generally  made  of  ground  glass,  on 
which  to  receive  the  image.  The  lx)dy  of  the  instru- 
ment may  be  made  of  any  opaque  substance;  the  tube 
or  tubes  are  generally  formed  of  bra.ss,  and  contain 
one  or  more  lenses;  there  is  the  obscured  or  ground 
glass,  upon  which  the  image  is  thrown  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adjusting  the  focus;  and  the  rack  behind,  by 
means  of  which,  and  the  double  sides  of  the  camera, 
the  body  of  the  insti-ument  may  be  lengthened  or 
shortened  till  the  image  on  the  ground  screen  is  ac- 
curately focused.  This  rack  is  most  frequently  placed 
upon  the  tubes  carrying  the  lenses.  The  interior  of 
the  whole  ajjparatus  is  blackened,  to  prevent  reflec- 
tion of  the  rays  falling  on  their  sides,  and  to  impart 
greater  distinctness  to  the  picture. — The  camira-itlide 
is  a  thin,  dark  box,  and  is  used  for  conveying  a  sen- 
.sitive  plate  from  the  operating-room  to  the  camera, 
and  back  again  after  exposure.  It  consists  of  a  rect- 
angular frame,  made  to  fit  exactly  into  the  back  of 
the  camera  when  the  focusing-screen  is  removed.  At 
the  back  is  a  hinged  door,  by  means  of  which  thb 
plate  is  introduced  into  the  slide;  and  in  front  is  a 
shutter,  which  is  pulled  up  when  the  plate  is  to  be 
exposed,  and  shut  down  after  the  time  requisite  for 
the  action  of  the  light  upon  the  plate  has  axpired.  It 
must  be  constructed  so  that,  when  substituted  for  the 
focusing-screen,  the  surface  of  the  prepared  plate, 
which  is  intended  to  receive  the  image,  .shall  correspond 
exactly  in  distance  from  the  lens  with  the  ground 
surface  of  the  focusing-screen.  The  plate  rests  upon 
projections  of  silver  wire  in  the  corners  of  the  slide; 
and  the  ssime  slide  mav  be  used  for  plates  of  different 
sizes,  by  introducing  into  it  thin  frames  of  suitable 
ilimensions  also  fuinislieii  with  silver- wire  corners. 

CAMERON  HIGHLANDERS.— The  designation  giv- 
en to  the  79th  Regiment  of  Infantry  in  the  British 
service,  in  consequence  of  the  Corps  having  been 
raised  by  Allan  Cameron  of  Erroch  in  1793.  Origi- 
nally it  consisted  of  1000  men,  but  a  second  battalion 
was  added  in  1H04.  This  gallant  regiment,  which 
wears  the  Highland  garb,  performed  distinguished 
services  in  the  Peninsula  and  at  Waterloo,  and  in  the 
chief  warlike  struggles  of  more  recent  times. 

CAMERONIAN  REGIMENT.— The  26th  Uegiraent 
of  Infantry  in  the  British  service,  so  called  from 
having  had  its  origin  in  a  tody  of  Cameroniaiis  dur- 
ing the  Revolution  of  1688.  Taking  advantage  of 
their  zeal  and  eounige,  the  Convention  which  sat  at 
Edinburgh  induced  a  number  of  them  to  assist  in  the 
Revolution,  which  it  was  imagined  by  some  was  to  re- 
establish the  reign  of  the  Covenants'.  They  were  in- 
duced to  enlist  on  the  understanding  that  the  special 
object  of  the  Corps  was  "to  recover  and  establish  the 
work  of  reformation  in  Scotland,  in  ojtposilion  to 
poi)ery,  i)relacy,  and  arbitrary  power,  in  all  the 
brandies  and  .steps  thereof,  till  the  government  in 
Church  and  Slate  be  brought  to  that  luster  and  integrity 
whicli  it  hail  in  the  best  of  times."  Thus  was  formed 
the  celebrated  Cameronian  Regiment,  with  the  youth- 
ful Lord  Angus  as  Colonel,  and  ^Vllliam  Clel'and  as 
Lieutenant-colonel  and  actual  Commander.  Inder 
Cleland,  not  yet  in  his  thirtieth  year,  the  Regiment 
was  sent  norlhwards  to  quell  the  insurrection,  after 
the  fall  of  Viscount  Dundee.  Suriiuinded  bv  from 
4000  to  5000  Uighliuiders,  the  Camerouiaus,  only  SOO 


CAXION. 


271 


CAMPAIGN. 


Strong,  trallantly  defended  themselves  during  a  whole 
day  m  Dunkeld,  August  21,  1689.  In  this  tcrrilic 
struggle  the  brave  Cleland  was  liilled.  Considering 
the  issue  of  the  Revolution,  they  had  l)een  entrapped 
into  military  service,  and  their  emplo\-ment  on  foreign 
service  afterwards  greatly  scandalized  the  t'ameroniaii 
sect.  The  Regiment  lias  ever  done  credit  to  its 
origin,  being  distinguished  alike  for  gallantry  and  for 
good  conduct. 

CAMION.— A  substantial  dray  u.sed  for  transport- 
ing heavy  ordnance  and  ordnance  stores. 

CAMISASO. — 1.  A  shirt  formerly  worn  by  soldiers 
over  tlitir  uuifonii,  in  order  to  be  able  to  recog- 
nize one  another  in  the  darkness,  in  a  night-attack. 
2.  An  attack  by  surprise  at  night,  or  at  break  of  day, 
when  the  enemy  is  supposed  to  be  in  Iwd,  by  soldiers 
wearing  the  rammido. 

CAMOUFLET. — A  -small  mine  iLsed  to  suffocate  the 
enemy's  minere  without  producing  an  external  explo- 
sion. It  is  sometimes  formed  in  the  wall  or  side  of  a 
giiUerj',  in  order  to  Wow  in  the  earth  and  to  cut  off 
the  retreat  of  the  miners.  The  charge  is  usually 
about  ten  pounds  of  powder— sufficient  to  compress 
the  earth  all  around  it  without  disturbing  the  .surface 
of  the  ground. 

CAMP. — The  signification  of  this  word  in  English 
is  rather  that  which  belonged  to  the  Latin  eastrinn, 
an  encampment,  or  aistra,  a  collection  of  tents,  huts, 
and  other  structures,  for  the  accommodation  and  pro- 
tection of  troops,  than  that  which  its  etj-mology  would 
more  directly  indicate.  The  regular  system  of  en- 
campment ultimately  adopted  by  the  Romans  was 
forced  upon  them  Ijy  degrees.  The  most  complete 
account  of  it  is  furnished  to  as  by  Polybius.  When 
a  Roman  army  was  about  to  encamp,  a  Tribune  and 
several  Centurions  were  sent  on  before,  to  select  a 
suitable  site  for  the  purpose.  As  soon  a.s  the  locality 
was  determined  on,  they  chose  the  spot  for  the  Pne- 
torium  or  (Jeneral's  tent,  and  marked  it  with  a  white 
flag.  Around  the  Prretoriimi,  as  a  sort  of  center  or 
heart  to  the  whole  system,  the  rest  of  the  camp  was 
laid  out.  It  was  generally  placed  on  an  elevated 
position,  in  order  that  the  General  might  have  the 
rest  of  the  encampment  under  his  eye,  and  be  able  to 
transmit  hLs  orders  with  greater  facilitj'.  Polybius 
himself  tells  us  that  the  best  conception  which  can 
be  formed  of  a  Roman  camp  of  the  more  permanent 
kind  is  hy  regarding  it  as  a  military  town,  resembling 
in  many  respects  no  doubt  that  which  has  recentlj' 
grown  up  at  Aldershott.  The  streets  were  broader 
than  those  usually  to  he  foimd  in  towns,  the  wider 
ones  mea-suring  1(M)  and  the  narrower  .50  feet;  and 
the  Forntn,  as  its  name  indicates,  was  a  sort  of  public 
market-place.  A  space  of  200  feet  was  left  vacant  all 
round  between  the  tents  and  the  ramparts,  partly  to 
afford  space  for  the  arrangements  of  the  army,  and 
for  stowing  away  any  Iwotj-  that  might  be  captured, 
hut  chietly  to  protect  the  .soldiers'  huts  from  incen- 
diary attempts  from  without.  In  fonn  ihe  Roman 
camp  was  square,  except  in  the  case  in  which  it  was 
intended  to  embrace  i;\ithin  its  ramparts  four  legions, 
or  two  consular  armies,  when  it  became  an  oblong 
rectangle.  The  camp  was  surrounded  by  a  fo.s.se  or 
trench,  which  was  generally  9  feet  deep  and  12  broad. 
On  the  top  of  tlie  rampart,  which  wjis  of  earth,  there 
were  stakes.  The  labor  of  constructing  the  rampart 
and  the  fosse  was  divided  between  the  allies  and  the 
Roman  legions,  the  former  making  the  sides  along 
which  they  were  stationed,  and  the  legions  the  rest. 
The  task  of  superintending  the  construction  of  the 
camp  amongst  the  Romans  was  intrusted  to  the  Tri- 
bunes; amongst  the  allies,  to  the  Prefects.  Before 
the  arrival  of  the  troops,  the  different  parts  of  the 
camp  were  so  distinctly  marked  out  and  measured 
off  that  they  at  once  proceeded  to  their  respective 
stations,  as  if  they  had  entered  a  well-known  city  and 
were  marching  to  their  quarters.  The  discipline  of 
the  camp  was  of  the  strictest  kind.  The  Tribunes 
administered  an  oath  against  theft  both  to  freemen 
and  slaves,  and  two  maiiiples  were  chosen  to  keep  the 


via  principalis,  which  was  a  place  of  general  resort, 
clean  and  in  good  repair.  The  other  occufjations 
connected  with  the  camp,  too  numerous  to  be  men- 
tioned here,  were  portioned  out  in  like  manner;  and 
the  superintendence  of  the  whole  was  intrusted  to  two 
Tribunes  chosen  by  lot  from  each  legion,  and  ap- 
pointed to  .serve  for  two  months.  The  PrcfecU  of 
the  allies  pos.sesged  a  similar  authority,  which,  how- 
ever, seems  to  have  been  limited  to  tlieir  own  troops. 
Every  morning  at  daybreak  the  Centurions  and 
horsemen  presented  themselves  to  the  Tribunes,  and 
these,  in  their  turn,  received  their  orders  from  the 
Con.sul.  The  watchword  for  the  night,  marked  on  a 
four-cornered  piece  of  wood,  was  given  out  with 
much  formality.  The  night  was  divided  into  four 
watches,  each  of  three  hours'  length;  and  there  was  a 
curious  arrangement  for  ascertaining  that  guard  was 
kept  with  vigilance.  The  soldiers  of  the  watch  com- 
panies received  from  the  Tril)UMe  a  number  of  small 
tablets,  with  certain  marks  upon  them,  and  these 
tablets  were  collected  during  the  night  by  the  horse- 
men whose  duty  it  was  to  visit  the  post.s",  from  such 
of  the  guards  as  they  found  on  duty.  Where  these 
inspectors  found  the  guards  asleep"  or  absent,  they 
called  upon  the  bystanders  to  witness  the  fact,  and 
then  passed  on  to  the  next.  In  the  morning  the  in- 
spectors appeared  before  the  Tribunes,  antl  gave  up 
the  tablets  they  had  received,  when  the  guards  whose 
tablets  were  not  produced  were  required  to  account 
for  them.  A  regular  scale  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments was  established  in  the  camp.  In  comijaring 
the  encampments  of  the  Romans  with  those  of  his 
own  coimtrymen,  Polybius  tells  us  that  the  Greeks 
trusted  mainly  to  a  judicious  selection  of  their  ground, 
and  regarded  the  natural  advantages  which  the}-  thus 
secured  as  supplying  in  a  great  measure  the  place 
of  artitieial  means  of  defense.  The  Greeks,  conse- 
quently, had  no  regular  form  of  camp,  and  no  tixed 
places  were  assigned 'to  the  different  divisions  of  the 
army.  When  the  practice  of  drawing  up  the  army  ac- 
cording to  cohorts,  introduced  by  Marius  and  Cii'sar, 
was  adopted,  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  camp 
experienced  a  conespouding  change.  Latterly  even 
the  square  form  was  abandoned,  and  the  camp  was 
made  to  suit  the  nature  of  the  ground.  It  was  always 
held  to  be  of  importance,  however,  that  the  camp 
occupied  a  defensible  iiosilion;  that  it  coulil  not  be 
overlooked;  and  that  it  had  a  command  of  water. 
■When  stationary  camps  (rostra  statira)  came  into 
more  gencnd  u.se,  we  hear  of  several  parts  which  are 
not  mentioned  by  Polybius;  for  example,  the  infir- 
marj-  (mMiidinarium),  the  farrier)-  (reterinarium),  the 
forge  (fabrica),  etc. ;  and  as  a  great  variety  of  troops 
then  came  to  !«  employed,  they  must,  of  course,  have 
had  new  stations  appointed  to  them  in  the  camp. 
Many  of  the  stationaiy  camps  \dlimately  became 
towns,  and  to  this  is  ascriljed  the  origin  of  most  of 
the  towns  in  England  the  names  of  which  end  in 
cexter  or  chtstfr.  Among  the  most  perfect  of  those 
which  retained  the  form  of  the  simple  encampment 
is  that  at  Ardoch  in  Stratheam,  Perthshire,  in  the 
gra.s.s-covered  mounds  and  ri<Iges  of  which  most  of 
the  divisions  of  the  camp  hav-e  been  distinctly  traced 
by  antiquaries.  It  is  believed  that  during  the  Middle 
Ages  the  plan  adopted  by  the  Romans  in  their  camps 
was  more  or  less  adhered  to,  seeing  that  the  weapons 
employed,  which  mainly  determined  the  character  of 
the  troops,  were  nearly  the  sjjme.  In  Britain,  iK-fore 
the  arrival  of  the  Romans,  and  also  during  the  Saxon 
and  Danish  periods,  the  camps,  usually  circular  in 
form,  ap|>ear  to  have  been  somewhat  rude  in  ch.ir- 
acter,  with  the  cavalrv- grouped  rt)und  the  standard  in 
the  center,  and  the  infantry  placed  near  the  front. 
The  principles  of  castrametation,  or  camp-formation, 
underw-cnt  much  change  after  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder, owing  to  the  necessity  for  defending  the 
camp  from  artillery.  See  Bimuhr  Cnnl'inmcnts,  Cni- 
tramtUition  Encampment,  and  Fielif-serriri , 

CAMPAIGN.— A  connected  series  of  military  o|)cra- 
tions,  forming  a  distuict  stage  or  step  in  a  war.     Under 


CAMPAIONZB. 


272 


CAUFHOB. 


till-  old  system  of  wnrfari',  when  armies  kept  the  tieUl 
only  (luriufT  the  summer  nK)iiths,  a  campaigu  was 
tiiulerstoocl  to  include  all  that  was  done  by  an  army 
from  the  time  it  took  the  field  till  it  went  "again  into 
winter  quarters.  Now  that  winter  is  no  longer  al- 
lowed to  arrest  military  O]ierations,  it  is  more  difficult 
to  say  where  one  campaiirn  ends  and  another  begins. 
Some  writers  make  a  campaign  incliule  all  the  .steps 
taken  to  acconi))lish  some  one  immediate  object. 

CAHPAIGNEB. — One  who  has  served  in  an  army 
throuirli  several  campaiijns;  an  old  soldier  or  veteran. 

CAMP  AND  GARRISON  EftUIPAGE.— All  the  tents, 
tittiugs,  utensils,  etc.,  carried  with  an  army,  applica- 
ble to  the  domestic  rather  than  to  the  warlike  wants 
of  the  soldier.  The  allowance  of  camj)  and  garrison 
equi]iage  to  United  States  troops  is  prescribed  in  Gen- 
eral Orders  from  the  War  Department. 

CAMP  BEDSTEAD.— A  liedstead  made  to  fold  up 
within  a  narrow  space,  so  as  to  be  easily  transported, 
and  suitable  for  use  in  war.  The  dnwing  shows 
such  an  arrangement,  which  was  patented  by  Mr. 
Jolrn  Boyle,  in  France  and  the  United  States,  not 
long  since.  It  weighs  complete  about  9i  pounds, 
and  when  folded  it  occupies  a  space  less  than  7  inches 
square  by  25  inches  in  length.  After  being  properly 
set  it  is  exceedingly  strong  and  durable,  and  cannot 
be  broken  except  by  violent  usage.  It  can  be  set 
anywhere  and  will  remain  stationary  on  a  boarded 


Camp-cbair. 


Boyle  Camp-bedstead. 

floor  or  a  plowed  ticld.  To  set  it,  spread  the  can- 
vas out  face-side  down;  open  the  four  arms  which 
have  iron  caps  at  the  ends  (the  short  ones),  and  insert 
the  ends  having  the  caps  into  sockets  which  arc  used 
in  folding  as  hinges,  the  same  being  about  twenty 
inches  distant  on  each  side  from  the  head  and  foot 
respectively;  put  the  thinner  stick  (the  one  with  pins 
in  the  end— not  screws)  through  the  hem  or  tabline; 
in.sert  the  pins  in  the  holes,  .severally,  Ixhind  the  legs 
at  the  foot;  open  the  arms  which  give  elevation  to  the 
head;  run  the  hea\-y  rovmd  stick  (the  same  having  a 
round-headed  screw  at  each  end)  through  the  hem. 
Insert  the.se  pins  or  screws  in  the  slots  or  grooves; 
last  of  all,  open  the  legs,  coiinnencing  with  the  center 
ones;  turn  the  bedstead  over  right-side  up,  and  it  is 
then  ready  for  using,  without  mattress,  bed,  or  pad- 
ding of  any  descriiilion. 

CAMP-CHAIR. — A  form  of  folding  chair  adapted 
to  be  carried  by  a  pedestrian,  or  packed  away  m  the 


ambulance  or  wagon  when  on 
the  march.     Sec  Cii in p-gtovl. 

CAMP  COLORS.— In  the  Unit- 
ed Stales  army,  the  camp-colors 
are  the  stars  and  stripes,  as  de- 
scribed for  the  gan-ison  -  flags, 
printed  upon  bunting,  18  by  20 
inches,  on  a  pole  of  ash,  8  feet 
long  and  li  inch  in  diameter; 
the  butt  end  of  the  l)ole  is  arm- 
ed with  a  pointed  iron  ferrule, 
screwed  on  with  four  wooden 
screws.     See  Colors. 

CAMPE8TRE.— A  kind  of  gir- 
dle or  apron  worn  by  the  Koman 
soldiers  around  their  waists  at  certain  exercises  where 
the  rest  of  their  bodies  remained  naked. 

CAMP-FOLLOWERS.— The  sutlers  and  dealers  in 
small  wares  who  follow  an  army.  In  India,  owing 
to  the  peculiar  habits  and  customs  of  the  Hindus,  and 
the  large  number  of  servants  retained  by  Engli.sh  offi- 
cers, the  camp-followers  are  in  immense  number, 
comprising  the  .servants,  sutlers,  cantiniers,  hostlers, 
water-carriers,  snake-charmers,  dancers,  conjurers, 
and  women.  In  February,  1839,  when  a  Bengal  army 
of  15,000  men  left  Shikarpoor  for  Afghanistan,  it  was- 
accompanied  by  no  fewer  than  85,000  camp-followers; 
the  Commander  took  with  him  six  weeks'  food  for  the 
whole  100,000.  All  English  Com- 
manders in  India  find  this  regula- 
tion a  verj'  burdeasome  one.  Even 
in  the  European  armies,  however, 
camp-followers  are  regarded  as  ne- 
cessiiry;  they  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Commanding  Officer,  and  are 
subject  to  the  Articles  of  War — not, 
however,  in  cantonments,  only  in 
the  field.  French  armies  are  ac- 
companied by  women  much  more 
largely  than  English. 

CAMP-QTJARD. — A  guard  consist- 
ing of  one  or  two  rows  of  sentinels 
placed  around  a  camp  and  relieved 
at  regular  intervals.  The  composi- 
tion and  posts  of  the  camp-guard 
■will  depend  upon  the  character  of 
the  ground  and  the  degree  of  danger 
apprehended. 

CAMPHENE.— The  name  applied 
to  a  variety  of  spirit  of  turpentine 
obtaineil  from  the  Pinua  aimtralis 
of  the  Southern  States  of  America, 
and  rather  extensively  sold  and  used 
in  Britain  for  burning  in  out-of- 
door  lamps.  It  is  very  volatile,  and 
burns  very  freely,  giving  off  a  pure 
white  brilliant  light;  and  when  the 
vapor  diffuses  itself  through  air,  and 
,is  .set  tire  to,  it  forms  a  dangerous 
and  violently  explosive  mixture. 
CAMPHOR.— A  solid  essential  oil  which  is  found  in 
many  ijlants,  and  may  be  separated  from  many  essen- 
tial oils.  It  particularly  alwunds  in  certain  species  of 
the  natural  order  L<iur<'m(r.  Almost  all  the  camphor 
of  commerce  is  the  produce  of  the  camphor-laurel, 
(CamplMra  officinaru in ,  formerly  known  as  Ixiiinig 
canip/iom),  a  native  of  China,  Japan,  Formosa,  and 
Cochin-(Jhina,  and  which  has  lieen  introduced  into 
Java  and  the  AVest  Indies.  The  camphor-laurel  is  a 
tree  of  considerable  height,  nuich  branched,  with 
lanceolate,  evergreen  leaves  on  short  stalks,  and  small 
yellowish-white  flowers  in  axillary  and  terminal  jwni- 
cles.  The  fruit  is  in  size  and  appearance  not  unlike 
an  imperfectly  ripened  black  currant.  Every  part  of 
the  tree,  but  especially  the  flower,  smells  stron.gly  of 
camphor.  The  woo<l  is  light  and  durable,  not  liable 
to  be  injured  by  insects,  and  much  valued  for  ord- 
nance work.  In  the  extraction  of  camphor  from 
the  camphor-laurel,  the  wood  of  the  stem  and  brandies 


Rr/^mcr  le  St. 

'//"  Cjna,fu 

iF-wi 

1'.  Petl 

rrCafWell 

S  l;t)tir. 

land 

10  Bra.,1 

r^ 


CAMPIDOCTOBES. 


273 


CAHBINO. 


is  chopped  up  into  fragments,  and  introduced  into  a 
still  with  water  and  heat  apjjlied,  when  the  steam 
generated  carries  off  tlie  camphor  in  vapor.  Tliese 
vapors  rise,  and  iu  passing  through  rice-straw,  with 
which  tlie  head  of  the  still  is  tilled,  the  camphor 
solidifies,  and  is  deposited  round  the  straw  in  minute 
grains  or  particles,  somewhat  about  the  size  of  raw- 
sugar  or  coarse  sand,  'i'he.se  grains  of  impure  cam- 
phor are  detached,  and  being  introduced  into  a  large 
globular  glass  vessel  in  quantities  of  about  10  Ib.s., 
are  reheated,  when  lirst  the  water  rises  in  .steam,  and 
is  allowed  to  escape  at  a  small  aperture;  and  there- 
after, this  aperture  l)eing closed,  the  camphor  sul)limcs 
and  resolidifies  m  the  interior  upper  part  of  the  fiask 
as  a  semi-transparent  cake,  leaving  all  the  impurities 


a  small  compas.s  for  convenience  of  packing  or  car- 
riage. Camp-stools  were  known  in  ancient  Eg)-pt, 
and  were  constructed  in  a  manner  similar  to  ours. 


Camp'8tool. 

They  frequently  occur  in  the  paintings,  and  some 
have  been  preserved  until  our  time.  One  found  at 
Sakkarah  is  in  the  Ablx)tt  Collection,  New  York. 
See  Cdtiip-ehair. 

CAMP-STOVE.— A  light  sheet -iron  stove,  specially 
arranged  with  a  \ievv  to  portability,  and  adapted  for 
beating  a  tent  or  hut,  and  for  cooking  purposes. 
The  drawing  shows  such  a  stove,  capable  of  cooking 
for  a  mess  of  six  or  eight  persons.  When  packed  for 
transportation,  all  the  apparatus  is  inside,  and  the 


■"V^L^ 


Camp-stove. 


behind.  The  flasks  arc  then  cooled  and  broken  by 
throwing  cold  water  on  them,  and  the  cainj)hor  taken 
out  and  sent  into  market.  The  glass  globes  employed 
are  called  l)v  an  Italian  name,  hiinilioJoe.i,  the  sublima- 
tion of  camjihor  ha^^ngbcen  first  jiracticed  in  Venice. 
— Camphor  was  \inknown  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  was  first  brought  to  Eurojie  by  the  Arabs.  It  is 
a  white  tough  solid,  slightly  lighter  than  water,  and 
floats  thereon.  It  is  very  sparingly  soluble  in  water, 
but  freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  and 
the  essential  oils.  It  fuses  at  347°,  and  boils  at  399  , 
and  when  set  fire  to  is  very  inflammable,  and  burns 
■with  a  white  smoky  flame.  Thrown  iijion  water,  it 
floats,  and  may  be  set  fire  to  when  the  currents  gene- 
rated alike  from  the  solution  in  water  and  the  irregu- 
lar burning  of  the  pieces  cause  a  curious  rotatory 
motion.  It  has  a  peculiar  hot  aromatic  taste,  and  an 
agreeable  characteristic  odor.  In  consequence  of  its 
combuslilile  ]iowers  it  is  much  used  in  fire-works. 

CAMPIDOCTORES.— Otticers  to  whom  was  assigned 
the  duty  of  drilling  the  Roman  soldiery. 

CAMP-KIT. — A  box,  with  its  contents,  for  contain- 
ing soldiers'  cooking  and  mess  utensils,  such  as  the 
(■aiiii>-kettles,  plates,  etc. 

CAMP-MILL.— A  mill  adapted  for  the  use  of  an 
army,  to  grind  grain  on  the  march  or  in  camp.  It  is 
carried  on  a  wagon  or  running-gear,  and  is  .some- 
times driven  by  the  wheels  in  traveling,  sometimes 
by  a  sweep  operated  by  horses  or  men  after  the 
wheels  are  anchored  or  sunk  in  the  ground.  The 
first  portable  mill  thus  adapted  to  its  own  carriage 
appears  to  have  been  invented  by  Pompeo  Targone, 
Engineer  to  the  Manjuis  Ambrose  Spinola,  about  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  centurv. 

CAMP  OF  INSTRUCTION.— An  encampment  of 
troops  in  the  field  tn  liabiluate  them  to  the  duties  and 
fatigues  of  war.  They  may  be  either  temporar)'  or 
pennanent.  Of  the  latter  description  are  the  camps 
at  Aldershott,  England,  and  the  Curragh  of  Kildare, 
Ireland. 

CAMPOOS.— Regiments  of  Infantrj'  in  the  service 
of  the  Maliratta  Confederates. 

CAMP-STOOL.— A  chair  whose  frame  folds  up  into 


!  total  weight  is  22  pounds.     The  ware  is  so  con- 
'  stnicled  that  it  nests  and  packs  in  the  oven,  which 
has  a  cajjacity  suflicient  for  roasting  20  pounds  of 
j  beef.     The  oven  packs  inside  the  stove,  and  leaves 
i  s\iffieienl  room  for  packing  the  plates,  knives,  forks, 
.spoons,  and  driidving-cups.     This  stove  boils,  bakes, 
[  or  broils;  and   when  fuel  is  scarce  its  excellence  is 
,  very  apparent,  as  it  requires  so  little.     In  cold  wea- 
ther it  may  be  placed  inside  the  tent,  where  it  is  a 
great  luxury  and  s;ives  much  trouble. 
)      CAMPUS. — In  ancient  Rome,  a  vacant  space  in  or 
[  near  a   city,   for  public  combats,  etc.     There  were 
eight  aroinid  Rome,  of  which  the  Campus  JIartius 
j  (Camii  of  Mars)  w'as  the  nio«l  inijjortant.     It  was  out- 
I  side  the  walls,  oceui\ving  the  level  sj^ice  between  the 
I  Quirinal,  Pincian,  and  Cajiitoline  Hills.     In  this  met 
[  the  ctniiitiii  ecntiiriota  and  the  rwiiiim  (ritniia;  and  in 
it  was  the  Public  Hall  for  the  use  of  the  Magistrates 
and  Foreign  Ambassjidors,  who  were  not  permitted  to 
enter  the  city.     In  later  times  it  Iwcame  a  pleasure- 
ground,  with  shaded  walks,  gardens,  baths,  theaters, 
and  a  race-course.     Julius  Ca'sar  built  within  it  the 
marble  halls  for  the  comitia;  Agrippa,  the  baths  and 
the  Pantheon;   Augustus,  his  own   mausoleum;   and 
Statilius  Taurus,  the  first  stone  amphitheater.     Later 
emperors  crowded  this  particular  campus  with  pul)lie 
buildings  and  private  residences.     Under  Aurelian  it 
was  taken  in  as  a  part  of  the  city.     The  district  in 
which  the  old  campus  was  situated  is  now  called 
Campo  Marzo.      Another  ancient  campus  was  the 
Sceleratus,  the  Polluted  Field,  where  vestals  who  had 
been  untnie  to  their  vows  of  chastity  were  buried 
alive.      The  drill-groimds  around  modem  colleges 
often  I)ear  the  name  of  eampiin. 

CAM-RING. — A  portion  of  the  firing  mechanism 
in  certain  machine-guns.  In  the  Gatling  gim,  within 
the  cylindrical  breech-case  attached  to  the  frame,  a 
hea\'y  ring  not  quite  the  Icn^h  of  the  lock-cyliniler 
is  fa.stened  to  the  case  and  diaphragm,  which  nearly 
fills  the  space  between  the  inside  of  the  ca.se  and  the 
cylinder.  Portions  of  the  inside  of  this  ring  arc  so 
cut  away  as  to  leave  a  truncated,  wedge-.shapcti,  an- 
nular or  spiral  cam  projecting  from  the  inner  surface 


CANDITEEK. 


274 


CANI8TEK-8H0T. 


of  the  ring,  having  two  helicoidal  edges  inclined  to 
each  other,  and  united  by  a  short,  Hat  plane.  Ainiinst 
these  edges  the  rear  ends  of  the  locks  or  breech-pliigs 
continually  bear,  there  being  r(X)m  enough  for  tlie 
locks  to  lie  loosely  within  the  parts  of  the  ring  which 
are  cut  away.  The  apex  of  the  wedge-shaiX'd  cam 
points  to  the  barrels.  Each  lock  is  held  back  ajr.iinst 
the  cam  by  a  lug  or  horn  projecting  laterally  from 
the  end  of  the  lock  and  entering  a  groove  formetl  at 
the  base  of  the  cam,  in  the  thin  part  of  the  ling. 

The  drsiwing  shows  Iht;  cam -ring  as  it  would  appear 
it  cut  open  and  spread  out  tlat,  the  lower  lines  being 
the  develo]Mncnt  of  the  edges  of  the  helicoidal  cam- 
surfaces.  The  ten  locks  are  shown  in  their  relative 
positions  abutting  against  the  cam-surfaces,  si.\  of 
them  being  shown  in  section.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
points  of  the  tiring-pins,  or  lock-hammers,  protrude 
beyond  the  front  ot  the  locks,  while  the  spindles  pro- 
ject from  the  rear,  where  they  are  fa.shioned  into 
knobs  by  which  the  hammers  are  drawn  backward 
and  cocked  while  passing  through  the  groove  in  the 
rii.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  distance  of  the  apex 
of  the  cam  from  the  ends  of  the  barrels  is  such  that 
the  breech-plugs  or  locks  exactly  till  the  space,  so 
that  each  plug  there  forms  an  abutment  which  closes 
the  breech  of  its  barrel  and  abuts  against  the  apex  of 


Cam-ring  of  Galling  Gun. 

the  cam,  which  serves  to  resist  the  recoil  of  the  plug 
when  the  charge  is  fired. 

The  locks  are  guided  in  grooves  formed  in  the  lock- 
cylinder,  and  therefore  cannot  deviate  from  their 
alignment  with  the  barrels.  The  cartridges  will,  as 
the  carrier-block  channels  come  successively  under 
the  hopp)er,  drop  into  the  channels  in  front  of  the 
locks,  and  be  kept  in  place  by  the  hopper-plate.  The 
revolution  of  the  lock-cylinder  carries  the  locks 
around  with  it,  and  Ciuises  them  to  receive  a  longitu- 
dinal reciprocal  motion  by  their  ends  sliding  along 
the  inclined  surfaces  of  the  stationary  cam.  Each 
lock,  then,  one  after  the  other,  is  pushed  forward  to- 
ward its  barrel.  As  the  revohition  of  the  parts  keeps 
the  locks  in  contact  ■mth  the  advancing  side  of  the 
cam,  each  lock  in  succession  closes  it.s  barrel,  and  its 
longitudinal  motion  cejuses,  while  it  pas.ses  the  tial 
surface  of  the  cam,  and  then  each  slides  backward 
from  its  barrel  when  constrained  to  move  along  the 
retreating  side  of  the  cam  bj'  the  corresponding  cam- 
groove;  and  so  on,  each  lock  repeating  the.se  move- 
ments at  each  successive  revolution  of  the  shaft.  The 
position  of  the  cam  relatively  to  the  cartridge-hopper 
is  such  that  each  lock  is  drawn  backward  to  its  full 
extent  when  it  pas.ses  the  hopper,  so  that  the  cartridges 
may  fall  into  the  carrier  in  front  of  tlie  locks.  The 
explosion  of  each  cartridge  takes  place  as  its  proper 
lock  passes  over  the  flat  apex  of  the  cam  which  resist.s 
the  recoil.    The  hammer  is  cocked  by  the  knob  or 


bead  at  its  rear  end  coming  into  contact  with  a  flat 
rib  locateil  inside  of  the  cam.  This  rib  restnuns  the 
hammer  from  moring  forward,  while  the  forward 
movement  of  the  body  of  the  lock  continues;  the 
spiral  mainspring  is  coinpres-scd  until  the  revolution 
carries  ttie  hammer-knob  beyond  the  end  of  the  cock- 
ing-rib,  when  the  hammer  will  spring  forward  and 
strike  with  il.s|«jint  the  center  of  the  cartridge-head, 
and  explo<ie  the  charge.  The  point  in  the  revolution 
at  which  the  barrels  are  discharged  is  below  and  at 
one  side  of  the  axis.  Each  breecli-plug  or  lock  car- 
ries a  hooked  extractor  which  snaps  over  and  engages 
the  cart  ridge- flange  when  the  plug  is  pusheii  forwani, 
but  which,  when  the  plug  retreats,  withdraws  imd 
ejects  the  empty  case.  The  drawing  shows  the  ten 
locks,  each  in  a  difTerent  part  of  it.s  cycle  of  action. 
At  I  the  cartridge  has  just  dropjx^d  in  front  of  the 
lock;  at  II  it  ha.s  In-en  pushe<l  forwiu-d  somewhat;  at 
III  the  point  of  the  cartridge  hjis  entered  tlie  barrel; 
at  IV  it  is  pushed  nearly  home,  and  the  head  of  the 
hammer  is  retained  by  the  cocking-rib,  the  main- 
spring being  partlj'  compressed.  At  V  the  lock  has 
reached  the  liat  pdrt  of  the  cam,  the  cartridge  is 
pushe<l  quite  home,  and  the  mainspring  has  been 
fully  compressed  by  the  retention  of  the  hammer  by 
the  cocking-rib,  the  end  of  which  is  just  reached  by 
the  hammer,  which  is  about  being  re- 
leased. At  VI  the  hammer  having  been 
released  has  sprung  forwani  and  exploded 
the  cartridge,  the  end  of  the  lock  or 
breech-plug  being  tirmly  bracetl  against 
the  flat  surface  of  the  cam.  At  Vll  the 
lock  has  commenced  to  retreat,  and  at 
VIII  it  has  partially  iiNithdrawn  the  emp- 
ty cartridge-shell  from  the  barrel.  At 
a  IX  it  has  completely  extracted  the  shell, 

J\  which  is  falling  away  from  the  gun.     At 

I         X  the  lock  is  fully  drawn  back,  and  is 
li      I         about  to  pass  ag-ain  into  its  first  position. 
J I       See  Giitling  Gun. 

CANDITEEH.— In  fortification,  a  pro- 
tection for  miners,  consisting  of  brush- 
wood, etc. 

CANDJIAE.— A  kind  of  crooked  Tur- 
kish s;(ber      Also  ^Titten  Canjar. 

CANDLE-BOMBS.  —  Pasteboard  shells 
tilled  with  pyrotechnic  compositions, 
which  make  a  brilliant  display  on  explo- 
sion. They  are  used  for  signaling,  and 
are  made  up  vn\ii  a  powder-charge  at- 
tached to  one  side ;   a  strand  of  <iuick- 


-•-J 


match  leads  to  the  charge  when  placed  in  the  mortar. 

dIIow 
They 


The  mortars  used  are  very  light,  being  simply  hollow 
cylinders  of  stout  paper,  sole-leather,  or  wood. 


are  made  thus  light  for  ea.'^e  of  transportation. 

CANSTS. — A  lf>ose  gown,  worn  by  the  Medes  and 
Persians  over  their  other  garments.  It  was  made  of 
woolen  cloth,  which  was  either  purple  or  of  some 
other  brilliant  color,  and  had  wide  sleeves.  In  the 
sculptures  at  Persepolis  nearly  all  the  personages  are 
represented  as  so  attired.  A  go\\Ti  of  a  very  similar 
kind  is  still  worn  by  Arabians,  Turks,  and  other  Ori- 
entals. 

CANE  GUN. — A  weapon  comprising  a  gun-barrel 
with  its  discharging  devices  an-anged  within  the  shaft 
of  a  cane  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  an  ordi- 
nary walking-stick.     See  Air-gun. 

CAN-HOOE. — A  device  for  slinging  casks  in  hoist- 
ing. The  ends  of  a  piece  of  rope  are  reeved  through 
the  eyes  of  two  flat  hooks  and  stopped.  The  tackle 
is  hooked  to  the  middle  of  the  bight. 

CANISTER-SHOT.— A  canister-shot  is  a  metallic 
cylinder  about  one  caliber  in  length,  filled  with 
balls  and  closed  at  both  ends  with  wooden  or  metal 
disks.  They  are  supplied  for  all  guns.  For  8-inch 
canister,  and  all  those  of  less  caliber,  the  envelope  is 
made  of  tin,  while  canister  for  the  larger  calibers 
have  an  envelope  of  iron.  The  bottom  of  1.5-inch 
canister  is  made  of  two  thicknesses  ot  l-inch  hard 
wood,  crossing  each  other,  and  put  together  with 


c 


CiNKON.etc.   Antique:    1.  French  six-pound  false  culverin  flSSO).    S.  FrenchammunitioDcart(lMfl).   3.^^«J^^^  4.  German  eigliteen-pound  raortor,  calle.l  "  Eleplianf  flM.-!!.    5. 


flve-pound  mortar  (iMibr";rStorm7Mg]i^^^^^^ 

,,  ,-, —  ~.-^..™.^ „„^,„.     ai.  Italian  Bombamejiwu^    "••rr-;g  8t^™"-;^ '^  n,    i  j>n/it,.„.=h„^»i       .jh    i»=™. 

BaU  extractor.    32.  Double-barbed  spetti-,     33.  Stormiivr  sp^ar.     ^KSlo^nmcclu^^^ngim.  tli 


o.  &i;ormiiigKet,'(10«ll.  T.  German  Hi&-6liield  (HBW).  o.  ™'7r^,  u.  CenMiii_7;',L  "■  '  "T  "'  "'""'■  !"•  "■  LlHalu  a"''  st*-" 
ithcarriage.  H.  Firebomb.  15.  Overman  actional  fldd^eceas*).'»'^*^n[y-l^^  nilvenn  hmO).  IT.  French  cul' 
mb.     3L  Explosive  fli-^bomb.     Si.  Italian  Borabarde(lM«.^^^IKj|^''  ^  fc^J'^^;|j^''l";|.'t-e.     ^_.  Loading-ahovel.     2B.  Ramn, 


tweotr-pound       

bomb,     20.  Excentric  bomb. 

S.T'^S?''-  ■^'-  IJaU  extractor.    „. .™.„.„=^™,     «.^.  ^^..^..^ 

8lt.  Fire-jiip.    40.  Fir*-  ball.    43.  Gim-L-artridge.     -li  Forty-pound  cam 

iwflv^  )M.i„>.l  ti.-lii  pie isia,.    49.  Petard.     M.  German  breech-'""-' 

non,  u  irii  ,,^il|  I .,,  .  ii,s.i,     ,-,7.  Danish  three-pound  fleld-p 

li  heavy  ordliiance.    01.  French 


filJiO' 


IDOl 


(1'KJO).  ■ 


7.2    Pnisffian  twijuly-five-pound  howitzer. 
Uerriok  (17201. 


"e-DOimdhowit^r;    Tl  ru««.   nWi'-^""'**  ^  Preach  brake  tlwjBj 


Darii-.li  iron  gun-carriage  for  forts  ilTia). 

ball,     4(1.  German  tnelve-pouiid  fl< 
illzer  (ISI-J).     53.  Cartridge,    M. 


Of  rill  an  twenty- 
,vi|.  la.  (iermaa 
10.  (  oiicentrio 
i|iL'.  30.  Chare>3 
''■\  Anchor  baQ. 
•  1.  49.  I'rUKsiaD 
M.  German  d 


00.  Prussian  petanl-rocket.     til,  Kocket  with  ».ide.fiNiff.    ili,  Hochet.  without 

110,  Probe.    70,  High-chassis,  with  iwcntyfuui-pound  cannon.    71.  I're"«» 

tlWJBj.    70.  Traugreocart.    80.  Field-forge.    HI.  English  soven-pouua  uowllaur  (IBOl* 


:', 


CANEEB. 


275 


CANNOH. 


wToughtiron  nails  clinched.  A  spindle,  with  a 
wrought-iron  handle  passing  through  the  center  of 
the  canister,  is  riveted  on  the  bottom  through  a  square 
plate.  All  other  canister  have  bottom-heads  of  one 
thicknes.s  of  hard  wood.  Top-heads  are  all  made  of 
white  pine.  The  case  Ls  notched,  turned  over  the 
heads,  and  tacked  down.  The  balls  for  all  canister 
are  1.3  inch  diameter,  and  the  number  used  varies 
with  the  caliber.  To  give  more  solidity  to  the  mass, 
and  prevent  the  balls  from  crowding  upon  each  other 
when  tte  piece  is  tireil,  the  interstices  are  closely 
packed  with  sawdust.  See  Oise-a/iot,  l^cjectilen, 
lUHe-canhter,  and  Siege  and  Garriwtt  Amiiiunition. 

CANKER. — A  disease  of  the  foot  of  the  horse, 
believed  by  Gerlach,  of  Berlin,  to  be  truly  cancerous, 
is  observed  in  two  different  forms  :  in  the  acute  stage, 
■when  the  malady  is  chiefly  local ;  and  in  the  chronic 
stage,  when  the  constitution  suffers,  and  all  local 
remedies  fail  to  restore  a  healthy  function  of  the 
structures  of  the  foot. 

Symptotinf. — It  usually  commences  by  discharge 
from  the  heels,  or  the  cleft  of  the  frog  of  the  horse's 
foot.  The  horn  becomes  soft  and  disintegrated,  the 
vascular  structures  beneath  become  inflamed,  and  the 
pain  which  the  animal  endures  is  intolerable.  It  is 
therefore  very  lame  on  one,  two,  or  all  feet,  according 
to  the  number  affected.  Though  there  is  no  consti- 
tutional fever,  the  horse  becomes  emaciated  and  unfit 
for  work.  During  wet  weather,  and  on  damp  .soil, 
the  symptoms  increase  in  severity.  The  .sore  struc- 
tures bleed  on  the  least  touch,  and  considerable  fun- 
goid granulations,  commonly  called  proud  flea/i,  form 
rapidly. 

Cauus. — This  disease  is  occasionally  hereditary, 


fired.  No  military  weapon  in  use  before  the  inven- 
tion of  gunpowder  can  fairly  come  under  this  desig- 
nation; they  were  more  generally  of  the  kinds  de- 
scribed under  Balista.  At  what  exact  date  cannon 
were  first  u.«cd  is  not  known;  but  cannon,  called 
"cnikjs  of  war,"  were  employed  oy  Edward  III. 
against  the  Scots  in  1327,  by  the  French  at  the  siege 
of  Puy  Guillaume  in  1338,  and  by  Edward  III.  at 
Crecy,  and  at  Calais  in  1346.  The  first  cannon  or 
bombards  were  clumsy,  wider  at  the  mouth  than  at 
the  chamber,  and  made  of  iron  bars  hooped  together 
with  iron  rings.  The  balls  fired  from  them  were 
first  made  of  stone,  aftenvards  supcrsedtvi  by  iron. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  various  kinds  were  known 
by  the  names  of  cannon,  bombards,  culverins,  ser- 
pentines, etc.  Bombards  of  great  length  and  i)ower 
were  employed  by  Louis  XI.  during  his  Flemish 
campaign  in  1477,  some  with  stone  balls,  .some  with 
iron.  About  this  time  cannon  begimi  to  Ix'  made  by 
casting  instead  of  with  hooped  bars;  and  bronze  or 
bra-ss  as  a  material  began  to  be  used  as  well  as  iron. 
The  cannon  of  the  sixteenth  centurj-  were  generally- 
smaller,  but  better  finished,  than  those  ot  the  fif- 
teenth. The  large.st  cannon  made  in  tlie  seventeenth 
century,  so  far  as  U  known,  was  the  Bejajtoor  cast- 
iron  gun,  "  Malick  e  >Ieidan,"  or  "  Lord  of  the 
Plain,"  made  either  by  Aui-ungzebe  or  by  the  >Iah- 
rattas;  it  was  14  feet  long,  28  inches  bore,  and  required 
a  ball  of  1600  lbs.  weight.  From  the  time  of  the 
great  European  wars  in  that  century,  cannon  have 
undergone  vast  improvements,  as  well  as  the  science 
"and  art  of  artillery  necessary  for  their  management. 
Cast-iron  cannon  may  generally  be  divided  into  five 
principal  parts,  viz..  Breech,  Cylinder,  (Juru,  Cltase, 


Fig.  1. 


Breech.  A  M, 
iacluding  — 


f  Hemisphere ) 

I     or  Base  of  -AL. 

1      Breech.       * 

1  Cascabel,  L  M. 

1  Jaws,  e  f 

[_  Block  and  Pin,»i  m. 


Base-ring,  A. 
Trunnion.  E  F. 
Rinibase..D  G. 


Cylinder,  A  C. 

Curve,  C  H. 

Chase,  HI.  -  , 

It       1     Ti^  In,  Swell  of  Muzzle.    Breech  SiKht-niass.  t. 

Muzzle,  I  K.  ■,  J  Pace  of  Muzzle.    Front  SiRht-mass.  /. 

(  Cylinder.  6  c.  lAKk\\xgs,  g. 

'i  Gomer-chamber.fl  6.    Vent,  h  t. 


Bore,  a  c. 


and  it  is  most  frequently  seen  in  low-bred  draught-  or 
coach-horses.  Dirt,  cold,  and  wet  favor  the  [iroduc- 
tion  of  the  disease,  and  there  is  always  a  tendency  to 
relapse  when  once  an  animal  has  been  affected. 

Treatment. — Pare  away  detached  portions  of  horn, 
and,  in  mild  ca.ses,  sprinkle  powdered  acetate  of  cop- 
per wer  the  sore  :  apply  over  this  pledgets  of  tow, 
fixed  over  the  foot  by  strips  of  iron  or  woo<l  passed 
between  shoe  and  fool.  In  severe  cases  tar  and  nitric 
acid,  creosote  and  turpentine,  chloride-of-zinc  paste, 
and  other  active  caustics  have  to  be  used  for  a  tirnc 
■with  the  regular  employment  of  pressure  on  the  dis- 
eased surface.  The  animal  requires  to  be  treated 
constitutionally  by  periodical  purgatives  and  alteiii- 
tives.  Good  food,  fresh  air,  and  exercise  often  aid 
much  in  the  treatment  of  the  disea.se. 

CANNELURE.— A  cut  in  the  lead  round  the  pro- 
jectile near  the  base  in  order  to  receive  a  lubricant  or 
any  lead  tliat  may  be  drawn  down  during  the  passage 
of  the  projectile  through  the  bore. 

CANNON. — A  general  name  for  large  pieces  of 
ordnance  or  artillerj',  as  distinguished  from  those 
pieces  whicli  can  be  held  in  the  hand  while  being 


and  Muzzle.  The  Breech  is  the  mass  of  solid  metal 
in  rear  of  the  bottom  of  the  liore:  the  thickness  is 
usually  somewhat  greater  than  the  greatest  thicknc-ss 
of  metal  in  the  cylinder.  The  Cylinder  is  that  por- 
tion between  the  base-ring  and  trunnions,  including 
the  .seat  of  charge  and  tlie  point  where  the  greatest 
strain  is  exerted  upon  the  gun.  The  Curte  is  the 
portion  connecting  the  cylinder  with  the  chase.  It  is 
made  somewhat  thicker  than  necessary  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  the  powder,  in  order  to  serve  as  a  proper 
jioint  of  support  for  the  trunnions,  and  to  compen- 
sate for  certain  defects  of  metal  liable  to  occur  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  tnmnions  of  all  cast  cannon,  arising 
from  the  crystalline  arrangement  and  unequal  cooling 
of  the  different  parts.  The  Chase  is  the  long,  taper- 
ing portion  of  the  sun  ex-tending  from  the  curve  t© 
the  muzzle.  The  principal  injury  to  which  the  chn.sc 
is  liable  in  smooth-bore  guns  arises  from  the  striking 
or  balloting  of  the  projectile  against  the  side  of  the 
bore;  and  the  thickne.ss  of  metal  should  be  sufficient 
to  resist  it.  The  Muzzk  is  the  increase<I  thickness  of 
metal  which  terminates  the  chase.  Inasmuch  as  the 
metal  situated  immediately  at  the  muzzle  is  supported 


CANNON. 


176 


CANNON.. 


^ 


a-e 


Fig.  2. 


only  in  rear,  it  has  been  usually  considered  necessary 
to  increase  its  thickness  to  enable  it  to  resist  the  ac- 
tion of  the  projtHlik- at  this  point;  but  in  tin- liiijrcr 
^uns  the  sinll  of  l/ic  iiiu:zh'  ha.s  been  omitted.  The 
swell  strengthens  a  part  liable  to  be  impaired  by  an 
enemy's  tire,  and  atrords,  al.so,  a  gootl  position  for  a 
notch  or  sij^hl. 

The  Trniiiw>ii»,  Fijr.  1,  are  two  cylindrical  arms 
attached  to  the  sides  of  a  cannon,  for  the  purpose  of 
supportiu":  it  on  its  carriage.  They  are  i>laeed  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  piece,  with  their  axes  in  the  same 
line  and  at  riirht  angles  to  its  axis.  The  size  of  the 
inmnions  depends  on  the  recoil  of  the  piece  and  tlie  ; 
material  of  which  lliey  are  made.  The  resistance 
which  a  cylinder  opposes  to  rupture  is  proiiortioual 
to  the  cube  of  its  diameter;  on  the  supposition  that  , 
the  strain  is  proportional  to  the  weight  <if  the  charge, 
it  is  usual  to  make  the  diameter  of  the  triumions 
eipial  to  tlie  diameter  of  the  bore.  The  positicai  of 
the  trunnions,  with  reference  to  the  axis  of  the  bore, 
inHuenccs  the  amount  of  recoil  and  the  endunmee  of 
the  carriage.  By  reference  to  Fig.  2  it  will  be  seen 
that  if  the  axis  of  the  trunnions  be  placed  below  the 


axis  of  the  piece,  the  resultant  of  the  force  of  the 
charge,  which  acts  against  the  bottom  of  llie  bore, 
will  act  to  turn  the  jiiece  around  its  truimiou,  and 
cause  the  breech  to  press  upon  the  head  of  the  elevat- 
ing-screw with  a  force  proportioned  to  the  length  of 
the  lever-arm,  or  distance  between  the  axes.  The 
effect  will  be  to  throw  an  additional  strain  on  the 
carriage  by  pressing  down  the  rear  part  of  it,  and 
checking  the  recoil.  If  the  truniuons  be  placed  above 
the  axis  of  the  piece,  rotation  will  take  place  in  the 
opposite  direction,  and  the  effect  of  the  discbarge 
upon  the  carriage  ami  recoil  will  be  reversed.  By 
lilacing  the  two  a.xes  in  the  same  plane,  the  force  of 
the  charge  will  be  communicated  directly  to  the 
trunnions,  without  increasing  or  diminishing  its  ef- 
fect on  the  carri.age  or  recoil;  this  position  is  given  to 
them  in  all  guns  in  the  United  States  service.  The 
unequal  distribution  of  the  weight  of  a  cannon,  with 
reference  to  the  axis  of  the  trunnions,  is  ealli'd  the 
preponderance.  It  is  the  jiressure  which  the  bneeh 
jtortion  of  the  gim,  when  horizontal,  exerts  on  the 
elevating  arrangement.  To  ascertain  the  preponder- 
ance practically,  support  the  gun  at  the  trunnions  as 
freely  as  possible,  and  bring  it  horizontal  by  means 
of  a  long  hands|)ike  in  the  bore.  Place  a  i)latform- 
scale  under  the  breech,  and  tix  a  block  of  wood  on 
it,  touching  tlie  gim  underneath  at  the  elevating- 
lioint.  The  handspike  being  then  removed  from  the 
bore,  the  pressure  on  the  block  is  indicated  on  the 
arm  of  the  scale,  and  is  the  preponderance  of  the 
gun. 

In  larger  guns  destined  to  throw  heavy  elongated 
projectiles,  where  the  weight  of  the  charge  increa.ses 
rapidly  in  coni|iarison  with  the  caliber,  the  chamber 
is  of  the  size  of  the  bore,  and  lately  usefid  results 
have  been  obtained  by  making  the  chamber  of  greater 
diameter  than  the  bore.  The  necessity  for  a  small 
chamber  lieing  assumed,  and  its  capacity  decided 
upon,  the  determination  of  its  proper  form  will  Ije 
governed  by  .several  conditions.  1st.  The  chamber 
must  be  deep  enough  to  receive  a  cartridge  manage- 
able in  length.  2d.  As  the  chamber  adds  mate- 
rially to  the  length  of  the  bore,  it  must  evidently  be 
no  deeper  than  tln'  service  of  the  gun  renders  neces- 
sary. 3d.  It  should  contain  no  angles,  on  account  of 
the  well-known  tendency  of  a  split  to  begin  at  an 
angle;  hence  the  bore  should  terminate  in  a  curve, 
the  hemisphere,  semi-ellipsoid,  paraboloid,  and  ogival 
being  those  most  frecpiently  used.  The  shape  of  the 
chamber  generally  in  use  for  S.  U.  guns  is  conical. 


The  particular  kind  of  chamber  represented  in  the 
dniwing  is  called  a  Oomir  f'/mmbir,  after  its  inven- 
tor. Its  laiiicipal  advantages  are,  distributing  the 
force  of  the  charge  o\er  a  large  jjortion  of  tlie  sur- 
face of  the  ])rojectile,  thereby  rendering  it  less  liable 
to  break  if  it  be  hollow,  and  reducing  the  windage 
when  the  projectile  is  driven  down  to  its  proper 
place. 

The  ]'</>(  is  the  channel  passing  through  the  metal, 
from  the  exterior  of  the  breech  into  the  bore,  by 
means  of  which  fire  is  comiuunicated  to  the  charge. 
The  size  of  the  vent  should  be  as  small  as  pos.sible, 
in  order  to  diminish  the  escape  of  gas  and  the  erosion  of 
the  luetal,  which  results  from  it.  In  naval  ordnance 
vents  are  constructed  two  tenths  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. In  bronze  pieces  the  heal  of  the  inflamed  ga.ses 
would  be  sufficient  to  melt  the  tin  and  rapidly  en- 
large its  iliameter.  For  this  reason  they  are  boucheil 
by  screwing  in  a  perforated  piece  of  pure  wrought- 
copper,  called  the  iriit-pieci:  This  arrangement  al- 
lows the  vent  to  be  renewed  when  too  much  enlarged 
by  continued  use.  Copper  vent-pieces  are  especially 
necessary  in  rifle-guns,  in  consequence  of  the  pro- 
longed action  of  the  gas  arising  from  the  resistance 
of  the  projectile.  In  the  largest  caliber  the  interior 
orifice  is  lined  with  jilntiiiiini.  The  upper  jiortiou  of 
the  copper  is  replaced  by  steel  to  obtain  a  harder  sur- 
face for  receiving  the  blow  of  the  hammer.  Some 
guns  have  two  unbiniched  vents,  situated  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  axis  of  the  ixire,  and  inclined  at  an  angle 
of  70  degrees  with  that  axis.  The  one  on  the  right 
side  is  bored  entirely  through;  the  other  is  simply 
initiated  to  give  it  direction.  When  the  o|ien  vent  is 
too  much  enlarged  by  wear  for  further  use  it  is  clo.sed 
with  melted  zinc,  and  the  other  is  bored  out.  Each 
vent  should  endure  about  live  lumdred  service-rounds. 
In  smooth-bore  cast  guns  the  vent  enters  the  bore 
very  near  the  bottom;  the  vents  of  heavy  built-up 
guns  are  I'.sually  bored  vertically,  and  in  such  a  posi- 
tion as  to  strike  the  cartridge  at  about  four  tenths  of 
its  length  from  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  it  having  been 
ascertained  by  experiment  that  tlir  ignition  of  the 
charge  at  about  this  point  realizes  the  greatest  pro- 
jectile force  that  can  be  produced  by  a  given  charge: 
but  in  some  of  the  heaviest  rifled  guns  and  in  most 
breech-loading  guns  the  vent  is  bored  in  the  line  of 
the  a.xis  through  the  breech,  and  is  termed  ;in  ai'ial 
rent.  Experiment  shows  that  the  actual  loss  of  force 
by  the  escape  of  gas  through  the  vent,  as  compared 
to  that  of  the  entire  charge,  is  inconsiderable,  and 
it  may  be  neglected  in  practice. 

In  designing  a  gun,  it  is  neces.sary  in  the  first  place 
to  endeax'or  to  determine  what  thickness  of  metal  is 
required  for  that  part  of  the  gun  surrounding  the  seat 
of  the  charge,  for  it  is  here  where  the  greatest  strain 
from  the  explosion  of  the  charge  is  exerted.  No  pre- 
cise rules  can  be  laid  down  for  the  regulation  of  this 
thickness  in  various  kinds  of  ordnance,  as  so  much 
depends  upon  the  jihysical  properties  of  the  material 
used.  The  general  results  of  experience,  or  of  experi- 
ments carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  estalilishing  thid 
point,  can  alone  furnish  us  with  the  requisite  data. 
The  amount  (;f  metal  in  a  gun  must  depend  upon  the 
charge,  the  weight  and  form  of  the  projectile,  the 
material  emiiloyed,  and  the  methoil  of  construction. 
When  a  charge  of  guni)owder  is  ignited  in  the  bore 
of  a  gun.  the  gas  exerts  equal  pressures  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  therefore,  neglecting  windage,  the  )ircssure 
in  the  bottom  of  the  bore  is  equal  to  that  on  the  ba.se 
of  the  projectile,  and  the  pressures  on  the  top  and 
bottom  as  well  as  those  on  the  sides  of  the  iKire  bal- 
ance each  other.  The  metal  of  a  gun  is  subjected  to 
two  jirincipal  strains:  one  a  traiixrcrKu  or  laiif/cntial, 
which  tends  to  rend  the  metal  lengthwise,  <ir  from 
end  to  end;  and  the  other  a  loni/itm/iiitil,  tending  to 
fracture  the  gun  across,  or  to  drive  out  the  breech. 
As  the  projectile  moves  towards  the  muzzle,  .so  will 
the  space  in  which  the  gas  is  contuied  be  increased, 
and  the  i)re.s.sure  be  decreased;  the  portion  of  metal 
surrounding   the   space   originally  occu])ied   by  the 


CANNONADE. 


277 


CANNON-FOUNDING. 


cartridge,  and  a  little  in  front  of  it,  i.s  that  upon  which 
the  muj-iiniim  premure  from  the  gas  is  exerted.  The 
maximum  pressure  will  be  intluenccd  by  the  nature 
of  the  powder,  the  resistance  oifered  by  the  i>rojeelile 
to  motion,  ami  by  the  absence  or  amount  of  windage. 
Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  detennine 
the  gradual  dicrea.'^e  of  sirain  ujiou  the  metal  of  a 
]jiecc  of  ordnance,  from  breech  to  mu'zzle.  The  lirst 
were  accomplished  by  perforating  a  gun  in  several 
places  from  the  exterior  lo  the  bore,  at  right  angles 
with  the  bore,  and  succes-sively  screwing  a  pistol-bar- 
rel containing  a  steel  ball  into  each  perforation,  and 
discharging  the  gun  with  the  pistol-banel  at  the  dif- 
ferent perforation.^:  the  relative  velocities  with  which 
the  pistol-ball  (received  by  a  ix-ndulum)  is  forced  out 
at  these  different  positions  indicate  the  ft>rce  exerted 
there  to  burst  the  gim,  and  consequently  the  relative 
strength  of  metal  neces.siiry  in  the  various  parts  to  re- 
sist explosion.  The  following  formula,  which  is 
used  for  calculating  the  exterior  form  of  cannon  of 
large  caliber  for  the  land  service,  was  deduced  by 
Captain  Rodman  from  a  series  of  original  experiments 
on  the  strength  of  hollow  cylinders,  etc.: 


of  the  carriage  on  ordinarj-  ground ;  W,  the  weight  of 
the  piece;  V.  velocity  of  recoil;  (',  the  weight  of  the 
carriage;  H,  the  pressure  of  the  Inul  on  the  ground, 
arising  from  the  recoil;  and  y,  the  force  of  gravity. 
From  the  principle  before  enunciatcil,  we  have 

ff       P  9         ^  g        ■' ' 

or,  by  reduction, 

tcv  +  cN- 


W- 


CV-Vf-Rf 


,,      -Zpr  \  t 


B^'L 


[{R  -  r)(3rZ  +  R)(R  +  r)iR -  r)  ^^^ 

in  which  C'is  a  constant  quantity,  /•  =  interior  radius 
and  R  =  exterior  radius,  p  =  pressure  of  ga.s,  I  = 
length  of  bore  pressed  required  to  fully  develop 
transverse  resistance,  L  =  length  of  bore  correspond- 
ing to  assumed  values  of  R,  S=  tensile  strength  of 
metal,  and  /'=  length  of  bore  .subjected  to  maximum 
pressure.  The  pre.s.sure  of  the  gas  is  supposed  to 
vary  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the  length  of  the 
tore  behind  the  projectile.  The  exterior  forms  thus 
obtained  are  entirely  made  up  of  cuned  lines. 

For  many  years  cast-iron  cannon  have  been  made 
in  Sweden  of  a  form  nearly  approaching  that  called 
for  by  the  actual  pressure  of  the  powder  at  different 
points  of  the  bore  (Fig.  3).  In  the  construction  of 
bronze  gims,  the  thickness  of  the  metal  at  the  neck, 


Fig.  3. 

or  thinnest  part,  is  about  equal  to  ,\  of  that  at  the 
first  reinforce,  or  j\£:,  given  in  the  empirical  for- 
mula E  =  D\'  -p,  to  which  D  represents  the  di- 
ameter of  a  solid  cast-iron  shot  suited  to  the  bore.  C 
the  proof-charge,  and  P  the  real  weight  of  the 
projectile.  .  •     i   i      .i 

The  weight  of  a  cannon  is  detennineil  bv  tlie 
weight  of  the  projectile,  the  maximum  velocity  it 
may  be  nece.s.sarv  to  communicate  to  it,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  the  recoil.  The  extent  of  the  recoil  IxMiig 
limited  bv  the  conditions  of  the  service,  the  weight 
of  the  piece  may  be  deduced  from  the  principle  that 
action  and  reaction  are  equal  and  opposite;  or  that 
the  quantity  of  motion  exiwnded  on  the  inertia  of 
the  piece  and  carriage,  and  friction,  is  e<jual  to  that 
expended  on  the  projectile,  and  the  air  set  in  motion 
by  the  charge.  Let  w  be  the  weight  of  the  projectile; 
-!•,"  its  maximum  velocity;  c.  the  weight  of  the  charge 
of  powder;  N,  a  constant  linear  quanHty,  represent- 
ing the  velocity  communicated  to  the  piece  by  a  unit 
of  weight  of  the  charge,  arising  from  its  action  on 
the  air.  independent  of  the  projectile  (for  American 
powder  this  has  been  found  by  experiment  with  the 
gun  and  ballistic  pendulums  to  be  equal  to  lOm)  fwt); 
/  the  velocity  lost  bv  a  unit  of  mass,  from  the  friction 


V  +  f 

For  field-guns  the  velocity  of  the  recoil  should  not 
exceed  12  feet.  See  Exterior  Form  of  Ciiimon,  Ji\riu;j, 
Jiiji/n'is  t)>  Cannon,  Ordnance,  and  Pointing. 

CANNONADE.— The  act  of  discharging  shot  or 
shells  from  cannon  for  the  purpo.se  of  destroying  an 
army,  or  battering  a  town,  ship,  or  fort;  usually  ap- 
plied to  an  attack  of  some  coiiliiuiance.  Al.so "writ- 
ten Ciuinonn/. 

CANNON-BALL  —  CANNON-BULLET.  —  Properly 
sjieaking,  this  tcmi  should  only  be  applied  to  spheri- 
cal solid  projectiles;  but  it  appears  to  have  iKxonie 
generic,  extending  to  elongated  bullets  for  rifled 
guns,  and  even  to  hollow  projectiles.  Technically, 
balls  are  termed  "solid  shot,"  or  simply  ".shot."  to 
distinguish  them  from  hollow  projectiles"  They  are 
I  now  universally  made  of  cast-iron,  though  stone  was 
fonnerly  employed,  and  was  used  in  some  in.stances 
i  by  the  Turks  as  late  as  1827.  In  South  America 
balls  of  copper  were  formerly  used,  this  metal  beiii'j 
there,  at  that  period,  cheaper  than  iron.  Elongated 
bullets  for  rifled  cannon  are  now  freiiuently,  espec- 
ially by  English  writers,  termed  "bolts."  I'he.se  are 
often  made  flat  pointed  or  angularly  pointed,  to  more 
readily  penetrate  iron  jilating.     See  Piijectilen. 

CANNON-BASKETS.— The  old  Engli.sh  phrase  for 
gabions.     Not  used  at  present. 

CANNON-CLOCK.- A  cannon  with  a  l)uming-gla.s.s 
I  over  the  vent,  so  as  to  fire  the  priming  when  the  sun 
reaches  the  meridian.     Such  pieces  were  jilaced  in 
I  the  Palais  Koyal  and  in  the  LiixcnilMUirg,  at  Paris. 

CANNONEER-  CANNONIEE-  CANONNIEH.  — 
An  artillerv'  man  or  gunner.  In  1071,  during  the 
administration  of  Louvois  in  France,  the  name  of 
Cunonniers  was  given  to  the  first  company  of  the 
regiment  of  the  king's  fusileers;  in  April,  1693, 
this  regiment  was  named  Arti/Urie  Rot/al,  but  the 
first  companv  retained  the  name  of  Ciinnnnitrn. 

CANNON-FOUNDING.— Since  Sir  William  Ann- 
strong  succeeded,  by  a  process  first  brought  under 
the  notice  of  the  British  Goveniment  in  18.54,  in 
making  of  malleable  iron  a  field-gunof  fargrealeretti- 
ciency  than  any  previously  in  u.sc,  cannon  founding  has 
in  most  European  countries  gradually  ceased.  This 
manufacture,  which  was  formerly  an  important  one, 
is,  however,  still  carried  on  in  the  United  States. 
Sweden,  and  Russia,  all  three  of  which  countries 
liroduce  cast-iron  of  a  verj-  superior  (inality.  Can- 
non are  cast  in  molds  of  loam  or  .sand  preparetl  with 
the  help  of  a  pattern.  They  are  usually  cast  verti- 
cally, with  an  extra  mass  of  metal  poured  in  at  the 
to])  end  of  each  mold  to  secure  by  its  pressure  greater 
solidity  in  its  walls,  as  is  often  done  in  the  case  of  a 
hydraulic  cylinder.  This  su]iertluous  portion  is,  of 
eours<',  aftefnards  removed.  Cannon  are,  or  at  least 
were,  often  cast  .solid  with  the  same  object,  and  after- 
wards bored,  although  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that 
such  are  generally  sounder  or  of  closer  texture  than 
those  which  are  cast  hollow.  In  either  case  the 
inner  surface  of  the  cannon  is  accurately  fini.shcd 
with  a  lioring-lool  to  the  re(|uiied  caliluT,  and  Ihe 
outer  surface  turned.  Brass,  or  rather  bronze,  can- 
non were  usually  cast  in  loam  by  means  of  a  clay 
moilel  on  which  "were  often  stuck  omainental  figures 
in  wax,  thest^  being  melted  out  of  the  mold  Iiefore 
casting.  In  the  United  Statc-s,  cast-iron  guns  are 
made  by  Rotlman's  process;  that  is,  they  are  cast 
hollow  on  a  core-barrel  which  is  filled  with  ^fater. 


CAITNOH-LOCK. 


278 


CANNON-METALS. 


This  is  applied  so  as  to  cool  the  metal  of  the  cruii  in 
layers,  thus  luoilifviiig  the  initial  stmiu  upon  il,  anil 
producing  the  best  result  that  can  Ix-  obtained  from 
cast-iron  for  ordnance  purposes.  Within  the  last  few 
years  guns  as  large  in  the  bore  as  20  inches  have  been 
cast  by  this  method  at  Pittsburg,  and  one  of  the  same 
size  has  been  made  by  it  in  Russia.  The  latter 
■weighs  -44  Ions,  throws  a  spherical  ball  of  9  cwt.,  and 
took  3i  months  to  finish.  Its  cost  was  not  more 
than  one  fourth  that  of  a  built-up  gun  of  steel  for 
the  same  weight  of  projectile.  .>lany  of  the  earlier 
pieces  of  ordnance,  it  is  curious  to  observe,  were 
made  of  hooped  bars,  in  which  one  can  trace  the 
germ  of  the  process  bv  which  the  Armstrong  gim  is 
made.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  modern  plan  of 
constructing  large  guns  was  not  tried  in  olden  times, 
as  is  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  different  kinds  of 
old  cannon  still  preserved.  These,  however,  had  to 
he  constructed  without  the  aid  of  the  steam-hammer 
and  other  appliances,  which  render  such  work  com- 
paratively easy  nowadays,  and  were  accordingly  de- 
licicnt  in  strength.  The  earlier  wrought-iron  cannon 
were  eventually  superseded  by  those  made  of  cast-iron 
and  bronze,  but  not  entirely  for  some  considerable 
time  after  the  latter  had  been  in  use.  The  mortar, 
which  was  introduced  about  tlic  commencement  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  appears  to  have  been  not  only 
the  most  ancient  form  of  cannon,  but  the  first  Eu- 
ropean fire-arm  as  well.  From  the  bcgiiming  of  the 
fifteenth  centui;)',  cannon  were  cast  in  bronze,  and 
some  of  great  size  are  stated  to  have  been  used  at  the 
siege  of  Constantinople  in  1463.  Probably  hand- 
cannon  of  cast-iron  date  as  far  back  as  bronze  guns, 
and  at  any  rate  we  know  that  large  and  excellent 
cjinnon  were  made  of  cast-iron  in  the  early  part  of 
the  si.xteenth  century,  they  having  been  used"  at  Flod- 
den,  and  England  having" even  then  acciuired  a  repu- 
tation for  this  kind  of  ordnance.  Cannon-founding 
has  therefore  been  practiced  for  nearly  500  years;  and 
although  the  art  is  now  to  all  appearance  doomed 
to  decay,  no  one  can  predict,  in  these  days  of  met- 
allurgical wonders,  what  further  change  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  may 
bring  about  as  respects  the  making  of  large  fire-arms. 
In  order  that  the  cast  guns  made  on  the  old  system 
may  still  be  available  for  some  purposes  in  modern 
warfare,  Colonel  Hay  Camjibcll,  some  years  ago, 
proposed  a  plan  for  lining  bronze,  and  Major  Palli.scr 
another  for  lining  cast-iron  cannon  with  a  tube  of 
wrought-iron.  Some  have  been  transformed  on  the 
Palli.ser  system,  which  consists  in  boring  a  certain 
thickness  off  the  old  gun  and  forcing  a  coiled 
wrought-iron  barrel  into  the  interior,  and  are  said  to 
liave  given  very  remarkable  results  as  regards  en- 
durance. Certam  peculiarities  in  the  manufacture 
of  special  kinds  of  ordnance  are  noticed  in  the  arti- 
cles relating  to  them.     See  Ordnance. 

CANNON-LOCK.— A  contrivance,  like  the  lock  of 
a  gun,  placed  over  the  vent  of  a  cannon  to  explode 
the  ( harffe. 

CANNON-METALS.— The  qualities  of  metals  with 
which  we  are  more  particularly  concerned  in  the  con- 
struction of  orrljiance  are  the"physical  i)roperties  of 
malleability,  ductility,  hardness  "or  softness,  toutrh- 
ness,  elasticity,  and  tensile  strength,  while  we  must 
also  understand  what  is  meant  by  tenacity  and 
elastic  limit  as  applied  to  metals.  MaUmbiUty  is  the 
property  of  being  iiermaneutly  extended  in  all  direc- 
tions without  rupture-  by  prcssiire  (as  in  rolling)  or  by 
imjiact  (as  in  hammering).  It  is  opposed  to  briUk- 
n<KS,  which  is  the  tendency  to  break  more  or  less 
readily  under  compression  either  gnidual  or  sudden. 
BuctUity  is  the  proi)crty  of  permimently  extending  or 
drawing  out,  by  traction,  as  in  wiie-drawing.  A 
metal  is  said  to  be  mft  when  it  yields  easily  to  com- 
pression without  breaking,  and  (iocs  not  return  to  its 
oriirinal  form  on  the  removal  of  the  compressing 
stress.  These  terms  are,  of  course,  only  comparative; 
thus  we  have  hard  leads  and  soft  leads,  while  any 
sort  o1  lead  whatever  is  soft  ascompared  with  wrought- 


iron,  which  latter  again  is  called  soft  when  we  com- 
pare it  with  cast-iron.  Steel  is  called  itoft  or  l</ic  when 
the  proportion  of  carbon  contained  in  it  is  small,  and 
hard  or  high  when  the  contrary  is  the  case,  lx>cause 
when  treated  in  a  similar  manner  one  variety  is  much 
harder  than  the  other.  It  shouM,  however,  be  remem- 
bered that  a  tolerably  soft  steel  may  be  made  very 
hard  by  temix-ring.  "  It  is  easy  to  understand  what 
UnighiieM  means,  but  not  so  easy  to  define  exactly 
what  it  is.  Dr.  Young  gives  the  following  explana- 
tion of  the  term  lus  applied  to  steel:  "  Steel,  whether 
perfectly  hard  or  of  the  softest  tem}x?r,  resists  flexure 
with  equal  force  w  hen  the  deviations  from  the  natural 
state  are  small,  but  at  a  certain  point  the  steel,  if  soft, 
begins  to  undergo  an  alteration  of  form;  at  another 
point  it  breaks  if  much  hardened,  but  when  the  hard- 
ness is  modenUe  it  is  capable  of  a  much  greater  cur- 
vature without  permanent  alteration  or  fracture,  and 
this  quality,  which  is  valuable  for  the  pnrixjses  of 
springs  [and  also  forgim-barrels],  is  called  toughness, 
and  is  opposed  to  rigidity  and  brittleness  on  the  one 
side  and  to  ductility  on  the  other."  EhisHciiy  is  the 
property  possessed  by  a  metal  of  resisting  permanent 
deformation  wheti  subjected  to  a  stie.«s,  and  is  mea-  ■ 
sured  by  the  ratio  of  stress  to  strain,  so  that  the 
modidus  of  elasticity  is  equal  to  the  cotaiigent  of  the 
angle  H  A  J.  in  the  following  figure.  The  ehutic 
limit  of  a  metal  is  the  tension  which  causes  permanent 
elongation,  and  in  the  figure  is  represented  by  the 
abscissa  A  J.  Tenacity  is  the  tension  required  to 
produce  rupture,  and  is  represented  by  the  abscis-sa 
A  D.  Ttnrile  strength  we  shall  employ  to  denote  the 
work  done  upon  the  metal  to  produce  rupture  bj' 
traction.  It  would  be  measured  in  the  figure  by  the 
area  A  B  D. 

In  order  to  understand  these  several  terms  more 
clearly,  let  us  take  the  fi.srure  below,  in  which  the 
absci^se  represent  the  tensions,  and  the  ordinates  the 
extensions,  of  a  bar  of  metal  (experimentally  deter- 
mined) corresponding  to  the  tensions.  If  the  bar  be 
subject  to  a  constantly-increasing  tension,  the  exten- 
sion is  at  first  in  a  constant  ratio  to  the  tension,  in- 
creasing after  a  cert;iin  point  in  a  varying  ratio.  This 
point,  represented  in  the  diagram  by  the  extension, 
H  J,  and  measured  by  the  tension  represented  by  the 
abscissa  A  J,  is  termed  the  elastic  limit.  After  this 
point  is  reached,  the  extensions  increase  in  a  higher 
ratio  for  every  increment  of  tension,  and  the  Hue 
joining  the  ordinates  becomes  a  cur\ed  line,  as  shown 
by  H  B  in  the  figure.  As  we  continue  to  increase  the 
tension,  we  arrive  at  a  point  where  the  bai-  will  fracture. 


Suppose  the  total  extension  of  the  bar  at  that  point  to 
be  represented  by  B  D.  and  the  breaking  tension  by 
the  abscissa  A  D,  which  is  the  measure  of  the  tenacity 
or  limit  of  fracture:  we  have  then,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  figure,  three  extensions  of  the  bar,  the  total,  elas- 
tic, and  i>ermanent,  the  former  being  in  all  cases  the 
sum  of  the  two  latter;  while,  until  the  elastic  limit  is 
reached,  the  total  extension  is  .synonvmous  with  the 
elastic  extension.  The  ordinates  of  the  curve  (a 
straight  line  as  far  as  H)  A  B  represent  the  total  ex- 
tensions, and  the  ordinates  of  the  straight  line  A  C 
the  elastic  extensions  of  the  bar,  while  the  work  re- 
quired to  jiroduce  rupture  is  measured  by  the  area 
A  B  D,  which  thus  measures  the  tensile  strength. 

Siuularly.  the  work  necessary  to  ])roducc  a  total 
extension, 'E  F,  is  measured  by  the  ana  A  F  E.  If 
we  move  the  tension  represented  V)y  A  F,  after  the  bar 


CANNON-PEREE. 


CANNON-PEIMEKS. 


I 


has  been  extended  by  E  F,  the  greatest  extension  of 
the  bar  will  not  exceed  F  G;  then  reimpose  it  and 
once  more  remove  the  tension,  the  bar  will  revert  to 
its  former  lenjcth.  Here,  of  the  total  work  done  on 
tlie  bar  reiircsented  by  the  area  A  F  E,  thai  portion 
corresponding  to  the  area  H  KG  liiis  b((;n  absorbed 
by  it  and  applied  to  tlie  rearrangement  of  its  mole- 
cules, bi;ing  the  measure  of  the  loss  sustained  in  the 
tensile  strength  of  the  bar.  Its  tenacity  may,  how- 
ever, be  increased,  and  we  see  that  its  elastic  limit  is 
so,  for  any  ductile  metal  increases  (within  certain 
limits)  in  elastic  limit  and  ultiniale  sireiiglh  (as  repre- 
sented by  the  tenacity),  though  not  in  absolute  or  ten- 
sile strength  (as  shown  bj'  the  total  work  required  to 
produce  rupture),  when  subjected  to  drawing,  ham- 
mering, or  rolling.  In  fact,  a  material  strained 
beyond  its  clastic  limit  will  exhibit  the  same  charac- 
teristics as  an  originally  harder  meljil.  To  retm-n, 
however,  to  the  case  in  the  figure.  .Suppose  we  now 
subject  tlie  bar,  which  has  been  elongated  by  the  per- 
manent extension  E  G,  to  a  greater  tension,  then  the 
total  exten.sions  may  be  represented  by  the  same  line 
G  K,  and  we  see  that  the  breaking  tension,  shown 
by  A  L,  is  greater  than  l)efore.  Tlie  total  work  to 
produce  rupture  will  now  be  repre-scnted  by  the  area 
A  K  [j,  which,  however,  can  never  exceed  the  me- 
chanicid  work  represented  by  A  B  1).  or,  what  is  the 
same  thing,  F  G  K  L  cannot  exceed  B  L)  F  E,  so  that 
the  absolute  or  tensiU^  strength  of  the  metjd  is  not 
uicreased  by  permanent  extension  beyond  it.s  original 
elastic  limit,  although  its  tenacity  and  elasticity  may 
be  increased  by  the  operation. 

To  recapitulate,  then,  wc  must  remember  that  in- 
crease in  the  tenacity  (or  breaking  tension)  and  limit 
of  elasticity  do  not  necessiirily  imi)ly  greater  working 
strength  in  a  given  bar  of  metal.  We  do,  however, 
gain  very  much,  as  we  all  know,  by  subjecting  metals 
to  the  operations  of  rolling,  hammering,  etc.,  for  we 
obtain  a  higher  limit  of  elasticity  and  tenacity  in 
smaller  bulk  by  making  the  mass  more  homogeneous. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  tensile  strength  of  a  metal  is  by 
no  means  the  same  as  the  tenacity,  which  latter  is 
often  termed  tensile  strength,  and  which 
is  measured  here  by  the  weight  in  tons 
that  a  bar  of  )i  square  inch  in  sectional 
area  will  just  support  without  breaking. 
The  former  is  proportional  to  an  area  and 
the  latter  to  a  straight  line  in  the  figure 
above.  In  order  to  fracture  steel  of  great 
tenacity,  less  work  may  in  fact  be  done 
than  is  required  to  fracture  a  similar  bar 
of  soft  wrought-iron.  Again,  the  elasti- 
city of  the  iron  may  equal  that  of  the 
steel,  but  the  limit  of  elasticity  might  be 
very  different  in  the  two  cases.  The 
elasticity  is  measured  by  the  cotjingent  of  -^-■ 

the  angle  C  AD,  in  the  figure,  while  the 
elastic  limit  is  represented  by  the  tension 
measured  by  the  line  A  J,  and  the  work 
required  to  overcome  it  bj'  the  area  II  A  J. 

The  metals  used  for  the  constniction  of  ordnance 
are  bronze,  cast  or  wrouglit  iron,  steel,  and  numerous 
alloys  of  these  metals.  These  are  treated  under  spe- 
cific headings.  The  fitness  of  metals  for  cannon 
depends  chiefly  upon  their  elasticity.  It  also  depends, 
if  the  least  possible  weight  is  to  l)e  combined  with  the 
greatest  possible  preventive  against  explosive  buratiiig, 
upon  the  ductility  of  the  metal.  Hardness  to  resist 
compression  and"  wear  is  the  other  most  important 
quality.  Cast-iron  has  the  least  ultimate  tenacity, 
elasticity,  and  ductility;  but  it  is  harder  than  bronze 
orwrought-iron,  and  it"is  homogeneous.  The  unequal 
coolingof  solid  castings  leaves  them  under  initial 
rupturing  strains;  but  hollow  casting  and  cooling 
from  within  remedies  this  defect  and  other  minor 
defects.  Wrougbt-iron  has  the  advantage  of  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  elasticity,  a  high  degree  of  due 
tility,  and  a  greater  ultimate  tenacity  than  cast-irf)n; 
but  "as  large  masses  must  be  welded  up  from  small 
pieces,  the  want  of  homogeneity  becomes  a  serious 


defect.  Another  .serious  defect  of  wrought-iron  is  its 
softness  and  consequent  yielding  under  pressure  and 
friction. 

Low  cast -steel  has  the  greatest  ultimate  t<'nacily  and 
hardness;  and,  whjit  is  more  important,  it  has  the 
highest  elasticity.  It  has  the  great  advantage  over 
wrought-iron  of  homogeneity  in  mas.ses  of  any  size. 
It  is,  unlike  the  other  nietsUs,  capable  of  great  varia- 
tion in  density,  by  the  simple  i)rocesses  of  tempering 
and  annealing,  and,  therefore,  of  being  adapted  to  the 
different  degrees  of  elongation  to  which  it  is  subjected 
in  either  solid  or  built-up  guns. 

Bronze  has  greater  ultimate  tenacity  than  cast-iron, 
but  it  has  little  more  elasticity  and  less  homogeneity; 
it  has  a  high  degree  of  ductility,  but  it  is  the  softest 
of  cannon-metals,  and  Ls  injuriously  affected  by  the 
heat  of  high  charges.  In  view  of  the  duty  demanded 
of  modern  guns,  it  would  seem  that  simple  cast-iron 
is  too  weak,  although  it  can  be  used  to  advantage  in 
combination  with  other  metals.  VVrought-irou  in 
large  masses  cannot  be  trusted,  and  is  in  all  cases  too 
soft.  Bronze  is  impracticably  soft,  and  destnictible 
by  heat.  Low  steel  is,  therefore,  by  reiuson  of 
the  as.sociated  qualities,  which  may  he  called  strength 
and  toughness,  probably  tlie  oiily  material  from 
which  we  can  hope  to  maintain  resistance  to  the  high 
pressure  demanded  in  modern  warfare.  See  Bronze, 
Cast-iron,  Iron,  Ordnance,  Wroiig/it-iron,  and  !^Uel. 

CANNON-PERER.— An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance 
throwing  stone  shot. 

CANNON-PRIMERS.  —  Both  friction  and  electric 
cjmnon-primers  have  recently  been  remodeled  and 
improved.  Those  made  since  1883  differ  from  those 
formerly  made  in  ba\-ing  the  body,  branch,  and  the 
serrated  wire  of  the  friction-primer  made  from  car- 
tridge copper  instead  of  bra.ss,  and  in  ha\nng  the  end 
stopped  with  a  tinfoil  cup  instead  of  a  wax  plug. 
To  perfect  and  reduce  the  cost  of  their  falirication, 
improvements  have  been  made  in  several  details  of 
the  process.  The  platinum  -  wire  "bridge"  of  the 
electric  primer  has  been  reduced  in  diameter  and 
to  one  fourth  of  its  fonner  length.     New  machines 


Fio.  1. 

anil  tools  ha\e  been  designed  and  constructed  for  the 
production  of  both  varieties  (>f  primers.  The  more 
important  of  the  machines  and  tools  are  the  charging- 
machine,  the  foiling -machine,  and  their  auxiliary 
tools. 

The  chargin.g-machine,  represented  in  Fig.  1,  is  a 
tin-lined  wooden  hopper,  having  two  supports  across 
its  upper  end,  serving  to  hold  a  nick  containing  the 
primers  to  be  charged  and  the  charging-tool.  A 
drawer  under  it.s  lower  end  receives  the  overflow  of 
powder  from  the  charging-tool.  "  Rifle"  powder  is 
used  to  charge  the  primers,  each  charge  containing 
about  7  grains  by  weight.  Before  charging,  both 
varieties  of  primers  are  "  primed,"  the  friction-primer, 
with  its  .serrated  wire,  packed  in  friction  c:,nii>ositioii, 
of  which  the  tersiilphide  of  antimony  (sulphuret)  is 
the  bitsis;  and  the  electric  primer,  with  its  bridge  of 
platinum  wire  and  copper  connecting-wires,  a  small 
wisp  of  gun-cotton  being  attached  to  the  bridge.  For 
the  charging  and  foiling  operations  the  primers  are 


CANNON-BOTAL. 


280 


CAHNON  SIGHTS. 


assembled  iu  a  niotal  rack  which  has  dowels  to  re- 
ceive aiiil  adjust  the  charginir-tiK>l  over  the  open  ends 
of  the  primers.  The  chargiutt-tool  consists  of  two 
plates  held  together,  but  susi>ci)lible  of  a  slight  move- 
ment of  the  upper  upon  the  lower  one.  The  upper 
one  has  tajx^red  holes  and  the  lower  one  cylindrical 
holes,  correspondinji  to  the  primers  iu  the  rack.  The 
upper  one  measures  the  cliarires,  and  its  movement, 
by  meaas  of  a  cam  and  thumb-nut,  ui>on  the  lower 
one,  opens  or  closes  the  lower  eml  of  the  tapered 
charge-holes.  The  charging-tool,  having  the  charge- 
holes  closed  at  the  lK)ttom  by  its  motion  on,  the  lower 
plate,  is  placed  upon  the  rack  of  primers.  A  quantity 
of  powder  is  poured  over  the  charge-holes,  tilling 
them,  and  the  surplus  is  stroked  off  with  a  straight- 
edge. The  upper  jjlate  is  now  moved  so  as  to  empty 
the  charges,  throu.gh  the  holes  in  the  lower  plate,  into 
the  primers.  A  slight  .shock  or  jar  settles  the  powder 
in  the  primers,  the  charging-tool  is  lifted  off,  and  the 
rack  passed  to  the  foiling-machine. 
The  new  foiling-machine,  represented  in  Fig.  2,  is  a 


Fig.  a. 

double-action  press,  arranged  to  feed  the  rack  of 
primers  horizontally  under  a  gang  of  punches  and 
dies.  The  tinfoil,  in  the  form  of  a  coiled  ribbon 
about  1.25  inch  wide  and  .004  inch  thick,  is  fed  in 
between  the  punches  and  dies.  These  cut  and  form 
the  tinfoil  cup,  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  cupping- 
punch  pres.ses  it  down  through  the  die  into  the  end 
of  the  primer,  at  the  same  time  slightly  compressing 
the  charge  of  powtler.  The  tinfoil  cup  is  subsequently 
secured  by  means  of  shellac  varnish.  The  cartridge 
copper  is  a  more  durable  metal  than  brass,  which  is 
liable  to  rot  and  break  easily  after  long  storage  or 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  The  tinfoil  stopper  is 
more  permanent  under  wide  variations  of  temperature 
than  the  wax  one.  At  high  temperatures  the  latter 
was  sometimes  softened  and  forced  out  by  the  expan- 
sion of  the  air,  etc.,  confined  in  the  primer.  The 
charging-machine  insures  a  full  charge  of  powder  in 
every  primer,  which  was  not  made  certain  by  the  old 
method  of  charging  them  by  hand.  The  foiling- 
machine  effectually  closes  the  charge  in  the  jirimir 
until  it  is  exT)loded".  It  is  not  improbable  that  many 
reported  failures  of  both  varieties  of  primers  may 
have  Iwen  due  to  an  insuflicient  charge,  if  not  to  its 
entire  ab.sencc;  anil  that  primers  fully  charged  have 
often  lost  their  powder  by  the  displacement  of  the 
wax  stopper.  These  machines  and  tools  not  onlv  work 
with  certainty',  but  with  a  rapidity  that  effects"  a  con- 
siderable sjivmg  in  the  cost  of  their  ])roducts.  See 
Electric  Primer  and  Frictioii-priimr. 

CANNON-ROYAL. — An  old  grade  of  service-cannon, 
8.1  inches  iHire  and  firing  a  66-pound  .shot. 

"CANNON  SIGHTS.— In  order  that  a  projectile  fired 
from  a  gun  may  strike  a  required  object,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  adjust  the  line  of  fire  with  reference  to  the 
horizon  and  the  vertical  plane  jiassing  through  the 
object  in  such  a  maimer  that  the  trajectorv  will  reach 
it.  The  axis  of  the  gun  is  not  visible,  anil  it  is  neces- 
sary to  resort  to  notches  or  sights  on  the  exterior  sur- 


face to  determine  practically  the  position  of  the  axis. 
The  line  of  metal  is  a  visual  line,  joining  the  notches 
cut  on  the  highest  points  of  the  base-ring  and  swell  of 
the  muzzle.  The  inclination  of  the  line  of  mctid  to 
\  the  axis  of  the  bore  varies  in  guns  of  the  same  class 
as  well  as  in  those  of  different  cla.sses.  Aiming, 
therefore,  by  the  line  of  metal  cannot  be  relied  on  for 
definite  ranges;  besides  that,  within  those  ranges  it  is 
apt  to  mislead  by  giving  too  much  elevation  to  the 
piece.  If  a  gun  lie  pointed  at  an  object  by  means  of 
a  line  of  metal,  it  will  be  seen,  by  prolonging  that 
line  and  the  axis  of  the  bore,  that  the  latter  will  pass 
over  the  object. 

A  dispart  is  a  piece  of  metal  placed  on  the  top  of 
the  gun  to  give  a  line  of  sight  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  bore.  Half  the  difference  between  the  diameters 
of  the  gun  at  the  base-ring  and  swell  of  the  muzzle, 
or  at  any  intermediate  point  on  the  line  of  metal,  will 
give  the  i>roper  height  of  the  dispart-sight  at  the 
point  where  the  least  diameter  was  taken.  In  the 
absence  of  other  means  of  sighting,  wooden  dispart- 
sights  lashed  on  the  cylinder  can  l)e  used.  A  narrow 
groove  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  wooden  sight, 
inade  to  coincide  with  the  [ilane  of  the  line  of  sight 
marked  on  the  gun,  will  assist  in  getting  the  true 
direction.  The  guns  of  the  Dahlgren  pattern  are 
cylindrical  for  a  certain  distance  forward  of  the  base- 
line, always  giving  a  line  of  sight  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  Iwre.  Guns  are  marked  on  the  top  of  the  base- 
ring,  the  sight-masses,  and  swell  of  the  muzzle,  by 
notches,  wliich  indicate  a  vertical  plane  pa.ssing 
through  the  axis  of  the  bore  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  trunnion.  In  range  at  level,  the  bore  be- 
ing horizontal,  the  dispart-sight  is  directed  at  a  point 
above  the  water-line  or  point  struck  equal  to  its  own 
distance  above  that  line.  If  the  gim  is  pointed  by 
dispart  directly  at  an  object,  the  projectile  will  fall 
short,  more  or  less,  depending  upon  the  distance.  In 
pointing  by  dispart,  therefore,  it  is  ncces.s!iry  to  direct 
the  sight  a  certain  height  above  the  object,  to  allow 
for  the  fall  of  the  projectile  during  flight;  the  height 
to  be  pointed  above  must  depend  ujion  the  distance  of 
the  object.  To  facilitate  the  operation  of  pointing 
guns  according  to  the  distance  of  the  object  aimed  at, 
sights  are  prepared  and  fitted  to  each  gim,  distin- 
guished as  top  sights  and  .side  sights.  The  top  or 
ordinary  sights  consist  of  two  pieces  of  bronze  gun- 
metal,  one  of  which,  called  the  front  .sight,  is  a  fi.xed 
point,  firmly  secured  to  the  sight-mass,  upon  the 
upper  surface  of  the  gun  between  the  trunnions.  The 
other,  or  rear  sight,  is  a  square  bar  or  stem  with  a 
head,  in  the  top  of  which  is  a  sight-notch.  It  is  set 
diagonally  so  as  to  expose  t\\  o  faces  to  the  rear  ;  the 
rear  angle  chamfered,  to  afford  a  bearing  for  the 
clamiJ-screw.  This  bar  or  stem  is  made  to  slide  in  a 
vertical  plane,  in  the  sight-box  fixed  to  the  breech- 
sight  mass,  and  is  held  at  the  various  elevations  for 
which  it  is  graduated  by  means  of  a  thumb-screw. 
Its  length  is  suHicieiit  for  all  the  elevation  which  can 
be  given — about  .5" — before  the  muzzle  appears  above 
the  front  sight,  after  which  a  long  w(x>den  sight  must 
be  used,  graduated  for  the  whole  length  of  the  gun, 
using  the  notch  in  the  muzzle.  The  rear  sight  may 
be  said  to  be  a  tangent  to  an  arc  the  radius  of  which 
is  the  distance  from  the  outer  point  of  the  front  sight 
to  the  fore  part  of  the  rear  sight,  and  the  divisions 
are  calculated  accordingly  ;  this  distance  is  called  the 
short  radius.  The  rear  sight  is  marked  on  the  two 
rear  faces  for  every  hundred  yards  ;  on  one  face  for 
the  shell  and  its  proper  charge,  and  on  the  other  for 
shot.  The  wooden  rear  siglxt  may  be  said  to  be  a 
tangent  to  an  arc  of  which  the  radius  is  the  distance 
from  the  notch  on  the  swell  of  the  muzzle  to  the 
front  of  the  rear  sight  ;  this  distance  is  called  the  long 
radius.  The  rear  sight  is  .set  at  an  angle  of  60  ,  so 
that  it  may  slide  up  and  down  w  illiout  touching  the 
breech  of  the  piece.  Every  gun  is  furnished  with 
two  sight-bars,  a  long  wooden  and  a  .short  bra.ss  one  ; 
the  longer  is  used  for  ranges  over  1700  yards;  for 
all  ranges  less  than  this,  which  is  the  extreme  dis- 


CANONNIEEE. 


281 


CANTEEH. 


tance  at  which  accurate  practice  may  be  expected  at 
sea,  the  short  bar  is  used.  Pivot-jruiis  are  fitted  with 
side-sights  placed  on  tlie  side  of  the  breecli,  and  on 
the  trunnion  or  riinbasi'.  The  advantage  of  tliis 
arrangement  is  that  the  siglits  can  be  used  at  any  ele- 
vation ;  for,  being  placed  at  the  side  of  the  gun,  the 
muzzle  of  the  piece  does  not  interfere  with  the  line  of 
sight  when  pointing.  The  sights  of  all  howitzers  are 
fitted  in  this  way  ;  the  front  sight  is  a  notch  in  a 
small  mass  cast  on  the  muzzle  ;  the  rear  .sight  is  a 
bronze  cylinder  pointed  at  the  top  and  marked  for 
seconds  to  correspond  with  the  Bormann  fuse.  The 
rear  sight  slides  in  a  small  mass  cast  on  the  breech, 
and  is  held  by  a  thumb-screw.  Sights  for  Parrot  M. 
L.  R.  guns  consist  of  a  fixed  sight  upon  the  rirabase, 
and  a  movable  sight  in  a  socket  which  is  screwed 
into  the  breech  of  the  gun.  The  movable  sight  is 
furnished  with  a  sliding  eye-piece,  and  is  graduated 
up  to  10  .  The  eye-piece  is  also  jcapable  of  lateral 
adjustment  to  allow  for  the  drift  as  far  as  10',  and 
for  the  effect  of  the  wind.  It  is  desirable  that  the 
sights  should  be  placed  on  both  sides  of  the  breech  ; 
otherwise,  in  tiring  from  a  port  at  extreme  train, 
there  may  be  considerable  loss  of  lateral  aim.  The 
8-ineh  M.  L.  rifle  is  furnished  with  the  usual  top 
sights,  and  has  also  side  sights,  the  rear  one  being 
set  at  a  permanent  angle  of  i  47'.  The  rear  sight  is 
a  rectangular  bar  with  a  square  shoulder  slotted  for  a 
movable  eye-piece  to  allow  for  deviations  due  to  the 
force  of  the  wind,  etc.  It  is  marked  on  the  rear  side 
for  charge,  kind  of  powder  and  shell  ;  on  the  left 
side,  range  in  yards,  time  of  flight  in  seconds, 
charge,  kind  of  powder  and  shell,  and  initial  velocity  ; 
the  siime  on  the  right  side  for  a  different  charge,  and 
in  front  for  degrees  of  elevation.  The  front  .sight  is 
screwed  into  the  rimhase  and  is  pierced  with  two 
holes  connected  by  a  slit. 

The  adjustment  of  ciinnonsights  requires  the  most 
careful  attention.  The  bore  ha\'ing  been  thoroughly 
cleansed,  its  axis  is  leveled  by  inserting  a  small  steel 
T-square  in  the  bottom  of  bore  at  the  muzzle.  The 
square  itself  is  first  leveled  by  placing  an  ordinary 
level  on  the  transverse  branch.  When  the  T-.square 
is  leveled,  the  level  is  then  placed  on  the  longitudinal 
branch  of  the  T-square  lengthwise  with  the  bore  of 
^un,  and  the  axis  of  gun  is  then  leveled  bj'  .striking 
the  chocks  preWously  placed  on  each  side  under  chase 
of  gun,  which  of  course  either  raise  or  lower  the 
muzzle.  When  the  gun  has  been  leveled  as  to  axis 
of  bore,  it  is  to  be  leveled  as  to  axis  of  trunnions. 
To  level  as  to  axis  of  trunnions:  First,  scrape  off  the 
paint  on  top  of  each  trunnion,  then  place  the  trun- 
nion-square as  seen  in  the  drawing,  and  put  the  spirit- 


level  on  it  as  at  S.  Adjust  the  piece  by  means  of  the 
chocks  under  the  trtinnions  until  they  are  horizontal. 
This  leveling  the  gun  by  axis  of  trunnions  may  throw 
the  axis  of  the  gvm  out  of  level,  in  which  ease  return 
to  that,  and  then  to  the  oilier,  approximating  closer 
and  closer  each  time  until  the  gim  is  leveled.  If  the 
gim  be  lying  on  wooden  skids,  the  leveling  must  be 
verified  from  time  to  time,  as  the  great  weight  will 
cause  it  to  sink  trifle  by  trifle,  thus  throwing  the  level 
out.  The  distance  that  the  sights  should  1h>  apart  is 
furnished  by  authority.  With  a  straight-edge  mark 
off  this  distance,  anddrill  «  hole  for  tlie  front  sight. 
Then  counter-liore  the  front  .sight.  As  soon  as  it  is 
screwed  in,  lay  one  end  of  the  straight-edge  on  it,  and 
its  other  end  on  the  notch  of  rear  sight.  Place  a  level 
on  the  straight-edge.     Now  the  level  will  generally  be 


foimd  to  be  sli.ghtly  out,  and  it  can  be  brotight  to  a 
level  by  either  screwing  the  front  .sight  up  or  down  as 
occasion  requires,  or  by  cutting  do\vn  the  notch  of  the 
rear  sight  if  it  should  want  to  \k-  lowered  at  that  end. 
For  side  sights,  the  rear  bar  is  gt'nendly  supplied 
with  the  proper  firing-distances  markeil  onit.  \Vlien- 
ever  a  sight-bar  is  received  already  marked  with 
ranges,  the  level  should  never  Ix;  remedied  by  cutting 
away  the  shoulder  of  the  bar.  as  the  edge  of  the'shoulder 
is  the  initial  point  from  which  the  bar  is  marked.  If, 
however,  the  sight-bar  is  markefl  after  it  is  fitted  to 
the  gun,  tlie  shoulder  can  be  thinned  down.  The 
leveling-bar  is  not  used  in  side-sighting  a  gun.  The 
straight-edge  is  now  applied  as  before,  resting  on 
from  sight  and  notch  of  rear  sight-bar,  and  verified  as 
to  the  level  of  that  plane.  If  the  spirit-level  remains 
at  level,  the  gun  is  properly  sighted  as  to  the  level  of 
sights.     See  Pinntiug. 

CANONNIEEE.— 1.  A  name  formerly  given  to  a 
tent  which  servwl  to  shelter  four  cjinonniers,  but 
later  the  term  was  applied  to  all  infantrj-  tents  which 
contained  seven  or  eight  men.  2.  An  appellation 
formerly  given  to  a  gun-proof  tower;  ii  also  desig- 
nated an  opening  in  the  walls  of  cities,  forts,  etc., 
through  which  the  defenders  of  the.se  places  could  tire 
on  an  cneniv  without  being  ex-posed. 

CANONNIEES  GAEDES-'COTES.— Guards  instituted 
in  1703  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France  for  the  ser\ice  of 
coast-batteiies.  They  are  similar  to  the  Artillery 
Coast  Brigade  in  the  British  service. 

CANTABEI. — A  rude  race  of  mountaineers  in  an- 
cient Spain,  of  Iberian  origin,  and  who  live<l  in  the 
district  now  known  as  Burgos,  and  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  which  derived  from  them  its  name, 
OrKinus  Cantiib'iieiis.  The  most  im])ortant  of  their 
nine  towns  were  Juliobrica  (nejtr  the  source  of  the 
Ebro),  Velliea,  and  Concana.  The  Cantabri  are  de- 
.scribed  as  like  the  Scythians  and  Thracians  in  hardi- 
hood and  martial  character,  sleeping  on  the  bare 
earth,  enduring  extreme  pain  without  a  nmrmur, 
and.  like  most  savages,  leaving  agricidtural  toil  to 
their  women.  Their  bravery  was  evinced  in  the  Can- 
tabrian  war,  a  six  years'  contest  with  the  Romans, 
begun  under  Augustus,  and  concluded  by  Agrippa, 
25^19  B.C.  Tiberius  afterwards  stationed  garrisons 
in  the  towns  of  the  conquered  Cantabri;  but  some 
portion  retreated  into  their  fastnesses  among  the 
mountains,  where  they  preserved  their  independence. 
Thev  are  supposed  to  "be  the  ancestors  of  the  Basques. 

CANTABEUM.— A  large  banner  used  during  the  time 
of  till'  Homan  emperors,  and  tmmc  on  fi-slive  occasions, 
i      CANTEEN.— 1.  A  vessel  used   by  soldiers  to  con- 
tain whatever  beverage  may  be  ob- 
:  tainable  on   the  march  or  in  the 
I  field.     It  is  sometimes  of  tin,  some- 
times of    wood.       In   the  British 
armv,  the  canteen  is  a  wooden  ves- 
sel. "  holding     about    three    pints, 
painted   blue,   and   inscrit>ed   with 
the  muntx>r  or  designation  of  the 
regiment,  battalion,  and   company 
to  which  the  soldier  Ixdongs. 

2.  A  leathern  or  wooden  chest, 
dixided  into  compartments,  and 
containing  the  plate  and  table- 
equipage  for  a  military  officer  when 
on  active  ser%ice. 

3.  In  the  French  ban-acks,  the 
canteen  is  a  sort  of  club-room  for 
the  whole  regiment.  The  Canti- 
neer  is  a  non-commissioned  officer, 
who  acts  merely  as  an  agent  for  all, 
selling  the  liquors  and  commodi- 
ties at  prime  cost. 

4.  In  the  British  service,  a  re- 
freshment-house in  a  barrack,  for 
the  use  of  the  soldiers.     The  chief 

'  articles  of  food  are  supplied  to  the 
troops  direct  bv  the  government; 
but  wine,  malt  liquor,  and  small  grocer)-  wares  the 


CANT-HOOK. 


282 


CANTAS-BOAT. 


wildier  is  left  to  bviy  for  himself;  and  the  Canteen  is, 
or  is  intended  to  be.  n  shop  where  he  can  make  these 
purchases  economically  without  the  necessity  of 
ttoing  beyond  the  precincts  of  the  barrack.  No  sol- 
liier  is  obliged  to  buy  anything  at  the  Canteen:  he 
may  lay  out  his  small  sums  elsewhere  if  he  prefer. 
Formerly  the  Canteens  were  luider  civilians  called 
Canteen-tenants,  and  spirits  were  sold.  Between 
the  years  1836  and  1845  it  was  found  that  among 
Hi  Canteens  in  the  United  Kingdom  the  rent  and 
head-money  paid  variitl  from  £4  per  annum  (one  at 
Guernsey)  to  £1344  i>er  annum  (one  at  Woolwich): 
they  brought  in  collectively  to  the  government  about 
£70,000  annually.  Great  ihto.xication  ha\ing  resulted 
from  the  sale  of  spirits  at  the  Canteens,  the  \\  ar  Office 
prohibited  such  siile  in  1847:  as  a  consequence,  the 
rents  had  to  be  lowered  to  the  e.\tent  of  £20,000  in 
the  following  year,  the  Cantineers  finding  their 
profits  much  reduced.  The  rent  paid  was  found  to 
ix-  injurious  to  the  soldieiN,  who  were  charged  higher 
prices  within  the  barrack  than  without,  and  who 
were  thence  driven  to  places  where  dangerous  temj)- 
tations  are  at  hand.  The  result  of  this  system  being 
undeniably  bad  and  demoralizing,  the  War  Office 
now  makes  the  Canteen  a  regimental  establishment, 
controlled  by  a  Committee  of  Officers  and  with  a  Can- 
teensergeant  as  salesman.  Pensioned  non-commis- 
sioned officers  may  be  appointed  Canteen-sergeants. 
The  profits  are  applied  for  the  benetit  of  the  men  of 
the  corps.     See  Pu^t-trmkr  and  tSutli  r. 

CANT-HOOK.— A  lever  and  suspended  hook  adapt- 
ed for  turning  or  canting  timber  iu  the  yai'd,  on  the 


Cant-hook. 

skids,  or  on  the  mill-carriage.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  a  sling  with  books  for  raising  and  tilting 
casks  to  empty  them. 

CANTINIERE.— Women  who  are  authorized  to 
establish  themselves  in  the  barracks  or  follow  the 
troops  in  time  of  war,  selling  them  liquors  and  pro- 
visions. The  aiiilinures,  whether  attached  to  regi- 
ments or  barracks,  are  selected  from  the  wives  of 
non-commissioned  officers  or  privates,  and  wear  a 
uniform.     See  Virtindure. 

CANTLE. — The  hind-bow  or  protuberance  of  a  sad- 
dle.    Sometimes  written  CanM.     See  SuddU. 

CANTON. — In  Heraldry,  the  canton  occupies  a 
corner  of  tlie  shield,  either  dexter  or  sinister,  and  iu 
size  is  the  third  of  the  chief.  It  is  one  of  the  nine 
honorable  ordinaries,  "  and  of  great  esteem." 

CANTONMENTS.— When,  aft'cr  long  fatigues,  some 
repose  must  bi'  given  to  an  army,  it  must  be  dispersed 
over  a  sullicieut  extent  for  subsistence.  This  disposi- 
tion of  the  troops  is  termed  cuntoning,  and  the 
camps  occupied,  enntunmenU.  This  state  supjioses 
that  the  enemy  will  not  for  some  time  be  in  a  condi- 
tion to  attack."  Still,  even  this  assurance  should  not 
induce  any  relaxation  of  ]iroper  military  precautions 
to  prevent  a  surprise,  and  to  permit  a  concentration 
on  some  suitable  i)oint  either  for  olfensive  or  dcfcn- 
.sivc  movements.  The  dispositions  to  be  made  for 
this  purpo.se  resemble,  in  their  principal  features, 
those  for  one  of  advanced-posts.  Advanced  points 
are  held  by  some  of  the  troops  where  there  is  no 
rela.xation  of  discipline  allowed;  other  points,  in  their 
rear,  are  occuiiicd  as  su))ports  to  the  first;  and  all  are 
connected  with  some  main  central  position  where  the 
armj'  is  to  be  concentrated  in  ca.se  of  need.  The 
communications  to  the  rear,  at  least  of  all  these  de- 
tached portions,  should  be  kipt  in  good  travelins 
order,  and  no  obstruction  to  the  free  inovement.s  of 
the  troops  be  even  for  an  hour  allowed  to  exist. 
When  cantonments  are  taken  up  in  winter  they  are 
termed  winter  qiiarUra.  They  dilTer  from  the  pre- 
ceding only  in  being  often  of  greater  extent;  and 


therefore,   from   their  weakness,   requiring   all   the 
additional  means  of  defense  at  hand. 

As  cantonments  are  taken  up  either  during  seasons 
when  operations  cannot  be  well  canied  on,  or  to  give 
the  troops  some  extraordinary  rejwse  after  a  harass- 
ing campaign,  more  advanced-posts  will  generally  be 
necessjiry  than  under  ordinary  circumstances;  and  to 
fulfill  their  end  they  ought  to  be  placed  on  ground 
favorable  to  a  strong  resistance,  in  order  to  give  the 
separated  corps  time  to  concentrate  against  an  earnest 
attack  of  the  enemy.  A  good  disposition  of  stations 
for  outposts,  from  which  the  enemy  can  be  seen  at 
a  distance;  a  line  of  supports  placed  on  strong  ground 
in  the  rear;  ea.sy  comnmnications  for  concentration 
on  the  main  body;  active  and  vigilant  l)atroIs,  kept 
mo\ing  not  only  along  the  front,  but  penetrating  on 
the  Hanks  and  "rear  of  the  enemy,  to  get  wind  of  his 
strategical  plans:  such  are  the  general  precautions 
demanded  of  it.s  advanced-posts  by  an  army  in 
station  for  some  time.  In  the  disposition  of  the  main 
force,  to  concur  with  the  precetling,  one  precaution 
should  not  be  omitted  in  a  stay  of  any  duration;  and 
that  is,  not  to  allow  any  one  body  to  remain  long 
enough  in  a  village,  or  inhabited  place,  to  become  in 
a  degree  domesticated.  Nothing  is  more  likely  than 
this  to  injure  the  vtorale  of  the  Ix'st  trooi>s.  The 
seductions  of  otherwise  harndess  pleasures  may  lead 
to  fatal  habits  of  remissness  in  duty. 

In  India,  cantonments  are  permanent  places,  regular 
military  towns,  distinct  anil  at  some  little  distances 
from  the  principal  cities.  If  on  a  large  scale,  such  a 
cantonment  contains  baiTacks  for  European  cavalrj', 
infantry,  and  artillerj';  rows  of  bungalows  or  houses, 
each  inclosed  in  a  garden,  for  the  officers;  rows  of 
huts  for  the  native  soldiery;  magazines  and  parade- 
grounds;  public  offices  and  buildings  of  vaiious 
kinds;  and  a  bazaar  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
native  troops.  During  the  revolt  in  1857-58  most  of 
the  outbreaks  began  in  the  cantonments.  It  was  in 
the  cantonment  outside  Cawnpore  that  Nana  Sahib 
commenced  his  treachery.  See  Camp,  Fkld-aercke, 
and  Winter  Quarters. 

CANTONNEE.— When,  in  Heraldry,  a  cross  is 
placed  between  four  other  objects,  as,  for  example, 
scallop-shells,  it  is  said  to  be  cantonnee.    See  Utraldry. 

CANTONS  PHOSPHOKUS.—^V  combustible  obtained 
by  heating  in  a  close  ves.sel  3  parts  oyster-shells  and  1* 
part  sublimed  .sulphur,  when  the  sulphuret  of  calcium 
(CaS)  is  formed,  which  takes  fire  when  exposed  to 
or  thrown  into  the  air.  Frequently  spoken  of  as  pyru- 
pharus. 

CANVAS. — A  material  made  from  hemp,  and  much 
u.sed  for  artillery  purposes,  such  as  the  covering  of 
the  seats  of  gun-carriages,  caps  for  sponge-heads, 
soldiers'  bags,  aprons  for  the  vents  of  guns,  and  pau- 
lins  for  covering  stores  ;  it  is  also  used  iu  the  manu- 
facture of  tents.  The  canvas  in  use  in  arsenals  in 
India  is  of  two  kinds — English  and  that  manufactured 
in  the  country.  The  canvas  made  in  India  is  used 
for  all  puqioses  where  rough  material  would  be 
required,  such  as  ariillery- practice  curtains,  sand-bags, 
bags  for  charcoal,  etc.  The  chief  places  of  mann- 
facturc  of  Indian  canvas  arc  in  Bengal,  and  at  Cud- 
dalore  and  Travancore,  in  the  JIadras  Presidency. 
Being  "  imder  canvas  "  means  being  in  camp  or  in 
the  field. 

CANVAS-BOAT. — A  boat  has  been  invented  by 
Colonel  H.  C.  Buchanan,  of  the  United  States  Army, 
which  has  been  u.sed  in  several  expeditions  in  Oregon 
and  in  Wa.sliington  Territory,  and  has  been  highly 
commended  by  several  experienced  officers,  who  have 
had  the  opportunity  of  giving  its  merits  a  practical 
service-test.  Itconsistsof  an  exceedingly  light  frame- 
work of  thin  and  narrow  boards,  in  lengths  suitable 
for  packing,  connected  by  hinges,  the  different  sec- 
tions folding  into  so  small  a  compass  as  to  be  con- 
veniently carried  upon  nudes.  The  frame  is  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  stout  cotton  canvas,  or  duck,  secured 
to  the  g\mwales  with  a  cord  running  diagonally  back 
and  forth  through  eyelet-holes  in  the  upper  edge. 


CANVAS  CAPS. 


283 


CAPITULATIOK. 


When  first  placed  in  the  water  the  boat  leaks  a  little, 
hut  the  canvas  soon  swells  so  as  to  makeit  suflRcicntly 
tight  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  great  advantage 
to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  this  boat  is  that  it  is  so 
compact  and  portable  as  to  be  admiral)ly  adapted  to 
the  requirements  of  campaigning  in  a  coimtrv  where 
the  streams  are  liable  to  rise  alxive  a  fording  stage, 
and  where  the  allowance  of  tnuisportation  is  small. 
It  may  be  put  together  or  taken  apart  and  packed  in 
a  very  few  minutes,  and  one  mule  suffices  to  trans- 
port a  boat  with  all  its  appurtenances,  capable  of  sus- 
taining ten  men.  Should  the  canvas  become  torn,  it 
is  easily  repaired  by  putting  on  a  patch,  and  it  docs 
not  rot  or  crack  like  india-rubber  or  gutta-percha  ; 
moreover,  it  is  not  affected  by  changes  of  climate  or 
temperature.     See  Blanket-boats. 

CANVAS  CAPS.— Caps  used,  after  having  been 
water-proofed,  for  covering  the  mouths  of  mortars, 
and  for  covering  sponge-staves. 

CAP.— 1.  A  cover  for  the  head,  with  or  without  a 
visor,  but  without  a  brim  ;  worn  generally  by  the 
militarj-.  2.  A  sheet  of  lead  laid  over  the  "vent  of  a 
cannon.  3.  A  copper  capsule  containing  a  fulminate, 
and  placed  upon  the  nipple  to  explode  the  charge  on 
the  fall  of  the  hammer. 

CAP-A-PIE.— This  term  was  applied  in  the  Middle 
Ages  to  a  knight  or  soldier  armed  at  all  points,  or 
from  head  to  foot,  as  the  words  imply,  with  armor 
for  defense,  and  with  arms  for  offense. 

CAPABISON.— The  bridle,  saddle,  and  trappings 
complete  of  a  horse  for  militarj"  scr\-ice.  Caparisoimd, 
in  Heraldry,  is  said  of  a  waf-horse  completely  fur- 
nished for  the  "field. 

CAF-COBD. — A  gilt  cord  worn  on  the  forage-cap 
as  an  ornament.     The  drawing  represents  the  new 


or  offer  any  violence  to  his  Superior  Officer,  being  in 
the  execution  of  his  office,  or  shall  disoljey  any  law- 
ful command  of  his  Supeiior  Officer;  or"  (U)"  who, 
being  confined  in  a  miliUirj-  prison,  shall  offer  any 
violence  against  a  visitor  or  his  Superior  3Iilitary 
Officer,  being  in  the  execution  of  his  otfice. 

By  Article  20  it  is  declared  that  no  judgment  of 
death  by  a  Court-Martial  shall  pa.ss,  unless  two  thirds 
at  least  of  the  officers  i)resent  sliall  concur  therein; 
and  by  Article  21  it  is  provided  that  judgment  of 
death  may  be  commutc'd  for  penal  servitude  for  any 
term  not  less  than  four  years,  or  for  imi>ri.H)i)ment  for 
such  term  as  shall  seem  meet.  It  would  apjiear  that 
the  employment  of  a  soldier  in  the  service  subsequent 
to  his  arrest  on  a  capital  charge  mav  operate  as  a  re- 
mission of  the  sentence  of  death.  'I'his  is  illustrated 
by  the  following  case,  mentioned  by  Mr.  Prendergast 
in  his  Lair  Selatinr/  to  Officers  in  the  Army.  In  1811 
Private  John  'Wcblin  of  the  3d  Buffs  was  sentenced 
to  be  shot.  The  Commander-in-Chief,  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  in  his  '■  remarks"  upon  the  proceedings, 
took  notice  that,  through  some  extraordinary  inat- 
tention, the  prisoner  had  actually  been  permitted  to 
serve  in  an  engagement  with  the  enemy  after  he  had 
been  put  into  arrest  for  his  crime.  On  this  ground 
the  Duke  pronounced  that  he  was  under  the  ntctmty 
of  pardoning  the  prisoner.  In  the  armv,  capital 
punishment  is  inflicted  by  the  offender  being  either 
shot  or  hanged — the  latter  being  the  more  disgrace- 
ful mode  of  execution. 

Under  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  capital  pun- 
ishment may  be  inflicted  for  treason,  murder,  arson, 
rape,  piracy,  robbery  of  the  mails  with  jeopardy  to 
the  lives  of  persons  in  charge,  rescue  of  a  convict 
going  to  execution,  burning  a  vessel  of  war,  imd  cor- 


Cap-cord. 


pattern  cap-cord  recently  adopted  in  the  United 
States  army.  A  similar  cap-cord  is  worn  by  United 
Stiites  Naval  Officers. 

CAPELINE.— A  helmet  without  a  visor,  nearly  in 
the  form  of  a  round  head.  It  was  formerly  much 
worn  by  the  infantry. 

CAPITAL.— In  fortification,  a  capital  is  an  imagi- 
iiarr  line  dividing  a  defense-work  into  two  similar 
and"  equal  parts.  "  The  capital  of  a  bastion  is  a  right 
line  drawn  from  the  point  or  salient  angle  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  gorge  or  entrance  in  the  rear.  The  capital 
of  a  ravelin  is  a  right  line  drawn  from  the  re-entering 
angle  of  the  counterscarp  to  the  salient  angle  of  the 
ravelin.     See  fnld-forlifcalion. 

-  CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT.— The  law  on  this  sub- 
ject in  England  is  contained  in  the  19th  of  the 
Articles  of  War  now  in  force,  which  prescribes  death 
as  the  punishment  of  the  following  offenses,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  bv  a  Court-JIartial  shall  be 
awarded:  (1)  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  shiill  excite 
or  join  in  anv  mutinv  or  sedition  in  any  forces  be- 
longing to  Her  Majesty's  Army,  or  Royal  Marines,  or 
who  shall  not  use  his  utmost  endeavors  to  suppress  it, 
and  knowing  of  it,  shall  not  give  immediate  infor- 
mation of  it  to  his  Commanding  Officer;  or  (2)  who 
shall  hold  correspondence  witl^,  or  give  advice  or  in- 
telligence to,  anv  rebel  or  enemy  of  Her  Majesty;  or 
(3)  who  shall  tre'at  with  any  rebel  or  enemy  without 
Her  >Iajesty's  license,  or  license  of  the  Chief  Com- 
mander; or"  (4)  shall  misbehave  himself  Ix-fore  the 
enemv;  or  (.5)  shall  shamefully  abandon  or  deliver 
up  any  garrison,  fortress,  post,  or  guard  committed 
to  his"  charge;  or  (6)  shall  compel  the  Governor 
or  Commanding  Officer  to  deliver  up  or  aban- 
don such  place;  or  (T)  shall  induce  others  to  mis- 
behave before  the  enemv,  or  abandon  or  deliver  up 
their  posts;  or  (8)  shall  "desert  Her  Majesty's  ser\nce; 
or  (9)  shall  leave  his  post  before  being  regulariy  re- 
lieved, or  shall  sleep  on  his  post;  or  (10)  shall  strike 


ruptly  destroying  a  private  vessel.  Until  within  a 
few  years  capital  punishment  was  the  rule  for  the 
highest  crimes  in  all  the  States,  but  it  was  abolished 
in'Wisconsin  and  in  Maine  in  1874,  and  had  been 
about  that  time  abolished  in  Iowa;  but  in  the  latter 
State  it  was  restored  in  1878,  the  argument  showing 
from  the  record  that  duruig  its  abolition  crimes  of 
violence  had  largely  increased.  Under  the  present 
law  a  year  must  intervene  between  the  sentence  and 
execution,  and  the  term  may  be  further  extende<l  by 
reprieve.  There  is  much  d"ifference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  effect  of  the  abolition  of  the  death-penalty,  and 
perhaps  no  settled  conclusion  can  be  reached.  The 
effect  of  its  abolition  has  not  thus  far  supplied  any 
veiT  strong  reasons  for  the  stand  of  those  who  would 
abo"lish  it  altogether.  Perhaps  the  mo.st  notable 
suspension  of  this  punishment  in  all  history  was 
during  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  in  the  United  States, 
when,  in  the  face  of  the  most  powerful,  open,  and 
dangerous  treason,  not  one  person  was  deliberately 
executed  for  that  crime,  the  extreme  jx^nalty  visited 
even  upon  the  captured  leader  of  the  Rebellion. being 
the  loss  of  the  political  (but  not  the  personal)  rights 
of  a  citizen. 

CAPITULATION.— A  treaty  consisting  of  several 
specified  conditions.  In  the  militarj-  sense  of  the 
word,  a  capitulation  is  a  trcatj-  of  stirrender  to  an 
enemv.  When  a  place  can  no"  longer  he  defended, 
on  account  of  failure  of  ammunition  or  provisions, 
or  the  progress  made  by  the  besieging  party,  a  white 
flag  is  commonlv  put  up,  as  a  sign  that  the  bwieged 
are  willing  to  ca"pitulate.  According  lo  the  kind  and 
degree  of  peril  in  which  the  fortress  is  placed,  so  are 
the  terms  which  the  Governor  may  rea.souiib!v  expect 

!  from  his  successful  opixjnent.  Sometimes  the  anna 
and  militarv  stores  are  left  to  the  hesicgwl,  but  more 
frequeullv  "thev  are  taken  by  the  besiegers,  except 
articles  of  private  property  belonging  to  the  officers 

'  and  men.     The  "  honors  of  war,  "  the  marching  out 


CAP  OF  MAINTENANCE. 


284 


CAPSTAN. 


with  drums  beating  anil  colors  flying,  are  asually 
stipulated  for.  unless  the  conqueror  exacts  very 
severe  terms.  The  mildest  form  of  a  capitulation  is 
a  Coiirention.  agreed  to  when  the  conqueror  is  not 
strong  enough  to  insist  on  stringent  conditions.  See 
Aniii/iliiY. 

CAP  OF  MAINTENANCE.— A  cap  of  crimson  vel- 
vet lined  with  ermine,  with  two  points  turned  to  the 
back,  originally  oidy  worn  by  Dukes,  but  afterwards 
assignetl  to  various  families  of  distinction.  Those 
families  who  are  entilletl  to  a  cap  of  maintenance 
phice  their  crests  on  it  instead  of  on  a  wreath. 
Aeconling  to  Sir  John  Fearne,  the  wearing  of  tlie 
cap  hail  a  beginning  from  the  Duke  or  General  of  an 
army,  who.  having  gotten  victorj-,  caused  the  chiefest 
of  lie  subdued  enemies  whom  lie  led  to  follow  him 
in  his  triumph,  bearing  his  hat  or  cap  after  him  in 
token  of  subjection  and  captirity.  Most  of  the 
reigning  Dukes  of  Germany,  and  various  families 
belonging  to  the  peerage  both  of  England  and  of 
Scotland,  bear  their  crests  on  a  cap  of  maintenance. 
Sometimes  called  riiji  cf  diqnitt/. 

CAPONIEKES— CAPONNIEEES.— The  surest  de- 
fense for  a  ditch  is  a  good  flanking  arrangement  of 
the  work  itself;  but  as  this  is  in  many  cases  im- 
practicable, owing  either  to  the  relief  or  to  the  plan, 
flank  defenses  must  be  procured  by  a  construction 
made  in  the  ditch.  Several  methods  may  be  re- 
sorted to  for  this  purpose,  termed  caponiereti,  seurp, 
and  counterscarp  gulleries. 

The  caponiere  is  a  work  made  across  the  ditch, 
and  may  be  either  single  or  double.  A  single  capo 
nicre  is  nothing  more  than  a  defensive  stockade,  or 
palisading,  made  at  the  extremity  of  a  ditch,  as  in 


Caponiere  for  Ditch  Defense. 

the  case  of  a  redan.  It  wUI  obviously  be  of  no  ser- 
■vice,  unless  the  enemy  is  forced  to  attack  it  in  front. 
A  double  caponiere  is  arranged  to  Are  in  two  direc- 
tions, and  is  usually  placed  at  the  middle  of  the  ditch 
which  it  is  to  protect.  It  is  made  in  all  respects  like 
a  block-house  with  upright  sides;  its  width  may  be 
only  eight  feet,  and  its  height  the  same.  The  bottom 
of  the  caponiere  may  be  on  the  same  level  as  the 
ditch,  or  below  it;  in"  the  latter  case,  the  loop-holes 
should  not  be  more  than  eighteen  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  ditch,  to  prevent  the  enemv  from  using 
them  against  the  assailed  within.  In  the  former,  a 
small  ditch  should  l)e  made  round  the  caponiere, 
and  the  earth  from  the  ditch  be  thrown  again.st  its 
sides.  The  plan  of  lh(-  caponiere  should  be  arranged 
to  admit  of  being  flanked  by  a  defensive  stockade, 
placed  at  the  foot  of  the  scarp;  for  this  purpose  the 
end  next  to  the  counterscarp  shf)uld  l)e  in  the  form 
of  a  salient  flanked  by  the  stockade.  To  prevent  the 
enemy  from  jumping  on  the  caponiere  from  the  crest 
of  the  counterscari),  a  space  of  at  least  twelve  feet 
should  Ix-  left  between  the  two.  Moreover,  the  top 
of  the  cai)oniere  should  be  covered  from  the  enemy's 
artillery,  either  by  the  counlerscarj)  crest  or  liy"  a 
glacis.  The  comiiiunication  to  the  caponiere  from 
the  work  may  be  by  a  timber  gallery  under  the 
parapet,  formed  of  frames  and  a  sheeting  similar  to 
the  construction  used  for  a  powder-magazine. 


CAPOTE. — A  hea\-j-  coat  wi'.h  a  hood,  worn  by  sol- 
diers, sjiilors,  anil  others  when  on  dutv. 

CAP-SQUARE.— In  artillery,  that  part  of  the  iron- 
work of  a  eun-carriage  which  folds  or  laps  over  the 
exterior  portion  of  the  trunnions  of  a  piece  of  ord- 
nance, when  it  is  laid  in  its  Ijed  or  carriage.  The 
cap-squiire  is  secured  by  a  key  or  some  other  stronger 
contrivance.  This  fa.stening  prevents  the  gun  from 
jumping  out  of  its  trunnion-lx'd. 

CAPSTAN. — A  hoisting  or  hauling  machine,  con- 
sisting of  a  drum  set  veriically  and  revolvi-d  by  hand- 
spikes. The  capstan  dilfers  from  the  windlass  in 
having  an  upright  axle,  the  bars  being  placed  in  the 
sockets  of  the  (Irum-head  and  revolving  horizontally 
as  the  men  walk  around,  pushing  the  bars  before 
them  and  winding  the  cable  on  the  whelps.  Tlie 
capstan  has  many  advantages,  among  which  maj'  be 
enumerated  —  compactness;  facility  for  allowing  a 
large  number  of  men  to  work  at  it  simultaneously; 
continuity  of  its  work,  as  the  bars  do  not  require  to 
be  unshipped  after  making  a  quarter  of  a  revolution. 
Frequently,  when  moving  artillery,  it  Incomes  nece.s- 
sar)'  to  improvise  a  capstan  with  a  limber.  To  do  so, 
dismount  a  siege-limber;  place  a  half-block  under  the 
pintle  and  each  axle-arm,  close  to  the  shoulder.  Drive 
a  stout  stake  in  rear  of  each  axle-arm  agjiinst  the  half- 
blocks.  The  pole  is  turned  from  the  weight,  its  axis 
in  the  direction  of  it.  Lay  the  wheel  on  the  pintle, 
outside  down,  and  secure  four  handspikes  to  the 
spokes  and  felloes,  dividing  the  circumference  into 
four  equal  parts.  Take  a  round  turn  with  the  fall 
around  the  lower  part  of  the  nave,  the  free  end  com- 
ing off  below.  The  man  who  holds  on  to  the  fall 
sits  on  the  end  of  the  pole.  Keep  the  fall  as  high  as 
the  nave  and  clear  of  the  groimd.  The  power  is 
multiplied  fifteen  times. 

The  drawing  represents  the  capstan  as  employed 


an. 


'sZ^ 


Capstan,— U.  S.  Service  Model. 
in  the  United  States  service.  It  is  held  in  position 
by  stout  chains  attached  to  holdfasts.  The  rope  is 
pa.ssed  two  or  three  times  around  the  barrel  of  the 
capstan,  the  free  end  coming  off  abnrc  the  turns;  the 
standing  part  is  attached  to  the  weight  to  be  moved. 
The  rope  is  drawn  taut  by  hand,  the  bars  inserted 
into  the  mortises,  and  the  free  end  of  the  rope  held 
and  taken  in  by  two  men  seated  on  the  ground. 
Twelve  men— three  at  each  bar — are  all  that  can  l)e 
advantiigeously  employed.  When  additional  power 
is  required,  the  bars  are  s%Wfted:  that  is,  the  ends  of 
the  bars  are  lashetl  together  with  ropes,  by  which  ad- 
ditional men  arc  enabled  to  take  hold. 

To  use  the  gin  as  a  capstan,  put  it  together  on  the 
ground  in  the  usual  manner;  place  the  feet  of  the  legs 
toward  the  weight,  and  secure  them  well  with  stakes 
against  the  cross-bars,  feet,  and  head  of  the  gin;  rig 
the  fall  as  usual,  and  attach  the  luwk  of  the  lower 
block  to  a  rope  of  suitable  .strength  rumiing  to  the 
weight  to  be  moved;  the  windlass  is  worked  in  the 
same  manner  as  when  the  gin  is  standing.  Or  the 
gin,  with  its  pry -pole  in  the  direction  of  the  weight 
to  be  moved,  may  Ix-  raised  almost  to  its  usual  jxjsi- 
tion  for  hoisting.  A  block  is  hooked  to  the  clevis, 
and  through  it  the  rope  is  passed  from  the  weight  to 


CAPSULES. 


285 


CAPTURED  PKOPEBTY. 


the  windlass;  the  latter  is  worked  as  usual.  See  Me- 
elinnkitl  Maneiicers. 

CAPSULES. — Copper  caps  for  percussion-locks.  Not 
used  at  present. 

CAPTAIN. — This  is  perhaps  the  most  general 
desicnatiou  given  to  an  officer  of  land  forces;  some- 
thiiij;  equivalent  to  it  being  found  in  most  European 
languages.  As  a  word,  it  simply  means  a  /lead  or 
Ifuder,  and  mav  he  applial  to  a  Chief  over  any  num- 
ber of  men.  Captain-general  is  in  some  countries  a 
very  high  command.  In  the  time  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth there  was,  among  other  high  military  officers,  a 
C'aptain-gencRil  of  footmen.  In  the  orgiuiization  of 
the  British  armj'  at  the  present  day,  there  is  one  Cajv 
tain  to  every  onnpany  of  infantry,  and  everj'  troi>p  of 
cavalry.  Formerly  every  batterj'  of  artillerj-  had  two 
Captains — a  first  and  a  second,  the  latter  being  called 
Captain-lieutenant.  Now,  the  first  in  command  has 
the  title  of  Major,  and  the  second  that  of  Captain. 
The  first  in  command  of  a  battery  of  arlillerv,  even 
when  styled  Captain,  was  considered  higher  "llian  a 
Captain  of  infantry  or  cavalry,  and  was  privileged  to 
l)e  mentioned  by  name  in  military  dispatches  like 
Colonels  and  Majors.  The  duly  of  the  Captain  is  to 
see  to  the  men  of  his  company  in  everything  that  re- 
lates to  discipline,  exercises,  billeting,  pay,  settlement 
of  accoimts,  mess,  kit,  clothing,  arms,  ammunition, 
aceoutenuents,  stores,  barracks,  cooking,  etc. ;  to  re- 
ceive orders  concerning  the.se  matters  from  the  Major, 
and  to  enforce  these  orders  among  the  men.  He  is 
responsible  to  the  Major,  and  is  a.ssisted  in  his  duties 
by  the  Lieutenant  and  Sub-lieutenant.  The  number 
of  Captains  on  the  peace  establishment  of  the  British 
army,  in  its  several  branches,  are  about  239  Cavalry, 
1236  Infantry,  248  Artillery,  11.^  for  Engineers,  and 
28  for  Colonial  Corps — 1866  in  all,  in  full  commission. 
In  the  United  States  army,  a  Captain  is  responsible 
for  the  camp  and  garrison  equipage  and  the  arms  imd 
clothing  of  his  company.  The  rank  is  between  Lieu- 
tenant and  Major. 

CAPTAIN-GENERAL.— The  appellation  of  a  Com- 
mander inChicf  till  .Marlborough's  time,  if  not  later. 
The  rank  is  sometimes  still  given  on  extraordinary 
occasions.  It  was  borne  by  the  Marquis  of  Welleslej' 
during  his  government  in  India,  and  is  aiiplied  to  the 
Governor-general  of  the  Canadas.  In  the  United 
States,  the  Governor  of  a  State  is  Captain-general  of 
tlie  militia. 

CAPTAIN-LIEUTENANT.— A  rank  formerly  held 
in  the  English  army.  This  position  carried  the  rank 
of  Captain  in  the  Army,  similar  to  what  the  rank  of 
Lieutenant  and  Captain  does  in  the  Foot-guards  at 
the  present  day.  A  Captain-lieutenant  did  Subal- 
tern s  duty  in  his  company,  and  covdd  hold  the  post 
of  Adjutant.  He  was  also  the  Subaltern  who  com- 
manded the  "  Colonel's  Company"  in  each  regiment 
of  infantrv. 

CAPTAINRY.— The  power  or  command  over  a  cer- 
tain district;  Chieftainship;  Captainship. 

CAPTAINSHIP.— The  condition,  rank,  post,  or  au- 
thority of  a  Cai)tain  or  Chief  Commander.  The  term 
also  signifies  skill  in  military  affairs;  as,  to  show  good 
captainship. 

CAPTIVES.— It  is  laid  down  by  Blackstone  that, 
as  in  the  goods  of  an  enemy,  so  also  in  his  jjerson,  a 
man  mayacquirc  a  sort  of  "qualified  properly  in  him 
as  a  captive,  or  prisoner  of  war — at  least  till  the  ran- 
.som  of  the  Citptive  is  p.iid.  In  Scotland  all  leg-al 
proceedings  ag-ainst  aeaptive  are  stopped  till  his  lilx'ra- 
tion,  although  in  some  cases  execution  against  his 
estate  mav  iirocced. 

CAPTIVITY.— The  state  of  being  a  prisoner,  or  of 
being  in  the  power  of  the  enemy,  by  force  of  the  fate 
of  war. 

CAPTURE. — Prize  taken  in  time  of  war.  The  law 
on  this  subject  is  stated  with  precision  in  a  paper  ad- 
dres,sed  on  behalf  of  the  British  Government  to  the 
American  And)it.ssador  at  London  in  September, 
1794:  "  When  two  powers  arc  at  war,  they  have  a 
right  to  make  prizes  of  the  ships,  goods,  and  effects 


I  of  each  other,  upon  the  high  sc;is.  'Whatever  is  the 
j  property  of  the  enemy  may  be  acquire<l  bv  capture 
I  at  sea;  but  the  property  of  a  friend  cannot  be  taken, 
provided  he  observes  his  neutrality.  Hence  llie  Law 
of  Nations  has  established  that  the  gixxls  of  an  ene- 
my on  board  the  ship  of  a  friend  may  be  taken,  tliat 
the  lawful  goods  of  a  friend  on  board  the  ship  of  an 
enemy  ought  to  be  restored;  that  contraband  goods 
going  to  the  enemy,  though  the  properly  of  a  friend, 
may  be  taken  as  prize:  becau.se  supplying  the  enemy 
with  what  enables  him  better  to  carry  on  the  war  is  a 
departure  from  neutrality." 

During  the  Russian  war  in  1854  there  appeared  in 
the  iMiidon  GcneUi,  under  date  the  28lh  Marcli  of 
that  year,  a  declaration  stating,  iuler  alia,  that  Her 
Majesty  would  waive  the  right  of  seizing  enemy's 
property  laden  on  hoard  a  neutral  vessel,  unless  it  "be 
contraband  of  war,  and  that  it  was  not  Her  Majesty's 
intention  to  issue  letters  of  marque  for  the  comm"is- 
sioning  of  privateers.  The  right  of  seizing  enemy's 
property  on  board  a  neutral  ves.sel,  whether  contra- 
band of  war  or  not,  had  always  before  been  main- 
tained by  England.  On  the  re-establishment  of  peace 
with  Russia,  a  treaty  was  signed,  and  the  following 
declarations  adopted:  1.  Privateering  is  and  remains 
abolished;  2.  A  neutral  flag  covers  an  enemy's  goods, 
with  the  exception  of  contraband  of  war;  3".  >«eulral 
goods,  with  the  exception  of  contraband  of  war,  are 
not  liable  to  capture  under  an  enemy's  flag;  4.  Block- 
ades, in  order  to  be  binding,  nmst  be  elTeclual — that 
is  to  say,  maintained  by  force  sufficient  to  prevent 
effectually  access  to  the  coast  of  the  enemy.  See 
Booty  and  Prize. 

CAPTURED  PROPERTY.— A  victorious  army  ap- 
propriates all  inililic  money,  seizes  all  i)ublic  mova- 
ble property  until  further  direction  by  its  govern- 
ment, and  sequesters  for  its  own  benefit  or  that  of 
its  government  all  the  revenues  of  real  jtroperty  be- 
longing to  the  hostile  government  or  nation.  The 
title  to  such  real  property  remains  in  abeyance  dur- 
ing military  occupation,  and  imtil  the  conquest  is 
made  complete.  A  victorious  army,  by  the  martial 
power  inherent  in  the  same,  may  suspend,  change,  or 
abolish,  as  far  as  the  martial  power  extends,  the  re- 
lations which  arise  from  the  .«cr\'ices  due,  according 
to  the  existing  laws  of  the  invaded  country,  from 
one  citizen,  subject,  or  native  of  the  same  to  another. 
The  commander  of  the  army  must  leave  it  to  the 
ultimate  treaty  of  peace  to  settle  the  pennanency  of 
this  change.  It  is  no  longer  considere<l  lawful — on 
the  contrarj-,  it  is  held  to  be  a  serious  breach  of  the 
law  of  war — to  force  the  subjects  of  the  enemy  into 
the  service  of  the  victorious  government,  except  the 
latter  should  proclaim,  after  a  fair  and  comjilcte  con- 
quest of  the  hostile  coimtry  or  district,  that  it  is  re- 
solved to  keep  the  country,  district,  or  place  permanent- 
ly as  its  own  and  make  it  a  portion  of  its  own  country. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  property  belonging  to 
churches,  to  hospitals  or  other  establishments  of  an 
exclusively  charitable  character,  to  establishments  of 
education,  or  foundations  for  the  promotion  of  knowl- 
edge, whether  public  schools,  universities,  academies 
of  learning  or  observatories,  museimis  of  the  fine 
arts  or  of  a  scientific  character,  may  be  taxed  or 
u.sed  when  the  public  ser\-ice  may  reciuire  it.  Clas- 
sical works  of  art,  libraries,  scientific  collections,  or 
precious  instruments,  such  as  astronomical  telescopes, 
as  well  as  hospitals,  must  be  secured  against  all 
avoidable  injury,  even  when  they  are  containeil  in 
fortified  places  whilst  besieged  or  bombarded.  If 
such  works  of  art,  libraries,  collections,  or  instru- 
ments belonging  to  a  hostile  nation  or  government 
can  be  removed  without  injur}-,  the  ndcr  of  the  con- 
quering State  or  Nation  may  order  them  to  be  seized 
and  removed  for  the  benefit  of  the  s)ii<l  N;ition.  The 
ultimate  ownership  is  to  be  settled  by  the  ensuing 
treaty  of  peace.  In  no  case  shall  they  be  .«old  or 
given  away,  if  captured  by  the  armies  of  the  United 
States,  nor  shaU  they  ever"  be  privately  appropriated, 
or  wantonly  destroyed  or  injured. 


CAFUCHIK. 


286 


CABATAir. 


The  United  States  acknowlediie  and  protict,  in 
hostile  countries  occupied  l)y  them,  relijrion  and 
morality;  strictly  private  property;  the  persons  of  the 
inhabitants,  especially  those  of  women;  and  the  sa- 
<5redness  of  domesticrclations.  t)ffenscs  to  the  con- 
trary shall  be  ri!;orously  punished.  This  rule  does 
not  interfere  with  the  right  of  the  victorious  invader 
to  tax  the  people  or  their  property,  to  levy  forced 
loans,  to  billet  soldiers,  or  to  appropriate  properly, 
especially  houses,  land,  bouts  or  ships,  and  churches, 
for  temporary  and  military  uses.  Private  property, 
unless  forfeited  by  crimes  or  by  offenses  of  the 
owner,  can  be  seizeil  only  by  way  "of  military  neces- 
sity, for  the  support  or  other  benefit  ot  the  Amiy  or 
ofthe  United  Slates.  If  the  owner  ha.s  not  fled,  the 
Commanding  Offlcer  will  cause  receipts  to  be  given, 
which  may  serve  the  spoliated  owner  to  obtain  in- 
demnity. 

The  siilaries'of  civil  officers  of  the  hostile  govern- 
ment who  remain  in  the  invaded  territory,  and  con- 
tinue the  work  of  their  office,  and  can  continue  it 
according  to  the  circumstances  arising  out  of  the 
war — such  as  judges,  administrative  or  police  officers, 
officers  of  city  or  communal  governments — are  paid 
from  the  public  revenue  of  the  invaded  territory, 
until  the  military  mvernment  has  reason  wholly  or 
partially  to  discontume  it.  Salaries  or  incomes  con 
nected  with  purely  honorary  titles  are  always  stopped. 
There  exists  no  law  or  body  of  authoritative  rules  of 
action  between  hostile  armies,  except  that  branch  of 
the  law  of  nature  and  nations  which  is  called  the  law 
and  usages  of  war  on  land.  All  municipal  law  of 
the  ground  on  which  the  anaies  stand,  or  of  the 
countries  to  which  they  belong,  is  silent  and  of  no 
effect  between  armies  in  the  field. 

Slavery,  complicating  and  confounding  the  ideas 
of  property  (that  is,  of  a  tfdiig)  and  of  personalty 
(that  is,  of  h  inuaiiity),  exists  according  to  municipal  or 
local  law  only.  The  law  of  nature  and  nations  has 
never  acknowledged  it.  The  digest  of  the  Roman 
law  enacts  the  early  dictum  of  the  pagan  .iurist,  that 
"so  far  as  the  law  of  nature  is  concerned  all  men 
arc  equal."  Fugitives  csc^iping  from  a  country  in 
which  they  were  slaves,  villains,  or  serfs,  into  an- 
other country,  have,  for  centuries  past,  been  held 
free  and  acknowledged  free  by  judicial  decisions  of 
European  countries,  even  though  the  municipal  law 
of  the  country  in  which  the  slave  had  taken  refuge 
acknowledged  slavery  within  its  own  dominions. 
Therefore  in  a  war  between  the  United  States  and  a 
belligerent  which  admits  of  slavcrj',  if  a  person  held 
in  bondage  by  that  belligerent  be  captured  by  or 
come  as  a  fugitive  under  the  protection  of  the  "mill 
tary  forces  of  the  United  States,  such  person  is  im- 
mediately entitled  to  the  rights  and  pri\ileges  of  a 
freeman.  To  return  such  person  into  slavery  would 
amount  to  ensla\ing  a  free  person,  and  neither  the 
United  St;ites  nor  any  officer  under  their  authority 
can  enslave  any  human  Iwing.  Moreover,  a  person 
so  made  free  by  the  law  of  war  is  under  the  shield 
of  the  law  of  nations,  and  the  former  owner  or  Stjite 
can  have,  by  the  law  of  postliminy  no  belligerent  lieu 
or  claim  of  service. 

All  wanton  violence  committed  against  persons  in 
the  invaded  covnitry,  all  destruction  of  i)roperty  not 
commanded  by  theauthorized  offlcer,  all  robl)ery,  all 
pillage  or  sacking,  even  after  taking  a  i)lace  by  "main 
force,  all  rape,  wounding,  maiming,  or  killing  of 
such  inhabitants,  are  prohibiletl  luider  the  jienalty  of 
death,  or  such  other  severe  pimi.shment  as  may  seem 
adcijuate  for  the  gravity  of  the  offense.  A  .soldier, 
officer  or  private,  in  the  act  of  committing  such  vio- 
lence, and  disobeying  a  Sujierior  ordering  him  to  ab- 
stain from  it,  mav  be  lawfully  killed  on  the  spot  by 
such  Superior.  All  captures  and  booty  belong,  ac- 
cording to  the  motlern  law  of  war,  primarily  to  the 
government  of  the  captor.  Prize-money,  whether  on 
sea  or  land,  can  now  only  be  claimed  under  the  local 
law. 

Neither  officers  nor  soldiers  are  allowed  to  make 


use  of  their  position  or  power  in  the  hostile  country 
for  private  gain,  not  even  for  commercial  transac- 
tions otherwise  legitimate.  Offenses  to  the  contrary 
committed  l)y  commissioned  officers  will  Ix'  punished 
with  cashiering  or  such  other  punishment  as  the 
nature  of  the  offense  may  reijuire;  if  by  soldiers,  they 
shall  be  punished  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
offense. 

Crimes  punishable  by  all  penal  codes,  such  a.s 
arson,  murder,  maiming,  a.s.saiilts,  highway  robbery, 
theft,  burglary,  fraud,  forgery,  and  rape,  if  com- 
mitted by  an  Americiin  soldier  in  a  hostile  countrj' 
against  its  inhabitants,  are  not  only  punishable  as  at 
home,  but  in  all  cases  in  which  death  is  not  inflicted 
the  severer  ininishment  shall  be  jtreferred. 

CAPUCHIN. — A  piece  of  mail  generally  'wom  in 
early  days  under  the  great  basclnet. 

CAPUCHONS.— A  society  formed  in  France,  from 
1181  to  1183,  for  the  suppression  of  the  brigandage 
of  the  Hauliers;  the}'  exterminated  7000  brigands  id 
an  engagement  near  Verdun. 

CARABINE  A  TIGE.— A  very  ancient  and  cele- 
brated rifle.  The  tige  is  a  sort  of  small  anvil  grow- 
ing like  a  stem  out  of  an  ordinary  flat  breeching,  so 
that  the  powder-charge,  instead  of  resting  centrally, 
is  distributed  all  around  the  tige.  Notwithstandiiig 
the  great  military  defects  of  tliis  stem-principle,  the 
carabine  a  tige  has  been  recently  and  extensively  em- 
ployed bv  the  French  infantrv. 

CARABINEEKS—CABBINEEES.— Dragoons  armed 
with  carbines,  who  occasionally  acted  as  infantrj'. 
They  are  said  to  have  derived  their  designation  from 
the  Arabs,  among  whom  the  Carabiiis  or  Karabim 
were  light  horsemen,  stationed  at  outposts  to  harass 
the  enemy,  defend  narrow  pas.ses,  etc.;  in  action, 
they  took  the  place  of  skirmishers.  A  corps  under 
the  same  name  was  raised  in  France  in  lij60;  but  the 
designation  has  not  been  much  used  in  that  country 
since  the  introduction  of  Hussars  and  Lancers.  In  the 
English  army.  Carabineers  was  at  one  time  a  frequent 
designation  for  cavalry;  but  now  there  is  onlj-  one 
regiment,  the  6th  Dragoon  Guards,  known  by  this 
title;  and  the  distinction  between  them  and  "other 
cavalry  is  little  more  than  nominal. 

CARABINS. — Light  horsemen,  sometimes  called 
Karabins,  among  the  Arabs,  who  were  stationed  at 
outpost-s  to  harass  the  enemy,  defend  narrow  pa.sses, 
etc.;  in  action  they  took  the  place  of  skirmishers. 
Troops  called  Carabins,  a  sort  of  light  cavalrj-  from 
Spain,  are  first  mentioned  in  England  in  1559. 

CARACOLE. — In  horsemanship,  a  sudden  half-turn 
sometimes  performed  in  an  attack  of  cavalry  to  mis- 
lead the  enemy  as  to  the  point  at  which  the  assault  is 
to  be  made. 

CARAVAN. — The  name  given  to  the  assemblages  of 
troops  or  travelers  which  at  stated  times  traverse  the 
ile.serts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Many  caravans  arc  en- 
tirely for  the  purposes  of  trade,  the  merchants  asso- 
ciating themselves  for  mutual  help  and  protection. 
A  caravan  sometimes  has  as  many  as  KtOO  camels, 
w-hich  follow  each  other  in  single  iile,  so  that  it  may 
be  a  mile  or  more  in  length.  The  most  celebrated 
caravans  are  those  formed  by  pilgrims  going  to 
Mecca,  particularly  those  which  annually  assemble 
at  Cairo  and  at  Damascus.  The  latter  consist  of 
30,000  to  50,000  pilgrims,  and  is  under  the  special 
protection  of  the  Turkish  Sultan.  The  caravan  by 
which  the  Persians  travel  to  Jlecca  starts  from  Bag- 
dad, and  is  the  vehicle  of  a  very  imporliint  trade. 
The  great  Indian  caravan  to  ilecca,  which  started 
from  Aluscat,  has  been  long  given  up.  Mecca,  upon 
the  arrival  of  the  caravans,  bringing  goods  from  so 
many  different  parts  of  the  world,  presents  all  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  vast  fair.  The  trade  between  Tripoli 
and  the  interior  of  Africa  is  exclusively  carried  on  by 
caravans,  likewise  that  between  Darfur  and  Egypt. 
The  great  trade  between  Russia  and  China  is  also  a 
caravan  trade.  In  the  East,  caravans  in  which  the 
camels  have  a  load  of  500  to  GOO  ll)s.  are  called  htary 
caravans;  light  caravans  are  those  in  which  the  camels 


CABBINE. 


28^ 


CAKCASS. 


have  only  half  that  weight,  so  that  tlie  dallv  journeys 
may  be  longer.  Ueaty  caravans  travel  from  IT  to  18 
miles  a  day;  light,  from  22  to  23.  The  caravans  are 
generally  conducted  with  great  regularitv,  and  as.sena- 
ble  at  and  start  from  stated  places  on"  stated  days. 
The  leader  of  the  Mecca  caravans  is  called  Emir-el- 
Hadsch,  i.e.,  Prince  of  the  Pilgrims.  In  trade-cara- 
vans, a  leader,  who  is  calletl  Karwan-Baschi,  is  elected 
by  the  merchant.s  from  their  own  numljer. 

Among  the  Knights  of  .Malta,  caravans  meant  the 
troops  of  Knights  appointed  by  the  Order  to  serve  in 
garri.sons,  and  also  the  cruises  of  their  gallevs  aeainst 
the  Turks.  "      ^ 

CABBINE. — A  small-ami  with  a  short  barrel, 
adapted  for  the  use  of  cavalry,  and  having  a  bore  of 
.44  to  .50  inch,  or  thereabout.  Carbines  appear  to 
have  come  into  notice  in  the  armv  of  Ilenrv  II.  of 
France,  1559.  The  arm  was  8i  feet  long,  .ind  the 
practice  was  to  tire  and  fall  back  behind  the  rear 
rank,  who  tired  and  followed  suit.  The  troops  were 
light  cavalry,  and  the  arm  seems  to  have  had  a 
wheel-lock.  The  term  now  is  applied  to  a  short  suii 
adapted  for  cavalry,  of  which  many  brcech-loadln" 
varieties  have  becii  tried  in  the  United  States  armv 
with  greater  or  less  success.  Previous  to  the  general 
introduction  of  breech-loaders,  the  lire-arm  in  com- 


Of  heat,  the  lighter  varieties  of  carbon,  such  as  wood- 
charcoal,  are  verj-  bad  conductors;  graphite  in  mas.- 
has  very  considerable  conducting  powers.  At  ordi- 
nary temperatures  all  the  varieties  of  carbon  are  e.v- 
tremely  unalterable:  so  much  so  that  it  is  customary 
to  char  the  ends  of  iiiles  of  wood  which  are  to  he- 
driven  into  the  ground,  so  as  bv  this  coating  of  non- 
decaying  carl)on  to  preserve  the  interior  wood;  and 
with  a  similar  object  the  interior  of  casks  and  other 
wooden  vessels  intended  to  hold  water  during  sea- 
voyages  are  charred  (coated  with  carbon),  to  keep 
the  wood  from  passing  into  decay,  and  thereby  to  pre- 
serve the  water  street.  Its  power  of  arrestinsr  odor.j 
and  colors  likewise  varies  much.  In  the  simple  i)rop- 
erty  even  of  combustion  there  is  a  marked  differ- 
ence. Wood-charcoal  lakes  lire  with  the  greatest 
readiness,  bone-black  less  so;  then  follow  in  order  of 
difficulty  of  combustion— coke,  anthracite,  lamp- 
black, black-lead,  and  the  diamond.  Indeed,  black- 
lead  is  .so  non-combvistible  that  crucibles  to  withstand 
veiy  high  heats  for  prolonged  periods  without  break- 
age or  burning  are  made  of  black-lead;  and  the  dia- 
mond completely  resists  all  ordinary-  modes  of  .setting 
fire  to  it.  In  the  property  of  hardness,  carlxjn  ranges 
from  the  velvet-like  lamp-black  to  diamond,  the  hard- 
est of  gems.     In  1879  it  was  aimounced  that  a  method 


Carbine. 


mon  ase  for  cavalry,  as  well  as  engineers  and  heavj' 
artillerj',  was  a  species  of  carbine  denominated  m  u's- 
Kvtoon,  differing  from  the  masket  only  in  length  and 
in  the  fact  that  the  arm  for  the  cavalry  was  provided 
with  a  sling-bar  for  more  convenient  carriage  on 
horseback;  those  for  the  engineers  and  artillery  were 
generally  furnished  with  sword-bayonets.  These  all 
appear  to  have  corresponded  nearly  in  caliber  and 

feneral  dimensions  with  the  modern  French  enrabiiie. 
'he  ramrod  of  the  muzzle-loading  carbine  is  attached 
to  the  barrel  by  a  swivel,  which  permits  it  to  be 
handled  freely,  but  at  the  same  time  prevents  it  from 
falling  to  the  ground.  The  carbine  is  secured  to  the 
person  of  the  soldier  by  the  sling,  which  hooks  on  to 
a  ring  moving  on  a  smvel-bar  attached  to  the  left 
side  of  the  carbme,  thereby  affording  a  play  to  the 
piece  in  loading  and  tiring.  See  Carabiniera  and 
Sprinafidd  Carbine. 

CARBON. — One  of  the  elementarj'  substances  large- 
ly diffused  in  nature.  It  occurs  imcombined  in  fhe 
mineral  graphite,  or  black-lead,  and  in  the  diamond, 
which  is  pure  crj'stallized  carbon.  It  is  much  more 
abundant,  however,  in  a  state  of  combination.  Uni- 
ted with  o.xygen,  it  occurs  as  carbonic  acid  (C'0»)  in 
the  atmosphere,  in  natural  water,  in  limestone,  dolo- 
mite, and  ironstone.  In  coal  it  is  foimd  combined 
with  hydrogen  and  oxj-gen;  and  in  plants  and  ani- 
mals if  occurs  as  one  of  the  elements  building  u\t 
wood,  starch,  gum.  sugar,  oil,  bone  (gelatine),  anil 
flesh  (tibrinc).  Indeed,  there  is  no  other  element 
which  is  so  characteristic  of  plant  and  animal  organ- 
isms, and  it  ranks  as  the  only  element  never  absent  in 
substances  obtained  from  the  two  kingdoms  of  organic 
nature.  Wood-charcoal,  coke,  lamp-black,  and  ani- 
mal charcoal  are  artificial  varieties,  more  or  less  im- 
pure, of  carbon.  The  atomic  weight  or  e(|uivalent  of 
carbon  is  6  (new  system  12);  the  specific  gra\ity 
.ffrcatly  varies;  that  of  the  diamond  is  3.330  to  3.550 
(water  being  1.000),  and  of  graphite  1.800.  Carbon 
in  its  ordinary  forms  is  a  good  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity; in  the  form  of  diamond  it  is  a  non-conductor. 


of  producing  pure  crystallized  carbon,  or  diamond, 
had  Ix-en  discovered  in  Glasgow.     See  Charcoal 

CAEBON  TOOL -POINT.— An  application  of  the 
diamond  to  mechanical  purposes.  These  points  are 
much  used  in  the  amiory  to  point,  edge,  or  face  tools 
for  drilling,  reaming,  sjnviug.  planing,  tumins,  shap- 
ing, earring,  engraving,  and  dressmg  flint,"  grind- 
stones, whet-stones,  emery,  corundum,  tanite,  or  trip- 
oli-wheels,  iridium,  nickel,  enamel,  steel,  hardened  or 
otherwise,  chilled  iron,  cojiper,  or  other  metals 

CAECAIEE.— The  spur  of  the  Middle  Ages,  com- 
posed of  a  shank,  a  spur-neck,  and  a  rowel. 

CAECAS.— The  name  given  to  a  quiver  durmg  the 
Middle  Aires.     Now  obsolete. 

CAECASS.— In  military  pyrotechny  a  hollow  ca.se  of 
iron,  sometimes  globular  aiid  sometimes  ovate,  filled 
with  eoml)ustibles.  It  is  fired  from  a  mortar.  Its 
chief  use  is  to  ignite  buildings  in  the  enemv's  quarter, 
and  to  give  sufticient  light  to  aim  the  shot  and  shells. 
Carca.sses  are  said  to  have  been  first  u.sed  bv  one  of 
the  princely  ecclesiastics  of  Germany,  the  Bishop  of 
Munster,  when  he  fought  a.irainst  the  Duke  of  Lu.\em- 
bourg  at  Groll,  in  1672.  The  oval  carca-sses,  bcins 
uncertiuu  in  their  flight,  are  now  nearly  aljandoned. 
The  round  carcasses  now  made  are  chiefly  those  here 
indicated: 


Diameter. 

13  iuch 

10     "    

Composition. 

18  lbs 

7    " 

Weight. 
. . .  213  lbs. 
100    " 

8     "    

3     " 

51     " 

5     "    .... 

19  ozs 

17    " 

41  "    .... 

7    " 

. ..      9     " 

In  the  United  States  serrice  the  composition  is  the 
same  as  for  jxirt-fires,  mi.\ed  with  a  small  quantity  of 
finely-choppt'd  tow,  and  as  much  white  Iuri)entine 
and  .spirits  of  turpentine  as  will  give  it  a  compressible 
consistency.  The  comiwsition  is  compactly  pres.sed 
into  the  .shell  with  the  drift,  so  as  to  till  it  entirely; 
one  of  the  sticks  is  then  inserted  into  each  fuse-hole 
with  the  points  touching  at  the  center  so  that  when 


CABCHEBA. 


288 


CAEPENTEY. 


withdrawn  corrcspoiulinir  holes  shall  remain  in 
the  composition.  In  each  hole  thus  formed  three 
stninds  of  ijiiickmatcli  are  inserted  and  held  in  place 
tiy  drj'  port-lire  composition,  which  is  pressed  around 
them.  About  three  inches  of  the  (inick-matcu  hans.'s 
out  when  llie  carcas.s  is  in.st<rted  in  the  piece;  pre 
viously  to  that  it  is  coiIe<l  up  in  the  fuse-hole,  and 
closeil  with  a  patch  of  cloth  dippe<l  in  melted  kit.  A 
common  shell  may  be  loailwl  as  a  carcass  by  placinc; 
the  bursting-charge  on  the  Iwttom  of  the  cavity,  anil 
covering  it  with  carcass-composition  driven  in  until 
the  shell  is  nearly  full,  and  then  in.serling  four  or  live 
strands  of  (luick-mateh,  .secured  by  driving  more 
composition.  This  projectile,  after  burning  as  a  car- 
cass, explodes  as  a  shell.  Sec  Casesfwt,  Compoai- 
twm.  Fire-work^,  Project iks,  and  SMIs. 

CAECHEEA. — A  name  given  by  the  Corsicans  to 
their  cartridge-belts.     Now  little  u.sed. 

CAEDUCHI. — A  warlike  people  once  inhabiting  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan,  supposed  to  have  been  the 
ancestors  of  the  Kurds  of  the  i^re-sent  day.  The 
Greeks,  in  the  famous  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand, 
had  to  pass  through  their  country,  and  were  greatly 
haras.<ic(l  bv  them. 

CAEE  OF  SMALLAEMS.— To  clean  the  barrel— 
1.  Draw  a  rag  through  the  slol  in  the  head  of  the 
ramrod;  moisten  or  wet  it  with  water  (warm,  if  it  can 
be  had),  and  p;i.ss  it  up  and  down  through  the  bore 
from  muzzle  to  chamber,  until  idl  the  residuum  is 
removed,  or  so  moistened  and  dissolved  that  it  may 
be  entirely  removed  with  a  dry  rag.  2.  Replace  the 
wet  rag  by  a  drj'  one,  and  wipe  the  bore  as  before, 
changing  the  rag  until  the  bore  is  perfectly  clean; 
take  pains  to  see  that  Uie  well  of  the  receiver  is  care- 
fully wiped  an<l  cleaned  out,  and  that  the  surfaces  of 
the  cam  and  breech-screw  are  free  from  dirt,  dust, 
and  rust.  3.  Wipe  the  outside  of  all  metal  parts,  the 
lx)re,  well  of  the  receiver,  and  surfaces  of  the  cam 
and  breech-screw  with  a  siightly-oiled  rag.  4.  To 
clean  the  exterior  of  the  barrel,  lay  it  flat  oh  a  bench 
or  board,  to  avoid  bending  it.  Since  the  arms  now 
issued  are  browned,  abrasive  substances,  such  as  em- 
ery, tripoli,  Siind-paper,  etc.,  should  necerhe  used  to 
clean  them.  If  the  browned  parts  become  rusty, 
they  should  be  rubbed  down  with  a  scratch-brush, 
and  then  oiled.  5.  After  tiring,  the  bore  should  al- 
ways be  wiped  with  a  wet  rag  as  soon  as  practicable; 
afterwards  wi|ie  it  drj-,  and  then  pass  into  it  a  rag 
moistened  willi  oil. 

To  clean  the  lock — wipe  every  part  with  a  moist 
rag,  and  then  a  dry  one;  if  any  part  of  the  interior 
shows  rust,  jnil  a  <lrop  of  oil  on  the  point  or  end  of  a 
piece  of  soft  wood  dipped  into  Jlonr  of  emery;  rub 
out  the  rust  clean  and  wTpe  the  surface  dry;  then  rub 
every  part  with  a  slightly-oiled  rag.  For  the  mount- 
ings, imd  all  of  the  iron  and  steel  parts,  use  the  scour- 
ing material  described  in  the  contents  of  bo.\-  of 
ckauing  materiah.  Remove  dirt  from  the  screw- 
holes  by  screwing  a  piece  of  soft  wood  into  them. 
Wipe  clean  with  a  linen  rag,  and  leave  the  parts 
slightly  oiled.  In  cleaning  the  arms,  great  care 
should  be  observed  to  preserve  the  qualities  essential 
to  service,  rather  than  to  obtain  a  bright  polish. 
Burnishing  the  baiTcl  (or  other  part.s)  should  be 
strictly  avoided,  as  it  tends  to  crook  the  barrel,  and 
also  to  destroy  the  uniformity  of  the  exterior  finish  of 
the  arm.  It  is  very  imiiortant  to  use  no  other  imple- 
ments than  those  before  mentioned.  By  using  nails 
to  drive  out  the  wires  their  holes  are  enlarged.  The 
mainspring  should  never  be  heated  for  the  piupose  of 
either  raising  or  lowering  its  temper;  this  destroys  the 
elasticity  of  the  spring,  and  the  lock  no  longer  ex- 
plodes the  cartridge.  The  notches  of  the  tumbler, 
the  mainspring-s'wivel,  and,  in  general,  all  the  joints 
of  the  lock,  should  be  frecpunlly  oiled,  after  lirst 
wiping  off  the  hard  grea.se  and  the  dust. 

Browned  arms  arc  clciUied  by  rubbing  them  hard 
with  an  oiled  rag  until  the  oil  is  well  incorporated 
with  the  browning,  or  by  rubbing  them  with  bees- 
wax on  a  rag  or  cork.     Ritied  arms  should  not  have 


the  ramrod  sprung  in  the  Iwre  with  unnecessiiry  force. 
It  halters  the  head  of  the  rod  and  weai-s  injuriously 
the  grooves.  The  soldier  should  let  the  rod  slide 
down  gently,  sujiported  by  the  thumb  and  tinger; 
and  the  inspecting  ollicer  can  satisfy  himsi'lf  of  the 
condition  of  the  bottom  of  the  bore  by  gently  tapping 
with  the  rod.  The  face  of  the  breech  can  be  polLshed, 
after  washing,  by  means  of  a  cork  tixed  on  the  wijxT 
or  ball-screw;  the  polished  surface  can  be  seen  if  the 
muzzle  is  turned  to  the  light. 

Habitual  care  in  handling  is  necessary  to  keep  arms 
in  good,  serviceable  condition.  In  ordering  arms  on 
parade,  let  the  butt  be  brought  gently  to  the  ground, 
cs|)ecially  when  the  exercises  take  place  on  pave- 
ments or  hard  roads.  This  will  save  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  lock  from  shocks,  which  are  very  injurious 
to  it,  and  which  tend  to  loosen  and  mar  the  screws 
and  split  the  wood-work.  In  slacking  arms,  care 
shoidd  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  bayonets  bv  forcibly 
straining  tlie  edges  against  each  other.  The  stack 
can  be  as  well  .secured  without  such  force  being  used. 
Xo  cutting,  marking,  or  scraping  in  any  way  the 
wood  or  iron  should  be  allowed;  and  no  part  of  the 
gun  .should  l)e  touched  with  a  tile.  Take  every  po.ssi- 
ble  care  to  jirevent  water  from  getting  in  between  the 
lock,  or  barrel,  and  stock.  If  any  should  get  there, 
dismount  the  gun  as  soon  as  possible,  clejm  and  oil 
the  parts  as  directed,  and  see  that  they  are  perfectly 
dry  licfore  reassembling  them. 

The  iron  and  brass  parts  of  swords  and  sabers  are 
cleaned  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  muskets. 
When  the  oil  on  the  Iilade  of  a  sword  is  dried  up,  it 
will  leave  a  sjiot  which  may  be  removed  by  covering 
it  with  oil,  and,  after  a  short  lime,  rubbing  it  .smartly 
with  a  linen  rag.  When  a  leather  scabbard  has  be- 
come wet,  draw  the  blade  aud  dry-  the  .scabbard 
slowly  without  heating  it;  wipe  the  blade  dry,  and 
pa.ss  an  oiled  rag  over  it  and  the  scal)bard  before  re- 
turning the  blade.  Oil  the  blades  of  arms  in  store, 
also  the  scabbards,  especially  on  the  seams.  See 
Cleuning  MaterinU  and  SinuUarms. 

CAEIPI.— A  kind  of  cavalry  in  the  Turkish  army, 
which,  to  tlie  number  of  1000,  are  not  slaves,  nor  bred 
up  in  the  seraglio,  like  the  rest,  liut  are  generally 
>Ioors,  or  renegade  Christians,  who  have  obtained 
the  rank  of  Horse-guards  to  the  Grand  Seignior. 

CARMEL.-The  Knights  of  the  Order  of  Our  Lady 
of  Mount  C'armel  were  instituted  by  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  and  incorporated  with  the  Order  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  Lazarus  of  .Jenis;dem.  The  Order  of 
Jlovuit  Camiel  consisted  of  100  gentlemen,  all  French, 
who  were  to  attend  the  king  in  his  wars,  and  had 
considerable  revenues  assigned  to  them.  The  Order 
was  conlirmcd  by  bull  by  Pope  Paul  V.,  in  1607. 
The  Great  Master  was  created  by  the  king  putting 
about  his  neck  a  tawny  riltbon,  suspending  a  cross  of 
gold,  with  the  Cloak  of  the  Order,  and  granting  him 
power  to  raise  100  knights.  None  were  admitted  but 
those  who  had  four  tlesccnts  of  nobility  both  by 
father  and  mother. 

CAROLING.— A  custom  of  the  ancients  before 
going  to  war.  which  consisted  of  .singing,  etc. 

CARPENTEY.— The  art  of  framing  limber  for 
architectural  and  other  purposes.  Technically,  the 
term  is  restricted  to  the  framing  of  hea\'>'  work,  such 
as  the  roofs,  floorings,  partitions,  and  all  the  wood- 
work concerned  in  maintaining  the  stability  of  an 
edifice,  while  the  minor  and  ornamental  fittings  are 
called  joinery;  but  popularly  the  workman  who  does 
either  kind  of  work  is  called  a  cari)enter.  The  pres- 
ent article  will  be  confined  to  a  iioimlar  description 
of  the  most  useful  methods  of  framing  timber  and 
smaller  wowl-work.  The  preliminary  preparation  of 
timber  is  the  work  of  the  sawyer,  who,  Ijy  the  saw- 
mill or  pit  sjiw,  divides  the  trunfes  of  trees  iiito  planks, 
etc.;  these  are  further  divided  by  the  carpenter,  who 
uses  hand-sjiws  of  various  kinds,  acconling  to  the 
work.  For  dividing  wood  into  separate  pieces  in  the 
direction  of  the  fiber,  the  rippiiig-saw  is  u.sed;  for 
cross-cutting,   or    sawing  thin  pieces  in  the  dircc- 


CAHPET-KNIGHT. 


289 


CABSAGO. 


tion  of  their  length,  the  common  hand-mw  or  the 
tiner-toothed  panelsair;  for  making  an  incision  of  a 
•riven  (Icptli,  and  fur  cuttinf:  small  pieces  across  the 
tibcr,  the  Unon-saie,  the  msh-mir,  or  dmeUiil-mw  is 
used.  These  are  thin  saws,  slilfened  by  a  strong 
piece  of  metal  at  the  back  to  prevent  crippling. 
When  a  curved  cut  is  to  be  made,  a  very  narrow  saw 
without  a  back,  cjilled  a  compata-aair  or  a  k-ei/hoksair, 
is  used.  The  general  name  fur  these  is  ttiriiiiig-sairn; 
they  have  their  plates  thin  and  narrow  towards  the 
bottom,  and  each  succeeding  tooth  finer,  and  the 
teeth  are  not  bent  on  contrary  sides  of  the  plate  for 
dealing,  as  in  broad  saws.  "The  surface  of  wood  is 
smoothed  by  planing.  According  to  the  work,  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  planes  are  used:  ihejnck-plane,  which 
is  large  and  rough,  for  taking  away  the  rough  of  the 
saw;  the  tryiiigphiiw,  for  bringing  the  surface  per- 


FlG.  1. 

fcctly  level  and  true,  or  the  hng-plnnf,  for  the  same 
purpose,  where  the  work  is  of  great  length,  as  for  the 
joining  edges  of  long  boards  "to  be  glued  together. 
The  mnoolhing-plane,  which  is  much  smaller  than 
these,  gives  the  smooth  finished  surface.  The  spoke- 
share,  a  sort  of  plane  with  a  double  handle,  is  ased 
for  paring  and  smoothing  rounded  work.  Orna- 
mental moldings  are  cut  by  means  of  molding-platm, 
wliich  have  their  culfiug  edges  curved  to  the  lequired 
pattern.  A  good  stock  of  these  is  one  of  the  most 
e.\-pensive  items  of  the  tool-chest.  The  paring  of 
wood,  and  the  cutting  of  rectangular  or  prismatic 
cavities,  notches,  etc.,  are  done  by  means  of  cfiisels. 
Those  for  cutting  across  the  fiber  are  called  firmers 
or  paring-chmh:  those  for  cutting  deep  and  "naiTow 
cavities,  nmrlm-ehmln,  which  are  made  veiy  thick 
and  nanow,  and  fitted  in  the  handles  with  a  strong 
fiange,  to  bear  heavy  blows  with  the  mallet.  Chisels 
for  paring  concave  surfaces  are  called  gouges.  For 
boring  holes,  bradawls,  gimUU,  center-bits,  and  gouges 
are  used — the  two  latter  are  fixed  in  a  stoek  or  revolv- 
ing handle,  and  are  used  for  large  holes.  Wlicn  it  is 
required  to  ascertain  if  an  angle  be  square,  or  of  any 
.iriven  inclination,  the  square,  or  the  beni  set  to  the 
required  angle,  is  ajiplied  to  test  the  work  .i-s  it  pro- 
ceeds. When  parallel  edges  are  required,  the  tnark- 
tiig-gauge  is  used  to  draw  the  line  to  be  worked  to. 
W^hen  a  simple  straight  line  is  required  for  working 
to,  a  piece  of  string  is  chalked,  then  stretched  tightly 
over  the  wood  and  lifted  in  the  middle,  when,  by 
its  recoil,  it  strikes  the  wood  and  leaves  a  straight 
chalked  line.  The  straight-edge,  a  strip  of  wood  with 
one  of  its  edges  perfectly  straight,  is  applied  to  detect 
superficial  irregularities.  The  operation  of  planing 
the  edge  of  a  board  straight  is  called  shxttiiig,  and 
such  edges  are  said  to  be  shot.  AVhen  the  joiner  re- 
((uires  to  ascertain  whether  the  surface  of  a  piece  of 
wood  is  all  in  one  piano,  he  takes  two  slips  of  wood 
with  edges  perfectly  straight  and  parallel,  and  of 
efiual  width;  these  slips,  called  irinding-stieks,  are 
placed  edge  upwards,  one  at  each  end,  across  the 
Itoard,  and  the  workman  looks  in  the  longitudinal 
direction  of  the  board  over  the  upper  edges,  and  if 
the  two  edges  be  not  in  the  same  plane,  the  board  is 
planed  down  at  the  elevated  parts  until  it  is  out  uf 
wind.  For  setting  work  level,  a  spirit-Urel.  set  in  a 
wooden  frame,  or  a  plumb-level  is  ust>d.  When  two 
pieces  of  timber  have  to  be  united  at  their  ends,  as  in 
lengthening  the  beams  for  roofing,  partitions,  etc., 
the  operation  is  called  scarfing,  and  the  joint  a  scarf. 
The  methods  of  scarfing  are  very  numerous.  That 
shown  in  Fig.  1  will  .serve  to  illustrate  the  principle, 
together  with  the  use  of  strengtliening  bolts  and 
straps.  The  length  of  the  scarf  should" be,  if  bolts 
are  not  used — in  oak,  ash.  or  elm,  six  times  the  depth 
of  the  beam;  in  fir,  12  times  the  depth  of  the  besim. 


I  If  Iwlts  and  indents  are  combined,  the  length  of  the 
scarf  shoidd  be— in  oak,  ash,  or  elm,  twice  the  depth 
of  the  beam;  in  fir,  four  times  the  depth.    In  scarfing 
beams  to  resist  transverse  strains,  straps  driven  un 
tight  are  better  than  bolts.     The  siyn  of  the  areas  of 
the  bolts  should  not  be  less  than  one  fifth  the  area  of 
j  the  beam,  when  a  longitudinal  strain  is  to  be  borne. 
I  No  joint  should  be  used  in  which  shrinking  or  ex- 
pansion can  tend  to  tear  the  timbers.     No  joint  can 
I  be  made  so  strong  as  the  timber  itself.     When  two 
pieces  of  timber  are  connected  so  that  the  joint  runs 
I  parallel  with  the  fibers  of  both,  it  is  called  a  Umgi- 
1  tudiiial  joint;  but  when  the  place  of  the  joint  is  at 
\  right  angles  to  the  fibers  of  both,  &n  abutting  joint. 
A  very  short  tenon  is  called  a  Mub  tenon.     When  a 
second  minor  tenon  is  made  projecting  from   the 
principal  tenon,  it  is  called  a  tusktenon.     For  lighter 
joiner's  work,  other  methods  of  fram- 
ing are    used,   and   adapted   to  the 
work— to  boards  generally    instead 
of  beams;    thus,   lor  example,   the 
mortise  and  tenon   .ioint,   made  ob- 
long instead  of  square,  is  used  in 
framing    doors,  shutters,    drawing- 
boards,  or  any  other  kind  of  extended    superficial 
work    liable    to    warping.      An    outside    frame  or 
skeleton  is  made  with    a    panel  or   panels    in    the 
middle,    and    each     piece    of    the    frame    has    the 
grain  at  right  angles  to  the  piece  into  which  it   is 
mortised,  in  order  that  they  shall  eventually  correct 
the  warping.     Dovetailing"  is  extensively  "used  for 


7\ 


Fig.  2. 

connecting  boards  at  right  or  other  angles,  as  in  mak- 
ing boxes,  drawers,  etc.  Common  dovetailing  is  usu- 
ally glued.  Nails  or  pins  and  glue  are  v«'d  with  the 
miter  and  other  notched  joints.  Applications  of  dove- 
tailing timbers,  also  the  mortise  and  tenon  joint,  are 
show  n  in  Fig.  2.  The  cavity  a  is  the  mortise,  the  pro- 
jection on  b,  the  tenon.  The  common  miter  and  the 
lapped  miter  are  shown  — ^— 

in  Fig.  3.     Boards  may   

be  united  at  their  edges 
to  fonn  an  extended 
surface,  as  a  flat  plank 
partition,  etc.,  either  by 
simple  gluingof  the  shot 
edges,  by  a  rebate,  or  by 
a  plowed  groove  and 
a  plain   corresponding  Fio.  3. 

projection.  The  rebate  is  cut  bj-  means  of  a  rebating- 
plane.  The  groove,  a  sort  of  extended  mortise,  is 
cut  by  a  jilane  with  a  projecting  iron  called  the  plow. 
In  all  cases  where  glue  is  used  in  joints,  it  should  be 
applied  to  both  surfaces,  which  should  be  rublx'd  and 
pres.sed  together  imtil  nearly  all  the  jjluc  is  forced 
out,  then  kept  pre.s.sed  by  a  cramp  or  weights.  White- 
lead  is  used  for  out.side" joints.  Special  departments 
of  this  subject  are  treated  under  their  respective 
heads. 

CABPET-KNIGHT.— A  man  who  obtains  knight- 
hood on  a  pretense  for  services  in  which  he  never 
participateil. 

CABQUOIS.— A  quiver  of  iron,  wood,  leather,  etc., 
which  was  worn  slung  over  the  right  shoulder. 

CABBAGO.— A  kind  of  fortification,  consisting  of  a 
great  number  of  wagons,  placed  round  an  army.  It 
was  employed  by  barbarous  nations,  as,  for  instance, 
the  Scythians  arid  Goths. 


cAbkeau. 


290 


CABBOHASES. 


CABBEAU.— A  bolt  or  tlnrt,  with  n  large  steel  head, 
for  a  eross-bow.  C'ouiinonly  written  (Vic;r,  Carnl, 
and  QiKirrtiiii. 

CABRIAOE-BRIDGE.— A  roller-bridge  to  t)C  moved 
up  a  glaeis  ami  form  a  bridge  from  eountersearp  to 
scarp,  for  the  passage  of  the  attacking  column.  It 
hits  beams  and  uprights.  The  latter  act  its  posts,  to 
rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  are  shiftable  to 
adapt  them  to  the  depth  of  the  ditch  or  fosse. 

CABBIAGE  DEPARTMENT.— The  Hoyal  Carriage 
Deparlraeiil.  at  WiKihvich,  is  one  of  the  great  na- 
tional mimufacturiug  establishments  maintained  for 
warlike  armaments— its  duty  being  the  construction 
of  gun-carriagefi  for  army  and  navy,  military  wag- 
ons and  vehicles  of  all  kinds,  and  the  joinery  of  the 
army  genendly.  The  Department  was  organized  as 
a  distinct  establishment  in  1803,  and  ha.sbeen  under- 
going gradual  enlargement  ever  since.  Since  the  re- 
cent introduction  of  iron  carriages  for  heavy  guns, 
the  Department  has  had  a  new  section  added  for  iit)n- 
work.  Until  18")5  the  Board  of  Ordnance  had  the 
direction  of  this  Department,  but  in  that  year  it 
passed  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Secretary  for 
War,  who,  since  1869,  administers  it  through  the 
Surveyor-general  of  the  Ordnance.  The  works, 
store-rooms,  and  yards  are  of  vast  size,  often  employ- 
ing from  2000  to  3000  bauds.  There  are  many 
steam-engines  in  various  parts  of  the  establishment; 
and  the  iron  and  wood  cutting  and  shaping  machines 
are  of  the  highest  order  of  excellence.  The  internal 
communications  are  carried  on  bv  locomotives  on  a 
tramway  of  18-inch  giiuge.     See  txuii-carruige». 

CARRIAGES. — A  gun-carriage  is  designed  to  sup- 
port its  piece  when  tired,  and  also  to  transport  can- 
non from  one  point  to  another.  Field,  mountain, 
and  siege  artillery  have  also  limbers,  which  form 
when  imited  with  the  carriage  a  four-wheeled  vehicle. 
Sea-coast  carriages  are  diWded  into  barbetU,  cage- 
mate,  and  flank-defense  carriages,  depending  upon 
the  part  of  the  work  in  which  they  are  mounted. 
They  are  now  made  of  \\Tought-iron  and  found  to 
possess  lightness,  greath  strength,  and  stiffness.  The 
sea-coa-st  carriages  are  made  in  a  similar  manner,  and 
one  carriage  can  be  altered  to  fit  another  piece  by 
changing  the  trunnion-iilates  and  transom-straps. 
The  carriage  consists  of  two  cheeks  of  thick  .sheet- 
iron,  each  one  of  which  is  strengthened  by  three 
flanged  iron  plates  bolted  to  the  cheeks.  Along  the 
bottom  of  each  cheek  an  iron  shoe  is  fixed  with  the 
end  bent  upwards.  In  front  this  bent  end  is  bolted 
to  the  flange  of  the  front  .strengthening-plate.  In 
rear  the  bent  portion  is  longer,  and  terminated  at  top 
by  another  bend,  which  serves  as  a  point  of  appli- 
cation for  a  lever  on  a  wheel,  when  running  to  and 
from  battery.  The  trunnion-plates  tit  over  the  top 
ends  of  tlie  strengthening-plates,  which  meet  around 
the  bed,  and  are  fastened  to  the  flanges  of  the  latter 
by  movable  bolts  and  nuts.  The  cheeks  are  joined 
together  by  transoms  made  of  bar-iron.  The  front 
of  the  carriage  is  mounted  on  an  axletree,  with  truck- 
wheels  similar  to  the  wooden  casemate-carriages. 
The  elevating-screws  are  of  two  kinds:  one  for  low 
angles  of  elevation,  and  the  second  for  columhiads 
where  great  angles  of  elevation  are  required.  The 
elevating  arc  is  made  of  brass  and  attacheil  to  the 
upper  edge  of  llie  riirht  check,  and  maybe  folded 
down.  It  is  employed  to  measure  the  elevation  of 
the  piece. 

The  verj'  diverse  purposes  for  which  military  car- 
riages are  intended  necessitate  many  varieties  of 
form,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  carriages  of  the  field  and 
siege  artillery,  of  the  iwnton  and  telegraph  equip- 
ments, of  the  transport  and  ambulance  services,  etc. 
The  many  varieties  may  be  classed  under  one  of  two 
heads,  viz.:  1.  Those  \is<(l  in  the  transi)ort  of  stores; 
2.  Those  which,  be.sides  fultilling  the  usual  functions 
of  a  carriage,  are  especially  adapted  to  facilitate  the 
working  of  field-  and  siege-guns.  For  a  description 
of  the  carriages  of  the  second  class,  see  the  various 
artillery-caiTJagcs.      The   coniiwneut    parts   of   the 


transport-carriages  are  the  following:  Axletree  (armi 
or  iijcktree-annn,  Hnch-pin,  IhmIi/,  n/iouldtr,  luid  iKiint); 
axletree-bed;  splinter-l)ar;  futchells;  sweep-bar;  fore- 
carriage;  body  {fram(-gUU:s,J'riiiit  ear-bed,  h'nd  ear- 
bed,  mid  mini  iiiers);  bolsters;  main-pin;  stays;  knees; 
sweep-plate  and  wheel-plate;  shaft-irons;  scroll- 
irons;  sides,  headboard  and  tailboard;  floating 
raves;  and  wheels  (/wrc,  nace-bands,  nace-bux  or  pipe- 
boj-,  spoken,  felloeti,  and  lire).  In  the  construction  of 
all  carriages  the  following  conditions  should  be 
realized:  Adaptability  of  form  to  the  load  (in- 
cluding convenience  in  loading,  as  well  a.s  suitable 
capacity);  strength;  stability;  durability;  ease  and 
convenience  of  draught;  suitability  for  shipment; 
facility  of  repair;  and  economy  of  manufacture. 
The  ease  of  draught  is  chieflj'  affected  by  the  follow- 
ing considerations:  Weight  of  carriage  and  load; 
height  of  wheels;  mean  diameter  of  pipe-box;  de- 
gree of  smoothness  of  the  surfaces  of  arm  and  box, 
and  the  (juality  of  the  lubricants  applied  to  them; 
width  of  tire;  position  of  trace-loops,  and  inclination 
of  the  traces;  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  springs. 
The  width  and  length  of  carriages  should  be  limited 
by  considerations  of  convenience  in  turning  and  pas- 
xing  along  naiTow  roads  and  other  conlined  spaces. 
See  ChiiKaia  and  &iin-carriage)i. 

CARRICK. — An  old  Gaelic  term  for  a  castle  or  fort- 
ress, as  well  as  for  a  rock  in  the  sea. 

CARRICK-BEND.— A  knot  formed  on  a  bight  by 
putting  the  end  of  a  rope  over  its  standing  part,  so  a.s 
to  form  a  cross:  reeve  the  end  of  the  other  rope 
through  the  bight,  up  and  over  the  cross  and  down 
through  the  bight  again,  on  the  opposite  side  from 
tlie  other  end.     See  Cordage. 

CARRIER -BLOCK.— A  component  part  of  most 
machine-guns.  Direct!}'  behind  the  ojien  barrels  a 
hollow  cylinder  of  metal,  called  a  earrkr-blork,  is 
fastened  to  the  shaft,  and  in  the  exterior  .surface  of 
this  carrier-block  .semi-cylindrical  channels  are  cut, 
which  form  trough-like  extensions  of  the  cartridge- 
chambers  of  the  barrels  to  the  rear,  and  are  designed 
to  receive  and  guide  the  cartridges  while  they  are 
being  thrust  into  the  baiTels,  and  to  guide  the  empty 
cases  while  they  are  being  withdrawn.  This  block 
is  covered  above  the  frame  bv  the  hopper-plate,  and 
beneath  everrthing  is  open.     See  OatUng  Gun. 

CARRIEBPIGEON.— The  term  carrier,  as  applied 
to  pigeons,  evidently  was  first  employed  to  signify 
those  breeds  that  were  used  to  convey  or  carry 
me&sages  to  their  own  homes  from  disUint  places. 
In  the  process  of  time  it  has  been  usi'd  by  English 
fanciers  to  signify  a  very  artificial  or  high -class 
breed,  the  birds  of  which  arc  never  employed  for 
carrying  messages,  but  are  valued  solelj'  in  proportion 
to  the  jJcrfection  of  certain  "properties"  that  they 
possess.  This  is  an  unfortunate  circumstance,  for  by 
the  public  at  large  the  term  carrier  is  always  taken  to 
express  the  fact  that  the  birds  to  which  it  is  applied 
are  really  those  employed  to  "caiTy"  mes.sages; 
whereas  the  long-distance-flying  birds,  those  known 
more  correctly  as  ' '  homing  "  birds,  or  ' '  les  pigeons 
voyagers,"  are  totally  distinct.     See  Homing  Pigeon. 

CARROCCIO.— A  very  large  four-wheeled  carriage, 
wliicli  was  used  l)y  the  C'rusiiders  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  On  its  platform,  which  was  large  enough  to  hold 
fifty  persons,  was  erected  a  tower  surmounted  with  a 
cross,  and  a  standard,  and  to  it  was  attached  a  bell 
which  indicated  the  passing  of  the  carroceio.  Before 
engaging  in  battle,  an  effigy  of  Christ  of  life  siz^e  was 
placed  on  the  platform,  and  at  its  feet  an  altar;  then 
a  ina.s-s  was  held.  A  number  of  knights  guarded  it, 
and  it  was  drawn  by  oxen  richly  caparisoned.  Its 
invention  is  attributed  to  the  people  of  Lombardy. 

CARRONADES.— Short  iron  guns  invented  by  Jlr. 
Ga.scoigiic.  and  named  after  the  Carron  Iron-works 
in  Scotland,  where  they  were  first  made.  They  are 
lighter  than  ordinary  guns,  and  have  a  chamber  for 
powder,  like  mortars.  They  were  made  standard 
navy  guns  in  1779,  to  be  carried  on  the  poop,  fore- 
castle, ifud  upper  works.     Being  manageable  by  a 


CASKOUSAL. 


291 


CASTEL. 


smaller  number  of  hands  than  guns,  and  being  very 
useful  in  close  engafreraents,  they  were  held  in  much 
favor  during  the  great  war:  the  seamen  called  them 
"smashers.  '  A  GH-pounder  carronade  weighed  not 
much  more  than  half  as  much  as  the  ■12-pounder  gmi 
in  use  in  1779.  They  range  from  t)8-pounders  down 
to  6-pounders.  Some  carronades  are  made  shorter 
with  a  given  bore.  Carronades  are  but  little  used, 
except  by  the  English  and  French.  Though  valuable 
at  close  quarters,  they  are  no  match  for  long  guns  at 
a  distance;  and  therefore  a  ship  armed  only  with 
carronades  would  fare  badly  in  a  general  action.  In 
recent  years  carronades  have  to  a  considerable  extent 
been  replaced  in  the  English  navy  by  howitzers,  long 
guns,  and  shell-guns.     See  OidiKtnn . 

CARKOTJSEL.  — A  si)ecies  of  knightly  exercise 
which,  down  even  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
centun,',  wa-s  very  common  in  all  the  courts  of 
Europe.  Carrousel  was  a  kind  of  imitation  of  the 
tournament,  and  for  a  time  after  the  discontinuance 
of  the  latter  seems  to  have  supplied  its  place.  The 
<iresses,  for  the  most  part,  were  those  of  the  knights 
of  former  times,  and  the  combalant.s,  or  rather  com- 
petitors, were  divided  into  two  parties,  usually  ac- 
cording to  their  different  nationalities.  One  of  the 
favorite  exercises  in  France  consisted  in  running  at 
the  pasteboard  head  of  a  Jloor  or  Turk  with  a  lance, 
cutting  it  down  with  a  sword,  or  tiring  at  itwith  a 
pistol.  Another  of  these  tests  of  skill  and  horseman- 
ship, if  not  of  courage,  consisteil  in  carrying  off  a 
whole  line  of  rings,  which  were  suspended  for  the 
purpose.  The  atrrousel  in  France  was  not  known 
earlier  than  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. ;  but  it  had  existed 
for  some  little  time  previously  iujtalv.  There  were 
brilliant  carrousels  imder  Louis  Xllf  ,  and  two  cel- 
ebrated ones  were  given  in  honor  of  Mademoiselle  de 
la  Valliere — the  one  at  Paris  in  lfi(i2.  the  other  at 
Versailles  in  1664.  The  place  where  the  first  of  the.se 
f?tes  was  held  has  ever  since  been  called  the  Place 
du  Carrousel.  A  revival  of  the  carrousel  was  at- 
tempted at  Berlin  in  1750;  antl  in  1828  the  Cavsdry 
School  at  Sauniur  held  one  in  honor  of  Madame  la 
Duchesse  de  Berry.  The  so-called  Eglinton  Tourna- 
ment—  an  enlerlainment  given  some  years  ago  by 
the  chivalrous  Earl  of  Eglinton  —  was  in  reality  a 
carrousel. 

CABBY  ABMS.— A  word  of  command  in  the  Man- 
ual of  Arms,  directing  thai  the  musket  be  taken  lo 
the  fundamental  position,  which  consists  of  the  piece 
being  held  in  the  right  hand:  the  barrel  nearly  verti- 
cal, and  resting  in  the  hollow  of  the  shoulder,  the 
guard  to  the  front ;  the  arm  hanging  nearly  at  its  full 
length,  near  the  body,  the  thumb  and  forefinger  era- 
bracing  the  gtiard,  the  remaining  fingers  closed  lo- 
getherand  grasping  the  stock  just'imder  the  hammer, 
which  rests  on  the  little  finger.  See  Manual  of  Arim, 
Fig.  1. 

CAST.— A  framework  of  wood,  with  sides,  front 
and  end  boards,  placed  upon  two  wheels,  and  drawn 
by  one  or  two  horses.  In  the  artillery,  cart.s  are  very 
generally  used.  A  new-pattern  cart  was  introduced 
a  few  years  ago  into  the  English  service  for  the  car- 
riage of  small-ann  ammunition  in  the  field.  There 
are  about  eighteen  carts  in  service  of  different  patterns 
and  for  various  purposes.     See  Iland-cart. 

CABTE. — A  movement  of  the  sword  in  fencing,  as 
tierce  and  carte.  Also  a  movement  in  the  bayonet- 
exercise.     Frequentlv  written  Qiiaiie.     See  Fenring. 

CABTE-BLANCHE.— In  a  military  sense,  a  full  and 
absolute  power  which  is  lodged  in  the  hands  of  an 
officer  to  act  accordmg  to  the  best  of  his  judgment, 
without  waiting  for  superior  instructions  or  orders. 
It  likewise  strictly  means  a  blank  paper  sent  to  a  per- 
.son,  to  fill  up  with  such  conditions  as  he  may  think 
proper  to  insert.  In  the  general  acceptation  of  the 
tenn,  it  implies  an  authoritv  to  act  at  discretion. 

CABTEL.— i\ji  agreement  between  the  belligerents 
for  an  exchange  of ^  prisoners.  Sometimes  the  name 
is  given  to  a  ship,  called  by  the  French  a  biitiment 
parlementaire,  commissioned" to  convey  the  exchanged 


prisoners,  or  to  carry  messages  to  the  enemy.  A  ship, 
when  thus  employed,  must  cany  no  c'argo,  ammuni- 
tion, or  implement  of  war,  except  one  gun  for  sig- 
nals. 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  a  form  of  the  cqr- 
tel,  the  pro\isions  being  liable  to  modification,  accord- 
ing to  agreement,  by  the  agents  appointed  by  the 
proper  authorities: 

The  tmdersigned,  having  been  commissioned  by 
the  authorities  they  respectively  represent  lo  make  ar- 
rangement.s  for  a  general  exchange  of  prisoners  of 
war,  have  agreed  to  the  follow ing  articles: 

AJiTici.E  1.  It  is  hereby  agreed  and  stipulated  that 
all  prisoners  of  war  held  by  either  party,  including 
those  taken  on  private  armed  vessels  known  as  pri- 
vateers, shall  be  discharged  upon  the  conditions  and 
terms  following: 

Prisoners  to  l)e  exchanged  man  for  man  and  officer 
for  officer;  privateers  to  be  placed  upon  the  footing 
of  officei's  and  men  of  the  Xa\y. 

Jlen  and  officers  of  lower  grades  may  be  exchanged 
for  officers  of  a  higher  grade,  and  men  and  officers  of 
different  services  may  be  exchanged  according  to  the 
follow  ing  scale  of  equivalents: 

A  General  commanding-in-chief  or  an  Admiral 
shall  be  exchanged  for  officers  of  equal  rank  or  for 
.sixty  privates  or  common  seamen. 

A  JIajor  General  or  Flag  Officer  shall  be  exchanged 
for  officers  of  equal  rank  or  for  forty  privates  or  com- 
mon seamen. 

A  Brigiidier  General  or  a  Commodore  carrying  a 
broad  pennant  shall  be  exchanged  for  officers  of 
equal  rank  or  for  twenty  privates  or  common  sea- 
men. 

A  Colonel  or  a  Captain  in  the  Navy  shall  be  ex- 
changed for  officers  of  equal  rank  or  for  fifteen  pri- 
vates or  common  seamen. 

A  Lieutenant  Colonel  or  a  Commander  in  the  Navy 
shall  he  exchanged  for  officers  of  equal  rank  or  for 
ten  privates  or  common  seamen. 

A  Major  or  a  Lieutenant  Commander  shall  be  ex- 
changed for  officers  of  equal  rank  or  for  eight  pri- 
vates or  common  seamen. 

A  Captain  in  the  Army  or  Marines  or  a  Lieutenant 
or  a  blaster  in  the  Xa\-y  shall  be  exchanged  for  offi- 
cers of  equal  rank  or  for  sis  privates  or  common  sea- 
men. 

Lieutenants  in  the  Army  .shall  be  exchanged  for 
officers  of  equal  rank  or  for  four  privates  or  common 
seamen. 

Midshipmen,  Warrant  Officers  in  the  Navy,  Mas- 
ters of  merchant-vessels,  and  Commanders  of  pri- 
vateers shall  Ix'  exchanged  for  officers  of  equal  rank 
or  for  three  privates  or  common  seamen. 

Second  Captains,  Lieutenants,  or  Mates  of  merchant- 
vessels  or  privateers,  and  all  iX'tty  officers  of  the 
Navv  and  all  non-commis.sioned  officers  in  the  Army 
or  >farines,  shall  be  severally  exchanged  for  persons 
of  equal  rank  or  for  two  privates  or  common  seamen; 
and  imvate  soldiers  or  conmion  s<anien  shall  be  ex- 
changed for  each  other,  man  for  man. 

Article  3.  Local,  State,  ci\il,  and  militia  rank 
held  by  persons  not  in  actual  military  service  will  not 
be  recognized,  the  basis  of  exchange  being  the  grade 
actually  held  in  the  naval  and  military  senice  of  the 
respective  parties. 

Article  3.  If  citizens  held  by  either  party  on 
charges  of  anj'  alleged  civil  offen.se  are  exchanged,  it 
shall  only  be  for  citizens.  Captured  sutlers,  team- 
sters, and"  all  civilians  in  the  actual  service  of  either 
party,  to  be  exchanged  for  persons  in  similar  posi- 
tion. 

Article  4.  The  surplus  prisoners  not  exchanged, 
if  paroled,  shall  not  l)c  permitted  to  take  up  arms 
agiiin,  nor  to  ser%-e  as  military  police  or  coiLStabulary 
force  in  anv  fort,  garrison,'  or  field-work  held  by 
either  of  the"  respective  parties,  nor  as  gtianls  of  pris- 
ons, depots,  or  stores,  nor  to  discharge  any  dut>"  usu- 
ally performed  by  soldiers,  until  exchanged  imder  the 
provisions  of  this  cartel.    The  exchange  is  not  to  be 


CABTEl-SHIP. 


292 


CABTRIDOE. 


consuloreil  complete  until  the  officer  or  soldier  ex- 
cliiingi'd  for  has  been  actually  restored  to  the  lines  to 
which  he  belongs. 

AuTici-E  5.  hacb  party,  upon  the  discharKe  of 
prisoners  of  the  other  party,  is  authorized  to  discharere 
an  equal  number  of  their  own  otlicers  or  men  from 
parole,  acconlins;  to  the  scale  of  eeiuivalents  already 
agreed  u|K)n,  furnishinft  at  the  same  time  to  the  other 
party  a  list  of  tlieir  prisoners  discharjzed  and  of  their 
own'  ollicers  and  men  relieved  from  paroli' — thus 
enablinvr  each  i)arty  to  relieve  from  parole  such  of 
their  own  officers  aiui  men  as  the  party  may  choose. 
The  lists  thus  mutually  furnished  will  keep  both  par- 
ties advised  of  the  true  condition  of  the  exchange  of 
prisoners. 

Aktici.e  6.  The  stipulations  and  pro\isions  al)ove 
mentioned  to  be  of  binding  obligation  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  war,  it  matters  not  which  party  may 
have  the  surplus  of  prisoners,  the  great  principles  in- 
volved being — 1st.  An  equitable  exchange  of  i)rison- 
ers,  man  for  man,  otlicer  for  officer,  or  officers  of 
higher  grade  exchanged  for  officers  of  lower  irrade,  or 
for  jirivates  according  to  the  sc.ile  of  e(iuivalcnts;  'id. 
That  privateers  and  officers  and  lucn  of  dilTerent  ser- 
vices may  be  cxchansed  according  to  the  same  scale 
of  e(iiiivalent.s;  'M.  'That  all  prisoners,  of  whatever 
arm  of  ser\ice.  are  to  be  exchanged  or  paroled  as  soon 
as  it  is  practicable  to  transfer  them  to  their  own  lines; 
4th.  That  no  officer,  soldier,  or  em|iloye  in  the  ser- 
vice of  either  party  is  to  be  considered  as  exchanged 
and  absolved  from  his  parole  until  his  e(|uival(nl  has 
actually  readied  the  lines  of  his  friends;  5th.  That 
the  parole  forbids  the  performance  of  field,  garrison, 
police,  or  guard,  or  constabulary  duty. 

Article  ~.  For  the  purpose  of  carrying  into  effect 
the  foregoing  articles  of  agreement,  "each  part}- will 
appoint  two  agents,  to  be  called  agents  for  the  ex- 
change of  prisoners  of  war,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to 
communicate  with  each  other,  by  correspondence  and 
otherwise,  to  prepare  the  lists  of  prisoners,  to  attend 
to  the  delivery  of  the  prisoners  at  the  places  agreed 
on,  and  to  carry  out  promptly,  effectually,  and  in  I 
good  faith  all  the  details  and  provisions  of  the  said  : 
articles  of  agreement. 

Article  8.  In  civse  any  misunderstanding  shall 
arise  in  regard  to  any  clause  or  stijiulation  in  the  fore- 
going articles,  it  is  nuitually  agreed  that  such  misun- 
flei-standing  .shall  not  intt-rriipt  the  release  of  prison- 
ers on  parole,  as  herein  pro\-idcd,  but  shall  be  made 
the  subject  of  friendly  e.xjjlanations,  in  order  that  the 
object  of  this  agreement  may  neither  be  defeated  nor 
postponed.  See  Exchaiuje  'of  PrUururs,  Parole,  and 
Primntrn  of  War. 

CABTEL  •  SHIP. — A  ves.sel  used  in  exchanging  pris- 
oners or  carrying  proiwsals  to  an  enemy.     See  Cartel. 

CARTHOUN. — The  ancient  cannon-roval,  canying 
a  fiO-pound  ball,  with  a  point-blank  range  of "  185 
paces,  and  an  extreme  one  of  about  2000.  "it  was  13 
feet  long  and  of  8i  inches  diameter  of  bore. 

CARTOUCH.— 1.  A  roll  or  ca.se  of  paix-r,  etc.,  hold- 
ing a  charge  for  a  tire-arm.  2.  In  gunnerv,  a  ca-sc  of  1 
wood  about  3  inches  thick  at  the  bottom,  bound  i 
about  with  marline,  holding  about  400  musket-balls, 
besides  8  or  10  iron  balls  of"a  pound  each,  to  be  dis- 
charged from  a  howitzer  for  the  defense  of  a  pa.ss, 
etc.  3.  An  article  of  leather  to  sling  over  the  shoul- 
der of  the  gunner,  who  therein  carries  the  ammunition 
from  the  tumbril  for  the  service  of  the  artillery  when 
at  exercise  in  the  tield. 

CABT  -  PIECE.— An  eariy  battering  cannon  mounted 
on  a  peculiar  cart,  and  thus  moved  from  place  to 
place. 

CABTBIDGE. — The  requirements  of  a  good  service- 
cartridge  are  strength,  durability,  uniform  dimen- 
.sions,  and  cheapness.  Its  power  should  be  stored  up 
in  as  small  a  space  as  [wssible,  that  a  soldier  may 
earn,-  a  maximum  munber  of  rounds  with  a  minimuiii 
effect  upon  his  endurance.  It  uhisI  possess  certainty 
of  fire  combined  with  uniform  accura<y,  range,  anil 
penetration.     After  firing,  the  .shell  must  be  easily 


extracted  from  its  chamber.  To  unite  all  these 
qualities  the  greatest  care  is  required  in  the  different 
proccs-ses  of  nnuuifacture.  The  materials  from  which 
the  component  parts  of  the  cartridge  are  made, 
which  are  the  shell,  the  primer,  the  ]X)wder,  the 
bullet  and  lubricant,  must  be  of  the  best  quality.  A 
variation  of  .001  inch  in  the  thickness  of  the  mctjil 
disk  from  which  the  shell  is  drawn,  from  slandartl 
dimensions,  produces  waste  of  material  and  unneces- 
sary wear  upon  the  tools  if  above  the  standaril,  and 
other  complications  if  below.  The  priming  or  ex- 
plosive compound  for  igniting  the  cartridge  must  be 
made  with  such  care  and  of  such  ingredients  as  will 
almost  absolutely  insure  ignition  from  a  blow  of 
calculated  strength  upon  the  cup  or  cap  containing  it. 
The  component  parts  of  the  powder  must  be  sufti- 
cieutly  pure  that  when  uicorponited,  pressed,  and 
grained,  its  density  may  be  so  nearly  constant  that  a 
fixed  charge  will  give  a  nearly  constant  initial  veloc- 
ity to  the  bullet,  prcducing  a  corres]ionding  con.stant 
range  anil  accuracy  imder  like  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere.  Electric  ballistic  machines  readily  de- 
termine the  initial  velocity,  enabling  us,  by  slight 
variations  of  the  charge,  to  keep  that  velocity  practi- 
cally a  constant  quantity,  thus  solving  the  problem 
of  a  cartridge  with  a  measured  or  fixed  amount  of 
work  stored  up  in  it  to  be  given  out  with  deadly 
effect  when  needed.  This  is  the  state  of  perfection  to 
which  the  cartridge  is  now  made. 

The  cartridge-cases  for  ordnau'^e  or  large  guns  are 
chietiy  made  of  serge  and  flannel,  sewn  up  into  the 
form  of  a  bag,  which,  sujiplied  with  a  given  weight 
of  powder,  is  tie<l  rounil  the  neck  and  strengthened 
by  iron  hoops.  T)ie  weight  of  powdir  varies  from 
about  300  lbs.  for  au  81-ton  gun,  to  a  few  ounces  for 
a  mountain-gun. 

Cartridges  for  small-arms  which  load  at  the  muzzle 
are  usually  paper  tubes,  containing  a  leaden  ball  and 
a  few  drams  of  powder.  The  tubes  are  made  in 
such  a  way  that  the  powder  has  two  or  three  thick- 
nesses of  paper  around  it,  while  at  the  mouth  of  the 
tul)e  and  o\er  the  bullet  there  is  oidy  one.  The  paper 
over  the  bullet  is  lubricated  generally  with  a  com- 
position of  beeswax  and  tallow.  In  loading,  the 
paper  at  the  mouth  of  the  tube  has  to  be  twisted  or 
bitten  off;  the  powder  is  then  poured  into  the  barrel, 
the  tulH,"  reversed,  and  the  bullet  inserted  into  the 
muzzle,  and  the  tube  broken  away.  Cartridges  for 
breech-loading  small-arms  in  England  are  generally 
foiTued  of  a  thin  sheet  of  bra.ss  coiled  into  a  cylinder, 
and  having  an  iron  ca.se,  in  the  center  of  which  is  the 
percassion  arrangement.  Besides  the  cartridge-ca.se 
of  coiled  brass,  there  are  others  made  of  solid 
bra.ss  or  copper  (American  invention),  and  these  seem 
to  be  gaining  favor  abroad,  the  Prussians  having 
adopted  such  a  case  for  the  new  JIauser  rifie. 

For  sporting  rifles  the  cartridges  are  quite  numer- 
ous and  varied.  With  large-bore  rifles  the  same  car- 
tridge-case is  generally  used  as  for  shot-guns,  but 
loaded  with  powder  and  ball  (spherical,  solid  conical, 
hollow  conical,  or  shell i.  For  small-bore,  or  what 
are  known  as  e.rpn-K.'i  rifles,  either  a  coiled  bra.ss 
cartridge-case,  similar  in  construction  to  that  for  the 
Snider  or  Martini-IIenry  rifle,  but  made  to  contain  a 
larger  charge,  or  a  solid  brass  case  is  u.scd.  The 
coiled  case  can  be  reloadi'd  twice  or  thrice,  while  the 
solid  case  can  be  reloaded  as  often  as  twenty  times, 
and  on  this  account  the  latter  is  rapidly  gaining  favor 
with  sport.smen  in  India  and  Africa.  The  express 
cartridge  contains  a  very  heavy  charge  of  jiowder, 
with  a  light  hollow  conical  bullet  giving  very  great 
velocity,  low  trajectory,  and  immense  killing  power. 
In  the  Henry  express  cartridge  the  charge  of  pow- 
der is  4  drams,  while  the  bullet  weighs  only  270' 
grains. 

Cartridges  for  breech-loading  pistols  and  revolvers 
are  generally  small  metal  cylinders  containing  a 
charge  of  powder  and  a  bidlet,  and  with  rim,  pin,  or 
central-fire  ignition,  the  diameter  varying  from  .230 
of  an  inch  upwards. 


CAKTRIDGE. 


293 


CABTKIDOE. 


la  the  manufacture  of  metallic  cartridges  the 
"United  States  leads  the  world.  Besides  the  various 
patterns  described  under  other  headings  in  this  work, 
the  United  States  Cartridge  Company,  of  Lowell, 
Mass.,  make  a  specialty  of  the  central-tire  solid- 
head  reloading  cartridges,  of  which  some  full-size 
varieties  are  shown  in  the  drawings.  This  Company 
commenced  operations  in  the  year  18ti9,  having  for 
its  object  the  manufacture  of  the  Meigs  solid-head 


metal  upset  by  heading  joined,  rupture  was  liable  to 
take  place.  These  dillicullies  have  In^en  entirely 
overcome  by  the  new  method  of  manufacture;  anil 
since  its  introduction,  and  during  the  manufacture 
and  trial  of  .several  millions,  not  one  shell  has  been 
ruptured  by  tiring,  nor  has  a  gim  been  impeded  by 
any  failure.  During  a  remarkable  test  by  the  United 
Slates  Navy  Department,  of  tiring  iOO.UOO  car- 
tridges consecutively  in  the  Galling  gun,  not  a  single 


Central-fire  Solid-head  Hfloailin;,'  Cartriilges.— Kille. 


•cartridge,  which  could  not  be  burst  or  ruptured  by 
any  possible  charge  of  jiowder,  antl  wliieli  could  lie 
depended  ujjon  at  all  times  for  rapid  tiring  in  maga- 
zine, repeating,  and  ordinary  guns.  New  and  im- 
proved machinery,  the  result  of  e.xlensive,  exhaustive, 
and  costly  experiment,  was  erected.     By  the  usual 


failure  occurred  which  ]ireventcd  the  operation  of  the 
gun  for  a  .second,  although  fi4,(MM)  rounds  were  tired 
in  a  single  day,  without  sto]iping  to  clean  the  gim. 

This  method  of  manufacture  has  been  fully  de- 
veloped and  perfecteil  by  this  Company,  and  the  cost 
is  hut  little  more  than  the  usual  one.     This  cartridge 


ntral-tir. 


a.l  Reloading  Cartridges.— Pistol. 


method  of  manufacture,  good  cartridges  were  made, 
yet  when  fired  they  frequently  failed,  bursting  near 
the  head,  or  aroiuul  the  body  of  the  shell  near  the 
head,  clogging  the  gun  or  endangering  the  u.ser. 
After  long  and  careful  exaniiuation,  .study,  and  ex- 
periment, it  was  discovered  that  part  of  the  metal  of 
the  shell  at  or  near  the  head,  as  hardened  l)y  the  usual  ; 
process  of  drawing,  was  rendered  brittle  and  com-  j 
])letely  demoralize(i  by  the  then  known  process  of 
heading,  and  when  this    harddniwn  metal  and  the  ! 


is  of  the  reloading  type,  and  the  methorl  of  priming 
has  been  brought  to  such  great  perfection  that  during 
llie  trial  above  referred  to  but  two  primers  failed  to 
explode  in  tiring  100,000  roimds.  During  the  e.x- 
l)erience  of  this  Company  very  many  of  the  great 
number  of  iirimers  which'have"been  introduced  have 
been  tested  and  abandoned,  and  not  until  the  one 
now  in  use  was  invented  was  any  lu-imer  found 
which  could  be  relied  upon  under  all  conditions.  In 
this  primer  the  anvil  is  tinnly  secured  directly  in  line 


CABTBIDOE  BAGS. 


294 


CABTBID6E  BLOCK. 


with  the  tirlnp-pin,  ami  tho  fuhnin.'iting-compound  is 
fullv  protwtod  from  (iisplaceiiieiit  lUid  iiijurv.  The 
merits  claiineil  for  this  cartnilire  arc:  jrreat  strenglh 
and  non-liability  to  rupture;  adaptability  to  reloading; 
ease  of  extraction;  eertaiutv  of  tire,  ami  water-proof. 
See  Ammunition,  Hhiuk  Cartridge,  Vinttrjire  Mctal- 
lic-raxe  C<irtri(/;/< ,  and  RiUxuJiny-fn rtridges. 

CABTRIDGEBAGS.— t'artridj.'eba!rs  are  made  of 
twosliaiX's;  conical,  forgomer  chambers,  and  cylindri- 
cal, for  other  ordnance.  The  cartridge-cloth  from 
which  the  bags  are  ma<le  is  woven  expressly  for  the 
purpose,  being  entirely  of  wool,  and  of  close  and 
uniform  texture.  It  is  manufactured  in  pieces  vary- 
ing in  width  from  sixteen  to  thirty-six  inches;  the 
different  widths  being  adapted  for  the  several  lengths 
of  cylinders  to  s;ive  waste  in  cutting.  Cartri<lge-bags 
for  cylindrical  chambers  are  made  of  a  rectangle  to 
form  the  cjiindcr,  and  a  circular  piece  to  form  the 
bottom.  The  flat  patterns  are  consequently  to  be 
made  rectangular  for  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  bag, 
and  circular  for  the  bottom.  The  length  of  the  rect- 
angle is  equal  to  the  development  of  the  cylinder, 
together  with  the  allowance  for  seam;  and  its  width, 
to  the  whole  length  of  the  bag  before  sewing,  in- 
cluding the  allowance  for  seam  and  lie.  Special  pat- 
terns are  furnished  for  those  of  1.5-inch,  11-inch,  and 
9-inch  gims.  Cartridge-bags  for  gomer-chambered 
ordnance  are  made  conical  in  shape,  and  out  of  two 
pieces.  In  cutting,  the  length  of  the  rectangle  should 
be  taken  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  stuff,  as 
it  does  not  stretch  in  that  direction,  and  the  'material 
should  be  chosen,  as  nearly  as  possible,  of  the  width 
required  for  the  length  of  the  bags,  to  save  waste  in 
cutting. 

The  cartridge-bags  for  field  and  mountain  service 
are  made  as  follows:  A  marker  and  assistant  spread 
out  the  cloth  on  the  table  in  two  thicknesses,  and 
make  it  fa.st  at  each  end  of  the  table  on  three  or  four 
hooks  driven  in  the  ends  of  the  tiibles,  or  by  means  of 
weights,  drawing  it  sufficiently  to  take  out"  the  folds, 
and  no  more.  They  mark  out  the  rectangles  and  bot- 
toms with  the  patterns  and  ruler,  so  disposing  and 
combining  them  as  to  cut  the  cloth  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. The  length  of  the  rectangle  (development 
of  the  cylinder)  should  be  taken  in  the  direction  of 
the  length  of  the  stuff,  as  it  does  not  stretch  in  that 
direction.  The  selvage,  if  there  be  any,  ought  to  be 
at  the  mouth  of  the  bag.  The  cutter  takes  a  piece 
thus  marked  to  another  table,  and  cuts  out  the  rect- 
angles and  bottoms  with  a  pair  of  .shears.  The  bot- 
toms may  be  cut  out  with  a  hollow  punch  of  the 
proper  size.  JIarks  for  the  .seam  are  traced  on  the  rect- 
angles and  bottoms  by  means  of  patterns  of  the  proper 
size.  The  seam  should  be  at  least  a  half-inch  from  the 
edge.  The  bag  is  sewed  with  woolen  yarn,  with  a 
back-stitch,  12  to  the  inch.  The  edges  are  turned 
down  on  the  simie  side  of  the  seam  and  basted,  to  pre- 
vent the  powder  from  sifting  through;  the  edges  of 
the  bottom  are  basted  down  upon  the  sides.  Bags 
may  be  sewed  advantageously  by  the  sening-niachine. 
Bags  for  fixed  ammunition  are  sewed  to  within  three 
inches  of  the  mouth  for  la-pounders;  all  others  up  to 
the  mouth.     A  bag  is  given  as  a  model  to  sew  l)y. 

Cartridge-bags,  when  filled,  should  pass  through 
the  small  shot  giiuge  of  their  caliber;  those  used  for 
patterns  should  be  thus  verified.  The  empty  bags 
should  be  measured  by  laying  the  bag,  flattened  out, 
between  two  marks  on  a  table,  showing  the  width  of 
the  pattern-bag;  a  variation  of  .1  iiich  greater  or 
less  is  allowed.  Those  sewed  with  too  large  stitches 
are  rejected.  I 

Bags  for  practice  or  blank  cartridges  may  be 
formed  by  sewing  t  )gether  two  rectangular  jneces "with  ; 
semicircular  ends;  the  cloth  is  marked  for  cutting  and 
sewing,  with  stamps  made  of  1-inch  boanls  of  the  di- 
mensions  of  the  cutting-stamp,  with  a  strip  of  tin  or 
copper  fastened  to  the  edge  of  the  board,  and  [iroject- 
ing  about  J  inch  perpendie\ilar  to  the  side;  another 
.strip,  parallel  to  the  lirst,  is  inserted  in  a  groove  .^ 
inch  from  it;    the    edges  of   these  strijis  are   made 


rough  to  retain  chalk  or  paint  used  in  marking.  A 
handle  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  face  opposite  to 
the  marking-strips.  Width  of  cutting-stamp  for  12- 
pounder,  7.6  inches;  length,  including  semicircular 
ends,  for  12-pounder,  10..5  inches. 

Cartridge-bags  are  preserved  from  moths  by  being 
packed  with  pounded  camphor  and  black  pepper,  or 
dipped  in  water  with  arsenic  dis.solved  in  it,  or  a  so- 
lution of  sulphate  of  copper,  1  pound  of  sulphate  to 
25  pounds  of  water;  or  the.y  may  be  sealetl  up  in 
bundles  of  fifty  in  cases  made  of  cartridge-paix'r, 
carefully  closed  with  strips  of  thin  paper  iiasted  over 
the  seams.  Each  bundle  is  marked  with  the  number 
and  kind  of  bags.  They  may  be  preserved  from 
moisture  by  being  enveloped  in"  water-proof  paper. 

The  charge  of  powjler  for  siege  and  garrison  guns 
is  inclosed  in  a  cartridge-bag  made  of  merino,  "raw 
silk,  serge,  cotton,  or  paper,  or  of  paper  with  woolen 
bottoms.  Bags  made  of  woolen  or  silk  materials  are 
preferable,  as  they  arc  not  so  liable  to  leave  fire  in  the 
guns,  and  are  more  durable;  but  they  are  much  more 
costly.  Merino  or  cotton  biigit  are  cut  in  two  pieces, 
in  the  form  of  a  rectangle,  with  semicircular  ends, 
and  sewed  together  to  form  the  bag,  as  described  in 
making  bags  for  field-service. 

The  paper  for  paper  hagx  is  cut  into  rectangles  to 
form  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  bag.  the  length  of  the 
rectangle  being  the  development  of  the  cylinder,  al- 
lowing ..linch  on  each  side  for  the  lap,  and  into  cir- 
cles for  the  bottoms.  The  sides  of  the  rectangle  are 
lapped  and  sewed  with  woolen  yarn;  one  end  of  the 
bag  is  slit  with  longitudinal  cuts.  1  inch  long,  .7.1  inch 
apart,  and  these  strips  are  jxisted  on  the  paper  bot- 
tom over  a  C3iindrical  form ;  or  a  circular  piece  of 
merino  is  sewed  in  the  enrl  of  the  paper  bag,  forming 
the  bottom.  To  close  a  pa|)er  bag  after  being  filled^ 
the  open  end  is  folded  down  about  .7.5  inch  wide,  and 
this  fold  is  rolled  on  it.self  down  to  the  powder,  and 
the  part  which  iirojccts  beyond  the  cylinder  is  turned 
in  on  the  top  of  it.  Two  turns  are  taken  with  strong 
twine  around  the  cartridge  in  the  direction  of  its 
length,  90°  apart,  and  then  tied. 

For  mori<irs,  cartridge-bags  may  be  made  in  the 
same  way  as  for  guns,  their  dimensions  correspond- 
ing to  those  of  the  chamber  of  the  mortar.  But  as 
the  charge  is  geuerallj"  poured  loose  into  the  cham- 
ber, the  bag  being  u.sed  only  for  carrying  it  to  the 
mortar,  a  gun  cartridge-bag  of  any  convenient  size 
may  be  used  for  mortar-service. 

For  ricochet  firing,  or  other  occasions  when  very 
sm;dl  charges  are  required,  a  cartridge-bag  for  a  piece 
of  an  inferior  caliber  may  be  used.  Or  else,  after 
the  charge  is  poured  into  the  bag,  place  on  it  another 
bag  tilled  with  hay,  pressing  it  wilb  the  hands  to  re- 
duce the  diameter;  after  having  shaken  this  bag 
down  and  rolled  and  flattened  the  enijny  part  of  the 
two  hags,  tie  them  with  woolen  yarn,  like  a  bimdle 
of  musket-cartridges,  placing  the  knot  on  top. 

For  proring  ordnance,  cartridge-bags  may  be  made 
of  cotton  cloth.  They  should  lie  of  the  full  diameter 
of  the  bore  or  chamber. 

Fur  hot-shot,  cartridge-bags  should  be  iiuide  ilouble 
by  putting  one  bag  within  another.  The  charge 
ought  not  to  exceed  three  fourths  the  service-charge, 
for  in  consequence  of  the  expansion  of  the  shot  the 
windage  is  reduced,  and  a  greater  strain  will  be  ex- 
erted on  the  metid  of  the  gun.  The  expansion  of  the 
gas  will  also  be  increased  by  the  heat  generated  with- 
in the  bore;  and,  moreover,  very  gi'cat  penetration  is 
not  re^iuired,  the  object  to  be  attained  being  that  the 
shot  sliall  merely  lodge  in  the  timber  See  Aninin- 
nitiiin. 

CARTRIDGE-BELT.  — A  belt  for  carrsing  small-arm 
cartridges.  A  form  extensively  used  in  the  Western 
United  States,  called  the  prairie-belt,  has  a  number  of 
leather  or  canvas  loops  sewed  on  the  outside  in  which 
the  cartridges  are  stuck. 

CARTRIDGE-BLOCK.  —  A  contrivance  for  more 
readily  supplying  ammunition  when  tiring  rapidly  or 
when  it  is  not  convenient  to  go  to  the  cartridge-box 


CARTBISGE-BOX. 


295 


CABTBIDQE-PAPEB. 


for  cartridges,  in  certain  situations.  Cartridge-blocks 
are  usually  made  detachable,  and  are  made  fast  to  the 
piece  when  desirable.  See  Benton,  Hare,  and  Metcalfe 
C(i  rtridfie-blochK. 

CABTBIDGE-BOX.— A  leathern  ca.se,  with  cells  for 
cartridges,  which  are  protected  by  a  Hap  of  leather. 
This  box  is  either  suspended  by  a  leathern  strap,  which 


A 


plements  used  in  reloading  cartridge-shells.  These 
are  variously  constructed.  A  tool  for  recapping  and 
relmding,  of  very  light  weight,  manufactured  by  the 
United  States  Cartridge  Company,  has  been  used 
with  much  success  both  in  our  army  and  abroad.  Its 
parts  are  shown  in  the  drawing.  A  is  the  crimping- 
die  and  ball-seater,  cut  open;  B  is  the  cap-extractor; 


£ 

L 


Recapping  and  Reloading  Tool. 


passes  over  the  left  shoulder  and  under  the  right  arm 
of  the  wearer,  or  is  attached  to  the  waist-belt,  as  in  the 
United  St^ites  ser\'ice. 

CARTBIDGE-GAUGES.— Gun  metal  rings  of  the  re- 
quired size,  with  a  handle  to  each  gauge,  on  whicli 
is  stamped  the  nature  and  size  of  the  cartridge. 
There  are  two  kinds:  one  for  testing  the  diameter  of 
the  filled  cartridge,  the  other  for  showing  the  length 
of  the  cartridge. 

CAETRIDGE-LOADEB.— An  apparatus  for  loading 
cartridge-shells.-  The  drawing 
represents  a  complete  cartridge- 
loader,  combining  in  one  com- 
pact and  portjible  machine  all 
the  various  implements  em- 
ployed in  loading  paper  or 
metallic  shells,  viz.;  powder 
and  shot  reservoir  and  gauges, 
rammer,  wad-starter,  shellcut- 
ter,  and  crimper. 

This  machine  loads  very 
quickly,  and  during  the  opera- 
'  tion  of  loading  the  cartridges 
the  powder  is  inclosed  in  a 
covered  reservoir.  Tlie  cart 
ridges  are  loa<led  unifomdy, 
and  the  wads  sipiarely  placed, 
thus  inipro\-ing  the  shooting  of 
the  gim.  An  adjustable  shelf 
adapts  the  cartridge-receiver  to 
loading  shells  of  any  length. 
The  machine  can  be  carried  in 
a  gun-case,  occupying  smaller 
space  than  the  paraphernalia 
in  general  use.  No  practice  is 
required  to  make  it  perfect  in  its  use.  and  there  are 
no  complicated  parts  liable  to  get  out  of  order  Al 
the  parts  are  in  one,  and  the  loss  by  the  s<.paration  ot 
any,  and  danger  of  breakage,  are  thus  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  ,  , 

The  accuracv  with  which  the  powder  is  measurid 
will  be  best  understood  when  it  is  stated  that  tilty 
charges  being  cut  off  in  one  tray  of  the  most  sensitive 
scale,  and  tiftv  in  the  other,  no  (lUTereiice  can  be 
detected  in  the'  balance,  the  equipoise  being  per.ectl> 
preserved.  The  machine  is  not  simply  a  combination 
of  old  parts,  but  embodies  several  new  inventions. 
The  device  for  cutting  shells  disposes  of  the  rings 
which  form  upon  all  other  knives  to  the  inconvenience 
of  the  operator;  and  by  the  lever  employed  iii  crimp- 
ing no  lateral  motion  is  imparted  to  the  «  ic".;"»'j 
shell  only  an  inch  in  lencth  can  be  closed  or  turned 
over  if  desired.     See  Rihrndino  Tmpleynentf.  . 

CABTEIDGE-LOADING  IMPLEMENTS.-The   im- 


C  is  the  collar;  D  is  the  capping-pimch;  and  E  is 
the  safety-block,  cut  open. 

To  cap  the  shell,  place  the  collar  upon  it  and  insert 
the  shell  into  the  long  die  or  ball-seater  and  crimper. 
Put  the  cap  in  the  pocket  by  hand,  then  place  the 
.sjifety-block  down  over  the  shell  and  die.  Put  the 
eapinng-punch  through  the  hole  in  the  safety-block, 
the  solid  end  resting  upon  the  cap,  and  force  the  ca)! 
home  by  striking  upon  the  end  of  Ihe  punch  with  the 
hammer.  The  convex  surface  on  the  cap])iiig-punch 
is  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  cap  beUne  the  surface 
of  the  head  of  the  shell. 

To  load  the  shell,  remove  the  safety-l)lock  and  take 
the  collar  from  the  shell;  till  the  shell  with  the  re- 
quired amount  of  powder,  drop  a  ball  into  the  ball- 
seater,  and  place  it  over  the  shell.  Then  insert  the 
head  of  the  shell  into  Ihe  safety-block,  taking  care  to 
remove  the  capping-punch  from  the  hole  in  the  block 
to  prevent  the  premature  discharge  of  the  cartridge, 
and  force  the  ball  home  by  striking  upon  the  end  of 
the  ball-seater  with  the  hammer.  At  the  same  time 
the  ball  is  driven  home  the  end  of  the  shell  is  crimped, 
and  upon  removal  from  the  tools  the  cartridge  is 
ready  tor  use. 

After  tiring  the  cartridge,  to  remove  the  cx-ploded 
cap,  place  the  head  of  Ihe  shell  in  the  safety-block 
and'insert  the  cap-extractor  in  the  shell,  the  small  i>in 
will  pa.ss  through  the  vent-hole  in  the  shell,  and  a 
light  blow  will  remove  the  cap.  Should  the  loaded 
cartridge  stick  in  the  ball-seater,  it  can  be  easily 
started  by  inserting  the  pin  in  Ihe  end  of  the  cap-ex- 
tractor ill  the  slot  in  Ihe  end  of  the  ball-seater  under 
the  tlauffe  of  Ihe  shell.  As  the  collar  is  only  neces- 
sary in  recapping  those  shells  that  are  crim|)ed  upon 
the  ball,  none  are  useel  with  tools  for  shells  that  do 
not  require  crimping. 

With  all  reloading  tools  for  straight  tapered  shells 
a  reducing-die  is  generally  employed  to  restore  Ihe 
shell  to  its  oridnal  size  and  shape.  None  are  made 
for  straight  orlxitllc-necked  cartridges.  Moisten  the 
shell  sliCdilly  with  oil,  to  prevent  it  from  slicking  in 
the  die;''enler  the  shell  at  the  large  end  of  the  die; 
place  the  safety -block  over  the  head  of  the  shell,  and 
drive  the  shell  down  into  the  die  by  striking  on  the 
end  of  the  block  with  the  hammer. 

To  extract  the  shell  from  the  die,  hold  Ihe  die 
firmly  in  the  hand  with  the  head  of  the  shell  down; 
insert  the  hollow  end  of  Ihe  extractor  in  the  mouth  of 
the  shell,  and  strike  several  quick  blows  on  the 
rounded  end.  To  reduce  the  shell  easily  it  will  lie 
neces.sary  to  let  the  end  of  the  die  rest  upon  a  hrm 
foundation.     See  Ethiading  Varlrultrfn. 

CABTBIDGE-PAPEE.— A  strong  paper  of  which 
cartridges  are  made.     It  comc-s  of  various  sizes  and 


CABTBIDOE-FBIHEB. 


296 


CASTBIDOE-PRIHEB. 


thicknesses,  iicconlinc;  to  the  kiud  of  cartridge  to  be 
made,  ranginit  from  a  quality  similar  to  bank-note 
paper,  eniploj-ed  for  small-arm  cartridges,  to  that 
used  for  cannon -cartridges,  which  is  about  the 
thickness  of  thin  pa.steboard,  but  rougher  and  more 
flexible.  The  latur  is,  however,  now  seldom  or 
never  used.  The  different  qualities  are  in  the  United 
States  service  numbered  from  1  to  6,  the  latter  being 
the  coarsest  and  thickest. 

CARTRIDGE  PRIMER. — The  percussion-cap  used 
in  loading  metallic  cartriilge-cases,  and  set  in  a  recess 
in  the  head  of  the  shell.  When  the  tiring-pin  strikes 
the  outside  end  of  the  caj).  the  fulminate  is  exploded 
by  being  tlrivcn  against  a  perforated  cone  called  the 
anvil,  which  is  usually  a  part  of  the  shell.  In  the 
Winchester  primer,  recently  invented,  the  anvil  is  a 
part  of  the  primer  itself,  being  in.serted  upon  the 
fulminate.  A  shoulder  in  the  recess  holds  the  anvil 
when  the  cap  is  struck.  The  Frankford  Arsenal 
cartridge-primer  is  designed  and  manufactured  as  a 
component  of  the  solid-head  reloading  cartridge, 
which  has  a  pocket,  formed  in  the  exlcricir  of  tlie 
ba.se  of  the  sh^ll,  to  receive  and  securely  hold  the 
inimer.  It  is  essentially  a  re\'ival  of  the  percussion- 
cap,  which  served  for  mau_v  years  as  an  adjunct  to 
muzzle-loading  small  anns,  and  now,  modified  in  its 


Fig. 1. 

form,  construction,  and  application,  fills  an  equally 
important  purpose  in  the  modern  breech-loader, 
being  an  integral  part  of  the  cartridge,  instead  of  a 
detached  au.xiliarj-  to  the  arm.  It  consists  of  a  copper 
cap  contjiining  a  pellet  of  fulniinaling-composition, 
protected  by  a  disk  of  tinfoil,  and  a  copper  anvil,  so 
formed  as  to  permit  the  llame  from  the  fulminating- 
composition  to  pass,  throuirh  a  \eiil  in  the  iiocket  of 
the  cartridge-shell,  to  the  powder-charge,  and  at  the 
same  time  afford  resistance  to  the  blow  of  tlic  firing- 
l)in  of  the  arm,  which  explodes  the  fulminate.  The 
primer-cap  is  formed,  charged,  and  dried  before  the 
anvil  is  iaserted.  'When  the  two  are  as,sembleil  the 
<omplctc  primer  is  readv  for  insertion  in  the  jwcket 
of  the  shell,  prior  to  loading  the  latter  with  powder 
and  bullet.  The  materials  entering  into  its  com- 
position are  as  follows: 

Matriiiils.  Components. 

Sheet  cartridge  copper 'l 

Fulminating  composition. ...    '-  Primer-cap. 

Tinfoil ) 

Cartridge  copper  wire Primer  anWl. 

The  shciet  cartridge -co|iper  is  ntceived  from  the 
manufacturers  in  the  form  of  a  ribbon,  about  50  feet 
long,  from  .:i6  to  .:!7  inch  wide,  and  from  .025  to 
.027  inch  thick,  coiled  for  automatic  feeding  to  the 
machine  which  forms  the  caps.     The  blanks  for  the 


caps  are  cut  from  the  sheet-metal  ribbon  as  liisks  aud 
formed  into  cajis  by  a  double-action  (jri'.ss  re)>re.sented 
in  Fig.  1.  the  disk  being  cut  by  a  die  and  hollow 
punch,  and  pushed  through  the  die  to  form  a  cap  by 
another  punch  following  it  down  through  the  hollow 
one.  This  machine  is  automatic,  re(iu!ring  attention 
only  when  a  riblwn  is  cut  up  anil  is  to  be  replaced 
witii  another.  The  skeleton  or  scrap  ribbon  is  also 
cut  into  short  pieces  by  the  machine,  to  facilitate  its 
packing  and  return  as  scrap  to  the  manufacturer. 
The  metal  ribbon  having  lieen  oiled  to  facilitate  the 
formation  of  the  caps,  they  nuist  be  washed  in  an 
alkaline  .Mjlution  to  remove  every  trace  of  oil,  which, 
if  present,  would  destroy  the  fulminate.  After  wash- 
ing and  drying,  the  cajis  are  varnished  on  the  interior 
surface  of  the  base,  to  protect  the  fulminate  from 
injurious  chemical  action  with  the  metal,  and  to  a.s- 
sist  in  attaching  and  sealing  it  in  place.  A  .solution 
of  gimi  shellac  in  alcohol,  four  pounds  of  the  former 
to  one  gallon  of  the  latter,  constitutes  the  vamLsh 
used.  The  varnishing  machine  (Fig.  2)  consists  of  an 
iron  bed-plate  and  two  uprights,  upon  which  a  cross- 


m\\\m\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^^^ 

ajHIMlUHHIlimHHHIIHHWWWWWI 


mmmmm 


W^^^^MM 


Fig.  2. 

head,  carrying  a  gang  of  wire  pins,  moves  vertically 
over  a  vessel  containing  the  varnish.  .lust  above  the 
varnish-pan  the  bed-plate  is  grooved  to  receive  and 
adjust  accurately,  under  the  gang-pins,  a  plate  con- 
taining the  caps,  in  receptacles  arranged  in  rows 
corresponding  to  the  pins.  The  plate  is  tilled  by 
shaking  it,  with  a  handful  of  caps  placed  over  the 
receptacles,  with  a  horizontal  motion.  The  caps 
settle  into  the  receptacles,  open  end  up  generally,  and 
the  surplus  caps  are  shaken  off.  The  tilled  plate  is 
inspected,  and  any  caps  requiring  it  are  reversed  by 
the  aid  of  a  forceps.  The  caps  remain  in  the  plate 
initil  they  are  cliarge<l,  inspected,  and  ready  for 
removal  to  the  drying-room.  A  jjlate  holds  326  cajis. 
and  a  tally  is  ke]it  of  each  plateful,  to  keep  account 
of  the  nunilx'rof  caps  completed.  In  varnishing,  the 
ends  of  the  pins  are  made  to  diji  into  the  varui.sh  by 
lowering  the  cross-bead  to  a  stop.  When  it  is  liftetl 
each  i^in  carries  a  drop  of  varnish.  The  jilate  of  caps 
is  pushed  into  the  groove  in  the  bed-plate,  the  cross- 
head  is  lowered  until  the  pins  touch  the  caps,  and 
then  raised,  leaving  a  drop  of  varnish  in  each  cap. 
The  plate  of  caps  is  willidrawn  and  laid  for  a  few 
minutes  upon  the  lieater.  which  consists  of  an  iron 
plate  heated  by  steam-pipes  vuuler  it  to  a  temperature 
of  about  200'  Fahrenlieil,  the  object  being  to  dry  the 
varnish.  The  plate  of  caps  is  removed  to  the  cooler, 
which  is  an  iron  plate  cooled  by  contact  with  water 
on  its  iHidcr  surface.  By  the  reduction  of  their  tem- 
perature the  cai)s  may  be  safely  charged  without  fur- 
ther delay.  The  fulminate  composition  consists  of — 
Moist  fulminate  of  mercury .  .  6  pounds. 
Powdered  chlorate  of  potash.     1.75        " 

Ground  glass  cr3'st«ls 1.66       " 

Mucilage 14  fluid  ounces. 


CABTEIDGE-EETEACTOK. 


29( 


CARTBIDGEKETKACTOB. 


The  preparation  of  the  fulminate  of  mercury  is  i>re- 
pared  as  usual,  except  that  aquafortis  of  the  same 
specific  gravity  is  used  instead  of  nitric  acid,  the 
former  being  the  commercial  nitric  acid  and  less  ex- 
pensive. Tlie  grr)und  glass  is  sifted  between  Ixilting- 
cloths  of  100  and  160  meshes  per  linear  inch,  to  re- 
move coarser  and  tiner  particles.  Owing  to  its 
liability  to  sour  in  warm  weallier,  the  mucilage  should 
be  made  only  in  such  quantities  as  can  be  u.sed  before 
it  spoils.  The  moist  fulminate  is  well  drained  of  its 
water,  spread  upon  a  board,  and  rolled  out  into  a 
thin  sheet,  like  pastry.  The  dry  chlorate  of  potash 
and  glass-dust  are  spread  evenly  over  and  thoroughlv 
incorporated  with  it,  by  means  of  a  wooden  rolling- 
pin  and  a  spatula,  using  care  not  to  allow  any  of  it 
to  become  scattered  and  dry.  The  mucilage  is  next 
added,  and  the  whole  mass  well  stined  and  mixed, 
after  which  it  is  placed  in  a  delf  bowl  and  the  latter 
covered  with  a  damp  cloth.  If  too  moist,  it  is  left 
spread  out  a  short  time  until  it  has  the  consisteucj'  of 
a  stiff  paste.  The  charging-machine  consists  of  a 
rectangular  iron  bed-plate,  18  by  20  inches.  At  one 
edge  is  a  "roove  to  receive  the  plate  of  caps  from  the 
cooler.  ISear  the  inner  edge  of  this  groove  a  plate, 
perforated  with  holes  corresjionding  to  the  caps,  is 
hinged  to  the  bed-plate,  to  measure  and  convey  the 
charges  to  the  caps.  The  tinfoil  is  iirocured  in  strips 
about  150  feet  long,  2.25  inches  wide,  and  from 
.003  to  .0035  inch  thick.  It  is  cut  into  strips  about 
4  feet  long  for  convenience  in  handling  and  feeding 
to  the  machine.  This  short  strip  is  laid  flat  upon  a 
table,  and  its  upper  surface  is  coated  with  shellac 
varnish,  after  which  it  Ls  laid  aside  to  dry.  A  num- 
ber of  strips  having  been  thus  iirepared,  one  at  a  time 
is  taken  and  again  coated  with  a  thinner  shellac 
varnish  immediately  before  feeding  it  to  the  foiling- 
machine.  The  last  coat  of  varnish  softens  and  com- 
bines with  the  first  and  facilitates  the  attachment  of 
the  edge  of  the  tinfoil  disk  to  the  varnished  surface 
of  the  bottom  of  the  cap  around  the  charge.  The 
foiling-machine  is  a  single-action  press  ananged  to 
receive  and  move  horizontally  the  plate  of  capsunder 
a  gang  of  punches  and  dies.  The  strip  of  foil  is  fed 
between  these  tools,  and  by  them  cut  into  disks.  The 
caps  are  ne.xt  shaken  out  of  the  plates  into  trays 
having  woven  brass-wire  Iwttoms,  in  which  they  are 
removed  to  the  drjing-room  (Fig.  3),  where  they  re- 


gradually  renewed.  This  process  is  necessarj-  to  drj- 
and  harden  the  charge.  At  tirst  sight  it  woiild  seeiii 
to  impair  the  sealing  between  the  tinfoil  disk  and  the 
ba.sc  of  the  cap,  for  that  is  the  only  avenue  of  escape 
for  the  moisture  of  the  charge;  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  temperature  slowly  dries  the  charge  and  keep- 
the  varnish  soft  enough  to  renew  the  staling  at  such 
points  where  it  may  Ije  temporarily  ojK'ncd  by  the 


I 


Fio. 


main  for  six  or  eight  weeks.  The  room  is  kept  at  a 
temperature  of  about  100'  Fahrenheit,  and  by  suitable 
ventilation  its  atmosphere  is  kept   in   motion  and 


Fro.  4. 

escaping  moisture.  A  comparison  of  the  water- proof 
quality  of  caps  dried  in  this  slow  manner  and  more 
rapidly,  at  higher  temperature,  shows  a  decided  ad- 
vantage for  the  former  method.  Although  they  are 
not  absolutely  water-proof,  they  are  suflkiently  so  for 
the  ordinary  vicisitudes  of  service,  and  the  risks  of 
serious  accidents  attending  the  use  of  dry  fulminate, 
for  the  sake  of  hermetical  sealing,  are  obWated.  The 
primer-anvil  is  made  from  cartridge  copper  wire, 
which  is  procuretl  in  coils  alx)Ut  30  feet  long,  for 
automatic  feeding  to  the  machine  which  forrns  the 
anWi.  The  anvils  are  cut  from  this  wire  by  a  punch 
and  die  operated  by  a  single-action  press 
(Fig.  -1).  after  which" they  are  w.ished  to  free 
them  from  oil.  dried,  and  churned  in  clean 
hard  sjiwdust  to  brighten  them  and  remove 
any  burr  formed  in  the  oixralion  of  cut- 
ting them  from  the  wire.  This  machine  is 
automatic,  recjuiring  attention  only  when  a 
new  coil  of  wire  is  iieeded  to  supply  it,  an<l 
it  cuts  .the  skeleton  wire  or  scrap  into  small 
pieces  for  convenience  in  packing  and  ship- 
ment to  the  manufacturers.  The  anvils 
and  caps  are  a.-isembli-d  by  means  of  a  lever 
hand-pre.ss.  They  are  shaken  into  recep- 
tacles in  plates  prepared  for  each.  These  fit 
together  by  dowel-pins,  and  a  plate  having 
pins  corresponding  to  the  anvils  forces 
them,  by  aid  of  the  press,  securely  into  the 
caps.  The  complete  primers  are  now  ready 
for  insertion  into  the  pocket  of  the  shell, 
or  for  Ix'ing  packed,  for  issue  separately. 
in  tin .seandess  Iwixes  containing  500  primer- 
each.  After  its  insertion  in  th<'  shell  a  drop 
of  varnish  is  put  upon  the  jirimer,  in  nilo. 
b.v  a  machine  similar  to  that  for  varnish- 
ing the  cai>s.  This  varnish  flows  around 
the  junction  of  the  primer  and  [xxkel.  and 
renders  the  cartridge  practically  waterjiro-of. 
See  Cthkr-iii-iiiieii  M,l,illii-.i-ii»e  Ciiiriilgi. 
Cfi'irt/i»f/-W'"'/iin> .  and  /■'<ii/iiifjiniir/iiii(. 
CAETEIDGE-BETEACTOB.— That  part  of 
a  breech-loadinu'  tire-arm  whi<-h  catches  the  empty 
cartridge-case  bv  its  flange  and  draws  it  rearwardly 
from  the  bore  o!  the  gim. 


CARTEIDGE-VARNISHING  MACHINE. 


298 


CASE. 


CAETRIDGE-VARNISHING  MACHINE— The  (le- 
sion of  this  iiiiuliiuc  is  Ui  coiit  Ihc  interior  of  metallic 
ritleshells  with  am imi>ernu-al)lc  cliistic  varnish  that 
will  prevent  chemical  action  between  the  salts  of  the 
gunpowder  imd  the  material  of  the  shells.  The  re- 
sult is  to  insure  the  preservation  of  the  shells,  anil  of 
the  qualitv  of  the  cartridges,  for  an  indefinite  i>eriod. 
The  operjuion  is  also  adapted  to  the  preparation  of 
once-discharged  shells,  making  tliem  available  for 
recharging.  The  shells  are  placed  in  a  hopper, 
scvcnd  hundred  at  a  time,  and  fed  singly,  40  passing 
through  the  different  sUiges  of  the  process  at  once,  at 
the  rate  of  200(1  or  mote  per  hour.  Besides  revolving 
around  the  central  spindle,  the  shells  are  rotated  in 
the  chucks  which  hold  them,  to  prcvcnl  the  accumu- 
lation of  the  varnish  in  any  one  spot,  and  to  insure  its 


wanting.     The  object  of  the  auscabel  is  to  facilitate 
!  handling  the  piece  when  mounting,  di.smounling,  and 
j  transporting  it.     The  cancabeh  of  ships'  gims  have 
bireffiin/i-loops  in  place  of  knobs,  intended   for  the 
breic/uiig,  whose  ends  pass  to    ring-bolts  on    each 
I  side  of  the  port,  and  whose  duty  is  to  limit  the  re- 
coil. 

CASCABEL  BLOCK.— A  device  employed  in  the 
iuspecliuu  of  cannon.  It  consists  of  a  wootlen  cylin- 
der of  the  proper  diameter  of  the  breeching-hole,  the 
size  of  which  it  is  use<i  to  verify.  The  opening 
between  the  jaws  may  be  ascertjuned  by  measuring 
the  iron  block  which  is  tilted  to  go  between  them,  or 
bv  a  temi)latc.  See  Inspection  of  Ordmince. 
i  'CASCABEL-PLATE.  — In  machine  guns,  a  plate 
1  closing  the  rear  end  of  the  breech-casing,  and  serving 


Cartridge-varnishing  Machine. 


being  spread  evenly.  This  rotary  motion  "sets"  the 
varnish,  which  should  afterwards  be  hardened  and 
thoroughly  dried,  by  means  of  a  cheap  sluet-iron 
furnace,  that  may  be  readily  heated  by  steam-pipes, 
or  in  any  other  "convenient  manner.  One  operator 
jnay  attend  two  or  three  machines,  as  all  the  motions 
of  the  machine  are  entirely  automatic,  iiuludiiig  an 
effective  stop  motion,  that  acts  promptly  at  any  ob- 
struction. To  insure  uniforni  results,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  room  in  which  the  machine  is  used  should 
be  kept,  as  nearly  as  iwssible,  at  70°  Fahr  ,  and  the 
air  shoulel  be  drvand  free  froin  dust.  The  machine 
mav  be  a<lapte(l  to  shells  of  any  caliber.  It  weighs 
1800  pounds. 

CARTRIDGE-WIRE. — 1.  The  priming-wire  where- 
by the  cartridge  is  connected  to  the  conducting-wire 
of  the  voltaic  battery.  2.  The  needle  whereby  the 
cartridge-envelope  ispierced,  in  order  that  the  prim- 
ing may  connect  with  the  powder. 

CASCABEL— CASCABLE.— The  projection  in  rear 
of  the  bret'ch.  It  is  comiiosed  of  the  knob  and  the 
neck;  the  latter  unites  the  knob  to  the  base  of  the 
breech.  In  heavy  gvnis  of  recent  model  the  cascabel 
is  quite  rudimentary,  while  in  mortars  it  is  entirely 


to  incase  and  protect  the  revolving-gear.   See  Gatling 

Gun. 

CASCANS.— In  fortification,  holes  in  the  form  of 
wells,  serving  as  entrances  to  galleries,  or  giving  vent 
to  the  enemy's  mines. 

CASCHETTO.— An  Italian  ca.sque  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  in  iron  beaten  work,  chased  and  also  damas- 
cened. 

CASE.— 1.  The  charge-holder  of  a  submarine  mine. 
Whatever  may  be  its  form,  the  following  conditions 
are  essential : 

1st.  It  must  be  water-tight,  to  prevent  damage  to 
the  charge  by  leakage. 

2d.  It  must  be  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  handling 
without  danger  of  becoming  leaky  by  straining,  and 
must  be  able  to  sustain  the  external  pressure  due 
to  the  depth  of  water  at  which  it  is  to  be  placed. 

3d.  When  gunpowder,  or  gim-cotton  tired  with 
an  ordinary  fuse,  is  used,  it  must  be  sufficiently 
strong  to  hold  the  charge  together,  as  it  were,  for  an 
instant  at  the  moment  of  ignition,  so  that  its  full 
effect  may  be  obtained  by  as  thorough  a  combustion 
a.s  jiossible  of  the  charge. 

4th.  In  the  case  of  a  buoyant  mine,  it  must  be  ca- 


CASE  HARDENING. 


299 


CASE  HAKDENIN6. 


pable  of  being  arranged  with  a  large  excess  of  flota- 
tion, so  tbat  when  moored  it  may  remain  as  stationary 
as  possible  at  the  required  point. 

■5th.  It  should  be  of  such  form  as  to  be  capable  of 
licing  handled  and  moored  conveniently. 

6th.  It  should  be  of  such  form  as  to  secure  the 
thorough  ignition  of  the  charge  with  the  smallest 
po».sible  number  of  fuses. 

7th.  It  should  be  easy  of  construction  and  not  too 
costly. 

First,  with  reference  to  the  form  of  the  case.  This 
gencially  is  either  conical,  spherical,  or  cylindrical. 
The  former  is  the  best  for  selfactijig  buoyant  iiiincs. 
The  a])ex  (Fig.  1)  of  the  cone  forms  a  convenient 
point  to  which  the  mooringcable  may  be  attached, 
while  the  base,  terminating  by  a  curved  portion, 
serves  as  an  air-chamber,  giving  the  necessary  buoy- 


the  protection  of  the  charge,  which  is  contained  in  a 

water-tight  envelope,  and  may  be  an   IndiarublKT 

bag  or  a  tin  or  zinc  can.     The  strengthening  of  the 

cask  is  to  g\iard  against  collapsing  when  submerged 

in  deep  water.     Under  ordinary  circumstances  the 

depth  of  the  water  will  not  be  so  great  as  to  require 

strcDgthening  of  good  ca.sks  beyond  stout  hoops  of 

j  iron.     As  the  charge  must  generally  remain  a  con- 

1  siderable  time — perhaps  many  months— under  water 

t)efore  explosion,  it  is  most  essential  to  have  the  ca.se, 

I  whatever  it  may  be,  completely  water-tight ;  and  with 

1  this  view  the  ca.sk  is  coated,  lioth  inside  and  outside, 

with  a  composition  of  pitcli  and  tar.     The  envelojx; 

containing  the  charge   within   the  cask  shoidd   be 

lirmly  fixed,  so  that  no  independent  motion  may  dis- 

1  turb  the  connections  of  the  electrical  apparatus.    See 

I  Submarine  Mines. 


Fig.  1. 


Fio. 


Fio.  3. 


ancy  to  keep  the  mooring-cables  taut,  and  to  hold  the 
mine  in  a  comparatively  stationary  position  in  a  cur- 
rent or  tide-way.  The  nipples  containing  the  fulmi- 
nating composition  are  placed  on  the  rim  uniting  the 
base  with  the  conical  surface.  In  this  position  they 
are  most  likely  to  be  struck  by  a  passing  vessel. 
There  should  be  four  or  more  of  these  nipples, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  case.  For  all  other 
cases,  except  the  one  just  mentioned  of  a  floating 
mine,  intended  for  small  charges  to  be  exiiloded  by 
mechanical  means,  the  cylindrical  form  is  best,  anil 
the  one  most  frequently  adopted  for  both  ground  and 
buoyant  mines  containing  heavy  charges.  Fig.  2 
represents  the  form  so  successfully  used  by  the  Con- 
federates, 1861-65.  Fig.  3  repre-sents  that  of  the 
Austrians,  For  large  ground-mines  the  best  form  of 
case  seems  to  be  that  of  the  turtle-mine.  A  heavy 
charge  may  be  contained  in  it ;  it  fonns  its  own 
anchor,  and  it  would  withstand  an  explosion  of  an 
adjacent  mine  without  sustaining  any  injur}'.  This 
is  the  best  form  for  resisting  strong  currents.  The 
difficulty  and  cost  of  making  s|iherical  cases  have 
heretofore  deban-ed  their  adojition  on 
a  large  scale,  but  recently  General 
Abbott,  U.  S.  Engineers,  has  sinipli- 
lied  the  process  of  manufacture  and 
made  them  practicable.  This  pro- 
cess consists  in  pressing  circular  disks 
of  steel  into  hemispherical  segments, 
which  are  united  by  tlangcs,  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  4.  As  regards  the  ma- 
terial of  which  the  cases  may  be  most 
advantageously  constructed,  several  substances  have 
been  tried  and  used,  such  as  wood,  iron,  and  vul- 
canized India  nibber.  For  actual  war-service,  regu- 
larly-constructed torpedoes  or  mines  would  generally 
be  turned  over  to  the  posts  ready  for  use  ;  but  it 
might  become  necessary  to  improvise  cases  out  of  such 
materials  as  would  be  available.  Tight  barrels  and 
hogsheads,  when  properly  strengthened,  are  a  good 
substitute  for  even  the  most  improved  form  of  case. 
The  barrel  or  cask  is  simply  an  external  shield  for 


Fio.  4. 


3.  To  give  a  portable  fonn  to  compositions,  they 
are  inclosed  in  ca.ses,  cast  in  molds,  or  attached  to  cot- 
ton yarn,  rope,  etc.  Cases  are  generally  paper  tubes, 
made  by  covering  one 
side  of  a  sheet  of  paper 
with  paste  or  gum-ara- 
bic, then  wrapping  it 
around  a  former,  and 
rolling  it  under  a  fiat  surface  until  all  the  layers 
adhere  to  each  other.  The  quality  of  the  paper,  and 
the  thickness  of  the  sides  of  the  case,  should  depend 
upon  the  pressure  of  the  gases  evolved  in  the  burning. 
To  fill  a  ca.se,  it  is  first  cut  to  the  proper  length,  and 
placed  in  a  mold  ;  the  composition  is  then  poured  in, 
a  ladleful  at  a  time,  and  each  ladleftil  is  jiacked  by 
striking  a  certain  number  of  blows  on  a  drift  with  a 
mallet  of  a  given  weight.  The  height  of  each  ladle- 
ful of  composition  should  be  about  equal  to  a  single 
diameter  of  the  bore  of  the  case.  Small  drifts, 
receiving  heavy  blows,  should  be  made  of  steel,  and 
tipped  with  bronze  ;  large  drifts  may  be  made  of 
wood  or  bronze,  depending  on  tlie  force  of  tlie  blow. 
In  driving  liigldy  inflammable  compositions,  as  that  of 
the  rocket,  care  should  be  taken  to  settle  the  drift,  so 
as  to  exclude  the  air  before  striking  with  the  mallet, 
as  the  heat  generated  by  the  sudden  condensation  of 
air  might  be  sufficient  to  ignite  the  composition. 
Preliminary  tests  of  all  new  materials  should  be  made 
by  burning  one  or  more  specimens  of  the  composi- 
tion, and  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients  corrected, 
if  neces,«ary.  The  length  of  the  flame  from  a  given 
compositio"n  depends  on  the  size  of  the  vent  and  the 
extent  of  the  buniing  surface.  The  vent  is  made 
small  by  choking  the  end  of  the  case  with  stout  twine  ; 
and  the  burning  surface  is  increa-sed  by  driving  the 
composition  arountl  a  spindle,  which  on  being  with- 
drawn leaves  a  conical-shaped  caxity.  A  vent  may 
be  also  fonned  by  drivinir  in  moist  plaster  of  Paris  or 
clay,  and  boring  a  hole  in  it  with  a  gimlet.  If  the 
end  of  the  case  is  to  be  closed  up  entirely,  the  Iwring 
is  omitted.     Sec  Conijmiritiims  and  FuM. 

CASE-HARDENING.— A  process  by  which  the  ex- 


CASEKATE. 


300 


CASEHATE-OIR- 


tcrnal  surface  of  wrouglit-iron  is  converted  into  steel 
to  enable  it  to  resist  the  wear  and  tear  of  friction  ami 
to  receive  a  tine  ix)lisli.  It  protluces  the  external 
hardness  of  steel  without  its  brittleiicss.  Case-hard 
ening  consists  in  heating  the  wrought-iron  to  a  cherry- 
red  in  a  close  vessel  in  contact  with  animal-charcoal, 
and  then  plunging  the  healeil  iron  into  cold  water  or 
sperm-oil.  Bone-dust  is  usually  ciiiiiloyed  at  the 
armory,  although  old  shoes,  leather  scraps,  hoots 
and  horns  of  animals,  and  soot  may  he  used.  The 
bones  are  first  pulverized  and  then  charred.  The 
work  to  Ih.'  case-hardened  is  packed  as  follows:  First, 
a  layer  of  animal  charcoal  or  bone-dust  is  jilaced  over 
tlje  bottom  of  the  iron  retort,  and  then  rows  of  the 
iron  jiieccs  to  be  case- hardened  are  placed  side  by 
side,  but  not  in  contact,  until  the  stratum  of  bone- 
dust  is  covered.  Enough  bone-dust  is  now  put  in  to 
cover  the  metal  parts,  and  then  another  layer  of  com- 
ponents put  in  as  before.  Continue  to  put  in  these 
alternate  layers  until  the  retort  is  full;  an<l  lastly, 
pour  a  quantity  of  the  finest  bone-dust  on  the  top  of 
the  retort,  anil  i>a<U  it  down  well  to  exclude  the  air. 
The  retorts  thus  packei.1  are  transferred  to  an  o\eii  or 
revcrberatory  furnace  and  brought  to  the  proper  licut, 
when  the}'  are  removeil  and  plunged  into  colli  water 
or  sperm-oil.  where  they  are  left  until  cold.  The 
process  is  called  cane-hardening  in  oil  or  case-harden- 
ing in  irater,  according  as  sperm-oil  or  water  be  used 
for  the  cooling  medium.  If  plunged  in  oil  the  metal 
is  tmiforinly  blackened  on  the  exterior,  provided  the 
air  does  not  strike  it  and  produce  a  film  of  oxide,  | 
which  will  "scale"  off  and  leave  a  marred  surface. 
When  water  is  used  the  "steeled"  surface  will  often  : 
exhibit  fine  colors,  and  will  be  harder  than  that  ' 
chilled  in  oil.  The  iron  will  be  more  liable  to  crack  \ 
("  check"),  especially  at  sharp  angles,  and  to  warp  by 
sudden  and  unequal  contraction  when  immersed  in 
water  than  it  would  in  oil.  In  packing,  the  small 
parts  are  fretiuently  strung  together  on  wires  f<ir  con- 
venience in  handling.  See  Fnhricatpjn  of  Fire-ann.i. 
CASEMATE.— Various  modes  have,  from  time  to 
time,  been  proposed  for  arranging  defensive  case- 
mates for  the  exterior  defense  of  laud-fronts.  The 
difTiculty  in  covering  the  masonry  from  the  batteries 
of  the  assailant  has  l)een  the  chief  objection  to  these 
structures,  and  is  the  more  prominent  as  the  fire  of 
artillery  Ijccomes  more  accurate,  as  such  casemates 
would  soon  be  ruined  or  rendered  untenable  by  em- 
bra.sure  shots.  The  structure  for  this  purpose  which 
has  been  most  applit'd  within  late  years  is  what  is 
termed  the  ILuo  cjinemtite  ;  the  details  having  lieen 
first  proposed  by  General  Haxo,  one  of  the  lirst 
authorities  of  the  French  school  of  engineers.  These 
casemates  consist  of  a  series  of  arched  bomb-proof 
chambers  closed  in  front  by  a  thin  mask  wall  which, 
except  around  the  embrasures  through  it,  is  covered 
from  the  assailant's  artillery  by  the  jjarapet.  To  pre- 
sent but  a  small  surface  of  masonry  to  tire,  the  arches, 
which  are  horizontal  and  perpendicular  to  the  mask 
wall  for  the  greater  portion  of  their  length,  descend 
toward  the  front,  leaving  where  they  join  the  mask 
wall  just  siiHicient  height  within  for  ihescrvice  of  the 
gun.  To  effect  this  tlui  anterior  portion  of  the  arch 
must  be  conoidal  in  shape.  The  piers  of  the  arches 
are  pierced  with  wide  arched  openings,  which  serve 
the  doul)le  purpose  of  a  communication  between  the 
casemates  and  to  give  the  gun  a  wider  traverse  for 
firing.  Embrasuresare  pierced  in  the  parapet  in  pro- 
longation of  those  of  the  mask  wall.  an<l  it  is  pro- 
posed to  cover  the  small  portion  of  the  masonry  neces- 
.sarily  exposed  by  this  arrangement  by  i)laeing  several 
thicKnes.scs  of  heavy  timber  in  front  of  it  to  receive 
the  shot,  or  to  case  "it  with  wrought-iron.  When  the 
casemates  serve  simi)ly  for  the  cover  of  the  cannon, 
the  arches  are  covered  with  from  4  to  (i  feet  thickness 
of  earth,  and  arc  left  open  to  the  rear  for  the  more 
)irompt  escape  of  the  smoke,  and  a  ditch  is  sometimes 
made  just  in  rear  of  the  casemates  to  catch  bombs 
and  limit  the  effects  of  their  explosion.  When  the 
arches  are  made  longer  than  for  the  service  of  the 


guns  alone,  the    earthen  covering  is  sometimes  ar- 
ranged with  a  parajJet  to  cover  cannon  in  the  barbette, 

:  or  for  small-arms. 

In  the  ca-semated  batteries  for  sea-coast  and  harlx)r 
defenses,  the  scarp  or  mask  walls  of  the  chambers  for 

1  the  guns,  being  cvjiosed  to  the  tire  of  ships  alone,  are 
not  covered,  as  on  land-fronts,  by  an  earthen  mask; 
these  walls  being  built  of  sufficient  thickness  and 
strength  to  withstand  the  fire  of  the  heaviest  guns 
within  the  range  that  ships  can  venture  to  attack, 
and  being  far  less  vulnerable  than  the  wooden  or  iron 
sides  of  vessels  thus  far  brought  into  general  use. 
These  batteries  in  our  own  and  European  works  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  arched  bomb-proof  chambers  which 
serve  for  the  ser\ice  of  the  guns  alone;  or  else  they 
receive   such   dimensions   that   the    portions  of   the 

j  chambers  immediately  in  rear  of  the  mask  wall  are 

I  appropriated  to  the  service  of  the  battery,  and  the 
rear  portions  are  converted  into  quarters,  store  rooms, 
and  other  necessary  purpo.ses  for  the  garrison.  In 
the  earlier  .sea-coast  ca.semated  defenses  constructed  in 
our  service,  the  gun-chambers  have  received  dimen- 
sions to  admit  of  two  guns  in  each  chamber.  The 
chambers  are  usually  formed  of  .segmental  brick 
arches  of  120  ,  which  rest  upon  stone  piers  built  back 
perpendicular  to  the  mask  wall.  When  the  case- 
mates serve  also  as  quarters  for  the  garrison,  the  rear, 
towards  the  parade,  is  closed  by  a  brick  or  stone 
parade-wall,  which  forms  the  front  wall  of  the  quar- 
ters. A  brick  partition-wall  separates  the  quarters 
from  the  gun-gallery.  Arched  reces.ses  and  Hues  are 
made  in  the  piers  for  chimneys,  and  the  parade-wall, 
the  sides  of  the  piers,  and  sotfit  of  the  arch  are  suit- 
ably finished  to  give  a  dry  and  well-ventilated  dwell- 
ing. In  most  of  our  earlier  casemated  worlcs  there 
is  but  one  tier  of  casemated  guns;  this  tier  being  sur- 
mounted by  a  barbette  batter}-  covered  either  by  an 
earthen  or  stone  parapet  on  the  water-fronts.  Case- 
mates adapted  to  two  guns  in  each  room  present  a 
more  vidnerable  mark  in  the  jiortion  of  the  mask 
wall  between  the  piers;  exjiose  more  men  to  danger 
from  embrasure  shots;  present  a  greater  opening  in 
rear  to  the  as.sailant's  fire  when  not  closed  by  a 
parade-wall;  offer  less  resistance  to  the  shock  of 
shells;  and  are  more  difficult  to  construct  without  set- 
tling than  rooms  for  single  guns.  These  advantages 
in  favor  of  casemates  for  single  gims  are  the  more 
marked  where,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  heavy 
fire  in  some  fixed  direction,  it  is  desirable  to  n^sort 
to  a  castellated  structure  consisting  of  several  tiers 
of  casemates.  See  Covered  Defenses  and  Mortar  Case- 
ma  lex. 

CASEMATED  EETRENCHMENTS.—  Fortifications 
projiosed  1)V  t'arnot.  They  consist  of  a  wall  S6  feet 
liigh  and  9  feet  thick,  erected  at  the  gorge  of  the  bas- 
tions, and  iiro\ideil  with  two  rows  of  looi)-holes.  the 
upper  for  musketry,  the  lower  for  small  mortars  of  a 
jieciiliar  description.  Behind  this  wall  is  a  ditch  30 
feet  wide,  and  on  the  rear  of  it  stands  a  casemated 
battery. 

CASEMATE-GIN. — The  garrison  and  casemate  gins 
differ  from  thi<  siege-gin  in  having  two  cross-bars  of 
iron  instead  of  the  three  wooden  cross-bars,  and  in 
having  the  pry-pole  inserted  between  the  legs,  which 
are  kept  together  by  the  clevis-bolt.  The  upper  block 
(generally  treble)  is  hooked  to  the  clevis.  The  ca.se- 
mate-gin  is  made  shorter  than  the  garrison-gin,  so 
that  ii  may  be  hoisted  in  casemates.  With  the  guns 
now  usually  moimted  in  ca.semates  it  is  essential  to 
use  a  bail  for  slinging,  in  order  to  gain  the  necessjtry 
flistaiice  from  the  head  of  the  gin  for  the  working  of 
the  tackle.  The  gin  is  put  together  across  the  piece, 
or  on  the  ground  near  it.  and  raised  by  moving  up  the 
legs  and  pry-pole  towards  each  other.  The  pry  pole 
has  cleats  nailed  to  it  to  enable  a  man  to  mount  to  the 
head  of  the  gin  to  hook  on  the  block  and  to  reeve  the 
fall. 

To  reeve  the  fall,  fasten  one  end  of  a  trace-rope  to 
the  upper  block  by  passing  it  through  the  shell  of  the 
block.     An  expert  man  ascends  the  pry -pole  to  tlie 


CA8EHATE-GUN. 


301 


CASTELLAH. 


head,  and  passes  the  free  end  of  the  rope  through  the 
clevis,  from  whence  it  is  carried  down  to  the  windlass, 
where  a  couple  of  turns  are  taken.  By  heaving  on 
the  windlass,  the  block  is  laised  and  the  hook  passed 
through  the  clevis,  with  its  ix)int  (oirardg  the  pole. 
The  upper  block  may  be  hooked  to  the  cleWs  and 
raised  ^vilh  the  gin;  the  fall  may  also  be  rove  and  the 
whole  raised  together.  The  extra  weight  thus  given 
makes  the  gin  more  difficult  to  lift.  'I'he  gin  is  low- 
ered by  gradually'  drawing  out  the  pry-pole  until  the 
men  can  get  near  enough  toward  the  head  to  support 
it;  it  is  then  lowered  upon  the  piece  or  on  the  ground, 
as  the  case  may  be.  See  Gin  and  Mechanical  Ma- 
m'lirerx 

CASEMATE  GUN.— A  gun  mounted  in  a  casemated 
battery.  Casemated  batteries  are  generally  used  on 
the  sea-faces  of  works,  and  in  defending  the  entrance 
of  harbors,  in  which  case  they  consist  of  a  bonil)-i)roof 
arch,  open  to  the  rear.  Iron  plating  and  shields  of 
various  thickness  are  used  in  the  protection  of  the 
embrasures. 

CASEMATES  NOUVELLES.- Arched  batteries  which 
are  constructed  under  all  the  openings  of  revetments 
or  ramparts.  The  different  forts  of  Cherbourg  are 
defended  by  these  casemates;  the  works  erected 
around  Dover  Castle  come  likewise  under  this  de- 
scription; the  works  at  Fort  Columbus,  New  York, 
are  erected  on  the  s;ime  principle. 

CASEMATE-TRUCK.— This  machine  is  intended  for 
moving  pieces  and  their  carriages  in  the  galleries  of 
casemate-batteries,  or  through  posterns.  It  consists — 
old  pattern,  of  a  stout  frame  of  wood;  new  pattern, 
of  wrought-iron,  mounted  on  three  low  wheels.  Two 
of  the  wheels  arc  placed  at  the  sides,  like  those  of  a 
cart;  the  third  is  placed  in  a  fork  at  the  middle  of 
the  front  end;  the  fork  turns  around  its  vertical 
a.xis  as  the  direction  of  the  truck  changes.  The  fork 
and  wheel  are  removed  by  raising  the  end  of  the 
truck  and  allowing  the  fork  to  drop  from  its  socket. 
A  tongue,  likewise  removable,  is  attached  for  the 
purpose  of  guiding  the  truck.  To  better  understand 
the  u.se  of  this  construction,  we  will  notice  the  man- 
ner of  placing  a  casemate  chassis  on  the  truck. 

The  chassis  is  on  the  ground,  the  truck  near  it, 
with  its  front  wheel  and  tongue  removed.  The  chas- 
sis, either  side  down,  is  raised,  by  successive  pur- 
chases, with  handspikes,  and  blocked  up  to  a  height 
sufficient  to  allow  the  truck  to  go  under  it.  The 
truck  is  then  run  under  the  chassisand  turned  so  that 


its  axis  is  parallel  to  that  of  the  chassis,  and  is  so  placed 
that  the  center  of  gra\ity  of  the  chassis  is,  as  near  as 
pos.sible,  over  the  a.xle  "of  the  truck.  The  blocking 
is  then  removed  and  the  chassis  allowed  to  rest  on  the 
truck.  The  tongue  of  the  truck  is  replaced.  The 
truck  is  moved  to  the  designated  casemate,  and  the 
chassis  lowered  from  the  truck  as  it  was  placed 
thereon.  If  it  is  upside  down,  it  is  turned  over  and 
placed  properlv  on  the  traverse-circles.  The  tongue 
of  the  chassis  is  then  Ixilted  to  the  front  transom  and 
securccl  by  the  pintle  in  the  throat  of  the  embrasure. 
The  chassis  may  be  lowered  from  the  truck  by  means 
of  the  gin. 

To  remove  the  chassis  from  the  casemate,  the 
tongue  of  the  chassis  is  unbolted  from  the  front  tran- 
som and  the  chassis  raised,  either  by  prjnng  and 
blocking  or  with  the  gin;  the  truck  is  then  jplaced 
under  it  as  before.  It  is  generally  preferable  to  re- 
move the  front  wheel  from  the  truck  and  to  pry  up 
but  one  end  of  the  chassis;  the  truck  is  then  worked 
under  it  from  the  side,  and,  after  the  chassis  is  low- 
ered upon  the  truck,  the  raised  end  is  borne  down 


until  the  front  wheel  of  the  truck  can  be  replaced. 
See  Mcffiimieal  Mamiirers. 

CASERNES.— In  fortification,  buildings  for  the  sol- 
diers of  the  garrison  to  live  in;  generally  erected  be- 
tween the  houses  of  fortified  towns  and  the  rampart. 
In  a  general  acceptation,  ca.sernes  signifv  barracks. 

CASE-SHOT.- An  jusscmblage  of  buflets  or  small 
balls  inclosed  in  a  cylindrical  case  or  canister.  The 
diameter  of  this  canister  is  a  little  less  than  the  bore 
of  the  gun  from  which  it  is  to  be  discharged.  Ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  canister,  the  balls  vary  from 
1  i)OUnd  to  i  ounce  each,  from  30  to  280  in  number, 
and  from  3i  pounds  to  85  pounds  in  total  weight. 
The  canister  bursts  immediately  on  leaving  the  gun, 
and  the  balls  spread  out  into  an  irregular  sort  of  cone. 
Within  a  range  of  500  yards  they  work  great  execu- 
tion among  troops.  They  are  generally  used  at  200 
or  300  yards. 

In  a  more  modem  and  effective  kind,  called 
Sp/ierical  Vase,  the  bullets  are  inclosed,  along  with  a 
charge  of  powder,  in  an  iron  shell,  instead  of  a  tin 
canister.  It  is  often  called  Shrajmtl,  from  the  name 
of  its  inventor.  A  spherical  case-shot  for  a  68-pound 
caiTonade,  or  for  an  8-inch  howitzer,  contains  337 
balls;  for  a  2-1-pounder  gun,  128;  and  for  an  18- 
pounder,  90.  It  is  exploded  by  a  fuse  the  length  of 
which  depends  on 'the  distance  of  the  point  where 
the  destructive  effect  is  to  Ix;  wrought.  Its  effect  is 
something  like  that  of  a  prolonged  rauskct-tire.  The 
Shrapnel  shell  is  not  of  much  use  against  the  hull 
of  a  ship,  but  is  very  destructive  agamst  inas.ses  of 
men  on  shore,  or  on  the  decks  of  a  ship,  with  a 
greater  range  than  that  of  ordinarj'  canister.  Artil- 
lerymen prefer  just  .such  an  amount  of  charge  as  w  ill 
burst  the  sphere,  without  scattering  the  balls  very 
widely.  See  Canister-s/wt,  Grape-shut,  Projectiki, 
SluUii,  Shru  11)1)1,  and  Splieri)-al  Case-shot. 

CASHIERING.— A  punishment  for  officers  in  the 
army  and  na\'j'.  It  is  a  severe  fonn  of  dismissal 
from  the  service,  and  implies  that  the  officer,  by  some 
disgraceful  conduct,  has  deserved  not  only  (lismissal, 
but  dis(|ualitication  for  ever  acraiii  entering  the  .service. 
Sometimes  there  are  words  adiled  implying  still  deeper 
ignominy  and  degradation.  On  .some  rare  occasions, 
when  aC'ourt-JIartial  has  awarded  cashiering,  the 
Commander-iu  Chief  has  mitigated  the  punishment  to 
simple  dismis.sal.  "  Scandalous  and  infamous  con- 
duct," and  ■'  Conduct  unbecoming  the  character  of 
an  officer  and  a  gentleman,"  mark  two  decrees  of 
offense  which  may  lead,  the  one  to  cashiering,  the 
other  to  dismissal. 

CASING. — 1.  The  middle  wall  of  a  blast-furnace. 
Beginning  from  the  inside,  we  find  the  lining,  stuffiDg, 
cai<i))g,  and  mantle.  2.  A  wooden  tunnel  for  powder- 
hose  in  blasting.  3.  The  cast-iron  case  of  converted 
guns. 

CASK.— A  round  wooden  vessel  of  more  length 
than  breadth,  bulging  out  in  the  middle,  and  closed 
up  at  either  end.  In  military  operations  casks  are 
used  to  form  bridges  across  rivers  when  no  pontons 
can  be  had.  They  should  be  about  4  feet  3  inches 
long,  and  diameter  at  head  and  Inilge  2  feet  2  inches 
and  2  feet  9  inches  respectively,  which  is  the  size  of 
the  water-butts  of  the  navy;  but  any  barrels  available 
will  answer.  Casks  filled  with  earth  may  also  be 
used  as  gabions  on  an  emergency,  and  also  in  the  erec- 
tion of  barricades  when  it  is"necessiiry  to  build  a 
revetment. 

CASQUE.— The  French  name  for  helmet,  and  which 
in  ancient  armor  was  the  name  by  which  that  head- 
piece was  known.     Aso  written  Ca*k: 

CASSE-TETE. — A  mace  or  war-dub,  made  of  very 
hard  wood,  used  formerly  in  savage  warfare. 

CASSINE.— A  small  house,  especially  in  the  open 
cnimtrj-;  applied  also  to  a  house  standing  alone, 
where  "soldiers  mav  lie  hid,  or  may  take  a  jiosition. 

CASTELLAN.— A  Governor  or  Constable  of  a  ca.«tle. 
The  office  and  the  rank  of  the  Castellan  were  various 
in  various  countries.  In  France  and  Flanders  the 
title  Castellan  belonged  to  the  holders  of  certain  de- 


CASTING. 


303 


CABT-IBON. 


mesnes,  and  wiis  next  in  order  of  rank  to  that  of  a 
Bailiff.  In  Germany  tlie  Castellan  had  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  Burjr-irraf  durini;  the  Ages  of  Chivalry.  In 
Poland,  the  lille  of  Caslellaii,  ■\vilh  its  appendages, 
remained  in  later  times,  and,  after  the  si.\tcenth  cen- 
ttiry,  the  Castellans,  with  the  Waiwodes  and  Bishops, 
formed  the  Senate  or  SuiX'rior  Legislative  Chamber. 
CASTING.— The  operation  next  after  molding,  in 
the  fabrication  of  csust  guns.  The  metal  for  the  gun 
is  melted  in  re\erl)cnitory  air-furnaces,  of  the  con- 
struction shown  in  the  drawing,  two  or  three  being 
.sometimes  required  for  casting  the  heavier  guns.  In 
these  furnaces  the  draught  is  produced  by  high  chim- 
neys instead  of  a  bla.st,  which  is  used  in  the  cupola- 
furnace.  The  metnl  for  what  is  termed  a  "heat"  is 
all  placed  in  the  inetal-chaml)er.  A,  before  the  lire  is 
lighted.  The  fuel,  biluniinons  coal,  is  placed  on 
grate-bars,  K,  in  the  fuel-chamber,  B,  and,  when  ignil- 
•cd,  the  flame  passes  through  the  nietal-chambtr  on  its 
way  to  the  chimney.  The  iron  is  melted  by  this 
flame  without  coming  in  contact  with  solid  carbon  at 
all,  unlike  the  cupola-furnace,  where  the  fuel  and 
iron  are  mixed  together.  D  is  the  charging-door,  and 
C  the  ash-pit.  The  furnace  is  prepared  for  charging 
by  coveting  the  bed  of  the  metjil-chamber  with  a  layer 
-of  sand  evenly  distributed  and  firmly  packed.     Boards 


Reverberatory  Air-furnace. 

are  laid  down,  upon  which  the  pigs  of  iron  are  piled. 
If  a  number  of  guns  are  to  be  cast  from  the  same 
grades  of  iron,  it  is  very  important  that  the  beds  of 
the  furnaces  should  be  prepared  in  every  instance  as 
With  the  standard  gun,  as  the  treatment  of  a  given 
charge  of  iron  may  be  varied  by  the  manner  of  dress- 
ing the  bed  of  the  furnace.  The  different  grades  of 
iron  to  be  used  for  the  heat  are  weighed  and  piled 
in  proper  proportions  in  the  metal-chamber.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  furnace  perfectly  dry 
throughout.  When  it  has  been  out  of  use  long 
cnougli  to  become  damp,  it  should  lie  dried  l)y  a  fire 
in  the  fire-chamber  before  l)eing  charged.  When  two 
or  more  furnaces  are  used  in  casting  a  gun,  (he  lap- 
lioles,  E,  are  connected  by  troughs  with  a  reservoir 
called  a  mixing-basin,  in  which  the  different  charges 
are  thoroughly  mixed  before  entering  the  mold.  The 
furnaces  being  charged  and  everything  in  readiness, 
the  fires  arc  stjirted  and  regulatf'd  so  that  the  iron  in 
all  will  be  melted  or  "  down."  as  near  as  jiracticable, 
at  the  same  time.  The  length  of  time  re(|uired  to 
obtain  complete  fusion  depends  in  great  measure  upon 
the  state  of  the  atmos|>here  and  (juantity  of  metal  in 
the  charge;  it  may  vary  from  T)  to  12  hours.  When 
the  charge  is  nearly  down,  wooden  jioles  or  iron  rods 
are  inserted  in  boles  provided  for  that  imrpose  in  the 
walls  of  the  furnaces,  and  the  melted  metal  fre(|uently 
stirred  or  puddled  to  bring  the  vnunclted  lumps  iii 
contact  with  the  llame.  As  soon  as  the  charge  of  a 
furnace  is  ascertained  to  be  fairly  down,  specimens 


are  taken  out  to  determine  whether  the  iron  is  suffi- 
ciently decarbonized  or  "  high"  to  be  in  a  proper  con- 
dition for  casting.  These  specimens  are  ca.st  in  green 
sand-molds  and  broken  as  .soon  as  they  Ix^come  cold. 
The  condition  of  the  iron  is  indicated  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  fracture,  and  varics.so  nuich  with  different 
brands  useci  that  its  determination  is  largely  a  matter 
of  experience.  If  the  first  s])eeiinens  show  insulficient 
deearbouization,  the  iron  is  kept  in  fusion  still  longer 
and  the  puddling  process  is  continued.  When  it  is 
found  that  the  deearbouization  has  gone  far  enough, 
the  puddling  is  stopped.  As  the  density  and  tensile 
strength  of  the  iron  <lepend  in  a  great  measure  upon 
the  highness  to  which  it  is  brought,  a  correct  dccLsiou 
is  very  important.  As  soon  as  the  melted  metal  in 
all  the  furnaces  is  found  to  be  in  proper  condition  f(jr 
casting,  the  furnaces  are  tapped  simultaneou.sly  and 
the  metid  conducted  by  troughs  to  the  mixing-basin, 
where  the  several  charges  are  thoroughly  mixed.  It 
then  flows  on  through  other  troughs  connecting  with 
the  side-gates  of  the  mold,  and,  pa.ssuig  down,  enters 
the  mold-cavity  by  the  branches.  These  branches 
connect  with  tlie  side-gates  at  regular  intervals,  and 
are  so  constructed  that  the  metal  enters  in  a  horizon- 
tid  direction  toward  the  axisof  the  mold-cavity.  The 
surface  of  the  metal,  as  it  enters,  is  stirred  to  prevent 
the  scoria  from  lodging;  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  give  it  a  "swirl,"  which  throws  the 
lightest  metal  in  around  the  core,  where  the 
heaviest  and  best  should  be.  When  the  mold 
is  filled,  the  tap-holes  of  the  furnaces  are 
closed,  and  the  surface  of  the  metid  in  the 
sinking-head  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  char 
coal  to  prevent  its  chilling.  For  two  or  three 
hours  after  the  casting,  more  metal  is  added 
at  short  intervals  of  time,  to  feed  the  shrink- 
age, by  pouring  from  a  ladle  at  the  top  of 
the  mold  as  the  surface  sinks.  See  Rodman 
(!  'I  n . 

CASTING-LADLE. — An  iron  vcs-sel  with 
handles  for  conveying  molten  metivl  from 
the  cupola  and  pouring  it  into  the  mold. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  ladle  u.sed  in 
the  manufacture  of  steel,  tnade  of  wrought- 
iron  lined  with  fire-clay,  liaving  a  small 
hole  in  the  botton  for  running  out  the  melted 
steel  into  the  ingot-molds  placed  below.  This 
hole  is  closed  by  an  iron  rod  coated  with 
fire-clay,  and  is  raised  or  lowered  by  a  hand- 
lever.  The  ladle  is  mounted  on  trunnions 
on  the  arm  of  a  hydraulic  crane,  which  allows  it  to 
be  brought  over  the  molds  in  the  pit. 

CASTING  OUT.— The  rejection  of  horses  deemed 
unfit  for  further  cavalry  use.  Usually  written  Cn«^ 
tnff. 

CAST-IRON. — By  refining,  etc.,  a  portion  of  the 
carbon  and  other  impurities  may  be  removed,  but  so 
long  as  the  proportion  of  the  carbon  is  not  less  than 
3  per  cent  the  metal  will  possess  the  characteristic 
properties  of  cast-iron  mentioned  below.  The  pres- 
ence of  silicon,  sulphur,  and  phosphonis  modifies 
the  strength,  brittleness,  etc.,  of  cast-iron  very  much, 
that  of  sulpluir  in  particular  increasing  its  tenacity, 
which  is  always,  howevi^r,  comjiaratively  low.  'W  e 
may  say  that  cast-iron  contains  from  2  per  cent  to  5 
per  cent  by  weight  of  carlion.  which  exists  in  two 
slides,  cither  chenucidly  combined  with  the  iron  or 
mechanically  mixed  with  it.  In  the  trade,  cii.st-iron 
is  distinguished  by  lunnbers  from  one  to  eight,  the 
lower  numbers  Ijcing  given  to  those  descriptions  in 
which  the  surfiue  when  broken  jiresents  a  gray  or 
mottled  apixiuance,  and  in  whi<li  the  larger  part  of 
the  carbon  is  in  the  state  of  gniphite— that  is,  uncom- 
bined  with  the  iron.  The  higher  numbers  represeiil 
white  or  bright  iron,  luid  in  these  the  carbon  is 
almost  entirely  in  the  combined  state.  Cast-iron  is 
easily  fused,  imd  can  be  readily  cjist  into  a  homo- 
geneous mass  of  luiy  size  or  shsipe  we  choos(^  but  it 
is  brittle  and  Ciinnot  be  worked  imder  the  hiunmer 
either  hot  or  cold.     If,  indeed,  we  heat  a  mass  of 


CAST  IBON  OUNS. 


303 


CA8T-IB0N  GUNS. 


cast-iron  to  a  red  heat  and  hammer  it,  it  will  crumble 
to  pieces— a  fact  taken  advantage  of  in  the  breaking 
up  of  obsolete  smooth-bore  cast-iron  guns. 

The  following  table  shows  the  mean  mechanical 
properties  of  American  cast-iion  employed  in  rifle- 
guns  of  large  caliber,  as  determined  by  the  tests  of  a 
trial  cylinder,  60  inches  long  with  an  elliptical  base 
24  inches  bv  19..5  inches. 


Supposing  a  standard  of  quality  to  have  been  deter- 
mined, with  the  stock  all  prepared  for  a  given  num- 
IxT  of  guns,  and  having  detennined  l)y  comparison 
with  the  xtaitdard  the  quality  of  iion  required,  a  fur- 
ther approximation  to  identity  in  quality  of  tlie  melal 
in  the  guns  may  be  made  by  casting  each  run  of  metal 
from  the  smelting-furnace  into  a  nunilier  of  pigs  of 
equal  size,  something  greater  than  the  number  of 


OnioiNAL  Dimensions  of  Speciuens. 


Area,  1,001  square  inches. 


Length,  30  inches;  diameter,  1.385 inch; 
area,  1 .5065  inch. 


Length,  10  inches:  diameter,  1.385  inch; 
area,  1.5065  inch. 


Length,  2  inches ;  diameter,  .  8  inch 

Length,  20  inches;    breadth,  1.075  inch 
depth,  1 .075  inch 


■Cylinder:  length,  5  inches:  exterior diam 
eter,  3  inches;  interior  diameter,  1  inch. 


Nattbb  of  Property. 


Densitj' 

Tenacity  per  square  inch 

Hardness 

Hardness  of  copper 

Pulling  stress  per  square  inch: 

Elastic  limit  pounds 

Ultimate  resistance do. 

Katio  of  elastic  limit  to  ultimate  resistance per  cent 

Exttiisiou  per  inch  at  elastic  huiit inch 

Ultimate  extension  per  inch do. 

Ultimate  restoration  per  inch  do. 

Ultimate  set  per  inch do. 

Re(luction  in  area  at  point  of  rupture percent 

Ultimate  resistance  per  square  inch  fractured  area pounds 

Appearance  of  fracture:  brif^ht  gray  medium-sized  crystals. 

Tlirusling  stress  per  square  inch: 

Elastic  limit  pounds 

Compression  per  inch  at  elastic  limit incli 

Compression  per  inch  under  43,000  pounds do. 

Restoration  per  inch  under  43.000  pounds do. 

Set  per  iucli  under  4:!.000  pounds do. 

Increase  in  area  of  cross  section  after  43,000  pounds per  cent 

Absolute  resistance  to  crushing  force pounds 

Bending  stress: 

Transverse  resistance ' do. 

Bursting  stress: 

Ultimate  resistance do. 


T.27T1 
33,875 
18.46 


9,750 
31,000 
81.45 
0.00051 
0.00337 
0.00199 
0.00163 
0.S15 
31,065 


8,300 

0.00093 
0.00619 
0.00344 
0.00275 
0.371 
114,143 


11,556 


63,184 


Sec   Oray  Cast-iron,  Manganese ,  Mottled   Cast-iron, 
Pfwspfioriis,  8iHmn,  and  White  Cast-iron. 

CAST-IBON  GUNS.— It  is  in  the  smelting-furnace 
that  the  character  of  the  iron  is  fi.xed.  Iron  of  good 
character  and  high  susceptibility  may  be  spoiled  by 
treatment  at  the  foundry;  but  this,  with  ordmary  c.\- 
])erience  and  intelligence,  ought  but  rarelj-  to  occur. 
But  from  iron  that  leaves  the  smelting-furnace  with 
bad  qualities  it  is  impracticable,  with  our  present 
knowledge,  to  make  good  and  reliable  guns.  The 
smelting  of  iron  is  a  purely  chemical  process,  and 
shoukl  be  conducted  with  the  same  regularity  and 
precision  as  any  other  important  chemical  process. 
Though,  with  everj-  precaution,  perfect  uniformity 
in  the  quality  of  the  iron  produced  from  day  to  day 
cannot  be  expected ,  in  consequence  of  the  many  dis- 
turbing causes  which  tend  to  afifcct  its  character,  yet 
a  near  approximation  to  it  is  practicable.  All  the 
stock  for  a  "  bla.st "  of  gun-iron  should  be  carefully 
prepared  and  housed  before  beginning  lo  "blow." 
The  ore  should  all  lie  roasted  and  well  mixed  .so  as 
to  be  as  nearly  uniform,  as  to  size  of  lumps  and  all 
other  qualities,  as  possible.  The  charcoal  should  all 
be  made  as  nearly  as  possible  from  the  same  kind  of 
wood,  and  well  mixed  together  after  cliarring.  All 
the  stock  should  be  carefully  weighed  and  supplied 
to  the  furnace  at  regular  intcr^■als  of  time.  The 
pressure,  temperature,  and  hygrometrical  condition 
of  the  "  bl;i.st  "  should  be  kept  as  nearly  constant  ,is 
possible.  The  temperature  of  the  blast  may  be  kc])! 
verj'  nearly  constant  without  using  what  is  termed  a 
"hot  blast,"  by  warming  it  just  enough  to  bring  it 
above  the  highest  summer  temperature.  The  quan- 
tity of  moisture  may,  it  is  believed,  be  kept  nearly 
constant  by  passing  the  blast  some  distance  over 
water  heated  to  the  proper  teraijcrature.  And  this 
may  be  readily  done  by  pa.ssing  the  blast  through  a 
long  horizontal  tube,  like  a  cylindrical  steam-lxjiler, 
partly  filled  with  water,  and  kept  at  a  constant  tem- 
perature by  the  waste  heat  from  the  furnace.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  should  be  such  as  to  saturate 
the  blast  with  moisture,  and  thus  render  it  hygromet- 
rically  independent  of  atmospheric  changes. 


guns  to  be  made,  and  piling  them  in  separate  piles — 
each  run  of  metal  furnishing  one  pig  to  each  pile. 
Each  pile  should  contain  iron  enough  for  one  gun 
and  one  test  cylinder,  and  be  kept  separate  and  dis- 
tinct from  all  others  in  trans]X)rtation,  and  l>e  replied 
in  the  foundry-yard  in  the  same  order  as  at  the  smelt- 
ing-furnace; one  gun  being  matle  from  each  pile, 
after  the  treatment  which  the  iron  should  receive  at 
the  foundry  shall  have  been  determined  by  experi- 
ments made  on  the  iron  in  the  surplus  piles.  The 
pigs  should  be  cast  in  molds  prepared  from  a  pattern, 
so  as  to  Ih"  as  smooth  and  free  from  aiUiering  sand  as 
pos-sible.  The  quality  of  the  iron  is  much  modified, 
and  ordinarily  improveil,  by  remelting  and  long  con- 
tinuance in  fusion.  But  all  kinils  of  iron  are  not  af- 
fec-ted  in  like  manner  by  the  process.  The  difference 
between  the  iron  as  it  exists  when  presented  for  use, 
and  as  it  exists  in  the  body  of  the  fini.shed  gun,  is 
very  great,  and  has  been  foiind  to  be,  in  certain  cases, 
more  "than  twenty  pounds  per  cubic  foot  in  density, 
and  in  tenacity-  as  1  to  2.8.  This  shows  how  unrelia- 
ble the  tests  of  the  pig-iron  are,  as  means  for  deter- 
mining the  quality  of  iron  and  its  suitableness  for 
making  cannon.  It  is  found  that,  though  some  kinds 
of  iron  tire  susceptible  of  very  great  imiirovenicnt  by 
different  methods  of  treatment  tit  the  foundries,  other 
kinds  are  at  their  maximum  strength  in  the  crude 
l>i,irs.  The  cause  of  this  difference  in  the  suscepti- 
hiiity  for  change  and  improvement  will  doubtless  be 
found  in  the  qualities  of  ores  used,  and  in  the  process 
of  melting  them. 

In  examining  the  effects  of  the  different  treatment 
of  iron  at  the  fouiidrv,  such  s:unj)les  should  be  chosen 
a-s  will  best  exhibit"  the  following  particiilai-s  and 
characteristics,  viz.;  1st.  The  proiH-rties  which  dis- 
tinguish the  different  grades  of  iron  made  from  the 
same  ores  at  the  .same  furnace.  2d.  The  changes  in 
the  mechanical  proix-rties  of  iron  produci'd  by  re- 
peateii  meltings  of  one  of  these  grades,  separately, 
showins  the  changes  effected  at  each  melting.  3d. 
The  changes  produced  by  repeated  meltings  of  the 
different  grades  of  iron"mixeil.  4th.  The  changes 
produced  in  iron  of  the  s;mie  melting  and  quality  by 


CAST-IBON  GUNS. 


304 


CAST-IRON  GUNS. 


casting  il  into  masses  of  different  bulk,  luid  by  differ- 
ent metbods  of  <-iKiliiig.  Tbe  softest  Iciiids  of  iron 
\\  ill  endure  ii  greater  uumlicr  of  meltings  w  ith  advan- 
tage than  the  higlier  grades.  It  appears  from  e.\- 
IX'rimcnts  with  Greenwood  iron,  that  when  it  is  in  its 
iK'St  condition  for  casting  into  proof-bars  of  small 
bidk,  it  is  then  in  a  state  which  requires  jm  additional 
fusion  to  bring  it  up  to  its  best  condition  for  cj.sting 
into  the  massive  bulk  of  cannon.  In  selecting  and 
])reparing  for  cannon,  we  may  proceed  by  rejieated 
fusion,  or  by  varying  the  proportions  of  the  different 
grades  and"  different  fusions  until  the  ma.ximum 
tenacity  is  attained.  An  increase  of  density  is  a  con- 
sequence which  invariably  follow  s  the  rapid  cooling 
of  cast-iron,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  the  tenacity  is  in- 
creased by  the  same  means.  The  density  and  tenacity 
usually  vary  in  the  Siime  order.  It  ai'iiears  that  the 
tenacity  generally  increases  quite  uniformlj' with  the 
density,  until  the  latter  ascends  to  some  given  point; 
after  which  an  increased  density  is  accompanied  by  a 
diminished  tenacity.  The  turning-point  of  density  at 
which  the  best  qualities  of  gmi-iron  attain  their  maxi- 
mum tenacity  appears  to  be  about  T.:!0.  At  this 
point  of  density,  or  near  it,  whether  in  proof-bars  or 
gun-heads,  the  tenacity  is  greatest.  As  the  density  of 
iron  is  increased  its  liquidity  when  melted  is  dimi- 
nished. This  causes  it  to  congeal  quickly,  and  to 
form  cavities  in  the  interior  of  the  castings.  If  in 
l)reparing  iron  for  guns  it  is  carried  too  high,  either  by 
long  continuance  in  fusion  or  by  using  a  large  por- 
tion of  a  hard  grade  of  iron,  the  casting  will  be  lost. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  various  qualities 
of  cannon-metals: 


Metals. 


Cast-iron  . . . 


j  least... 
■  ( greatest 

AVro-ght.,ro„.;^««-^, 

1  teast 

" )  greatest 
j  least. 


Bronze. 


Cast-steel. 


•  •  \  greatest 


Den- 
sity. 


■  862 


Tena- 
city. 


6.900 

9,000 

7.40(1 

45.970 

T.T04 

38,027 

■,•  858 

74,592 

Tiirs 

17.698 

S.OM 

36,786 

128,000 


Trnn«    1    Com-    I 

of  „-„i.i,      sive      ness. 
=*'^|str;gth.l 


5,000' 
11,500 
0,500 


84,539' 
174,120' 

40,000| 
127,720 


23.000, 


198,944  . 
391.9851. 


4.. 57 
.3:j  51 
10.45 
13.14 
4.. 57 
5.94 


A  prominent  feature  of  this  table  is  that  which 
shows  the  great  dilTerence  between  the  lower  and 
higher  grades  of  the  siime  metal.  In  cast-iron  the 
density  differs  as  6.9  to  7.4,  a  difference  equal  to  31 
pounds  per  cubic  foot;  in  tenacity  it  differs  as  45,970 
to  9000  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  as  5  to  1;  and 
in  hardness  as  7  to  1.  The  bronze  varies  in  tenacity 
from  .56,786  to  17,698,  more  than  3  to  1;  and  in  den- 
sity it  is  as  8.953  to  7.978,  equal  to  01  pounds  in  the 
cubic  foot. 

While  the  cannon  are  making,  the  inspecting  offi- 
cer examines  and  test-s  the  metal  before  it  is  used,  ob- 
serves its  melting  and  casting,  and  tests  the  met;d  in 
the  first  gun  made  before  thesecond  is  east.  If  the  first 
proves  urLsatisfactorj-,  such  changes  are  made,  either 
in  the  material  or  in  the  treatment,  as  will  tend  to 
produce  the  desired  result.  This  practice  of  ascer- 
taining the  quality  of  the  material  used,  and  of  the 
casting  made  from  day  to  day,  as  the  work  proceeds, 
enables  the  founder  to  distinguish  (he  nialerial,  to 
select  those  of  the  best  quality,  and  to  treat  tliem  in 
the  best  manner.  If  these  tests  are  satisfactory,  the 
inspecting  oflicer  is  assured  of  the  good  quality  of 
the  guns  before  any  jiroof  by  tiring  is  made.  And 
thi.s  supersedes  the  necessity  of  using  excessive  proof- 
charges  in  the  final  proof,  which  may  do  serious  and 
fatal  injur}'  to  guns  without  bursting  them  or  leaving 
any  visible  marks  of  injury.  The  testing  instrument 
furnishes  to  the  founder  a  convenient  and  accurate 
methoel  of  comparing  the  qualities  of  iron.  It  there- 
fore enables  him  to  select  his  materials  Ijefore  casting 
with  greater  certainty  and  safety.  lie  can  also  by 
these  means  delenninc  the  comparative  utility  of  dif- 
ferent metbods  of  melting  and  ca.sting  the  gun.  As 
the  quality  of  the  iron  is  essentially  changed  by  the 


different  ways  of  treating  it  while  in  the  melted  state, 
and  by  the  different  means  adopted  for  cooling  it 
after  it  is  cast  into  the  mold,  the  testing  instrument 
enables  one  to  ascertain  the  effect  produced  by  these 
processes  in  all  their  several  stages  of  progress,  and 
to  decide  upon  that  which  is  fomid  most  suitable  for 
making  the  gims  of  the  best  (juality. 

Of  the  various  circumstances  which  affect  the 
strength  of  cannon-metal,  the  most  important  appear 
to  be  those  which  connect  themselves  with  crystalli- 
zation. The  si/e  of  the  crystals  of  a  particular  metal 
depends  on  the  rate  of  cooling  of  the  heated  mass; 
the  most  "rapid  cooling  giving  the  smallest  crj-stuls. 
The  size  of  the  crystals  or  coarseness  of  grain  in  cast- 
ings of  iron  depends  for  any  given  make  of  iron  and 
given  mass  of  castings  \ipon — tirst — the  high  tem- 
perature of  the  tluid  iron  above  that  just  necessary  to 
its  fusion,  which  intiucnccs — second — the  time  that 
the  molten  mass  takes  to  cool  down  and  assume  again 
the  solid  state.  The  lower  the  temjierature  at  which 
the  fluid  iron  is  poured  into  the  mold,  and  the  more 
rapidly  ,llie  mass  can  be  cooled  down  to  solidification, 
the  closer  will  be  the  grain  of  the  metal,  the  smaller 
its  crystals,  the  fewer  and  least  injurious  the  planes 
of  weakness,  and  the  greater  the  specific  gra\ily  of 
the  castings.  Slow  cooling  develops  a  coarse,  uneven 
grain,  w  ith  large  but  thoroughly  irregular  and  con- 
fused crystallization;  cast-iron  with  such  a  grain  is 
never  strong  or  cohesive,  though  soft  and  extensible. 
The  more  rapidly  a  casting  once  consolidated  can  l>e 
cooled,  without  introducing  injurious  effects,  the 
finer,  closer,  and  more  even  will  be  its  gi-ain  on  frac 
ture,  and  with  any  given  metal  the  greater  will  be  its 
strength.  The  rale  of  cooling  cannot  be  accelerated 
beyond  a  moderate  limit.  If  this  limit  be  exceeded, 
as  by  ca.sting  in  a  cold,  thick,  highly -conducting  me- 
tallic mold,  the  iron  is  "chilled."  its  constittition 
changed,  and  the  carbon,  not  having  time  to  crystallize 
out,  remains  combined  or  diffused  through  the  mass. 
It  should  not  be  so  fast  as  to  cause  unequal  contrac- 
tion, nor  must  it  lie  so  fast  in  large  ca.stings,  such 
as  guns  requiring  to  be  "  fell  "  from  ■nfetdiixj  or  nink- 
ing  hciid  with  fresh  portions  of  hot  fluid  tuetal  during 
consolidation  to  till  up  the  internal  cavities  or  porosity 
due  to  contraction  and  crystallization,  that  this  tilling 
cannot  be  accomplished,  The  larger  tlie  mass  of  the 
casting,  with  any  given  quality  of  iron,  generally  the 
loarsiM-  is  the  grain — that  is,  the  larger  are  the  crystals 
that  develop  themselves  in  the  mass.  The  siune 
metal  that  shall  produce  a  fracture  bright  gray,  mot- 
tled, and  without  a  crystal  visible,  in  a  small  bar, 
will  in  a  large  casting  produce  a  dark,  confu.sedly 
crystalline  surface  of  fracture  as  coarse  as  granite 
rock.  A  certain  amount  of  contraction,  on  becoming 
solid  from  the  liquid  state,  occurs  in  all  castings. 
For  iron  this  is  variable  and  depends  upon  the  mass 
of  the  castings,  being  greatest  for  small  and  least  for 
large  castings,  of  the  same  make  of  iron,  and  poured 
at  the  .same  temperature.  There  are  two  conditions 
that  principally  affect  the  degree  of  contraction, 
namely,  tlip  extent  to  which  the  fluid  metal  as  enter- 
ing the  mold  has  been  expanded  by  elevation  of  tem- 
licrature,  and  the  state  of  final  aggregation  of  the 
particles,  dcjicnding  upon  the  size  of  the  mass.  Sud- 
den changes  of  form  or  of  dimensions  in  the  jmrts  of 
cast  guns,  besides  the  injury  they  do  to  the  m'stalline 
structure  of  the  mass,  introduce  violent  strains,  due 
to  the  unequal  contraction  of  the  adjoining  part.s 
whose  final  contraction  has  been  diflerent.  The 
enormous  lime  re(juired  by  a  large  casting  for  cooling 
is  not  generally  known.  A  solid  casting  sufticiently 
large  for  a  15-inch  gun  weighs  about  33  tons;  it  is 
red  hot  three  days  after  liaving  been  cast,  and 
only  Incomes  cold  enough  to  handle  after  a  fortnight. 
The  cooling  of  a  casting  nuist  be  uniform  so  far  as 
uniformity  is  possible.  This  is  impossible  strictly  in 
any  casting;  the  approach  to  it  is  most  difficult  in 
heavy  solid  castings,  and  hence  the  great  advantage 
of  the  practice  of  hollow  casting  upon  a  suitably 
made  core  admitting  of  internal  cooling  by  artificial 


CASTLE. 


305 


CASTLE. 


means.  The  contraction  of  cast-iron  in  becoming 
solid  Introduces  strains  into  tho  mass  by  consolida- 
tion of  one  portion  of  the  casting  before  another. 
When  a  large  gun  is  cast  solid  and  the  metal  cools  in 
the  ordinary  way,  the  e.xtemal  portions  solidify  long 
before  the  interior  has  ceased  to  be  liquid,  and  the 
process  of  solidilication  is  propagated,  as  it  were,  in 
parallel  layers  from  tlic  outside  to  the  center  of  the 
mass.  When  the  first  layer  or  thickness  of  solid 
crust  has  formed  on  the  exterior  it  forms  a  complete 
arch  all  round,  so  that  the  contraction  botween  fluid- 
ity and  solidification  of  each  subsequent  layer  is  ac- 
commodated by  portions  of  matter  withdrawn  radially 
from  the  interior  towards  the  still  cooling  exterior — 
that  is  to  say,  from  a  smaller  towards  a  larger  circimi- 
ference.  The  final  effect  of  this  propagated  to  the 
center  of  the  mass  is  twofold:  first,  to  produce  a 
violent  state  of  internal  tension  in  the  particles  of  the 
metal  in  radial  lines  from  the  axis  of  the  gim  inward 
as  a  cylinder,  tending  to  tear  away  the  external  por- 
tions of  the  mass  from  tlie  internal  nucleus;  second, 
to  produce  about  the  center  or  along  the  axis  a  line 
of  weakness,  and  one  in  which  the  texture  of  the 
metal  is  soft,  porous,  and  of  extremely  low  specific 
gravity.  The  effect  of  this  unequal  contraction  may 
be  so  great  as  to  crack  the  interior  metal  of  ca.st-iron 
cannon,  even  before  it  has  been  subjected  to  the  force 
of  gunpowder,  and  large  ma.sses  of  iron  which  have 
been  cooled  very  rapidly  by  casting  them  in  iron 
molds  have  been  known  to  split  open  longitudinally 
from  no  other  cause  than  the  enormous  strains  to 
which  they  arc  subjected. 

Guns  have  long  been  cast  in  a  vertical  position  and 
with  a  certain  amount  of  head  of  metal  above  the  top- 
most part  of  the  gun  itself.  From  this  head  the  cast- 
ing is  fed  with  fresh  portions  of  fluid  metal  during 
consolidation;  it  also  affords  a  gatheriug-place  for  ail 
scoria  or  other  foreign  matter.  But  tiie  great  value 
of  increased  head  of  metal  is  in  adding  to  the  density 
of  castings  and  so  also  to  their  strength,  fineness  of 
grain,  smallness  of  (Tystal,  density,  increased  cohe- 
sion, and  elasticity  are  all  induced  by  casting  imder 
largel}'  increased  statical  heads  of  fluid  metal. 

In  the  practical  treatment  of  iron  in  fusion  while 
preparing  it  for  casting  into  cannon,  it  may  be  sjifely 
continued  in  fusion,  with  increasing  improvement  of 
its  quality,  so  long  as  sufficient  liquidity  is  retained 
to  insure  an  exemption  from  cavities  in  the  interior  of 
the  casting.  The  point  at  which  such  ca\ities  of  a 
fatal  character  will  form  will  be  reached  before  ar- 
riving at  the  point  of  density  for  maximum  tenacity. 
A  convenient  method  for  determining  the  condition 
of  the  iron  while  in  fusion,  and  whether  it  has  arrived 
at  the  proper  condition  before  casting  or  should  be 
longer  continued  in  fusion,  is  found  in  dipping  from 
the  melted  pool  of  iron  and  casting  into  small  bars, 
about  10  inches  long,  and  from  1  to  2  inches  square 
at  one  end  and  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  other  end. 
The  first  one  is  taken  from  the  furnace,  and  cast  soon 
after  the  iron  is  all  melted,  and  others  are  cast  at  such 
intervals  afterwards  as  may  be  judged  proper.  Thej' 
are  cast  vertically,  point  downwards,  in  sand-molds, 
and  cooled  rapidly.  Proof-bars  are  cast  at  dififerent 
times  while  the  metal  is  in  fiLsion.  They  are  broken 
in  different  places,  and  the  condition  of  the  iron  is 
judged  by  the  appearance  of  the  several  fractures. 
These  fractures  will  exhibit  various  aspects,  from 
white  at  the  small  end  to  dark  gray  at  the  large  end: 
flttid  the  bars  cast  at  the  latter  periods  of  the  fusion 
will  exhibit  the  white  at  a  greater  distance  from  the 
small  end,  and  the  mottle,  bright  and  lighter  shades, 
will  be  found  advancing  towards  the  large  end.  This 
method,  although  much  less  reliable  than  that  of  an 
actual  measure  of  density  and  strength,  is  convenient 
because  of  its  ready  application  at  short  intervals, 
while  the  iron  is  iii  fusion,  and  a  practiced  eye  will 
soon  be  able  to  mark  the  progress  of  the  changing 
quality  of  the  iron,  and  to  determine  the  proper  time 
for  casting  the  gun.  In  process  of  time,  a  gradual 
adjustment  of  the  internal  strains  produced  in  cool-  i 


ing  cast  pieces  takes  place;  like  many  other  sul)stan- 
ces,  iron  possesses  the  property  of  accommodatinff 
itself  to  this.  " 

The  principal  improvement  in  the  fabrication  of 
cast-iron  guns  is  General  Hodman's  process  of  cooling 
them  as  far  as  possible  from  the  interior,  and  for  this 
purpose  casting  them  hollow.  The  design  is  to  rem- 
;  edy  the  various  defects  of  the  old  process;  principally 
to  obriate  the  tendency  of  .solid  castings  to  burst  bv 
their  own  initial  strains,  by  reversing  the  process  of 
cooling  and  shrinking  dest'ribed  above.  Since  there 
would  then  be  no  force  opposed  to  the  contraction  of 
I  the  inner  layers  of  metal,  except  the  trifling  cohesion 
of  the  liquid  or  pasty  mass  that  they  shrink  away 
from,  they  would  not  he  left  in  tension,  and  there- 
fore they  could  not  exert  any  power  to  pull  the  exte- 
rior layers  into  compression.  The  method  emploved 
is  to  carry  off  the  internal  heat  by  pa.ssing  a  stream 
of  water  through  a  hollow  core,  inserted  in  the  center 
of  the  mold-cavity  before  casting,  and  to  surround 
the  flask  with  a  mass  of  burning  coals  to  prevent  too 
rapid  radiation  from  the  exterior.  Extensive  trials 
have  been  made  to  test  the  merits  of  this  plan,  and 
the  results  show  that  cast-iron  cannon  made  by  it  are 
not  only  stronger  but  are  less  liable  to  enlargement  of 
the  bore  from  continual  firing,  the  surface  of  the  bore 
being  the  hardest  and  densest  part  of  the  casting, 
and  iK'st  calculated  to  resist  pressure  and  abrasion. 

Before  proceeding  to  manufacture  cannon  in  quan- 
tity, a  tridl-gun  may  be  made  and  exposed  to  extreme 
proof  with  icriw-charges.  After  undergoing  this 
j  proof  in  a  satisfactorj-  manner,  the  trial-gun  should 
serve  as  a  standard,  and  the  proportions  of  the  several 
kinds  of  metal  used,  and  the  methods  employed  in 
the  manufacture,  should  be  followed  in  all  respects  in 
the  fabrication  of  other  guns. 
I  With  the  trial-gun  should  be  cast  a  sample-gun,  or 
[  a  cylinder  of  equal  diameter,  and  at  least  half  the 
length  of  the  gun,  from  which  test  specimens  should 
be  cut  and  tested.  The  sample-gun  or  cylinder  should 
be  of  the  Siime  diameter  as  the  guns  to  be  made,  and 
should  Ix-  made  under  the  same  circumstances  which 
are  to  attend  the  preparation  of  the  iron  for,  and  the 
casting  and  cooling  of,  the  guns  themselves.  The 
object  of  the  sample  is  to  obtain  specimens  which 
have  not  been  subjected  to  pre\ious  strain  and  vibra- 
tion, as  would  be  the  ca.se  if  taken  from  the  frag- 
ments of  the  broken  trial-gun.  For  it  is  impossible 
to  rea.son  back  to  what  would  have  been  eitJier  the 
capacity  for  work,  or  work  due  to  elasticilj-  of  an 
unstrained  specimen,  by  knowing  to  what  extent 
the.se  properties  were  i)osse.ssed  by  that  specimen 
after  it  had  been  subjected  to  both  strains  and  vil)ra- 
tions  of  unknown  intensity  and  number.  And  al- 
though it  is  interesting  to  know  to  what  extent  these 
properties  are  pos.se.s.sed  by  the  fragments  of  a  worn- 
out  gun,  yet  it  would  be  of  far  greater  practical  utility 
and  importance  to  know  the  value  of  these  properties 
in  the  new,  untried  guns.  Specimens  thus  obtained 
would  afford  reliable  results,  and  in  connection  with 
the  powder-proof,  with  ser\ice  charges  of  guns  cast 
at  the  same  heat,  these  results  would  become  stand- 
ards. See  CrysUiUization,  Fifteeririnch  Gun,  Ord- 
nance, and  Rudmaii  Grin. 

CASTLE.— 1.  The  insignia  of  the  United  States  En- 
gineer  Corps,  as  represented  in  the  drawing.  2. 
A  building  constructed  for  tlie  purpose  of  repel- 
ling attack.  The  casUila,  left  by  the  Romans  in 
Britain  and  elsewhere,  were  constnicted  on  the  gen- 
eral model  of  their  stationary  encampments  {attra 
utafira);  and  though  they  may  have  .suggested  the 
castles  of  the  Middle  Ages,  they  differed  from  them 
in  being  designed  for  military  purposes  only,  and 
not  also  as  places  of  permanent  residence.  Even 
Burgh  Castle,  in  Suffolk,  the  ancient  Garamcnium, 
and  Rich  borough  Castle,  in  Kent,  the  ancient  Ru- 
tui>ite,  were  encimipments  or  fortres.«es,  rather  than 
castles.  Be-sides  these  monuments  of  the  military 
occupation  of  the  i.sland  by  the  Romans,  traces  are 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  country  of  encampments 


CASTLES. 


306 


CABTBAHETATIOir. 


or  casllfs,  which  are  oscrilK'd  to  its  aboriginal  or 
early  iuhiibilauls.  These  are  generally  situated  on 
the  tops  of  hills;  as,  for  exami>le,  the  ilerefoidsliire 
Beacon,  on  the  Malvern  Hills;  Moel  Arthur,  in  Flint- 
shire; C'hiin  Castle,  in  Cornwall;  the  Maiden  Castle, 
in  Dorsetshire;  the  Caterthuns,  near  Brechin,  in  For- 
farshire; the  Barnikin  of  Kelil,  in  Aberdeenshire. 
If  is  probable  that  the  ."^axons  adapted  the  Konian 
castles  to  a  certain  extent  to  their  modes  of  delense, 
and  traces  of  Sa.xon  and  even  Norman  workmanship 
are  found  in  structures  which  arc  believed  to  have 
been  originally  Koman.  One  very  frequent  change 
consisted  in  raising  a  mound  of  earth  on  one  side  of 
the  walls  on  which  the  keeji  or  citadel  was  erected. 
The  Decuman  anil  Prfetorian  gales  were  also,  as  at 
Portchester,  converted  into  the  forlitied  entrances 
peculiar  to  the  castellated  structures  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  But  of  cjistles  designed  for  residence  as  well 
as  defense  there  are  few  or  none  which  are  of  higher 
antiquity  than  the  Conquest.  They  were  part  of  the 
organization  of  the  feudal  system — castle-guard  being 
one  of  the  duties  which  the  tenants  were  bound  to 
pay  in  return  for  their  lands;  and  till  that  system 


Insignia  of  U.  S.  Engineer  Corps. 

was  developed  by  the  Normans,  the  residences  of 
persons  of  importance  were  probably  guarded  only 
by  their  domestic  retainers,  or,  in  extraordinary  cir- 
cumstances, perhaps  by  the  national  militia. 

The  Norman  castle  was  generally  surrounded  by  a 
moat  or  ditch;  and  in  order  that  the  ditch  mightbe 
readily  filled  with  water,  the  site  chosen  was  usually 
either  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  or  on  a  peninsula  run- 
ning into  a  lake.  In  the  latter  case  the  ditch  was  of 
course  merely  a  deep  cut  made  through  the  neck  of 
land,  by  means  of  which  the  ca.stle  and  its  surround- 
ings were  converted  into  an  island.  On  the  inner 
side  of  the  ditch  mounds  were  constructed,  which 
were  surmounleil  with  walls  and  towers,  both  of 
which,  but  particularly  the  latter,  were  supplied  with 
battlements  and  bastions.  The  entrance-gates  were 
also  protected  by  towers,  which  were  usually  of  great 
strength.  The  communication  was  by  a  bridge, 
sometimes  of  stone,  but  usually  of  wood,  which  was 
made  to  draw  up  and  down;  and  the  entrance,  in 
addition  to  thick  folding-doors,  was  protected  by  a 
portcullis,  which  was  dropped  down  through  grooves 
in  the  masonry  at  the  sides.  The  gateway,  in  castles 
of  the  larger  sort,  was  further  defended  by  a  barbi- 
can. On  passing  the  external  wall,  you  entered  the 
bailey,  which  .sometimes  consisted  of  several  courts, 
and  contained  the  barracks,  magazines,  a  well,  a 
chapel,  and  .sometimes  even  a  monastery.     The  only 

Sortion  of  the  castle  which  was  ahvays  spoken  of  as 
istinguished  from  the  bailey  was  the  keep  or  cita- 
del, which  corresponded  to  the  jira'torium  of  the 
Roman  fortilication.  The  keep  was  a  species  of  in- 
ternal castle,  more  strongly  defended  than  any  other 
portion  of  the  fortress,  and  placed  in  the  most  ad  van 
tageous  position,  so  as  to  alford  a  last  chance  to  the 
garrison  when  driven  from  the  external  works.  As 
the  keep  had  the  same  design  as  the  ca.stlc  it.self,  it 
contained  most  of  its  appliances,  even  to  a  chapel, 
when  large  and  complete.  The  keep  was  also  called 
the  dungeon  or  ilonjon.  An  excellent  example  of  a 
keep  is  seen  at  Rochester  Castle,  The  best  known  is 
probably  that  at  Windsor,  which  forms  .so  prominent 
im  object  in  the  surrounding  landscape.  The  protec- 
tion which  the  walls  of  his  castle  afforded  to  the  re- 


tainers of  a  baron  in  a  state  of  society  in  which  life 
and  ]iroperty  were  extremely  in.secure  naturally  led 
lo  the  construction  of  houses  around  the  moat,  and 
to  this  custom  a  very  large  numl)erof  the  towns,  both 
in  Enghuid  and  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  owe 
their  origin.  See  Fortification,  Keep,  and  tkifety- 
ritii'iilit. 

CASTLES. — In  Heraldry,  ca.stles  are  often  given  as 
(barges  in  the  shields  of  pei-sons  who  have  retluced 
them,  or  who  have  been  the  first  to  mount  their  walls 
in  an  assjiult. 

CASTRAMETATION.— The  art  of  laying  out  camps 
and  (if  placing  the  troops  so  that  the  different  arms 
of  the  service  shall  atFord  support  to  each  other  in 
the  best  manner.  A  locality  well  sheltered  and  se- 
cured, and  alTording  fuel,  grass,  and  fresh  water, 
.shoiUd  be  selected  for  the  camp.  If  it  is  expected  to 
remain  in  the  camp  for  any  great  length  of  time,  its 
sanitary  condition  must  be  carefully  observed.  All 
ponds,  swamiis,  lands  recently  stripped  of  their  tim- 
ber, and  muddy  rivers  must  be  kept  at  a  distance. 
In  a  malarious  district  it  is  well  to  habitually  sleep 
between  two  lires.  The  flood-level  of  the  nearest 
water  should  also  be  carefully  noticed — weeds  and 
stray  bits  of  diiftwood  washed  into  the  branches  of 
adjikent  trees  orbu.shcs  will  serve  as  a  guide.  Many 
streams  are  subject  to  sudden  and  feiTiiie  rises,  and  fre- 
quently without  imy  apparent  cause.  When  camping 
for  the  night  on  a  fordable  stream,  with  tile  intention 
of  crossing,  make  it  an  invariable  rule  to  cross  it  be- 
fore going  into  camp.  A  sudden  rise  or  appearance 
of  the  enem_v  might  seriously  interfere  with  the  ci'oss- 
ing  next  morning.  Windstorms  are  a  common  an- 
noj'ance  in  the  camp.  When  there  is  time  to  pre- 
pare for  their  coming,  the  tent-pegs  should  be  secured 
and  sufficient  guy-ropes  attached  to  the  tent.  If  the 
soil  is  loose  and  sandy,  rocks  or  other  hard  material 
should  be  placed  mider  the  tent-poles  to  prevent  their 
working  into  the  soil,  and  leaving  the  tent  slack  and 
unsteady;  the  pegs  should  .also  be  inclmed  towards 
the  tent,  and  driven  in  the  direction  of  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  tent-cords  (if  they  are  inclined  from  the 
tent  they  will  soon  be  jerked  loose).  When  the  pegs 
will  not  hold  at  all,  fa.sten  the  tent-cords  to  brush  or 
rocks  buried  in  the  soil.  A  few  trees  add  very 
much  to  the  comfort  of  a  camp,  and  when  they  are 
so  situated  as  to  permit  the  guj-  or  ridge  ropes  to  be 
made  fast  to  them  or  their  branches,  the  wind-storm 
need  not  be  dreaded. 

So  far  as  may  be  prudent,  the  camp  should  be  pro- 
tected by  blutTs  and  thickets,  and  the  backs  of  the 
tents  should  be  braced  from  towards  the  wind.  It  is 
not  proper  to  camp  beneath  certain  trees,  whose 
branches  are  liable  to  suddenly  fall  off.  In  a  hostile 
country  the  security  of  the  command  will  depend 
very  much  upon  the  judicious  selection  of  a  camp  as 
regards  its  capability  of  ilefense.  If  on  the  bank  of  a 
stream,  a  concave  bend,  where  the  water  is  very  deep, 
should  be  .selected.  In  such  a  position  the  defending 
party  can  cross  his  fire  in  case  of  an  attack  from  the 
other  bank,  or  can  herd  the  stock  in  the  concavity  of 
the  bend  in  order  to  avoid  a  stampede.  When  the 
camp  is  remote  from  a  stream  or  river,  a  i)ortion  of  it 
should  rest  on  the  highest  hill  or  blutf  within  range. 
As  a  rule  the  tents  should  be  pitched  on  that  side  of 
the  camp  most  exposed  to  attjick.  When  the  packs 
and  aparejos  are  removed  in  camp,  they  should  be 
arranged  so  as  to  fonn  a  fortilication  in  case  of  need. 
Immediately  upon  going  into  camp,  pickets  should  be 
posted  in  strong  positions,  and  sutlicienlly  close  to  the 
camp  to  give  timely  alarm  in  case  of  the  enemy's 
approach.  The  picket  should  be  posted,  during  day- 
light, on  some  eminence  near  the  camp,  where  he  can 
keep  a  lookout  iit  all  directions.  During  the  night 
lie  should  be  posl(^<l  several  hundred  yards  farther  in 
advance  of  the  point  subject  to  attack  and  on  low 
ground,  in  order  that  he  may  be  screened  from  obser- 
vation, and  at  the  .same  lime  .see  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, as  low  objects  will  then  appear  high  and  stand 
in  bold  relief  against  the  sky;  moreover,  in  timber 


CASTRAUETATION. 


307 


CASTSAMETATIOir, 


it  is  easy  to  see  a  great  distance  between  tlie  trunks  of 
the  trees,  while  their  tops  and  brauclies  hide  all  ob- 
jects bej'ond.  If  the  picket  discovei-s  the  enemy  and 
is  not  seen  himself,  he  should  quickly  withdraw  and 
report  the  facts  in  order  that  no  time  may  he  lost  in 
preparing  for  action.  But  if  the  picket  is  discovered 
by  the  enemy,  he  should  first  discharge  his  piece  and 
then  retreat.  To  save  time  and  avoid  all  false 
alarms,  a  well-detined  system  of  night  and  day  sig- 
nals should  be  devised,  before  going  into  the  hostile 
country,  and  thoroughly  imderstood  by  every  picket. 
In  this  way  they  could  very  readily  and  promptly 
communicate  their  discoveiiesto  the  camp. 

Xo  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  laying  out  camps 
that  will  be  universal.  The  proi>er  exercise  of  the 
art  of  cncami>ing  is  to  so  place  the  troops  that  they 
can  quickly  form  line  of  battle  on  the  position  they 
arc  to  occupy.  In  the  United  States,  troops  on  cam- 
paign are  jiroWded  with  the  shelter-tent,  the  pieces  of 
which  are  carrictl  by  the  occupants.  In  the  presence 
of  the  enemy  the  troops  bivouac  in  line  of  battle;  if 
safety  permits,  the  tents  may  be  pitchetl  immediately 
in  rear  of  the  line  of  stacks,  the  tent.s  of  the  Company 
Officers  in  rear  of  their  companies,  the  tents  of  the 
Field  and  Staff  in  rear  of  the  center  of  the  line  of  Com- 
pany Officers.  When  not  in  the  pre.sence  of  the  ene- 
my, each  battalion  usually  camps  in  column  of  di- 
\isions.  The  tents  of  each  di\ision  are  arranged  in 
two  lines  facing  each  other;  those  of  the  right  com- 
pany face  to  the  rear,  those  of  the  left  company  face 
to  the  front.  The  Company  Otficers'  tents  are  arranged 
in  line  parallel  to  the  llank  of  the  colunm,  facing  the 
di\-ision-stTeets;  the  tent  of  the  Captain  of  the  right 
company  of  each  division  is  to  the  right  (or  left)  of 
the  line  passing  through  the  center  of  the  street,  ac- 
cording as  the  officers  are  on  the  right  (or  left)  flank 
of  the  column,  his  Lieutenants  are  on  his  right  (or  left); 
the  Captain  of  the  left  company  is  on  the  left  (or  right) 
of  the  Captain  of  the  right  company,  tlie  Lieutenants 
of  his  company  on  his  left  (or  right).  The  First  Ser- 
geant's tent  is  on  the  flank  of  the  company  towards 
the  officers'  tents.  The  tents  of  the  Field  and  Staff, 
when  practicable,  are  in  line  parallel  to  tho.se  of  the 
Company  Officers;  the  Colonel  isopposite  the  center  of 
tlie  column.  Lieutenant-colonel  and  Major  are  on  his 
light,  the  Adjutant  is  on  the  left  of  the  Colonel;  the 
other  Staff  Otficers  are  on  the  left  of  the  Ad  jutjmt.  The 
tents  of  the  Non-commissioned  Staff  are  in  rear  of  the 
tents  of  the  Staff;  they  may  be  assigned  to  tents  in  the 
divisions. 

Camp  op  a  Regiment  op  Infaktrt  in  Column 
OF  Divisions. 

Line  of  Sinks. 


\      The  kitchens  of  the  men  are  in  line  on  the  flank 
'  opposite  the  Company  Officers;  the  sinks  for  the  men 
are  out.side  of  the  line  of  kitchens.     The  kitchens  of 
the  officers  are  in  rear  of  their  tents;  the  sinks  for  the 
[  officers  are  in  rear  of  the  line  of  tents  of  the  Field  and 
Staff.     The  positions  of  the  color-line,  guard-tents, 
sutlers'  store,   officers'  horses,    and    baggage- wagons 
are  pre.scrilx;d  by  the  Colonel.     The  width   of   the 
division-streets,  and  the  street  in  front  of  the  Com- 
pany Officers,  varies  with   the  nature  of  the  ground 
and  the  strength  of  the  battalion.     When  the  com- 
panies are  large,  the  camp  may  be  formed  according 
to  the  alMjve  principles,  in  column  of  companies,  the 
tents  of  each  company  being  in  one  line,  or  io  two 
I  lines  facing  each  other. 

A  battalion  of  Cavalrj  Ix  mg  in  line  with  the  usual 
intervals,  to  encamp,  the  men  dismount,  and,  without 
forming  rank,  unsaddle  and  place  their  arms  and 
equipments  in  line  ten  yards  in  front  of  the  horses; 
the  IJlanket  is  placed  on  the  equipment,  moist  side  up. 
The  picket-line  is  stretched  between  posts  about  six 
feet  high,  or  is  stretched  on  the  ground,  the  ends  be- 
ing finnly  secured;  the  horses  are  tied  to  the  picket- 
line  by  the  halter  at  intervals  of  a  yard;  if  the  picket- 
line  be  on  the  ground,  fhey  may  be  fastened  to  it  by 
i  a  strap  alKJut  two  and  a  half  feet  long,  the  strap  lie- 
i  ing  provided  with  a  collar  which  is  buckled  around 
I  the  pastern  of  the  left  fore-foot.  The  tents  of  the 
men  are  pitched  in  line  atout  fifteen  yards  in  front 
of  the  picket-line,  the  intervals  between  companies 
being  left  free;  the  tent  of  the  First  Sergeant  is  on  the 
right;  the  arms  and  equipments  are  kept  in  the  tents 
of  the  men.  The  kitchens  of  the  men  are  in  line  in 
front  of  their  tents;  the  sinks  in  front  of  the  line  of 
kitchens.  The  tents  of  the  Company  Officers  are  in 
line  about  thirty  yards  in  rear  of  the"  picket-line,  the 
Captain  on  the  right ;  their  kitchens  are  in  rear  of  their 
tents. 


00 


00 


Company  Kitchens. 
00  00 


00 


o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 


o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 

O  O- 

o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 

CO 


o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 

<-0  o, 
0  0 

o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 


0  0 

o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  0_ 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 
o  o 


o 

s? 

o  ~ 

■  -0  5 

o  ? 
0-- 

o  2. 
o  ."- 
o 


TentH  nf  Company  0/Prers. 

oooooooooooooooooooo 

Officers'  Kitiheiis. 

0  0  0  0  0 

A 
Field  ami  .<;lnff. 

0  0  0  0  0 


Non'Commissioned  Staff.  0 


0  Kitchen  of  Field  and 
Staff. 
Officers*  Sinks. 


it 

1 

^t                    ^t 

1            1 

n       « 

1 

1 

h 

t't                    it 

It     it 

« 

s| 

Guard. 
00 

000000 

Ut  Sergf.q 

0  0  Kitchen. 

^ 

Qfflcert.  0  0  0 

o 

0  0  6 

S 

J> 

it 

.'.    ■  .'t 

Sink. 

Sink.  : 

Fio.  1. 


Wlien  Artillery  camp,  the  itieces  and  caissons  are 
parked  at  fourteen  vanis'  interval.  a«  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
The  harness  of  the 'team  of  each  carriage  is  on  a  rack 


CASTBIOTTO  SYSTEM  OF  FOKTIFICATION. 


308 


CAST  STEEL  0UN8. 


on  the  right,  and  close  to  the  carriage,  so  tliat  the 
paiilin  can  cover  the  harness.  Horse  equipments  are 
kept  on  the  racks  or  in  the  tents.  The  pieket-line  is 
fifteen  yards  in  rear  of  the  caissons;  it  is  stretched 
between  posts  alwut  si.x  feet  hish,  the  ends  being 
firmly  secure<i ;  the  horses  arc  tied  to  the  picket-Une 
by  tlie  halter  at  intervals  of  a  yard.  The  men's  tenia 
ai-e  pitclutl  in  line  about  thirty  yards  in  rear  of  the 
picket-line;  the  First  Sergeant's  tent  covers  the  car- 
rirtires  of  the  right  section;  the  left  .guaid-teht  covers 
the  carriages  of  the  left  section:  the  tents  of  each 
section  are  in  the  order  of  their  pieces  in  park,  and 
are  close<l  on  the  center,  or  to  the  right,  so  as  to  have 
a  vacant  space  between  the  giiard-tcnts  and  the  tents 
of  the  left  section.  The  men's  kitchens  are  in  line 
ten  yards  in  rear  of  the  guard-tents,  -nhich  may  lie 
faced  to  the  right  so  that  No.  1  can  overlook  the 
kitchen.  The  officers'  tents  are  in  line  thirty  yards  in 
rear  of  the  battery -tents;  the  Captain's  tent  is  on  the 
right,  covering  that  of  the  First  Sergeant.  The  offi- 
cers' kitchens  are  ten  j'ards  in  rear  of  their  tents. 
The  battery-wagon,  baggiigc-wagons,  and  forge  are 
in  line  thirty  yards  in  rear  of  the  officers'  tents;  the 
batteri'-wagoii  covers  the  Captain's  tent;  tho  forge 
covers  tlie  left  guard-tent.  The  sinks  are  fifty  yards 
in  rear  of  the  wagons;  the  officers'  sink  on  tluo  right, 
the  men's  sinks  on  the  left. 

Guard. 
00 


tt  « 

1    1     1    1 

«  n  «  « 

1     1 

it  it  it  it 

h 

B.  W. 


^     it    it    it    i^ 


Kitchen.  |  : 

O  o  Forge.  ^ 


bOOOOOOOOOOO    OlstSergt. 


c  o 


Sink. 


Sink.': 


Fio.  2. 

The  preceding  order  may  tx  modified  as  shown 
in  Fi,g.  2,  if  circumstances  require  it.  The  battery- 
■wagon  and  baggage  wagons  may  be  in  line  with  the 
pieces,  the  interval  between  the  battery -wagon  and 
nearest  piece  being  fourteen  yards,  that  between  the 
battery-wagon  and  left  baggage-wagon  about  thirty 
yards;  the  guard-tents  half-way  between  the  lialterv-- 
wagon  and  baggage-wagons,  facing  to  the  rear;  tlie 
fora,ge-pile  between  the  guard-tents  and  the  baggage- 
wagons;  the  forge  in  line  with  the  cais,sons  and  cov- 
ering the  right  l)agga.ge  wagon;  the  men's  kitchens  in 
line  with  the  caissons,  and  covering  the  left  baggage- 
wagon;  the  officer's  tente  on  a  line  perpendicular  to 
the  men's  tents,  facing  them,  and  on  the  prolongation 
of  one  of  the  baggage-wagons;  the  olficers'  kitchen 
in  rear  of  the  officers'  tents,  and  on  the  jirolongation 
of  the  forge.  In  a  horsc-hattrry,  if  Ijut  one  picket- 
line  Ijc  used,  it  may  be  turned  equally  to  the  front 
around  the  flanks  of  the  park;  the  liatterv-wagon, 
forge,  and  baggage-wagons  may  lie  divided  equally 
ana  placed  on  the  flanks  of  the  men's  tents,  facing 
inward,  and  so  as  to  be  on  the  prolongation  of  the 
bent  portions  of  the  picket-line.  The  picket-line  may 
also  be  in  one  straight  line,  in  wliich  ca.se  the  bag- 
gage-wagons should  1m-  equally  divided  upon  lines  to 
the  rear  of  its  extremities.  The  horses  are  sometimes 
picketed  !n  two  lines,  in  which  case  the  second  line  is 
fourteen  yards  in  rear  of  the  first,  and  the  wagons 


are  placed  in  line  thirty  yards  in  rear  of  the  men's 

tents.     See  Camp. 

CA8TRI0TT0  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In 
this  system  the  bastions  are  replaced  by  rounii  towers, 
and  the  enceinte  is  covered  by  det^icheil  bastions. 
Vauban  borrowed  his  second  and  third  systems  from 
Castriotlo.  He  reconimeiKled  demi-revetments  and 
also  holl<iw  revetments.     See  Fortifeafinn. 

CAST-STEEL. —This  term  until  lately  was  con- 
fined lo  steel  made  by  luelling  blister-steel,  obtained 
by  the  old  cementation  process.  Through  this  sim- 
ple operation  of  melting  it  in  crucibles,  which  wsis  in- 
vented by  an  Englishman  nameil  Huntsman  about 
the  middle  of  last  century,  steel  was  first  readily  made 
perfectly  homogeneous,  and  fitted  for  the  i>roduction 
of  the  finer  kinds  of  tools  and  cutting  instruments. 
The  crucibles  are  ma<ie  of  fire-clay,  mi.\ed  with  a 
small  proportion  of  tlie  material  of  old  ones  and  coke. 
They  are  very  carefully  prepared  and  annealed,  b\it 
notwithstanding  this  the  heat  of  the  furnace  is  so 
high  that  they  can  oidy  be  three  times  used.  Each 
crucible  contains  from  30  to  40  lbs.  of  steel,  which 
is  poured,  when  melted,  into  cast-iron  ingot-molds 
previously  smoked.  The  name  "cast-steel,  "however, 
can  no  longer  be  confined  to  steel  so  made,  because 
Bes.semer  steel,  although  produced  by  a  (|uite  differ- 
ent process,  is  truly  a  aist-stcel.  In  Sheffield  the 
finer  kinds  of  cast-steel  are  now  sometimes  called 
"crucible-steel;"  but  since  puddled  steel,  which,  like 
the  Bessemer,  cannot  be  used  for  fine  cutlery,  is  also 
cast  in  crucibles,  such  a  term  is  not  sufficiently  dis- 
tinctive. See  Bemnur  SUiel,  Crucible-gteel,  Puddled 
SUsel,  and  Stfil. 

CAST-STEEL  GUNS.— In  the  fabrication  of  these 
guns,  the  best  quality  steel  is  cast  info  ingots  4  feet 
long  and  15  inches  sfjuare;  the  ingots  are  heated  and 
hammered  down  till  they  are  about  7  inches  square, 
and  long  enough  for  two  guns.  The  ends  are  ham- 
mered round,  and  a  square  block  is  left  jn  the  middle 
for  the  breech-mechanism,  and  two  smaller  blocks 
for  the  trunnions,  presenting  the  shape  shown  in  the 
drawing.    The  ingot  is  cut  in  halves  at  A,  thus  form- 


_r 


ing  the  blocks  for  two  guns.  The  gun-block  is  bored 
to  a  diameter  of  2.5  inches,  heated  to  a  red  heat  and 
immersed  in  an  oil-bath  to  temper  it.  After  being 
tempered,  it  is  fumed  and  bored  to  a  diameter  of  2.93 
inches  and  finally  rifled,  the  grooves  being  .04  inch 
deep.  The  rimbases  are  planed  to  the  proper  dimen 
sions,  and  the  trunnions  arc  .screwed  into  tlieni.  To- 
ward the  Ijottom  of  the  lx)re,  and  immediately  in 
rear  of  llie  full  rifling,  is  found  the  ".shot -chamber." 
When  the  shot-chamber  is  reached,  however,  the  ribs 
are  cut  away  b.v  a  slope  toward  the  rear,  having  an 
inclination  of  .04  of  an  inch,  the  depth  of  the  rib,  in 
2  inches  of  length.  This  incline  is  called  the  com 
pression-slope,  it  receives  the  belt  of  the  pro.iectile 
(when  loaded),  and  centens  the  latter  while  in  the 
loading  position  and  as  it  is  being  driven  into  the 
bore.  To  the  rear  of  this  compression-slope  the 
chamber  continues  on  at  a  somewhat  qviicker  inclina- 
tion, connecting  the  shot-chamber  w-ith  the  powder- 
chamber.  The  latter  is  also  a  fnmcated  cone,  and 
has  a  diameter  at  the  forward  end  of  3.2  inches,  and 
at  the  rear  end  of  3.25  inches  where  the  ring-recess 
is  placed.  The  ring-recess  is  a  short  cylinder  .39  of 
an  inch  long.  It  contains  the  Broadwell  ring,  or 
gas-check.  Immediately  in  rear  of  the  ring-recess  is 
the  screw-box.  1 1  lias  a  female  screw  chased  upon 
its  surface,  the  thread  having  the  same  profile  and 
pitch  as  tliat  upon  the  breech-plug.  Three  blanks 
are  planed  longitudinally  through  the  thread,  each 
one  removing  one  sixth  of  the  surface.  One  blank  is 
at  the  lowest  side  of  the  screw-box,  and  the  other  two 
equidistant  from  the  first  around  the  interior  surface. 


^^ 


BiLiBTji.  Catapltlts,  a>-I'  othkr  modes  of    Romas  Waiib-ahe.      1.  LegiL-nary.    ^-     "^j'"     igg  drsimi 
of  battle  of  the  oohorta,     11.  Boinan  encampment  for  five  legious-     12.  Tlau  oi  •■      "'^ 


r^ 


*"ible  low""^^"^  li'^  n*^"""^'°"'    **• '^"''""«  of  wnr.    7,  Lictors.    8.  Consul.    0.  Roman  cavolry,    10.  Plan 
"■    U.  flallBta  (stone-thrower).    15.  Battering-rara.    )C.  Battle -chariot.    IT,  18.  Catapults. 


CASUALTIES. 


309 


CATAPULT. 


The  plug,  which  is  a  cylindrical  piece  of  steel, 
has  a  thread  cut  upon  it.  One  half  of  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  plug-tlircad  is  cut  away,  in  the  .same 
manner  a.s  ha.s  already  been  described'for  the  screw 
bo.\,  and  the  area  thus  to  be  removed  is  distributed 
into  three  longituilinal  blanks,  cut  at  equal  intervals 
around  the  engaging  suiface.  Thus  there  are  on  the 
plug,  and  also  in  the  screw-box,  three  sections  of 
screw-threads,  .sejiarated  by  blanks,  running  jjarallel 
to  an  element  of  the  bore,  forming  a  slotted  screw.  In 
order  to  lock  or  secure  the  plug  into  the  rear  of  the 
bore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  match  its  threaded  sec 
tions  to  the  blanks  of  the  screw-box,  and  to  push  the 
plug  at  once  home.  A  turn  to  the  right  of  one  sixth 
of  the  circle  then  engages,  at  the  same  time,  all  the 
threads  of  the  plug  with  those  of  the  screw-box ;  after 
•which  the  plug  is  ready  to  oppose  the  effort  of  the 
charge.  In  rwir  of  the  threaded  sections  the  plug  is 
plain,  where  it  works  tireumferentially  in  the  collar, 
and  it  is  tencinated  at  the  rear  end  by  a  tiange, 
having  its  forward  side  furnished  with  locking-faces, 
the  u.se  of  which  will  lie  explained  elsewhere.  The 
rear  end  of  the  plug  is  deeply  recessed,  in  order  to 
obtain  lightness;  die  forward  end  is  temunated  by  a 
flat  face,  which  is  reces.sed  in  the  center  to  receive  the 
boss  of  the  nose-plate.  The  plug  is  also  pierced  with 
an  axial  hole  one  inch  in  diameter.  The  nose-plate  is 
made  of  steel,  and  is  somewhat  less  in  diameter  than 
the  body  of  the  plug.  It  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  low  truncated  cone,  terminated  by  two  short 
cylinders.  On  its  rear  surface  it  has  a  "  boss,"  from 
■which  projects  the  stem,  which  pas.ses  thnjugh  the 
hole  in  the  a.xis  of  the  plug.  A  nut  runs  upon 
this  stem,  and,  bearing  against  the  forward  face  of  the 
hollow,  brings  the  nose-plate  to  a  firm  bearing  against 
the  forward  face  of  the  plug.  The  forward  face  of 
the  nose-plate  bears  against  the  gas-check  ring  when 
the  breech  is  locked.  The  vent  passes  entirely  through 
the  axis  of  the  no.seplate  and  stem,  the  rear  orifice 
being  found  in  the  center  of  the  after-end  of  the 
stem,  and  the  forward  one  in  the  center  of  the  nose- 
plate. 

At  the  latter  point  the  nose-plate  is  recessed,  and  a 
gas-check  is  fitted  over  the  oritice  of  the  vent.  This 
vent-check,  as  it  is  called,  consists  of  a  disk  of  mild 
steel,  secured  over  the  interior  oritice  of  the  vent  by 
four  steel  screws,  which  pierce  through  the  disk  j)er- 
pendicular  to  its  flat  .surface  and  near  its  edge.  The 
screws  are  equidistant  from  one  another,  and  their 
lieads  are  not  set  down  hard  upon  the  disk,  but 
allow  it  to  ri.se  about  .03  of  an  inch.  The  pressure  of 
primer-gas  through  the  vent  pushes  the  (lisk  forward 
and  admits  flame  to  the  charge;  then  the  pressure  of 
gas  arising  from  the  combustion  of  the  charge  forces 
the  disk  timily  back  upon  the  oritice  of  the  vent,  and 
prevents  all  leakage  in  that  direction.  The  shanks 
of  the  four  securing-screws  act  as  guides  to  the  disk 
during  its  motion.  The  outer  oiifice  of  the  vent  is 
found  at  the  rear  end  of  the  axis  of  the  stem;  but  as 
this  is  not  a  convenient  place  from  which  to  tire  the 
primer,  a  secondare  or  offset  vent  is  drilkd  nearly 
through  a  short  cylinder  of  steel,  the  lower  end  of 
wrhich  is  made  to  pass  vertically  dov^^l  through  the 
nose-plate  stem  near  its  rear  end."  The  lower  end  of 
the  vent  in  this  cylinder  is  turne<I  at  right  angles  and 
-comes  out  in  the  a.\is  of  the  main  vent.  The  Broad- 
well  gas-check  ring  is  made  of  copper  or  steel  and  tits 
into  the  ring-recess.  The  front  of  the  ring  bears 
against  the  forward  face  of  the  recess,  and  the  face 
projects  .01  of  an  inch  to  the  rear  of  the  recess  wall. 
The  ring  is  cylindrical  on  its  exterior,  fits  the  recess 
neatly,  and  its  face  is  furnished  with  two  circular 

frooves.  The  foi-ward  side  (or  curve)  of  the  ring  is 
urnished  with  an  expansion-groove  and  rib,  and  the 
forward  face  of  the  nose-plate  bears  squarely  against 
the  face  of  the  ring  when  the  breech-mechanism  is 
locked.     See  Ordnance. 

CASUALTIES. — In  the  military  service,  a  word 
which  includes  all  los,ses  in  numerieal  strength  of  offi- 
cers by  death,  dismissal,  or  resignation,  and  of  enlisted 


men  by  death,  desertion,  or  discharge;  also  all  losses 
in  fighting  strength  caused  by  wounds. 

CASUS  BELLI.— A  phrase  used  with  reference  to 
any  event,  or  comjilication  between  sovereign  powers, 
which  gives  ri.se  to  a  declaration  of  war. 

CAT— CAT-CASTLE.— In  the  military  engineering 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  kind  of  movable  tower  to  cover 
the  saiijiers  as  they  advanced  to  a  besieged  place. 
The  garrison  .sometimes  jioured  down  burning  pitch 
and  boiling  oil  from  the  walls  upon  the  o/l;  but 
occasionally  this  stratagem  was  disiistrous,  for  the 
besiegers  availed  themselves  of  the  blazing  tower  to 
burn  the  w<i<iden  gates  of  the  town  or  fortress. 

CATAFALCO.— In  ancient  military  architecture,  a 
scaffold  of  timber,  decorated  with  "sculpture,  paint- 
ings, etc.,  for  supporting  the  colfin  of  a  deceased  hero 
during  the  funeral  solemnity. 

CATALAN  FUENACE.— A  lilast-fumace  for  reduc- 
ing iron-ores,  extensively  used  in  the  North  of  Spain, 
parlicularlj-in  the  province  of  Catalonia,  from  whence 
it  derives  its  came,  and  whence  it  was  probably  in- 
troduced into  Southwestern  Europe.  It  consists  of  a 
four-sided  cavity  or  hearth,  which  is  always  placed 
wilhin  a  building  and  separated  from  the  mam  wall 
thereof  by  a  thinner  interior  wall,  which  in  part  con- 
.stitutes  one  side  of  the  funiace.  The  blast-pipe  comes 
through  the  wall,  and  enters  the  fire  through  a  tuyere 
which  slants  downward.  The  bottom  is  f'onned  "of  a 
refractoiy  stone,  which  is  renewable.  The  furnace 
has  no  chimneys.  The  blast  is  produced  by  means 
of  a  fall  of  water,  usually  from  23  to  27  feet  high, 
through  a  rectangular  tube,  into  a  rectangular  cistern 
below,  to  whose  upperpart  the  blast-pipe  is  connected, 
the  water  escaping  through  a  pipe  below.  This  ap- 
paratus is  exterior  to  the  building,  and  is  .said  toafford 
a  continuous  blast  of  great  regularity;  the  air,  when 
it  passes  into  the  furnace,  is,  however,  .saturated  with 
moisture.     This  apparatus  is  called  a  trompe. 

CATAPHRACT.— The  okl  Homan  term  for  a  horse- 
man in  comjilcte  armor.     Kow  obsolete. 

CATAPHEACTA.— In  the  ancient  militarj-  art,  a 
piece  of  heavy  defensive  anuor,  formed  of  cloth  or 
leather,  fortified  with  iron  scales  or  links,  wherewith 
sometimes  only  the  breast,  sometimes  the  whole  body, 
and  sometimes  the  horse  also,  was  covered. 

CATAPHEACTI.— The  cavalry  of  the  Greeks  con- 
sLsted  of  two  kinds.  1.  Th('  Catuphracti,  or  heavy 
cavalrj',  in  which  both  rider  and  horse  were  well  cov- 
ered with  defensive  armor;  the  former  armed  with 
the  lance,  and  a  saber  slung  from  a  shoulder-belt. 
2.  A  light  cavalry  of  an  irregular  character,  who  were 
without  defensive  amior,  consisting  of  archers  and 
lancers,  who  also  carried  a  sword,  javelin,  and  a  small 
buckler.  The  position  of  the  cavalry,  in  line  of  battle, 
was  on  the  wings.  The  duties  of  this  arm  were  main- 
ly to  charge  that  of  the  enemy.  The  Cataphracti,  for 
this  puipose,  were  chawn  up  on  each  wing,  with  a 
portion  of  the  light  cavalry  on  each  of  their  flanks. 
The  charge  was  made  by  the  fomier,  and  the  latter 
followed  up  any  success  gained  by  them. 


Catapult 


CATAPULT— CATAPULTA.— A  wariike  machine 
used  in  ancient  times  for  projecting  stones,  long  darts, 
or  javelins.  There  were  different  kinds  and  sizes  of  ca- 


CATCHPOLE. 


310 


CATOPTRICS. 


tapultie  to  which  various  names  wore  given.  The  small- 
er kinds  wen-  in  the  form  of  a  crossbow:  the  laru'er 
were  supiwrliil  hvn  fniine  which  sustainol  two  arms 
moving  horizonlallv,  having  for  a.  motive  force  two 
skeins  of  catgiit.  Thccatapulta  was  less  jx)werful  than 
the  lialista,  hut  won-  uniform  in  it-s  nuige.  C'ata- 
pullip  have  occivsionally  iR'en  used  in  modern  warfare. 
There  was  one  erected"  at  Gibndlar  by  General  Mel- 
ville, for  the  i)uriK>se  of  throwing  stones  a  short 
distance  over  the  edge  of  the  rock  in  a  particular 
place  where  the  Spaniards  used  to  fretpient.  and 
where  tlu'V  could  not  1h'  annoyed  by  shot  or  shell. 

CATCHPOLE.  —  A  Genuan'  implement  of  war,  of 
the  tifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  It  was  shaped 
like  the  irarfurk,  with  sharp  points  projecting  to 
the  rear,  wasatxHit  14  inches  long,  and  fixed  on  to 
a  long  sliaft.  This  terrible  weapon  was  intended  to 
catcirihe  adversjirv  bv  the  throat  and  uidiorse  him. 

CATENARY.— The'  curve  formed  by  a  flexible 
bomogcneous  coril  hanging  freely  between  two  points 
of  supiMirt,  and  acted  on  by  no  other  force  than  grav- 
ity. If  the  coril  is  not  homogeneous,  and  the  density 
varies  in  any  regular  way,  the  cord  hangs  in  a  curve 
slightly  different  in  shape  from  that  of  the  ordinary 
catenarv.  The  catenary  pos.sesscs  several  remarkable 
properties,  one  of  which  is  that  its  center  of  gravity 
is  lower  than  that  of  any  curve  of  equal  perimeter, 
and  with  the  same  fixed  points  for  its  extremities. 
■\Vhcre  the  cortl  is  such  that  the  weight  of  any  part 
of  it  is  proportioned  to  it.s  horizontal  projection,  the 
curve  is  a  paralwla.  The  latter  curve  and  the  ordi- 
nary catenary  are  of  importance  chiefly  in  the  theory 
of  suspension-bridges. 

CATERVA. — In  ancient  military  writings,  a  term 
used  in  speakijig  of  tlie  Gaulish  or  Celtiberian  armies, 
denoting  a  body  of  6000  armed  men.  The  word  is 
also  used  to  denote  a  i)arty  of  soldiers  in  disarnxy ;  in 
opposition  io  cohort  or  turma,  which  signify  in  good 
onler. 

CATGUT.— The  material  employed  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  the  strings  of  violins,  harps,  guitars,  and  other 
musical  instruments;  as  also  in  the  cords  used  by 
clockmakers,  i'l  the  bows  of  archers,  and  in  whip- 
cord. It  is  generally  prepared  from  the  intestines  of 
the  sheep,  rarely  from  those  of  the  horse,  ass,  or  mule, 
and  not  those  of  the  cat.  The  first  stage  in  the  ope- 
ration is  the  thorough  cleansing  of  the  intestines  from 
adherent  feculent  and  fatty  matters;  after  which  they 
arc  steeped  in  waler  for  several  days,  so  as  to  loosen 
the  external  membrane,  which  can  then  be  removed 
by  scraping  w  ith  a  blunt  knife.  The  material  which 
is  thus  scraped  off  is  employed  for  the  cords  of  battle- 
doors  and  rackets,  and  also  as  thread  in  sewing  the 
ends  of  intestines  together.  The  scraped  intestines 
are  then  steeped  in  water,  and  scraped  again,  when 
the  large  intestines  are  cut  and  placed  in  tubs  with 
salt,  to  preserve  them  for  the  saasage-maker;  an<l  the 
smaller  intestines  are  steei)ed  in  water,  thereafter 
treated  with  a  dilute  solution  of  alkali  (4  oz.  potjtsh,  4 
oz.  carl)onate  of  potash,  and  3  to  4  gallons  of  water, 
with  occasionally  a  little  alum),  and  arc  lastly  drawn 
through  a  perforaUd  bra.s.s  thimble,  and  a.ssorted  into 
their  respective  sizes.  In  order  to  destroy  any  adher- 
ent animal  matter,  which  would  lead  to  "putr-efaction 
and  the  conscfpieiit  di'velopment  of  offensive  odors,  it 
is  customary  to  subject  the  catgut  to  the  fumes  of 
burning  sulphur— sulphurous  acid,  which  acts  as  an 
antiseptic  and  arrests  decomposition.  The  l)est  strings 
are  us«'d  for  musical  instruments;  and  those  which 
come  from  Italy,  and  are  known  as  linmtin  strings, 
are  the  strongest.  They  are  remarkable  for  their 
clearness  and  tnuisparency.  Cord  for  clockmakers  is 
made  from  the  smallest  of  the  intestines,  and  occa- 
sionally from  larger  ones,  which  have  been  split 
longitudinally  into  several  lengths.  Whip-cord  is 
fabricale<l  from  catgut,  which  has  Ix-en  twisted  in  a 
manner  somewliat  similar  to  single-corded  ropes.  The 
catgut  obtained  from  the  intestines  of  horses,  a.s,ses, 
and  m\des  is  principally  made  in  France,  and  is  em- 
I)loycd  insteail  of  leather  belts  for  driving  machinery. 


CATHARINE-WHEEL  —  CATHERINE-WHEEL.- 
1.  A  form  of  firework  having  a  spiral  tube  which  ro- 
tates as  the  fire  issues  from  the  aperture.  Catharine 
is  the  name  of  several  saints  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  simple  designation  of  Saint  Cathnrine. 
however,  is  givin  to  a  virgin,  said  to  have  been  of 
royal  descent,  in  Alexandrisi,  who,  publicly  confess- 
ing the  Gospel  at  a  sacrificial  feast  appointed  liy  the 
Kin|X'ror  Maximinus,  was  put  to  death  in  :j07  A.D., 
after  being  tortured  on  a  wheel.  Hence  the  name 
Catharine-wheel.  2.  The  Catharine-wheel  is  frequent- 
ly used  as  a  charge  in  coats  of  arms,  when  it  is  rep- 
resented with  teeth. 

CAT-O'-NINE-TAILS.— A  whip  with  nine  knotted 
cords.  It  is  occasionally  used  in  the  British  scr\ice 
for  the  punishment  of  soldiers  convicted  of  heinous 
crimes. 

CATOPTRICS. — That  subdivision  of  geometrical  op- 
tics which  treats  of  the  phenomena  of  light  incident 
upon  the  surfaces  of  bodies,  and  reflected  there- 
from. All  bodies  reflect  more  or  less  light,  even 
those  through  which  it  is  most  readily  tran.smissible; 
light  falling  on  svich  media,  for  instance,  at  a  certain 
angle,  is  totally  reflected.  Rough  surfaces  scatter  or 
disperse  a  large  portion  of  what  falls  on  them,  through 
which  it  is  that  their  pecidiarities  of  figure,  color,  etc., 
are  seen  by  eyes  in  a  variety  of  positions;  they  are  not 
Siud  to  reflect  light,  but  there  is  no  doubt  they  do, 
though  in  such  a  way,  owing  to  their  inequalities,  as 
never  to  present  the  phenomena  of  reflection.  The 
.surfaces  with  which  catoptrics,  accordingly,  deals  are 
the  smooth  and  polished.  It  tracks  the  course  of  rays 
and  pencils  of  light  after  reflection  from  such  sur- 
faces, and  determines  the  positions,  and  traces  the 
forms,  of  images  of  objects  as  seen  in  mirrors  of  dif- 
ferent kinds. 

A  ray  of  light  is  the  smallest  conceivable  portion  of 
a  stream  of  light,  and  is  represented  by  the  line  of  its 
path,  which  is  always  a  straight  line.  A  pencil  of 
light  is  an  assemblage  of  rays  constituting  cither  a 
cylindrical  or  conical  stream.  '  A  stream  of  light  is 
(idled  a  converging  pencil  w hen  the  rays  converge  to 
the  vertex  of  the  cone,  called  a  focus;"  and  a  diverg- 
ing pencil  when  they  diverge  from  the  vertex.  The 
axis  of  the  cone  in  each  case  is  called  the  axis  of  the 
pencil.  When  the  stream  consists  of  parallel  rays, 
the  pencil  is  called  cylindrical,  and  the  axis  of  the 
cylinder  Ls  the  axis  of  the  pencil.  In  nature,  all  pen- 
cils of  light  are  primarily  diverging— ^-very  point  of 
a  luminous  body  throwing  off  light  in  a  conical 
stream;  converging  rays,  however,  are  continually 
produced  in  optical  instruments,  and  when  light  di- 
verges from  a  very  distant  liody.  such  as  a  flxed  star, 
the  rays  from  it  falling  on  any  small  body,  such  as  a 
reflector  in  a  telescope,  may,  w ithout  error,  lie  re- 
garded as  forming  a  cylindrical  pencil.  When  a  ray 
falls  upon  any  surface,  the  angle  which  it  makes  witb 
the  normal  to"  the  surface  at  the  point  of  incidence  is 
called  t/ie  angl-e  of  incidence ;  and  that  which  the  re- 
flected ray  makes  with  the  normal  is  called  the  angle 
of  rcJii'Hion . 

Two  facts  of  observation  form  the  groundwork  of 
catoptrics.  They  are  expressed  in  what  are  called 
the  laws  of  reflection  of  light:  1.  In  the  reflection 
of  light,  the  incident  ray,  tlie  normal  to  the  surface 
at  the  point  of  incidence,  and  the  reflected  ray  lie  all 
in  one  plane.  2.  The  angle  of  reflection  is  equal  to 
the  angle  of  incidence.  Theses  laws  are  simple  facts  of 
observation  and  experiment,  and  they  are  easily  veri- 
fied experimentally.  Rays  of  all  colors  and  qualifies 
follow  these  laws,  so  that  wiiitc  light,  after  reflection, 
remains  uiulecomposed.  The  laws,  too,  hold,  what- 
ever be  the  nature,  geometrically,  of  the  surface.  If 
the  surface  be  a  plane,  the  normal  is  the  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  plane  at  the  point  of  incidence:  if  it  be  curved, 
then  the  normal  is  the  perpendicular  to  the  tangent 
plane  at  that  point.  From  these  laws  and  geometrical 
considerations  may  be  deduced  all  the  i)ropositions 
of  catoptrics.  In  the  jiresent  work  only  those  can 
be  noticed  whose  truth  can  in  a  manner  lie  exhibited 


CATOPTRICS. 


311 


CATOPTBICS 


to  the  eye  without  having  rigid  mathematical  proof. 
They  are  arranged  under  the  heads  plane  surfaces  and 
curred  surfaces. 

Plane  Surfaces.  —  1.  When  a  pencil  of  parallel 
rays  falls  upon  a  plane  mirror,  the  reflected  pencil 
consists  of  parallel  rays.  A  glance  at  Fig.  1,  where 
PA  and  QB  are  two  of  the  incident  rays  and  are  re- 
flected in  the  directions  AR  and  BS  respectively,  will 
make  the  truth  of  this  pretty  clear  to  the  eye.  The 
reader  miiy  sjilisfy  himself  of  its  truth  practically  by 
taking  a  number  of  rods  parallel  to  one  another  anil 
inclined  to  the  tioor,  and  then  turning  them  over  till 
they  shall  again  be  equally  inclined  to  the  floor,  when 
he  will  again  lind  them  aJl  parallel.  2.  If  a  diverg- 
ing or  converging  pencil  is  incident  on  a  plane  mirror, 
the  focus  of  the  reflected  pencil  is  situated  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  mirror  to  that  of  the  incident 
pencil,  and  at  an  equal  distance  from  it.  Suppose 
the  pencil  to  be  diverging  from  the  focus  Q,  Fig.  2, 


turned  to  one  another;  Q  will  produce  in  the  mirror 
CD  the  image  g'-.  This  image  will  act  as  a  new  ob- 
ject to  produce  with  the  mirror  BA  the  image  g-, 
which,  again,  will  produce  with  the  mirror  CD  an- 
other image,  and  so  on.  Another  series  of  ima*es, 
such  as  g  ,  q',  etc.,  will  similarly  be  produced  at  the 
same  time,  the  tirst  of  the  series  being  g ,  the  image 
of  Q  in  the  mirror  BA.  By  an  eye  placed  between 
the  mirrors,  the  succession  of  images  will  be  seen  as 
described;  and  if  the  mirrors  were  perfectly  plane  and 
parallel,  and  reflected  all  the  light  incident  on  them, 
the  number  of  the  images  of  both  series  would  be 
infinite.  If,  instead  of  Ijeing  parallel,  the  mirrors  are 
inclined  at  an  angle,  the  form  and  position  of  the 
image  of  an  object  may  be  found  in  precisely  the 
same  way  as  in  the  former  ca.se,  the  image  formed 
with  the  tirst  mirror  being  regarded  as  a  new  (virtual) 
object,  whose  image,  with  regard  to  the  second,  has 
to  be  determined. 


Fig.  1. 


on  the  mirror  of  the  surface  of  which  CB  is  a  section. 
Draw  QX?  perpendicular  to  CB  and  make  ?X=QN; 
then  q  is  the  focus  of  the  reflected  rays.  For  let  QA, 
QB,  QC  be  any  of  the  incident  rays  in  the  plane  of 
the  figure;  draw  the  line  A3I  perpendicular  to  CB, 
and  draw  AR,  making  the  angle  MAR  equal  to  the 
angle  of  incidence,  3IAQ.  Then  AR  is  the  reflected 
raj'.  Join  gX.  Now  it  can  be  proved  geometrically, 
and  indeed  Is  apparent  at  a  glance,  that  gA.  and  AR 
are  in  the  same  straight  line;  in  other  words,  the  re- 
flected ray  AR  proceeds  a.s  if  from  g.  In  the  same 
way  it  may  be  shown  that  the  direction  of  any  other 
reflected  ray,  as  BS,  is  as  if  it  proceeded  from  g ;  in 
other  words,  g  is  the  focus  of  reflected  rays;  it  is, 
however,  only  their  virtual  focus.  If  a  pencil  of  rays 
converged  to  g,  it  is  evident  that  they  would  be  re- 
flected to  Q  as  their  real  focus,  so  that  a  separate  proof 
for  the  case  of  a  converging  pencil  is  unnecessary. 
The  reader  who  has  followed  the  above  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  understanding  how  the  position  and  form 
of  the  linage  of  an  object  placed  tx'fore  a  plane  mir- 


t  2^ 


5 


t 


C 


3.  The  two  propositions  already  established  are  of 
extensive  application,  as  has  partly  been  shown.  They 
include  the  explanation  of  all  phenomena  of  light  re- 
lated to  plane  mirrors.  The  third  proposition  Ls  one 
also  of  considerable  utility,  though  not  fundamental. 
It  is:  "When  a  ray  of  light  has  been  reflected  at  each 
of  two  mirrors  inclined  at  a  given  angle  to  each  other, 
in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  (heir  intersection,  the  re- 
flected ray  will  deviate  from  its  original  course  by  an 
angle  double  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  mirrors. 
Let  A  and  B,  Fig.  5,  be  sections  of  the  mirrors  in  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  their  intersection,  and  let  their 
directions  be  produced  till  they  meet  in  C.  Let  SA, 
in  the  plane  of  A  and  B,  be  the  ray  incident  on  the 


it     icra 


^a 


Fio.  4. 


ror — as  in  Fig.  3,  where  the  object  is  the  arrow  AB, 
in  the  plane  of  the  paper,  to  which  the  plane  of  the 
mirror  is  perpendicular — should  be  of  the  same  form 
and  magnitude  as  the  object  (as  ab  in  the  figure), 
and  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  mirror,  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  it,  but  with  its  different  parts  inverted  with 
regard  to  a  given  direction.  The  highest  point,  a,  for 
instance,  in  the  image,  corresponds  with  the  lowest 
point.  A,  in  the  object.  He  will  also  understand  hoy, 
in  the  ordinary  use  of  a  looking-gla.ss,  the  right  hand 
of  the  image  corresponds  to  tlie  left  hand  of  the 
object.  • 

When  two  plane  mirrors  are  placed  with  their  re- 
flecting surfaces  towards  each  other,  and  parallel,  they 
form  the  experiment  called  the  endless  galler)-.  Let 
the  arrow,  Q,  Fig.  4,  be  placed  vertically  between  the 
parallel  mirrors,  CD,  BA,  with  their  silvered  faces 


first  mirror  at  A,  and  let  AB  be  the  line  in  which  it 
is  thence  reflected  to  B.  After  reflection  at  B  it  will 
pass  in  the  line  BD,  meeting  SA,  its  original  path, 
pnxluced  in  D.  The  angle  ADB  evidently  measures 
its  deviation  fi-om  its  original  course,  and  this  angle 
is  readily  shown  to  be  double  of  the  angle  at  C,  which 
is  that  of  the  inclination  of  the  mirrors.  It  is  on  this 
proposition  that  the  important  instruments  called  the 
Quadrant  and  Se.xtant  depend. 

Currecl  Surfaces. — As  when  a  pencil  of  light  is  re- 
flected by  a  curved  mirror  each  ray  follows  the  or- 
dinarj-  law  of  reflection,  in  everi-  case  in  which  we 
can  draw  the  normals  for  the  different  points  of  the 
.surface  we  can  determine  the  direction  in  which  the 
various  rays  of  the  pencil  are  reflected,  as  in  the  ca.se 
of  plane  inirrors.  It  so  happens  that  normals  can  be 
easily  drawn  only  in  the  case  of  the  sphere,  and  of  a 


CATOPTBICS. 


312 


CATOPTEICS. 


few  "surfaces  of  revolution,"  as  they  are  cjilleil. 
These  an'  the  paraboloid,  tlie  ellipsoid,  ami  the  hy- 
perlK>loiJ  of  revolution.  The  |)iinilK)l(>iil  of  revolu- 
tion Ui  of  iniportantx-  in  optics,  iis  it  Is  usetl  in  some 
specula  lor  teleseojK-s.  The  three  surfaces  last  named 
are.  however,  all  of  them  interesting  lus  iK'ing  for 
jieuiils  of  light  incident  in  certain  ways  what  are 
calliil  surfaces  of  accurate  retliftion — i.e.,  they  reflect 
all  the  nivs  of  the  incident  [x-ncil  to  a  single  jx)iut  or 
focus.  AVe  shall  e.\plain  tt>  what  tliis  projierty  is 
owing  in  the  case  of  the  paralK)lic  reflector,  and  stiJte 
genenilly  the  facts  rcganling  the  other  two. 

1.  The  concave  paralK)lic  retle<-tor  is  a  surface  of 
accurate  reflection  for  jx-ncils  of  nys  panUlel  to  the 
a.xis  or  central  line  of  figure  of  the  paral)oloid.  This 
resnits  from  the  properly  of  the  surface,  that  the  nor- 
mal at  any  point  of  it  pas.scs  through  the  axis,  and 
bisects  the"  angle  between  a  line  through  that  jwiut, 
parallel  to  the  axis,  and  a  line  joining  the  point  to 
the  focus  of  the  genemting  parabola.  Referring  to 
Fig.  6,  suppose  a  ray  incident  on  the  surface  at  P, 


•p, 

.^f-r 

t 

^  V 

\ 

^ 

fore  of  the  incident  pencil,  because  it  is  incident 
diri-ctly  on  the  mirror;  a  pencil  being  calleil  oblique 
when  iLs  axis  is  at  an  an^le  to  the  axis  of  the  mirror. 
As  the  rav  incident  in  the  line  OA  will  be  reflected 
back  in  tlie  same  line — (.)A  l)eing  the  normal  at  A — 
the  focus  of  reflected  rays  nuist  be  in  OA.  Let  SP 
be  one  of  the  nivs;  it  will  be  reflected  so  that  /  7PO 
=  I  SPO.  But  Z  PO?  =  /  OPS  by  parallel  lines. 
Therefore  Z  7PO  =  Z  ?0P,  and  Pry  and  Oj  are 
equal.  If,  now,  the  incident  pencil  be  very  small — 
i.e.,  if  P  be  very  near  A — then  the  line  Pg  will  very 
nearly  coincide  with  the  line  OA,  and  P7  and  O'j 
will  each  of  them  become  verj-  nearly  the  half  of  OA. 
Let  F  l)e  the  middle  point  of  OA — the  point,  namely, 
to  which  </  tends  as  the  pencil  diminishes.  The  Pis 
called  the  iirincipal  focus  of  the  mirror,  and  AT  the 
principal  focal  length,  which  is  thiLs  =  i  radius  of 
the  mirror.  It  will  be  observed  that  when  AP  is  not 
small,  g  lies  Ixjtween  A  and  F.  Fg  is  called  the 
aberration  of  the  ray.  AVhcn  AP  is  large,  the  re- 
flected rays  will  continually  intersect,  and  form  a 


?;^     " 

I  0  0 

B 

Fio.  T. 


Fio.  8. 


in  the  line  SP,  parallel  to  the  axis  AFG.  Then  if  F 
lie  the  focus  of  the  generating  parabola,  join  PF. 
PF  Ls  the  direction  of  the  reflected  ray.  For  PG, 
the  normal  at  P,  bv  the  property  of  "the  surface, 
bisects  the  angle  FPS,  and  therefore  /  (angle)  FPG 
=  Z  GPS.  But  SPG  Ls  the  angle  of  incidence,  and 
SP.  PG,  and  FP  arc  in  one  pKane,  and  therefore, 
by  the  laws  of  reflection,  FP  is  the  reflected  ray.  In 
the  same  way,  all  ravs  whatever,  parallel  to  the  axis, 
must  pass  through  t'  after  reflection.  If  F  were  a 
luminous  point,  the  rays  from  it,  after  reflection  on 
the  mirror,  would  all  proceed  in  a  cylindrical  [lencil 
parallel  to  the  axts.  This  reflector,  with  a  bright 
light  in  its  focus,  is  accordingly  of  common  use  in 
light-houses. 

2.  In  the  concave  ellipsoid  mirror  there  arc  two 
points— viz.,  the  foci  of  the  generating  ellipse,  such 
that  niys  diverging  from  either  will  be  accurately  re- 
flected to  the  other.  This  results  from  the  property 
of  the  figure,  that  the  normal  at  any  point  bisects  the 
angle  included  between  lines  drawn  to  that  point 
from  the  foci. 

3.  Owing  to  a  property  of  the  surface  .similar  to 
that  if  the  ellipsoid,  a  pencil  of  rays  converging  to 
the  exterior  focus  of  a  hyperbolic  'reflector  will  be 
accurately  reflected  to  the  focus  of  the  generating 
hyperbola. 

The  converse  of  the  al)ove  three  propositions  holds 
in  the  ca.se  of  the  mirrors  being  convex. 

Thfiugh  the  sphere  is  not  a  surface  of  accurate 
reflection,  except  for  rays  diverginir  from  the  center, 
and  which  on  reflection  are  relumed  thereto,  the 
spherical  reflector  is  of  great  iiractical  importance 
liecau.se  it  can  be  made  with  greater  facility  and  at 
less  expense  than  the  paralxilic  reflector.  Il"is  neces- 
s!ir>-.  then,  to  investigate  the  phenomena  of  light  re- 
flected from  it  ° 

It  is  usual  to  treat  of  two  cases,  the  one  the  more 
fre-quent  in  practice,  the  other  the  more  genend  and 
comprehensive  in  theory.  First,  then,  to  find  the 
focvis  of  reflected  mys  when  a  small  pencil  of  par- 
allel rays  is  incident  directly  on  a  concave  spherical 
mirnir.  Let  BAB  ,  Fig.  7,  Ik-  a  section  of  the  mirror, 
O  its  center  of  curvature,  and  A  the  center  of  its 
aiierture.     AO  is  the  axis  of  the  mirror,  and  there- 


luminous  curve  with  a  cusp  at  F.  This  curve  is 
called  the  caustic.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  the 
more  general  case  of  a  small  pencil  of  diverging 
rays,  incident  directly  on  a  concave  spherical  mirror. 
Let  PAP ,  Fig.  8,  be  a  section  of  the  mirror,  A  the 
center  of  it.s  aperture,  O  of  its  curvature,  and  let  P 
be  its  principal  focus.  Then,  if  Q  be  the  focus  of 
incident  rays  (as  if  proceeding  from  a  candle  there 
situated),  g,  the  focus  of  the  reflected  rays,  lies  on 
QOA,  since  the  i)encil  is  incident  directly,  and  the 
ray  (^OA,  being  incident  in  the  line  of  the  normal 
OA,  IS  reflected  back  in  the  same  line.  Let  PQ  be 
any  01  er  raj'  of  the  pencil.  It  will  be  reflected  in 
Vg,  so  that  z"  ?PO  =  zOPQ;  and  on  the  supposition 
that  PA  is  very  small,  so  that  QP  becomes  nearly 
equal  to  QA,  and  gP  to  gA.,  it  can  be  shown,  by 


Euclid,  vi.  3,  that 


QO_?0 


very  nearly. 


QA     gA 
equation  is  deduced  the  formula  9A  : 


From  this 
QAXAF, 


QA- AF 

which  enables  us  to  find  gX  when  QA  and  AF  are 
known.  Thus,  let  the  radius  of  cur\'ature  be  13 
inches,  and  the  distance  of  the  source  of  the  rays,  or 

QA,  30  inches,  the  focal  length  g&.  =  ^^^^  =  7* 

inches.  If  the  rays  had 
diverged  upon  7,  it  is 
clear  they  wouUl  have 
been  reflected  to  Q.  Tlie 
points  Q  and  q,  accord- 
ingly, are  called  conju- 
gate foci. 

If  the  mirror  be  con 
vex.  as  in  Fig.  9,  instead 
of  concave,  and  a  pen- 
cil of  diverging  rays  l)c 
incident  directlv  on  it 
from  O,  we  sho'uld  tind,  ^'°-  ^• 

proceeding  in  exactly  the  sapie  way  as  in  the  former 

OA  X  AF 
case,  the  equation  Ag  =  '?  •  or,  taking  the 

t^  A  -f-  Ar 

same  numbers  as  before,  ?A  —  „.,  .  =  5  inches. 


CATSPAW. 


313 


CA7ALLI  OWN. 


By  considering  Fig.  8  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  rel- 
ative positions  of  the  two  conjiigjite  foci,  as  they  are 
called,  Q  and  q,  vary  as  the  distance,  AQ,  of  the 
origin  of  the  rays  is  changed.  As  Q  is  advanced 
towards  O,  q  also  approaches  O,  since  the  angles 
QPO  and  gPO  always  remain  equal;  and  when  the 
source  of  the  light  is  in  the  center,  O,  of  the  sphere, 
the  reflected  rajs  are  all  returned  upon  the  source. 
As  Q,  again,  recedes  from  O,  q  moves  towards  F, 
which  it  does  not  quite  reach  until  the  distance  of  Q 
is  intiiiitc,  so  that  the  incident  rays  may  be  considered 
as  parallel,  as  in  Fig.  7.  If  Q  is  placed  between  O 
and  F,  then  q  will  be  to  the  right  of  O;  and  when  Q 
coincides  with  F,  the  reflected  rays  will  have  no 
focus,  but  will  be  parallel.  If  Q  is  between  F  and 
A,  the  reflected  rays  will  diverge,  and  will  have 
their  virtual  focus  to  the  left  of  A.  The  correctness 
of  these  deductions  maj-  easily  be  verified.  The  po- 
sitions of  the  conjugates  are  traced  in  precisely  the 
!-ame  way  for  the  convex  mirror,  and  the  reader  who 
is  interested  will  find  no  difficulty  in  tracing  them 
for  himself. 

CAT'S-PAW. — The  name  given  to  a  particular  turn 
made  in  the  bight  of  a  rope,  to  which  a  tackle  is  fast- 
ened.    See  Ci/rilage. 

CAULKING. — The  operation  of  driving  oakum  or 
untwisted  rope  into  tlie  seams  of  a  structure  to  render 
them  water  tight.  The  quantity  thus  driven  in  de- 
pends on  the  thickness  of  the  planking;  it  varies  from 
1  to  13  double  threads  of  oakum,  with  1  or  3  .single 
threads  of  spun-yarn.  The  caulker  first  mimx  or 
reemn  the  seam — that  is,  drives  a  caulkiug-iron  into 
it,  to  widen  the  seam  as  much  as  possible  anil  close 
any  rents  or  fissures  in  the  wood;  he  then  drives  in  a 
little  spun-yarn  or  white  oakum  with  a  mallet  and  a 
kind  of  chisel,  and  afterwards  a  much  larger  quan- 
tity of  black  or  coarse  oakum.  The  fibers  are  driven 
in  until  they  form  a  den.sely  hard  mass,  which  not 
only  keeps  out  water,  but  strengthens  the  planking. 
The  seam  is  finally  coated  with  hot  pitch  or  resin. 

CAUSTIC. — In  optics,  caustk  is  the  name  given  to 
the  curved  line  formed  by  the  ultimate  intersections 
of  a  system  of  rays  reflected  or  refracted  from  a  re- 
flecting or  refracting  surface,  when  the  reflection  or 
refraction  is  inaccurate.  When  the  caustic  curve  is 
formed  by  reflection,  it  is  called  the  catacaustic — 
sometimes  simply  the  caustic;  when  formed  by  re 

fraction,  it  is  called 
the  diacaustic  curve. 
In  mathematical  Ian 
guage,  a  curve  formed 
by  the  ultimate  inter 
sections  of  a  system  of 
lines  drawn  according 
to  a  given  law  is  called 
the  eitfelojn',  and  is 
.such  that  the  lines  are 
all  tangents  to  it.  As 
in  a  system  of  rays  re- 
flected or  refracted  by 
the  same  surface  all  follow  the  same  law,  it  follows 
that  the  caustic  is  the  envelope  of  reflected  or  re- 
fracted rays.  An  example  of  the  catacaustic  is  given 
in  the  annexed  figure  for  the  case  of  rays  falling 
directly  on  a  concave  spherical  mirror,  BAB  ,  from  a 
point  so  distant  as  to  be  practically  parallel.  The 
curve  may  be  said  to  be  made  up  of  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  points,  such  as  C,  where  two  very  mar  rays, 
such  as  P,  Q,  intersect  after  reflection.  This  cata- 
caustic is  an  epicycloid.  The  cun-e  varies,  of 
course,  with  the  nature  of  the  reflecting  surface.  In 
the  case  represented  in  the  figure,  the  cusp  point  is  at 
F,  the  principal  focus.  Xo  such  simple  cxamjile  can 
be  given  of  the  diacaustic  cur^•e  as  that  above  given 
of  the  catacaustic.  It  is  only  in  the  simjjlest  cases 
that  the  cur\'e  takes  a  recognizable  form.  In  the 
ca.se  of  refraction  at  a  plane  surface,  it  is  shown  that 
the  diacaustic  curve  is  the  evolute  either  of  the  hyper- 
bola or  ellipse,  according  as  the  refractive  index  of 
the  medium  is  greater  or  less  than  unity.     The  reader 


may  see  a  catacaustic  on  the  surface  of  tea  in  a  tea- 
cup alK)ut  half  full,  by  holding  the  circular  rim  to 
the  sun's  light.  The  space  within  the  caustic  cun-e 
is  all  brighter  than  that  without,  as  it  clearly  should 
be,  as  iiU  the  light  reflected  affects  that  space,  while 
no  point  without  the  curve  is  idfected  by  more  than 
the  light  reflected  from  half  of  the  surface. 

CAUTION. — An  explanation  given  prcN-ious  to  the 
word  of  command,  by  which  soldiers  are  called  to 
attention,  that  they  may  execute  any  given  move- 
ment with  unanimity  an(^  correctness. 

CAVALCADE.  —  In  military  history  this  tenn  im- 
plies a  pompous  procession  of  horsemen,  equipages, 
etc.,  by  way  of  parade,  to  grace  a  triumph,  public 
entry,  and  the  like 

CAVALIER. — 1.  A  term  originally  signifying  any 
horse-soldier;  but  in  English  history,  Ihi  name  given 
to  the  party  which  adhered  to  King  Charles  I.,  in 
opposition  to  the  Roundheads,  or  friends  of  the  Par 
liament. 

2.  In  fortification,  a  cavalier  is  a  defense-work 
constructed  on  the  terrc-plein,  or  level  ground  of  a 
bastion.  It  rises  to  a  height  varying  from  8  to  12 
feet  above  the  rampart,  and  has  a  parapet  about  6 
feet  high.  Its  uses  are  to  command  any  rising  ground 
held  by  the  enemy,  within  cannon-shot,  and  to  guard 
the  curtain,  or  plain  wall  between  two  bastions,  from 
being  enfiladed.  For  these  purposes  it  mounts 
heavy  ordnance.  It  may  be  either  cur\'ed  or  bound- 
ed by  straight  sides.  In  modem  permanent  fortifica- 
tions, cavaliers  are  placed  either  upon  the  curtains  or 
within  the  bastions.  The  latter  is  the  more  usual  posi- 
tion selected  for  them.  Their  plan  in  this  position  is 
usually  that  of  a  lunette,  the  faces  and  the  flanks  of 
which  are  parallel  to  those  of  the  enveloping  bastion. 
They  receive  a  considerable  command  over  the  para- 
l>et  of  the  enceinte,  and  in  some  cases  are  ananged 
with  a  tier  of  casemated  tire,  aliove  which  is  an  open 
battery.  This  arrangement  enables  the  cavaliers  to 
give  a  plunging  fire  upon  the  enemy's  works  on  the 
glacis  of  the  bastion  covered-way.  Cuts  are  made 
acro.ss  the  bastion-faces,  isolating  the  cavalier  from 
the  salient  portion  of  the  bastion.  They  are  ananged 
with  parapets.  These  parapets  and  the  faces  of  the 
cavalier  in  front  of  them  form  an  interior  intrench- 
ment  by  means  of  which  the  breach  that  might  be 
made  in  the  bastion  salient  is  defended. 

CAVALLI  BEEECH-LOADEE.— This  apparatus  is 
very  simple,  anil  is  adapted  to  the  use  of  a  cup  or  ring 
gas-check.  The  sliding  block  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
irt'f/ge  breech  loader.  The  wedge  has  two  handles;  the 
charge  is  passed  through  the  larger  one,  the  chain 
preventing  too  great  a  movement.  The  wedge  slides 
on  three  steel  pins,  to  prevent  excessive  friction.  In 
case  it  is  stuck  by  fouling,  it  may  be  pried  to  one  side 
by  inserting  a  handspike  in  the  mortise. 

■  CAVALLI  GUN.— A  gun  invented  in  1846  by  Gen- 
eral Cavalli  of  the  Sardinian  service.  The  chase 
does  not  differ  essentially  from  the  usual  form  of 
cannon  ;  but  at  the  breech  of  the  piece,  instead  of 
being  round,  the  four  sides  are  planed  off  so  as  to 
present  from  the  rear  an  appearance  of  a  square  with 
the  comers  rounded  off.  It  is  bored  throughout  its 
length,  and  rifled  with  two  flat  grooves  with  roimded 
edges.  The  rear  of  the  chamber  is  enlarged,  and 
these  grooves  being  continued  through  it,  although 
shallower  than  in  the  chase,  are  deep  enough  to 
receive  the  wings  or  projections  on  the  shot,  and  hold 
it  up  till  it  reaches  its  seat  in  the  gun.  Crossing  the 
bore  at  right  angles,  with  its  front  face  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  piece,  r.  wedge  shaped  opening  with 
a  reclangidar  cro.ss-section  is  cut.  It  is  for  a  32- 
poimder  9.4  inches  deep,  5.4  inches  wide  at  the  large 
end,  and  3.7  inches  at  the  small  end.  This  opening 
receives  the  quoin  or  wedge,  made  of  hanlencd  iron 
or  steel,  destined  to  close  the  breech  in  rear  of  the 
charge.  See  Caralli  Breech-loader.  This  gun  was 
designed  more  particularlj-  for  casemate-batteries,  or 
Ix)sitions  where  it  could  be  protected  by  blindages 
and  covers  of  different    kinds.      In   this    gun  the 


CAVALOT. 


314 


CAVALBT 


mechanical  contriv-anccs  for  securing  the  breech  are 
verv  superior  U>  the  niiic  processes  of  earlier  limes  ; 
but"  it  is  ven-  doubtful  wbullier  they  are  sutlicieiuly 
slmui;  to  iusun-  safely  when  high  charges  are  useti  in 
loiig  eontiiniitl  tiring. 

CAVALOT.— A   verj-  ancient  cannon,  earning   a 
ball  weiiiliiiig  one  pound.     Long  since  obsolete. 

CAVALEY.— The  earliest  records  of  cavalry  as  a 
distinit  military  orgiiiiiziitiou  date  far  l)aek  in  the 
history  of  Kgypt.  Diinlorus  of  Sicily  states  that 
<  )svnmndiiis,  \vlio  live<l  long  before  the  Trojan  War, 
led"  iO.iKH)  mounted  men"  ag-.iiiist  the  rebels  in 
Bactriaua.  Joseph\is  slates  that  the  host  of  Israelites 
which  esciipeil  from  Egypt  included  50,(KX)  horsemen 
and  (WO  chariots  of  war!  Hero<lotus  often  alludes  to 
cavalry  ;  and  Xenophon  relates  that  in  the  first  lles- 
senian'war,  743  b.c,  Lycurgus  fomutl  his  cavilry  in 
dix-isions.  In  the  year"  371  li.r.  Epaminondas  had  a 
cavalry  foree  of  5(XK)  men,  and  we  know  that  cavalry 
contributed  greatly  to  the  victories  of  Philip  and 
Alexander  of  Macedou.  It  had  an  important  part  in 
the  liattle  of  the  Gnuiicus,  334  B.C.;  and  at  the  battle 
of  Arlx^la,  331  b.c,  Alexander,  who  led  the  Mace- 
donian cavalry  of  "(XX)  men,  dashed  into  a  gap  of  the 
Persian  army!  and  by  this  brilliant  feat  utterly  routed 
the  enemy.  "  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  cav- 
alry of  Greece  and  Macedon  greatly  degenerated. 
The  Uoman  cavalry  was  very  inferior  to  that  of 
Hamilcar  and  Uannibai,  and  niost  of  the  victories  of 
these  two  Generals  were  won  by  cavalrj'  over  the 
splendid  infantry  of  the  Romans.  Publius  Scipio's 
defeiit  at  the  Ticinus,  218  B  c,  was  due  to  the  supe- 
riority of  the  Carthaginian  horse ;  and  the  bitter 
exiK-rience  at  the  Trebia  and  the  battle  of  Cannie, 
216  B.C.,  taught  the  Romans  the  value  of  cavalry,  by 
which  Soipio  finally  defeated  Hannibal  at  Zama,  202 
B.C.  Vegetius  staics  that  the  Roman  cavalry  was 
organizetl  ir.to  ten  troops  or  siiuadrons,  forming  a 
regiment  of  726  horses,  generally  attached  to  some 
special  legion.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  sadilles  were 
not  in  use  until  the  time  of  Constantine,  and  stirrups 
were  inlroduccil  by  the  Franks  in  the  fiflli  century. 
During  the  iliildle  Ages  cavalry  m.iy  be  said  to  have 
constituted  almost  the  only  efficient  arm  of  battle. 
This  was  owing  to  the  unwillingness  of  the  nobility 
in  all  countries  of  western  Europe  to  intrust  any  mili 
tary  power  to  the  serfs  ;  the  upper  classes  went  into 
battle  mounted,  and  l)oth  riders  and  horses  had  heavy 
defensive  armor.  The  fetidal  cavalry  consisted  of 
mail-clad  knight.s  with  their  men-at-arms.  Their 
weapt)ns  were  lances,  battle-axes,  and  swords.  The 
infantry  was  looked  down  upon  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  iK'uig  composed  principally  of  serfs  and  such 
iis  had  not  the  means  to  keep  a  horse  ;  but  with  the 
invention  of  gunpowder,  the  introduction  of  muskels, 
:ind  the  use  of  field-artillery  a  complete  change  took 
place  ;  the  infantry  gradually  ro.se  in  reputation,  and 
the  number  of  this  class  of  troops  was  augmented. 
It  seems  that  light  cavalry  did  not  exist  as  a  distinct 
liody,  with  General  Officers  and  a  Staff,  Ixfore  the 
lime  of  Louis  XII.  Montluc,  however,  mentions  a 
General  of  12,000  light  horse  in  the  time  of  that  mon- 
arch; and  we  hear  of  Henry  II.,  in  15.52,  taking  a 
troop  of  3000  cavidry  in  his  expedition  to  Germany. 
In  1554  .Marslial  De  Bris<!ic  formed  a  eori)s  of 
mounted  infantry,  cjilled  Dragoons,  trained  to  fight 
either  on  horseback  or  on  foot.  Maurice  of  Nassiui, 
who  saw  the  imi>ortance  of  .giving  more  mobility  to 
this  arm,  was  the  first  to  organize  cavalrj-  regiments, 
each  regiment  iK'ing  com|)osed  of  four  sfiuadrons, 
formed  in  live  ranks,  and  numlK'ring  aliout  UMIO 
horses.  Guslavus  Adolphus  was  a  great  cavalry 
General,  and  uwd  his  Cuirassiers  anil  Dragoons  to 
g(KxI  avanlage.  His  tactics  were  much  admired,  and 
were  adopted  by  many  Eurom-an  Nations.  The 
French,  esp<-eiidly,  distinguished  themselves  after  his 
ileath  in  the  tniploymint  of  cavidry.  Tiirenne, 
Condi',  Moiileeuculi.  and  .Marlbnrouch  were  consid- 
eri-d  excellent  cavalrv  leaders  in  the  wars  of  Louis 
XIII.  and  Louis  XlV.     Cmmwill   was  indebted  to 


his  abilities  as  a  cavalry  officer  for  the  victories  of 
Marslon  Moor  and  Niiseby.  Defensive  armor  for 
cavalry  had  been  abolished  in  his  time,  and  the 
cjivalry  troops  were  taught  to  use  the  carbine. 
Chargi*  of  cavalry  were  seldom  made  in  battle  except 
by  the  French ;  though  Charles  XII.  always  made 
ii"se  of  cavalr>-  charges  at  full  speed  with  great 
effect.  Marshid  Saxe  made  many  improvements  in 
this  arm.  and  used  guns  in  connection  with  cavalry  at 
the  battle  of  Fonteuoy,  although  regular  horse-artil- 
lerj-  was  not  introduced  till  1762.  It  was  not  until 
the  wars  of  Frederick  the  Great,  however,  that  the 
full  importance  of  cavalry  was  developed ;  he  saw 
the  uecessitv  of  training  these  troops  to  use  swords 
instead  of  fire-arms,  and  endeavored  to  make  them 
jierfect  riders.  No  firing  whatever  was  allowed  in 
ihe  battle  during  the  first  charge  ;  he  claimed  that 
the  only  two  things  required  to  beat  the  enemy  were 
to  charge  him  with  the  greatest  possible  speed  and 
force,  and  then  to  outflank  hiin.  The  brilliant  vic- 
tories hi'  obtjtined  from  the  adoption  of  these  tactics 
under  the  able  leadership  of  Seydlitz  have  probably 
never  been  excelled.  At  the  battle  of  Ilohenfriedberg 
the  Pnissian  cavalry  of  10  squadrons  broke  21  bat- 
talions, routed  the  entire  left  wing  of  the  Austrian 
infantry,  and  captured  66  standards,  5  guus,  and 
4000  prisoners.  At  the  battle  of  Zorndorf,  after  the 
Russians  had  compelled  the  Prussian  infantry  to 
retreat,  Seydlitz,  with  36  squadrons  rode  down  the 
Russian  cavalry,  and  then  completely  routed  their 
infantrj'.  Frederick  had  learned  to  appreciate  the 
true  principles  of  mounted  warfare  through  long 
experience  and  the  occasional  disasters  which  he  had 
met  in  the  first  and  second  Silesian  wars  ;  and  it  was 
due  to  the  efficient  reforms  which  he  instituted  in  the 
Prussian  cavalrv  that  he  was  able  to  win  the  battles 
of  Rossbach,  Striegan,  Kesselsdorf,  Leutheu,  and 
others.  One  of  the  first  improvements  made  in  the 
French  army  by  Napoleon  was  the  reorganization  of 
the  cavalry.  He  increa.sed  the  Cuirassiers  from  one 
regiment  to  twelve,  and  reintroduced  the  use  of  the 
lance  and  defensive  armor.  Some  of  his  splendid 
victories  were  due  to  this  force,  especially  at  Maren- 
go and  Austerlitz  ;  and  it  was  owing  to  the  loss  of 
the  French  cavalry  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812 
that  some  of  his  finest  achievements  in  1813  proved 
useless :  he  was  well  aware  of  this,  and  made  the 
statement  that  had  he  possessed  cavalry  at  Ihe  battles 
of  Ltitzen  and  Bautzen  the  war  would  then  have  been 
brought  to  an  end.  In  modern  warfare  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  cavalrv  was  conspicuous  at  the  battle 
of  Solferino  ;  but  in  1866,  the  first  great  European 
war  since  Waterloo,  neither  '.he  Austrian  nor  the 
Prussian  cavalry  won  great  distinction,  although  Ihe 
manner  in  which  the  Austrian  cavalry  covered  the 
retreat  of  their  army  at  the  battle  of  KOniggrillz  was 
a  noble  example  of  courage  and  devotion.  In  the 
Franco-Gennan  war  of  1870,  however,  the  excellence 
of  the  Prussian  cavalrv  was  the  chief  means  of  Von 
Moltke's  ability  to  carry  out  his  strategic  plans.  The 
French  cavalry  were  more  remarkable  for  bravery 
than  efficiency.  Great  progress  was  made  in  the 
cavalrj-  of  the  United  States  during  the  War  of  the 
Rebellion  ;  a  large  number  of  men  of  both  armies 
were  gowl  riders,  and  understood  Ihe  management  of 
horses.  They  were  at  first,  however,  quite  ignorant 
of  mililarv  tactics,  and  were  used  as  scouts,  as  order- 
lies, and  for  outpost  service.     General  Sheridan,  act- 

!  ing  under  instructions  from  General  Grant,  made  the 
first  successful  organiziilion  of  cavalrj',  which  was 
called  the  Cavalry  Corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac, comprising  three  divisions  of  5000  mounted 
men  each.  Their  weapons  were  repealing  carbines 
and  sabers.  It  was  with  this  force  that  General 
Sheridan  defeated  the  Confederate  cavalrj-  at  Yellow 
Tavern,  near  Richmond  ;  and  it  contributed  largely 
to  the  defeat  of  Early  at  the  battle  of  the  Opequan, 
near  Winchester;  and  later,  at  the  battles  near  Peters- 
burg and  at  Five  Forks,  the  cavalrj-  took  an  impor- 

I  tant  part.     General  Wilson,  whom  CJcneral  Sherman 


CAVALHY  DEPOT. 


315 


CAVALEY  FORGE. 


I 


put  in  command  of  a  force  called  the  C'avaln'  Corps 
of  the  Militarj-  Divi^^^ion  of  the  Mis.sis.sii)pi,  did  jrood 
work  in  the  way  of  organiziition  towards  the  close  of 
the  war ;  he  had  12,000  mounted  cavalry  and  3000 
who  fought  on  foot  at  the  battle  of  Nashville,  not 
including  a  detachment  of  3000  men  in  Kentucky. 

Cavalry  is  usually  placed  in  the  rearof  theinfantrj', 
on  ground  favorable  to  its  maneuvers,  and  where  it 
will  be  masked  from  lire  until  the  moment  arrives  to 
bring  it  into  action  ;  here,  if  acting  on  the  ilefensivc, 
the  cavalry  watches  its  opportunity  to  support  the 
other  troops,  driving  back  the  enemy,  by  prompt  and 
vigorous  charges,  when  these  are  hard  pressed  ;  or, 
if  on  the  offensive,  biding  its  time,  to  rush  upon  the 
assailant,  and  complete  his  destruction,  when  his 
ranks  commence  to  waver  or  show  signs  of  disor- 
ganization from  the  assaults  of  the  other  arms.  Its 
habitual  formation  for  the  attack  is  in  a  line  of  two 
ranks,  with  a  reserve,  or  svipport,  to  it-s  rear.  Tlie 
supports  are  indispensably  requisite  to  guard  against 
those  chances  of  danger  to  wliieh  cavalry  is  particu- 
larly exposed,  if  attacked  in  turn,  when  in  a  state  of 
partial  disorganization,  after  a  successful  charge  ;  or 
when  threatened  by  an  offensive  movement  against 
its  Hanks.  The  supports  offer  a  safeguard  against 
either  of  these  dangers ;  for,  if  the  front  line  is 
brought  up  by  the  enemy,  alter  a  successful  charge, 
it  can  retire  and  rally  in  the  rearof  the  supports  ;  and 
if  the  enemy  makes  a  movement  against  the  tlanks, 
the  supports,  placed  behind  them  and  in  column,  can 
form  and  anticipate  the  enemy's  charge.  For  the 
foregoing  reasons,  cavalry  should  not  give  way  to  a 
headlong  pursuit  after  a  successful  charge,  unless  its 
supports  aVe  at  hand  ;  and  in  ciises  where  a  charge 
is  made  without  supports,  a  portion  only  should 
engage  in  pursuit,  the  rest  being  rallied  to  form  a 
support.  Cavalry  is  seldom  called  on  to  use  lirearms. 
When  on  outpost  service,  or  acting  on  the  defensive 
on  ground  unfavorable  to  charging,  a  portion  of  the 
force  may  be  dispersed  as  flankers,  to  hold  the  enemy 
in  check  by  their  tire.  In  this  case  their  movements 
are  regulated  in  the  same  way  as  other  skiniiishers. 
The  defensive  qualities  of  cavalry  lie  in  the  offensive. 
A  body  of  cavalry  which  waits  to  receive  a  charge  ot 
cavalry,  or  is  exposed  to  a  fire  of  infantrj-  or  artillery, 
must  either  retire  or  be  destroyed.  This  es.sential 
quality  of  cavalry  renders  its  services  invaluable  in 
retreats  where  the  enemy  pursues  with  vigor.  In 
such  cases  it  should  be  held  in  constant  readiness  to 
take  advantage  of  every  spot  favorable  to  its  action, 
and,  by  short  and  energetic  charges,  force  the  enemy 
to  move  with  circumspection.  So  long  as  infantry 
maintains  its  position  tirraly.  particularly  if  the 
ground  is  at  all  unfavorable  to  the  movements  of 
cavalrj',  the  chances  are  against  a  successful  attack 
by  the  latter.  Cavalry  should  therefore  either  wait 
patiently  imtil  a  way  is  prepared  for  its  action,  by  a 
fire  of  artillery  on  the  enemy's  infantry  ;  or  until  the 
infantry  has  become  crippled  and  exhausted  by  being 
kept  in  action  for  some  time  ;  or  else,  watching  its 
opportunity,  make  a  charge  whilst  the  infantry  is  in 
motion,  so  as  to  surprise  it  before  it  can  form  to 
receive  the  attack.  Cavalry  should  direct  its  charge 
on  that  point  of  the  enemy's  infantry  where  it  will 
itself  be  exposed  to  the  letist  column  of  fire.  If  the 
infantry  is  in  line,  the  charge  should  be  made  on  one 
of  its  flanks  ;  if  in  square,  on  one  of  the  angles  of  the 
square  ;  and  when  several  squares  are  formed,  so  as 
to  afford  mutual  support  by  their  fire,  selecting  the 
squares  on  the  flanks  as  most  vulnerable,  from  their 
position.  The  formation  usually  recommended  for 
charging  against  squares  is  that  of  three  squadrons 
in  line  at  double  distance  :  the  leading  squadron 
being  followed  by  the  others,  cither  directly  in  its 
rear,  or  else  the  squadrons  may  be  formed  in  echelon, 
sxiccessively  overlapping  each  other  by  about  the  front 
of  a  platoon.  The  angle  of  the  square  is  charged  by 
each  squadron  in  succession,  if  the  charge  of  the  one 
preceding  it  fails  ;  the  repulsed  squadrons  each 
■wheeling  to  the  riglit  or  left  on  retiring,  to  leave  the  | 


way  clear  for  its  successor.  A  fourth  squadron  in 
colinnn  follows  those  in  line,  to  surround  the  square 
and  make  prisoners  if  it  slionld  be  broken  by  the 
charge.  To  draw  the  fire  of  the  infantry  before 
charging,  a  few  skillful  flankers  may  be  thrown  for- 
ward to  open  a  tire  on  the  .square.  Stratagem  may 
also  be  tried,  by  moving  along  the  front  of  the  infan- 
try, at  some  400  paces,  and  then  charging,  if  it  is 
tempted  to  throw  away  its  fire  at  this  distance.  In  an 
attack  where  several  squares  are  in  line,  if  one  fires 
to  second  another  it  should  be  instantly  charged.  In 
attacks  against  artillery,  the  detachment  of  cavalry 
should  be  divided  into  three  bodies  ;  one  fourth  of  the 
detachment  being  charged  with  carrying  the  guns, 
one  half  to  attack  the  supports  of  the  battery,  and  the 
remaining  fourth  acting  as  a  reserve,  to  cover  the 
parties  in  advance  from  an  offensive  movement  against 
their  flanks  or  rear.'  The  party  to  .secure  the  guns 
make  their  attack  in  dispersed  order,  and  endeavor  to 
gain  the  flanks  of  the  battery.  When  the  battery  has 
a  fair  sweep  over  the  ground  along  which  they  must 
advance,  they  should,  by  maneuvering  and  false 
attacks,  try  to  confuse  the  artillerists,  and  draw  their 
fire  before  making  their  charge.  The  attack  against 
the  support  of  the  battery  will  be  directed  in  the  ■ 
usual  manner,  the  party  maneuvering  to  gain  their 
flanks.     See  Dragonn  and  Horse-guards. 

CAVALEY  DEPOT.— A  depot  formed  at  Canter- 
bury, to  which  all  the  depot  troops  of  cavalry  regi- 
ments abroad  arc  attached. 

CAVALEY  FORGE.— A  recent  Board  of  Officers 
recommended  for  the  cavalry  service,  to  supply  a 
want  long  felt,  the  adoption  of  a  traveling  forge-cart, 
to  lie  issued  to  each  company  of  cavalry,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  the  blacksmith's  bellows,  fire-box, 
anvil,  coal,  blacksmith's  tools,  horseshoes,  nails,  and 
iron;  also  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  extra  am- 
munition, saddler's  tools,  and  suiiply  of  leather  for 
repairs  of  horse-equipments.  The  cart  was  to  be  an 
open  one,  without  cover  or  tail-ljoard,  and  of  such 
size  as  to  give  a  stowage  of  21.9  cubic  feet  for  tools, 
coal,  and  materials,  packed  in  boxes,  and  arranged 
for  draught  by  two  horses  or  mules,  one  in  shafts  and 
the  other  by  liis  side  or  in  front.  After  the  necessary 
strength  to  withstand  the  wear  and  tear  of  service, 
and  the  desired  efficiency  to  do  the  required  work, 
the  next  most  important  requisite  for  a  forge  for 
the  cavalry  is  light  weight,  to  enable  it  to  move 
with  rapidity.  Of  late  years  the  smith's  bellows 
for  blowing  his  fire  has  been  gradually  giving  place, 
both  in  portable  and  stationary  forges,  to  the  rotary 
fan-blower,  which  has  the  advantage  of  giving  a 
much  better  and  steadier  blast  and  occupying  less 
space.  These  qualities  fit  it  in  an  eminent  degree  for 
use  in  traveling  forges  and  specially  urge  its  claims 
for  favorable  consideration;  but  it  was  found  on 
visiting  shops  where  both  systems  were  used  that  the 
bellows  were  preferred  by  the  workmen,  and  this 
arose  on  account  of  the  monotonous  and  tiresome 
nuxle  of  working  the  fan-blower,  which  was  done  by 
a  crank.  This  motion  does  not  admit  of  the  same 
change  of  position  as  that  for  blowing  the  bellows, 
but  calls  in  play  always  the  same  muscles,  and  ad- 
mits of  little  change  or  relief.  It  was  clear  that  in 
order  to  make  the  introduction  of  the  fan-blower  a 
success  other  means  of  gi^■ing  motion  to  it  must  be 
devised.  It  was  observed  that  sewing-machines  and 
hand-lathes  were'  successfully  worked  by  Hall's 
treadle,  which  communicates  "motion  always  in  the 
sime  direction  by  simply  pressing  the  foot  on  the 
treadle,  no  matter  in  what  position  the  fly-wheel  va&j 
be:  it  has  no  dead-centers.  It  was  believed  that  if 
the  blower  were  arranged  to  Iw  driven  by  a  lever 
worked  by  the  hand,  so  as  to  enable  the  man  to 
change  his  position  and  shift  the  work  from  one  hand 
to  the  other,  tlie  sole  olijection  to  the  blower  would 
di.sjippear  and  a  better  and  more  constant  blast  be  ob- 
tained; the  space  occupied  V)y  it  being  less,  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  cart  could  be  diminished.  A  bet- 
ter disposition  of  the  fire-pan  was  desirable,  so  as  to 


OAVALKY.HORSES. _316 CAVALBY-HOBSES. 

Obviate   the  necessin-  of  brrakini;  and  forming  the  hold  of  it;  one  pulls  the  handle  of  the  stop-Iwlt   and 

Sition  of  IhTbLt-pilH-  with  the  tiR-pan  when-  lK,th  draw  the  forfje  to  the  rear  and  place  it  le.igthwLse 

^erTe    or«.    1^  to  W  prepared  for  the  inareh  .,r  on  the  trestles.     Take  out  the  sm.th  s  chest  and  coal- 

for  work.    This  was  etlected  bv  uwking  this  eon-  Ix.x  in  the  same  way  and  place  them  in  conven.e.it 

motion  Wmaneut,   and   causing  the    ti^-pau    and  places.     The  saddler  s  chest  may  be  taken  out  or  left 

ower  to  sh.ie  in  and  out  of  the  kxlv  of  the  cart  when  in  the  cart  after  the  others  have  been  removed. 

rt'ouiixHl.  or  not.  for  use,  like  a  table  drawer.     It  was        The  followmg  are  the  pnnc.pal  dimensions  and 

also  deemed  advisable  to  provide  the  Ixxly  with  a  weights: 

liaht  w(MMlen  cover,  the  l>elter  to  protect  the  contents  ^  JDimentiont. 

ui  the  Idixes  from  rain  and  dust.                               ,   ,      I  wiHtt,  nf  trnrk  nf  wheels  62    inches* 

The  drawing  repa-s.nt.s  a  side  and  end  view  of  the  '  W  dth  "f  t™^k  of  wneels 0-    incnes, 

cavalrv    forge"    as    designed    by   Colonel   Laidley.  ^^^  ^"'^ '^"g'^^^^         °|*     „ 

Unitwl  Slati-s  Anuy .  in  position  and  ready  for  use.     y""  ,,,,'. T"]:. 66      " 

When  it  is  packeil  for  traveling,  the  materials,  tools,     j-t  "fe      ^  t  ou.^  ■••••••••  •••••• ^^      „ 

and  implements  are  all  under  lock  and  key  an<i  not     }-™S^^h  ''/  «  "> /"'^'"'^'"S  ^'"'^'^ ^^      .. 

liable  to  iK-  lost  or  stolen.     The  time  required  to  pre-  j  H'^^'S*''  of  w  heel 0/ 

pare  the  forge  for  work  or  for  transportation  is  not  j  •        Weights. 

more  than  a  minute,  and  the  latter  can  be  performed  ]  " 

though  the    tire-pan    may  be  greatly  heated.      The     One  wheel  108  pounds. 

bhust   is  strong  enough   to    raise    the    tuyere-plate,  j  Shafts  (both)  47 

weishiug  four  pounds,  from  its  seat,  and  a  baggage-  '  An\-il  block  and  base 106      " 

wagon  axle  mav  be  brought  to  a  welding  heat  in  its     Forge,  hood,  etc  145      " 

tire.     It  hius  been  found  to  meet  all  the  renuirements     Tool-box,  empty 55      " 

of  the  service,  and  has  furnished  the  conveniences  for     Coal-lxjx,  empty 63 

keeping  shod  for  live  months  a  wagon-train  of  750     Coal  box,  tilled  with  coal 228      " 

horses  and  mules.     It  is  believed  that  the  advantages     Saddler's  box 44      " 

gained  by  having  the  boxes  removable  from  the  body     Whiffletree 4 

is  not  commensurate  with  the  expense  and  additional     Tuyere 4 

weight  that  it  necessitates,  and  it  would  be  better  to     AnWl-base 7^ 

miike  them  ix-rmancnt  fixtures  to  the  cart.                      I  Cart  (complete),  empty 1075      " 

When  using  the  forge,  to  prevent  the  cart  from  tip-  |      See  Blower  and  Traveling  Forges. 


t^itle  View.) 


Cavalry  Forge. 


(End  View.) 


ping  over  chock  the  wheels  in  front  and  rear,  and  | 
let  down  both  props  by  pulling  the  handle-rings  in 
front  and  rear.  Unlock  and  tsike  the  key  out  of  the 
end  of  the  tail-rod;  withdraw  it.  Let  down  the  forge- 
door  and  take  out  the  shoeing-box.  Grasp  the  hasp 
of  the  forge  door  with  the  right  hand,  insert  the  mid- 
dle tineer  of  the  left  hand  in  the  handle  of  the  lock- 
ing-l)oil ;  draw  out  the  forge,  pulling  iwth  hands  to- 
ward the  I)ody;  as  soon  as  the  forge  has  moved,  let 
go  with  the  left  hand,  continuing  the  action  with  the 
right  till  the  locking-bolt  stops  it.  Raise  the  fulcrum 
to  a  vertical  position.  Unlock  and  turn  the  anvil- 
ha-sp;  s«'i/.e  the  anvil-block  with  both  hands;  draw  it 
out  till  the  anvil  rests  near  the  end  of  the  slide;  take 
the  anvilplatc  from  the  fire-pan,  screw  it  on  the  end 
of  the  block,  and  place  the  anvil  four  feet  in  rear  of 
the  cjirt  and  six  inches  to  the  left  of  the  left  wheel; 
withdraw  the  brake-handle  from  its  |)ocket,  hook  the 
end  in  the  link,  and  enter  the  handle  in  the  slot  in 
the  fulcrum  on  the  right,  if  the  smith  have  a  helper; 
on  the  left  if  he  have  none.  Bear  down  on  the 
Imndle  gently  at  first,  raise  it  a  foot  and  bear  down 
Komewhat  harder,  increasing  the  pressure  as  the  fan 
gains  speed,  continuing  this  pumping  motion,  and 
varjing  the  rapidity  of  the  stroke  according  to  the 
amount  of  blast  recpiireil.  To  remove  the  forge  from 
llie  cart,  place  two  trestles  parallel  tfi  each  other, 
16  inches  apart;  raise  them  to  a  height  of  2  feet  8 
inches.     Two  men,  one  on  each  side  of  the  forge,  take 


CAVALRY  HORSES.— Horses  for  the  cavalry  ser- 
vice should  as  far  as  practicable  be  geldings,  of  hardy 
colors,  sound  in  all  particulars,  well  broken  to  the 
saddle,  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  hish,  not  les.s 
than  five  nor  more  than  nine  years  old,  and  suitable  in 
every  respect  for  the  severe  requirements  of  this  arm 
of  the  service.  Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to 
use  the  smaller  half-breed  horses,  the  standard  of 
height  may  be  reduced  to  not  less  than  fourteen 
hands.  The  horses  should  be  carefully  trained  by 
the  best  horsemen,  under  the  super\nsion  of  an  officer 
or  non  conmiissioncd  officer.  Extreme  gentleness 
and  patience  must  be  used,  and  loud  talking  and 
shouting  avoided.  By  careful  treatment  at  first, 
most  horses  soon  becoriie  perfectly  gentle  and  tract- 
able. Mere  force,  without  skill  or  coolness,  only 
serves  to  cfinfirm  bad  habits.  Approach  the  horse  oh 
the  near  side,  speak  to  him  gently,  place  the  right 
hand  on  his  haunch,  and  step  into  the  stall  beside 
him.  Take  hold  of  the  halter-strap;  pat  the  horse 
and  speak  to  him  gently  until  he  permits  his  legs  to 
be  rubbed  and  his  feet  to  be  lifted.  As  soon  as  the 
horse  l)eoomes  quiet  in  handling,  he  is  bridled  with 
the  watering-bridle,  great  care  being  taken  not  to 
fntrhten  or  hurt  him.  The  blanket  is  then  folded 
and  placed  on  the  horse;  if  the  horse  show  any  fear 
of  the  blanket,  lay  the  blanket  over  the  left  ami,  and 
go  into  the  stall,  show  the  blanket  to  tlie  horse  and 
permit  him  to  smell  it,  patting  him  on  the  ucck  until 


CAVALEY-PARRIES. 


317 


CAVALRY  TACTICS. 


lie  is  quiet  and  allows  the  blanket  to  be  placed  on  his 
back;  then  place  the  surcingle  gently  over  the  blanket 
and  buckle  it.  The  horse  is  now  led  out  of  the  stable, 
and  is  patted  and  coaxed  until  lie  becomes  perfectly 
quiet  and  stands  still  while  the  man  goes  about  on 
both  sides,  rubs  him,  takes  up  his  feet,  etc.,  and  at 
length  permits  the  man  to  get  on  his  back.  After 
mounting,  the  man  pats  the  horse  for  a  few  moments, 
without  attempting  to  make  him  move,  and  then  dis- 
mounts. This  i.s  repeated  several  times,  until  the 
horse  submits  without  fear.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  efficiency  of  cavalry  depends  almost  entirely 
upon  the  condition  of  the  )iori<ts,  which  alone  makes 
them  able  to  get  over  long  distances  in  short  spaces 
of  time.  The  horses  must,  therefore,  be  nursed  with 
great  care,  in  order  that  they  may  endure  the  utmost 
fatigue  when  emergencies  demand  ir.  Reveille,  ordi- 
narily, should  not  be  sounded  on  the  march  before 
daylight,  as  horses  rest  better  from  midnight  until 
dawn  than  at  other  times.  The  average  march  for 
cavalry  is  from  lifteen  to  twenty  miles  per  day.  The 
walk  is  the  habitual  gait,  but,  when  the  ground  is 
good,  the  trot  may  be  used  occasionally  for  short  dis- 
tances. Long  marches  or  expeditions  should  be  be- 
gun moderately,  particularly  with  horses  new  to  the 
service.  Ten  or  tifteen  miles  a  day  is  enough  for 
the  first  marches,  which  may  be  increased  to  twenty- 
five  miles  when  necessary,  after  the  horses  are  inured 
to  their  work.  The  march  is  usually  in  column  of 
fours;  when  practicable,  it  may  be  in  double  column 
of  fours;  in  small  commands  it  is  often  in  column  of 
twos.  In  small  commands,  not  in  campaign,  distances 
of  forty  to  fifty  yards  may  be  taken  between  the  com- 
panies, so  that  checks  will  not  extend  from  one  to  an- 
other and  cau.se  unnecess;iry  halts.  A  halt  of  from 
five  to  ten  minutes  is  made  at  the  end  of  every  hour, 
for  the  pm'pose  of  adjusting  equipments,  tightening 
girths,  etc.  The  companies  are  dismounted  in  col- 
umn at  the  command  of  their  Captains;  if  there  be 
frass,  each  Captain  first  obliques  his  company  a  short 
istance  from  the  road  to  let  the  horses  feed,  as 
horses  must  always  be  encouraged  to  graze  as  much 
as  possible  on  the  march.  When  troops  march  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  day,  a  halt  of  from  twenty  to 
fortj-five  minutes  is  usually  made  about  noon.  On 
long  marches,  officers  and  men,  except  the  sick, 
should  be  required  to  dismount  and  lead  from  twenty 
to  forty  minutes  every  second  or  third  hour;  to  save 
their  backs,  horses  should  be  led  over  sleep  ground, 
and  particularly  down  hill.  Sec  Ilcyrse  and  Harne- 
nuiniiliip. 

CAVALRY-PAHEIES.  — Important    movements    in 
bayonet-exercise,  executed  as  follows:    The  Instruc- 


I  2.  Parry.  Carry  the  piece  to  the  left  of  the  left 
shoulder,  the  barrel  to  the  right  and  nearly  vertical, 
the  right  hand  at  the  small  of  the  stock,  the  left  elbow 
at  the  height  of  the  shoulder  and  touching  the  right 
wiist,  the  fingers  on  the  stock.  1.  IJigh  prime,  2. 
Parry.  Raise  the  piece  with  both  hands,  about 
eight  inches  in  front  and  foiir  inches  above  the  head, 
the  barrel  downward  and  supported  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand  midway  be- 
tween the  upper  and  lower  bands.  The  positions 
are  shown  in  Figs.  1,  2,  and  3.  The  thruiitt  and 
lunge*  are  executed  after  each  cavalrj'-parrj',  the  bay- 
onet elevated.  In  the  thrust  froni  high' tierce  and 
prime  the  barrel  is  downward;  in  high  guarle  the 
barrel  is  upward.  The  high  double  parries  are  exe- 
cuted as  follows:  1.  High  tierce,  2.  Quarte.  1.  Iligh 
qiiarte,  2.  Tierce.  1.  High  prime,  2.  Seconde.  1. 
S)Conde,  2.  High  Prme.  The  neeonde  is  the  same 
for  cavalry  as  for  infantry.  See  Bayonet-exercise  and 
Parry. 

CAVALRY  TACTICS.— Authorities  differ  concern- 
ing the  proportion  that  ought  to  be  observed  between 
cavalry  and  infantry  in  an  army.  In  France  and 
Austria  the  ratio  is  about  1  to  5 ;  in  Prussia  and 
Bavaria,  1  to  4;  in  Russia,  1  to  6,;  in  England,  1 
to  8;  and  in  the  United  States,  2  to  5. 

So  far  as  concerns  actual  duties,  heavy  cavalry 
charge  the  enemy's  cavalry  and  infantry,  attack  the 
guns,  and  cover  a  retreat;  while  the  light  cavalry 
make  reconnaissances,  carry  dispatches  and  messages, 
maintain  outposts,  supply  pickets,  scour  the  country 

'  for  forage,  aid  the  commissariat,  pursue  the  enemy, 
and  stri\e  to  screen  the  movements  of  the  infantry  by 
their  rapid  maneuvers  on  the  front  and  flanks  of 
their  armj-.  At  the  battle  of  Balaklava  the  heavy- 
cavalry  charge  was  within  the  reasonable  duties  of 
the  troops,  but  that  of  the  light  eavalrj'  was  not;  the 
former  succeeded,  the  latter  failed.  A  cavalry-horse 
will  walk  4  miles  in  an  hour  on  general  service,  trot 
8  miles  in  maneuvering,  and  g-allop  11  miles  in 
making  a  charge.  The  cavalry  usually  attack  in  line 
against  cavalrj',  in  echelon  against  artillery,  and  in 
column  against  infantrj-.  When  an  attack  is  about 
to  be  made,  the  cavalrj'  usually  group  into  three 
bodies — the  attacking,  the  supporting,  and  the  re- 
serve. Close  combat  and  hand-to  hand  struggle  are 
the  province  of  cavalry;  infantry  and  artillerj'  may 
fight  at  a  distance,  but  cavalry  cannot.  It  is  rare 
that  two  bodies  of  cavalry  stand  to  fight  each  other; 
the  weaker  of  the  two,  or  the  less  resolute,  usually 
turns  and  gallops  off.  The  work  to  be  done  by  the 
horse  is  to  pursue,  to  overwhelm,  to  cut  down.  They 
cannot  wait  to  receive  an  attack  like  infantry;  they 


Fig.  1. 


Fis.  a. 


Fig.  3. 


tor  commands— 1.  High  tierce,  2.  P.vrry.  Turn  the 
piece,  baiTel  to  the  left;  support  it  with  the  right  el- 
bow against  the  hip,  the  barrel  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand;  the  left  forearm 
alxive  and  about  eight  inches  in  front  of  the  head; 
the  piece  about  eight  inches  to  the  right  of  the  head, 
covering  the  head  and  right  shoulder. "  1.  High  quarte, 


must  cither  pursue  or  retreat;  and  on  this  account  it 
has  been  said,  "Rest  is  incompatible  with  cavaln,'." 
The  infantr)'  and  artillery  more  frequently  ivin  the 
inctor}-;  but  the  cavalry  prepare  the  way  for  doing 
this,  capture  prisoners  and  trophies,  pursue  the  fly- 
ing enemy,  rapidly  succor  a  menaced  point,  and 
cover  the  "retreat  of  infantrj-  and  artillery,  if  retreat 


CATIATIMO. 


318 


CEKENT. 


l>e  necessurj'.  Cavalrj-  is  ncccssiirv  to  finish  off  \vork 
inuinly  iloue  by  otlicrs ;  and  williout  ils  aid  siirnal 
siuxvss  is  si'ldiiiii  iititaiiUMi  on  Ilic  titld.  3Iany  of  tin- 
brilliant  ai-bii'vcnicnl-'  of  tlii'  British  in  ISoT  uud  the 
following  y«ir,  in  India,  wfri-  rt'iiiU'ri'd  almost  nupi- 
Ion,-  by  the  paucity  of  ctivalry,  whilo,  as  a  foiitrast, 
Ihi"  Gi-muiu  victories  of  ISTi)  were  enliauccil  by  the 
splenilld  serviets  of  their  I'hians  and  other  light 
cavalrv.     See  'Wn/^rv  and  TufticK. 

CAVEATING.--ln  "fencinir.  a  motion  whereby  a 
IX'rson  in  an  instant  brings  his  sword,  which  was  pre- 
sented to  one  side  of  his  adversary,  to  the  opposite 
side.     See  Ftiieing. 

CAVESSON.— A  sort  of  nose-band,  of  leather  or  iron, 
which  is  put  on  the  nos«>  of  a  horse  to  iissist  in  break- 
ing or  tniininjx  him.  It  resi'mblcs  the  tiritrh  or  bar- 
naclts.  iK-ing  a  jrrip  by  which  the  nose  is  wrun;;  and 
twisteil,  to  subdue  the  refractory  spirit  of  the  animal. 
Otherwise  spelt  cinnvmii  or  ranzoi). 

CAVIN. — in  military  affairs,  airin  implies  a  natural 
hollow  sufliciently  large  to  lodge  a  body  of  troops 
and  facilitate  their  approach  to  a  place.  If  it  be 
within  musket-shot,  it  is  a  place  of  arms  ready  made, 
and  serves  for  opening  the  trenches,  free  from  the 
enemy's  shot. 

CAXON. — A  chest  of  ores,  calcined,  ground,  and 
wiLshiil.  ready  for  the  retining-fumace.  From  the 
Spanish  cttxon,  eujoii,  a  large  chest. 

CELEBES. — A  body-guard  of  300  young  men  of 
the  best  Roman  families,  organized,  according  to 
tradition,  by  Romulus.  Next  to  the  king,  their 
leader  was  the  highest  officer  of  the  State.  This 
position  was  held  by  Brutus  when  he  expelled  the 
Tarfjuins. 

CELLS. — Places  of  solitary  confinement  in  which 
soldiers  are  placed,  as  punishment  for  certain  crimes. 
In  England  and  elsewhere  this  confinement  is  limited 
to  lOH  hours. 

CELLULOID. — A  remarkable  modem  invention, 
apparently  (•iii>able  of  wide  usefulness  in  the  arsenal 
and  laboratory,  wherever  India-rubber  and  various 
kinds  of  cloth  are  now  employed.  Celluloid  is  pro- 
duced by  mixing  gum  cami)hor  with  a  pulp  of  gim- 
colton,  and  subjecting  the  combination  to  a  high  de- 
cree of  pressiure  and  heat.  The  result  is  a  hard  pro- 
duct of  extraordinary  toughness  and  elasticity.  If 
can  be  made  plastic  again  and  molded  into  any  re- 
quired form.  Any  color  ca;.  \k  given  to  it  by  the 
use  of  coloring  matter  during  the  process  of  manu- 
facture. It  is  extensively  used  as  a  substitute  for 
ivorj',  which  it  resembles  so  elo.sely  that  it  is  some- 
times difficult  to  detect  the  difference. 

CELT. — The  name  by  which  certain  remarkable 
war-weapons  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  western 
Europe  are  known  among  archjeologists.  Celts  are 
cither  of  «to;i«  or  of  bronze. 

Stont  celLs  vary  in  length  from  about  1  inch  to  22 
inches;  but  the  most  common  size  is  from  6  to  8 
inches  in  length,  and  from  2  to  3i  inches  in  brciidth. 
They  are  made  of  almost  every  kind  of  stone,  and 
show  con.sidend)lc  diversity  of  shape,  almost  all, 
however,  having  more  or  less  resemblance  to  the 
mussel-sliell.  The  ruder  celts  are  genendly  of  slate, 
.shale,  schist,  or  grit;  the  finer,  of  flint,  porphyry, 
greenstone,  syenite,  or  agate.  Manv  of  the  finer 
celts  are  Ixautifullv  shaped  and  highly  polished.  A 
remarkable  example  of  this  class,  the  property  of  Sir 
Coutis  Linds:iy.  found  near  St.  Andrews,  in  Scot- 
land, isdeserilM-d  l)y  Sir  David  Brewster  in  the  Philu- 
tophirnl  Journal  for  1«23.  Recently  a  class  of  celts 
found  in  the  later  geological  slra"ta  have  excited 
mui'li  interest  as  well  among  aicha'ologists  as  among 
gt;ologi«t.s.  They  are  olidously  of  the  .sjune  type 
with  the  more  common  celts,  but  of  ruder  construc- 
tion, as  if  fasliione<l  by  a  more  barbarous  jieoiile. 
The  stone  cell  was  fastened  into  a  handle  of  horn, 
iMine,  or  wood.  A  celt  of  M-rpentine,  with  a  handle 
of  deerhorn,  wim  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  lakes  in 
•luly.  1«.%9,  and  a  sioneecll,  with  a  wooden  handle, 
in  the  County  of  Tyrone,  m  Irclimd. 


Bronze  celts  vary  in  length  from  alwut  1  inch  to  8 
or  10  inches,  the  most  common  length  being  about  6 
inches.  They  are  sometimes  ornamented  with  rudely 
incised  lines  or  circles,  and  have  occasionally  been 
found  wrapped  up  in  linen,  or  inclosed  in  bronzo 
citses  or  sheaths.  They  show  much  greater  diversity 
of  .shape  than  the  stone  celt.  As  many  as  four  classes 
have  been  distinguished  by  archa>ol6gists:  1st.  The 
simple  wedge-shaped  celt,  most  nearly  resi'mbling  the 
common  form  of  the  stone  celt.  2d.  The  wedge- 
shaped  celt,  with  sides  more  or  less  overlapping,  and 
a  stop-ridge  or  elevation  between  the  blade  and  the 
part  whicli  received  the  handle.  8d.  The  wedge- 
shaped  celt,  with  sides  gi-eallv  overlapping,  with  or 
without  the  stop-ridge,  but  with  a  loop  or  ear  ujwn, 
and  [larallcl  to,  it.s  lower  surface.  4th.  The  socketed 
celt,  or  the  celt  with  a  hollow  to  receive  the  handle, 
and  generally  with  a  loop  or  Ciir  upon  its  lower  sur- 
face. 

Both  stone  and  bronze  celts  were  probably  ased  for 
several  purposes,  ser\-ing  for  chisels,  adzcs.and  axes, 
as  well  as  for  weapons  of  war,  like  the  stone  hatchets 
of  the  South  Sea  Islanders  and  other  savage  or  bar- 
barous tribes.  Examiiles  of  stone  and  bronze  celts  of 
,ill  classes  (together  with  the  molds  in  which  bronze 
cells  were  cast)  mav  be  seen  in  the  British  JIuseum 
at  London,  in  the  lfatit)nal  Museum  of  the  Antiquaries 
of  Scotland  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy  at  Dublin.  The  last  collection 
has  more  than  .lOO  examples  of  stone  celts,  about  one 
half  of  wliicli  were  found  in  deepening  the  bed  of  the 
Shannon  or  its  tributaries,  between  the  years  1843 
and  1848.  A  bushel  of  bronze  celts  hiis  more  than 
once  l)een  discovered  at  one  spot. 

CELTIBEKI. — A  powerful  i)eoplc  of  ancient  Spain, 
suppose<l  to  have  sprang  from  a  blending  of  the 
Iberians  or  Spanish  aborigines  with  Celtic  invaders 
from  Gaul.  The  Celtiberi  inhabited  a  large  inland 
district  of  the  peninsula,  corresponding  to  the  .south- 
west half  of  Aragon,  nearly  the  whole  of  Cuenga  and 
Soria.  and  a  great  part  of  Burgos,  but  the  name  Ccl- 
tiberia  bad  often  a  wider  signification,  including  the 
coimtry  as  far  south  as  the  sources  of  the  Guadal- 
qui\ir.  The  Celtiberi  were  divided  into  four  tribes, 
and  were  unquestionably  one  of  the  bravest  and 
noblest  peoples  in  the  peninsula.  Their  cavalry  and 
infantry  were  equally  excellent.  For  many  "years 
they  withstood  the  efforts  of  the  Romans  to  subdue 
tliem,  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  campaigns  of  Ser- 
torius  that  they  began  to  adopt  the  Roman  language, 
dress,  and  manners. 

CEMENT.— A  cement  is  a  substance  used  to  make 
the  siH'faces  of  solid  bodies  adhere  to  one  another;  it 
is  applied  in  a  liquid  or  viscous  state,  and  hardens 
after  the  surfaces  are  brought  together.  Wlien  fused 
metals  or  alloys  are  used  in  this  manner,  they  are 
called  solders.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  cements 
derived  from  animal,  vegt'table.  and  mineral  .sub- 
sUmces.  The  animal  cements  are  chiefly  composed 
of  gelatine  and  albumen  as  their  bases,  joiners'  glue 
is  !in  example.  The  binding  materials  of  vegetable 
cements  are  gums,  resins,  and  wax.  The  mineral 
cements  are  chiefly  of  lime  and  its  comjiounds.  In 
many  cements,  animal,  vegetaljle.  and  mineral  sub- 
stances are  combined.  The  simplest  of  th<'  mineral 
cements  is  i)lasier  of  Paris,  which  is  used  for  uniting 
slabs  of  marble,  alabaster,  anil  many  similar  purposes. 
It  is  nnxed  with  water  to  the  consistence  of  thick 
cream,  and  then  applied.  This  hardens  rajiidly,  but 
is  not  very  strong.  Its  hardening  deijends  upon  the 
true  chemical  coml)ination  of  the  water  with  anhy- 
drous saljihate  of  lime,  of  which  pliuster  of  Paris  is 
composed,  and  the  forni.ation  thereby  of  .i  solid  hy- 
drate. The  plaster  of  Paris  may  be  "mixed  with  thin 
glue,  with  diluted  while  of  egg",  or  a  solution  of  size 
or  gum,  in.sleadof  water,  and  is  strengthened  thereby. 
Keene's  marble  cement  is  prei)ared  by  sleeping  pla.ster 
of  Paris  in  a  concentrated  solution  of  alum, "then  re- 
calcining  and  powdering.  This  jjowder  is  mi.\ed 
with  water  in  the  same  manner  as  plaster  of  Paris. 


CEMENTATION. 


319       CENTEB-FIBE  METALLIC-CASE  CABTBISGE. 


It  is  used  as  a  stucco  for  internal  decorations,  ttikes  a 
higli  polish,  and  wlien  colored  tonus  beautiful  imita- 
tions of  mosaic,  marbles,  scagliola,  etc.  A  mixture 
of  paper-pulp,  size,  and  plaster  of  Paris  in  equal  pro- 
portions forms  a  aseful  cement,  and  is  also  used  as  a 
sort  of  papier-maclie  for  casting  into  architectural 
ornaments,  etc.  Common  mortar  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  lime  cements.  It  is  composed  of 
slaked  lime,  or  a  mi.xture  of  this  with  sand;  its  hard- 
ening depends  upon  the  slow  formation  of  carbonate 
of  lime  by  the  al)Sorption  of  carbonic  acid  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  a  partial  combination  with  the  silica 
of  the  sand.  Cow-hair  is  sometimes  mixed  with  it,  to 
bind  it  when  laid  in  masses.  In  order  to  obtain  a 
tine  smooth  paste,  which  is  required  for  good  mortar, 
the  lime  should  be  slaked  rajtidly  by  adding  about 
three  parts  of  water  to  one  of  lime;  ifthe  quantity  of 
water  is  too  small,  a  coarser  or  semi-crystalline  hy- 
drate of  lime  is  produced  by  the  slaking.  Ordinary 
mortar,  when  exposed  to  the  continuous  action  of 
water,  .softens  and  disintegrates,  and  some  of  the  lime 
di-ssolvcs  away.  Lime  which  contains  20  or  30  per 
cent  of  clay,  or  tinely  divided  silica,  ]iroduces  a  mor- 
tar which  is  not  liable  to  this  softening,  but  possesses 
the  property  of  hardening  under  water;  such  lime  is 
called  hjidraitlk,  and  the  mortar  made  from  it,  hy- 
draulic cement  or  mortar.  Puzzolana,  a  porous  lava 
found  at  Puzzuoli,  near  Naples,  has  been  long  cele- 
brateil  for  its  property  of  forming  a  hydraulic  cement 
when  mixed  with  ortlinarv  lime.  It  is  mainly  com- 
posed of  silicates  of  alumina,  lime,  and  soda.  Port- 
land cement,  so  named  from  its  resemblance  to  Port- 
land stone  when  dry,  is  made  from  clay  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Medway,  which  is  intimatel}'  mixed 
with  the  neighboring  chalk,  and  then  burned. 
Roman  cement  is  similar  to  the  Portland,  but  of  a 
darker  color;  it  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  clay, 
and  solidities  more  rapidly.  These  cements  should 
be  mixed  with  a  sullic-ient  quantitv  of  water  to  form 
a  moderately  thick  jiaste;  the  surfaces  to  which  they 
are  applied  shoidd  be  well  wetted,  and  the  cement 
kept  slightly  moist  until  it  hardens.  The  solidifica- 
tion of  hydraulic  cements  depends  upon  the  combina- 
tion of  the  lime  with  the  silica  and  alumina,  fomiing 
first  a  hydrated  compound,  and  finally  a  true  silicate. 
They  expand  slightly  in  solidifying.  See  Cement- 
Ustir. 

CEMENTATION.— The  process  of  infusing  a  solid 
body  with  the  constituents  of  another  body  in  which 
it  is  buried,  by  the  application  of  heat.  The  produc- 
tion of  steel  by  cementation  consists  essentially  in  the 
exposure  of  bars  of  malleable  iron,  in  close  contact 
■with  charcoal,  to  a  high  and  long-continued  heat,  the 
air  being  excluded.  A  decided  peculiarity  of  the  con- 
verted bars  is  the  blistering  of  the  external  surface, 
whence  the  term  hligh-r-sted  is  derived.  When  the 
blisters  arc  small  and  regularly  distributed,  the  steel 
is  of  good  quality;  but  when  large,  and  only  occurring 
along  particular  lines,  they  may  be  considered  as  in- 
dicative of  defective  composition  or  want  of  homo 
geneity  in  the  iron  emjiloved.     See  Blhlered  Stetl. 

CEMENT-TESTEE.— Ainacbine  for  ascertaining  the 
strength  of  cement,  mortar,  or  other  similar  material 
by  compression.  The  drawing  shows  an  improvetl 
machine  of  this  class  with  the  following  dimensions: 
Extreme  height,  2  feet  4  inches;  extreme  length,  3 
feet  6  inches;  extreme  width,  1  foot  5  inches;  weight, 
110  pounds.  Adaptation — Crushing  specimen,  1-inch 
cube  or  le.ss;  motion  of  screw,  li  inch;  capacitj', 
1500  pounds. 

The  beam  is  of  brass,  with  sliding  poise  and  gradu- 
ated from  1  pound  up  to  the  capacity  of  l.-)(Mt  iiuimds 
The  levers  being  carefully  sealed  to  "the  United  States 
standard,  the  results  of  "the  tests  are  positively  cor- 
rect. The  specimen  (1-inch  cube)  is  shown  in  position 
at  butt  end  of  main  lever  just  below  the  thumbscrew. 
The  following  simple  directions  will  show  how  to 
operate  the  machine: 

After  the  specimen  is"  ])roperly  adjusted  in  place, 
force  the  «;rcw  down  with  the  hand-lever  imtil  you 


have  got  enough  pres-sure  on  to  make  the  lever  nearly 
touch  the  top  of  the  stand;  the  weight  on  the  beam  is 
then  carefully  increased  and  the  specimen  will,  in 
most  cases,  break  before  the  beam  reaches  the  bottom 


of  the  stand  or  gate.  If,  however,  it  should  not,  the 
beam  is  again  raised  by  appljnng  pressure  with  the 
screw  and  moving  the  poise  oil  beam  until  the  speci- 
men breaks  or  the  desired  test  is  applied.  See  Testing- 
hnn'hlin\ 

CENOTAPH. — A  monument  which  does  not  contain 
the  remains  of  the  deceased.  They  were  originally 
erected  for  those  whose  bones  could  not  be  found; 
e.g.,  for  those  who  had  perished  in  battle.  Latterly 
the  name  was  applied  to  tombs  built  by  a  man  during 
his  lifetime,  for  himself  or  for  the  inembers  of  his 
familv. 

CENTER.— One  of  the  points  on  the  lathe-spindles 
on  which  the  work  is  placed.  The/;v;H^  or  liee  center 
is  on  the  spindle  of  the  Ju ail  stock.  The  back  or  dead 
cj'iitcr  is  on  the  tiiil-stock.  The  centers  of  a  planer  are 
on  stocks  temporaiily  attached  to  the  bed  of  the  planer, 
.so  that  the  object  may  be  turned  on  its  axis  in  the 
course  of  the  work  thereon.     See  I/ithe. 

CENTER-FIRE  METALLIC  CASE  CARTRIDGE.— 
The  successful  inwntion  of  the  self-primed  metallic- 
case  carttidgc  has  greatly  simpliticd  the  constmction 
of  breech-loading  small-arms.  Prior  to  its  introduc- 
tion and  use,  the  prevention  of  the  escape  of  flame 
through  the  joint  of  the  breech  was  of  difficult  if  not 
impossible  accomplishment,  and  complicated  aiTange- 
ments  of  the  breech-mechanism  had  to  be  resorted  to, 
with,  at  best,  unsatisfactorj-  results.  The  metallic 
cartridge  overcomes  this  dilliculty,  being  itself  a  per- 
fect gas-check  renewed  at  every  round,  prevent-s 
foulne.s,s  and  wear  of  the  mechanism,  and  exercises 
the  most  vital  fimctions  in  the  life  of  the  arm.  So 
important  an  element  is  it  that  it  may  be  said  that 
with  a  perfect  cartridge  the  most  indifferent  breech 
arrangement  can  be  u.sed  with  sjifety  and  efficiency. 

Its  advantages,  other  than  that  already  indicated, 
are  many:  its  completeness  and  sim]ilicity,  being  self- 
primed,  and  used  as  a  whole  in  loading;  its  strength 
and  siifety,  withstanding  the  roughest  usage  and 
thoroughly  protecting  the  powder  and  fulminate;  its 
accuracy,  because  of  the  coincidence  of  the  axis  of  the 
Iwre  and  bullet;  and,  added  to  these,  the  absolute  im- 
possibilit}' of  using  more  than  one  cartridge  at  a  time. 

That  adopted  by  the  Ordnance  Department  is 
known  as  tlie  center-fire.  The  superiority  of  this 
system  over  the  rim-tire  is  so  marked  as  will  undoubt- 
eilly  lead  to  its  imiversal  adoption.  By  concentrating 
the  iwrcussioncompo.sition  in  the  center  of  the  heatl 
the  quantity  used  is  reduced  to  a  minimum, — to  less 
than  one  fom-th  of  what  is  required  to  prime  the  en- 
tire circumference  in  the  rim-tire, — and  this  smaller 
quantity  is  so  much  better  protected  as  not  to  be  at 
all  liable  to  accidental  explosions.  The  central  por- 
tion of  the  head  has  more  elasticity  than   the  rim. 


CENTER-FIRE  METALLIC-CASE  CARTRIDGE.         ^OQ       CENTER  FIRE  METALLIC-CASE  CARTRIDGE. 


and  Is  better  able  to  resist  the  strain  upon  it  from  the 
Euddcn  uclion  of  the  fulminate,  besides  havinj;  the 
additiouul  ud\anla,^e  of  permitting  the  reinforcing  of 
the  rim,  tlius  strengthening  the  weakest  portion  of 
tbe  eartridge-casc. 

The  United  Stales  regulation  ccntcr-flre  cartridge, 
caliber  .45,  consists  of  tlic  following  parts,  viz. :  the 


than  half  its  length  into  the  case,  in  order  that  the 
lubricjmt  in  its  grooves  maj'  be  entirely  covered  and 
protected.  To  render  the  earl  ridge  water-proof,  the 
edge  of  the  case  is  crimped  hard  ag-ainst  the  bullet. 

The  sheet-copper  for  making  the  ca.ses  is  No.  23, 
■wire  gauge,  obtained  in  strips  35^  inches  long,  3.J 
inches  wide,  and  .03  inch  thick.  The  ends  of  these 
strips  are  cut  at  an  angle  to  avoid  waste,  and  each 
strip  gives  material  for  40  ca.ses.  One  pound  of  cop- 
per will  make  40  cases,  i  scrap.  In  the  .selection  of 
sheets  for  making  tlie  cases,  such  only  should  be 
chosen  as  appear  to  have  been  rolled  in  a  careful 
manner.  They  must  be  free  from  the  slightest  seams, 
blisters,  or  Haws,  and  of  an  even  thickness  through- 
out, well  annealed,  and  trinmied  to  the  forcgomg 
dimensions.  The  best  copper  ores  are  mined  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior.  The  Minnesota  mines  and 
the  most  approved  brands  of  Detroit  smelting  should 
be  selected  in  preparing  metal  for  cartridge  purposes. 
It  is  not  pure  as  received  from  the  mills,  being  aUoyed 
with  5  per  cent  of  spelter. 

The  tirst  operation  in  drawing  the  tubes  is  per- 
formed by  the  double-action  press,  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
The  strips  of  copper  are  prepared  for  the  press  by 
straightening  their  cuds  and  edges,  if  neccssjiry,  with 
a  hand-mallet,  and  oiling  both  surfaces.  The  strips 
are  then  fed  to  the  press  by  hand,  a  small  slop  on  the 
die-plate  regulating  the  length  of  feed.     The  first 


ease,  the  cup-anvil,  i  grain  of  percumfn-compogition, 
70  grains  of  mmkel-iMwdcr,  and  a  lubricated  leaden 
bulttt  weighing  4.')()  grains.  The  ca.se  is 
the  copper  tube  which  forms  the  receptacle 
for  the  powder-charge,  the  percussion  com- 
position, and  the  leaden  bullet.  Its  exterior 
conformation  is  designed  to  facilitate  its 
ready  extraction  from  the  chamber  of  the 
gmi  after  firing.  Besides  the  rim  at  the 
dosed  end,  which  is  intended  primarily  to 
a.ssist  extraction,  the  case  is  tapered  from 
the  rear  to  a  point  where  it  seizes  the  bullet, 
whence  it  merges  into  a  right  cylinder.  The 
cup-anvil  is  a  small  metallic  cup,  of  suffi- 
cient rigidity  to  resist  the  l)low  of  the  ham- 
mer communicated  by  the  firing-pin,  and 
of  such  form  as  to  insure  the  passiige  of 
the  fianie  to  the  j)owder-eharge  upon  the 
explosion  of  the  ptTcussion-composilion.  It 
is  provided  with  a  circular  recess  or  canty 
into  which  the  |U'rciis.sion-composition  is 
deposited.  Two  little  vents,  at  the  extremi- 
ties of  a  diameter  of  this  recces,  direct  the 
flame  to  the  charge.  The  cup,  when  charged 
with  the  comiwisilion,  is  placed  within  the 
copper  ca.sc,  pressed  snugly  against  its 
closed  end,  and  crimped  fimily  into  position. 
were  formerly  made  of  sheelifon  tin-plate,  but  they 
are  now  made  of  copper.    The  bullet  enters  more 


Cup3 


Fio.  a. 

shape  given  to  the  future  cartridge-case  is  that  of  a 
flat  circular  disk,  l.fi:i  inch  in  diameter,  cut  from  the 
copper  strips  fed  under  the  double   punch  of  this- 


CENTEE-FIEE  METALLIC  CASE  CAETEIDGE.        321       CENTEE-FIEE  METALLIC-CASE  CAETEIDGE. 


press.  This  punch  is  essentially  a  punch  within  a 
jmneh,  the  exterior  one  cutting  the  disk  clear  from 
the  strip,  while  the  interior  one  descends  and  forces 
it  through  a  tapered  die,  giving  it  a  shallow,  cup 
shape,  about  1  inch  in  diameter  and  .5  inch  deep. 
After  pas.sing  through  and  beyond  the  tapered  die, 
the  cup  e.xpands  slightly  and  is"  stripped  from  the  in- 
terior punch  as  the  latter  ascends.  Two  rows  of 
disks  are  cut  from  each  strip,  one  disk  at  a  time. 
They  are  cut  and  cupped  at  the  rate  of  6")  a  minute. 
E.xperience  has  proved  that  a  width  of  strip  giving 
only  two  rows  of  disks  is  better  than  a  width  giving 
three  or  more  rows,  the  former  being  rolled  to  a  more 
uniform  thickness  and  subject  to  less  percentage  of 
waste. 

In  order  to  draw  the  cups  to  the  dimensions  re- 
quired for  the  linished  cases,  they  are  subjected  to 
the  action  of  four  additional  punches  and  dies  of  de- 
creasing sizes,  so  as  to  gradually  elongate  the  cups 
while  reducing  their  diameters.  These  draws  are 
made  by  single-action  presses,  having  each  a  single 
punch  and  die,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  tirst  press 
elongates  the  cup  from  .92  to  .95  of  an  inch,  and  re- 
duces its  diameter  to  (according  to  the  ma.\inium 
thickness  of  copper  and  wear  of  tools)  about  .7  of  an 
inch.  The  second  press  elongates  it  from  1.1.'5  to  1.2 
inch,  and  reduces  the  diameter  to  about  .65  of  an 
inch,  thus  lengthening  out  the  cup  into  a  tube. 
These  tubes  at  this  stage  are  annealed  after  a  process 


Fio.  3. 

to  be  presently  described.  The  third  press  elongates 
the  tube  from  1.75  to  1.8  inch,  and  reduces  its  diame- 
ter to  .55  of  an  inch.  The  fourth  press  brings  the 
tubes  to  the  required  exterior  diameter  of  .501  mini- 
mum and  .503  maximum  of  an  inch,  the  extreme  per- 
missible variation  of  which  is  .002  of  an  inch;  but 
they  are  left  of  unequal  lengths  and  with  ragged 
edges.  These  presses  are  fed  at  the  rate  of  65  tubes  a 
minute,  by  placing  them  upright  on  a  revolving  hori- 
zontal plate  provided  with  guides  and  stops. 

The  tubes  are  annealed  after  the  second  draw,  as 
stated  above,  to  restore  to  the  metal  its  ductility,  the 
previous  operations  having  rendered  it  hard  and  brit- 
tle. The  number  of  annealings  required  dtiring  the 
entire  process  of  manufacture  will  depend  on  the 
(lualit)'  of  the  metal  iised;  with  the  best  copper,  onlj- 
one  is  necessarj'.  The  annealing  is  done  bv  placing 
the  tubes  in  a  perforated  iron  cylinder,  heating  them 
red-hot  in  a  charcoal-lire,  revohing  the  cylinder 
meanwhile  to  equalize  the  heat,  then  plunging  them 
into  a  solution  of  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid  and  tif- 
tecn  parts  water,  and,  afterwards,  thoroughly  wash- 
ing in  several  changes  of  water  to  remove  all  trace  of 
acid.  The  acid  solution  (pickle)  is  intended  to  deun.se 
the  metal  from  any  scale,  or  oxide,  occasioned  by  the 
annealing.  They  should  be  kept  in  a  slightly  acid 
bath  until  ready  for  use,  when  they  are  washed  and 
oiled. 

The  finishing  draw  having  left  the  tubes  of  uneqtial 


lengths  and  ragged  edges,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  subsequent  steps  of  manufacture,  and 
to  insure  uniformity  in  the  tinished  cartridges,  to  re- 
move the  ragged  edges  antl  reduce  the  tubes  to  a 
uniform  length.  This  is  done  by  means  of  the  trim- 
ming-machine represented  in  Fig.  3.  The  tul)es  are 
placed  in  the  trough  of  this  machine,  whence  they 
are  taken  up  by  a  revohing  mandrel,  against  which, 
and  just  inside  of  a  shoulder  upon  the  same,  the  edge 
of  a  circular  cutter  is  pressed.  The  tube,  when 
brought  to  iiosition  by  the  mandrel,  is  cut  clean  and 
even  by  the  cutter,  a  stripper  removing  the  tube  and 
scrap  after  each  operation.  To  allow  for  the  metal 
that  is  used  for  forming  tlie  head  or  rim,  the  tubes 
are  cut  a  little  longer  (about  .13  inch)  than  the  headed 
case.  The  tulies  are  trimmed  by  this  machine  at  the 
rate  of  80  a  minute. 

In  all  the  operations  pre^^ous  to  and  succeeding  the 
annealing,  lard-oil  of  the  best  quality  is  the  lubncant 
used.  But  as  the  smallest  particle  of  oil  will  impair 
the  efliciency  of  the  percussion-composition,  it  is  of 
the  last  importance  that  all  vestiges  of  it  be  removed 
from  the  interior  of  the  tube  before  the  percussion- 


Fio.  4. 

composition  is  inserteil.  The  flattening  of  the  closed 
end  of  the  tube  by  the  next  operation  would,  if  the 
oil  were  not  pre\iously  removed,  retain  a  greater  or 
less  quanity  of  it  in  the  interior  fold  of  the  rim,  from 
which  no  subsequent  process  could  entirely  remove 
it,  and  from  which  it  would  be  liable  to  exude  in  the 
tinished  cartridge,  to  the  destruction  of  the  percussion- 
composition.  The  present  unheaded  condition  of  the 
tube,  therefore,  affords  the  most  favorable  opportu- 
nity for  removipg  the  oil,  which  is  done  by  washing 
the  tubes  in  a  solution  of  li  pound  potiish,  li  pound 
soda,  and  5  gallons  of  wafer,  temperature  120',  for 
•seven  minutes,  and  afterwards  rinsing  them  thor- 
oughly in  clean  warm  water,  using  a  revolving  wire 
barrel  partially  immersed  in  it. 

The  head  or  rim  of  the  cartridge-ca.se  is  next  formed 
by  the  heailing-machine.  This  machine,  shown  in 
Fig.  4,  consists  of  a  horizontal  die,  coimtersunk  at 
one  end  for  sizing  (diameter  and  thickness)  the  head, 
a  feed-punch  to  insert  the  tubes  into  the  die,  and  a 
heading-punch  to  tiatten  the  closed  end  of  the  tubes 
into  the  countersink.    The  bumper  may  be  reversed. 


CENTEKFIRE  METALLIC  CiSE  CARTRIDGE.        322       CENTER  FIRE  METALLIC-CASE  CARTRIDGE 


and  the  die  k-fl  witliout  countersink.  This  plan  bus 
been  n'conimencii'd.  The  tubes,  which  are  a  little 
longiT  than  the  headed  C!i.*e,  are  fed  into  the  inclined 
trough  of  the  heading  machine,  whence  they  are 
taken  up  on  the  feed  punch.  A  shoulder  on  this 
punch,  at  a  distance  from  its  extremity  eciual  to  the 
inner  depth  of  the  heiide<l  ca.se,  prevents  it  from  ex- 
tending to  the  full  depth  of  the  tube,  and  a  surplus 


Fig.  5. 


of  metiil  is  thereby  left  at  the  closed  end  of  rhe 
tube  for  the  fomiation  of  the  head.  The  feed- 
punch  inserts  the  lube  into  the  die,  and  holds  it 
there,  while  the  beading-punch  moves  forward  by  a 
nowerful  cam,  and  presses  and  folds  the  unsupporteil 
projecting  p<irtion  of  the  tul)e  into  the  countersink  of 
the  d'e  or  recess  of  bumiier,  as  the  case  may  lie,  form- 
ing and  accurately  sizing  and  shaping  the  head  or 
rim.  The  headed"  case  being  left  in  tlie  die  as  the 
feed-punch  recedes,  is  pushed  out  by  the  succeeding 
tube  and  thrown  by  a  flipper  into  the  receptacle  be- 
low. Xo  oil  is  usi'd  in  this  operation,  the  moisture 
of  the  tubes  from  the  recent  washing  sufliciug  as  a 
lubricant.  The  machine  is  fed  at  the  rate  of  (>')  per 
minute.  The  ejises  are  now  finished;  but  to  be  cer- 
tain that  the  oil  is  entirely  removed  from  tbem,  they 
are  again  washed  in  the  "alkaline  solution  and  dried 
thoroughly  in  a  drying-room,  at  a  temperature  of 
about  12.5   Fahrenheit. 

The  cup-anvil  is  made  of  copper,  by  a  double- 
action  press,  similar  to  the  one  for  cutting  and  cup- 
ping the  disks  for  the  copiier  cases.  Copper  sheet- 
metal  strips,  2.5  inches  long,  2.. 5  inches  wide,  and  .04.5 
inch  thick  are  used.  One  pound  will  make  176  cups, 
i  scrap.  The  sheet-metal  for  cups  mast  be  free  from 
all  defect.s,  with  a  liright,  smooth  surface,  and  uni- 
form in  thickness  throughout,  and  annealed.  The 
cups  are  cut  and  formed  by  this  machine  at  the  rate 
of  -lo  a  minute.  The  cup-anvils,  as  they  come  from 
the  double-action  press,  are  of  the  right  diameter,  but 
too  long,  and  with  nigged  edges.  The  cups  are  re- 
duced to  a  uniform  height  by  cutting  off  the  ragged 
edges  in  the  cup-trimming  machine,  shown  in  Fig. 


minute.  The  circular  depression  in  the  Imttom  of 
the  cup,  which  serves  sis  the  receptacle  for  the  percus 
sion  composition,  is  next  made.  The  cups  are  fed 
through  a  vertical  trough  at  the  rate  of  90  per  min- 
ute. The  trough  has  a  flat  pan  at  the  top,  into  which 
the  cups  in  quantities  are  emptied,  and  where  they  are 
arranged  so  as  to  present  the  jiroper  end  to  the  punch. 
The  t~ups  thus  comiileted  are  well  washed  in  an  alka- 
line solution,  to  remove  all  traces  of  oil,  and  then 
thoroughly  dried. 

The  percus.sion-composition  consists  of  fulminate 
of  mercury,  35  parts;  chlorate  of  pota.sh,  16  parts; 
gl.iss-dust,  45  parts;  gum-arabic,  2  parts;  gum-traga- 
canth,  2  part.s,  by  weight.  These  arc  mixed  without 
danger  by  using  the  fulminate  in  a  moist  state,  the 
water  having  been  entirely  drained  from  it.  The 
chlorate  of  potash  being  well  triturated,  and  the  glass- 
dust  properly  prepared,  the  ingredients  are  put  into  a 
china  bowl  and  thoroughly  mixed,  using  a  small 
steel  spatula  for  the  purpose.  The  dissolved  gums 
will  contain  suBicient  water  to  reduce  the  composition 
to  a  thick  paste,  it  being  used  in  the  machine  of  this 
consistency. 

Glass-diist  for  the  percussion-composition  is  pre- 
pared for  use  in  the  following  manner:  Broken 
French  ])late-glass  only  is  used.  The  glass  is  washed 
cleim  and  dried;  it  is  then  broken  into  small  pieces. 


Fio.  0. 

5,  which  consists  of  a  revolving  rose  cutter,  made  of 
a  number  of  small  cutters  that  can  Ix-  changed  and 
sharpened  at  plea.sure.  The  cups  are  fed  to  the  cut- 
ters through  a  vertical  trough,  and  are  trimmed  at 
the  rate  of  :50  a  minute.  The  vents  are  punched  in 
the  trimmed  cups  by  the  cup-venting  machine  shown 
in  Fig.  0,  which  is  proWded  with  a  two-pointed  punch 
and  corres|K>nding  dies.  The  cups  are  fed  by  hand 
on  a  revolving  circular  plate,  at  the  rate  of  '70  per 


Fig.  7. 

put  into  an  iron  mill  or  rolling-barrel,  ninning  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  revolutions  per  minute,  and  ground 
for  a  time;  after  which  it  is  sieved  by  shaking 
through  hair-sieves  of  50  meshes  to  the  inch  to  re- 
move the  lumps,  and  what  remains  is  sifted  on  hair- 
sieves  of  120  meshes  to  the  inch  to  remove  the  impal- 
pable powder.  What  is  left  on  this  sieve  is  free  from 
dusi  and  lumps,  and  is  of  good  grit  and  ready  for  use. 
The  i)ercussioii-coniposition,  of  the  consistency  of 
thick  paste,  is  deposited  in  the  recess  of  the  cup  by  the 
priiiiing-raacbine,  a  verj'  ingenious  piece  of  mechan- 
ism (shown  in  Fig.  7),  which  performs  this  important 
operalioiiwiththegreate.st  accuracy  and  certainty,  and 
with  perfect  safety.  Its  principal  parts  are,  first,  the 
central  revolving  spindle,  with  four  tubular  feeders 
at  its  head,  which  deposit  the  percussion-composition 
in  the  cups;  second,  the  magazine  on  the  right;  and, 
third,  the  circular  plate  on  the  left,  on  which  the  un- 
primed  cups  are  fed  to  the  machine.  The  four  tubu- 
lar composition-feeders  at  the  head  of  tlie  sjiindle 
consist  each  of  a  small  depending  stem,  down  which 
,  a  closely-fitting  tube  is  made  to  slide,  the  lower  edge 
j  projecting  a  little  Inflow  the  end  of  the  stem.  By  the 
revohing  motion  of  the  spindle  these  tubular  feeders 
are  brought  successively  over  the  magazine  and  over 
the  cups  to  be  primed.     At  the  moment  a  feeder  is 


CENTEEFIEE  METALLIC-CASE  CARTRIDGE.        393       GENTER-FIBE  METALLIC  CASE  CARTRIDGE. 


presented  over  the  magazine,  which  is  a  shallow  diah 

■containing  the  percu.ssiou-coniposition,  the  magazine 
rises  until  its  metal  bottom  is  in  contact  with  tlie 
tube,  a  slight  shaking  motion  of  the  magazine  during 
its  progress  sening  to  deposit  compactly  into  the 
open  projecting  end  of  the  lube  a  sutjicieiit  (juantity 
of  composition  for  the  priming  of  a  single  cup.  The 
magazine  then  recedes,  while  the  revolving  spindle 


I  Jecting  from  the  dies,  and  the  cases  are  placed  over 
tliem.  By  the  revolution  of  the  horizontal  plate  on 
which  the  dies  are  placed,  each  die  is  in  succession 
brought  under  the  descending  punch,  which  forces 
the  cases  into  the  dies  and  presses  their  heads  hard 
against  the  primed  cups,  while  the  crimpers  move 
forward  from  the  side  and  bite  the  cups  snugly  and 
firmly  into  place.  The  central  stem  rises  out  of  the 
die  as  the  latter  leaves  the  punch,  and  the  ca.se  is  re- 
moved by  a  spring  e.xtractor.  The  section  of  the  ca.se 
which  is  to  envelop  the  bullet  is  not  tapered  bj'  the 
machine,  but  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  right  cylinder 
whose  inner  diameter  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  l)ul- 
let.  This  gives  the  bullet  a  securer  hold  in  the  case 
and  helps  to  make  the  cartridge  water-proof. 

The  United  States  elongated  .service-bullets  are 
made  by  compression  by  means  of  machinerj-  adapt- 
ed to  tills  purpose.  They  are  uniform  in  size  and 
weight,  smoother  and  more  homogeneous,  more  accu- 
rate, and  give  better  results  than  cast  and  swaged 
bullets.  The  alloy  for  bullets  should  be  pure  soft 
lead  of  commerce,  of  specific  gra\'ity  about  11.35, 
which  is  increa.sed  by  pressure  to  about  11.45,  and 
which  melts  at  600'  Fahrenheit  and  volatilizes  at  red 
heat,  and  in  proportion  of  16  parts  of  lead  to  1  of  tin. 
The  lead  is  first  melted  and  skimmed  of  dro.s.s — 
amounting  to  0  per  cent  in  good  lead — and  cast  in 
iron  molds  into  cylindrical  bars,  ..50  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter and  20  inches  long.  These  bars  are  passed 
through  rolls  which  reduce  them  to  .38  of  an  inch  in 


Fig.  8. 

carries  the  charged  feeder  to  the  circular  plate  on  the 
left,  which  presents  the  cups  for  priming.  The  mo- 
tion of  this  plate  is  from  left  to  right,  while  that  of 
the  spindle  is  from  right  to  left,  whereby  the  feeders 
and  cups  are  made  to  meet  and  leave  each  other  in 
opposite  directions.  The  plate  is  pro\ided  with  eight 
upright  movable  stems,  on  the  ends  of  which  Ihe  un- 
primed  cups  are  fed.  As  the  cups  and  feeders  are 
brought,  by  the  revolutions  of  the  plate  and  spindle, 
in  a  vertical  line  with  each  other,  the  cups  are  raised 
by  their  stems  so  as  to  receive  the  percussion-compo- 
sition exactly  in  their  circular  recesses  from  the  tubes 
of  the  feeders.  The  tube,  at  the  moment  of  contact 
with  the  cup,  slides  up  its  depending  stem  and  frees 
the  composition  from  its  end,  which  is  pressed  by  the 
upward  motion  of  the  cup  snugly  into  the  circular  re- 
cess. The  feedere  and  cups  in  parting  leave  each 
other  horizontally  in  opposite  directions,  so  that  the 
percussiou-comjxi.sition  is  sheared  off  evenly  and 
smoothly  with  the  bottom  surface  of  the  cup.  A 
specific  quantity  of  composition  is  thus  deposited  in 
the  recess  of  each  cup  at  each  operation.  The  prin- 
cipal difficulty  heretofore  encountered  in  perfecting  a 
machine  of  this  kind  is  entirely  overcome  by  the  ase 
of  this  peculiar  feeder.  This  machine  primes  at  the 
rate  of  38  per  minute. 

The  tapering  is  performed  in  two  operations:  first, 
by  forcing  the  shell  through  dies  made  in  three  cy- 
lindrical sections  of  graduated  dimensions;  second, 
while  the  composition  is  still  moist  in  the  circular  re- 
ces.ses  of  the  cups,  the  latter  are  put  into  the  headed 
cases  and  crimped  into  position,  the  cases  being  ta- 
pered and  reduced  at  the  same  time.  The  first  oper 
ation  prevents  the  case  from  wrinkling  or  folding; 
the  .second  completes  the  tapering.  The  tapering- 
machine,  .shown  in  Fig.  8,  consists  of  four  vertical  ta- 
pered dies,  with  stems  projecting  from  their  centers, 
on  which  the  ca.ses  and  cups  are  fed,  the  crimpers 
working  from  the  sides  of  the  dies,  and  the  descending 
punch  which  forces  the  cases  into  the  dies.  The 
primed  cups  are  placed  on  the  ends  of  the  stems  pro- 


Fio.  9. 

diameter  and  increase  their  length  to  36  inches.  The 
surplus  lead,  if  any,  is  trimmed  off  in  rolliiiir.  A 
man  will  cast  in  a  day  of  ten  hours  1500  bars  of  lead. 
A  man  and  boy  will  roll  and  trim  in  a  day  of  ten 
hours  3000  bars  of  lead. 

The  bars  are  fed  to  the  bullet-machine,  sho\vn  in 

Fig.  9,  through  a  vertical  tube  above  a  horizontal 

cutter,  which  cuts  at  each  stroke  a  length  sufficient  to 

j  form  a  single  bullet  and  transfers  it  to  the  die,  in 


CENTER-FIRE  METALLIC  CASE  CARTRIDGE.        -{04       CENTER  FIRE  METALLICCASE  CARTRIDGE. 


which,  bv  means  of  a  vciiical  punch,  the  bullet  is 
fonned  with  its  grooves.  The  surplus  lead  is  forced 
out  at  the  jiinctiou  of  the  dies  in  the  direction  of  the 
loni.Tr  axis  of  the  Imllet.  and  at  the  junelion  of  the 
puiich  and  dies  at  its  head.     A  bullet-niuchine  will 

J 


Fio.  10. 

make  in  a  day  of  ten  hours  about  25,000  to  27,000 
bullets.  Best  lard-oil  is  used  on  the  lead  bars  to  lu- 
bricate the  dies. 

The  operation  of  trimminff  the  bullets  is  performed 
hv  the  bullet-trimming  machine  shown  in  Fig.  10. 
The  bullets  are  fed  by  hand  into  a  revolving  perfo- 
nitetl  circular  plate,  whence  they  are  forced  by  a 
punch  through  trimmers  which  open  from  the  point 
to  the  ba.se  of  the  bullet,  and  which  conform  to  its 
shape,  a  cutter  at  the  same  time  passing  over  the  ba.sc. 
After  this  they  are  forced  by  the  punch  through  the 


Fio.  11. 

gauge  under  the  trimmer.  The  best  lard-oil  is  used 
with  these  machines.  The  bullets  mast  not  vary  more 
thiui  twoCTiiins  above  or  below  their  prescribed  weight. 
A  bov  will  trim  and  gauge  inaday  of  ten  hours  15,000 
bullets. 
The  lubricant  for  bullets  is  made  of  eight  parts  of 


l)ayl)erry  tallow  and  one  part  of  graphite,  by  weight. 
Tlie  latter  must  be  of  tlie  best  quality  and  free  from 
grit.  The  bullets  should  lie  lubricated  by  maeliinery 
wlienever  iM).ssil)le,  as  the  grooves  are  more  surely 
and  conipUtely  tilled  and  more  closely  packed  by 
mechanical  pressure.  Experiment  has  shown  that 
one  of  the  be.^t  lubricanls  for  u.s^'  with  the  gun,  and 
in  the  lubricating  machine,  is  .Japan  wax.  It  gives 
a  very  small  per  cent  of  fouling  and  works  freely  in 
the  machine.  It  is  generally  dieaper  than  the  above 
lubricant  and  luus  been  in  use  several  yeai-s. 

The  lubrication  of  the  bullet  is  done  by  the  lubri- 
cating-machine  shown  in  Fig.  11.  The  lubricant  is 
molded  into  cylinders  of  al)out  10  inches  in  length. 
These  cylinders  are  fed  to  the  machine  through  a  ver- 
tical tube,  pressure  being  applied  to  kee])  the  supply 
constant.  The  bullets  are  placed  by  hand  in  a  per- 
forated revolving  vertical  plate  and  forced  by  a 
punch  through  a  sizing-die  fixed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
tube,  wliieli  is  pierced  with  small  holes.  The  lubri- 
cant is  forced  through  these  holes  into  the  grooves 
of  the  bullet,  fdling  tliem  completely.  In  cold  weather 
an  arrangement  for  slightly  warming  the  lubricant 
should  be  provided.  A  boy" will  lubricate  in  a  day  of 
ten  hours  15,000  bidlets. 

The  cases  are  now  loaded  with  powder  and  bullets 
by  means  of  the  loading-machine,  shown  in  Fig.  12, 
■which  consists  of  a  revolving  circular  plate  with  holes 
or  receivers,  and  a  hopper  and  powder-measure.  The; 
cases  and  bullets  are  fed  on 
revolving  plates,  35  a  min- 
ute; the  former  are  lifted  in- 
to the  receivers,  pa.ssed  well 
under  the  hopper  and  mea- 
sure for  a  charge  of  powder, 
and  then  under  the  bullet- 
feeder  for  a  lubricated  bul- 
let. In  order  to  insure  a 
fidl  charge  in  each  cartridge, 
the  machine  is  provicled  with 
a  bell,  which  gives  notice  to 
the  operative  of  anv  failure 
in  this  particular.  The  edge 
of  the  case  is  then  crimped  on 
the  bidk't  in  a  verj'  simple 
manner.  The  receivers  are 
smaller  at  the  top  where  the 
bullet  enters  than  at  the 
bottom  where  the  case  is 
received,  the  tliameterof  the 
former  being  oidy  equal  to 
that  of  the  interior  of  the 
open  end  of  the  latter.  After 
the  bidlel  has  been  presided 
into  the  case,  the  cjirtridge  is 
lifted  so  that  the  edge  of  the 
case  is  forced  into  the  coni- 
cal surface  of  the  receiver 
between  its  larger  and  smaller 
diameters.  The  powder  is  placed  in  a  pasteboard 
hopper,  about  two  feet  alx)ve  the  machine,  and  is  fed 
to  the  cases  through  a  paper  tube  one  inch  in  diame- 
ter; the  hopper  and  tube  stand  inside  of  a  large  coni- 
cal shield  of  boiler-iron. 

During  the  process  of  manufacture,  accidents  are 
only  pos-sible  with  the  loading-machine;  and  every 
precaution  is  taken  to  i^rovide  against  their  occur- 
rence. As  the  machine  is  now  made  and  aminged, 
the  explosion  of  one  cartridge  may  communicate  Sre 
to  the  few  charged  eases  near  "it  without  danger. 
The  entire  charge  of  jiowder  in  the  hopper  may  be 
thus  exploded  w'ithoul  the  possibility  of  injury,  either 
to  the  operative  or  to  the  machine,  as  the  hopper  and 
tube  offer  but  a  slight  resistance  to  the  action  of  the 
gases  that  expand  their  forces  in  every  direction  with- 
out affecting  tlic  stability  of  the  protecting  shield. 
This  has  been  proved  by  exiurimcntally  exploding 
full  charges  of  two  and  a  half  pounds  in  the  hopper 
itself.  But  the  exi)losion  of  a  cartridge  in  the  opera- 
tion of  loading  is  of  verj-  rare  occurrence.    Out  of 


Fig.  12. 


■CENTEBING. 


325 


CENTEBING  MACHINE. 


the  many  millions  loaded  at  Frankf  ord  Arsenal  in  the 
past  ten"  years,  a  trifling  number  only  have  exploded 
prematurely,  resulting  in  no  damage  whatever.  After 
loading,  the  cartridges  are  wiped  clean  and  put  up  in 
paper  packages  and  packed  in  wooden  boxes  for  stor- 
age or  is.sue. 

The  cartridge!!  are  put  up  in  paper  lx)xes  holding 
20  rounds.  Each  box  is  arranged  for  two  rows  of 
10,  the  rear  row  being  higher  than  the  front,  each 
alternate  cartridge  bavinj^  its  rim  below  that  of  the 
other,  for  facility  in  loadmg  and  close  packing.  The 
frames  and  skeleton  divisions  of  the  boxes  are  made 
of  straw-boards,  the  shapes  of  each  part  being  cut 
with  punches  and  dies,  and  such  as  require  it  being 
creased  for  foldLug.  The  frame  of  the  box  is  cov- 
ered with  s'cut  paper  bearing  a  printed  description 
of  the  contents,  and  projecting  far  enough  over  to 
paste  down  the  lid  securely.  For  convenience  in 
opening  the  box,  a  piece  of  strong  twine  is  fastened 
at  one  end  of  the  box  and  pasted  along  the  inside  of 
the  seam  of  the  lid,  the  loose  end  projecting  a  few 
inches. 

The  cartridges  are  packed,  for  storage  or  trans- 
portation, in  wooden  boxes,  containing  fiftj'  pack- 
ages each.  These  ammunition- boxes  are  painted, 
and  the  description  of  contents  is  stencil-marked 
on  the  ends,  the  date  of  fabrication  branded  on  the 
sides,  and  the  place  of  fabrication  on  the  interior  of 
the  lid.     See  Cartridge. 

CENTEBING.— 1.  In  consequence  of  windage, 
which  is  necessarj'  for  all  muzzle-loatling  guns,  the 
axis  of  the  projectile  does  not  always  coincide  with 
that  of  the  bore;  in  firing,  this  leads  "to  inaccuracy  of 
fire.  In  order  to  secure  accuracy  of  fire,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  axis  of  the  projectile  should  correspond 
with  that  of  the  bore  of  the  gun,  for  otherwise  the 
axis  of  rotation  will  be  variable  and  the  deflection  of 
the  projectile  uncertain.  Should  the  axis  of  the  pro- 
jectile on  leaving  the  bore  be  imstead}',  the  projectile 
will  have  the  wabbling  motion  so  frequently  observed 
in  experimental  practice.  A  projectile  is  .said  to  be 
centered  when  the  grooves  of  the  rifling  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  bring  the  axis  of  the  projectile  in  line 
with  that  of  the  bore  when  the  piece  is  tired.  Cen- 
tering may  embody  the  compres.sing  or  expanding 
systems  in  any  reqtiired  degree.  While  the  projectile 
is  rotated  hy  the  solid  projections  formed  upon  it,  and 
fitting  into  the  grooves  of  the  gun,  the  exterior  of 
these  projections,  or  of  the  whole  projectile,  may  be 
covered  with  a  soft  substance  which  may,  in  the  case 
of  a  breech-loader,  be  larger  than  the  bore,  and  thus 
be  compressed  while  passing  out  of  the  gun;  or  which 
may  be  expanded,  by  the  pressure  of  the  powder,  to 
fill  the  gun.  When  the  projectile  is  well  centered, 
■windage  cannot  affect  its  straight  passage  through  the 
bore. 

3.  The  framework  upon  which  an  arch  or  vault  of 
stone,  brick,  or  iron  is  supported  during  its  construc- 
tion. The  simplest  form  of  centering  is  that  used  hy 
masons  and  bricklayers  for  the  arches  of  common 
■windows  and  doors.  This  is  merely  a  deal  board  of 
the  required  shape,  upon  the  curved  edge  of  which 
the  bricks  or  stones  of  the  arch  are  supported  until 
they  are  keyed  in.  In  building  bridges  or  other 
structures  where  arches  of  great  span  are  to  be  con- 
structed, the  centering  is  usually  made  of  framed 
timlxirs,  or  timbers  and  iron  combined.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  timbers  should  be  such  that  the  strain 
upon  each  shall  be  mainly  a  thrust  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  for  if  the  strain  were  transverse,  a  com- 
paratively slight  force  would  snap  it,  and  if  a  longi- 
tudinal pull,  tie  whole  structure  would  Ix;  no  stronger 
than  the  joints  holding  the  pieces  of  timber  together. 
In  arches  of  great  .span,  such  as  that  of  the  Water- 
loo Bridge,  London,  a  longitudinal  pulling  strain  is 
almost  inevitable  in  some  parts,  a.s  a  beam  of  great 
length  would  bend  to  some  extent  under  a  thrusting 
strain.  In  such  cases  great  skill  and  care  are  demanfl- 
ed  in  the  designing  and  construction  of  the  joints.  As 
an  arch  is  built  from  the  piers  towards  the  keystone, 


the  weight  upon  the  haunches  during  construction 
tpnds  to  push  the  crown  upwards,  and  therefore  the 
problem  of  designing  a  framed  centering  involves  the 
resistance  of  this  tendency,  as  well  as  the  supporting 
of  the  weight  of  the  materials.  The  centering  of  the 
Waterloo  Bridge,  designed  by  Rennie,  presents  a  fine 
example  of  the  fulfillment  of  these  requirements.  It 
will  be  easily  seen  that  a  weight  upon  two  parts  equi- 
distant from  the  center  will  be  resisted  by  direct 
thrust  upon  the  beams  pa.ssing  obliquely  downwards 
from  these  parts;  one  of  each  pair  of  these  oblique 
beams  thrusts  outwards,  and  is  directly  supported  bv 
the  abutments;  the  other  thrusts  inwards  towards 
the  center,  the  yielding  of  which  is  prevented  by  the 
longitudinal  pull  of  the  lower  and  longer  oblique 
beams.  In  this  and  other  modem  structures  cast-iron 
shoes  have  been  successfully  used  for  the  tying- joints 
subject  to  the  longitudinal  pulling  strain.  The  flexi- 
ble centering,  so  called  from  its  yielding  at  the  joints, 
and  varj'ing  its  form  with  the  load  put  upon  it,  is  now 
abandoned.  It  was  chiefly  used  by  French  engineers. 
That  of  Perronet  for  the  bridge  of  Neuilly  is  a  cele- 
brated example.  Occasionally,  when  a  very  great 
span  is  required,  and  the  navigation  will  permit,  piers 
are  built,  or  piles  are  driven,  to  support  the  centering, 
and  the  design  is  much  simplified  thereby. 

Amongthe  bridges  of  antiquity,  that  built  by  Trajan 
over  the  Danube  is  considered  to  have  been  'the  most 
magnificent;  it  was  erected  on  30  piers,  of  l.iO  feet  in 
height,  and  the  opening  from  one  pier  to  another  was 
170  feet  wide;  the  piers  of  this  fine  bridge  are  still  to 
be  seen  on  the  Danube,  between  Servia  and  Molda\ia, 
a  little  above  Nicopolis.  In  the  United  States  there 
are,  as  yet,  comparatively  few  stone  bridges  of  great 
size;  the  magnitude  of  our  rivers,  the  hea\-y  expense, 
as  well  as  the  amoimt  of  time  required  for  the  erection 
of  such  structures,  being  ill  adapted  to  the  pressing 
wants  of  the  countrj-;  but  the  wrought-iron  and  su-s- 
pension  bridges  built  of  late  years  in  this  cotmtry  rank 
among  the  most  remarkable  in  existence.  In  suspen- 
sion-bridges the  flooring  or  main  body  of  the  briage 
is  supported  by  strong  iron  chains  or  rods,  hanging  in 
the  form  of  an  inverted  arch  from  one  point  of  sup- 
port to  another.  The  points  of  support  are  the  tops  of 
strong  pillars  or  small  towers  erected  for  the  purpose. 

CENTEEING-MACHINE.— A  form  of  machine  used 
in  gun  construction  for  centering  shafts,  bolts,  etc. 
The  purposes  are  various,  but  especially  to  make 
such  a  depression  at  the  exact  center  that  the  object 
may  be  placed  in  a  lathe  for  turning.     Fig.  1  shows 


the  Hyde  centering-machine,  which  is  provided  with 
a  chuck  (enlarged  in  Fig.  2),  especially  designed  for 
centering  purijoses.  The  jaws,  which  are  very  wide 
and  heavy,  are  firmly  supported  on  both  sides.  A 
steel  stud  I  01  au  inch  in  diameter  passes  through  the 


CENTER  OF  AN  ABUY. 


326 


CENTEB  OF  GKAVITT. 


jaw  and  rach  side  of  the  case.     Tlic  jaws  arc  facwl  ^ 
■with  best  iiualitv  tool-stool  and  tlioroughly  hurdoncd.  . 
In  holdiDi;  stotks  of  ditlerout  sizes,  tlie  chuck  is  so 
i-oiistruitod  that  Iho  line  of  roulatt  of  tho  jaws  moves 
from  a  point   near    their  ends  towanls  the  fulcnim- 
etuiLi,  as  the  work  to  be  held  increases  in  diameter,  ! 


Fig  a. 

thereby  giving  greater  leverage  and  holding:  power 
for  heavy  work  and  distributing  the  wear  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  jaws.  Another  imiiorlant  point 
in  securing  the  continued  accuracy  of  this  chuck  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  wear  of  tlie  screw  does  not  in 
any  way  affect  the  accuracy  of  the  jaws.  The  drill- 
spindle  slides  through  the  cone  and  is  operated  by  a 
lever  having  a  toothed  segment  connected  through  a 
pinion  with  a  rack  cut  on  the  box  which  slides  in  the 
heiidstock.  This  gives  a  quicker  and  much  more  de- 
sirable feed  to  the  drill  than  the  ordinary  screw-feed. 
Both  bearings  of  the  live  spindle  are  large  and  long 


by  rack  and  pinion  to  any  |X)sition  on  the  tied,  and 
are  driven  by  cone  and  double  gearing  giving  three 
changes  of  speed,  any  of  which  may  be  iiuickened  as 
the  cutting  tools  approach  the  centeV  of  the  shaft,  the 
number  of  speeds  U-ing  thus  increa.sed  to  si.\.  Tool- 
slides  mav  lie  adjusted  by  rack  and  pinion  to  any 
length  of" shaft,  and  opeiiited  separately  or  together, 
each  having  three  changes  of  power-feed;  also  rapid 
hand-niovement  quickly  changed  from  hand  to  ]X)wer 
feed.  The  centering-heails,  with  revolving  spindles 
driven  by  a  separate  countershaft,  slide  on  the  tool- 
carriaires. 

CENTER  OF  AN  ARMY.  —  The  body  of  troops  oc- 
cupvini:  the  place  in  the  line  between  the  wings. 

CENTER  OF  FIGURE.— The  point  on  which  a  plane 
figure  or  plane  surface  would  balance,  supposing 
their  areas  to  have  weight.  This  point  is  so  situated 
that  all  straight  lines  passing  through  it,  and  termi- 
nated by  the  superficies  of  the  figure  or  surface,  are 
bi-sected  in  it. 

CENTER  OF  GRAVITY.— That  point  in  a  body,  or 
system  of  bodies  rigidly  connected,  upon  which  the 
iJody  or  system  acted  upon  only  by  the  force  of  gra\ity 
willbalaiice  itself  in  all  positions.  Though  the  action 
of  gravity  enters  this  definition,  many  ol  the  proper- 
ties of  the  point  are  independent  of  that  force,  and 
might  be  enunciated  and  proved  without  conceiving 
it  to  exist.  By  some,  accordingly,  the  point  has  been 
called  the  center  of  magnitude,  and  by  othen?  the  cea- 
ttr  of  parallel  forces.  Such  a  point  exists  in  every 
body  and  system,  and  only  one  such  point.  Every 
Ixidy  may  be  supposed  to  be  made  up  of  a  multitude 
of  minute  particles  connected  by  cohesion,  and,  so  far 
as  its  balance  under  gravity  is  concerned,  each  of 
these  may  be  supposed  to  be  removed,  and  its  place 
occupied  by  a  force  proportioned  to  its  weight.  In- 
stead of  tlie  body,  on  the.se  suppositions,  we  should 
then  have  a  system  of  parallel  forces,  the  lines  from 
the  various  particles  to  the  earth's  center  being  re- 
garded as  parallel.  But  a  system  of  parallel  forces 
has  a  single  resultant  acting  through  a  nxed  point, 
whose  position  is  independeut  of  the  position  in  space 
of  the  points  of  application  of  the  component  forces, 


ilG.  3. 


and  made  of  the  best  hard  bronze  metal.     The  ma-  ' 
chine  will   center  all   sizes  of  rounfl  stock  from  J  of 
an  inch  to  4J  inches,  and  is  provided  with  an  adjust 
able  stand  for  supporting  long  bars.  1 

Fig.  3  shows  the  Pratt  and  Whitney  8  inch  Double  ' 
Cullmgoff  and    Ccnterinir  Machine.'  u.s«'d    for  axles  ' 
and  shafts  of  any  length   and  diameter   to  H   inches. 
The  shafts  revolve  in  self-centering  jaws,  adjustable  i 


provided  their  relative  positions  in  the  system  con- 
tinue uncliaiignl.  Tliis  point  is  the  center  of  gravity; 
and  if  it  be  su|)portcd.  it  is  clear  that  the  body  will 
balance  itself  upon  it  in  all  positions.  The  same 
rea.soning  obviously  applies  to  any  system  of  bodies 
rigidly  connected.  It  is  usual  to  demonstrate  this 
and  the  general  rule  for  finding  the  center  of  gravity 
by  proving  it  first  in  the  case  of  two  heavy  particles 


CENTEE  OP  GYEATIOIT. 


327 


CEKTES  OF  GTBATIOK. 


forming  a  body  or  system,  and  then  extending  the 
proof  to  tlie  case  of  any  number  of  particles.  Let  P 
and  Q,  Fig.  1,  be  two"  heavy  particles.     Join  P  and 


A    M 


Fic.  1. 


Fio. 


Q,  and  divide  the  line  PQ  in  C,  so  that  -neisht  of  P  : 
weight  of  Q  :  :  CQ  :  CP.  Then  C  will  be  the  center 
of  gravity  of  P  and  Q.  Draw  ACB  horizontal,  and 
P.M,  QN  vertical,  meeting  AB  in  M  an<l  N.  Then  if 
P  and  Q  represent  the  weisrhts  of  P  and  Q,  we  have 
P  :  Q  :  :  CQ  :  CP.  But  CQ  :  CP  :  :  CN  :  CM  by 
similar  triangles.  Therefore  P  :  Q  :  :  CN  :  CM,  and 
P  .  CM  =  Q".  CN.  P  and  Q,  therefore,  are  balanced 
about  C.  This  is  true  in  all  positions  of  P  and  Q,  for 
no  assumption  was  made  as  to  their  positions,  t', 
therefore,  is  their  center  of  gra\'ity.  Also,  we  may 
conceive  P  ;uid  Q  to  be  removed,  and  in  their  stead  a 
particle  at  C  equal  to  them  taken  together  in  weight. 
If,  now,  the  system  contained  three,  it  is  clear  how  we 
should  proceed  to  IJnd  its  center  of  gravity ;  having 
fountl  the  center  of  gra\ity  of  two,  we  should  con- 
sider the  system  as  formed  of  two— viz. ,  the  eqtnva- 
lent  of  the  lirst  two  at  their  center  of  gravity,  and  the 
third,  when  the  case  would  fall  imder  that  already 
treated:  and  so  on,  exteniling  the  rule  to  a  system 
containing  any  number  of  particles.  Apart  from  this 
rule,  however,  it  is  possible,  in  the  case  of  most  regu- 
lar homogeneous  bodies,  to  fix  upon  their  centers  of 
gravity  from  general  considerations.  The  center  of 
gravity  of  a  straight  line,  for  instance,  must  clearly 
be  in  its  middle  point.  So  the  center  of  gravity  of  a 
uniform  homogeneous  cylinder  must  be  in  t!ic  middle 
point  of  its  axis.  It  must  be  in  tlie  axis,  for  the  cv- 
linder  clearly  Is  equally  balanced  about  its  axis.  It 
must  also  be  somewhere  in  its  middle  circular  section, 
for  it  will  balance  itself  on  a  knife-edge  under  that 
section.  It  must,  therefore,  be  in  the  point  where 
that  section  cuts  the  axis,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  axis. 
The  center  of  gravity  of  a  uniform  material  plane 
triangle  may  be  found  from  similar  considerations. 
The  triangle  ABC,  Fig.  2.  may  be  supposed  to  be 
made  up  of  uniform  material  lines  parallel  to  its  ba.se, 
AB;  each  of  these  will  balance  upon  its  middle  point. 
The  whole  triangle,  therefore,  will  balance  upon  the 
line  CD,  which  bisects  the  base  AB  and  all  lines  par- 
«  allel  to  it.  In  the  same  waj-  the  triangle  will  balance 
upon  the  line  AE,  bisecting  BC.  But  if  a  figure  bal- 
ances itself  upon  a  line,  its  center  of  gravity  must  lie 
in  that  line.  The  center  of  gravity  of  the  triangle  is 
therefore  in  CD,  and  also  in  AE.  It  must  therefore 
be  at  ff  where  these  lines  intersect,  ff  being  the  only 
point  they  have  in  commoft.  Now,  by  geometry,  we 
know  that  .9  divides  CD,  so  that  Cg  =  |CD.  Hence 
the  rule  for  finding  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  triangle: 
Draw  a  line  from  the  vertex,  bisecting  the  base,  and 
measure  off  Cri,  two  thirds  of  the  line,  g  is  the  center 
of  gravity.  By  a  similar  method  the  center  of  grav- 
ity of  a  great  number  of  figures  may  be  determined. 
The  above  method  applies  only  where  the  figure  of 
the  body  is  regular  and  its  mass  homogeneous.  But 
many  bodies,  besides  being  irregidar,  are  formed  by 
the  agglomeration  of  particles  of  different  specific 
gravities.  Of  these,  the  center  of  granty  can  be  found 
only  by  experiment,  though  not  always  s;itisfactorily. 
Let  the  body  be  suspended  by  a  string,  and  allowed 
to  find  its  position  of  equilibrium.  The  equilibrium 
being  due  to  the  tension  of  the  string  eounterbalancing 
gravity,  it  follows  that  the  tension  is  in  the  same  line 
■with  that  on  which  gravity  acts  on  the  bo<ly.  But 
the  tension  acts  on  the  line  of  the  string,  which  there- 
fore passes  through  the  center  of  gravitj-.  Mark  its 
direction  through  the  body.     Suspending  it  then  by 


another  point,  we  should  a.scertain  a  second  line  in 
which  lies  the  center  of  gravity.  The  center  of  grav- 
ity, then,  must  be  where  these  lines  intersect. 

The  determination  of  the  center  of  gravity 
Is  a  matter  of  great  importance  in  caimon, 
both  for  mechanical  maneuvers  and  for  or- 
dinarj'  handling.  In  all  the  large  guns  in 
the  United  States,  and  in  many  in  Europe, 
the  axis  of  the  trunnions  pa.s.ses  through 
the  center  of  gravity  of  the  gim.  Such 
B  guns  have  no  preponderance,  and  need  no 
support  when  tiring  except  the  trunnions. 
This  iimovation  was  introduced  by  the 
genius  of  Rodman,  and  brought  many  advantages 
in  the  handling  of  heavy  guns.  In  projectiles  the 
center  of  gravity  is  also  a  thing  of  moment.  Spher- 
ical projectiles,  in  which  this  point  does  not  coincide 
with  the  center  of  figure,  are  said  to  be  eccentric  and 
are  subject  to  certain  deviations.  Regarding  the  gun 
as  a  solid  of  revolution  whose  axis  coincides  vrith 
that  of  the  bore,  the  position  of  the  center  of  gravity 
is  determined  from  the  principle  that  the  sum  of  the 
moments  of  the  weights  of  the  several  parts  is  equal 
to  the  moment  of  the  weight  of  the  entire  piece.  For 
convenience,  the  plane  of  reference  is  usually  taken 
either  at  the  knob  of  the  cascabel  and  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  bore,  or  as  coincident  with  the  front 
face  of  the  piece.  The  general  formula  expressing 
the  above  relation  is 

W  X  =  ic'  X'  +  w"  x"  +w'"  x>"  +  ?«''■  xf"  +  etc.. 


X  =  w'  x*  -|"  u'''  ^^  -l~  '"'"  '^"  -4" '"'' 
W 


-, . .  .(A) 


in  which  W  =  the  weight  of  the  entire  piece; 
X  =  the  distance  of  its  center  of  gra\nty  from  the 
plane  of  reference;  ic',  w'',  w'",  etc.  =  the  elementary 
weights;  those  corresponding  to  cavities  (as  the  bore, 
chamber,  etc.)  Ijeing  regarded  as  negative;  x',  x",  x'", 
etc.  =  the  distances  of  their  respective  centers  of 
gravity  from  the  plane  of  reference.  Should  the  gun 
be  hoiiiogeneous  throughout,  the  unit  of  weight  may 
be  canceled  from  the  second  member  of  equation  (A), 
in  which  case  it  will  be  ncccssiiry  to  ojjcrate  with  the 
volumes  simply,  instead  of  the  weights.  In  guns  of 
a  curved  exterior,  like  those  of  the  Rodman  model, 
it  is  customary  to  di\-ide  the  gun  up  by  a  system  of 
parallel  planes,  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  and  in 
numbers  such  that  the  elementary  volumes  thus 
formed  shall  closely  approximate  some  regular  geo- 
metrical figure,  usually  the  conic  frustum,  of  which 
the  volume  and  the  position  of  the  center  of  gravity 
admit  of  ready  calculation.  When  the  gun  is  to  be 
without  preponderance,  i.e.,  when  the  axis  of  the 
trunnions  is  to  pass  through  the  center  of  gravity, 
the  weights  of  the  trunnions  and  rimbases  ma}-  be 
omittedr  since  they  will  be  symmetrically  disposed 
about  that  axis.  Where  it  is  desired  that  the  gun 
shall  have  a  certain  preponderance,  the  position  of 
the  axis  of  the  ti-unnions  in  front  of  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  gun  is  determined  as  follows:  The 
weight  of  the  piece  is  suppoitcd  by  the  elevating  de- 
viw  and  the  trunnions.  The  pressure  on  the  elevating 
device  and  its  distance  from  the  center  of  gravity  are 
known:  therefore  the  distance  which  the  trunnions 
should  be  placed  in  front  of  the  center  of  gravity  to 
support  the  remainder  of  the  weight  will  become 
known  from  the  proportion  p  :  (W  —  ;*)  :  :  Y  I, 
in  which  p  represents  the  preponderance;  I,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  elevating  de- 
vice from  the  center  of  gravity;  (W— /*),  the  weight 
to  be  sustained  by  the  trunnions;  and  Y,  the  distance 
of  their  axis  from  the  center  (jf  gravity.  See  Veiitro- 
bnrie  .Vit/iud  and  Di«t»rti<l  Scrli/m. 

CENTER  OF  GYRATION.— The  point  at  which,  if 
the  whole  ma.^s  of  a  body  rotating  round  an  axis  or 
point  of  suspension  were  collected,  a  given  force  ap- 
plied wotdd  produce  the  same  angular  velocity  as  it 
would  if  applied  at  the  same  point  to  the  body  itself. 
The  center  of  gjTation  bears  a  strong  analogy  to  the 


CEHTZB  or  nCTACT. 


328 


CENTKAL  FOBCEB. 


center  of  oscillation.  The  cases  differ  only  in  this, 
that  in  the  latter  the  operating  forces  are  suppose<i  to 
act  al  every  point  of  the  moving  bo<iy,  while  in  the 
former  there  is  only  one  force  acting  upon  one  point. 
The  center  of  gyration  is  found  by  the  following  rule: 
Divide  the  moiiuiit  of  inertia  of  the  rotating  mass  by 
the  mass  of  the  l>i>dy,  and  extract  the  square  root  of 
the  <niotient.  The  ivsult  is  the  distance  of  the  iwint 
from  the  a.\i3  of  rotation.  The  moment  of  inertia,  it 
may  be  stated,  is  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the 
weight  of  each  point  of  the  mass  by  the  .square  of  the 
[>cr|Kndioular  <lisian<-e  of  that  point  from  the  a.xis. 

CENTER  OF  lUPACT. — The  ;H<an  point  of  imjMCt, 
or  the  mean  of  all  the  hits,  when  a  projectile  strikes 
a  target  a  iiumbiT  of  times.  It  is  a  point  of  the  mean 
trajector\'.     Sw  Puiitt  of  Impact. 

CENTER  OF  OSCILLATION.— Referring  to  the  arti- 
cle Pendllix.  it  will  he  seen  that  the  lime  of  a  pen- 
dulum's vibration  increases  with  its  length,  being 
always  projxirtioned  to  the  square  root  of  its  length. 
This"is  strictly  true  only  of  the  simple  pendulum,  in 
•which  the  pendulous  body  is  supposed  to  have  no 
determinate  magnitude,  and  to  be  connected  with  the 
point  of  susix-nsion  by  an  inflexible  wire  without 
weight.  If,  however,  the  vibrating  body  have  a 
determinate  magnitude,  then  the  time  of  \nbratioa 
will  vary,  not  with  the  square  root  of  its  length, 
but  with'  the  stjuarc  root  of  the  distimcc  from  the  axis 
of  suspension  of  a  point  in  the  body  called  its  center 
of  oscillation. 

If  each  part  of  the  vibrating  body  were  separately 
connected  with  the  axis  of  suspension  by  a  fine  thread, 
and  entirely  disconnected  from  the  rest  of  the  body, 
it  would  form  an  independent  simple  pendulum,  and 
oscillate  as  such — the  time  of  each  vibration  being 
as  the  square  root  of  the  length  of  its  thread.  It  fol- 
lows that  those  particles  of  the  body  which  are  nearest 
to  the  axisof  suspension  would,  as  simple  pendulums, 
vibrate  more  rapidly  than  those  more  remote.  Being 
connected,  however,  as  parts  of  the  solid  bod)',  they 
vibrate  all  in  the  same  time.  But  this  connection 
does  not  affect  their  tendencies  to  vibrate  as  simple 
pendulums,  and  the  motion  of  the  body  which  they 
compose  is  a  compromise  of  these  tendencies  of  its 
particles.  Those  nearest  the  axis  are  retarded  by  the 
more  remote,  while  the  more  remote  are  urged  on  by 
the  nearer.  Among  the.se  particles  there  is  ahvaj-s 
one  to  l>e  found  in  which  the  accelerating  arid 
retjirding  effects  of  the  rest  are  mutually  neutral- 
ized, and  which  vibrates  in  the  s;une  time  as 
it  would  if  it  were  unconnected  with  the  other 
parts  of  the  Ixxly,  and  simply  connected  by  a  fine 
thread  to  the  axis  of  suspension.  The  point  in 
the  body  occupied  by  this  particle  is  its  center  of 
emulation.  By  this  center  of  oscillation  the  calctda- 
tions  respecting  the  vibration  of  a  solid  body  are  ren- 
dered as  sim])le  as  those  of  a  molecule  of  inconsider- 
able magnitiide.  All  the  properties  which  belong  to 
a  .simple  pendulum  may  be  transferred  to  a  vibrating 
body  of  any  magnitude  and  figure,  by  consiilering  it 
as  equivalent  to  a  single  particle  of  matter  vibrating 
at  its  center  of  oscillation. 

The  detennination  of  the  position  of  the  center  of 
oscillation  of  a  body  usually  requires  the  aid  of  the 
calculus.  It  is  always  further  i^rom  the  axis  of  sus- 
pension than  the  center  of  gravitv  is,  and  always  in 
the  line  joining  the  center  of  gra\nlv  and  the  point  of 
suspension,  when  the  boily  is  suspended  from  a  point. 
The  rule  for  finding  it  in  such  a  case  is:  If  S  be 
the  point  of  suspension,  and  O  the  center  of  oscil- 

Jation.  SO  =  jj— gj;  o""  "'"s  the  quotient  obtained  by 

dividing  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  Inxly  bv  the 
product  of  its  miuss  into  the  distance  of  its  (enter  of 
gravity  from  the  point  of  susix/nsion.  See  Pnidulum 
CENTER  OF  PERCUSSION.— The  center  of  percus- 
sion c,f  H  IkxIv  or  a  systcni  of  lK>dies  revolving  about 
n  pf)int  or  axis  is  that  ]>oinl  in  it  which  striking  an 
immovable  object,  the  whole  miuss  shall  not  incliueto 


either  side,  but  rest,  as  it  were,  in  equilibrio,  without 
acting  on  the  center  or  axis  of  su.spcnsion.  If  the 
iKMly  be  moving  freely,  then  the  center  of  percussion 
is  tliat  point  in  it  at  which  its  whole  impetus  is  sup- 
posed to  be  concentrateil.  In  this  case,  if  the  txxiy 
struck  with  its  center  of  percussion  an  immovable 
obstacle,  and  if  it  were  perfectly  rigid  and  inelastic, 
it  would  come  to  perfect  repose;  whereas,  if  it  struck 
the  obstacle  with  any  other  point  a  rotjitory  motion 
would  be  produced  in  it.  When  the  body  is  raonng ; 
freely,  and  there  is  no  rotatorj'  motion,  the  center  of 
percu-ssion  coincides  with  the  center  of  gravity.  If 
the  body  he  moving  round  a  point  or  axis  of  suspen- 
sion, the  center  of  ixjrcussion  coincides  with  the  center 
of  oscillation.  The  more  complicated  case  of  a  body 
rotating  round  an  axis  within  it  would  require,  for  its 
explanation,  analytical  formula;  which  cannot  con- 
veniently be  translated  into  ordinary  language.  There 
are  many  positions  which  the  axis  may  have  in  which 
there  will  be  no  center  of  percussion — i  e.,  there  will 
be  no  direction  in  which  an  impulse  could  be  applied 
without  producing  a  shock  ujion  the  axis.  One  case 
of  this  sort  is  that  of  the  axis  being  a  principal  axis 
through  the  center  of  gra^-itv. 

CENTER  OF  PRESSURE.-^The  center  of  pressure 
of  any  siu'face  immersed  in  a  fluid  is  the  point  in 
which  the  resultant  of  the  pressures  of  the  tiuid  on 
the  several  points  meets  the  surface.  When  the  bot- 
tom of  a  vessel  containing  fluid,  or  when  a  plane  im- 
mersed in  fluid,  is  horizontal,  a  pressure  on  every 
point  of  it  is  the  same,  being  that  due  to  the  weight 
of  the  column  of  fluid  standing  above  the  bottom  or 
plane.  In  either  ca.se  the  pressures  at  the  different 
points  obviously  form  a  system  of  equal  parallel 
forces,  whose  center  will  be  the  center  of  gravity  of 
the  bottom  or  plane,  their  resultjint  pa-ssing  through 
this  point  Ijeing  the  sum  of  all  their  forces.  But 
when  the  plane  is  inclined  at  any  angle  to  the  surface 
of  the  fluid,  the  pressure  is  not  the  same  at  all  points, 
but  is  ob\'iously  greater  at  the  lower  than  at  the  upper 
points,  for  the  lower  have  to  support  taller  columns 
of  the  fluid.  The  resultant  of  these  forces,  then,  will 
not  pass  through  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  surface, 
but  through  a  point  below  it.  This  point  is  the  center 
of  pres-sure,  and  e\idently  will  lie  below  the  center  of 
granty  for  all  fluids  in  which  the  pressure  increases 
with  the  depth.  If  the  surface  pressed  upon  form 
part  of  the  containing  vessel,  and  be  supposed  mova- 
ble, it  will  be  kept  at  rest  by  a  pressure  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  fluid  pressures  applied  at  the  center  of 
pressure,  and  acting  in  the  opposite  direction.  In  the 
c.Tse  of  a  vessel  with  a  parallelogram  for  one  side,  the 
center  of  pressure  is  at  the  distance  of  one  third  of 
the  height  from  the  bottom.  In  the  case  of  a  trian- 
gular vessel  whose  base  is  at  the  bottom,  it  is  one 
fourth  of  the  height  onlv. 

CENTER  OF  THE  BASTION.— In  fortiflcarion,  the 
intersection  made  by  two  demi-gorgcs. 

CENTER.PINTLE  CARRIAGE.— One  in  which  the 
chassis  is  attached  to  the  pintle  at  its  middle,  and 
revolves  around  it  through  the  entire  circumference 
of  the  circle.  The  traverse-circles  are  consequently 
continuous.  By  this  arrangement  a  much  greater 
horizontjil  field  of  fire  is  secured. 

CENTESIMATION.— In  ancient  military  history, 
a  mild  kiiul  of  military  punishment  in  cases  of  deser- 
tion, mutiny,  and  the  like,  when  only  every  one  hun- 
dretltli  man  was  executed. 

CENTRAL  FORCES.— Those  forces  which  cause  a 
moving  body  to  tend  towards  some  point  or  center, 
called  the  center  of  force  or  motion.  The  doctrine 
of  central  forces  has  for  its  starting-point  the  first  law 
of  motion— viz.,  that  a  body  not  acle<l  on  bv  any  ex- 
ternal force  will  remain  at  rest,  or  move  uniformlv  in 
a  straight  line.  It  follows  from  this  law  that  "if  a 
body  in  motion  either  changes  its  velocitv  or  direction, 
some  external  force  is  acting  upon  it.  "The  doctrine 
of  central  forces  considers  tiie  paths  which  bodies  will 
describe  round  centers  of  force,  and  the  varying 
velocity  with  which  they  will  pass  along  in   these 


CEKTSALIZATIOir. 


329 


CENTEICAL  JUFLING. 


paths.  It  investigates  the  law  of  the  force  round 
which  a  body  describes  a  known  ciure,  and  solves  the 
inverse  problem,  and  many  others,  the  general  state- 
ment of  which  could  convey  no  clear  idea  to  the 
unniathematical  reader.  As  gravity  is  a  force  which 
acts  on  all  bodies  from  the  eaith's  center,  it  affords 
the  simplest  general  illustration  of  tlie  action  of  a 
central  force.  If  a  stone  be  slung  from  a  string, 
gravity  deflects  it  from  the  linear  path  which  it  would 
otherwise  pursue,  and  makes  it  describe  a  cun-ed  line 
■which  we  know  would,  in  vacuo,  be  a  paraliola. 
Again,  the  moon  is  held  in  her  orbit  roimd  the  earth 
by  the  action  of  gra\ity,  which  is  constantly  prevent- 
ing her  from  going  otJ  in  the  line  of  the  tangent  to 
her  path  at  any  instant,  which  she  would  do,  accord- 
ing to  the  first  law  of  motion,  if  not  deflected  there- 
from by  any  external  force.  To  that  property  of 
matter  by  which  it  maintains  its  state  of  rest  or  mo- 
tion, unless  acted  upon  by  other  matter,  has  been 
given  the  name  inertia. 

We  will  now  e.xi^lain  how,  through  the  action  of  a 
central  force,  a  body  is  made  to  describe  a  curved 
path.  Suppose  it  to  have  moved  for  a  finite  time, 
and  conceive  the  time  divided  into  verj'  small  eipial 
parts;  and  instead  of  the  central  force  acting  con- 
stantly, conceive  a  series  of  sudden  impulses  to  be 
given  to  the  body  in  the  direction  of  the  center,  at  the 
end  of  each  of  the  equal  intervals,  and  then  observe 
what,  on  these  suppositions,  will  happen.  Let  S, 
Jig.  1,  be  the  center,  and  let  the  original  motion  be 


Fio.  1. 

from  A,  on  the  line  AB,  which  does  not  pass  through 
8.  In  the  first  interval  the  body  will  move  with  a 
uniform  velocity,  say  from  A  to  B.  In  the  second, 
if  acted  on  by  no  force,  it  would  move  on  in  AB  pro- 
duced to  p.  Be  being  =  AB.  But  when  it  arrives  at 
B  it  receives  the  first  sudden  impulse  towards  S.  By 
the  composition  of  velocities,  it  will  move  now  with  a 
new  but  still  uniform  velocity  in  BC  instead  of  B'". 
BC  being  the  diagonal  of  the  parallelogram  of  which 
the  sides  represent  its  impressed  and  original  velocity. 
Having  reached  C  at  the  end  of  the  second  interval, 
it  receives  the  second  impulse  towards  S.  It  will 
now  move  in  CD  instead  of  in  B(!  produced.  If, 
then,  we  suppose  the  periods  of  time  to  be  indefinitely 
diminished  in  length,  and  increased  in  number,  the 
broken  line  ABCD  ■nill  become  ultimately  a  con- 
tinuous curve  and  the  scries  of  impulses  a  continuous 
force.     This  completes  the  explanation. 

Going  back,  however,  on  our  suppositions,  we  may 
here  establish  Newton's  leading  law  of  central  forces. 
That  the  liody  must  always  move  in  the  same  plane 
results  from  the  alisenctf  of  any  force  to  remove  it 
from  the  plane  in  which  at  any  time  it  may  be  mov- 
ing. The  triangles  ASB  and  BSC  are  clearly  in  the 
same  plane,  as  the  latter  is  on  that  in  which  lie  the 
lines  Be  and  BS.  Also,  since  the  triangles  ASB,  BSr 
are  equal,  being  on  equal  bases,  AB,  Be,  anil  triangle 
BSC  =  triangle  BSc,  as  they  are  between  the  same 
parallels,  rC  and  BS,  it  follows  that  ASB  =  BSC.  So 
BSC  =  CSD;  and  so  on.  In  other  words,  the  areas, 
(lescrilx'd  in  equal  times  by  the  line  (called  the  radius 
vector)  joining  the  center  of  force  and  the  body,  are 
equal.  As  this  is  true  in  the  limit,  we  anive,  by  the 
composition  of  the  small  equal  areas,  at  the  law  that 
the  areas  described  by  the  lines  drawn  from  the  mov- 
ing body  to  the  fixed  center  of  force  are  all  in  one 
plane,  and  proportional  to  the  times  of  describing 


them.  Very  few  of  the  laws  of  central  forces  are 
capable  of  being  proved  like  the  preceding,  without 
drawing  largely  on  Newton's  lemmas,  with  which  we 
shall  not  suppose  the  reader  to  be  acquainted. 

We  have  shown  that  a  body  continually  drawn  to 
a  center,  if  it  has  an  original  motion  in  "a  line  that 
does  not  pa.ss  through  the  center,  will  descrilje  a 
curve.  At  each  point  in  the  curve  it  tends,  through 
its  inertia,  to  recede  from  the  curve,  and  proceed  in 
the  tangent  to  it  at  that  jioint.  It  always  U'ikU  to 
move  in  a  straight  line  in  the  direction  in  which  it 
may  at  any  time  be  moving,  and  that  line,  by  the 
definitions  of  a  tangent  and  of  curvature,  is  the  tan- 
gent to  the  curve  at  the  point.  At  the  point  A,  Fig.  2, 
It  will  endeavor  to  proceed 
in  AD:  if  nothing  hindered  it, 
it  would  actually  proceetl  in 
that  luie,  so  as,  in  the  time  in 
which  it  describes  the  arc  of 
the  curve  AE,  to  reach  the 
point  D,  and  thus  recede  the 
length  DE  from  the  curve;  but 
being  continually  drawn  out  of  its  direction  into  a 
cun'e  by  a  force  to  a  center,  it  falls  below  the  point 
D  by  the  distance  DE.  The  force  which  draws  it 
through  this  distance  is  called  the  centripetal  force, 
and  that  which  would  make  it  recede  in  the  same  time 
through  the  distance  DE  from  the  curve  is  called  the 
centrifugal  force.  It  may  be  remarked  that  the  cen- 
trifugal force  is  not, like  the  centripetal,  an  impressed 
or  external  force  acting  on  the  bodj-.  It  is  simply  the 
assertion  of  the  body's  inertia  under  the  circumstances 
produced  b_v  the  centri|ietal  force. 

jMau}-  familiar  illu.strations  will  occur  to  the  reader 
of  the  action  of  what  is  called  the  centrifugal  force. 
A  ball  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  string,  and  whirled 
round,  will,  if  the  motion  is  made  sufticiently  rapid, 
at  last  break  the  string  and  fly  off.  A  glass  of  water 
may  be  whirleil  .so  rapidly  that,  even  when  the  mouth 
is  pressed  downwards,  the  water  will  still  be  retained 
in  it,  by  the  centrifugal  force  pressing  it  up  against 
the  bottom  of  the  glass.  The  centrifugal  action  will 
be  found  to  increase  with  the  velocity.  In  all  cases 
of  a  bod}'  mo\ing  in  a  circle,  the  force,  it  can  be 
proved,  varies  as  the  square  of  the  velocitj-  of  the 
body  at  the  moment,  and  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the 
radius.  As  in  this  case  the  velocity  varies  a.s  the 
radius  inversely,  it  follows  that  the  force  is  as  the 
inverse  cube  of  the  radius.  As  in  the  case  of  circular 
motion  the  body  always  is  at  the  Siime  distance 
from  the  center,  it  follows  that  the  centrifugal  and 
centripetal  forces  are  equal  at  all  points  of  a  circular 
orbit.  The  general  law  for  all  orbits  is,  that  the  cen- 
trifugal force  varies  as  the  inverse  cube  of  the  dis- 
tance from  the  center.  As  the  attractive  force  of 
gravitation  varies  as  the  inverse  square  of  the  distance, 
it  may  hence  be  shown  that  the  centiifugal  force 
gives  perfect  security,  notwithstanding  the  constant 
attraction  of  the  sun,  that  the  planets,  so  far  as  that 
attraction  is  concerned,  will  never  fall  into  the  sun. 
Sec  Fulling  Bodies,  Force,  and  Orurity. 

CENTRALIZATION.— In  military  affairs,  a  system 
of  organization  or  of  administration  by  means  of 
which  all  matters  ajipertaining  to  tlie  army  are  di- 
rected by  one  center.  The  legitimate  application  of 
the  term  is  to  a  state  of  change  from  local  to  central 
management,  and  therefore  the  opposite  of  localiza- 
tion. The  system,  when  adopted  in  the  administra- 
tion of  an  army,  is  very  dangerous,  as  it  takes  away 
the  independence  of  action  of  the  different  oflicere 
imder  the  Commander-in-Chief,  and  leads  to  favorit- 
ism; and  should  the  mainspring  of  the  machine  break 
down,  all  the  works  come  Ui  a  standstill.  In  England, 
the  administrative  militarj-  authority,  although  cen- 
tralized in  the  Crown,  has  been  placed  under  the 
control  of  Parliament,  and  there  is  nothing  done 
imder  the  orders  of  the  War  Office  for  which  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  that  Department  may  not  at  any 
time  be  called  to  account  bv  Parliament. 

CENTEICAL  EIFLING.-^The  solid  projectile,  fitted 


CENTBiFUOAL  QVH. 


530 


CEBTiyiCATE  OF  DISABIUTT. 


to  the  riflini;  of  ilio  guu  so  as  to  ceiiltT  itst'lf.  has 
litrii  inipn>veti  by  Hit'  rrnlrirtil  system,  so  calk-tl  be- 
auiso  of  tlic  jMfuliar  modi-  of  ci'utiTiui,'  its  simple  iron 
projittile,  wliieli,  instead  of  inclining.'  towards  Ibo 
boltom  of  ibe  Iwre  in  its  iiassaiie  out,  is  centeretl  on 
its  n>iuuUil  bi-arings,  without  jar  by  the  first  pressure 
of  the  elastic  tluid.  This  is  elfected  by  the  )HTuliar 
curves  of  the  shoulders  of  the  tbrw  jrn>oves,  which  in- 
cline towanls  the  center  of  the  bore,  and  thus  form 
three  rails  for  the  projectiles  to  slide  out  upon  with- 
out Ix'injr  compressed  or  strained.  In  case  of  large 
calibers  with  heavy  projectiles,  a  shallow  shoulder  is 
taken  out  for  the  shot  to  turn  against  in  loading.  It 
is  readily  si'cn  bow  rounding  the  groove  prevents  the 
violent  shock  of  the  projectile  when  its  Ix'aring-etlges 
strike  the  ritling.  The  projection,  </,  bears  and  remains 
ujion  the  side.  (I,  of  the 


groove  going  in,  and  so 
leaves  the  windage,  r, 
on  the  other  side.  In  go- 
ing out,  the  projectile 
^  will  have  acquired  con- 
siderable velocity  before  it  strikes  the  side,  c  ,  so  that 
the  blow  will  be  violent,  and  the  conunencement  of 
the  rotation  instantaneous.  The  projection  not  oidy 
slides  up  the  rounded  groove  without  a  blow,  but  lifts 
the  projectile  into  the  center  of  the  bore,  thus  center- 
ing it.     See  Scolt  Rifling. 

CENTRIFUGAL  GUN.— A  fonn  of  machine-gun,  in 
which  balls  are  driven  taiigentially  from  a  chambered 
disk  rotating  at  great  speed. 

CENTROBARIC  METHOD.— The  method  ordina- 
rily us<(l  to  detcniiine  by  ciilculation  the  center  of 
gravity  of  a  projected  gun.  The  principle  t;sed  is 
that  the  volume  generated  by  any  surface  in  revolv- 
ing about  a  ti.xed  axis  is  measured  by  the  product  of 
the  surface  into  the  path  described  by  its  center  of 
gravity.  The  moments  of  the  weights  of  the  several 
parts  arc  referred  to  an  axis  usually  taken  tangent  to 
the  knob  of  the  cascabel.  The  sum  of  these  moments, 
divided  by  the  weight  of  the  piece,  gives  the  distance 
of  the  center  of  gravity  from  the  assumed  axis.  In 
homogeneous  guns  the  volumes  of  the  several  parts 
can  Ik'  used  instead  of  the  weights. 

CENTURION.— A  Roman  infantry  officer  who  orig- 
inally commanded  a  hundred  meii,  but  afterwarcTs 
an  indefinite  number.  They  were  of  two  grades,  and 
were  chosen  by  the  Tribunes.  Their  duties  were  to 
drill  the  soldiers  and  appoint  them  tasks;  and  they 
had  power  to  pimisb  for  minor  offenses. 

CENTURY. — In  an  ancient  military  sense,  the  hun- 
dred soldiers,  who  were  employed  in  working  the  bat- 
teriiig-nim. 

CERCELEE.— In  Heraldry,  a  cross  circling  or  curl- 
ing at  the  ends,  like  a  ram's  horn.  Also  written 
Jit'-t  rdt'f.    See  I/eniMn/. 

CERCLE. — A  form  observed  under  the  old  govem- 
menl  of  France,  by  which  il  was  directed  that  every 
evening  at  a  specific  hour  the  Sergeants  and  Corporals 
of  brigade  should  as,semble  to  receive  orders,  the 
former  standing  in  front  of  the  latter.  Sub.s<'quent 
to  the  gnmd  cerde,  a  smaller  one  was  made  in  eacli 
regiment,  when  general  or  regimental  orders  were 
again  re])ealed  to  the  Sergeants  of  each  regiment,  aud 
from  llicm  communicated  to  the  officers  of  the  several 
companies. 

CEREMONIES. — Stated  military  performances,  such 
as  Parades.  Ucviews,  Inspections,  Kscorts  of  Color, 
Escorts  of  Honor,  Funeral  Ihiuors.  Guard-mountinss, 
etc.  In  the  United  Slates  armv,  at  all  l>ara(l<s  and 
Inspections  of  a  battalion,  the' Field  and  Stall  are 
dismounted;  they  are  also  dismounted  at  Review, 
unless  the  Ue\iewing-offlcer  be  mounted. 

CERTIFICATE  OF  DEPOSIT.- Every  person  who 
has  nii.ni  ys  of  the  liiilcd  Slalis  in  his  "hands  or  pos- 
session pays  the  sjune  to  llic  Treasurer,  an  Assistant 
Treasurer,  or  aomv  public  d(i>ositary  of  the  United 
Stales,  and  tsikcs  his  receipt  for  the"  same,  in  dupli- 
cate, and  forwards  one  of  them  fortbwitli  to  ibe  Sec- 
rcUiry  of  the  Treasury.     The  face  of  each  Certiticate 


should  show,  in  writing,  to  what  appropriation  the 
de|)osit  belongs,  provided  the  depositor  ha-s  such  in- 
formation as  uniy  be  neces.sjjry  to  enable  the  deposita- 
ry to  state  the  same  in  preparing  the  Certiticate  for 
issue.  The  place,  date,  and  amount  of  deposit,  and 
the  immber  of  the  Certiticate,  together  with  the  ap- 
propriation, if  specitietl,  are  noted  on  the  accoimt-cur- 
rent  or  other  proper  return  upon  which  the  depositor 
desires  to  be  credited  for  the  money. 

As  the  Ccrliticates  of  Deposit  constitute  an  impor- 
tant check  ujion  the  transactions  of  the  dilTcrent  Gov- 
ernment depositaries,  and  are  required  at  the  Treasury 
l)eparlnient  at  the  earliest  possil)le  moment  for  verl- 
tication  with  the  accounts  of  .sad  depositaries,  the 
following  regulations  concerning  their  future  disposi- 
tion are  prescribed,  which,  as  they  are  ba.sed  upon 
express  provisions  of  law,  are  expected  to  be  strictly 
complied  with: 

1.  The  originals  of  all  Certificates  of  Deposit  for 
the  deposit  of  any  and  all  public  moneys  of  every 
character  and  description,  exeept  as  sUiUd  in  the  iieit 
siii-at'di/if/ p(ir(igraj>/i,»hou\d}iC  forwardetl  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  immediately  ui)on  their  issue 
by  tlie  depositors  (not  the  depositaries),  who,  before 
tiiinsmitting  them,  should  see  that  their  amoimts 
correspond  with  the  amounts  actually  deposited  by 
them. 

2.  Those  issued  to  disbursing-officers  for  disburs- 
ing funds  deposited  to  their  own  official  credit,  sul> 
ject  to  the  payment  of  their  checks,  and  more  prop- 
erly called  disbursing-officers'  receipts,  shoidd  be  re- 
tained in  their  own  possession;  those  issued  for  the 
transfer  of  funds  from  one  Government  depository  to 
another  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Treasurer  of  the 
United  Stjites. 

3.  Certificates  of  Deposit  issued  to  military  officers, 
either  on  account  of  repayments,  sales  of  public  prop- 
erty, or  otherwi.se,  should  be  in  duplicate ;  the  dupli- 
cates to  be  retained  by  the  depositors. 

4.  In  no  case  arc  Certificates  of  Deposit  required 
to  Ijc  tiled  with  accounts  rendered  by  Government 
officers  to  the  accounting  officers  of  the  Treasury 
Department,  nor  does  such  a  disposition  of  any  Cer- 
tificates of  Deposit  secure  to  the  officers  transmitting' 
them  ]iroper  credits  in  their  accounts.  Credits  are 
only  given  officers  in  the  settlement  of  their  accoimts 
ui)on  warrants,  which  warrants  are  is.sued  Ijy  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury,  and  ba.sed  upon  the  original 
Certificates  of  Deposit.  In  taking  credit  in  their  ac- 
counts-current, however,  for  deposits  made,  officers 
should  state  specifically  the  date  of  the  deposit,  mid 
the  designation  and  location  of  the  dejiosilory  in  which 
the  deposit  was  made,  as  well  as  the  source,  etc.  All 
original  Certificates  of  Depo.sit  in  favor  of  military 
officers,  the  amounts  of  which  are  re(|uired  to  be  listed 
and  recorded  in  the  offices  of  any  of  the  Heads  of  the 
Bureaus  of  the  War  Department,  will  immediately 
upon  their  receipt — a  record  ha\ing  first  been  made 
of  them  for  verification  with  the  projjer  depositary 
accounts — be  forwarded  to  the  Head  of  the  respective 
Department  to  which  the  deposits  pertain  for  desig- 
nation of  the  piiiiHT  a])propriations. 

CERTIFICATE  OF  DISABILITY.  —  Whenever  a 
non-connnissicjiied  officer  or  soldier  becomes  unfit 
for  the  military  service  in  Vonsccpience  of  wounds, 
disease,  or  iiitirmitv,  his  Captain  forwards  to  the 
Commander  of  the  I^epartment  or  of  the  anny  in  the 
field,  through  the  Commander  of  the  regiment  or 
post,  a  st.-ilenicnt  of  liisca.se,  with  a  certificate  of  his 
dis;il]ility.  in  ihiplicate,  signed  by  the  Senior  Surgeon 
of  the  hospital,  regiment,  or  post,  according  to  the 
form  iirescrilicd.  If  the  recommendation  for  tin-  dis- 
charge of  the  invalid  be  approved,  llic  aulboritv  there- 
for is  indorsed  on  the  Certificate  of  Disability,  which 
is  sent  back  to  be  completed  and  signed  by  the  Com- 
maialing  Officer,  who  then  semis  the  same  direct  to  the 
A<ljutant  General's  Office.  I5ut  under  no  circum- 
stances is  flic  ((rtificate  given  into  the  hands  of  Ibe  sol- 
dier. In  (licidiiig  iq-on  applications  lor  pension,  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  Certificiitc  of  Disability  for  proper 


CESTIFICATE  OF  UFBIT. 


331 


CHAFFXE-EEECE  MAGAZIITE-GTTK. 


proof  that  the  soldier  is  entitled  under  the  law. 
Therefore,  when  it  is  a  prubable  case  for  penmrni, 
special  care  must  be  taken  to  state  the  degree  of  dis- 
ability— as  i,  i,  etc.;  to  describe  particularly  the 
disability,  wound,  or  disca.se;  the  extent  to  which  it 
deprives  the  soldier  of  the  use  of  any  limb  or  faculty, 
or  affects  his  health,  strength,  activity,  constitution, 
or  capacity  to  labor  or  earn  his  subsistence.  The  Sur- 
geon adds  from  his  knowledge  of  the  facts  and  cir- 
cumstances, and  from  the  evidence  in  the  case,  his 
j)rofessional  opinion  of  the  cause  or  origin  of  the 
disjibililv.  and  whether  /;;  the  line  of  duty  or  not. 

CERTIFICATE  OF  MERIT.— A  certiticate  given  by 
'  the  President  to  enlisted  men  in  the  I'nited  States 
army,  upon  the  recommendation  of  Commjinding 
Officers.  The  certificates  are  awarded  only  for  acts 
of  extraordinary  gallantry  in  presence  of  the  enemy, 
which  acts  nuist  be  specilic  and  certified  to  by  an 
eye-wilness,  preferably  the  immediate  Commanding 
Officer  of  the  soldier.  Good  standing  and  undoubted 
courage  in  a  soldier  will  also  be  required  to  entitle 
him  to  a  Certiticate  of  Merit.  Kecommeudations  for 
the  Certificate  of  Merit  must  each  be  in  behalf  of 
only  one  person,  and  must  contain  a  full  description 
of  the  merits  of  the  case.  They  mast  be  forwarded 
through  the  regular  channel,  and  indorsed  with  ap- 
jirovnl  and  recommendation  by  each  Commander, 
especially  the  Regimental  Commander.  The  extra 
pay  granted  on  Certificate  of  Merit  commences  at  the 
tlate  of  the  act  of  gallantly  for  which  the  certificate 
is  granted.  This  e.xtra  pay  is  two  dollars  per  month 
while  the  soldier  remains  continuously  in  ser\ice. 
Certificates  of  Merit  are  not  granted  to  persons  not 
in  the  military  service  of  the  United  States  at  the 
date  of  application  for  them.  Should  a  soldier  die 
before  receiving  a  certificate  conferred  upon  him.  it 
will  be  deposited  in  the  office  of  the  Second  Auditor 
of  the  Treasury  for  the  benefit  of  his  heirs.  In  case 
the  soldier  is  discharged  before  the  certificate  Ls  is.sued, 
it  will  be  retained  in  the  office  of  the  Adjutant  Gen- 
eral until  called  for,  when  proof  of  the  identity  of 
the  applicant  will  be  required. 

CERUSE. — The  basis  of  white  oil-paint  and  a  <•«;■- 
boiuiie  of  lead.  It  has  several  other  names — krems, 
Nottingham  white,  flake-white,  etc.  Like  all  other 
prcpanitions  of  lead,  ceruse  is  liable  to  be  acted  upon 
by  exhalations  from  sewers,  or  by  anything  which 
contains  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  in  wliich  ca.se  it  is 
changed  to  a  dull  and  leaden  hue.  Neither  will  it 
bear  to  be  mixed  with  any  pigment  containing  sul- 
phur, such  as  vermilion.  It  i.s  supposed  that  the 
white  oxide  of  zinc  might  be  substituted  for  ceruse  its 
a  white  pigment  with  advantage. 

CERVELIERE.— A  small  bascinet  anciently  worn 
under  the  hinurnr.     Now  obsolete. 

CESSATION  OF  ARMS. —  An  armistice  or  truce 
agreed  to  by  the  Conunanders  of  Annies,  to  give  them 
time  for  a  c;ii>itulation,  or  for  other  purjioses. 
CESTUS. — The  covering  for  the  hands  worn  by 
Roman  pugilists.  It  was  origi- 
nally nothing  more  than  a  lea- 
thern thong  or  bandage  used  to 
strengthen  the  fist;  but  in  after 
years  it  was  well  covered  with 
knots  and  nails,  and  loaded 
with  lead  and  iron,  etc.,  to  in- 
crea.se  the  force  of  the  blow. 
It  was  not  uncommon  for  a 
pugilist  armed  with  the  ccstus 
to  dash  out  the  brains  or  break 
the  limlis  of  his  antagonist. 
The  Roman  pugilist  (cagtna- 
riii*)  was  often  represented  in 
sculpture.  This  word  is  often 
and  more  correctly  written  Ceentas,  from  the  Latin 
ctederi',  to  slav. 

CHAFF-CUTTER.— An  implement  now  much  used 
at  cavalry  posts  and  in  the  field  for  cutting  hay  and 
straw  into  half-inch  lengths.  The  advantage  of  this 
consists  not  so  much  in  facilitating  mastication  or  di- 


gestion as  in  preventing  animals  from  wasting  their 
food.  No  .small  amount  of  mechanical  ingenuity  has 
been  applied  to  the  construction  of  chaff-cutters,  the 
simplest  and  oldest  kinds  of  which  are  mere  hand- 
machines  with  a  single  large  knife,  the  hay  or  straw 
being  pushed  forward  in  a  trough  or  box,  whilst 
others  are  driven  by  horse,  steam,  or  water  power, 
and  are  not  a  little  com])lieatcd.    See  Forage. 

CHAFFEE  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gun  belongs  to 
that  system  in  which  a  fixed  chamber  is  closed  by  a 
movable  breech-block,  sliding  and  rotating,  and  oi)e- 
rated  by  a  levcF  from  below.  On  the  inner  surface 
of  the  receiver  are  two  circular  guides  which  enter 
grooves  in  the  breech-block  and  over  wliich  the 
breech-block  slides.  The  block  is  a  single  i)iece  hol- 
lowed out  to  receive  the  hammer  and  the  mainspring. 
At  the  front  of  the  block  is  the  firing-pin,  limited  in 
its  motion  by  a  screw.  The  breech-block  is  operated 
by  a  lever.  "The  front  of  the  lever  is  hinged  to  the 
front  of  the  breech-block;  its  middle  is  hinged  to  two 
arms  which  are  in  turn  hinged  to  the  sides  of  the  re- 
ceiver. The  hammer  is  cocked  when  the  breech- 
block lever  is  thrown  open  Ijy  the  pressure  of  the 
lever-hook  on  the  face  of  the  hammer,  which  forces 
the  latter  back  until  the  nose  of  the  sear — which  is  a 
part  of  the  trigger — enters  a  notch.  Reverse  motion 
of  the  lever  clo.ses  the  block  which  is  locked  I)y  a 
projection  on  the  lever,  entering  a  recess  in  the  block 
and  in  the  sides  of  the  receiver.  The  extractor  is  not 
rigidly  connected  with  the  brecch-lilock,  but  has  a 
longitudinal  motion  along  its  sitle.  It  does  not  begin 
to  (JUaw  the  shell  until  the  breech-block  has  moved  to 
the  rear  nearly  an  inch,  when  a  shoulder  on  the  ex- 
tractor strikes  a  corresponding  one  on  the  block,  after 
which  both  move  together.  The  oljject  of  the  ex- 
tractor projecting  so  far  in  front  of  the  block  is  to 
support  the  cartridges  as  they  leave  the  magazine  on 
their  way  to  the  chamljcr.  A  shoulder  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  carrier  serves  as  an  ejector.  Its  etfect  is  to 
rotate  the  empty  shells  through  the  opening  in  the 
bottom  of  the  receiver  to  the  ground.  The  magazine 
is  in  the  butt-stock.  The  shape  of  the  inner  surface 
of  the  carrier  at  its  front  is  such  that  the  point  of  the 
cartridge  as  it  leaves  it  is  opposite  the  center  of  the 
chamber.  An  inclined  rear  surface  of  the  carrier 
prevents  the  rear  of  the  cartridge  from  rising  while 
on  its  way  to  the  chamber.  When  the  lever  is  thrown 
open  a  spring  at  the  front  of  the  carrier  causes  ita 
rear  to  descend  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  magazine. 
In  this  position  it  serves  as  a  cartridge-stop,  prevent- 
ing the  escape  of  other  cartridges.  There  is  no  cut- 
off t«  the  magazine,  nor  can  there  be,  each  motion  of 
the  lever  being  accompanied  with  a  corresponding 
motion  of  the  ratchet.  As  a  single-loader,  the  piece 
is  loaded  through  the  carrier,  the  rear  of  which  is 
opened  by  depressing  the  front;  this  should  be  done 
before  the  lever  is  opened.  The  trigger  is  locked  by 
a  set-screw  when  the  piece  is  carried  at  full-cock.  As 
a  magazine-gun,  three  motions  are  necessary  to  ope- 
rate, viz.,  opened,  closed,  fired.  As  a  single-loader, 
four  motions  are  necessar}',  viz.,  loaded,  opened, 
closed,  fired.  The  gun  carries  six  cartridges  in  the 
magazine,  one  in  the  carrier,  and  one  in  the  chamber. 
See  Mnifdzine-qun . 

CHAFFEE-REECE  MAGAZINE-GUN.  —  This  arm. 
an  improvement  on  the  ChalTee  magazine-gun,  be- 
longs to  that  system  of  bolt-gims  in  which  a  fixed 
chamlxT  is  close<l  by  a  movable  breech-bolt  sliding 
and  rotating.  The  magazine  is  in  the  butt-stock. 
The  cartridges  are  hel(l  in  the  magazine  by  two 
ratchet-bars,  one  fixed  and  the  other  sliding,  and 
operated  when  the  bolt  is  drawn  back  and  closed. 
The  magazine  having  been  loaded,  the  bolt  is  thrown 
open  and  each  tooth  of  the  slidingbar  pjisses  behind 
the  head  of  the  cartridge  next  in  its  rear.  The  clos- 
ing of  the  liolt  moves  the  ratchet  forward,  bringing 
each  cartridge  its  own  IcJigth  further  to  the  front. 
The  cartridges  are  firmly  held  in  position,  .so  that  they 
are  not  and  cannot  be  in  contact  with  each  other,  which 
I  is  positive  prevention  from  accidental  explosions. 


CHAIK. 


332 


CHAIH. 


The  frequi-nt  ncciilcnts  and  loss  of  life  from  prt'- 
mature  explosions  by  magazine-iinns  imlucitl  many 
gunnifclianifs,  luid  aniouj;  the  number  Mr.  t'liallcf, 
to  undtTtaki-  to  invent  a  magiizine-arm  that  shoultl 
be  fnr  fn>m  that  objection,  anil  after  several  years  in 
Btuiiy  anil  liaril  work,  anil  a  large  outlay  of  money, 
he  p'riKlueeil  this  arm,  which,  U|>on  a  tesl-lrial.  In-fore 
a  Uojinl  of  Anny  t)IIicers,  has  ilemonsiniteil  the  fact 
that  he  has  sueeeeiUtl  in  ilointr  it.  This  ann  can  Ik- 
useil  Its  a  sin;:leshooter  until  occaj<ion  requires  the 
deliverj-  of  shots  nion-  frequently  than  would  be 
possible  if  the  arm  had  to  1h'  loaiie<l  after  each  dis- 
charge, when,  by  the  turn  of  a  button,  seven  extra 
chargi-s  will  be  available  which  can  Ik?  delivered  in 
four  r*conds  or  less.  This  makes  a  body  of  men 
■with  this  anu  a  verj-  formidable  foe. 

The  employment"  of  the  t'haffee-Rccce  arm  in  the 
ser\-iiT  will  reduce  to  a  considerable  extent  the  neces- 
sitv  for  macliine-guns,  which  are  considered  most 
valuable  in  destroying  a  body  of  men  closely  packed; 
ibut  men  these  days  avoid  bunching  on  the  field,  cs- 


which  he  takes  scr%ice  with  confidence  that  he  will 
Ik-  armed  with  a  gun  with  which  to  kill  the  enemy, 
and  not  himself  or  his  comrades.  See  Chaffee  Maga- 
:iiii-(jiin. 

CHAIN. — A  device  consisting  of  several  associated 
links,  joined  endways,  so  as  to  string  out  in  line. 
The  varieties  of  chains  are  numerous,  and  their  names 
are  derived  from  their  material,  structure,  or  pur- 
l)ose.  In  mechanical  maneuvers,  and  in  the  general 
work  of  the  foundry  and  construction-shops,  chains 
are  indispensable.  Chain-cables  are  made  of  links 
the  length  of  each  of  which  is  generally  about  six 
diameters  of  the  iron  of  which  it  is  made,  and  the 
breadth  about  three  and  a  half  diameters.  In  gov- 
ernmenl  contracts,  chain-cables  are  reqtiircd  to  be 
made  in  12,5-fathoin  lengths,  with  one  swivel  in  the 
middle  of  every  alternate  length,  and  one  joining- 
shackle  in  each  length.  The  stay-pins,  to  strengthen 
the  links,  are  of  cast-iron.  The  bar  or  rod  from 
which  each  link  is  made  has  the  two  ends  cut  diag- 
onally ;  it  is  bent  into  the  form  of  a  nearly  complete 


pecially  when  machine-guns  are  liable  to  be  trained 
to  cover  them.  Troops  armed  with  this  gun  have 
«jich  a  machine-gun,  and  are  more  capable  of  repel- 
ling a  Ixjarding  party  from  a  ship,  or  an  a.ssaulting 
column  upon  a  military  work,  as  they  can  be  so  dis- 
posed as  to  defend  the  entire  space,  instead  of  one  or 
two  points. 

Much  time  and  expense  are  devoted  to  the  education 
of  officers  of  a  well-orgiuiized  army,  and  they  have 
lived  in  vain  if  they  know  no  belter"  than  to  put  dan- 
gerous anns  in  the  hands  of  troo))*,  who,  having  con- 
fidence in  the  knowledge  of,  and  trusting  all  such 
questions  to,  the  olHccrs,  as  they,  the  soldiers,  are 
obliL'etl  to  do,  move  forward  "at  their  conunand 
with  the  risk  of  disaster  from  the  tire  of  the  enemy, 
but  with  no  expectation  that  they  are  really  in  mo"re 
danger  from  the  arms  with  which  they  are  fighting 
than  from  thf>se  in  the  hands  of  the  opposing  armv." 

The  art  of  war  is  now  reduce<l  to  a  science  by" all 
■well-regidatcd  governments,  and  perhaps  there  Is  no 
l)ninch  of  the  service  by  which  troops  are  asked  to 
take  so  much  risk  a.s  to  use  an  arm  which  is  liable  to 
explode  prematurely  and  either  kill  or  maim  for  life 
the  soldier  whosi;  .services  are  iiecessjirj-  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  cause,  and  in  upholding  the  tlag  under 


oval  ring;  and  then  the  two  ends  are  joined  and 
welded,  the  stay  pin  being  at  the  siime  time  intro- 
duced at  the  proper  place.  Besides  the  ordinary 
links,  there  are  end-links,  joining-shackles,  spliciug- 
tails,  mooring-swivels,  and  beiiding-swivels.  The 
sizes  of  chain-cables  are  denoted  by  the  thickness  of 
the  rod-iron  selected  for  the  links.  The  following 
table  gives  certain  ascertained  quantities  concerning 
the  cables  in  ordinary  use  : 


Diameter 

Weiglit 

Breakin  g 

Diameter 

Weight 

Breaking 

of  Link. 

per  foot. 

Strain. 

of  Link. 

per  foot. 

Strain. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

^ 

.35 

1,731 

1 

9.3 

49,280 

.63 

3,009 

m 

11.8 

59.226 

k 

.9t 

4,794 

IW 

14.5 

73.114 

1.33 

6.9-JJ 

17.7 

88.301 

k 

1.80 

9.408 

1^ 

20.8 

105.280 

a. 33 

la.sao 

\hf. 

24.2 

12.3.514 

k 

300 

15.590 

li 

28.3 

143.293 

3.07 

19.ai9 

32.5 

164.505 

u 

4.50 

M,274 

8 

883 

187.152 

k 

5.30 

27,687 

i 

47.0 

224.448 

^l 

6.16 

38,301 

58.0 

277.088 

7.18 

37,632 

70.0 

3.3.'..32S 

H 

8  16 

43,977 

3* 

84.0 

398.944 

CHAIN. 


333 


CHAnr, 


Chains  with  flat  links  are  made  in  the  fly-press. 
The  links  are  cut  out,  and  the  holes  are  afterward 
punched  as  in  washers,  one  at  a  time,  every  blank 
being  .so  held  that  its  circular  extremity  touches  the 
stops  on  the  bed  or  die,  which  insure  the  centrality 
of  the  blank  and  punch.  The  two  holes  are  thus 
made  equidistant  in  all  the  links,  and  are  afterwards 


The  rolUr  detacftable  chain-belling,  made  by  the 
Lechner  Manufacturing  Company,  is  now  generally 
used  throughout  the  United  States  for  dri\ing  eleva- 
tors, drags,  hea\'y  and  light  shafting,  conveyors, 
hoists,  loghaul-ups,  traction-engines,  racking-car 
riages  on  liftipg-cranes,  roller-trains  in  rolling-mills, 
live   rolls,   etc.     Fig.   2  shows  a  roller  detachable 


Fio.  2. 


stning  together  by  inserting  keys  or  rivets  through 
the  holes.  Sometimes  the  succession  of  the  links  of 
the  chain  is  one  and  two  links  alternately;  or  three 
and  two;  or  four  and  three,  up  to  eight  and  nine 
links,  which  is  sometimes  used.  Chains  intended  to 
catch  on  pins  or  projections  on  the  periphery  of  a 
wheel  are  made  two  and  two,  leaving  an  opening 
which  slips  over  the  cog.  A  full  assortment  of 
punched  chain-links  and  keys  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
These  links  are  made  with  special  machinery  by 
Messrs.  Hoopes  &.  Townsend,  Philadelphia,  and  have 
been  tested  for  ordnance  purposes  with  the  following 
results: 

STRAIGHT  CHAIN-LINKS. 


No. 

in 

Fig.l 


Break- 
ing 

Strain 
as 

tested. 


1. 

2. 
34. 
85. 

3. 

4. 

5. 
36 

6. 
37. 


10., 
11.. 
12., 
39.. 
40.. 
13., 
41., 
42., 
)5. 
14. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
30. 
21. 


lbs. 
615 
750 
900 
1,000 
1,000 
1,450 
1,100 
1,500 
1,600 
1,575 
1,225 
2,300 
4.400 
4,450 
8,500 
4,200 
4,200 
7,200 
7,800 
7,900 
3,900 
5,900 
5,000 
11,800 
9,200 
9.000 
11,500 
12,500 
12.000 
11,000 


Length 
Entire  '     from 
Length  center  to 

center. 


%inch 


2«    " 
2g    " 

i" 


Winch 


?^  ;: 


Thiclj- 
ness. 


No.     16 
"       14 


"       12 

^ 

"       11 
"       11 
"       10 

% 

"       10 

A 

8 

A 

"       10 

A 

"       10 

■f. 

11 

Vi 

"       10 

A  inch 
No.      7 

?B 

Diameter!  Weight 

of        per  100 

Holes.     Links. 


jb  inch 
ft    " 


A  inch 

Vi  •' 

A 
A    " 

I:: 

IB 
6      " 


.32 
.50 
1.40 
1.87 
2.00 
2.15 
2.80 
4.75 
8.75 
2.75 
2.66 
4.37 
15.62 
8.00 
12.25 
11.43 
12.75 
18.50 
26.00 
41.00 
12.00 
21.00 
16.00 
36.00 
36  62 
56.00 
45.00 
80.00 
74.62 
70.60 


COG-LINES. 


43... 

350 

5^  inch 

H  inch 

No.     14 

A  nch 

.25 

650 

1        •' 

%    " 

"       12 

jC    ** 

.94 

23... 

775 

1^       " 

a  " 

"       12 

A    " 

1.75 

24... 

925 

^A   *' 

^^" 

•'       11 

3  20 

25... 

1.275 

1^  •• 

"       10 

6.43 

26. . . . 

1,275 

It^:: 

"       10 

JL     *' 

5.20 

27.... 

1,975 

A  inch 

9h     '* 

11.43 

28.... 

2.200 

2       " 

A    " 

£2   *' 

1H.75 

29..   . 

S.IM 

2 

A   •' 

H   " 

20.37 

Nos.  SO.  31.  32.  33,  44,  and  45  are  keys  for  H,  %,  H,  IM.  '%■ 
and  1  inch  bolts  respectively. 


chain-link  one  half  actual  size,  with  a  working  strain 
of  3500  poimds.  The  method  of  detaching  the  links, 
shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  very  simple,  and  is  as  follows: 
Bring  the  links  to  right  angles  with  each  other,  by  a 
slight  tap  on  the  roller;  change  the  position  of  the  pin 
from  the  narrow  to  the  larger  portion  of  the  slot, 
when  it  (the  pin)  can  be  driven  through  and  out,  and 
the  chain  detached.  This  belting  has  many  superiftr 
qualities.    1st.   The  action  of  the  roller  upon  the 


Fig.  3. 

sprocket-wheels  and  links  greatly  reduces  fiiction 
and  the  usual  wear  upon  both,  by  rolling  when  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  sprockets"  tmtil  scatetl,  when 
it  rests  quietly  till  released  bj-  leaving  the  wheel, 
cau.sing  no  scrape  whatever.  Again,  when  the  chain 
is  used  for  convej'ors,  in  its  movement  on  a  plane  or 
incline,  it  rolls  upon  the  rollers,  and  thus  requires 
much  less  power  to  drive  the  conveyor,  than  is  the 
case  where  chains  are  dragged  upon  their  tlat  surface. 
It  also  admits  of  a  lighter  chain  to  do   the   same 


CHAIN  BALL. 


334 


CHALLENOE. 


■work,  iU  strcngtli  not  lx>ins  cxbausted  in  dragging  j 
iU  own  weinlit.  2d.  Tlic  forniulion  of  tlic  links  is  ■ 
such  that  the  gR'atcst  strength  to  weight  of  meliil  is 
obtuiutil,  ihiTi'  being  iibst)lnti'ly  no  wcalv  ixiint.  3(1. 
By  iiu  examination  of  the  link.'*  and  ]>in  after  detach- 
ing, it  will  In-  ilisfovertil  that  the  wearing  surface,  or 
bearing,  covers  the  entire  |)<)rtion  of  the  jiin  U'twi-en 
the  end  gnwvcs  or  notehe.s,  there  being  no  wear  upon 
the  ends  of  pin  or  outside  links,  for  the  rea.son  that 
the  pin  is  held  rigidly,  not  moving  in  the  scjuare  slot. 
The  pins  and  links  art  also  greatly  strengthened  by 
the  tubular  bearing,  or  that  [lorlion  of  the  link  upon 
■which  the  roller  is  mounted,  and  which,  taken  to- 
gttlier.  makes  the  strain  ujK)n  the  l)in  a  shearing 
strain  >i]Kin  the  en<ls,  thus  ginng  it  greater  strength 
than  it  would  otherwise  have.  4th.  Fully  ten  per 
Cent  of  power  is  lost  by  the  slipi)ing  of  katlier 
and  rublier  belts,  and  the  friction  resulting  therefrom 
rapidly  generates  heat,  which  hardens  the  face  of  the 
one  luid  rots  the  fabric  of  the  other,  and  is  one  of  the  ' 
most  prevalent  causes  of  tire  in  mills,  warehouses,  ; 
etc.  5th.  When  space  is  of  importance,  roller-chain  , 
of  from  2  to  4  inches  in  width  will  be  the  equivalent 
of  a  12  to  30  inch  leather  or  rul)l)er  bell,  and  the 
sprocket-wheels  for  the  chain  will  cost  from  one 
fourth  to  one  half  less  than  pidleys  for  leather  or 
rubber  iH-lting. 

CHAIN  BALL.— To  arrest  the  motion  of  rotation  of 
an  oblong  projectile  thrown  under  high  angles  and 
■with  a  mixlcrate  velocity,  it  hius  been  proposed  to  at- 
t^h  a  light  body  to  its  "posterior  portion  by  means  of 
a  cord  or  chain,  which  will  offer  a  resistance  to  ths 
flight  of  the  projectile  and  cause  it  to  move  with  its 
point  foremost.     See  C/niiii-n/wt. 

CHAIN-HAIL. — A  kind  of  armor  much  used  in  the 
twelflh  and  thirteenth  centuries.  It  was  formed  of 
hammered  iron  links  connected  one  to  another  into  a 
dress  or  form  of  a  garment.  Its  advantage  was  in  its 
lightness  and  tie.xibility,  compared  with  the  sheets  of 
steel  or  brass  of  other  met;d  armor,  but  it  was  not  so 
good  a  protection  from  tlie  spear  or  lance.  Frequently 
sjxiken  of  as  c/niin-urmor. 

CHAIN-SHOT.— A  nearly  obsolete  kind  of  ammu- 
nition, chietly  used  in  naval  warfare,  consisting  of 
two  balls  connected  by  a  short  chain.  The  object  of 
the  chain  is  to  destroy  the  rigging,  etc.,  which  other- 
wise might  escape.  As  grape-shot  has  been  found  to 
scr%-e  the  same  end,  the  making  of  chain-shot  has 
been  di.scoutinued.  See  Bar-shot,  Prtnectika,  and 
mill  Shot. 

CHALK. — A  ■white  calcareous  substance,  prejiared 
by  precipitating  a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium 
with  carlK)nate  of  soda  and  washing;  the  precipitated 
chalk  of  the  pharmacop<jeia  is  thus  formed.  Chalk 
is  well  known  in  Europe  as  an  extensive  secondary 
formation.  In  the  arts  it  is  commonly  known  as 
■whiting,  after  .separating  the  grosser  impurities  of  the 
chalk.  It  is  used  verj-  generally  for  artillery  pur- 
poses in  arsenal  workshops,  for  inarking  the  "center 
and  line  of  metal  on  ordnance,  to  mark  the  position 
of  gun-carriaires  and  mortar-beds  on  their  platforms, 
and  in  a  variety  of  uses. 

CHALLENGE.— 1.  The  act  of  a  sentinel  in  ques- 
tioning or  demanding  the  countersign  from  those 
■B-ho  apix-ar  at  or  near  his  post,  at  c<Ttain  times 
In  the  British  service,  the  .sentinel  challenges  in  tliese 
words:  "  Who  coimh  thtre?"  At  the  same  time  he 
comc»  to  the  charge  hniioiut  to  ))revent  any  sudden 
rush  upon  his  post.  If  the  reply  of  the  apiJroaching 
person  is  satisfactory,  the  sentry  allows  him  to  pass 
m  thes<-  words:  "  J'iiMt.Jriind;  all'H  ,nll\  "  A  similar 
challenge  is  made  to  any  patrol  \-isiting  the  guards  of 
a  garrison  or  camp  during  the  night,  such  as  the 
Grand  or  Visiting  Hounds. 

In  the  United  States  army,  after  retreat  (or  the 
hour  app<iinled  by  the  Commanding  Officer),  until 
briKid  (layliphl,  a  sentinel  challenires  every  person 
who  approaches  him,  taking,  at  the  same  time,  the 
position  of  rhiir;ie  hni/niut.  He  sulfers  no  person  to 
come  nciirer  than  within  rcacli  of  his  bayonet,  until 


the  person  has  given  the  countersign,  or  is  pa.ssed  by 
an  Officer  or  Xon-commis.sioned  Officer  of  the  Guard. 
A  sentinel,  in  challenging,  calls  out,  •'  M'ho  tome* 
there?"  If  answered,  ■"  Frieiui,  itith  the  countersign," 
and  he  be  instructed  to  pass  jjersons  with  the  counter- 
sign, he  replies,  "  Adrance,  friend,  with  the  counter- 
sign f"  If  answered,  "  Friends,"  he  replies,  ''Halt, 
friends  !  Adrance  one  with  the  countersign  !"  If  an- 
swered, "  lielief,"  "  Patrol,"  or  "  Orand  Pounds,"  he 
replies,  "Unit!  Ad  ranee.  Sergeant  (or  ('iir])or<il), 
irith  the  e/>unttrsign!"  and  satistie-s  himself  that  the 
Iiarty  is  what  it  represent.s  itself  to  be.  If  he  have 
no  authority  to  pass  persons  with  the  countersign,  if 
the  wrong  countersign  be  given,  or  if  the  persons 
have  not  the  countersign,  he  causes  them  to  stand, 
and  calls,  "  Corjioral  of  the  Guard!"  When  any 
jierson  approaches  a  post  of  the  guard  at  night,  the 
-sentinel  before  the  post,  after  challenging,  causes  him 
to  halt  until  examined  by  a  Non-commissioned  Officer 
of  the  Guard.  If  it  be  the  Otlicer  of  the  Dav,  or  any 
other  Officer  entitled  to  inspect  the  iruard  and  to  niiike 
the  Rounds,  the  Non-commissioneil  Officer  will  call, 
"  Turn  out  the  guard!"  when  the  guard  is  jiaraded, 
arms  at  a  cjirry,  and  the  Officer  of  the  Guard,  if  he-thiuk 
necessary,  may  demand  the  coimtersign  and  parole. 

2.  The  custom  of  nulling  another  to  answer  for  an 
offense  by  combat.  In  18-44  several  new  Articles  of 
War  were  issued  by  the  Commander  of  the  Forces  in 
England,  with  a  view  to  the  abatement  of  dueling  in 
the  army.  They  were  as  follows:  1.  Every  officer 
who  shall  .send  a  challenge,  or  who  shall  accept  a 
challenge,  to  fight  a  duel  ■Nvith  another  officer,  or  who, 
being  privy  to  an  intention  to  fight  a  duel,  shall  not 
take  active  measures  to  prevent  such  duel,  or  who 
shall  ui)l)raid  another  for  refusing  or  cot  giving  a 
challenge,  or  who  shall  reject  or  advise  the  rejection 
of  a  rea.sonable  proposition  made  for  the  honorable 
adjustment  of  a  difference,  shall  l)e  liable,  if  con- 
victed before  a  General  Court-Martial,  to  be  cashiered, 
or  suffer  such  other  punishment  as  the  Court  may 
award.  2.  In  the  event  of  an  officer  being  brought 
to  a  Court  -  Martial  for  having  acted  as  a  second 
in  a  duel,  if  it  appear  that  such  officer  cxertetl 
himself  strenuously  to  bring  about  an  honorable 
adjustment  of  the  difference,  but  failed  through 
the  unwillingness  of  the  adverse  parties,  then  such 
officer  is  to  suffer  such  punishment  as  the  C^ourt  ..shall 
award.  3.  Approbation  is  expressed  of  the  conduct 
of  those  who,  having  had  the  misfortune  to  give 
offense  to  or  injure  or  insult  others,  shall  frankly 
explain,  apologize,  or  offer  redress  for  the  same,  or 
who,  having  received  offen.se,  shall  cordially  accept 
frank  e.xplanations  or  apologies  for  the  same;  or,  if 
such  a|)ologies  are  refused  to  be  made  or  accepted, 
shall  submit  the  matter  to  the  Commanding  Officer; 
and,  la.stly,  all  officers  and  soldiers  are  acquitted  of 
disgrace  or  disadvantage  who,  being  willing  to  make 
or  accept  such  redress,  refuse  to  accept  challenges,  as 
they  will  only  have  acted  as  is  suitable  to  the  character 
of  honond)le  men,  and  have  done  their  duty  as  good 
.soldiers  who  subject  themselves  to  discipline.  Partly, 
in  consequence  of  these  regulations,  but  still  more  as 
a  result  of  the  increasing  reason  and  humanity  of 
English  society,  the  practice  of  dueling  has  become 
almost  as  entirely  obsolete  in  the  British  army  as  it 
has  in  the  country  generally.  The  2Gth,  2Tth,  and 
28th  Ariicles  of  War  prescribe  the  pmiishment  for 
dueling  in  the  United  States  army.  See  Duel  and 
Ordeal. 

3.  In  a  legal  sense,  and  as  applied  to  military  mat- 
ters, the  right  the  accused  has  of  objecting  "to  the 
President  or  any  other  Member  of  a  Court-Martial. 
If  be  objects  to  the  President,  his  objection,  mdess 
disidlowed  by  two  thirds  al  least  of  llu'  other  in<'mbers, 
must  be  referred  for  decision  to  the  authority  by 
whom  the  President  was  appointed.  When  anv 
Member  is  challenged,  the  accused  must  state  hi's 
cau.se  of  challenge,  of  which  the  Court,  after  due 
deliberation,  delennines  tlic  relevancy  or  validity, 
and  decides  accordingly.     See  Courl^Jiartial. 


CHAMADE. 


335 


CHAHBEBS  HOOPED  QVK. 


CHAMADE.— A  signal  made  for  a  parley  by  beat 
of  drum.     See  Parky. 

CHAMBES. — 1.  A  gun  is  said  to  be  chambered 
■when  the  seat  of  the  charge  i.s  not  of  the  same  diam- 
eter as  the  bore.  The  object  of  chambering  is  to  ob- 
tain increased  projectile  force.  Formerly  the  cham- 
ber was  in  all  cases  smaller  than  the  bore,  the  shape 
commonly  cj'lindrical  or  conical.  Chambers  were 
placed  in  light  pieces  firing  comparatively  small 
charges  of  quick-burning  powder.  It  was  considered 
that  the  length  of  space  occupied  by  the  charge 
should  be  nearly  equal  to  its  diameter,  in  order  that 
the  inflammation  of  the  charge  should  be  nearly  com- 
plete before  the  gas  commenced  to  escape  through 
the  windage,  or  the  projectile  had  sensiljly  moved 
from  its  place;  in  the  second  place,  this  form  of  car- 
tridge gave  less  surface  for  the  absorption  of  heat  by 
the  surrounding  metal.  It  al.so  gave  to  the  cartridge 
in  some  cases  a  more  manageable  form  in  loading. 
In  pieces  tiring  heavy  charges  the  seat  of  the  charge 
wa.s  simply  the  bore  prolonged.  The  termination 
was  in  some  cases  a  plane  bottom  connect eil  with  the 
sides  by  a  curved  surface,  and  in  others  the  tottom 
of  the  bore  wa.s  hemispherical  or  semiellipsoidid. 
The  latter  was  thought  to  be  more  favorable  to  the 
strength  of  the  piece.  It  was  necessiiry  that  there 
should  be  no  angles  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
bottotn  and  sides  of  the  bore,  as  these  would  become 
receptacles  for  the  residue  and  burning  fragments  of 
the  cartridge-bag.  There  is  also  a  well-known  ten- 
dency for  rupture  to  commence  at  an  angle,  and  for 
this  reason,  too,  the  curved  termination  was  necessary. 

Chambers  are  now  of  larger  diameter  than  the 
bore  proper,  and  are  so  made  to  enable  the  u.se  of 
larger  charges,  and  also  to  give  a  certain  amount  of 
air-.space  about  the  cartridge.  They  were  originally 
adopted  as  a  necessity  in  breech-loading  guns  tiring 
lead-coated  projectiles.  The  tendency  at  present  is 
to  use  very  large  charges  of  slow-burning  powder. 
If,  however,  too  great  a  length  of  cartridge  is  em- 
ploj'cd,  experience  shows  that  at  times  abnormal 
pressures  are  e.xerted  upon  the  bore  and  projectile; 
the  gas  rushes  from  the  point  of  ignition  to  the  end 
of  the  powder-chamber  and  there,  Ijeing  suddenly 
arrested,  produces  a  zone  of  high  pressure  within 
which  the  powder  burns  abnormally  fast;  then  a 
back-rush  takes  place  and  a  violent  wave-action  is  set 
up,  resulting  in  local  strains  of  great  severity  without 
materially  affecting  the  velocity  of  the  .shot.  This 
difficult}'  is  obviated  by  an  increa,se  in  the  diameter 
of  the  cartridge.  The  air-space  about  the  cartridge 
also  prevents  the  dynamic  action  of  the  ga.ses  de- 
scribed above.  It  diminishes  the  mean  density  of 
the  inflamed  products  during  the  first  instants  of 
combustion  and  relieves  the  piece  of  the  great  strain 
usually  brought  upon  it  before  the  projectile  has 
commenced  to  move.  The  maintenance  of  a  due 
|)roportion  between  the  Ijulk  of  the  powder-charge 
and  the  space  allowed  for  its  combustion  is  of  the 
highest  importance  both  in  the  development  of  en- 
ergy and  the  diminution  of  strain  upon  the  gun. 
Tile  velocity  and  energy  are  increa.sed  in  le-ss  propor- 
tion than  the  iucrea.se  of  charge,  but  the  gas-pressure 
is  not  increa.sed  in  amount,  although  prolonged  in 
duration,  by  the  hea\'ier  charge,  if  the  proportion  of 
space  to  weight  of  powder  remains  the  same.  The 
proper  dimensions  of  the  chamber  in  relation  to  the 
caliber  and  length  depend  veiy  much  upon  the 
nature  of  the  powder  employed.  With  some  large- 
grained  powders,  especially  the  prismatic  variety,  it 
is  thought  that  the  charge  can  completely  fill  the 
chamber,  the  air-space  in  the  interstices  ant\  perfora- 
tions Ix'ing  sufficient  to  produce  the  desired  etTeet.  ; 
Beyond  a  certain  limit  the  further  boring  out  of  tiie 
chamber  would  begin  to  weaken  the  lireeeh.  In 
many  heavy  gims  the  chamber  has  a  diameter,  for  a 
considerable  length,  of  one  or  two  inches  greater 
than  the  bore.  The  length  shoukl  not  be  more  than 
3i  or  4  times  its  diameter  if  it  can  possibly  be  avoided. 

The  construction  with  reference  to  length  of  bore,  i 


etc.,  will  be  governed  by  the  purposes  for  which  the 
piece  is  inteiided.  I.  For  armor-piercing  the  pro- 
jectile requiretl  is  a  long  pointed  bolt,  nearly  solid. 
It  must  strike  n-ith  great  velocity,  and  therefore  must 
be  propelled  by  very  large  charges.  Hence  a  gun 
for  this  purpose  should  have  a  large  chamber  and  a 
comparatively  small  bore  of  great  length.  II.  For 
breaching  fortifications  curved  tire  is  necessary;  the 
escarps  of  modern  fortre.s.ses  are  usually  covered  from 
view  by  screens  of  earth  or  masonry,  so  that  the  pro- 
jectiles must  pass  over  the  crest  of  the  screen  and 
drop  sufficiently  to  strike  the  wall  about  half-way 
down — that  is  to  say,  at  an  angle  of  15  or  20°.  For 
a  shell  to  drop  at  this  angle  at  the  end  of  a  moderate 
range  the  velocity  at  starting  must  be  low.  Hence  in 
pieces  used  for  breaching  no  enlarged  powder-cham- 
i)er  is  wanted;  the  shell  must  be  of  a  shape  to  hold 
the  most  powder  for  a  given  weight,  and  therefore 
rather  short  and  thick.  This  gives  a  large  and  com- 
paratively short  bore.  III.  For  producing  destructive 
effect  among  troops  Shrapnel  is  principally  employed. 
For  this  high  remaining  velocities  are  required  at  the 
point  of  rupture.  The  gun  must  therefore  take  a 
large  powder-charge.  The  interior  capacity  of  the 
envelope  should  be  as  great  as  ])racticable.  For  a 
given  weight  a  comparatively  short  projectile  of  large 
diameter  will  best  fultill  this  condition.  Thus  the 
proportions  of  the  field-gun  will  be  intermediate  be- 
tsvecn  those  of  the  armor-piercing  and  the  shell  gun. 

2.  The  chamber  of  a  mine  is  a  ca\ity  formed  to 
receive  the  charge  of  powder.  When  the  chamber  is 
made  at  the  end  of  a  galleiy,  the  center  of  the  cham- 
ber is  placed  on  a  level  with  the  floor  of  the  gallery. 
It  is  usually  better  to  place  the  chamber  at  the  end  of 
a  small  branch  return  on  one  side.  When  the  charge 
is  not  to  be  exploded  immediately,  or  the  groimd  is 
much  saturated  with  moisture,  it  should  be  placed 
in  a  well-pitched  wooden  case,  a  good  cask,  or  in  a 
wooden  case  covered  with  tarpaulin,  or  any  like  ex- 
pedient adopted  that  may  be  at  hand;  the  best  recep- 
tacle is  a  water-tight  tin  case.  In  dry  groimd,  and 
when  the  charge  is  to  be  soon  exploded,  canvas  bags 
will  answer.  If  the  case  to  contain  the  powder  is 
cubical  and  not  more  than  3  feet  on  the  edge,  it  may 
be  introduced  into  the  chamber  ready  made;  if  of 
greater  dimensions,  it  must  be  put  together  in  the 
chamber,  the  pieces  to  form  the  sides  being  arranged 
like  the  ca.ses  of  branches.  An  opening  is  made  in 
the  cover  near  the  side,  about  4  inches  square,  for  the 
introduction  of  the  charge,  and  a  similar  one  in  the 
side  near  the  center  to  receive  the  hose  through. 

CHAMBEE-GAUGE. — An  instrument  used  in  the 
inspection  of  cannon.  The  head  of  this  gauge  should 
be  made  of  close-grained,  well-seasoned  wood,  and 
of  the  exact  dimensions  of  the  chamber.  Two  planes 
crossing  each  other  at  a  right  angle,  coinciding  with 
the  vertical  and  horizontal  central  sections,  have 
been  found  better  than  a  solid  block.  The  edge 
should  be  beveled.  A  socket  in  its  center  connects 
it  with  the  measuring-staff.  Being  pushed  to  the 
I)ottom  of  the  bore,  if  the  length  coincides  with  that 
obtained  by  the  point  it  is  obrious  that  the  chamber 
is  large  enough,  pro\ided  the  cylindrical  jiart  has 
not  been  bored  too  deep,  in  which  case  a  shoulder 
would  be  formed  at  the  junction.  The  edges  of  the 
gauge  should  be  chalked  before  insertion.  When 
withdrawn,  if  the  chalk-marks  are  visible  all  around 
the  chamber  it  is  e^^dent  the  chamber  is  not  too 
large.  An  examination  of  the  eluimber-nnmer  will 
be  very  satisfactory,  and  if  found  coiTect  in  size  and 
shape  the  impossibility  of  making  the  chamlicr  too 
large  will  be  apparent.     See  Inspictlon  of  Ordnance. 

CHAMBERS  HOOPED  GUN.— To  obviate  the  dan- 
ger of  crystallizing  the  iron  by  welding  it  in  large 
nia.s.s<>s,  this  cannon  is  formed  of  pieces  of  a  moder- 
ate thickness  only,  commencing  with  a  tulie  the  in- 
terior of  which  is  the  bore  of  the  gun.  The  outside 
of  this  tube  is  turned  to  receive  a  series  of  rings, 
which  have  an  interior  diameter,  such  that  they  will 
not  when  cold  pass  on  or  over  the  tube,  but  when 


CHAMFEE. 


336 


CHAF£LI)£-F£B. 


heated  will  reiiilily  slip  on  and  come  to  the  required 
position.  Whi-n  "ihi-sc  rings  nre  shrunk  uix)n  the 
barrel,  the  pii-cc  is  phutxl  iu  a  liiihe  and  the  exteriors 
of  the  rings  are  turniil  so  as  to  receive  another  tier 
of  rings,  whieh  are  pliict^l  l)y  heating  and  shrinking 
on.  so  as  to  break  joints  with  the  first  tier.  When  a 
greater  numbi'r  of  courses  of  rings  is  necessarj',  they 
are  placid  on  the  preceiling  series  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  second  series  is  placed  upon  the  first;  that 
is,  so  a-s  to  break  joints  with  each  other.  The  liust 
series  of  rings  is  turned  off  to  the  regular  form  of  the 
tinishtnl  cannon.  The  trunnions  "are  forged  with 
one  of  the  outside  rings,  which,  for  the  puqwse  of 
strenglheuing  the  connection,  may  Ix;  made  thicker 
than  the  oilier  exterior  rings.     See  Onlnaiice. 

CHAHFEB.— A  small  channel  or  furrow  cut  in 
woi)d,  st<.)ne.  etc.  It  may  be  also  explained  iu<  an 
edge,  or  arris,  taken  off  equally  on  the  two  sides 
which  form  it,  leaving  what  is  called  a  chamfer  or  a 
chamfered  edge.  If  the  arris  be  Uikcn  off  more  on 
one  side  than  the  other,  it  is  said  to  be  splayed  or 
beveled. 

CHAMFRON. — The  frontlet  of  an  armed  horse, 
usually  having  a  spike  between  the  eyes.  Also  writ- 
ten Chiiiiifriiin  and  Chaiiifroiil. 

CHAMPION.— In  the  judicial  combats  of  the  Middle 
Agvs  it  was  allowed  to  women,  children,  and  aged 
persons,  except  in  cases  of  high  treason  or  of  parri- 
cide, to  apiJCiir  in  the  lists  by  a  representative.  Such 
n  hired  combatant  was  called  Champion.  Those  who 
followed  this  profession  were  generally  of  the  lowest 
cla.ss,  and  were  held  disreputable:  for  besides  the 
perils  of  the  combat,  the.v  were  liable  to  be  executed 
as  well  as  their  clients.  They  were  obliged  to  wear  a 
peculiar  dress  of  leather,  and  peculiar  armor,  which 
was  also  held  disreputable.  They  were  not  allowed 
to  tight  on  horseback,  and  appeared  in  the  lists  with 
their  hair  and  nails  cut  short.  Champions  are  men- 
tioned as  early  a.s  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne;  and 
Otto  I.  employed  them  in  deciding  the  succession  to 
the  Empire.  At  a  later  period,  in  the  Age  of  Chiv- 
alrs",  the  word  Cham|)ion  came  to  have  a  more  digni- 
fied acceptation,  and  signified  a  knight  who  entered 
the  lists  on  behalf  of  an  injured  lady,  of  a  child,  or  of 
any  one  incapable  of  self-defense  In  England,  the 
Crown  even  had  its  Champion,  who,  mounted  on 
horseback  and  armed  to  the  teeth,  challenged,  at 
everv  Coronation  at  Westminster,  all  who  should  deny 
the  feing  to  be  the  lawful  Sovereign  of  the  three 
realms.  This  practice  is  understood  to  have  Xk'CU 
first  introduced  under  Richard  II.,  and  it  continues 
to  make  a  part  of  the  Ceremonial  of  an  English  Coro 
nation  to  this  day.  The  name  of  Champion  was  also 
given  to  the  knight  who  during  a  tournament  had 
charge  to  see  that  no  in  jury  or  insult  should  be  offered 
to  the  assembled  ladies. 

CHANDELIEB. — In  militarj'  engineering,  a  wooden 
frame  filled  with  fascines,  to  form  a  traverse  in  sap- 
ping. 

CHANDLEK  ANCHOB-SHOT.— This  shot  was  origi- 
nally iiiK  iided  fur  the  use  of  ships  on  shore 
(agroimd),  wliere  the  surf  is  too  heavy  for 
boats  to  land  willuiui  tlie  assistance  of  a 
line.  It  can  also  be  ased  at  Life-saving  Sta- 
tions to  throw  lines  over  l>eached  vessels, 
or  vessels  in  distress.  As  an  implement  of 
war,  it  will  be  useful  in  waters  where  tor- 
pedoi'S  are  sup|X)si(l  (o  be  located.  A  ship 
can  anchor  near  the  supposed  torpediK'S. 
throw  the  shot  two  or  three  hundred 
yards  towards  Iheni,  and  haul  it  home, 
breaking  such  wires  lus  it  mav  encoun- 
ter. It  is  very  simple,  and  Its  simpli- 
city insures  it.s  successful  working,  while  its  cost  is 
very  little  more  than  that  of  an  ordinary  shot.  It  is 
merely  a  shot  wiih  hinged  anchor-flukes  projecting 
from  Its  sides  and  foliliiiLT  back  into  slots,  so  as  nol 
to  interfere  with  Hie  enlninee  of  the  shot  into  the 
gun.  To  the  riiir  of  the  shot  a  chain  or  wire  rope  is 
attached,  and  canied  to  the  front  through  luiother  slot, 


in  a  vcrj-  simple  and  substantial  manner.  In  using  it 
the  shot  is  to  Ik'  insertei.1  into  the  muzzle  of  the  gun 
far  enough  to  bring  the  ends  of  the  arms  inside  the 
muzzJe,  the  chain  or  wire  rope  attached  to  the  rear  of 
the  shot  brought  out  through  the  slot,  the  strap  taken 
off,  luid  the  shot  pushed  gently  home.  The  springs 
under  the  arms,  always  bearing  or  pushing  them 
outwards,  will  extend  "the  arms  as  soon  as  the  shot 
leaves  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  or  mortar,  and  a  perfect 
anchor  will  be  projected.  If  in  its  flight  the  arms  arc 
brought  in  contact  with  anything,  they  will  close  un- 
til the  obstacle  is  pas.sed,  and  where  the  shot  lands 
its  holding  power  will  be  equal  to  any  kedge-anchor 
of  the  .simie  weight.  It  appears  to  he  a  most  useful 
invention.  One  of  these  shots  made  for  an  eleven- 
inch  gun  would  have  power  enough  to  carry  a  two- 
inch  rope  ashore;  and  after  the  shot  was  once  ashore 
and  well  hooked,  all  the  boats  of  the  ship  could  be 
hauled  ashore  without  any  other  line.  The  flukes  of 
this  anchor-shot  are  three" in  numl)er,  placed  equidis- 
tiUitly  around  the  circumference  of  the  shot 

In  the  U.  S.  Life-.sjiving  Service,  no  claims  of  very 
great  originality  are  made,  as  the  apparatus  is  a  direct 
evolution  from  the  system  of  Captain  Slanby,  which 
dates  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
The  advances  which  have  been  made  during  the  past 
few  years  are  the  result  of  careful  study  and  conscien- 
tious" exixjriment.  The  data  recorded  are  of  value  for 
future  reference.  Several  hundred  guns  have  been 
made,  and  evert-  station  supplied,  at  a  great  economy 
in  the  cost  of  manufacture;  the  guns  being  made  at 
the  West  Point  foundry,  by  contract.  During  the 
many  heavy  storms  on  our  coast  they  have  been  used 
with  great  "success,  saving  many  lives.  The  men  in 
charge  are  thorough!}'  satisfied  in  their  management, 
and  the  guns  are  easily  kept  clean,  there  being  no 
corrosion  by  sea-water.  The  longest  distance  to 
which  a  small  line  has  been  thrown  is  694|  yards. 
The  caliber  of  the  gun  depends  upon  the  size  of  line 
used  and  the  range  required.  For  ranges  of  300  yards 
and  less,  a  3-inch  gun  is  used,  while  for  ranges  of  400 
yards  and  less,  a  2.5-inch  bronze  gun  should  be  used. 
"See  Anchor-rocket,  Life-Facing  Rockets,  and  Lyle-Emery 
QrappU-fluit. 

CHANTIEB.  —  A  square  piece  of  wood  which  is 
used  for  the  purpose  of  raising  anything.  It  serves 
to  place  barrels  of  gunpowder  in  a  proper  manner,  and 
fre(|uently  to  try  pieces  of  ordnance  instead  of  frames. 

CHAFE. — 1.  The  catch  or  piece  by  which  an  ob- 
ject is  attached — to  a  belt,  for  instance;  as  the  piece  of 
leather  known  siJecitically  as  the//w^,  to  which  a 
bayonet  scabbard  is  attached;  or  a  piece  used  to 
fasten  a  buckle  to  a  strap  or  other  piece  of  leather. 
2.  The  hook  of  a  scabbard.  3.  The  metallic  part 
put  on  the  end  of  a  scabbard  to  prevent  the  point  of 
the  sword  or  bayonet  from  piercing  through  it. 

CHAPEAU  BBAS.— A  militarv'  hat  which  can  be 
flattened  and  put  under  the  arm.  In  the  United 
States  army  the  chapeau  is  worn  by  General  Ofticers, 
Officers  of"  the  General  Staff,  and  Staff  Corps,  except 


the  Signal  Corps.  It  is  worn  with  the  front  peak 
turned  slightly  to  the  left,  showing  the  gilt  ornaments 
upon  the  light  side.     See  Helmet. 

CHAPEL-DE-FEE.— An  iron  cap,  furnished  with  a 
broad  and  .slightly  curved  rim.  It  was  the  head- 
piece of  soldiery  in  the  reign  of  William  Kufus  and 
in  subsequent  reigns. 


CHAPEEON. 


337 


CHABCOAL. 


CHAPEKON.— A  hood  or  cap  worn  by  Knights  of  the 
Garter.     Such  a  hood  was  at  one  time  in  general  use,  , 
liut  was  lately  appropriated  to  doctors  anil  licentiates  < 
in  colleges.     A  person  who  acts  as  a  guide  and  pro-  ! 
lector  to  a  lady  at  public  places  Is  called  a  chaperon, 
probably  from  this  particular  piece  of  dress  having 
been  used  on  such  occasions.     The  name  was  also  ap- 
plied to  devices  which  were  placed  on  the  heads  of 
horses  at  pompous  funerals. 

CHAPLAIN. — A  clergj-man  with  a  military  com- 
mis.<ion.  givinir  him  the  spiritual  charge  of  soldiers. 
The  title  was  originally  applied  to  the  ecclesiastic 
who  accompanied  an  army  and  carried  the  relics  of 
the  patron  Siiiut.  It  has  now  come  to  signify  a  clergy- 
man not  having  charge  of  a  parish,  but  employed  to 
officiate  at  Court,  in  the  household  of  a  noblemjm,  or 
in  an  army,  garrison,  sliip,  etc.  Such  officials  began 
carlj'  to  be  appointcfl  in  the  palace  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors.  The  practice  afterwards  extended  to  tlie 
Western  Empire,  and  to  the  Courts  of  petty  princes, 
and  even  of  knights,  and  contiimed  to  suljsist  after 
the  Reformation.  Forty-eight  clergymen  of  tlie  Church 
of  England  hold  office  iis  Chaplains  of  the  Queen  in 
England,  four  of  whom  are  in  attendance  each  month. 
Six  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  have  a  simi- 
lar title  in  Scotland:  but  their  only  duty  is  to  conduct 
prayer  at  tlie  elections  of  Scottish  representative 
peers.  A  statute  of  Henry  VIII.  limits  the  right  of 
nominating  private  chaplains  in  England:  thus,  an 
archbishop  may  have  eight,  a  duke  six,  a  baron  three; 
and  chaplains  so  appointed  have  certain  privileges, 
and  may  hold  two  benefices  with  cure  of  soul. 

In  England,  an  Army  Chaplain  is  a  clergjman  whose 
services  are  retained  especially  by  the  government  for 
the  soldiery  of  the  army.  There  have  been  such  Chap- 
lains for  many  generations,  and  the  office  was  at  one 
time  regarded  as  a  salable  perquisite;  but  the  system 
w;is  reorganized  and  improved  in  1796.  In  recent 
years,  Roman  Catholic  and  Presbyterian  Chaplains 
have  also  been  appointed,  a  practice  which  indicates 
the  progre-ss  of  toleration.  The  Chaplains  belong, 
not  to  regiutiiiU,  but  to  the  Staff  of  the  arm}-,  so  as  to 
be  generally  available.  At  home  they  are  attached  to 
the  military  stations;  but  in  the  field  they  are  located 
at  headquarters,  at  the  hospitals,  and  with  the  divi- 
sions. The  officers  at  the  stations  usually  arrange  for 
the  men  to  attend  divine  service  at  the  nearest  parish 
church;  but  this  still  leaves  the  Chaplains  many 
duties  to  fulfill.  Where,  iis  sometimes  hai^pens,  there 
Is  no  regular  church  or  chapel  nearat  hand,  the  Chap- 
lain reads  and  preaches  to  as  many  men  as  can  con- 
venientlj'  group  themselves  arouiid  him  at  one  time, 
and  thus  serves  many  different  congregations  at  dif- 
ferent times  of  the  Sunday.  He  visits  the  sick  at  the 
hospitals,  and  examines  and  encourages  the  regimen- 
tal schools.  Among  the  wooden  huts  at  Aldershott 
Camp  a  church  has  been  built,  which  is  rendered 
available  for  Chaplains  of  different  religious  denomi- 
nations in  succession.  When  the  system  of  Army 
Chaplains  was  remoticled  in  1796,  a  Chaplain  Gentr 
ral  was  appointed;  tliis  office  was  aboli.shed  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  soon  after  the  termination  of  the 
great  war,  but  revived  by  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  in 
1846.  The  Chaplain  General,  who  receives  £1000  per 
annum,  has  duties  partaking  somewhat  of  tho.se  of  an 
'  archdeacon.  He  a.ssist.s  the  War  (Jffice  in  selecting 
Chaplains,  and  in  regulating  the  religious  matters  of 
the  army,  so  far  as  Church  of  England  matters  are 
concerned.  His  office  forms  one  of  the  eight  depart- 
ments under  the  new  organization  of  the  War  Office. 
There  are  78  Chaplains  dn  the  Staff,  besides  officiat- 
ing clergjTnen  (not  belonging  to  the  army)  and 
chapel-clerks.  The  commissioned  Chaplains  receive 
from  10».  to  22*.  6(/.  per  da}',  besides  allowances;  and 
there  are  always  some  on  half  pay;  while  the  officiat- 
ing clergymen  receive  head-money  for  the  troops  at- 
tending their  ministrations.  The"  whole  ex])enditure 
for  Chaplains,  and  other  charges  connected  with  di- 
vine service,  figures  in  the  army  estimates  at  near 
f.TO,000  aunuailv. 


In  the  United  Slates  army  there  are  thirty 
Post  and  four  licgimental  Chaplains;  and  there 
is  usually  a  Chaplain  in  every  regiment  of  militia, 
though  they  are  not  always  ordained  clergymen. 
The  authorized  Post  Chaplains  are  assigned  to  the 
several  Jlilitary  Gcographiciil  Departments  by  the 
Lieutenant  General  of  the  Army,  in  conformity  with 
the  spirit  of  the  law  governing  their  appointment. 
Division  and  Department  Commanders  from  time  to 
time  a.ssign  or  transfer  to  posts  within  their  com- 
mands, for  the  best  interests  of  the  service,  the  sever- 
al Chaplains  ordered  to  report  to  them.  On  their  ac- 
tion being  made  known  to  the  Adjutant  General  of 
the  Anny,  the  Secretary  of  War  designates  the  posts 
as  Chaplain  posts,  in  conformity  with  law.  Chap- 
lains enter  in  an  ap))ropriate  book  an  accurate  record 
of  all  marriages,  liaptismal,  and  funeral  servicer  per- 
formed by  them,  both  for  i)ersous  in  the  militarj'  ser- 
vice and  for  civilians,  at  or  near  the  posts  where  they 
are  stationed,  with  such  particulars  relative  to  each 
ca.se  as  may  become  of  importjmce.  This  book  is  one 
of  the  post  records,  and  is  subject  to  examination  b}' 
inspecting  officers.  .rVn  appropriate  set  of  quarters, 
equal  to  the  allowance  of  a  Captain,  is  set  apart  per- 
manently for  the  Chaplain  at  posts  where  Chaplains 
are  employed.  He  is  not  disturbed  in  them  further 
than  by  a  reduction  of  his  allowance,  and  only  then 
when  the  quarters  of  the  garrison  are  insufficient.  He 
is  not  entirely  displaced  from  them,  nor  is  he  allowed 
to  choose  quarters  elsewhere. 

CHAPLAIN  GENEEAL.— As  the  name  implies,  the 
chief  of  the  Military  Chaplains  in  the  British  army. 
The  appointment  of  such  an  officer  was  first  made  by 
the  lake  Duke  of  York  when  Commander-in-Chief. 
The  recommendation  of  Chaplains  to  the  several 
g-arrisons  is  made  by  him  to  the  Minister  of  War. 

CHAPLET. — A  garland  or  head-band  of  leaves  and 
flowers.  In  Heraldry,  a  chaplet  is  always  composed 
of  four  roses,  the  other  parts  being  leaves. 

CHAPPE. — A  barrel  containing  another  barrel 
which  holds  gunpowder.  It  likewise  means  a  com- 
position of  earth,  horse-dvmg,  and  wad  that  covers 
the  mouth  of  a  cannon  or  mortiu-. 

CHAECOAL.— Charcoal  is  the  fiber  that  remains 
after  wood  has  been  charred,  and,  as  an  ingredient 
in  gimpowder,  is  next  in  importance  to  .sidipeter. 
When  anything  like  uniformity  in  the  quality  of  the 
gunpowder  is  required,  great  Citre  has  to  be  exercised 
in  its  preparation,  for  the  chemical  composition  of 
charcoal — i.e.,  the  percentage  of  carbon  contained 
therein — will  affect  the  quality  of  the  gimpowder  to 
a  considerable  degree;  therefore  extreme  care  has  to 
be  exercised  in  charring  the  wood,  seeing  that  gun- 
powder contjiins  no  less  than  fifteen  per  cent  of  char- 
coal. Much  depends  upon  the  quality  and  condition 
of  the  wood  employed,  and  it  is  found  that  it  the  sap 
be  thoroughly  dried  up  in  the  wood  previous  to  use 
it  greatly  assists  in  securing  a  first-class  charcoal;  this 
end  can  be  attained  by  desiccating  newiy-cut  timber 
in  a  hot  chamber  for  ten  or  twelve  days,  although  it 
is  questionable  whether  the  charcoal  thus  obtained  is 
as  good  as  that  produced  from  wood  that  has  been 
kept  for  a  number  of  years  to  season  by  natural 
means.  Small  wood,  perfectly  clean,  free  from  all 
bark,  and  quite  drj',  are  the  essential  requisites  for 
making  goo<l  charcoal.  The  kind  of  wood  com- 
monly used  is  that  of  the  willow  species— the  com- 
mon white  Dutch  willow,  the  poplar,  and  the  alder 
are  generally  preferred;  other  woods  arc,  however, 
frequently  used,  and  for  a  first-class  strong  powder 
the  blacU  dogwood  is  said  to  be  the  best,  but  its 
great  costliness  prevents  its  being  largely  adopted. 
Burning  the  wood  in  retorts  is  the  method  usually 
emplojed  for  procuring  a  light  and  equal  quality  of 
charcoal  for  gunpowder;  pit-burned  charcoal  is,  how- 
ever, preferred  for  fuse  aiid  pyrotechnic  compositions, 
etc.,  on  account  of  certain  qualities  it  possesses  ren- 
dering it  peculiarly  adapted  for  such  puq^se''.  The 
method  of  burning  in  retorts  is  as  follows:  Small 
w(X)d  of  about  ten  years'  growth  is  preferred  lor 


CHABCOAl. 


338 


CHARCOAL. 


powder-inakin!:.  Aider  and  willow  of  this  age  will 
be  prohiibly  four  or  Ave  inilies  in  dinnuler,  doir- 
wool  ii1k)U|"  (MU'.  Tlie  wihkI  niusl  be  slraiirlit.  ])i.t- 
fectlv  sound,  und  entirely  free  from  bark,  and  must 
be  felled  in  the  spring.  "  Great  stress  is  laid  on  the 
cleanliness  of  tbe  w(xxi.  Any  truces  of  bark  ad- 
hering to  it  are  not  to  be  tolei^ited.  If  the  wood  is 
cut  in  the  spring  when  the  sap  is  rising,  the  bark  is 


Fig.  1.  — Chiircoal  CouverttT. 

easily  removed  and  the  wood  is  left  perfectly  clean. 
Wood  cut  at  any  other  season  of  the  year  is  jusl  as 
good,  only  in  this  case  the  removal  of  the  bark  is  a 
much  more  ditlicull  matter. 

The  wood  i.s  converted  into  charcoal  in  iron  re- 
torts or  cylinders  set  into  brick-work.  Fig.  1  repre- 
sents a  longitudinal  section  of  a  cylinder,  showing 
how  the  .second  cylinder,  or  slij).  A,  containing  the 
wood,  is  placed  in  its  interior,  and  the  arrangement 
of  pipes  by  which  the  gaseous  matter  evolvctl  from 
the  wood  is  conducted  into  the  tire.  Each  cylinder 
is  made  of  cast-iron,  having  two  pipes  passing  out  at 
tiie  inner  end  of  it.  When  set,  the  lower  one  of 
these  is  closed  with  brick-work,  tlie  upper  one  only 
being  used,  and  the  lower  one  l)eing  only  intended 
for  use  .should  the  cylinder  be  turned  round  and  re- 
set. To  the  uppermost  pipe  is  attached  a  branch- 
pipe  leading  to  a  horizontal  pipe  extending  behind 
the  whole  st't  of  cylinders,  from  one  end  of  which 
another  pipe  descends  perpendicularly,  joining  an- 
other leading  directly  into  the  former.  Karh  cylinder 
has  a  false  bottom  of  brick-work,  in  front  of  which 
is  bolted  on  a  piece  of  wrought-iron  plate  having  a 
cylinder-hole  corresponding  to  the  upi)ermost  pijjc  of 
the  cylinder.  The  cylinders  are  closed  with  tight  fit- 
ting iron  doors  secured  by  a  powerful  screw,  much  in 
the  siune  way  as  the  ends  of  gas-retorts  are  fastened. 

For  convenience  of  handling  the  wood  is  jilaccd  in 
small  cylinders  of  sheet-iron,  A.  termed  kHjis,  which 
are  placed  on  small  iron  traveling-carriages,  on  which 
they  am  be  nm  up  directly  to  the  liiouth  of  the 
cylinders  and  shot  in.  The  back  end  of  each  slip  is 
provided  with  a  handle  to  facilitate  withdrawal.  As 
already  stated,  a  good  and  unifonnly  pure  charcoal 
is  very  es.si'nlial  in  mamifacturing  gunpowder,  and 
if  properly  made  will  have  a  jet-iihick  appearance, 
the  fnictures  show  a  velvet-like  surface,  and  appear 
the  sjinie  in  both  large  and  small  pieces.  It  .should 
not  .s<nitcb  soft  polished  metal,  and  if  treated  with 
distilled  water  there  should  be  no  ajipearanee  of 
alkali.  From  20  to  2o  per  cent  of  charcoal  is  ob- 
tained fnnn  the  willow  and  alder,  and  from  25  to  :i() 
per  cent  is  yielded  by  the  black  dogwood;  the  latter 
18  verj-  dense,  tough,  and  of  slow  growth,  its  us\ial 
sbx- tx'ing  alnrnt  1  inch  in  thieknes.s.  When  charred 
it  has  a  yellowish-looking  surface,  and  is  slivditly 
metallic  in  appearance  in  certain  shades  of  liirht. 
The  kind  of  wood  from  which  the  charcoal  has  bui'ii 
ma<le  is  known  by  the  pith;  that  of  dogw<M)d  is 
circular  and  large  for  the  size  of  the  wood;  that  of 


the  willow  is  also  circular,  but  somewhat  smaller; 
whilst  in  the  case  of  alder  it  forms  a  figure  of  three 
equidistant  radial  lines.  They  can  all  be  easily  dis- 
tiiii;-uished  from  each  other.  Charcoal  is  very  porous, 
ami  iiuicldy  absorbs  moisture  on  being  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere;  therefore  a  great  store  isnever  kept, 
but  is  used  a.s  .sofin  as  ix)s.sible  after  l>eing  made. 
Previous  to  this,  however,  it  is  very  carefully  ex- 
amined and  picked,  as  thick  pieces  which  have 
not  been  properly  cliarred  are  sometimes  found. 
To  test  charcoal  and  ascertain  if  any  alkali  be 
present,  finely  powder  a  .small  (|uaiitity  and 
boil  it  in  distilled  water;  tiller  the  .solution, 
and  test  with  litmus-paper  reddened  by  weak 
acid.  Should  the  charcoal  contain  alkali,  the 
paix'r  will  be  partially  or  wholly  restored  to  il.s 
original  color. 

Charcoal  after  standing  a  fortnight  is  ground 
in  an  a])i)aratus  somewhat  similar  to  a  coffee- 
mill  oil  a  large  scale.  The  mill  consists  of  a 
cone  secured  on  a  vertical  spindle  provided  with 
teeth  ninning  spirally  over  its  entire  outer  sur- 
face; the  cone  revolves  in  a  cylinder  provided 
with  teeth  on  its  inner  surface;  these  teeth  are 
spiral  also,  but  incline  in  th('  opposite  direc- 
tion to  those  on  the  cjine.  The  revolving  cone 
is  adjustable  in  a  vertical  direction  to  increase 
or  diminish  the  space  between  its  teeth  and 
those  of  the  fixed  cylinder;  thus  a  coarse  or 
fine  charcoal  is  produced  at  will.  The  adjust- 
ment is  effected  by  means  of  two  hand-w  heels  work- 
ing on  a  fine  screw-thread  cut  ui)on  the  small  vertical 
conespindle,  which  spindle  can  be  moved  upward  or 
downward  by  means  of  the  hand-wheels  through  the 
larsce  hollow"  shaft  ui>on  which  the  bevel  driving- 
wheel  is  keyed.  Motion  is  communicated  from  this 
.shaft  to  the"  small  one  by  means  of  a  feather  upon  the 
surface  of  the  latter,  which 
fits  and  works  in  a  groove 
cut  in  the  inside  of  the  hollow 
shaft.  The  small  hand-wheel 
is  used  for  locking  and  secur-" 
ing  the  larger  one  in  any  re- 
quired position.  The  hopper 
above  receives  the  charcoal. 
On  the  underside  of  the  cone, 
and  revolving  with  it,  are  a 
couple  of  arms,  that  carry 
the  ground  charcoal  to  the 
discbarge-spout  on  one  side  of 
the  fixed  cylinder  and  con- 
duct it  to  a  sifting-reel.  This 
reel  is  simply  a  skeleton- 
cylinder  of  wood,  covered 
with  copper-wire  cloth,  hav- 
ing tine  meshes  thirty-two  to 
the  inch.  The  sifting-reel  is 
driven  by  a  pair  of  bevel- 
wheels  set  at  a  slight  angle 
to  allow  the  charcoal  to  run 
readily  along  the  interior: 
as  it  revolves  it  causes  the 
particles  of    charcoal   to   be 

contimially  rolling  over  each  other  and  covering  new 
surfaces  oi'  the  reel;  the  fine  particles  psisa  through 
the  meshes  of  the  wire  cloth  and  fall  into  a  receiving- 
bin,  whilst  the  larger  ones  are  thrown  out  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  reel  to  another  bin,  whence  they  arc  taken 
and  returned  to  the  hoi>per.  The  reel  and  bins  are 
inclosed  entirely  in  a  wooden  framework  and  cover- 
ing, so  as  to  prevent  the  dust,  which  is  very  light, 
from  spreading  o\  er  the  house.  Doors  are  provided 
in  this  wooden  covering,  by  means  of  which  the 
ground  charcoal  can  be  removed.  After  being 
ground  the  charcoal  stands  for  about  eight  or  ten 
days  before  using  it;  owing  to  the  readiness  with 
which  it  absorbs  oxygen  when  in  the  i)iilverized 
state  it  is  apt  to  become  heated,  and  spontaneous 
combu.slion  to  ensue.  The  danger  fr<mi  this  cause  is 
much  lessened  when  it  is  stored  in  small  quimtities 


Fig.  2,— Grinder. 


CHARGE. 


339 


CHAEGE-BAYONET. 


and  in  separate  iron  cylinders  or  bins.     See  G-unpme-  \ 
da;  I^tJiuriictl  Cluircmd,  SaitpeUr,  and  Sulphur. 

CHAKGE.— 1.  Tlie  [Msition  of  a  weapon  fitted  for 
attack;  as,  to  l)iin;r  a  weapon  to  tlic  charge. 

2.  In  Heraldry,  the  ligurcs  represented  on  a  shield 
are  called  charges,  and  a  shield  with  tigvncs  upon  it 
is  ssiid  to  be  charged.  The  charges  in  a  shield  ought  ' 
to  be  few  in  number,  and  strongly  marked,  both  as 
regards  their  character  and  the  mode  of  their  repre- 
sentation. The  family  shield,  Ix-longing  to  the  head 
of  the  house,  almost  always  is  simpler,  i.e.,  has  fewer 
charges,  than  the  shields  of  collaterals,  or  even  of 
junior  members.     See  //naldri/. 

3.  Ill  military  pyrotechuy,  a  sufficient  coml)Usti- 
ble  material  for  one  tiring  or  one  discharge.  It  is 
applicable  to  all  kinds  of  firings,  fire-works,  antl 
explosions;  but  the  name  is  genendly  given  to  the 
quantity  of  gunpowder  requisite  for  firing  off  a  gun, 
etc.  In  cannon  this  varies  greatly,  from  1  to  ,'j  of 
the  weight  of  the  shot;  some  of  the  rified  ordnance 
now  ct)ming  into  use  are  remarkable  for  the  small- 
ness  of  the  charge  with  which  they  are  fired.  The 
quota  of  charges  will  be  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  various  kinds  of  fire-arms  described  in  the 
Encyclopedia.  In  breaching  a  wall,  a  greater  charge 
is  neeessiiry  thiin  in  attacking  a  ship  or  a  column  of 
troops,  even  with  the  siune  kind  of  gim  and  projec- 
tile. The  charge  has  to  be  duly  proportioned  to  the 
strength  of  the  piece  and  the  cajiacity  of  the  liore  to 
burn  it  with  profit.  The  strength  of  a  heavy  gun,  as 
reckoned  on  the  principle  of  all  the  metal  being 
sound  and  so  placed  as  to  call  its  resistance  well  into 
play,  should  not  lie  less  than  about  four  times  the 
strain  expected.  If  the  projectile  start  as  in  a  muzzle- 
loader,  without  otfering  much  resistance  beyond  that 
due  to  inertia,  it  is  necessary  ti)  emi^loy  a  powder 
which  shall  burn  (|uickly  enough  to  give  off  a  large 
proportion  of  its  gas  before  the  shot  has  proceeded 
far  down  the  boie;  otherwise  the  velocity  at  the  nuiz- 
zle  will  be  low.  In  this  ca.se  a  large  :imount  of  air- 
space is  requireil.  In  the  case  of  compression-pro- 
jectiles, however,  there  is  a  high  resistance  to  initial 
motion,  and  a  much  slower  powder  can  be  used, 
since  the  combustion  proceeds  as  in  a  closed  vessel 
until  sufficient  pressure  is  developed  to  overcome  the 
resistance  of  the  band.  This  enables  the  use  of  a 
larger  quantity  of  slower-burning  powder  in  the 
chamber,  and  we  have  instead  of  a  space  fille<l  with 
air  a  space  filled  with  powder  giving  off  gas,  which 
conies  into  play  as  the  projectile  travels  down  the 
bore. 

4.  The  statement  of  the  crime  for  which  an  officer 
or  .soldier  is  brought  before  a  Court-Martial.  As  to 
the  perspicuity  and  iireeision  of  charges:  If  the  de- 
scription of  the  offense  is  sufficiently  clear  to  inform 
the  accused  of  the  military  offense  for  which  he  is  to 
be  tried,  and  to  enable  hiiii  to  prepare  his  defence,  it 
is  sufficient.  A  copy  of  charges,  as  Avell  as  a  list  of 
■witnesses  for  the  prosecution,  should  be  given  to  the 
prisoner  in  all  cases  as  soon  as  possible.  Antecedent 
to  arraignment,  charges  may  be  framed  and  altered 
by  the  party  who  brings  forward  the  jirosecution,  or 
by  the  officer  ordering  the  Court,  both  in  regard  to 
substance  .and  in  other  respects;  but  the  Court,  where 
the  deviation  w:is  material,  would  probably  deem  it 
sufficient  cause  for  delaying  proceedings  upon  appli 
cation  of  the  prisoner.  As  the  witnesses  niaj-  be  at  a 
distance,  the  sooner  a  copy  is  given  the  better. 

^.  In  military  warfare,  a  charge  is  a  sudden  and 
impetuous  attack  on  the  enemy,  by  horse  or  foot,  or 
both.  Its  object  usually  is  to  drive  the  enemy  from 
a  particular  position;  but  if  made  with  a  much 
stronger  force,  it  may  result  in  his  actual  destruc- 
tion. Charges  arc  generally  made  silently.  Those  of 
Frederick  the  Great  always  began  the  "  hurrah"  at 
fifty  paces  from  the  enemy.  If  at  the  moment  of  the 
shock  the  infantry  is  not  disturbed,  but  their  bayonets 
and  fire  have  on  the  contrary  saved  them  from  the 
impulsive  force  of  the  charge,  the  fall  of  the  front 
ranks  of  the  cavalry  will  have  interposed  a  rampart 


behind  which  infantry  cannot  fail  to  be  victorious. 
But  if  the  cavalry  has  practiced  the  stratagem  of  lie- 
ginning  operations  by  drawing  the  fire  of  iufantrj- 
upon  skirmishers,  and  the  Commander  of  the  cavaliy 
ready  for  the  charge  has  pushed  forward  curtains  of 
light  cavalry  in  a  single  rank,  who  succeed,  by  means 
of  clouds  of  dust,  in  making  an  luiskillful  'nfaniry 
believe  that  to  lie  an  attack  which  in  reality  is  only  a 
feint,  the  infantry  may  fire  its  balls  at  random;  the 
thinness  of  the  curtain  of  light  cavalry  will  render 
the  infantry's  fire  of  little  effect;  the  infantry  will  lie 
ea.irer  to  reloail,  and  this  may  be  done  in  agitation  and 
disorder.  The  projier  moment  is  then  at  hand,  and 
the  heavy  cavalry  in  mass,  concealed  by  the  dust  of 
their  .skirmishers,  may  charge,  break,  and  sjiber  the 
infantry.  The  light  cavalry-  finish  the  fugitives. 
The  pa.s.sage  of  defiles  in  retreat  ought  to  be  secured 
by  a  charge  of  cavalry.  Coolness,  silence,  immobil- 
ity, contempt  of  hurrahs,  and  a  reserved  fire  until 
within  suitable  range,  are  the  principal  means  of 
resisting  a  charge  of  cavalry.  The  file-closers  must 
prevent  firing,  not  ordered;"  watch  the  execution  of 
the  fire  by  ranks;  see  that  it  does  not  commence  at 
too  great  a  distance,  then  enjoin  upon  the  soldiers  to 
aim  at  the  breast;  to  act  only  upon  signals  of  the 
drum,  or  at  the  command  of  officers  on  horseliack, 
who  occupy  the  center  of  the  square,  and  who  from 
that  height  alone  can  judge  whether  the  charge  of 
cavalry  is  a  mere  feint  or  a  real  attack.  This  neces- 
sarv'  impassibility  of  infantry  is  obtained  by  disci- 
pline and  experience,  and  is  only  perfected  upon  bat- 
tle-fields. Without  mug  froid,  and  also  promptness 
in  maneuvering  upon  any  ground,  infantry  will  not 
be  able  to  exhibit  the  whole  strength  of  its  arm 
against  the  best  cavalry.  Charges  by  infantrj-  are 
made  in  order  of  battle,  in  column  of  attack,  and  in 
close  columns  in  mass.  Charges  in  order  of  battle 
arc  executed  as  follows:  If  the  combat  is  between  in- 
fantiy  and  infantry,  the  troops  receiving  the  charge 
fire  at  the  moment  at  w  hich  it  is  almost  joined  with 
the  enemy.  The  tmops  making  the  charge  fire  at 
one  hundred  or  one  hundred  t\m\  twenty  paces  from 
the  enemy;  without  waiting  to  reload,  they  march 
fonvard  at  the  quick  sleii;  at  two  thirds  the  distance 
take  charging  step,  and  if  the  ground  peniiits  they 
subsequently  take  a  lunning  step,  keeiiing  up  the 
touch  of  the  elbow,  and  throw  themsi'lves  upon  the 
enemy  with  hun-ahs.  Frederick  the  Great  says  that 
it  is  "better  for  a  Hi-.e  to  falter  in  a  charge  than  to 
lose  the  touch  of  the  elbow,"  so  ncccssarj"  is  it  that 
the  charge  shtadd  be  en  muraille.  In  modern  wars 
the  charge  in  column  has  been  used,  but  not  exclu- 
sively, and  sometimes  with  fatal  results.  But  what- 
ever may  be  the  form  of  the  charge,  succes-s  must  not 
make  the  victor  at  once  pursue  his  enemy.  He  must, 
on  tie  contrary,  halt,  rally  his  men,  form  line  if  the 
charge  was  made  in  column,  reload,  fire  upon  the 
fugitives,  and  continue  thus  to  gain  giouud,  by  a 
regulated  fire,  until  at  last  the  cavalry  which  seconds 
him  comes  to  his  aid.  It  must  be  considered  that 
there  may  be  a  second  line  of  the  enemy,  fresh 
troops,  masked  batteries,  flank  fires,  or  squaclrons  of 
cavalry  ready  to  oppose  an  unforeseen  resistance.  It 
may  be  that  the  attacking  party  has  experienced 
some  disadvantage,  \w\  far  from  the  point  where  the 
infantry  h;is  just  tritimphcd  in  the  charge.  Such  cir- 
cumstances may  cause  the  infantry  to  pay  dearly  for 
its  temporary  success,  a  temixiniry  .success  sometimes 
owing  to  stnilagem  on  the  part  of  the  eneniv. 

CHAEGE  BAYONET.— A  command  in  tlie  Manual 
of  Arms,  executed  as  follows:  The  Instructor  com- 
mands— 1.  Charge.  2.  Bayonet.  Execute  the  first 
motion  of  about  fwe,  the  left  knee  slightly  bent,  drop 
the  piece  into  the  left  hand,  at  the  lower  band,  the 
elbow  against  the  body,  the  point  of  the  bayonet  at 
the  height  of  the  chin,  the  right  band  gra.sping  the 
small  ot  the  stock  and  supjiorling  it  firmly  agjiinst 
the  right  hip,  the  Ixidv  inclining  slightly  forward. 
1.  Carry,  2.  Ak.ms.  liesume  the  carry"  with  the 
right  hajid,  at  the  same  time   facing  to  the  front. 


CUASG£B. 


340 


CHARLIER  SYSTEM  OF  HORSESHOEING. 


(Two.)   Drop  tbe  left  hand  bv  the  side.     See  Manual 

if  Aniit,  Fiv'.  7. 

CHARGER.— 1.  A  name  sometimes  given  to  a  war- 
liorsc  accustonud  to  the  diu  of  Imtlles,  and  relialilc 
undiT  liri'uinstaiuis  of  confu.<ii>ii  and  danircr.  In 
the  Middli'  Ajrc's,  wlii'u  armor  was  usod  and  irunpow- 
der  unknown,  the  inililarv  horses  were  btirbtd  or 
txirtltil  wlien  ridden  liy  nien-atarms — that  is,  thev 
wen-  nearly  covered  wiili  armor.  The  face,  the  head, 
and  llie  ears  wen-  eoven-d  willi  a  mask  caUed  a  <•/«(«■ 
friiii,  to  prevent  friirht  when  eliar-riu^  llie  enemy; 
and  an  iron  spike  projected  fmm  the  middle  of  the 
forehead.  The  neck  was  defended  by  small  plates 
called  i*r(«/V AVI/  the  liieasl  by  a  jmitriiinl ;  and  the 
buttwks  and  haunches  by  croupiirts.  The.se  various 
Iiii-ces  of  annor  were  mostly  made  of  metal,  hut 
sometimes  of  touirh  leather.  The  horse  was  occa- 
sionally covered  with  chain-mail;  and  in  other  instan- 
ces with  a  gaiiiUmi)  of  stuffed  and  quilted  cloth. 
The  man-at-arms  generally  rode  another  horse  when 
not  chargiui,',  to  relieve  tbe  cliarjrer  from  his  great 
burden.  The  barbed  or  ^7;-(/<  horse  received  its  name 
from  im  old  French  word  implying  covered,  clothed, 
or  armed.  A  war-horse  is  still  called  a  charger, 
though  not  armed  as  in  ancient  times. 

2.  A  device  for  dropping  into  the  bore  of  a  fowling- 
piece  from  a  shot-belt  or  pouch  a  gauged  quantity  of 
shot.  By  forcing  down  the  ]Munger,  the  communica- 
tion with  the  pouch  is  closed,  and  the  charge  is  al- 
lowed to  pass  to  the  tube,  which  conduct.s  it  to  the 
gun.  The  piston-head  is  adjustable,  to  vary  the  ca 
])aclly  of  the  charge-chamber. 

CHARGER  -  PITS.— Shelter-pits  to  cover  the  charges 
of  mounted  ollicers  when  exposed  to  the  enemy's  fire. 
They  may  Xv  excavated  parallel  to  and  20  paces  in 
rear  of  lines  of  shelter-trenches. 

OH ARGING-HOLE.— Formerly  the  French  made 
their  shells  for  sea-coast  service  with  an  additional 
eve,  at  an  angle  of  45  with  the  other,  called  a 
rharffinghole.  the  oI)ject  being  to  have  the  fuse 
already  fitted  in,  ready  for  tise,  and  allow  the  charge 
to  Ix"  ixmred  in  just  l)e-fore  the  shell  is  wanted.  This 
ari^mgement,  however,  has  the  di.s;idvantage  of  rc- 
(piiring  the  fuses  to  be  cut  beforehand  and  without 
knowing  at  what  distance  they  are  to  be  used. 

CHARGING  MACHINE.— A  machine  employed  in 
the  fabrication  of  carlriilge-primers.  The  one  used 
at  Frankford  Arsenal,  and  represented  in  the  draw- 
ing, consists  of  a  rectangular  iron  bed-i)late  18  X  20 
inches.  At  one  edge  is  a  groove  to  receive  the  plate 
of  caps  from  the  cooler.     Near  the  inner  edge  of 


this  groove  a  plate  perforated  with  holes  correspond- 
ing to  the  caps  is  hinged  to  the  bed  plate,  to  measure 
and  convey  the  charges  to  the  caps.  A  licap  of  the 
fulminate  is  placed  upon  the  l)ed-plate,  convenii  lU  to 
the  charge  plate.  A  piece  of  stout  i)aper  is  laid  upon 
the  beil-plate,  imder  the  charge-plate.  A  portion  of 
the  fulminate  is  taken  from  the  heap,  pressed  into 


the  holes  in  the  charge-phite,  and  the  surplus  scraped 
off  with  a  wooden  tool  and  returned  to  the  heap. 
The  paper  is  drawn  a  little  from  under  the  charge- 
]ilate,  while  pressing  upon  the  latter,  to  "  s<-l"  the 
charges  in  the  holes.  The  charge-plate  is  rotated  on 
its  hinge  until  it  rests  over  the  caps.  A  block  of  iron 
containing  pins  corresponding  to  the  holes  in  the 
charge-plate  is  hinged  to  the  bed-plate  at  the  outer 
side  of  the  groove  containing  the  )ilale  of  caps. 
When  not  in  use  it  rests  against  inclined  supports. 
This  block  is  next  rotated  on  its  hinge  until  it  presses 
the  charges  through  the  holes  in  t'.ie  cliarge-plaleinto 
the  cap.  The  bK)ck  and  charge-plate  are  swung  back 
and  the  plate  of  caps  withdrawn  and  carried  to  the 
foiling-ma<hine.  The  charge,  of  cylindrical  form, 
occupies  about  one  third  the  diameter  in  the  center  of 
the  bottom  of  the  cap,  and  it  is  desirable  to  avoid 
spreading  or  disturbing  it,  in  order  that  the  tinfoil 
disk  may  touch  and  adhere  to  the  cap  all  around  it. 
See  Carlridin-prinur  and  Center-primal  Mitallk-C4ii!C 
Ctirtr'uhje. 

CHARIOT. — In  ancient  times,  a  kind  of  carnage 
used  either  for  plejisure  or  in  war.  According  to  the 
Greeks,  it  was  invented  by  Jlinerva;  while  Virgil 
ascribes  the  honor  to  Erichthonius,  a  mythical  king  of 
Athens,  who  is  said  to  have  appeared  at  the  Panathc- 
naic  festival  founded  by  him,  in  a  car  drawn  by  iour 
horses.  The  ancient  chariot  had  only  two  wheels,, 
which  revolved  upon  the  axle,  as  in  modern  car- 
riages. The  pole  was  fixed  at  its  lower  extremity  to 
the  axle,  and  at  the  other  end  was  attached  to  the 
yoke,  eitlier  by  a  pin  or  by  ropes.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  seem  n(-ver  to  have  used  more  than  one  pole, 
but  the  Lydians  bad  carriages  with  two  or  three.  In 
general,  tiie  (-harlot  was  drawn  by  two  horses.  Such 
was  the  Koman  higa,  but  we  also  read  of  a  triga,  or 
three-horse  chariot,  and  a  quiuiriga,  or  four-horse 
one.  The  last  was  that  in  which  the  Roman  Gener- 
als rode  during  their  triumphal  entrance  into  the  city, 
and  was  often  adorned  with  splendid  art.  The  war- 
chariot  held  two  persons — the  soldier  himself  and  the 
driver,  the  latter  of  whom  usually  occupied  the  front; 
but  the  cli:iriots  used  by  the  Romans  in  their  public 
games  held  only  the  charioteer.  The  oldest  war- 
cliariots  of  which  we  read  are  those  of  Pharaoh  (Ex- 
odus xiv.  7).  All  the  Eastern  Nations  used  them,  while 
we  learn  from  I'tesar  that  the  Britons  also  were  famil- 
iar with  their  use. 

CHARLIER  SYSTEM  OF  HORSESHOEING.— The 
reform  in  farriery  caused  by  the  revolution  which 
followed  the  introduction  of  the  OoodenoUL'h  system 
has  been  fertile  in  new  plans  and  expedients  to  avoid 
the  clumsy  old  methods,  and  to  evade  the  patents 
with  whieli  Mr.  Goodcnough  protected  his  machine- 
made  slK)e  in  all  the  patent-granting  world.  In  this 
country  the  Goodenougli  shoe  is  furnished  at  a  lower 
price  than  the  liand-made  shoe,  and  it  is  infinitely 
su]icrior  to  tbe  common  machine  shoe,  which  is  at 
best  but  a  rough  clump  of  bent  iron,  requiring  as 
much  labor  ujxin  lh(-  an\il  to  adapt  it  to  tbe  hoof  us 
woidd  be  exiiended  in  making  a  well  shaped  shoe 
from  the  iron  bar.  Bui  in  England  and  France,  where 
labor  is  cheaper  than  it  is  in  the  United  Stjites,  the 
evasion  of  the  Goodenougli  patents  has  been  eagerly 
sought.  In  France,  Mr.  C.'harlier,  wishing  to  patent 
his  own  plans,  which  were  very  ingenious,  and  to 
adapt  the  (Joodenough  teaching  to  the  smooth  asphal- 
tum  pavemeiit.s  of  Paris,  invented  the  shoe  bearing 
his  name.  Mr.  Charlier  recognizes  the  fact  that  the 
old  .system  of  hcavv  shoeing  is  irrational  and  destruc- 
tive; that  all  the  (iiscases  of  the  hoof,  and  many  of 
the  other  dillicullies  to  which  the  horse  is  subject, 
come  directly  from  it.  He  desins  to  abrogate  entirely 
the  use  of  the  Ihree-ealked  shoes  and  widc-webl)cd 
shoes,  and  to  secure  the  full  bearing  of  the  frog  of 
the  hoof  upon  the  ground.  Mr.  Cbarlier's  method  of 
shoeing  is  U)  dress  the  horse's  fool,  so  that  standing 
upon  it  he  rests  equally  upon  the  shell  and  frog;  then 
a  groove  is  cut  around  the  outer  circle  of  the  hoof, 
about  as  deep  as  the  thickness  of  a  light  horseshoe. 


CHASE. 


341 


CHASSEPOT  EIFLE. 


and  an  iron  band  is  let  into  this  proove  and  secured 
by  nails.  In  etfecl,  a  lijilit  and  very  narrow  shoe  is 
sunk  into  the  crust  of  the  hoof.  All  shock  of  con- 
cussion comes  upon  the  frog  and  the  outer  wall  of 
the  hoof,  though  with  a  full  frog  bearing  such  con- 
cussion would  be  light  and  immaterial.  Tliis,  then, 
appears  to  be  a  natural  and  simjile  method  of  saving 
the  hoof  from  breaking  at  the  edge  and  from  wearing 
too  low  at  the  toe,  which  is  the  only  object  of  horse- 
shoeing. But  in  practice  we  come  upon  difficulties 
that  often  destroy  the  best  spun  theories.  The  idea 
of  Mr.  Charlier  is  to  provide  an  iron  rim,  or  fernde, 
to  the  hoof  such  as  saves  the  point  of  a  walking-stick 
from  wear.  But  the  shoe  cannot  have  the  strength 
of  a  ferrule  because  it  is  not  put  on  to  encircle  the 
hoof,  but  only  reaches  to  the  heels.  It  is  not  applied 
to  a  dead  or  inert  substance,  but  to  a  living,  growing 
process,  and,  however  well  fitted  to  it.s  groove,  in  a 
few  days  it  has  of  necessity  changed  its  place.  So 
soon  as  the  least  displacement  exists  it  is  liable  to 
twist  and  spread.  Another  serious  difficullj'  is  found 
in  the  lack  of  skill  among  horseshoers  to  apply  it 
properly.  In  France  two  men  are  required,  one  to 
hold  the  foot,  another  to  gauge,  and  then,  with  .special 
tools,  to  cut  the  groove  for  the  shoe.  When  a  shoe  is 
lost,  or  displaced  on  the  roatl,  a  serious  embarra.ss- 
ment  is  felt,  because  the  groove-cut  hoof  is  unsuitable 
to  travel  on,  and  only  the  instructed  smith  is  compe- 
tent to  do  the  work  of  fitting,  The  ex]>en.se,  in  this 
countrj-  of  dear  labor,  is  no  insignificant  argument 
against  the  Charlier  .shoe.     See  Horseshoeing. 

CHASE. — In  gunnery,  the  conical  part  of  the  gun 
in  front  of  the  reinforce.  In  a  smooth-bore  gun  it  is 
comprised  between  the  front  of  the  second  reinforce- 
ring  and  the  muzzle  astragal  and  fillets;  or,  perhaps, 
to  put  it  in  more  comprehensive  terms,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  gun  between  the  muzzle  and  the  trun- 
nion.    The  term  is  applicable  to  rifled  guns  as  well. 

CHASE  RING.— In  gunnery,  a  band  at  the  front  end 
of  the  chase.     See  ('niintm. 

CHASING. — The  art  of  working  raised  or  half-raised 
figures  in  gold,  silver,  bronze,  or  other  metal.     It  was 


front,  and  takes  a  perpendicular  of  i.  The  faces  of 
the  bastions  are  bent  lines;  the  salient  part,  70  yards 
long,  is  traced  on  the  front  line,  and  the  long  branch 
is  IBO  yards  in  extent.  The  flanks  are  per])endicular 
to  the  line  of  defense,  and  defend  (he  long  branches, 
whilst  the  short  ones,  already  secure  against  ricochet 
by  their  direction,  are  flanked  by  a  caponiere,  which 
occupies  the  place  of  the  early  ravelin.  The  flanks 
are  parallel  to  the  perpendicular.  The  main  ditch  is 
20  yards  wide  at  the  salient,  and  its  counter-scarp  is 
directed  on  the  shoulder-angle  of  the  cajjoniere.  The 
tenaille  is  similar  to  that  of  Bousmard,  and  the  case- 
niiites  are  constructed  for  three  guns.  The  reduils 
are  ea-semated  polygonal  redoubts.  Although  tlu; 
revetments  are  quite  high,  both  the  ravelin  and  the 
reduit  are  liable  to  be  taken  by  the  gorge. 

CHASSEPOT  EIFLE.— The  Cha.ssepo"t  rifle  was  in- 
troduced into  the  French  service  shortly  after  the 
Austro-Prussian  War  of  1866.  In  its  principal  features 
it  resembled  the  Prussian  needle-gun,  inji-smuch  as  the 
breech  was  closed  with  a  sliding  bolt,  and  it  fired  a 
sclf-prinied  paper-case  cartridge  which  was  ignited  by 
a  needle  impelled  by  a  spiral  spring.  Unlike  the 
needle-gun,  however,  it  was  provided  with  a  gas- 
check,  which  was  of  the  form  of  a  thick  India-rubber 
disk  or  packing,  attached  to  the  end  of  the  breech, 
bolt,  and  it  posses,sed  the  modem  improvements  of 
reduced  caliber  and  rapid  twist  of  the  rifle-grooves 
for  obtjiining  great  range  and  accuracy  of  fire.  The 
range  of  the  Chas.sepot  rifle  was,  and  is  now,  com- 
paratively greater  than  the  accuracy  of  the  flight  of 
its  projectile,  a  fact  thiit  undoubtedly  arises  from  the 
great  weight  of  the  powder-charge  in  proportion  to 
that  of  the  projectile  and  a  want  of  proper  adjastmenl 
of  the  twist,  etc. ,  of  the  rifling  to  the  velocity  of  flight. 
In  the  French  service  a  low  trajectory  has  ever  been 
considered  of  greater  importance  than  accuracy  of 
flight,  especially  in  line  firing.  The  Chassepot  was 
the  principal  arm  used  by  the  French  army  during 
the  German  War.  Since  that  time  efforts  have  been 
made  to  adapt  it  to  fire  the  modern  metallic-case  car- 
tridge.    The  plan  of  alteration  to  this  end  adopted  by 


Chassepot  Rifle. 


called  ro'l-atiirn  by  the  Roman..;;  and  the  term  is  ex- 
pressly limited  by  Quintilian  to  working  in  metal. 
The  same  art  when  exerci.«ed  on  wood,  ivorj",  marble, 
precious  stones,  or  glass  was  called  srnlptiirn.  Iron 
was  sometimes  though  rarely  used,  silver  having  been 
always  the  favorite  metal  for  this  imrpose.  Closely 
connected  with,  but  still  distinguished  from,  chasing 
is  the  art  of  stamping  with  the  p\nich.  which  the 
Romans  designated  by  e.rnideri'.  The  Greek  torentike 
is  usually  sup|)0sed  to  correspond  to  cliasing,  hut  the 
point  is  by  no  means  free  from  dispute.  The  art  was 
known  at  a  very  early  period,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  shield  of  Achilles,  the  ark  of  Cypsclus.  and  other 
productions  of  the  kind. 

CHASSELOUP  BASTION  SYSTEM.— This  method  of 
fortification  is  a  combination  of  Bousniard's  and 
Montalembert's  systems.    It  gives  .580  yards  to  the 


the  French  authorities  is  that  submitted  by  Captain 
Gras  of  the  French  Artillery  Committee.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  great  opposition  offered  to  the  altered 
arms  by  officers  of  the  army  who  have  had  them  in 
their  commands,  it  is  understood  but  little  progress 
was  at  first  made  in  the  manufacture  of  new  rifles  or 
altering  the  old  Chassepot  rifles  to  the  Gras  system. 
The  Gras  system  of  alteration  consist.s,  1st,  in  reaming 
out  the  old  paper-cartridge  chamber  and  inserting 
in  its  place  a  bushing  of  steel  in  which  a  chamber  is 
formed  of  suitable  shape  for  the  metallic  cartridge; 
2d,  re])laeing  the  India-rubber  ga.s-cheek  and  its  at- 
tachments by  a  nose-piece,  to  which  a  cartridge  shell 
extractor-hook  is  attached;  3d,  replacing  the  firing- 
needle  with  a  stout  firing-pin  or  bolt;  4th,  removing 
the  friction-roller  in  the  base  of  the  thumb  piece  and 
replacinsr  it  with  the  firing-pin  nut;  .5th,  changing 


CHASSEUBS. 


342 


CHASSEURS  D'AFRIftUE. 


the  form  of  the  lotking-nolchcs  and  the  side  groove 
iif  the  iKxly  of  the  bivefh-l)olt. 

The  bretfhfniine  t)r  receiver,  H.  is  secured  at  its 
fmiil  end  by  serewiiii"  on  to  the  biirri'l,  and  at  tlie 
rrur  end  by  the  tang-serew  kf,  which  penetrates 
ihron^rh  tlie  f^uanl  plate  on  the  under  side  of  tlic  stocli. 
Tlie  luvechboll,  Iv,  is  coniposiHl  of  a  IkkIv  in  tlie 
form  of  a  stout  tulx",  with  a  handle  attached  to  one 
side,  for  the  pur|)ose  of  workiriLC  it.  The  hollow  of 
the  Unly  contains  the  lirinji-pin  and  its  spind  sprini:, 
and  has  a  nosepiei-c  to  which  the  cartridjreshell  ex- 
tnicloris  attached.  A  slot  is  cut  in  the  up|K>r  surface 
of  the  receiver  through  its  entire  leiisrth.  The  handle 
works  in  ihe  rear  portion  of  this  slot,  while  the  for- 
ward iKirtion  is  eidar^ed  by  cullini;  down  the  riiilit 
wall  of  the  ri-ceiver  to  furnish  a  shoulder  for  the  biusi' 
of  the  handle  to  rest  air.iinst  when  the  bolt  is  locked 
and  the  piece  is  ready  for  tirinir.  On  the  siile  and 
bottom  of  the  body  of  the  breech-bolt  are  two  lonjr 
trroovcs  of  rcctanirJlar  cross-section.  The  object  of 
the  sijii-al  direction  of  the  side  groove  at  its  rear  end 
is  to  force  the  handle  into  the  cut  of  the  receiver  be-  ' 
fore  the  face  of  the  nose-piece  presses  ajrainst  the  cjtr- 
tridp;c  head,  and  thereby  prevent  the  bolt  from  Hying 
backward  in  case  of  a  premature  explosion  of  the 
cartridge.  The  groove  on  the  under  side  of  the  body 
is  for  the  nose  of  the  scar  to  play  in  without  pressing 
on  and  impeding  the  motion  of  the  I)olt.  The  tiring- 
pin,  p,  is  made  of  steel.  The  body  of  the  pin,  whicli 
is  enveloped  by  the  spiral  mainspring  .shown  by  the  j 
rows  of  smiUl  circles  above  and  Ih-Iow  it,  is  circular 
in  cross-section.  The  collar,  c,  olTcrs  a  shoulder  for 
the  mainspring  to  press  against.  The  portion  of  the 
]>in  immediately  in  front  of  the  collar  is  oval  in  cro.ss- 
seclion,  corresponding  to  tlic  hole  in  the  no.se-piece, 
tBrougb  which  this  portion  of  the  pin  [masses.  This 
form  of  the  pin  prevents  it  from  turning  in  the  nose- 
piece  when  Ihe  bolt  is  locked  and  uidoeked,  and 
regidatfts  the  motion  of  the  thumb-piece  relatively  to 
the  breech-bolt.  The  nose-piece  is  attached  to  the 
front  end  of  the  breech-bolt  by  means  of  a  projection. 
A  cylindrical  projection  on  the  no.se-piecc  also  tils 
into  a  corrcsixmding  recess  in  the  forward  end  of  the 
bolt.  A  conlinuation  of  the  groove  on  the  side  of  the 
lx)lt  receives  the  point  of  a  screw  which  serves  as  a 
stop  to  the  bolt  when  pulled  backward,  and  also  to 
prevent  the  nose-piece  from  turning  in  the  receiver 
when  the  bolt  is  locked.  The  under  side  of  the  nose- 
piece  has  a  continuation  of  the  groove  in  the  bolt  for 
the  nose  of  the  .sear.  A  cut  extends  through  the 
upper  portion  of  the  nose-piece  to  receive  and  hold 
the  e.xtractor-hook,  which  is  comi)osed  of  two 
bnuiehes,  the  lower  one  of  which  has  a  hook  which 
lakes  hold  of  the  rim  of  the  cartridge.  Its  body  has 
a  certain  elaslieitv  which  allows  it  to  i)a.ss  over  the 
rim  of  Ihe  cartridge,  while  its  hold  on  the  rim  is  se- 
cured by  the  inclined  surface  of  the  cut  e  made  in  the 
receiver,  into  which  the  extractor  fits.  It  also  serves 
to  keep  the  extractor  in  place  in  the  nose-piece.  The 
nut  which  secures  the  thumb-piece  to  the  tiring-pin 
has  a  milled  head  and  a  T-shaped  groove  in  it,  which 
tits  on  to  the  head  of  Ihe  tiring-pin"  The  pressure  of 
the  mainspring  on  the  pin  prevents  the  nut  from  com- 
ing o(T  by  keeping  il  in  its  recess  in  the  thumb-piece. 
The  nose  of  Ihe  thumb-piece  tils  into  a  correspoudin" 
notch  of  the  rear  end  of  the  body  of  the  breecir- 
lH)lt  when  the  tiring-i)in  is  pushid  fonvard  against  the 
uirl  ridge-head  and  the  boll  is  Icjcked.  There  is  also 
a  slight  notch  in  which  Ihe  nose  rests  to  give  the  handle 
sleadiiiess  when  in  Ihe  vertical  imsition.  When  the 
tlring-|)in  is  drawn  back  to  the  full-cock  position  the 
lr)\ver  comer  of  Ihe  tliunib-piccc  ri-.sts against  the  nose 
of  the  sear.  At  half-cock  the  nose  of  Ihe  sear  rest.s 
in  a  notch,  lioMing  Ihe  point  of  the  tiring-pin  at  a  sjife 
distance  from  Ihe  priming  of  the  cartridge.  Another 
notch  receives  the  nose  of  the  sear  when  the  point  of 
the  tiring-pin  impinges  on  the  liejid  of  the  cartridge. 
The  upper  portion  of  the  thumb-piece  is  cutaway  and 
its  surface  checked  to  give  a  good  hold  to  the  thumb 
and  lingers  in  manipulation.    The  sc-ar,  itf,  is  attached 


to  the  under  side  of  the  receiver  by  two  small  screws. 
The  smaller  .screw  acts  as  a  kecixjr  to  the  larger.  The 
boily  of  the  sear  is  a  fiat  spring,  so  set  as  to  cause  the 
sear  to  protrude  through  a  cut  in  the  receiver  and  en- 
gage the  notches  of  the  thumb-piece.  The  trigger, 
ad,  is  a  lever  of  the  first  order,  and  is  attached  to  the 
sear  by  a  joint-pin,  ('.  Pressure  on  the  finger-piece  of 
the  trigger  depresses  the  no.se  of  the  sear,  the  roiuuled 
pari  of  the  trigger  acting  as  a  fulcrum  against  the 
under  sitle  of  the  leceiver.  The  cartridge-case  adopted 
for  the  altered  Cha-ssepot  ritle  is  (irawn  out  of 
shect-bni-ss  in  the  usual  way;  the  head  is  strengthened 
after  the  Ilotchkiss  plan,  and  it  has  the  outsidc'primcr 
of  Berdan.  The  bullet  is  solid  and  without  cannel- 
ures, and  weighs  386  grains;  Ihe  powder-charge  is 
81  grains,  and  there  is  a  lul)rieating-wad  of  the  usual 
form  between  the  powder  and  the  projectile.  The 
length  of  the  bore,  including  the  chamber,  is  32.28 
inches;  the  length  of  the  complete  ann,  without  .salx-r- 
l)ayonel,  is  .50.8  inches,  anil  with  the  bayonet  it  is 
about  72.0  inches.  The  weight  with  the  bayonet  is 
10.3  pounds;  without  the  l)ayonet,  8.9  pounds.  The 
grooves  are  fovn-  in  n\nnl)er,  and  of  a  width  equal  to 
that  of  the  lands;  the  depth  of  the  grooves  is  0.0118 
inch;  the  twist  is  one  turn  in  21.6  inches,  and  is  from 
right  to  left  instead  of  from  left  to  right,  according  to 
the  usual  practice.  The  pull  on  the  trigger  is  thought 
to  disturb  the  aim  by  carrying  the  muzzle  of  the  arm 
slightly  to  the  right;  the  object  of  groo\ing  the  barrel 
to  the  left  is  to  correct  this  distiubancc  bv  the  drift 
wiiich  follows  the  direction  of  the  twist.  The  initial 
velocity  is  slated  to  be  -420  meters  (about  1377  feet), 
and  the  eiteetive  range  extends  to  1700  yards,  about 
one  mile.  The  rapidity  of  fire  is  15  times  per  minute. 
See  Maimer  liiflt  and  Snxill-anns. 

CHASSEURS. — A  name  used  for  two  important 
forces  in  the  French  army.  The  mounted  Chas.scurs 
{0/ia.iseiirs-(i-cli<jaf)  are  a  body  of  light  cavalry,  de- 
signed for  serWee  in  advance  or  on  the  flanks  of  the 
army,  and  con-espond  most  nearly  to  the  Light  Horse 
of  the  British  service.  The  name  is  fii-st  used  in  this 
.sense  in  1741,  and  has  been  retained  while  the  force 
it  denotes  has  undergone  many  alterations  in  organi- 
zation and  equipment.  In  1831  a  body  of  cavalry 
was  raised  for  service  in  Africa,  mounted  on  Arab 
horses,  and  with  a  distinc't  uniform.  These  have 
since  become  famous  as  the  0/iati«eiirs  d'Afrif/iie. 
After  the  reorganization  of  the  French  arm}-  in  1873 
the  effective  army  contained  14  regiments  (subse- 
quently increased  to  20)  of  Chasseurs-ii-cheval,  besides 
4  regiments  of  Chasseurs  d'Afrique. — The  infantry 
Chasseurs  (C/i(ij<«ciirii-i}-pu'd)  are  a  light-infantry  force 
in  many  respects  corrcsponciing  with  the  cavalry  Chas- 
seui-s,  and  like  them  intended  lor  detached  service 
(like  the  Rifle  Corps  in  the  English  army).  The 
French  are  believed  to  have  adopted  the  idea  of  such 
a  force  of  Sharp-shooters  from  the  .f'if/cr  (Ihe  German 
word  corresponding  to  Chasseurs,  or //'n*^<v.«)  in  Ihe 
German  armies.  First  used  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  the  .Jilger  derived  their  name  from  the  fact  that 
they  were  chiefly  drafted  from  amongst  moun- 
taineers and  inhabitants  of  forest  regions.  Tliey 
have  always  been  regarded  as  a  valuable  contingent 
in  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies,  or  even  consti- 
tute the  entire  force  of  liglit  infantry.  In  the  Ger- 
man army  there  are  26  battalions  (near  15, OCX)  men) 
of  this  force;  in  Ihe  Austrian  service,  upwards  of 
20,000  ollicei-s  and  men.  In  France  the  equipment 
of  the  Chas-seurs  dilTcred  little  from  that  of  the  other 
infantry;  it  was  nol  until  the  formation,  in  1838,  of 
the  ChaHsenrs  de  Vinreniifs  that  the  experiment  of  a 
sjiecially  armed  force  of  Sliari)-shootei's  was  fairly 
tried.  The  faine  of  the  Chasseurs  de  Vincennes  for 
rapidity  and  |)recision  of  movement,  as  well  es  for  the 
accuracy  of  their  fire,  soon  vindicated  Ihe  inqiortanee 
of  this  branch  of  the  infanlry;  and  at  present  there 
are  30  battalions  of  Cbasseurs-ii-pied  in  the  French 
armv. 

CHASSEURS  D'AFRIQUE.— The  four  regiments  of 
cavalry,  mounted  on  Arab  liorses,  and  ndsed  for  tlic> 


CHASSIS. 


343 


CH£MIN  S£S  BONDES. 


purpose  of  warfare  in  Algeria.    Tlicy  took  part,  liow-  ' 
ever,  in  the  Franco-Prus.sian  War  of  1870-71 ,  and  also 
in    the  Crimea,  where    one   of   tlie   regiments,    the 
"Fourth,"   distinguished   itself    by   supporting   the  I 
chiirge  of  the  light  cavalrj-  at  Balalilava. 

CHASSIS. — The  cha-ssis  is  the  movable  railway  on 
which  the  lop-carriage  moves  to  and  from  battery. 
It  is  composed  of  two  wTought-iron  rails  inclined 
three  degrees  to  the  horizon,  and  united  by  transoms, 
as  iu  the  top-carriage.  In  addition  to  the  transoms, 
there  are  several  diagonal  braces,  to  give  stiffness  to 
the  chassis.  For  the  10-iuch  gun  and  all  smaller  car- 
riages the  chassis-rails  are  single  beams  of  rolled 
iron,  1.')  inches  deep;  for  all  calibers  above,  the  mils 
are  l/uilt  tip  of  long  rect;xngular  pieces  of  boiler-plate 
and  T-iron,  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  checks 
of  the  top-ciirriage.  The  chas.sis  is  supported  by 
travene-wheeh,  which  allow  of  its  having  a  horizontal 
motion,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  piece  a  proper 
direction  when  aiming.  The  traverse-wheels  roll  on 
circular  bars  of  iron  resting  on  a  bed  of  masonry 
or  wood.  The  pintle  is  an  upright  journal,  arf>und 
which  the  chiis-sis  traverses.  It  is  a  stout  cylinder  of 
wroiight-iron,  inserted  in  and  firmly  fastened  to  a 
block  of  stone  called  the  pintk-bloek.  The  auler-pin- 
tie  eiirriage.  is  one  in  which  the  chassis  is  attached  to 
the  pintle  at  its  middle,  and  revolves  around  it 
through  the  entire  circumference  of  the  circle.  The 
traverse-circles  are  consequently  continuous.  By 
this  arrangement  a  much  greater  horizontal  field  of 
tire  is  secured.  The  front-pintle  carriuye  is  one  in 
which  the  chassis  is  attached  to  the  pintle  by  its 
front  transom ;  the  traverse-circles  are  segments  of 
circles.  The  pintle-key  is  a  stout  key  of  iron  passing 
through  the  pintle,  to  prevent  the  chassis  from  jump- 
ing oil'  when  the  piece  is  discharged.  The  pintle  is 
suiTounded  by  a  plate  firmly  bolted  to  the  block  ; 
this  plate  is  called  the  pintle-plnte,  or  frieti'm-plnte. 
The  hurters  and  mi/nter-/iuiicrs  arc  flat  pieces  of  iron 
l>olted,  the  first  to  the  front  and  the  latter  to  the  rear 
part  of  the  cha.ssis  rails,  to  check  the  motion  of  the 
top-carriage  when  the  piece  is  run  in  bittt^'ri/,  and 
when  it  recoils  upon  being  fired.  In  cariiages  of 
improved  model  tJie  hurters  and  counter-hurters  are 
stout  buffers  of  gutta-percha,  which,  absorbing  the 
shock,  prevent  racking  of  the  carriage.  The  guides 
are  stout  claws  of  iron  bolted  to  the  cheeks  of  the 
top-carriage,  and,  catching  under  the  flanges  of  the 
cha.ssis-rails,  prevent  the  carriage  from  slipping  or 
jumping  off.  Through  the  chas.sis,  immediately 
over  the  pintle,  runs  an  eccentric  axle,  carrj'ing  upon 
each  end  a  truck-wheel.  This  axle  and  wliecls  are 
for  the  purpose  of  thro\\"ing  the  cha.ssis  in  near,  thus 
raising  the  pintle-transom  from  the  friction-plate  and 
allowing  the  carriage  to  Ix;  traversed  with  freedom. 
It  is  prescribed  that  the  chassis  shall  be  out  of  giar 
when  the  piece  is  fired.  This,  however,  is  not  neces- 
sary, and  the  omission  of  it  when  firing  saves  much 
tinie  and  labor.  The  lighter  cla.ss  of  Ciirriages  are 
without  the  arrangement  just  described.  In  the  im- 
proved pattern  of  carnages  the  axle  and  truck-wheels 
above  mentioned  are  replaced  by  two  stout  rollers  at- 
tached to  bolsters  on  the  front  end  of  the  chiussis. 
These  rollers  move  upon  the  friction-plate,  and  give 
finn  support  and  easy  motion  to  the  chassis.  Case- 
mate-carriages  differ  from  barbette-carriages  in  being  \ 
much  lower,  but  their  mode  of  construction  is  es.sen-  ' 
tially  the  same.  The  pintle  is  placed  immediately 
under  the  throat  of  the  embrasure,  and  the  cha.ssis  is 
connected  to  it  by  a  bar  of  iron  called  the  tungiie. 
For  the  10-inch  smooth-bore  and  all  Ix'low  that  cali- 
ber, recoil  is  checked  simply  by  the  inclination  of  the 
cha.s.sis-rails  and  the  sliding  friction  thereon  of  the 
top-carriage.  To  increa.se  this  friction,  the  cha.ssis- 
rails  should  be  sjinded  with  sand  free  from  pebbles. 
See  Giin-rarriagen.  I 

CHATJCI. — An  important  tribe  of  ancient  Germany.  ! 
who  dwelt  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Ems.     Tacitus 
records  tliat  they  were  conspicuous  for  their  love  of  j 
peace  and  justice,  being  powerful  but  not  ambitious,  I 


ready  to  resist  aggression,  but  never  provoking  war 
They  finally  merged  into  the  wider  designation  of 

Saxons. 

CHAUFRON. — Ma.sked  armor  which  covered  the 
face,  the  head,  and  the  ears  of  milit;iry  horses  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  to  prevent  the  horses  taking  fright 
when  chanring  the  encmv. 

CHAUSSES.— In  the  aimor  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
defense-pieces  for  the  legs.  Some  were  made 
of  padded  and  quilted  cloth,  with  metal  studs;  .some 
of  chain-mail;  some  of  riveted  plates;  and  .some  of 
banded  mail.  It  was  not  unusual  to  fasten  them  by 
lacing  behind  the  leg.     See  Armor. 

CHAUVINISME.— "Chauvin"  was  the  name  of  the 
principal  character  in  a  French  comedy  which  was 
played  with  immense  success  at  the  time  of  the  Res- 
toration. He  represented  a  bragging  veteran  of  the 
Empire,  who  was  continually  talking  of  his  achieve- 
ments at  Austerlitz  and  .lena,  and  his  determination 
to  lake  a  brilliant  revenge  for  Waterloo.  Since  then 
a  6'//«««'H(i<<  has  come  to  mean  a  man  who  has  ex- 
travagant and  narrow-minded  notions  of  patriotism, 
and  corresponding  enmity  towards  foreign  peoples. 

CHECK-HOOK. — A  device  in  hoisting  and  lowering 
apparatus,  designed  to  stop  the  motion  of  the  wheel 
over  which  the  rope  rims  if  the  machinery  becomes 
unmanageable.  On  the  pidley  are  hooks  which  fly 
out  by  the  centrifugal  force  when  the  speed  l>ecomes 
e.xce&sive,  and  engage  stop-pins  which  arrest  the  rota- 
tion of  the  pulley  and  the  descent  of  the  cage.  2. 
A  hook  on  a  saddle  for  the  attachment  of  the  bearing- 
rein. 

CHECK-NUT. — A  nut  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
construction  of  artillery-carriages,  the  elevating-gears, 
etc.     See  Lock- nut. 

CHECK-EEIN.— The  branch-rein  which  connects  the 
driving-rein  of  one  horse  to  the  bit  of  the  other.  In 
double  lines  the  left  rein  passes  to  the  near-side  bit- 
ring  of  the  near  horse,  and  a  <7Hr/-line  proc'eeds  from 
the  said  left  rein  to  the  near  bit-ring  of  the  off  horse. 
The  right  dri\ing-rein  passes  directly  to  the  off  bit- 
ring  of  the  off  horse,  and  has  a  check-rein  which  con 
nects  with  the  off  bit-ring  of  the  near  horse.  The 
horses  of  the  Egyptian  chariots  had  check-reins. 

CHECK-ROPES.— Strong  ropes  employed  to  dimin- 
ish recoil  by  increasing  the  frictional  resistances. 
They  are  usually  made  fast  to  the  lunette  and  felloes 
of  the  wheels  just  in  rear  of  the  working  spokes. 
They  prevent  the  wheels  from  turning  iu  recoil,  and 
thus  increase  the  friction. 

CHECKY.— In  Heraldry,  when  the  field  or  any 
charge  is  composed  of  small  squares  of  different 
tinctures,  generally  metal  and  color,  it  is  said  to  be 
cheeky.     See  IleraJdry. 

CHEEKS.— The  sides  of  a  gun-carriage  in  which  the 
trunnions  of  the  gun  sit.  The  term  "  cheeks"  is  also 
applied  in  fortification  to  the  interior  facing  of  an 
embrasure.     Sec  Embrasure  and  Giin-cnrriaffh. 

CHELONE. — In  militarj'  antiquity,  the  form  of  bat- 
tle ado|)ted  by  the  Greeks  in  besieging  fortified  towns. 
It  served  to  protect  the  besiegers  in  their  approach  to 
the  walls.  This  invention  was  formed  by  the  soldiers 
placing  their  shields  over  their  heads,  in  a  sloping 
position,  similar  to  the  tiles  of  a  house.  The  first 
rank  stood  erect,  the  second  stooped  !i  little,  the  third 
still  more,  and  the  last  rank  knelt.  They  were  thus 
protected  from  the  missile  weapons  of  the  foe,  as  they 
advanced  or  stood  under  the  walls  of  an  enemy.  The 
chelone  was  similar  to  the  tivtiido  of  the  Romans. 

CHEISEA  HOSPITAL.— An  edifice  built  on  the 
banks  of  the  Thames,  which  was  originally  lx;gun  by 
.lames  I.,  and  intended  as  a  college  for  a  certain 
number  of  learned  di%-ines.  The  luifinished  build- 
ings were  afterwards  completed,  and  finally  convert- 
ed by  Charles  II.  into  a  hospital  for  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  privates  who  were  wounded  or 
maimed  in  the  service,  and  has  remained  to  the  pres 
ent  day  a  refuge  for  worn-out  or  wovmded  soldiers, 
who  are  termed  "  In-pensioners." 

CHEMIN  DES  RONDES.— In  fortification,  a  benn 


CH£MIS£. 


344 


CHEVRON. 


usually  4  to  12  ftft  broiul  iit  the  foot  of  the  exterior 
slope  of  the  HiinifK't.  It  is  sometimes  ]>roteiteii  by  ii 
i|iiickset  hiil.ire  (in  India  actietus  hedge).  Iml  in  more 
modern  works  by  »  low  wall,  built  ou  the  top  of  the 
revetment,  through  whieh  (the  wall  lieius;  loop- 
holed)  and  over  whieh  the  defenders  ean  lire  and 
throw  hand  gnnades  into  the  diteh. 

CH£MIS£!— In  metliieval  fortitiaition,  an  additional 
escarp  or  ix>unler  guard  wall,  covering  the  lower  part 
of  the  cstarp. 

CHXNAPPAN.— An  old  musket,  invented  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  sixteiiilh  (x'ntury.  The  name  c/itiiaj>- 
paii  w:us  also  given  in  Fnmee  to  robbers  who  used 
this  new  weajKin.  as  also  to  the  Spanish  bandit.s  of 
the  Pyrenits  who  were  enrolled  under  Louis  XIII. 
The  name  was  also  applied  to  the  Barlx'ts  of  the  Alps, 
the  last  niunanis  of  the  unhai>i)y  Vaudois,  who  were 
toreed  !>)•  religious  intolenince  to  l)ecome  marauders. 

CHESSES.— -The  planking  or  flooring-boards  of  a 
|X)nton-bridge.  In  cylindrical  pontons  the  boards 
are  fastened  to  the  liaulks  l)y  means  of  cleat.s,  but  in 
the  present  -  pattern  pontons  without  cleats.  Each 
che-ss  consists  of  Ihrei'  planks.  Ilalf-che.sse.s,  con.sist- 
ing  of  a  single  plank,  are  used  for  that  part  of  the 
floor  which  is  imniediatelv  over  the  saddle  of  the 
ponton. 

CHEST. — A  technical  name  for  the  monej'  and  ne- 
gotiable securitic.1  carried  with  an  army,  and  intended 
to  defray  the  current  expenses.  In  the  Knglish  mili- 
tary system  this  Department  is  managed  by  the  Com- 
missariat. 

CHEVALET. — A  sort  of  bell-tent  fonnerly  used  in 
the  French  service  when  an  army  encamped.  It  re- 
sembled in  st)me  degree-s  the  Indian  wigwam. 

CHEVALIER. — A  horseman  or  knight.  A  member 
of  certain  orders  of  knighthood.  In  Heraldry,  a  horse- 
m,<ui  armed  at  all  points. 

CHEVADX-DE-FRISE.— In  fortification,  a  hastily- 
constructed  substit\ite  for  a  regular  abatis,  to  stay 
the  progress  of  an  advancing  enemy.  It  may  be  con- 
structed in  any  way  of  wood  or  iron,  provided  it 
presents  an  array  of  sharj)  or  ragged  points  towards 
the  enemy.  Sometimes  it  is  made  of  barrels  or  cen- 
ters of  timber,  with  spears  springing  out  from  all 
side-s,  in  such  a  way  as  to  constitute  both  a  support 
and  a  defense.  Among  the  matt  rid  of  an  army  under 
the  care  of  the  Engineei-s  are  sometimes  comprised 
chevau.N-dc-frise  formed  of  cylindrical  iron  barrels, 
about  (5  feet  long,  each  having  12  holes  to  receive 
!is  many  spears;  the  spears  can  be  packed  away  in  the 
barrel  when  not  in  use.  Each  such  piece  constitutes 
a  cheml ;  and  many  such,  ranged  end  to  end,  form 
clietauj,  to  be  used  in  ditches  around  a  fortification 


111111111'™"" 


^iTtf' 


Ctie»aux-(Ii?-frlse. 

on  the  bcrm  Ixnealh  the  paraix't,  l)ehind  the  glacis, 
across  a  breach  in  the  rampart,  or  in  any  spot  where 
a  check  to  the  storming  parly  is  nec<led.  "At  Badajoz, 
during  the  Peninsular  War,  great  service  was  ren- 
dered by  a  clievaux-d<--frisc  formed  of  sword-blades 
tlxed  into  Ix-ams  of  wood.  The  name  is  s;iiil  (o  have 
been  derived  from  •' Fiicvhind  horse."  and  to  have 
Ix-en  tirst  applied  by  the  Kniicli  during  the  wars  of 
the  scvent<-enth  century.  The  dniwin^'  shows  the 
common  form  of  cheval-ilefrist',  consisting  of  a  hor- 
izontal piece  of  scantling  of  a  ,s(|uare  or  hexagonal 
form,  termed  the  body,  almul  9  feet  hmg,  which  is 
perforated  by  holes  2  inches  in  diameter  and  5  inches 


apart ;  round  staffs,  10  feet  long  and  2  inches  in  di- 
ameler,  termed  Itmcai,  sho<l  witli  iron  points,  and  in- 
.serted  into  the  body,  so  as  to  project  eciually  from  it. 
At  one  end  of  the  btxly  a  ring  ami  chain  are  attached, 
at  the  other  a  hook  and  cliain,  for  the  purj)osi  of  at- 
taching se'vend  together,  forming  a  chevaux-dc-frisc. 
The  stjuarc  is  the  best  form  for  the  Ijody;  it  requires 
only  Ti-inch  scantling,  w  hereas  the  hexagon  will  re- 
quire 12  inch  timber.    See  Acassory  Means  of  Defence. 

CHEVET. — A  small  wedge  which  is  used  in  raising 
a  mortar.  It  is  placed  Ix'tweeu  the  frame  and  swell 
of  the  mortar. 

CHEVRETTE. — An  engine  for  raising  guns  or  mor- 
tars into  their  carriages ;  also  used  in  mechanical 
manemers. 

CHEVRON.  —  1.  In  Heraldry,  an  ordinarj-  repre- 
.senting  the  rafters  of  a  house,  and  sup]x)sed  to  be- 
token the  accomplishment  of  some  memorable  work, 
or  the  completion  of  some  business  of  importance, 
generally  the  foundation  of  his  own  family  by  the 
lieaier.  The  che\Ton  is  formed  of  two  lines  plac'ed 
pyramidically,  i.e.,  joinetl  together  at  the  top,  and 
descending  to  the  extremities  of  the  shield  in  the  form 


Clievron. 


Chevronei.       Per  Chevron. 


of  a  pair  of  compas.ses.  Chetronel,  a  diminutive — 
half  the  size — of  the  che\Ton.  Per  eherron,  or  party 
per  rherron,  is  where  the  .shield  is  diviiled  by  a  line 
in  the  form  of  the  che^Ton. 

2.  The  rank  of  non-commis,sioncd  officers  is  marked 
by  chevrons  upon  both  sleeves  of  the  unifonn  coat 
and  overcoat,  above  the  elbow.  The  chevrons  are  of 
cloth  of  the  sjime  color  as  the  facings  of  the  uniform 
coat,  and  divided  into  bars  a  half-inch  wide  by  black 
silk  stitching,  except  for  Engineers,  which  is  white 
stitching  and  piped  with  while,  points  down;  and 
Infantry,  which  is  dark  blue,  according  to  patterns  in 
the  Quartermaster  General's  Office,  as  follows: 

For  a  Sergeant  Major,  three  bars  and  an  arc;  for  a 
Quartennaster  Sergeant,  three  bars  and  a  tie  of  three 
bars;  for  a  Principal  Musician,  three  bars  and  a 
bugle;  for  an  Ordnance  Sergeant,  three  bars  and  a 
star;  for  a  C'ommissijry  Sergeant,  three  bare  and  a 
crescent  (jioints  front)  of  Siime  color  as  clievron  and 
above  it;  for  a  Hospital  Steward,  a  half  chevron  of 
emerald-green  cloth  If  inch  wide,  piped  with  yel- 
low cloth,  running  obliquel}'  downward  from  the 
outer  to  the  inner  seam  of  the  sleeve,  and  at  an 
angle  of  about  thirty  degi'ees  with  a  horizontal,  and 
in  the  center  a  "caduceus  "  two  inches  long,  the  head 
toward  the  outer  .seam  of  the  sleeve;  for  a  First 
Sergeant,  three  bars  and  a  lozenge;  for  a  Hattalion 
or  Com|)any  Quartermaster  Sergeant,  three  bars  ami 
a  tie  of  one  bar;  for  a  Sergeant,  three  bars;  for  a 
Corporal,  two  bars;  for  a  Pioneer,  two  crossed 
hatchets,  of  cloth,  same  color  and  materials  as  the 
facings  of  the  uniform  coat,  sewed  on  each  sleeve, 
above  the  elbow,  in  the  place  indicated  for  a  chevron 
(those  of  a  Corjioral  being  just  above  and  resting  on 
the  chevron),  the  head  of  the  hatchet  ujiward,  its 
edge  outward,  of  the  following  dimensions,  viz.:  han- 
dle, 4J  inches  long,  ^  to  i  of  an  inch  wide:  hatchet  2 
inches  long,  1  inch  wide  at  the  edge.  For  Enlisted 
Men  of  the  Signal  Corps,  cros.sed  signal-flags,  red 
and  white,  on  dark  blue  cloth:  size  of  flags,  j  of  an 
inch  square;  length  of  staff.  34  inches.  This  device  is 
worn  by  the  Non-commissioned  Oflicers  above  the 
chevrons;  l>y  Privates  of  the  First  Class  on  both 
arms,  and  by  Privates  of  the  Second  Class  on  the  left 
arm  only,  in  the  same  position  as  the  chevron  of 
Non-commissioned  ( )fficers. 

All  Non-commissioned  Officers,  Musicians,  and  Pri- 


CHICANE. 


345 


CHIEF  SIGNAL  OFFICER. 


vates  who  serve  faithf  uUt  for  one  term  of  enlistment 
wear,  a.f  a  mark  of  distinction,  upon  botli  sleeves  of  the 
uniform  coat,  below  the  elbow,  a  diagonal  half-chev- 
ron, 1  inch  wide,  extending  from  seam  to  -sc^am,  the 
front  end  nearest  the  cuff  and  i  inch  above  the  point 
of  the  cuff,  of  the  same  color  as  the  edging  on  the 
coat.  In  like  manner  an  additional  half  chevron, 
above  and  parallel  to  the  lirst,  is  worn  for  ever}' 
subsequent  term  of  enlistment  and  faithful  service. 
The  distance  between  each  chevron  is  i  of  an  inch. 

The  stripe  indicative  of  War  Service  is  white  for 
all  arms  of  the  ser\'ice  or  Corps.  This  stripe  is  known 
and  designated  as  the  "  War  Stripe,"  and  is  worn  by 
enlisted  men  on  the  uniform  coal  as  .soon  as  the  riglit 
to  wear  it  has  Ijcen  earned.  All  soldiers  who,  r'uring 
the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  were  in  the  Volunteer  ser 
vice  are  entitled  to  wear  the  War  Stripe,  provided 
they  served  in  one  or  more  campaigns  in  the  tield. 


a  .sei)arate  portion.  Oii  a  chief  is  when  the  object  is 
represented  on  the  chief  divided  off  as  above  de- 
scribed.    See  Heraldry. 

CHIEF  OF  DETACHMENT.— The  senior  non-com- 
mis.sioned  othcer  of  a  gun  detachment.  When  in 
line,  he  is  on  the  right  of  the  front  rank  of  his  de- 
tachment. When,  by  facing  about,  the  front  becomes 
the  rear  rank,  he  does  not  change  to  the  other  flank, 
but  steps  forward  into  the  rear  (now  become  the  front) 
rank.  When  in  column  of  tiles,  he  is  as  if  he  had 
faced  with  his  detachment  from  line. 

CHIEF  OF  ENGINEERS.— An  officer  of  the  army 
with  the  rank  of  Brigadier  General,  who  has  his 
headquarters  at  the  .seat  of  Government,  and  is 
charged,  imder  the  direction  of  the  Secretjiry  of  War, 
with  the  command  of  the  Engineer  Department,  in- 
cluding its  Bureau,  and  with  the  regulation  of  the 
duties  of  the  officers  and  troops  of  the  Corps  of  JBngi- 


Sergeant  Major. 


Quartermaster  Sergeant. 


Sergeant. 


Corporal. 


Ordnance  Sergeant. 


When,  in  addition  to  a  War  Stripe,  an  enlisted  man 
is  entitled  to  a  Service  Chevron,  each  edge  of  the 
latter  is  l)ound  or  faced  by  the  former;  and  when,  in 
addition  to  a  War  Stripe,  an  enlisted  man  is  entitled 
to  two  or  more  Service  Che\Tons,  they  are  separated 
by  the  ^^'ar  Stripe  and  the  outer  edge  of  each  outside 
chevron  is  also  tound  or  faced  by  the  War  Stripe. 
W^hen  worn  in  conjunction  with  the  Service  Chevron 
the  War  Stripe  will  be  4r  of  an  inch  wide;  when  worn 
by  itself  its  ^\idth  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  a  Service 
C'hovron.  vi/.,  i  of  an  inch.  War  and  Service  Chev- 
rons are  issued  without  charge. 

In  the  British  service,  the  Corponds  and  the  va- 
rious grades  of  Sergeant  have  che\Tous  \  arying  from 
one  to  four  in  number,  either  of  white  or  of  gold  lace. 
In  most  Corps  they  are  worn  on  the  right  arm  onl\-; 
Viut  in  the  Guards,  the  Fusiliers,  the  Light  Infantry, 
and  Ihe  Grenadiei-  and  Light  Infantry  compiuiies  of 
the  ordinary  regiments,  on  both  arms. 

CHICANE. — To  dispute  every  foot  of  ground  by 
taking  advantage  of  natund  inequalities,  etc. 

CHIEF. — 1.  The   head  or  leader  of  anj-  band  or 
community;  a  commander.    2.  In  IleraldiT,  an  ordi- 
narj'  formed  by  a  horizontal  line,  and  occupying  the 
upjier  part  of  the  escutcheon.    Like  the 
[H^  other  honorable    ordinaries,   the  chief 
ought  properly  to  take  up  a  third  part 
of   the    shield:    but    when    the    other 
charges  are  numerous,  the  chief  is  fre-  , 
quently  diminished  in  size.  Any  object 
iHirne  in  the  upper  or  chief  paii  of  the  ' 
Chief.        shield  is  sjiid  to  be  in  chief,  though  the 
chief  be  not  divided  off  from  the  rest  of  the  field,  lus  I 


neers,  as  well  as  of  all  agents  and  others  who  may  be 
employed  under  his  direction  within  the  limits  of  his 
Department.    See  ('<ir]isi  of  EiKjiiirerH. 

CHIEF  OF  ORDNANCE.— An  officer  with  the  rank 
of  Brigadier  General  who.  imder  the  Secretary  of 
War,  is,  by  law,  charged  with  the  administration  and 
government  of  the  Ordnance  Department.  By  virtue 
of  this  authority  he  gives  such  orders  and  directions 
to  its  officers,  .soldiei-s,  and  emploj'es  as  the  necessities 
of  the  Ordnance  service  demand.  He  is  also  charged 
with  Ihe  examination  and  settlement  of  the  property 
accountability  of  all  officers  or  other  persons  in  the 
military  establishment  to  whom  Ordnance  and  Ord- 
nance Stores  are  intrusted.  The  purchases  and  con- 
tracts for  cannon,  projectiles,  powder,  small-arms, 
and  accouterments  are  made  or  specially  onlered  by 
the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Sccretarv  of  War.     See  Ordnance  Carp». 

CHIEF  OF  THE  STAFF.— An  officer  who  ranks 
next  to  the  (Jeneral  tuider  whose  orders  he  is  .serving, 
anil  is  appointed  to  relieve  the  Commander-in-Chief 
of  an  army  of  an  immense  amoimt  of  detail  work, 
and  to  harmonize  the  action  of  Ihe  several  Depart- 
ments. Such  an  officer  is  appointed  in  foreign  armies. 
The  question  was  rai.sed,  .so  far  back  as  1812,  in  Eng 
land,  whether  a  Chief  of  the  Staff  should  be  added  to 
the  Stiiff  of  the  Commander-in-Chief.  During  the 
C'rimean  War,  and  subsetiuenlly  in  India  during  the 
Mutiny,  an  officer  of  this  nuik  was  ap|M)inted.  In 
the  United  Stales,  the  Senior  Staff  Officer  of  a  Gen- 
eral is  usuallv  desiirnated  as  the  Chief  of  Staff. 

CHIEF  SIGNAL  OFFICER.— An  officer  of  the  army, 
with  the  rank  of  Brigadier  General,  who  is  charged. 


CHIEFTAIN. 


346 


CHINOOK. 


under  the  direction  of  the  Sccretarj-  of  War,  with  the 
general  Signal  Service  of  the  army;  with  the  custody 
of  all  records  aii<l  apparatus  connected  tbcrcwitb; 
with  the  oiuipiiii'iit  and  nianairement  of  tield-tele- 
jiniphs  usi^il  with  active  forces  in  the  ticld;  with  con- 
slrucliug  and  openitinjr  lines  of  military  telegraph; 
with  maintaining  siiruiU  stations  at  light-houses  and 
at  life-siiving  stations,  and  with  the  observations  and 
reiMats  nnuireti  by  law. 

CHIEFTAIN.— A  Captiun,  Leailer,  or  Commander; 
a  Chief;  the  head  of  a  triKip,  army,  or  elan. 

CHILIAKCHIi:.— The  fourth  of  a  Phalanx.  The 
(Jemeiitarv  tactical  combinations  of  the  Greeks  were 
metluHlical.  hut  \ery  simple.  An  Anny  Corps  was 
c<im|M)sedof  a  Tttniji/niltiiigareliiu,  or  Grand  Phalanx, 
an  Epitiitima  of  !S192  psih>i.  and  an  Epitagraa  of  cav- 
alrj-  of  4096  men.  The  Tetraphalangiirchia=4  Pha- 
l!inxes=16  C/(iVi<ir<7i(''»  =t)4  Syntagmata  =  a56  Tetrar- 
chi«=1024  Lochoi  or  files=409()  Enomitiw  of  four 
men  each. 

CHILL. — A  piece  of  iron  introduced  into  a  mold  so 
as  to  rapidly  cool  the  surface  of  molten  metal  which 
comes  in  contact  therewith.  Cast-iron,  like  steel,  is 
hardened  by  rapid  cooling,  and  softened  by  the  pro- 
longiition  of  the  cooling  i>rocess.  The  (yctreme  in  the 
former  direction  gives  ehilkd  iron  the  hardness  of 
hardcnetl  steel;  tlie  extreme  in  the  diri-ction  o£  sofl- 
nt-ss  is  obtained  l\v  prolonging  the  heat,  abstracting 
the  airtwn  from  the  cast-iron,  reducing  it  to  a  nearly 
pure  crvslallini-  iron.     See  Drmize  Gnns. 

CHILLED  PROJECTILES.— Chilled-iron  projectiles 
have  been  profitably  employed  to  pierce  armor-plates, 
on  account  of  their  intense  hardness.  The  English 
projectiles  reconinicndetl  by  Major  Palliser  may  be 
described  as  an  example  of  a  chilled  projectile.  The 
form  of  these  is  cylindro<onoidal,  the  head  being 
ogival,  struck  with  a  radius  of  \\  diameters.  The 
total  length  varies  between  2  and  2J  calibers.  The 
Ixjttom  is  flat,  and  in  the  center  of  the  bottom  is  a 
tilling-hole  for  shells,  closed  with  a  composition 
screw-plug.  All  Palliser  shells  are  lackered  inter- 
nally to  give  them  a  smooth,  clean  lining,  which  pre- 
vents the  iron  from  either  oxiilizing  at  the  expense  of 
the  powder,  or  tiring  it  from  friction  by  rapid  rotation 
during  flight.  As  the  lacker  does  not  always  hold 
well  to  the  metal,  serge  bags  are  introduced  to  contain 
the  bursting-charge  as  an  additional  prevention 
against  premature  explosion.  These  bags  are  made 
bottle-shaped,  and  are  introduced  through  the  tilling- 
hole.  Palliser  shot  are  cored.  The  hollow  up  the 
center  enables  them  to  cool  more  uniformly,  and  ren- 
ders them  less  liable  to  split.  It  also  slightly  improves 
•  its  proportions  and  its  regularity  of  flight.  The  bot- 
tom is  closi-d  with  a  plug.  These  i)rojectiles  are  made 
of  carefully  selected  iron,  which,  if  run  in  s,and-mold^, 
would  solidify  as  mottled  iron.  The  projectiles  are 
cast  jKjint  down,  for  thesjike  of  density  and  soundness 
in  the  head.  The  mold  is  formed  of  a  metal  chill  at 
the  bottom  extending  u|)  past  the  junction  of  lieail  and 
body;  the  remainder  of  the  mold  is  formed  of  sand, 
as  also  is  the  case  for  the  formation  of  the  interior. 
The  chilling  action  therefore  extends  a  little  past  the 
head  of  the  projectile,  which  thus  has  a  mottled  body 
and  a  while  head.  The  Griison  projectiles  are  ca.st 
with  a  dead-head  on  the  ba.se,  which  is  afterwards  cut 
off,  the  object  being  to  obtain  a  solid  bottom  to  stand 
well  under  the  shock  of  the  discharge.  The  chilling 
is  effected  by  the  metal  molds,  in  virtue  of  their  great 
conducting-power,  their  thickne-ss  greatly  affecting 
the  extent  of  their  action.  The  head  thus  chUled 
white  pos.sesses  generally  the  quality  of  white  iron, 
intense  har<lncss,  crushiiig-sirenglh,  consi(lcnil)le  brit- 
tleness,  and  incrcitscil  density.  The  tip  or  ])oint  of  a 
(hilled  projectile  is  o<(asioii:dlv  broken  off  by  the  im- 
pact of  a  shell  or  shot  rolled  or  struck  obliquely 
against  it;  for  the  point  which  may  penetrate  directly 
through  many  Inches  of  annor  without  injury  may 
tx;  fractured  by  a  verj-  slight  transverse  blow'.  See 
PrnjirliliH  and  SUti  ProjeHUo. 

CHILL  HARDENINO.—A  mode  of  tempering  steel 


cutting-instruments,  by  exposing  the  re<l-hot  metal  to 

a  blast  of  cold  air. 

CHILLINOWORTH  BAYONET.— The  peculiarity  of 
the  essenlial  feature  of  this  invention,  viz.,  the  handle, 
consists  in  its  affording  a  more  convenient  grasp  for 
the  hand  in  digging,  or  in  using  it  as  a  side-arm,  than 
does  the  ordinary  bayonet-socket,  without  materially 
increa-sing  its  weight  or  losing  the  advantages  of  a 
secure  fastening  when  it  is  lixed  as  a  pike  upon  the 
gun.  To  secure  this,  besides  the  general  sha|K'  of  its 
profile,  a  shoulder  is  formed  on  tlie  rearmost  portion 
of  the  handle.  To  it  is  fitted  a  short  sleeve,  along  the 
liorc  of  which  is  cut  a  deep  groove,  intended  to  admit 
the  bayonet-stud.  When  in  fixing  the  bayonet  on  the 
musket  the  bayonet-stud  strikes  the  shoulder,  its  lon- 
gitudinal motion  is  arrested  until  the  handle  is  turned 


so  that  the  square  notch  comes  opposite  to  and  receives 
the  bayonet-stud;  bj-  then  turning  back  the  sleeve  to 
its  original  position  the  bayonet  is  locked  in  place. 
By  pushing  back  the  pin  through  the  bayonet-stud 
groove,  the  sleeve  may  be  rotated  until  the  stud  which 
confines  it  comes  opposite  to  the  outlet  of  the  internal 
circumferential  groove  in  which  ft  travels,  when  the 
sleeve  may  be  slipped  off.  A  catch-pin  is  kept  in  place 
bj'  a  transverse  wire,  and  is  pressed  outward  by  a 
spiral  spring.  The  blade  and  handle  of  the  bayonet 
arc  forged  in  one  piece.  The  curved  neck  of  the 
handle  is  intended  to  be  used  its  a  muzzle-rest  in  firing, 
the  point  of  the  bayonet  being  then  forced  into  the 
ground.     See  Bayonet. 

CHIME. — The  end  of  a  tub  or  barrel.  All  powder- 
barrels  are  ordered  to  be  rolled  on  the  chime  as  being 
the  safest  mode  of  mo\ing  powder  either  in  maga- 
zines or  mill-houses. 

CHINESE  CAPSTAN.— A  differential  hoisting  or 
hauling  de\-ice,  having  a  vertical  axis,  and  therein 
only  ditferiug  from  the  differenikd  windlass. 

CHINESE  CROSS-BOW. — An  ancient  form  of  cross- 
bow, fitted  with  a  case  which  turned  on  the  stock  by 
means  of  a  lever  moved  hy  the  wrist,  and  which  fur- 
nished twenty  arrows  in  succession,  like  our  modem 
revolvers. 

CHINESE  FIRE.— A  pyrotechnic  composition  con- 
sisting of  gunpowder,  16  parts;  niter,  8  parts;  char- 
coal, 'i  parts;  sulphur,  3  parts;  and  cast-iron  borings 
(small),  10  parts.     See  P>iro(echny. 

CHINESE  WHITE.— The  white  oxide  of  zinc  has 
recently  been  introduced  into  the  arts,  under  this 
name,  as  a  pigment  in  place  of  the  preparations  of 
white-lead.  It  changes  very  little  either  by  atmos 
pheric  action  or  by  mixing  with  other  pigments;  but 
it  has  not  the  bodv  of  white-lead. 

CHINESE  WINDLASS.— A  differential  windla.ss  in 
which  the  cord  winds  off  one  part  of  the  barrel  and 
on  to  the  other,  the  amount  of  absolute  lift  being 
governed  by  the  difference  in  the  diameters  of  the 
respective  portions.  It  is  a  good  contrivance  in  the 
respect  that  great  power  may  be  attained  without 
making  the  axle  so  small  as  to  be  too  weak  for  its 
work.     See  Chinese  Capsliin. 

CHINOOK.— The  number  of  words  constituting  the 
Janjitii  ))ropcr  does  not  exceed  six  hundred,  and 
many  of  these  are  already  obsolete  or  confined  to  cer- 
tain limited  localities.  Not  more  than  two  hundred 
words  of  the  G/iinook  Litiigiiage  proper  are  used  in 
theJar(/on,  the  balance  coming  from  the  Cree.  Che- 
halis,  Yakima,  Klickitat,  and  various  other  Indian 
languages.     In  the  Chinook  Jargon  the   same  word 


CHINOOK. 


347 


CHINOOK. 


is  frequently  used  as  a  noun,  verb,  etc.,  and  generally 
has  ditferent  meanings,  according  to  the  context;  as, 
lo-U>  (meaning  whole,  to  earn,  earnings,  to  cany  and 
to  conquer).  Besides  the  words  purely  Indian,  there 
are  many  derived  from  the  Canadian  French,  and  the 
following  English  words  of  easy  pronunciation: 
comb,  Juiul,  hook,  house,  lazy,  man,  musket,  nose,  mil, 
salt,  ship,  shoes,  shot,  sick,  skin,  smoke,  soap,  spoon, 
stick,  stone,  Sunday,  tea,  and  iriml.  The  following 
are  veiy  common  expressions:  Ab-ha,  well  then; 
Al-ah,  expressing  suqirise;  Au-ah,  expressing  pain; 
Kiceesh,  an  obstinate  refusal.  The  Chinook  Jargon  is 
thoroughly  understood  by  all  Indians  of  the  North- 
west, and  it  is  l)elieved  that  a  studv  of  the  following 
vocabulary,  taken  from  Farrow's  Mottntain  Scout- 
ing, will  enable  any  one  to  converse  with  any  of  the 
tribes.  A  great  deal  will  depend  upon  the  expression 
and  gestures  of  the  speaker,  and  experience  only  can 
•teach  him  to  intelligently  say  the  most  while  using 
the  fewest  words. 

Jargon  Vocabulary.     Englisk^Chinook, 


Above,  silh-a-le. 

Absolve,  mam-ook  stoh. 

Acorns,  kih-na-way. 

Across,  in-a-tl. 

Afraid,  kwash. 

After,  kim-tah. 

Agaiu  (a. so,  more),  weght. 

Ague,  col^-sick. 

Anl  (admiraciou)  wih. 

Ah  (in  pain  I.  &-nab. 

Alike,  cock  qua. 

All,  kon-away. 

Almost,  wake-si&h. 

Alms  (to  give),  mam-ook  kla- 

how-i-am. 
Alone,  copet-ict. 
Although,  kegh-ti-chie. 
Alwsjrs,  kw4-ne-sum. 
American,  Boston  man. 
Amusement,  he6-hee. 


And  (then,  besides,  or)  pee. 

Angel,  tA-mAn-^-wis. 

Angrv,  soUux. 

Another,  hul-o-ima. 

Apple,  le  pome. 

Apron,  ki-see. 

Arbutus,  lahb. 

Arm.  le  mah. 

Arrive  at.  ko. 

Arrow.  kali-Il-tan. 

As,  kock-wi. 

As  if,  kilh-kw  a,  spose. 

Ascend,  cI4t-Aw4  s&h-a-Ie. 

Ash-tree,  is  ick-stick. 

Ask  (to).  wi-wi. 

At,  k6-pa. 

Aunt,  kwalli. 

Autumn,  ten-as  cole  ilU-he. 

Aw],  shoes  keep-wot. 

Axe,  la  hash. 


B 


Back,  kimp-t&. 

Bab.  me-sa-chie. 

Bad  odor.  humm. 

Bad  Spirit,  m&-s&-cbi  tam&n- 

&-wis. 
Bag,  le  silk. 
Ball,  col-li-ton. 
Bargain,  ma-kook. 
Bark,  stick-skin. 
Barrel,  ta-mo-Htsh. 
Basket.  <!i-pekwan. 
Be  still,  cul-tas  mit-Iite. 
Beads,  kA-ino-suck. 
Bear  (to),  chet-woot. 
Bear,  its-hoot. 
Beard,  cha-pootch-us. 
Beat  (to),  kok-shet. 
Beaver,  ce-naa. 
Because,  keh-wa. 
Become  (to),  cha-ko. 
Before,  e-lip. 
Behind,  kim-ta. 
Bell,  tin-tin. 
Belly,  ya-kwah-tin. 
Below,  ke^kwil-lie. 
Belt,  lasan-jel. 
Berries,  o-lil-lie. 
Best,  e-lip  klosh. 
Beyond,  ten-As  si-ah. 
Big.  hy-as. 
Bird.  kal-lak-a-Ia. 
Biscuit.  )a  bis-ke. 
Bitter,  klihl. 
Black,  klale. 

Blackberries,  kllk-a-muks. 
Blanket,  pa-see-sie. 
Blind.  ba-Io  see-&-host. 
Blood,  pil  pil. 
Blow,  puk-puk. 
Blow  out.  niam-ook-poh. 
Blue  Uijrht  shade),  spd-oh. 
Blue  (dark  shadei,  klale. 
Blunder  (to),  tsee-pie. 
Bob-tailed,  sis-ki-you. 


Boil  (to),  lip-lip. 

Bone,  stone. 

Boots,  stick  shoes. 

Bore  a  hole  (to),  mam-ook  thl4 

whop. 
Borrow  (tot.  a-yah-whul. 
Both,  kon-a-moxt. 
Bottle,  la-boo-ti. 
Bow  (of  a  boat),  nose. 
Bow   (to    shoot   with),   stick 

musket. 
Bow.  o-pitl-kegh. 
Bowl,  oos-kan. 
Box,  la  ca-sett. 
Boy.  ten-as  man. 
Bracelet,  klik-wal-lie. 
Brass,  pel  chick-a-min. 
Brave,  sko6-kum  tum-tum. 
Bread,  piasa-pa-lil(san-de-liA). 
Break.  Kok-shet. 
Breast,  to-toosh'. 
Bridle,  la  bleed. 
Bright,  te-wagh. 
Bring  (to),  in^m-ook  chdrco. 
Broad,  kluk  ulh'. 
Broken,  cha-cluck. 
Brother,  kAp-ho.  if  older  than 

the  .'Speaker;  ow.  if  younger. 
Brother-in-law,  ek-keh. 
Brook,  ten-As  chuck. 
Broom,  bloom. 
Bucket.  ta-m(*i-litsh. 
Buffalo,  moos-moos. 
Bullet,  le  bal,  or  ke-li-li-tao. 
Bundle,  kow. 
Bum  I  to),  mam-ook  pia. 
Biscuit.  la-Hisque. 
But.  pee. 

Butter,  to-toosh-la-klees'. 
Button,  chil  chll. 
Buttons,  tsil-tsil. 
Buy  (to),  mah-kook. 
By,  co-pa. 
By-and-by,  win-a-pie. 


Cabbage,  cabbage. 
Call  (to).  wA-wa. 
Calf,  ten-aa  moos-moos. 
Calm  (a),  ha-Io  wind. 


Candle,  la  shan-<lel. 
Canoe,  ca-nim. 
Cap.  se-ah  pult. 
Capsize,  kiI-&-pie. 


Carrot.  la-ca-lat. 
Carry  (to),  lolo. 
Cart,  tsik-a  tsik. 
Cascade,  tuniwa-ter. 
Cask,  ta-mo  litch. 
Cat.  puss-puss. 
Cataract,  tuin  wa-ter. 
Cattle,  moos  rnoos. 
Cedar,  lt\  med-clne  stick. 
Cellar,  ket-wil-ia. 
Certainly,  na-wit  k^. 
Chain,  cnick-il-raia  lope. 
Chair,  la  shase. 
Change  (to),  huy-huy. 
Cheat  (to).  Itl-lah. 
Chicken,  la  pool. 
Chief,  ty-e^. 
Child,  ten-a.s  man. 
Chilly,  ten-as  cole. 
Chimney,  la-shum-ma-na. 
Circle,  que-u-que-u. 
Clams,  o-na  (emet-oks). 
Clear,  klah. 
Clock,  hy-as  watch. 
Cloth  (dark  I,  its-hoot. 
Clouds,  smoek. 
Coat,  ca-po. 
Coffee,  kau-py. 
Cold,  cole. 
Color,  'tsum. 
Come  on.  by-ak. 


Come  (to).  chtVco. 

Come    here,   ch&-co    yockwa 

(ne-whAh). 
Command  (to),  w4-wa. 
Conceal,  ipsoot. 
Conjuring,  ta-jna-na-wis. 
Conquer  itoi.lolo. 
Cook,  mam-ook  muck-amuck. 
Cool  (to)  mam-ook  cole. 
Copper,  pil  chick-Amin. 
Cord,  ten-as  lo-pe. 
Com,  ye-salth. 
Corral,  kul  lagh. 
Cotton  goods,  sail. 
Cough,  hoh-hoh. 
Count   (to),  mam'Ook  kwtin- 

nun.  L 

Cow,  clooch-man  moos-moo* 
Country,  il-la-ht*. 
Coyote,  tal-a-pus. 
Crab  apple,  pow-itsh. 
Cranberry,  so-le-mie. 
Crazy,  pelton. 
Cream-colored,  la  clem. 
Crooked.  ky-wA. 
Cross.  \k  cloa. 
Crow.  cAw-ciw. 
Cry  (to),  cly. 
Cup,  oos-kan. 
Curly,  hunl  kih. 
Cut  (to),  tl-ko-pe. 


f  D 

Dance,  tanse.  Dirty,  pot-tie  il-la-he. 
Dark,  poiaklie.  Dish,  os-cuu  (plural  la  pli). 
Daughter,  ni-ka  ten-as  clooch-  Dive  (in  water),  clAt-a-wA  keg- 
willy  chuck. 


man 
Day  (this),  o-kook  sun. 
Daybreak,  ten-as  sun. 
Dead,  mem-A-loos. 
Deaf,  ikpooie  kwil-lan. 
Dear,  hy-as  mA  kook. 
Deep,  klip. 
Deer,  mow-itsh. 
Demon,  skoo-kum 


Do  (to),  mam-ook. 
Doctor,  doc-tin. 
Dogs,  kam-ooks. 
Dollar,  dol-la. 
Door,  la  pd-te. 
Down  stream,  mi-mie. 
Drink,  mam  ook  chuck. 
Drive  (to),  kishkish. 


Desert  (to  sneak  off),  swal-lA  Drunk,  pot-tie  lum. 

clat  A-wA  c&p.  Drj',  sun  (dly). 

Devil,  (leaub.  Duck,  kul-lak-a-la. 

Different,  kull.  Duck  (Mallard),  hahthuht. 

Dig  (to),  mam-ook  ll-l.  Dust,  poMaMie. 


Eagle,  chak-chak. 
Ear,  kwolann. 
Early,  teu-as  sim. 
Earn,  lo-Io. 
Earth,  il-la-he. 
Eat  Uo),  muck-a-muck. 
Egg.  la  sap. 
Elk.  moo-luck. 
Embrace,  ba-ba. 
Empty,  ha-lo  mit-lite. 
Enclosure,  kul-ldgh. 
End,  o-boot. 


Face,  see-a-host. 

Fa<le  (to),  chaco  spo-ak. 

Faded,  spo-oh. 

Falsehood,  klim  in-a-whit. 

Falsify  (tot,  cla-mana-whit. 

Far.  si  ah. 

Far  off.  sy-Ah. 

Fast  (quick),  hy-ak. 

Fast  (tight),  kwutl. 

Fasten  (tot,  kow. 

Fat.  glease. 

Fat  (to),  hy-As  gleece. 

Father,  pa-pa. 

Fathom,  it-lan  (eth-Iow). 

Fear,  kwass. 

Feet.  lA  pe-A. 

Fell  (to),  mam-ook-whim., 

Fence,  kul-lagh. 

Fetch,  mam-ook  cha-ko. 

Fever,  waum  sick. 

Few.  ten-as. 

Field,  klosh  il  lahe. 

Fight  (to),  mam-ook  sol-lux. 


Fight   (with    fists),   mani-ookFox,  tA-Ia-pos 


Enemy,  me-sa-chie  til-Ia-cums. 
Englishman     (woman).    King 

(^awge  man  (clootch-man). 
Enlartre,  hy-as  mam-ook. 
Enough,  hy-u,  or  co-pet. 
Entrails,  ki-yah. 
Evening,  ten-as  polak-lie. 
Every.  kon-a-wA. 
Exchange,  huy-huy. 
Extinguish,  mam-ook  mem-a- 

loos  (poh). 
Eyes,  see-a  host. 


Fingers,  le  doo. 

Fire,  pi-a. 

First,  e-lip. 

Fish,  pish  (sa-mon). 

Fish-hook,  ik-kik. 

Flag,  Sun-day. 

Flea,  en-e-poo. 

Flesh,  il-wil-lie. 

Flies,  le  moose. 

Flint,  kil-it  sut. 

Flour,  sap-o-lil. 

Flowers,  klosh  tip-so. 

Fly  (to),  ka-wak. 

Fog.  smoke. 

Food,  muck-a-muck. 

Foot,  le-pee. 

For  what,  pe-co-tu. 

Forever,  kwah-ne-sum. 

Forenoon,  dlipsit-cum  sun. 

Forget,  copet  eumtux  (mah- 

lie.) 
Fork,  la  poo-shet. 
Formerly,  an-kot-tie. 


puk-puk. 
Figure<I.  tzum. 
File,  la-leem. 
Fill  (to),  mam-ook  pahtl. 
Find  (to)  klap. 
Finished,  co-pet. 


Gallop  (to),  kwa  lal  kwa-lal. 
Gamble  (to\  itli-el-coom. 
Gather  (to),  ko-ko-mulh. 
Get  (to),  is-kum. 


Frenchman,  pa  si-ooks. 
Friend,  six. 

Frog.  swAh-kuk.  — 

Fry  (to),  mam-ook  la  po-el. 
Frying-pan,  lA  po-el. 
Full,  pahtl. 


Get  out.  mash. 
Get  up.  ket-op. 
Gltost.  skoo-kum. 
Gift,  cultus  poC-lotch. 


CHINOOK. 


348 


CHINOOK. 


Oirl.  t«Mia8  oloochmau. 

Give  (tot.  i>ot-laloh. 

QliuJ.  kwi\i'iii. 

Glass,  she-lookum. 

Go,  clal-a  wli. 

Go  to  iM-d.olftt-a-wA  moo-sum. 

God.  Sii  lui-lii*  lyf**. 

<;oM,  pti  c))ick-a-inin. 

Q004I,  klosh. 

Goo<l  bv(',  kIa-ho\v-i  am. 

GooiIh,  ic-tas. 

Goose.  k&l-tUc  (^-Itili. 


Grandfather,  ehope. 
Grandmother,  chitz. 
Gra»M.  ti|>-8o. 
GreH.sf.  jfleese. 
Grnat.  hy-ft.<*. 
Great  iiirtiiy,  hy  u. 
Oreeii.  pe-fhugh. 
Grry.  If-K'ey. 
(.irizzly  hear.  se-iXm. 
Ground,  il-la-he. 
Giiin-wood.  It\  goora-stick. 
GuD.  suk-wal-lal. 


Hail,  cole-snass. 

^air,  yak-so. 

TI«lf.  siicum. 

Hallo,  iiah. 

Hammer,  leniah-to. 

Hand.  l4*-inah. 

Hiuid  -»faine  oft.  it'lo-cum. 

Han.lkerohief,  kak-at-c-hum. 

Han<l!^>nie,  hy-as  klosh. 

Hard.  kull. 

Hure,  kwit-shad  ie. 

Harrow  ito), 

il-Ia-he. 
Hat.  se-ah-po. 
Haz»*l  nuts,  tuk-wit-la. 
Hetshe.  it.  his,  etc.i.  yak  ka 
Head,  la  tet. 
Heart,  lum-tnin. 
Heaven.  stVhA-Iie  il  lA-he. 
Help  <t0',  mam-ook  e-lao. 


1  (me,  my.  or  mine),  nl-kit. 
Ice,  cole  chuck. 
If  (Suppose),  spose. 
In,  ko-pi\. 
Indian,  8i-wash. 


Jqalous,  sick  tum-tum. 
Joke  (to),  mam-ook  ItUi  l&h. 


Kamass  root.  lil  k&-mas. 

Keep  off  ito».  maht-lin-nie. 

Kettle,  ket-ling. 

Key.  In  kley. 

Kick  itoi.  chuck-kin. 


H 
Hell,  ket  wlt-l& pl&-hyaa. 
Hen,  la  pool. 
Here,  yock-wa. 
Hide.  skin. 
Hide  Ito).  ip-800t. 
High,  sil-ha-lie. 
Hit  ito>.  kwulh. 
Hoe,  lA-pe  osh. 
Hog,  CO  sho. 
Hole,  kla-wop. 
Holiday,  Sunday. 


mam-ook  comb  Horn,  stone. 

Hoi-se,  cii-i-tan. 


How.  kil»-Uh. 
How  larger  koD-si-ah. 
How  manyy  kon-se-A. 
Hundred,  tuk-a-mo-nuk. 
Hungry,  o-lo, 
Hnrry,  hy-i\k. 
Husband,  man. 

I 

Indian  corn,  e-salth. 
In  shore,  maht-wil-lie. 
Iron,  chick-a-min. 
Island,  ten-iis  il-la-he. 
It  (this,  that),  o-cook. 


Joy,  u-atle. 
Jump  (to),  sd-pe-na. 

K 

Kiss,  be-be. 
Knife,  <)-pic-sah. 
Knock  (to).  k6k0. 
Knotty,  huulkih. 
Know  (to),  cum-tux. 


Kill  (to). mam-ook  mim-a-loos.  Know  (uot  to),  wake  cum-tux. 


Lad.  ten-as  man. 

Lame,  klook  te-h&  wit. 

Lamprfv  eel.  skw&k-wul. 

Land.  il-la-Jit'-. 

Land  oiter.  in-a  mock*:. 

Language.  It\  ItVig. 

I^rge.  hyas. 

La^t  'hindermost),  kimpta. 

I^itelv.  ten-^  an-cot-ti\. 

I^tugnter.  hee-hee, 

I.^an  (tot.  siVpe-na. 

Lear,  tip  so. 

I.<ean  (to),  lagh. 

I^ave  't4>).  mahsh. 

Leave  off  aoi.  ko-pet. 

Leg,  te-ah-wit. 

Leggings,  mi-tos  (sa-kol-eks). 

Lend  'to».  a-yah-wuhl. 

Length,  yontlkut. 

Lick  >toi,  kla-wun. 

Lie  (to),  kla-man-a-wit. 


Lift  (to),  mamook  sa-ha-Ie. 
Light  (not  heavy),  wake-till. 
Light  (daylight),  sun  or  twA, 

(not  dark),  na  wA. 
Lightning,  sa-ha-le  pi-k. 
Like,  ka-kwa. 
Like  (to),  tik-egh. 
Listen  (to),  ne-whi. 
Little,  ten-as. 
Live  (to),  mit-lite. 
Lic(uor.  Uim. 
Lung  while  ago,  14-lee. 
Long,  youtl-kiit. 
I^ong  ago,  an-cot-tie. 
Look,  nan-itch. 
Looking  glass,  she  lockum. 
Loose,  stoh. 

Lose  the  way  (to),  tso-lo. 
Lost.  mash. 
Love  (to),  tick-egli. 
Lower,  uiam-ook-keg-wil-le. 


Mad.  sol-lux. 

3Iagic.  t&  m&ntk-wjks. 

Malceitoi.  mamook. 

Many.  hy-u. 

Mark,  tHum. 

Mark  'to),  mam-ook  tsum. 

Marry  (Ui),  ma-li-egh. 

MaaH  I  ceremony  of  1,  la  mess. 

Majit,  ship  stick. 

Mat.  klis  kwiM. 

Maltwk,  la  peosh 

Measure  (to),  ta  nim. 

Meat,  iil-wil-lie. 

Me'iicine.  Ii\  med-sln. 

Men.  ttllicums. 

Mend  (to I.  mam-ook  tip-shin. 

Met^il.  chick-A-min. 

MIdille  (the),  kat-sik. 

Midday.  Himum  sun. 

Midnight,  sit  cum  po-Uklie. 

Milk,  toioosh. 


M 


Miivl  (the),  tum-tum. 
Mire,  weglit. 
Miss  (to).  seA-pie. 
Mixed,  tzum. 
Moccfusins,  nkin-shoes. 
M<>las!<es.  me-las. 
Money,  ohiek-a-min. 
Month,  moon. 
Mowjnito.  mel-a-kwa. 
Mother,  ma  mii. 
Monnt^iin.  In  monti. 
Moimtatn.  hyas  il-la-he. 
Mouse,  hnol-hool. 
Month.  In  boss. 
Much.  hyii. 
Itlud,  cle-min  il-la-he. 
Mule,  In  mel. 
Musir.  tin-tin. 
Mussels,  to-luks. 
Muskrats,  cul-tns  enah. 
My  (mine),  n!  ka. 


Nails.  Ie  clou. 
Name,  yah-hul  (nem). 
Near,  wake  si-ah. 
Neck.  Ie  cou. 
Needle,  ca-pu-ut. 
Never,  wake  con-sd-tth. 
Night,  po-lak-lie. 
No  (not),  wake. 
Nobody,  wake  clax-to. 


Oak,  kull  stick. 

Oar,  la  lahm. 

Oats.  In  wen. 

Obtuin,  is-kuin. 

Ocean,  salt-chuck. 

OtT.  kiak. 

Off  shore,  mahtl-iu-nle. 

Oil,  gleece  (la-kles.) 

Old  Minn,  ole-man. 

Old  woman,  lam-mi-eh. 

On,  CO- pa. 

One  eyed,  ict  seo-a-host. 

Only,  copet,  ok-kook. 

Open,  hao-lakl. 


N 

Noise,  la  tlah. 
None.  halo. 

Nonsense,  cul-tus  wa-wa. 
Noon,  sit-cum  sun. 
Not  yet,  wake  al-ta. 
Nothing,  wake  ic-la. 
Notwitlistanding,  kegh-tchie. 
Now.  al-ta. 
Nuts,  til-wil  la. 


Open  (to),  he-luck. 

Opposite,  iu-a-ti. 

Or,  pe. 

Order  (to),  mash  tum-tum. 

Other,  hul-o-i-ma. 

Oiler,  e-mam-ooks. 

Our  (we,  us),  ne-si-ka. 

Out  doors  (outside),  klagh«- 

nie. 
Over  (above).  sahduVle. 
Over  (Other  side),  en-a-ti. 
Overcoat,  ka  po. 
Ox,  moos-moos. 
Oysters,  chet-lo. 


Paddle,  is-ick. 

Paddle  (to),  mam-ook  is-ick. 

Paint,  pent. 

Paint  (to),  mam-ook  pent. 

Pants,  se-ca-luck. 

Path,  o-e-hut. 

Paper,  p^-pah. 

Pens.  Ie  pwan. 

People,  til-li  cams. 

Perhaps,  klo-nas. 

Petticoat,  kal-a-kwah-tie. 

Piebald,  Ie  kye. 

Pin,  kwek-wi-eus  (keep-wot). 

Pipe,  la  peep. 

Pitch,  la  goom. 

Plate,  la  se-et. 

Plough  (to I,  klugh  il-la-he. 


Quarter,  ten-as  sit-cum 
Quarter  (of  a  dollar),  kwahta, 


Pole.  Ie  pebsh. 

Poor,    halo    ic-ta    (klahow- 

yam.) 
Pork,  co-sho. 
Porpoise,  qui-see-o. 
Potato,  wap-pa-to. 
Pour  (to),  wagh 
Powder.  po-laUlie. 
Prairie  wolf,  tid-a-pus. 
Present  (a),  cul-tus  pot-latch. 
Presently,  al-kie  (wm-apie.) 
Pretty,  to-ke-ti. 
Priest,  Ie  plet. 
Proud,  youtl  (kweltb). 
Provided  that,  spose. 
Pull.  haul. 
Push,  kwult. 

Q 


Quick,  hy-ak. 
.  Quills,  tepeh. 


Rabbit,  kwit-shad-ie. 

Kain.  snass. 

Kat.  hole  hole. 

Kuttle,  shugh. 

Rjittlesiiake.  shugh-ii-poots. 

Razor  fish,  t'>-na. 

Rench.  ko. 

Red.  pil. 

Relate  (to),  yi-em. 

Report  (of  a  gun),  poo. 

Return,  clia-co  kil  a-pie. 

Ribbon,  Ie  lo-ba. 

Rice,  niit-whit. 

Rifle,  ca-li-peen. 

Ring  (a),  kw^o-kw^o. 

Ripe,  pi-ah. 


R 

River,  hj'-as  chuck. 
Road,  way-hut  lo-chut). 
Roan-colored,  .'ian-dedie. 
Roast,  mam-ook  la  pellah. 
Rock,  stone. 
Rooster,  la  cock. 
Root,  ka-niass. 
Rope,  lope. 
Rotten,  poo-lie. 
Round.  lo-lo. 

Row  (to),  mam-ook  ledam. 
Rudder,  boat-o-poots. 
Rum,  lum. 
Run.  eoo-ry. 

Run  away,  cap-swal-la  clat^- 
wa. 


S 
Sack.  Ie  sak.  Short,  yutes-kut. 

baririle.  la  sell.  Shot-pouch,  ki  li-tan  le-sac. 

Saddle-housing,  le-pish-e-mo.  Shout  (to),  hv-as  wa-wa. 


Sailor,  ship-man. 
Salmou.  sjl-mon. 
Sand,  po-lnl-lie. 
Sandwich  Islander,  Oyee. 
Sash,  la  saw-jel. 
Saw.  la  see  (la  gwin). 
Say  (to),  wa-wa. 
Scnr<'e,  quass 
Scissors,  Ie  see-zo. 
Sea.  salt  chuck 


Shovel,  la-pell. 

Shut  (to),  ik-poo-ie. 

Sift  (to),  to-to. 

Silk,  la-swaj' 

Silver,  t-kope  chik-a-min. 

Similar,  kali-kwa. 

Since,  kim  ta. 

Sing  (to),  shanti. 

Sink,  cli-a. 

Sister  (elder).  lik-po. 


Seal,  ol-hi-yu   si-wash  co-sho  Sister  (yonnger).  ats, 


lol  hy-in)' 
See  (to),  lum-itch. 
Sell  Ito).  mah-cook. 
Send  (to),  clat-n-wA. 
Sew  (to),  mnm-ook  tip-shin. 
Shake,  hul-hul. 
Shake  (to),  to-to. 
Shame,  shem. 
Sharp,  pah  kis-ilth. 
Sharpen  to),  mam-ook  tsisli. 
She,  ya-ka. 
Sheep,  Ie  moo-to. 


Shell    money    (small),    coop- Soft,  cla-mln 


Sit  (to),  mit-lite. 

Skunk,     huni-o-poots     (saub- 

hoo). 
Sky,  koo  sah. 

Slave,  elite  (mistchi-mas). 
Sleep,  moo-sum. 
Slowly,  kla-wa. 
Small,  ten-as. 
Smell,  hum. 
Snake,  o-luk. 
Snnre.  In  pe-age. 
Snow,  colesnass. 


lop. 

Shell  money  (large)  ai-qua. 
Shingle,  Ie  bah-do. 
Shining,  to-wagh. 
Shirt,  shut. 
Shoat  (to),  mam-ook  poo. 


Sometimes,  ict-ict. 
Soon,  wake  le-Iy. 
Sorrell  (color),  ie-blau. 
Sorry,  sick  tum-tum. 
Sour,  kwates. 
Spade,  la  pell. 


CHIN-STBAF. 


349 


CHIVALRY. 


Speak  ( to),  w4-wi. 
Spill  (to),  wafc'h. 
Spirit  (guaniiau),  to  man-no- 
us. 
Spirits,  luni. 
Split,  t,suirh. 

Split  (to),  luain-ook  tsugli. 
Spectacles,  dal-la  see-a-host. 
Spit  (to),  niaiii-ook  toh. 
Spotted,  le-kye. 
Spurs,  la  see-blo. 
Squirrel,  kwis-kwis. 
Stab  ito),  klema-bum. 
Stag,  mau-mow  a-itch. 
Stand,  mit-whit. 
Stai-s  (buttons),  tsil-tsil. 
Stay  (to),  mit-lite. 
Steal,  cap-swalla. 
Steam,  smoke. 
Steamer,  sliip  (pia-ship). 


Table,  la  talib. 

Tail,  o-poots. 

Take  (to),  iskiim. 

Take  care,  klosh  nan-itch. 

Take  off.  maiu-ook  klak. 

Tale,  yi-em. 

Talk,  w4-wa. 

Tame,  kwass. 

Tattle  (toi.  ya-yim. 

Teach  (to),  mam-ook-cum  tux. 

Tear  (to),  klugh. 

Teeth,  le  tab. 

Tell  (to),  wa-wi1. 

Thank  you,  mah-sie. 

That,  o-eook. 

That    way    (there,     beyond  i, 

yah-wa. 
Thev,  klas-ka. 
Thicb,  pit-lilh. 
Thin,  pe-what-tie. 
Thing,  ic-ta. 
Thirsty,  o-lo  chuck. 
This,  ocook. 
Tins  way.  yiik-wtl. 
Thou  (thy.  thine),  mi-kik. 
Thread,  kla-pite. 
Throw  (to),  niasb. 
Throw  away,  mahsh. 


Stirrup,  sit  lay. 

Stockings,  kush-is. 

Stop,  ko-pet. 

store,  ma-cook  house. 

Story,  eh-kah-nam. 

Straight,  si-pah  (de-lftte). 

Strawberries,  a-mo  te. 

Strike  (to),  cock-shet. 

Strong,  skoo-kum. 

Sturgeon,  stutch-un. 

Subdue,  quan. 

Sugar,  le  sook. 

Summer,  waum  il-la-he. 

Sun,  OtiV-lagh. 

Sunset,  elip-sun. 

Suppose,  spose. 

Swan,  kali-loke. 

Sweep  (to),  mam-ook  bloom. 

Sweet,  tsee. 

Swim,  sit-sbum. 


Tide,  cliuck. 

Tie  (to),  kow. 

Tight,  kwutl. 

Tinware,  ma-lah. 

Tip  (to).  lagh. 

Tired,  till. 

To  (towards),  ko-pa. 

Tobacco,  ki-noos. 

To-day,  o-cook  sun. 

To-morrow,  to  m&-l&. 

Tongue,  la  lang.  « 

Trade  (to).  ho^-ho6. 

Trail,  way-hut. 

Trap,  la  piege. 

Tree,  stick. 

Tree  (fallen),  whim  stick. 

Tremble,  liul  hul. 

Trot  (to),  teh-teh. 

Trouble,  mam-ook  tiU. 

Trowsers.  so-kol-eks. 

True,  delate. 

Truth,  delate  wa-w4. 

Tub,  ta-mO»-litsh. 

T(M'n  (to),  howh. 

Turn  over  (to),  kil-^-pie. 

Twice,  nioxt. 

Twilight,  twah. 

Twine,  teii-as  lope. 


Uncle,  tot. 

Under,  kee-kwil-Iie. 

Understand  iio).  cum-tux. 

Unhappy,  sick  tum-tum. 

United  States.  Boston  il-la-he.  Us,  ne-si-ka. 


U 

Untie  (to),  mam-ook  stoh. 

Up  (above,  heavenward)  sa- 

na-lie. 
Upset  (to),  kil-a-pi. 


Untamed,  le  mo-lo. 


Vancouver,  kits-oat-qua. 
Venison,  mow-itch. 
Very  small,  hy-as  tcn-as. 


Wagon,  chik-chik. 

Wander  (to),  ts-o-lo. 

Warm,  waum. 

Wash  I  to),  mam-ook  wash. 

Watch,  tik-tik. 

Watch  (to),  nan  itch. 

Water,  chuck. 

Waterfall,  tum-water. 

We.  ne  si-ka. 

Week  (one),  ict  Sunday. 

Weigh  (to),  mam-ook  til. 

Wet.  pahtl-cbuck. 

Whale,  eh-ko-lie. 

What.  icta. 

What  color?  ki\-ta  tsiun. 

Wheat,  sapolil. 

Wheel,  chik-chik. 

When,  kan-sih. 

Where,  kah. 

Whip,  la  whet. 

White,  t-kope. 

Who.  klax-ta. 

Whole,  lo-lo,  kwa-nice. 


Year  (a),  ict  cole. 
Yellow,  kaw-ka-wak. 
Yes,  ah-ha. 
Yes  indeed,  na-wit-ka. 


Useless,  cul-tus. 


Vessel,  ship. 
Vest,  la  west. 
Vomit  (to),  wagh. 

W 

Wicked,  me  sa-cbie. 
Wi.le.  kluk-ulh. 
Wild,  le  mo-lo. 
Will  (the),  tum-tum. 
Willow,  ee-na  stick. 
Win  (to),  to-lo. 
Winter,  cole  il-la-he. 
Wipe  (to),  klak-wun. 
Wire,  chik-a-min  lope. 
Wire  ( brass),  klik-nal-la 
Wish  (to),  tick-ey. 
With,  co-pa. 
Without,  ha-lo. 
Wolf,  le-loo. 
Woman,  clootch-raan. 
Woman  (old),  lam-mi-eh. 
Wood,  stick. 
Work  (to),  mam-ook. 
Worn  out.  ol-t^-man. 
Worthless,  cul-tus. 
Wound  (to I.  klem-a-hum. 
Write  (to),  mam-ook  tsum. 
Writing,  tsum. 


Yesterday,  tahl-kie  sun. 
Y'oung.  ten-a-s. 
You.  mi-ka. 
Yours,  me-sika. 


NUMERALS. 


One,  ict. 
Two,  moxt. 
Three,  klone. 
Four,  lak-it. 


Five,  kuin-num. 
Six.  tagh-hum. 
Seven.  sin-t\-nioxt. 
Eight,  sto-te-kin. 


Nine,  kweest. 
Ten.  tah  tel-lum. 
Twenty,  moxt  tab-tel-lum. 
Thirty,  klone  tah-tel-lum. 


One   hundred,  ict   ta-ka-mo- 

nuk. 
One  thousand,  tah-tel-lum  ta- 

ka-mo-uuk. 


Greater  numbers  are  expressed  by  a  conjunction  of  the 
words  expressing  the  numbers  to  be  added,  thus :  Sin-a-moxt 
tah-tel-lum  (seven  times  ten)  express  seventy. 

THE  LORDS  PRAYER  IN  JARGON. 

Our  Father  who  stayelh  in  the  above,  good  in  our  hearts 
(be)  thy  name;  good  thou  chief  among  all  people;  good  thy 
will  on  eai'th  as  in  the  above;  give  every  da.v  our  food;  If 
we  do  ill,  (be)  not  thou  very  angry,  and  if  any  one  evil 
towards  us,  not  we  angry  towards  them ;  send  away  far  from 
us  all  evil. 

Xe-si'ka  Papa  klax-ta  mit-lite  ko-pa  sa-ha-lie.  kluah  ko-pa 
ne-si-ka  iuiit-tum  mi-ka  nem;  klosh  mi-ka  ty-ee  ko-pa  kon-a- 
way  tit-li-cttm ;  klosh  mi-ka  tum-tum  ko-pa  it-la-he  kah  -kica  ko- 
pa  sa-ha-lie;  pot-latch  koyi-a-tcay  sun  ne-si-ka  muck-a-muck ; 
Upose  ne-si-ka  mam-ook  me-sd-chie  irake  mi-ka  hy-as  sollux, 
pee  spose  klax-ta  me-sd-chie  ko-jm  ne-si-ka,  wake  jte-si-ka. 
sollux  ko-p<t  klaxta;  ntahsh  si-ah  ko-pa  ne-si-ka  kon-a-iray 
me-sd-chie. 

CHIN-STRAP.— 1.  The  strap  connecting  the  throat- 
strap  and  the  no.se-baiid  of  a  halter.  2.  A  strap- 
pa.s.sing  iiudcr  the  chin,  employed  to  hold  the  helmet 
or  dress-liat  in  place  in  windy  weather. 

CHIVALRY.— The  system  "of  knighthood,  together- 
with  the  privileges,  duties,  and  manners  of  knights. 
The  social  arrangement  to  which  this  tenn  is  applietl 
seems  first  to  have  assumed  the  character  of  a  positive 
institution  during  the  eleventh  century;  hut  so  far 
from  being  an  invention  of  that  period,  it  had  its 
roots  in  the  manners  of  the  Germanic  races,  amongst 
whom  it  ultimately  aro.se,  at  the  earliest  period  at 
which  they  are  historically  traceable.  In  the  de- 
scription which  TacitiLS  has  given  u.s  of  the  manners 
of  the  Germans  we  find  the  most  unequivocal  indi- 
cations of  the  existence,  not  only  of  the  general  spirit, 
but,  in  a  partially  developed  form,  of  many  of  the 
special  arrangements  of  chivalry.  But  it  wa.s  in  con- 
nection with  feudality  that  chivalry  attained  to  its  full 
proportions,  and  in  many  respects  it  must  be  regarded 
as  the  complement  of  that  in.stitution.  Whilst  feu- 
dality exhibits  the  political,  in  chivalry  we  see  the 
moral  and  social  side  of  the  arrangements  of  mcditr- 
val  life.  It  was  in  the  feudal  mansions  of  the  barons 
that  the  system  was  developed;  and  to  the  lay  portion 
of  the  youth  of  the  higher  classes  the  instruction 
which  they  there  received  in  the  usiigcs  of  chivalry 
formed  by  far  the  most  important  part  of  education. 
In  addition  to  the  martial  accomplishments,  which 
corresponded  to  those  of  a  modern  cavalrj'-ofticer, 
they  were  instructed  in  the  i>olitical  relations  which 
subsisted  between  the  vassal  and  his  lord,  by  which 
the  whole  body  of  society  was  then  bound  together; 
and  in  what  might  almost  be  called  a  system  of  ethics, 
strangely  enough  exhibiting  unmistakable  traces  of 
the  Stoic  philosophy.  The  analogy  between  the 
severer  virtues  recommended  to  the  special  cultiva- 
tion of  their  disciples  by  the  followers  of  Zeno,  and 
those  inctdcated  on  the  novice  in  chivalry,  and 
practiced  by  the  knights  of  the  Middle  Ages,  might 
be  ascribetl  to  other  than  historical  ciauses,  were  it 
not  that  we  are  able  to  trace  the  connection  between 
them  with  something  approaching  to  certainty.  If 
any  one  wishes  to  convince  himself  of  the  truth  of 
our  as.«ertion,  let  him  compare  the  la.st  production  of 
the  intellectual  life  of  antiquity  with  one  of  the 
earliest  and  most  important  of  our  own  literature 
— the  ConiaiUitions  of  Philomphy  of  Boelhius  with 
Chaucer's  Tegtamfnt  of  Lore.  The  resembhincc  is  so 
close  that  the  latter  work  has,  not  witlioiit  reason, 
been  regarded  as  an  imitation  of  tlie  former;  but  the 
main  features  which  distinguish  them,  and  mark 
Chaucer's  work  as  belonging  to  the  modern  world, 
are  more  instructive  than  even  their  similarity.  What 
Chaucer  has  exhibitcil  in  the  work  to  wliirh  we  have 
referred  may  be  regarded  rather  as  the  philosophical 
than  the  poetical  side  of  the  institution.  Bui  to  poets 
of  a  lighter  and  more  imaginative  ca«l  of  mind 
chivalry  has  furnished,  from  the  days  of  the  trouba- 
dours down  to  the  present  Poet  laureate,  no  insignifi-- 


CHLOBATE  OF  P0TAS8A. 


350 


CHOUANS. 


cant  portion  of  tlicir  subK'cl-iiiattor.  King  Arthur 
and  his  Kuiirhl.^  of  thi-  Houmi  Table,  Ihi-  traililioiis 
tx'ipirtlin.L'  whom  hiul  \>vm  taken  from  a  iK-riod  allo- 
gi^thcr  niythical  anil  loni;  anterior  to  the  existence  of 
chivalry  as  an  institution,  heeanie  to  the  jioelry  of  tlie 
Midille"A!,'es  very  much  what  tlie  heroes  of  tlie  Trojan 
War  were  to  that  of  the  whole  ancient  world.  .Much 
astonishment  has  often  lieen  expressed  at  the  contrast 
Ix'twivu  the  loflv  and  ideal  purity  of  the  code  of 
morals  inculniteil  by  chivalry,  and  the  jTrossncss  of 
llic  lives  of  the  men  who  were  trained  under  its  in- 
tlucnci's.  The  case  is  one  which  in  a  remarkable 
degree  proves  the  pnictieal  importance  of  the  incul- 
cation  of  soimd  doctrine,  for  the  iiractiee  gradually, 
though  slowlv,  conformetl  itself  to  the  ]>riucii)les; 
and  it  is  proliably  in  no  insignitieant  degree  to  the 
elevated  tone  of  'the  latter  tlmt  we  owe  the  moral 
su|HTiority  of  llie  nu)dern  over  the  ancient  world. 
See  <'oiii-l  "f  C/iiriiln/. 

CHLOBATE  OF  POTASSA.— Many  oxydizing  sub- 
stances, such  as  the  chlorate  of  ix)la.s.sa  and  nitrate 
of  sotla,  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder; but  for  this  purpose  they  are  inferior  to  the 
nitrate  of  poIas,s;i.  The  dilorate  of  ]iolas.sji  is  a  suli- 
stance  which  parts  with  its  oxygen  easily,  and  makes 
a  powder  which  has  been  found  by  experience  to 
give  at  least  double  the  range,  with  the  mortar 
eprouvette,  of  that  made  with  nitrate  of  jiotassa,  but 
from  its  gn-at  quickness  resembles  the  fulminates  in 
its  destnielive  eirect.s  on  the  gun.  Besides,  it  is  more 
costly  than  nitrate  of  jiotassji,  renders  the  powder 
liable  to  exi>loile  by  slight  causes,  and  gives  a  residue 
■which  rapidly  corrodes  iron.  Its  use  in  the  labora- 
tory is  chiefly  confined  to  the  preparation  of  colored 
fires  and  cannon-jirimers. 

Chlorate  mixtiues  are  very  sensitive  to  friction  and 
percussion,  and  they  explode  with  great  sharpness. 
The  potassium  .salt  is  tlie  only  one  of  the  chlorates 
which  is  employed  in  these  mixtures.  Very  many 
chlorate  mixtures  have  l)een  made,  but  few  of  them 
are  of  much  value.  Of  many  of  them  it  may  be  said 
that  they  are  so  liable  to  ac- 
cidental explosion  that  they 
are  unfit  for  use.  The  follow- 
ing are  examples  of  chlorate 
mixtures:  potassium  chlorate 
with  rosin;  pota.ssium chlorate 
with  galls  (Horsel.v's  powder); 
potas-sium  chlorate  with  gam 
bier  (Oriental  powder);  potas 
sium  chlorate  with  sugar  (used 
in  chemical  fuses);  pota.ssium 
chlorate  with  potas.siuni  ferro- 
cvanide  (White  or  German  gunpowder);  potassium 
chlorate  with  tannin  (Erhardt's  powder);  potassium 
chlorate  with  sulphur  (Pertuiset  powder,  used  in  ex- 
plosive bullets).  In  the  laboratory,  however,  potas- 
sium chlorate  is  the  basis  of  many  fuse-mixtures, 
some  of  which  are  used  to  a  certain  extent.  See  Oun- 
poirder. 

CHOCK.— A  piece  of  wood  by  which  the  wheel  of 
a  carriage  is  prevented  from  moving  forward  or  back- 
ward. In  the  United  Stales  Ordnance  Dcparliiient 
two  kinds  are  eini>loyed,  the  simplest  form  being 
triangular  in  section,  while  another  description  of 
chock  is  wedge-shaped  and  provided  with  a  handle. 
A  common  form  of  chock  is  attached  to  cast-iron 
garrison-carriages,  on  which  the  breech  of  the  gun 
rests  and  is  elevalrd. 

CHOCKING  HANDSPIKE.— A  handspike  employed 
when  slewing  ,i  gun  that  rests  on  skids,  and  in  other 
mechanical  maneuvers. 

CHOKE.  1.  A  slightly  narrowed  part  just  in  front 
of  the  (hamber  in  certain  guns,  to  insure  that  all 
projectiles  are  rammed  to  tlie  same  .spot.  2.  The 
tied  end  of  a  cartridge;  also,  the  constriction  of  a  rock- 
et-case, etc. 

CHOKEB.— Aninslniinentuscd  forbringing  the  ends 
of  u  fas<'ine  to  the  girth,  neariv  where  it  is  intended 
the  fascine  should  Ije,  when  it  is  bound. 


CHOKE-STBAP — A  strap  passing  from  the  lower 
IX)rliim  of  the  collar  to  the  belly-band,  to  keep  the 
collar  in  place  when  descending  a  hill  or  backing. 

CHOKEY.— A  common  expression  for  an  East  In- 
dian guard-house  and  prison. 

CHOBD. — The  chord  of  an  arc  of  a  curve  is  a  right 
line  joining  its  two  extremities.  A  scale  of  chonls 
is  usi'd  in  laying  off  angles.  It  is  thus  constructed; 
Let  AB  be  the  radius  of  the  circle  to  which  the  scale 
is  lo  be  adapte<l.  A\'ith  the  center 
A  and  radius  ^VB  deseiibe  a 
quadrant  BEC".  Divide  the 
quadrantal  arc  BEG  into  nine 
ecjual  parts  BD,  1)E,  etc.  This 
may  be  dcine  by  taking  a  radius 
equal  to  AB,  and  from  the  cen- 
ters B  and  C  cuttiii":  the  arc  in  G 
and  F.  As  the  radius  is  always 
equal  lo  Ihe  chord  of  60  ,  or  j  of 
a  quadrant,  Ihe  arc  CB  is  thus 
divided  into  three  equal  parts,  BP,  FG,  GC,  and 
each  of  these  iiarts  may  then  be  trisected  by  trial,  as 
no  direct  method  is  known.  Draw  the  chord  of  the 
(luailrant  B(_';  from  B  as  a  center,  and  the  chord  of 
Bl)  as  a  radius,  describe  an  arc  cutting  BC  at  10; 
w  ith  (Jie  chord  of  BE  as  a  radius,  describe  an  arc  cut- 
ting BC  in  20;  with  the  chord  of  BF,  describe  an  arc 
cutting  BC  in  30;  and  in  a  similar  manner  find  the 
divisions  40,  50,  60,  70,  80.  Then  the  arcs  BD,  BE. 
BF,  lieing  arcs  of  1Q\  20',  30',  etc.,  respectively,  the 
disiances  from  B  to  10,  20,  30,  etc.,  are  the  chords  o{ 
arcs  of  10  ,  20%  30',  etc.;  so  that  BC  is  a  scale  of 
chords  for  every  10  ,  from  0'  to  90  .  To  lay  down 
or  measure  angles  with  such  a  scale,  the  arc  of 
measurement  must  be  described  with  Ihe  chord  of  60  . 

CHORD  BOBING-MACHINE.— A  tool  consisting  of 
two  horizontal  boring-machines  and  an  extra  table  lo 
facilitate  setting  the  work,  so  arranged  that  thev  can 
be  adjusleil  and  clamped  on  the  bed-plale  to  suit  the 
centers  of  the  holes  in  the  chords;  it  is  of  suflicient 
capacity  to  admit  chords  3  feet  by  3  feet;  the  bed- 


Chord  Boring-machine. 


',;&  :it':.?"^^^iilll!jii!it^JP 


i  \  r'x  \  "^ 


plate  is  made  of  12-inch  wTought-iron  lieams.  so  that 
its  expansion  and  contraction  shall,  under  all  circum- 
stances, be  the  same  as  the  chords  being  bored;  the 
cone-imlleys  have  four  changes  for  a  4-inch  belt;  the 
si)indles  are  driven  with  worms  and  worm-wheels, 
are  of  steel,  and  have  12  inches  traverse,  with  a  rapid 
I  hand-movement,  and  are  self-feeding  by  cut-cog  cone- 
1  gearing,  giving  three  changes.     Steady  rests  for  the 
outer  ends  of  boring-bars  are  readily  applied.     The 
weight  of  Ihe  macliine commonlv  used  in  arsenals. with 
r>~)  feel  of  bed.  is  32.200  pounds.    Sev.  Boriiig-tniti'/iiiie. 
CHOROGRAPH.— An  instrument  contrived  by  Pro- 
fes,sor  Wallace,   of   Edinburgh,  "lo    determine   the 
position  of  a  station.  ha\nng  given  the  three  angles 
made  by  it  to  three  other  stations  in  the  same  plane, 
I  whose  positions  are  known."     The  problem  may  be 
staled  thus:  To  construct  two  similar   triangles  on 
two  irivcn  straight  lines. 

CHOUANS. — Bands    of    insurgent    royalists   who, 
during  the  Fiench  Bevolution.  orpinized  a  reaction- 
ary  movement   in  Brittany.     They   obtained    their 
name  from  their  leader,  .Jean  C^ottcreau.     This  per- 
'  .son,  who  had  been  a  smuggler,  went  by  the  name  of 
j  Chouan — a    corru])tion,    it    is    said,    of    rliat-hiiaiit 
I  ("  screech-owl  ") — because,  while  he  anil  his  accom- 
plices were  engaged  in  their  nf)flurnal  work,  they 
I  were  wont  to  be  warned  of  their  danger  by  some  one 


CHOUMAEA  SYSTEM  OF  FOETIFICATION. 


351 


CHOUMARA  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 


on  the  watch  imitating  the  cry  of  this  bird.  At  the 
period  of  the  revolt,  however,  he  followed  the  humble 
occupation  of  a  clog-maker.  The  first  indications  of  j 
an  anti-revolutionary  spirit  in  Brittany  manifested 
themselves  in  the  beginning  of  1791,  when  several 
trees  of  liberty  were  destroyed  at  night,  and  other 
more  serious  outrages  coiimiitted.  These  disturb-  | 
ances  were  fomented  by  seditious  priests.  In  1793 
an  insurrection  wa-s  planned  bj-  the  Marquis  de  la 
Kouarie,  with  the  sanction  and  approval  of  the  two 
brothers  of  Louis  XVI.  The  agents  of  the  Marquis 
entered  into  communications  with  Jean  Cottereau — 
well  known  for  the  reckless  audacity  of  his  character 
— and  other  smugglers;  but  ha\ing  the  misfortune  to 
be  arrested,  the  caiTying  out  of  the  insurrertion  de- 
volved upon  the  latter.  The  Choiiantrie,  as  the  In- 
surrection was  called,  at  first  disgraced  itself,  both  bj- 
the  drunken  license  and  the  cruelty  which  marked  it. 
After  several  succe.ssful  exploits  of  the  guerrilla  sort, 
Jean  Cottereau  perished  in  an  engagement  which 
took  place  on  the  28th  of  July,  1794,  near  the  wood 
of  Misdon,  the  theater  of  his  first  efforts.  Before 
this,  however,  other  and  more  illustrious  Icadci's  had 
appeared  in  Brittany  to  direct  the  movement,  the 
chief  of  whom  were  Georges  Cadoudal  and  Charette. 
Through  their  endeavors  it  was  more  widely  extended, 
and  for  a  time  seemed  likely  to  imperil  the  security  of 
France,  but  was  suppressed  towards  the  close  of 
1799.  Petty  sjmrU  of  insuiTection,  however,  broke 
out  till  about  1803,  when  the  C7i<nii//ierif  eeasi'd  for 
a  while.  In  1814-1.5  it  again  made  its  appearance  on 
both  sides  of  the  Loire;  and  after  the  July  Revolu- 
tion, was  once  more  excited  by  the  Duehe.ss  of  Berrj- 
on  Iwhalf  of  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux,  but  crushed  by 
the  energetic  measures  taken  b\-  .M.  Thiers. 

CHOUMARA  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— Chou- 
mani,  a  French  oflicer  of  engineers  of  distinguished 
abilities,  is  the  author  of  several  remarkable  memoirs 
on  the  defects  of  the  bastion  system,  and  the  means 
by  which  they  may  be  removed  and  additional 
strength  be  thereby  given  to  the  defenses.  His  prop- 
osition for  this  purpose  maj"  be  briefly  stated  as  fol- 
lows: 1.  That  part  of  a  permanent  work  which  can 
undergo  no  modification  during  the  progress  of  a 
siege  is  the  masonry,  and  it  may  therefore  be  regarded 
as  the  really  permanent  feature;  all  the  parts  of  earth, 
as  the  parapet.s,  etc.,  being  susceptible  of  such  modifi- 
cations as  circumstances  may  ilemand.  In  all  cases 
of  the  application  of  the  independence  of  the  para- 
pets, Choumara  proposes  to  convert  the  space  left  be- 
tween the  foot  of  the  parapet  and  the  scarp- wall  into 
a  chemin  de  rorule,  or  corridor,  which  is  covered  in 
front  by  a  slight  parapet,  and  from  enfilading  tire  by 
gi\ing  an  increased  height  to  the  portion  of  the  para- 
pet adjacent  to  the  salients,  forming  a  boiimt.  This 
corridor  is  occupied  by  shai"p-shooters  to  annoy  the 
besieger's  trenches.  Furthermore,  Choumara  regards 
the  corridor  as  an  additional  security  against  surprise 
and  escalade.  2.  He  proposes  to  place  high  traverses 
in  the  bastion-Siilients,  to  cover  the  faces  from  enfilade 
and  the  fianks  from  reverse  views,  and  similar  tra- 
verses at  the  shoulder-angles  with  the  same  object. 
These  he  also  proposes  to  ca.semate,  or  else  construct 
with  blindages  for  artillerj'  to  obtain  a  fire  in  the  di- 
rections of  the  capitids,  "and  reverse  views  on  the 
demi-luue  glacis  and  the  breach  in  the  bastion-face. 
As  these  traverses,  from  their  height,  might  give  the 
besiegeiy  in  possession  of  them  a  plunging  fire  on  the 
bastion-retrenchments,  he  proposes  so  to  arrange  them 
that  they  can  be  readily  destroyed  at  any  moment  by 
mines,  or,  if  of  timber,  be  burned.  3.  To  mask  the 
ma-sonrj-  of  the  enceinte  and  demi-kme  from  breach- 
ing-batferies,  erected  in  their  iLsual  positions  along 
the  crests  of  the  glacis,  Choumara  proposes  to  form 
what  he  terms  an  interior  glacis,  or  covering  mass  of 
earth,  in  the  ditches,  the  crests  of  which  shall  mask 
the  masonrj-  of  the  scarps  from  the  positions  in  ques- 
tion; and  the  upper  surface  of  which,  forming  a 
'  glacis,  shall  be  swept  by  the  fire  of  the  works  in  its 
rear.     In  this  manner  he  expects  to  force  the  besieg- 


ers to  the  difficult  operation  of  making  lodgments  in 
this  glacis  to  obtain  suitable  positions  for  their  breach- 
ing-balteries.  4.  By  selecting  for  some  of  his  out- 
works those  points  on  the  exterior  which  are  most 
favorable  to  the  action  of  the  as,s;iilant's  sharp-shoot- 
ers, he  proposes  in  this  way  to  cripjile  this  important 
means  of  attack,  o.  By  giving  greater  extent  to  the 
exterior  side,  and  a  more  retired  position  to  the  cur- 
tain, which  is  also  to  be  made  as  short  as  possible, 
Choumara  obtains  bastions  of  ami)le  size,  not  onlj-  to 
admit  of  the  modifications  he  proiioses  for  the  para- 
pets, traverses,  and  rheiiiiun  de  ronde,  but  for  strong 
interior  retrenchments,  so  orgaiuzed  with  I)omb-proof 
shelters,  and  arranged  defensively  towards  the  inte 
rior,  that  each  bastion  will  admit  of  a  defense  to  the 
rear  at  its  gorge,  after  the  besiegers  may  ha\e  effected 
a  breach  at  other  points  and  i)enetiiited  within  the 
enceinte.  The  essential  modifications  proposi-d  by 
him  may  be  summed  as  follows:  detaching  the  scarp 
from  the  parapet;  regulating  the  line  of  defense  by 
the  range  of  field-artillery,  not  musketry;  introducing 
an  interior  glacis:  and  employing  defensive  barracks 
to  .si'rve  as  interior  retrenchments.  The  memoirs  in 
which  Choumara  lirought  liLs  i)roiX)sitions  before  the 
public  naturally  attracted  attention,  as  much,  per- 
haps, from  their  polemical  character  and  i)iquancy  of 
style  as  their  professional  interest.  They  contain  but 
few  things  the  germs  of  which  are  not  to  be  foimd  in 
writers  who  preceded  him.  His  modifications  re- 
s|)ecting  the  parapets,  throwing  them  back  from  the 
scarps  and  breaking  them  into  directions  l)est  suited 
for  defense,  are  to  be  met  with  in  Clias-seloup's  prop- 
ositions. His  proposals  for  lengthening  the  baslion- 
rtanks  and  occupying  the  .salient  plaees-of-amis  by 
redoubts  with  considerable  command  are  to  be  found 
in  the  methods  of  De  La  Chichc.  To  Virgin  he 
seems  to  be  indebted  for  his  organization  of  interior 
retrenchments,  which  are  to  convert  each  bastion  into 
an  independent  work,  equally  provided  for  defense 
I  ag:nnst  approaches  both  from  the  interior  and  exte- 
rior of  the  enceinte.  Like  disputants,  \isually,  of  an 
ardent  temperament,  he  overestimates  the  value  of 
many  of  his  propositions  and  loses  sight  of  their 
countervailing  defect.  By  laying  down  as  a  princi- 
jile  what  ma\'  be  exceptionally  good  in  practice,  he 
has  rather  weakened  his  own  positions.  This  is  the 
ca.se,  particularly,  with  his  rule  of  independence  of 
the  parapets  on  the  scarps,  which,  if  adopted  in  all 
cases,  might  demand  a  greatly  increased  and  hurtful 
command,  and  cut  up  to  great  disadvantage  the  inte- 
rior spaces  of  the  bastions.  His  introduction  of  the 
rliemins  de  ronde  on  the  faces  of  the  bistion  and  (he 
demi-lime  adds  really  verj-  little,  if  at  all,  to  the  ex- 
terior defense;  whilst  they  contract  the  interior  space 
of  these  works,  break  in  upon  the  unity  of  the  de- 
fense, and  place  the  troops  in  them  in  a  very  exposed 
|X)sitiou  to  the  means  of  annoyance  possessed  by  the 
l)esieger.  HLs  expectations  with  respect  to  the  effect 
of  hisfireiuthedireelionof  the  capitals,  in  delating  the 
besieger's  approach  to  the  third  parallel,  were  hardly 
warranted  by  the  experience  gained  in  artillerj-  and 
small-arms,  even  at  the  time  the  last  edition  of  his 
memoirs  a|)peared.  It  is  hardly  to  be  questioned, 
now  that  these  weapons  have  been  so  greatly  im- 
proved, I)Oth  in  range  and  accuracy  of  fire,  that,  con- 
sidering the  increased  development  of  the  besieger's 
parallels,  which  gives  him  a  choice  of  positions  for 
his  batteries  on.. so  extended  a  line,  the  concentrated 
fire  he  could  bring  to  bear  on  the  batteries  in  question 
would  not  only  s<K>n  ruin  their  casemates,  but  would 
greatly  damage  the  adjacent  faces  and  also  the  flanks 
of  the  bastions,  although  covered  from  enlilatling 
views,  either  by  the  direction  of  the  parapets  of  the 
faces  or  the  high  traverses  raised  with  the  same  ob- 
ject. The.se  advantages  in  the  position  of  the  be- 
sieger, it  is  thought,  would  prevent  any  delay  in  push- 
ing forward  his  approaches  up  to  the  third  parallel. 
After  this  the  approaches  would  probidily  be  retarded 
beyond  the  usual  time  in  the  attack  on  Cormon 
tafgne's  front,  owing  chiefly  to  the  redoubts  in  the 


CHBIST. 


352 


CHSONOOBAPH. 


biu«(iuii  anil  tloinilunc  sjilifiit  placcs-ofiinns,  anil  the 
iirrmjreim-iil  of  the  faoccoviT  in  Ihi-  enifiole-ilitrli. 
Supitosinji  an  i-ntriiilt  organizitl  ac('t)n.liii!;  to  liis 
nu'tboil,  ami  containiii!.'  inlericr  rt'lrentliincnts  loop- 
ixx'  till'  iK'sii'fciT's  ai>pRHU'hes  lx)tb  from  without  and 
within  the  eneeinti-.  Clionniara  estimates  at  least  six 
ceimnite  epoelis  of  breachinLT-batteries,  ivs  follows: 
1st.  against  the  redoubt  of  the  demilune  sidient 
plaeenl^f-amis;  id.  agiiinst  the  demilune  and  the 
nxloubt  of  the  Imstion  sidient  plaee-of  arms;  3d, 
upiin^t  the  bastions;  4th,  against  the  Imstion-retreneh- 
raent;  5th,  agiunst  the  retired  rctrenehment;  0th,  and 
tinully,  agjiinst  the  bastions  converted  into  eitadels  by 
the  fronts  with  whieh  their  gorges  art  closed.  Ac- 
i-ordiug  to  the  estimates  of  the  time  made  by  C'hou- 
mara,  it  would  require  112  days  from  the  opening  of 
the  trenches  to  the  final  a.ssault  and  reduction  of  last 
defenses.     See  Fortificnthii  and  Syxtcm  of  Fuitifica- 

tioll. 

CHBIST. — The  Portuguese  Order  of  Christ  has  an 
interesting  history.  AVhcn  the  Teniiilars  were  ex- 
pelled from  France,  and  their  imijicrly  coiiliscated  by 
Philippe  le  Bel,  with  the  siuictiou  of"  Pope  Clement 
v.,  they  were  received  into  Portugal,  and  their  Order 
revived  in  131"  under  the  title  of  "  The  Order  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ."  With  some  difficulty  Pope  John 
XXII.  was  induced  to  siuiction  the  new  order.  The 
Knights  of  the  Order  of  Christ  joined  the  Portuguese 
in  all  their  crusiides  agiunst  the  inlidel,  and  also  in 
their  African  and  In<lian  expeditions,  receiving  in 
compensiition  continual  additions  to  their  own  po.sses- 
sions.  The  Grand  Prior  of  the  Order  was  invested  by 
Pope  Calixtus  III.  with  power  equal  to  that  of  "a 
bishop;  and  !is  an  encouragement  to  adventure,  the 
Knights  were  promised  all  the  countries  which  they 
might  discover,  to  be  held  under  the  protection  of 
Portugal.  At  length  their 
wealth  and  power  excited 
the  jealousy  of  the  kings  of 
Portugal;  their  future  ac- 
quisitions, and,  subsequent- 
ly, even  their  actual  jios- 
scssious,  were  declared  to  i 
be  Crown  posses,sions,  and 
the  offices  of  Admini.stnitor 
and  Grand-master  were 
tnuisferred  to  the  Crown. 
A  tine  cloister  belonging  to 
the  Order  is  still  to  be  seen 
at  Tomar,  to  which  place 
Star  of  the  Portii(ruese  Oril.-r  the  seat  of  the  order  Wiis 
of  Christ.  transferred     from    Ca.stro- 

Marino  in  1366.  Noble  desceii',  and  three  years' 
niiliUiry  service  against  the  inlidel,  were  required 
for  admission.  The  members  took  the  three  monk- 
ish vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  till 
the  Pope  released  them  from'the  first  two,  on  con- 
dition of  their  applying  the  third  part  of  their  rev- 
enues to  the  suiiiiort  of  Tomar  cloister,  the  iiriests  of 
which  were  bound  by  the  three  vows.  This  cloister 
Is  now  a  theological  institution  for  the  instruction  of 
the  priests  of  the  Order.  It  is  said  that  the  Order 
still  posscs.si-s  26  villages  and  farms,  and  4:M  jirebends. 
It  is  very  numerous— consisting  of  six  Knights  of  the 
Grand  Cross,  450  Commanders,  and  iin  utdimited 
n\iml>er  of  Knights.  Clatholics  of  noble  descent  alone 
arc|  admitted,  and  foreigners  arc  excluded  from  par- 
ticipation in  the  revenius,  beini;  cxemiiled  in  return 
from  Its  rules.  The  Papal  (Jrder  of  Chri.st  is  a  branch 
of  the  Portuguese  Order,  created  by  Pope  John  XXII., 
and  lia.s  only  one  clas.s. 

CHRISTIAN  CHARITY.— Knioiits  of  the  Oiidkii 
OK  CiiiiisTiAN  CiiAitiTYwas  the  name  of  an  Order 
instituted  liy  King  Henry  III.  of  France  for  the  sup- 
iw)rt  of  maimed  officers  and  soldiers  who  ha(i  done 
giKKl  service  in  the  wars.  He  assigned  revenues  to  [ 
the  Onler,  drawn  from  all  the  hospitals  in  the  king-  ' 
dom.  The  Knifrhls  wore  on  the  left  breast  an  anchor 
cd  cross  embroidered  on  white  tafTety  or  satin,  with  a 
bf>rderof  blue  silk,  and  in  the  middle  of   the  crois  a 


lozenge  of  sky-blue  charged  with  a  jUiir-de-Us  or. 
The  completion  of  the  Institution  was  reserved  for 
Henry  IV.,  ^vho  placed  it  under  the  charge  of  the 
Marshals  and  Colonels  of  France;  and  by  means  of  it, 
many  of  those  who  had  .served  their  country  faithfully 
were  enabled  to  s|x>nd  the  latter  [wrtiou  of  their  lives 
iu  peace  and  above  want.  The  Order  formed  the 
germ  of  that  noble  hospital,  the  Intalidex,  which  was 
fouiulcd  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  which  served  as  a  model 
for  the  English  hospitals  of  Chelsea  and  Greenwich. 
When  the  Invalides  was  founded,  the  Order  of  Chris- 
tian Cliarily  was  superseded. 

CHROMATICS. — That  jtart  of  the  science  of  optics 
which  explains  the  properties  of  the  colors  of  light 
and  of  natural  bodies.  Before  1666,  when  Sir  Isaac 
Kewlon  began  to  investigate  this  subject,  the  notions 
which  iirevailed  respecting  the  nature  of  colors  were 
purely  fanciful.  Till  Descartes'  time,  indeed,  it  seems 
not  to  have  been  conceived  tliat  color  had  anything  to 
do  with  light.  As  examples  of  the  notions  prevalent 
at  very  early  times,  we  may  cite  those  propounded  by 
Pythagoras  and  Zeuo. 

CHBOMATYPE. — A  photographic  process,  thus  de- 
scribed by  its  discoverer,  Mr.  R.  Hunt :  One  dram  of 
sulphate  of  copper  is  dissolved  in  one  otmce  of  dis- 
tilled water,  to  which  is  added  half  an  ounce  of  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  bichromate  of  potash;  this  solution 
is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  paper,  and  when  dry 
it  is  fit  for  use,  and  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of 
time  without  spoiling.  When  exposed  to  sunshine, 
the  first  change  is  to  a  dull  brown,  and  if  checked  in 
this  stage  of  the  process  we  get  a  negative  picture; 
but  if  the  action  of  light  is  continued  the  browning 
gives  way,  and  a  positive  yellow  picture  on  a  white 
ground  is  obtained.  In  either  case,  if  the  paper,  when 
removed  from  sunshine,  is  washed  over  with  a  solu- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver,  a  ''ery  beautiful  positive  pic- 
ture results.  In  practice  it  will  be  found  ad\anta- 
geous  to  allow  the  bleaching  action  to  go  on  to  some 
extent;  the  picture  resulting  from  this  will  be  deiirer 
and  more  defined  than  that  obtained  when  the  action 
is  checked  at  the  brown  stage.  To  fix  these  pictures 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  nitrate  of  silver,  which 
is  doni^  by  washing  them  in  pure  water.  If  the  water 
contains  any  chloride,  the  picture  suffers,  and  long 
.soaking  in  such  water  obliterates  it — or,  if  a  few 
grains  of  common  salt  be  added,  the  apparent  destruc- 
tion is  rapid.  The  picture  is,  however,  capable  of 
restoration,  all  that  is  necessary  being  to  expo.se  it  to 
sunshine  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  when  it  revives; 
but  instead  of  being  of  a  red  color,  it  assumes  a  lilac 
tint,  the  shades  of  color  depending  upon  the  quantity 
of  salt  used  to  decomjiosc  the  chromate  of  silver  which 
forms  the  shadow  parts  of  the  picture.  Mr.  Bing- 
ham suggested  the  substitution  of  sulphate  of  nickel 
for  sulphate  of  copper,  as  yielding  a  higher  degree  of 
sensitiveness  and  greater  definition.  Neither  process 
has  been  much  used. 

CHRONOGRAPH.  — Different  forms  of  time-meas- 
urers, or  lime-recorders,  under  this  designation,  have 
been  inveiiled  williin  a  recent  period.  Benson's  cliro- 
nograiih  is  intended  to  mea.sure  intervals  of  time  down 
to  tenths  of  a  second,  for  use  at  horse  races  and  other 
occasions  where  a  seconds- watch  is  not  exactly  suited. 
It  has  an  ordinary  quick  train-lever  movement,  carry- 
ing hands  which  move  over  a  dial.  One  of  these  is  a 
seconds-hand,  very  peculiarly  made.  The  seconds- 
hand  is  double,  consisting  of  two  distinct  hands,  one 
8uperiios<>d  on  the  other.  The  outer  end  of  the  low- 
ermost hand  has  a  small  cup  with  a  minute  hole  at  the 
liottom;  while  the  corresponding  end  of  the  uppermost 
hand  is  bent  over  so  as  exactly  to  reach  this  punc- 
ture. The  little  cup  is  filled  with  ink  having  a  con- 
sistency between  that  of  writing-fluid  and  printers' 
ink.  Suppose  that  a  horse-race  is  about  to  take  place. 
The  observer  keeps  a  steady  lookout  for  the  fall  of 
the  starter's  flag,  or  whatever  the  signal  may  be:  he 
gives  a  i)ull  to  a  cord  or  string  connected  with  the 
mechanism  peculiar  to  the  instrument;  by  this  move- 
ment the  outer  and  bent  end  of  the  upper  seconds- 


CHRONOMETEB. 


353 


CHUCK. 


hand  dips  down  through  the  ink-cup  in  the  lower  ! 
hand,  and  through  the  puncture  to  the  dial.  A 
small  black  spot  or  mark  is  thus  made  upon  the  dial- 
plate;  and  this  is  repeated  a."  each  horse  passes  the 
winning-post.  If  the  eye  and  hand  of  the  operator 
are  quick  and  accurate,  there  is  a  reliable  record  thas 
presented  by  the  instrument  of  the  duration  of  the  nice, 
sometimes  as  close  as  one  tenth  of  a  .second.  The  in- 
strument is  now  adopted  at  the  principal  races  lus  a 
.suitable  one  for  the  purpose;  thus  it  is  used  for  races 
such  as  the  Derby,  the  Oaks,  the  Goodwood,  the  8t. 
Leger,  etc.  It  U  also  availal)le  for  many  other  pur- 
poses. Strange 's  chronogmph  is  designed  for  a  more 
scientific  purpose,  and  constructed  with  more  careful 
details.  The  object  is  to  measure  extremely  short  in- 
tervals of  time,  for  the  determination  of  longitudes  in 
great  trigonometrical  surveys.  The  observer,  when  a 
particular  star  traverses  the  tield  of  his  telescope, 
touches  a  small  ivorj'  key;  and  on  the  instant  a  dot 
or  mark  appe;irs  on  a  sheet  of  paper  coiled  round  a 
barrel.  The  in.striunent  being  connected  with  an  a.s- 
tronomical  clock,  there  is  a  dot  made  for  every  lx!at 
of  the  pendulum;  and  as  these  dot-s  are  a  considerable 
space  apart  (considerable,  that  is,  for  the  retined  in- 
strument.s  of  the  present  dav),  it  is  possible  to  deter- 
mine so  wonderfully  minute  an  interval   as  the  one 


ceased.  The  phenomenon  is  observed  by  reflection  in 
a  mirror,  in  such  rapid  motion  that  the  image  of  the 
luminous  object  would  appear  to  dcscrilx;  a  circle, 
sui>ix)sing  the  luminosity  to  endure  long  enouph. 
Should  the  phenomenon  be  instantaneous,  the  image 
will  appear  as  a  mere  ix)int;  should  it  la.sl  for  an  ap- 
preciable time,  the  image  will  form  an  arc,  greater  or 
less,  of  the  circle.  The  electric  spark  is  found  by  this 
test  to  have  no  duration.  See  lias/iforth  Chronuyrnpli, 
BeiiUiit  Threiul-cdocimeter,  Electric  CUjtsydra,  Le  Boii- 
lenye  Cliri>no'jraph,  yaret-Leurs  Clironosa/pe,  Iioble 
Chrono.Hci>pe,  and  IScJtultz  Chrorwuope. 

CHEYSOTYPE.— A  photographic  process  invented 
by  Sir  John  Herschel,  and  (lepending  for  its  success 
on  the  reduction  of  a  persidt  of  iron  to  the  state  of 
protosalt  by  the  action  of  light,  and  the  subsequent 
precipitation  of  metallic  golfl  upon  this  protosalt  of 
iron.  The  process  is  conducted  as  follows:  Good  paper 
is  immersed  in  a  solution  of  anmionio-citrate  of  iron 
of  such  a  strength  as  to  dry  into  a  good  yellow  color, 
without  any  tinge  of  lirown  in  it.  It  is  then  exposed 
to  light  under  a  negative  until  a  faint  impression  is 
obtained.  A  neutral  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  is 
then  brushed  over  the  paper,  when  the  picture  imme- 
diately appears,  and  is  rapidly  developed  to  a  purple 
tint.     It  should  then  be  very  freely  washed  in  several 


Chucks. 


hundredth  of  a  second.  Other  forms  of  chronographs 
have  been  adopted  by  astronomer.  One  was  sug 
gested  by  Professor  C.  A.  Young  in  186()  to  assume 
the  functions  of  a  recording  chronograph,  by  marking 
the  instant  of  observation  in  hours,  minutes,  seconds, 
and  hundredths  of  a  second,  in  printed  characters, 
and  in  a  form  suitable  for  preservation  and  reduction. 
Chronographs  connected  with  electric  and  magnetic 
apparatus  arc  ased  for  determining  the  velocity  of 
projectiles.  Many  forms  have  been  demised  by  Xoble, 
Basbforth,  Navez,  Le  Boulenge,  and  other  inventors. 
The  most  general  arrangement  consists  in  caasing  the 
bullet  to  pass  through  a  series  of  screens;  the  rupture 
of  ejich  screen  breaks  for  a  moment  the  continuity  of 
an  electric  current,  sets  in  action  an  electro-magnetic 
apparatus,  and  makes  a  permanent  mark  or  record. 
See  Vhronmrope. 

CHRONOMETEE.— The  name  given  to  a  common 
form  of  time-measurer.  The  mechanism  is  essentially 
the  same  as  that  of  a  common  watch;  only  the  size  is 
generally  greater,  and  additional  precautions  are 
taken  to  secure  regularity  under  changes  of  tempera- 
ture and  other  deranging  influences.     See  Jlorolayy. 

CHEONOSCOPE.— An  instniment  contrived  by  Sir 
Charles  Wheatstone  to  measure  the  duration  of  cer- 
tain short-lived  luminous  phenomena,  such  as  the 
electric  spark,  of  which  the  eye  itself  can  be  no 
judge,  owing  to  the  persistence  of  impras.sions  of 
light  on  the  eye  after  the  cause  of  sensalioa  has 


changes  of  water,  fixed  with  a  weak  solution  of  io- 
dide of  potassium,  and  again  ihoroughlj'  washed  and 
dried.  The  action  of  the  iodide  of  potas.sium  is  to 
convert  any  unaltered  chloride  of  gold  into  a  sf)luble 
double  iodide  of  gold  and  potassium,  thus  rendering 
the  pi<ture  permanent. 

CHUCK. — An  appendage  to  a  lathe.  Being  screwed 
on  to  the  no.se  of  tlie  mandrel,  it  is  made  to  grasp  the 
work  to  be  turned.  There  are  many  varieties;  the 
eccintric,  elliptic  or  oral,  and  geometric  chucks,  with 
their  combinations,  are  principally  used  in  the  arsenal. 

The  eccentric  chuck  is  designed  for  changing  the 
center  of  the  work,  and  consists  of  two  principal 
pieces;  one  attachable  to  the  mandrel  of  the  lathe,  and 
the  other  adjustable,  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  motion,  in  a  dovetail  groove  of  the  former 
piece.     The  sliding  piece  is  moved  by  a  sc>t-screw. 

The  elliptic  or  oval  chuck  consists  of  three  parts 
— the  ehuck,  the  slider,  and  the  eccentric  circle.  The 
chuck  is  secured  to  and  partakes  of  the  circular  motion 
of  the  mandrel.  In  front  of  the  chuck  is  a  dovetail 
groove  for  the  reception  of  a  slider,  from  the  center 
of  which  projects  a  screw  to  which  the  work  is  at- 
tached. As  the  work  turns  round,  it  has  a  sliding  mo- 
tion across  the  center  which  generates  an  ellipse.  The 
sliding  motion  is  produced  bv  im  eccentric  circle  or 
ring  of  brass  firmly  fastened  to  the  puppet  of  the 
lathe  close  to  the  collar  in  which  the  neck  of  the 
mandrel  runs. 


OHUCKING-HACHIHE. 


354 


CIMBBI. 


The  geometric  chuck  has  a  radial  slider  to  which 
the  work  is  ullachctl,  and  this  is  so  govcmwl  as  to 
pive  a  (•oniliincd  circular  motion  and  radial  oscilla- 
tion to  tlic  work  relatively  to  the  tool. 

Fi^'.  1  n>pres«'uls  the  Pond  independent  four-jaw 
lathe-chuck.  Each  jaw  is  worked  indeix-ndcntly  by 
its  own  screw,  thus  adapting  it  to  hold  any  irregular- 


regular  shaped  pieces,  and  can  be  quickly  adjusted 
from  their  least  to  their  greatest  capacity.  The 
round  swivel-ba.se  chucks  are  accurately  graduated, 
and  the  swivel  is  held  in  place  by  a  single  screw. 
Sec  Ctishmaii  Vombiiuit  ion -chuck,  Ilorlim  Lathe-chuck, 
Latiie,  Siceetland  Chuck,  and  ^Yelltcott  Combinalion- 
ckuck. 


I'Uuier-chucks. 


Flu.  4. 


shaped  piece,  as  well  as  round,  stiuare,  or  eccentric 
forms.  The  jaws  are  wTOUght-iron  ca.se-hardened; 
steel  screws  operating  jaws  are  secured  in  the  hub  of 
the  chuck  to  prevent  irregular  wear  of  same.  This 
chuck  has  a  solid  hub  so  that  it  can  be  placed  dirtct- 
ly  on  the  lathe  spindle,  thus  bringing  it  nearer  to 
the  spindle-bearing  and  making  less  strain  on  llic 
spinille;  or  the  face-plates  can  Ix-  tilted  to  it,  making 
the  same  chuck  fit  different  lathes. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  Skinner  combination-chuck, 
which  may  be  readily  changed  from  ind*pemknt  to 
vnicerml,  and  rice  term.  To  make  the  former  change, 
it  is  only  nece.ssiiry  to  set  all  the  jaws  true  on  the  line 
on  face  "of  the  chiick,  then  slide  the  stud  on  the  back 
of  the  chuck  to  the  extreme  end  of  slot  and  fasten  it 


CHUCKING-MACHINE.— A  machine  used  in  the  ar- 
mory for  work  on  lock-parts  and  in  chambering  the 
barrels.  The  drawing  shows  the  machine  as  made 
by  the  Pratt  and  'Whitney  Company,  with  horizon- 
tjil  revolving  bead.  It  is  designeil  for  a  variety  of 
work,  such  as  drilling,  facing,  and  tapping  lioles 
before  removing  the  piece  to  be  finished  from  the 
chuck  or  face-plate.  The  revolving  head  carries 
.several  spindles  for  the  reception  of  tools.  Each  one 
is  brought  to  the  work  successively  by  a  single  move- 
ment of  a  lever  or  handle,  and  is  fed  forward  by  a 
rack  and  pinion,  operated  b_v  a  convenient  hand-wheel. 
The  machine  is  rapid  in  its  operation  and  very  accu- 
rate in  its  results.  The  number  of  spindles  in  the 
head  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  work  to  be  done,  and 


Chucklng-machlne. 


there  by  .screwing  down  the  nut.  If  the  jaws  do  not 
come  to  center  true,  it  is  because  they  were  not  all 
set  alike  before  throwing  llie  nick  into  gear.  To 
make  the  latter  change,  unscrew  the  nut  and  slide  the 
stud  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  slot  and  fasten  it  there 
by  means  of  the  nut. 

Figs.  3  and  4  reiiresent  the  Prouty  planer  chucks. 
Fig.  H  shows  the  s(|uare  base,  and  Fig,  4  shows  a  round 
swivel  base.    These  chucks  will  hold  regular  or  ir- 


the  length  of  the  bed  may  be  increased  or  diminished 
as  desired.  The  machine  is  made  in  three  .sizes,  13, 
18,  and  24  inches  swing.     See  Drillinp-nmchinf. 

CHUCKLEE.— An  Indian  temi,  signifj-ing  a  cobbler, 
or  worker  in  leather.  This  cla.ss  of  men  is  employed 
in  all  the  government  establishments  in  India  where 
leather-work  is  made  up. 

CIMBRI—KIMBRI.— A  people  who  issued  from  the 
Korth  of  Germany  in  conjunction  with  the  Teutons, 


CIHETEB. 


355 


CIRCLE. 


and  first  came  into  hostile  contact  with  the  Romans 
in  the  Eastern  Alps  in  113  B.C.  They  were  victorious 
in  several  great  engagements,  and  were  only  prevented 
from  devastating  Italy  hy  sustaining  a  terrible  defeat 
from  Marius,  on  the  Riiudii  Campi,  near  Verona,  or, 
according  to  others,  near  Vercclli,  101  B.C.  Their 
infantry  fought  with  their  .shields  fastened  together 
bj'  long  chains  ;  their  horsemen,  of  whom  they  had 
1.5,0()0,  were  well  armed  with  helmet,  coat  of  mail, 
shield,  and  spear.  Marius  had  so  chosen  his  position 
that  the  sun  and  dust  were  in  their  faces,  and  yet 
they  contested  the  victory  most  bravely  with  the 
Romans,  who  were  0.5,001)  strong.  When  the  battle 
was  lost,  the  women,  who  remained  in  the  camp 
formed  of  the  wagons,  killed  themselves  and  their 
children.  It  is  said  that  140,000  Cimbri  fell  in  the 
battle;  the  number  of  prisoners  being  given  at  60,000. 
It  is  not  till  long  afterwards,  when  the  Romans  them- 
selves penetrated  into  Gennany,  that  the  name  of  the 
Cimbri  again  appears.  Cicsiir  represents  the  Aduatici 
of  Belgium  as  the  descendants  of  the  Cimbri  and  the 
Teutons.  Tacitus  speaks  of  a  people  bearing  the 
name  of  Cimbri,  few  in  number,  but  of  great  reputa- 
tion, that  .sent  ambassadors  to  Augustus.  This  people 
lived  in  the  extreme  North  of  Germany,  on  the  borders 
of  the  ocean;  according  to  Pliny  and  Ptolemy,  at  the 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  called  from  them  the  Cira- 
bric  Chersonese,  now  Jiitland.  The  ethnology  of  the 
Cimbri  is  doubtful.  Greek  writers  a.ssociated  them 
groundlessly  with  the  Cimmerians;  Sallust  calls  them 
Gauls;  CiTJsar,  Tacitus,  and  Plutarch  looked  upon 
them  as  Germans,  and  the  opinion  of  their  German 
origin  has  been  adopted  by  most  moderns.  Yet  H. 
Midler,  in  his  Marken  ile«  Vaterlands  (1837),  has  en- 
deavored to  show  that  they  belonged  to  tlie  Celtic 
race,  and  lived  originally  on  the  Northeast  of  the 
Belga?,  of  kindred  origin;  and  that  their  name  is  the 
same  as  that  Ijy  whicli  the  Celts  of  Wales  designate 
themselves  to  this  day — Ci/mii. 

CIMETES. — An  Oriental  cavalry-sword  with  a  blade 
of  great  curvature.  It  is  mu<h  used  by  the  Persians 
and  Turks,  and  is  often  written  •Scimeier. 

CIMIER. — A  heavy  ornament  which  the  ancient 
knights  or  chevaliers  in  France  and  in  other  countries 
were  accustomed  to  wear  upon  their  helmets;  small 
figures  were  afterwards  substituted  in  their  stead. 

CINCH — CINCHA. — A  strong  canvas  girth  used  in 
packing.  It  is  about  1  yard  long  by  11  inches  wide. 
Two  rectangular  pieces  of  leather,  8  inches  long  by 
5|  inches  wide,  are  stitched  on  one  end,  one  on  either 
.side;  in  one  of  these  pieces  of  leather  there  is  a  slit 
through  which  a  hard-wood  hook  is  passed  and  firmly 
fastened  with  a  leather  thong.  A  ring,  3  inches  in 
diameter,  is  securely  stitched  in  the  other  end  of  the 
cineha.     See  Hammer-ehth,  Lash-rope,  and  Packing. 

CINCINNATI.  —  A  Society  or  Order  in  the  United 
States  of  North  America  established  by  the  officers 
of  the  Revolutionary  Army  in  1783,  "to  perpetuate 
their  friendship,  and  to  raise  a  fimd  for  relieving  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  those  who  had  fallen  during 
the  war."  It  wa,s  so  named  because  it  included  pa- 
triots, headed  by  Washington,  who  in  many  instances 
had  left  rural  affairs  to  serve  their  country.  The 
badge  of  the  society  is  a  bal<I  eagle  suspended  by  a 
dark  blue  ribbon  with  white  borders,  sjTnbolizing  the 
union  of  France  and  America.  On  the  breast  of  the 
eagle  there  isa  figure  of  Cincinni-tus  receiving  the  5Iili- 
tary  Ensigns  from  the  Senators,  with  the  plow  in  the 
background;  round  the  whole  are  the  words.  Omnia 
reliquit  aerrnre  rempublicam.  On  the  reverse,  the  Siime 
hero  is  represented  crowned  by  fame  with  a  wreath 
on  which  is  inscribed  Virtutin  praniium,  etc.  As  this 
distinction  was  made  hereditary,  it  was  attjickcd  as 
opposed  to  republican  equality.  Franklin  saw  in  it 
the  germ  of  a  future  aristocracy,  and  at  a  meeting 
held  in  Philadelphia  in  1784  several  changes  were 
made  in  the  (Constitution  of  the  Society,  and  in  several 
of  the  States  it  was  quietly  abolished.  "  There  are  still, 
however,  several  State  Societies,  which  hold  a  general 
meeting  by  delegates  triennially. 


CINQUAIN. — In  ancient  militaiy  history,  an  order 
of  battle  1(1  draw  tip  five  battalions  so  that  they  might 
make  three  lines,  that  is,  a  van,  main  body,  and  reserve. 

CINQUEFOIL.— A  conunon  bearmg  in  Heraldry.  It 
is  usually  depicted  with  the  leaves  issuing  from  a  ball 
as  a  center  point.  Cinquefoil,  in  architecture,  is  an 
ornamental  foliation  in  five  compartments,  used  in  the 
tracery  of  windows,  panelings,  and  the  like.  The 
cinquefoil  is  often  represented  in  a  circular  form,  the 
spaces  between  the  ])oinls  or  cusps  representing  the 
fivi!  leaves.  The  cinquefoil  of  Heraldrj'  and  of  ar- 
chitecture is  not  derived  from  any  leaf  of  five  leaf- 
lets, but,  as  its  perfect  regularity  of  form  indicates, 
from  the  fiower  of  the  plant  called  cinquefoil, 
{I'oleiitill/i),  or  other  similar  fiow'cr  of  five  petals  or 
leaeex.  The  cinciuefoil  thus  closely  reseml)les  the 
rose,  with  which  it  would,  indeed,  l)e  identified,  but 
that  a  double  and  not  a  single  rose  is  chosen  for  the 
purposes  ot  Heraldry  and  decorative  art. 

CIPHER. — A  preconcerted  enigmatical  system  of 
communication.  Much  uscfl  in  war  when  dispatch- 
es arc  liable  to  interception  by  the  enemy, — both 
for  written  commimication  and  for  signaling.  See 
C'ri//)t<>(/ntpfii/. 

CIRCITORES.— A  name  generally  applied,  in  the 
Roman  armies,  to  the  men  who  inspected  the  .senti- 
nels. 

CIRCLE. — A  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  curved 
line,  which  returns  into  itself,  called  its  circumference, 
and  which  is  everywhere  equally  distant  from  a  jwint 
within  it  called  the  center  of  the  circle.  The  circum- 
ference is  sometimes  itself  called  the  circle,  but  this 
is  improper;  circle  is  truly  the  name  given  to  the 
space  contained  within  the  circvunference.  Any  line 
drawn  through  the  center  and  terminated  by  the  cir- 
cumference is  a  diameter.  It  is  obvious  that  every 
diameter  is  bisected  in  the  center.  In  co-ordinate 
geometry  the  circle  ranks  as  a  curve  of  the  second 
order,  and  belongs  to  the  cla.ss  of  the  conic  sections. 
It  is  got  from  the  right  cone  by  cutting  the  cone  by  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  its  axis.  As  an  clement  in 
plane  geometry,  its  properties  are  well  known  and 
investigated  in  all  the  text-books.  Only  a  few  of  the 
leading  properties  %vill  here  be  stated.  1.  Of  all 
plane  figures,  the  circle  has  the  greatest  area  within 
the  same  perimeter.  2.  The  circumference  of  a  cir- 
cle bears  a  certain  constant  ratio  to  its  diameter.  This 
constant  ratio,  which  mathematicians  usually  denote 
by  the  Greek  letter  n,  has  been  determined  to  be 
3"l41.'59  nearly,  so  that  if  the  diameter  of  a  circle  is 
1  foot,  its  circumference  is  3. 141.19  feet.  Archimedes, 
in  his  book  De  Dimennione  Circnli,  first  gave  a  near 
value  to  the  ratio  between  the  circimiference  and  the 
diameter,  being  that  of  7  to  22.  Various  closer 
approximations  in  large  numbers  were  afterwards 
made,  as,  for  instance,  the  ratio  of  1815  to  5702. 
Vieta,  in  1579,  showed  that  if  the  diameterof  a  circle 
be  1000,  etc  ,  then  the  circumference  will  be  greater 
than  3141. .5926535  and  less  than  3141.5926.J37.  This 
approximation  he  made  through  ascertaining  the 
perimeters  of  the  inseiibed  and  circum.scribed  poly- 
gons of  393,216  sides.  By  increasing  the  number  of 
the  sides  of  the  polygons,  their  peiimeters  are  brought 
more  and  more  nearly  into  coincidence  with  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  circle.  The  approximation  to  the 
value  of  n  has  since  been  carried  to  128  places  of  fig- 
ures. It  is  now  settled  that  tt  belongs  to  the  class  of 
quantities  called  incommensurable,  i.e.,  it  cannot  be 
ex])re.ssed  by  the  ratio  of  any  two  whole  numbers, 
however  great.  Though  the  value  of  tt  was  at  first 
approached  by  actually  calc\dating  the  perimeter  of 
a  polygon  of  a  great  number  of  sides,  this  operose 
method  was  long  ago  superseded  by  modes  of  calcu- 
lation of  a  more  refined  chanicter,  which,  however, 
cannot  here  be  explained.  Suffice  it  to  s;iy,  that 
various  scries  were  formed  expressing  its  value;  by 
taking  more  and  more  of  the  terms  of  which  into 
account,  a  closer  and  closer  approach  to  the  value 
might  be  obtained.  We  subjoin  one  or  two  of  the 
more  curious. 


CIRCDIT-CLOSER. 


356 


CIRCUMFERENTOR. 


«r '     '     '  J. 


J j_ 

W.S    '     S.S         3.5. 

The  iireii  of  a  circle 


1 

S.7.9' 


«.ll^»  11.13 


^^.  The  iireii  of  a  circle  is  ctiiial  to  tt  multiplied  by 
the  sjjuiux'  of  the  radius  (=Tr'):  or  to  the  square  of 

thedianietermultipliedby  J:  i.e.,  by  .7854.     Euclid 

4 
hits  pmvml  this.  4.  The  circular  iiuasiirc  of  auglcs 
is  in  fntiucul  use  in  gunnery,  and  dcixMids  directly 
on  the  pr<i|x>silion  that  ani^Uwat  the  center  of  a  circle 
arc  pro|M.>rtional  to  the  arcs  on  which  they  stimd.  Let 
I'OA  lie  ail  angle  at  the  center  O  of  a  circle,  the 
melius  of  which  is  ;•,  and  let  the  length  of  the  arc 
\V  =  a.  Then  '»>lI-^^.l't)A_  ^  a  .  ^^^  ^  p^^  ^ 
2  right  angles      zr 

2  right  angles      a      „  .  j      .     , 

— 5- 5 —  .  — .     Now,  supposing  a  and  r  to  be 

given,  although  the  angle  POA  will  be  dptcrinine<l,  yet 
its  numerical  value  will  not  be  settled  unless  we  make 
some  convention  as  to  what  angle  we  shall  call  unity. 
\Ve  are  free  to  make  any  convenlion  we  plea.se,  and 
therefore  choose  such  a  one  as  will  render  the  pre- 
ceiling  equation  the   most  simple.     It  is  made  most 

simple  if  we  take  ~  "g''^  ""^'Igg  ^  i  We  shall  then 
have  (denoting  the  numerical  value  of  the  angle  POA 

by  )fj=     .    The  result  of  our  convention  is  that  the 
r 

numerical  value  of  two  right  angles  is  tt,  instead 
of  IW)'  as  in  the  method  of  angular  mea.surcment 
first  alluded  to;  and  the  unit  of  angle,  instead  of  being 

the  ninetieth  part  of  a  right  angle,  is  ?-"^^  """''^^ 
■or  .57'  17'  44  48  '  nearly.  Making  0  =  1  in  the  equa- 
tion 0  —  -_  wo  have  a  (or  AP)  =  r  (or  AO),  which 

shows  that  in  the  circular  measure  the  unit  of  angle 
is  that  angli'  which  is  subtended  by  an  arc  of  length 
equal  to  radius.  It  is  frc(|ueutly  a  matter  of  imliffer 
encc  which  mode  of  measuring  angles  is  adopted  ;  the 
circular  measure,  however,  is  generally  the  most  ad- 
vantageous, as  Ix'ing  the  briefest.  It  is  ea.sy  to  pass 
from  this  mode  of  measurement  to  the  sexagt'simal. 
If  0  be  the  circular  measure  of  an  angle,  the  angle 

contains  _  .  180';  conversely,  if  an  angle  contain  n", 

T 

it-s  circular  measure  is  -^  .  n- 
180 
CIRCUIT-CLOSER.— An  arrangement  bv  which  sub- 
marine mines  are  tired  electrically  bv  the  vessel  her- 
s«'lf  closing  the  circuit.  Circuit-clo.sers'are  of  two  cla.ss- 
es,  one  iM-ing  that  in  which  the  charge  and  the  circuit- 
closer  are  in  the  same  case,  an<l  the  other  is  where 
till-  circuit-closer  is  in  a  separate  ca.se,  liut  connected 
with  the  charge  of  the  mine  by  an  eleclrical  cable. 
Ill  l«illi  ways  the  conducting  cable  is  electrically 
charged  from  the  battery  on  shore  up  to  the  circuit- 
closer;  when  this  latter"  is  closed  by  contact  with  a 
iiostile  ve.'isel,  the  current  pas.ses  tlirougli  the  fuse  in 
the  charge  and  the  mine  is  exploded.  A  great  num- 
iK-r  of  dilTiTcnl  forms  of  l)otli  classes  have  been  in- 
venled.  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  complicated  and 
rcijiiirc  special  descriplion  and  study  lo  iiiidersland. 

To  ri-nihr  mines  thus  |)n]viile(l  wiih  circuilclosers 
harmles.s  lo  friendly  ve.s.sels  passintr.  it  would  be 
iieccswary  only  lo  detach  the  tiring  battery— an  opera- 
lion  usually  performed  by  the  operator  simply  re- 
moving a  small  plug.  In  "this  case  Ihc  circuit-clo.ser 
if  strongly  made,  may  Ix'  stnick  lime  and  again  with- 
out injury.  This  power  to  nsisi  heaw  blows  is 
es.s<niial  lo  ihe  clllciency  of  any  form  of  circuit-closer 
as,  when  in  position  in  a  channel  llirouirh  which  lliere 
is  much  Iralllc,  they  are  alw.ivs  liable  lo  be  struck 
with  considenible  force  liy  blades  of  screws,  Uoat.s  of 


paddles,  and  other  hard  and  sharp  bodies.  Another 
[•special  considenition  is  that  the  apparatus  for  closing 
the  circuit  shall  not  be  set  in  action  by  agitation  of 
the  water,  but  only  by  imi>acl  with  a  Boatuig  Ixxly. 
The  circuit-closer  must  fuithcrinorc  have  sullicient 
si/e  to  give  the  required  amount  of  inertia.  AVhen 
the  circuit-closer  and  charge  are  combined  in  the 
same  case,  this  is  assureti;  but  when  they  are  .sepa- 
rate, it  is  effected  by  inclosing  the  mechanism  in 
buoys  made  of  wood  or  metal.  The  greater  the  si/e 
and  weight  of  the  circuit-closer.  It"'  "reciter  will  be 
the  chances  of  the  effective  worl...^  oi  the  apparatus. 
The  destructive  power  of  a  mine  decreases  rapidly  jjs 
the  distance  from  it  iiicreiLses.  The  circuit-clo.ser 
I  should  not,  therefore,  l)e  beyondthe  effective  range  of 
I  the  mine.  Forty  lo  tifty  feet  should  be  Ihe  ma.\iinum 
{  distance  for  the  heaviest  charges.  See  Mines. 
\  CIRCULAR  CUTTER.— With  the  usual  pyramidal 
fonn  of  the  Kodraan  cutter  it  has  been  found  dillicult 
so  to  tile  the  faces  of  the  pyramid  as  to  have  two  cut- 
ters identical  in  form  and  dimensions.  The  idea  was 
therefore  conceived  of  turning  a  beveled  edge  with  a 
circular  protile  upon  the  iierimeter  of  a  steel  disk, 
thus  securing  the  perfect  agreement  of  all  cutters 
taken  from  that  disk.  The  special  advantage  of  the 
circular  cutting  or  indenting  edge  is  that  it  can  lie 
readily  pressed  into  the  indentation  pre\iously  made 
in  the  copper  disk  while  in  the  bore,  upon  its  removal 
to  tlie  (lyiKUiMineter,  or  testing-machine. 

In  the  pyramidal  cutter  it  is  difficult  to  make  the 
apex  of  the  pyramid  coincide  with  its  former  position 
in  ad.iiistiiig  it  to  get  the  reading  of  the  e»timiiU>r. 
Witli  the  circular  cutler  no  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  adjusting  its  edge  lo  the  bottom  of  the  indentaticm 
in  the  copi)er,  when  the  operator  wishes  to  make 
similar  secondary  cuts  for  determining  the  pressures. 
■  See  ^(iliimal  Arimrry  Vireular  VuUer,  Rodman  Cut- 
ter, and  Rodman  Tisflng-mnchine. 

CIRCULAR  SAW.— This  s;iw  was  introduced  into 
England  about  1790.  General  Bentham  contrived 
the  bench,  slit,  jiarallel  .guide,  and  .sliding-bevel  .ijuide. 
He  also  invented  circular  saws  made  of  .segmental 
plates.  In  the  modern  and  improved  machine,  the 
sjiw-arbor  is  carried  in  a  swinging  frame  provided 
with  an  adjusting-screw  for  regulating  its  height, 
and  a  clamp-screw  for  holding  it  rigidly  in  any'de- 
sired  position.  For  simiilicily  of  construction,  ease 
of  operation,  and  for  rigidity  in  use  this  arran.irement 
is  superior  to  all  others.  "To  render  the  machines 
free  from  vibration,  and  lo  avoid  the  difficulties  and 
I  disadvantages  incidental  to  the  u.se  of  short  belts,  ex- 
j  cessive  strain  upon  the  bearings,  difficulty  of  keeping 
I  bells  at  proper  tension,  etc.,  the  countershafts  are 
i  separate  from  the  machines.  In  setting  them  the 
following  rule  should  be  observed:  Set  the  saw  mid- 
way between  its  highest  and  its  lowest  working  i>osi- 
tions,  and  then  place  the  counter-shaft  in  a  straight 
line  with  the  arbor  and  the  shaft  on  which  the  arbor- 
frame  swings.     See  Biiiid-mir  Machiiw. 

CIRCUMFERENTOR.— 1.  A   surveying  instmment 
used  in  England  only  in  mines,  coal-pits,  etc.,  but  of 


common  occurrence  in  land-surveying  in  the  United 
States.  Many  of  the  olil-lashioned  surveyors  yet  use 
it,  though  it  is  disappe.'iring  as  Ihe  theodolite  liecomes 
more  and  more  commonly  known.— 2.  An  instrii 
ment  employed  to  measure  the  tires  of  wheels.     It 


CIECUMVALLATION. 


357 


CIVIL  EMPLOYES. 


consists  of  a  wheel  graduated  on  its  periphery  and 
axled  in  a  holder.  It  has  a  circumference  of  known 
length,  and  i.s  pas.sed  arounil  the  outside  of  the  rim  of 
a  wheel  to  ascertain  the  length  of  the  tire.  The  in- 
strument having  a  perimeter,  sjiy,  2  feet  in  circum- 
ference, the  zero  is  lirought  to  a  inarked  spot  on  the 
periphery  of  the  wheel  to  be  measured.  The  small 
wheel  is  then  caused  to  tra\el  around  the  larger,  and 
indicates  the  length  by  making  so  many  revolutions 
and  such  a  fraction  as  the  casi-  may  Ix-. "  The  instru- 
ment represented  in  the  drawing  and  known  as  the 
Green  River  circumferentor  Is  pro\-ided  with  an  in 
dex-hand,  which  saves  the  trouble  of  marking  the 
peripher\'. 

CIBCUMVALLATION.— In  fortification,  a  scries  of  { 
works  surrounding  a  place  when  under  siege,— not  to 
ser^'e  offensively  against  the  place,  but  to  defend  the 
siege-anny  froiii  an  attack  from  without.  It  usually 
consists  of  a  chain  of  redoubts,  either  isolated  or  con- 
nected by  a  line  of  parapet.  Such  lines  were  much 
ased  in  the  sieges  of  the  Ancient  and  Jliddle  Ages; 
but  in  modern  times  they  are  not  so  necessary,  because 
the  use  of  artillery  lessons  die  duration  of  a  .siege, 
and  also  because  the  besiegers  have  generally  a  corps 
of  observation  in  the  open  (ield,  ready  to  repel  any 
force  of  the  enemy  about  to  succor  the  besieged.  A 
remarkable  examjde  of  circumvallation  was  that  at 
Sebastopol,  where,  while  a  circuit  cf  batteriifs  tiied 
upon  the  town,  an  outer  circuit  of  redoubts  and  lines 
kept  off  the  Russians  who  were  in  the  open  field; 
but  the  necessity  for  this  arose  out  of  the  smallness 
of  the  besieging  "force  compared  with  that  of  the  be- 
sieged. The  narrow  escape  of  the  allies  from  utter 
overthrow  at  Inkermann  showed  the  necessity  for 
this  external  defense.     See  Cointerralkitwn. 

CIS. — A  Latin  preposition,  meaning  "  on  this  side," 
which  is  often  prefixed  to  the  names  of  rivers  and 
mountains  to  form  adjectives:  Cisalpine,  C'ispadane. 
"on  this  side  of  the  Alps,"  "  of  the  Po."  As  most 
of  these  words  are  of  Roman  origin,  Rome  is  con- 
sidered the  point  of  departure. 

CITADEL. — A  fort  of  four  or  five  bastions,  in  or 
near  a  town.  A  citadel  .serves  two  purposes :  it 
enables  the  garrison  of  a  town  to  keep  the  inhabitants 
in  subjection;  and,  in  case  of  a  siege,  it  forms  a  jilace 
of  retreat  for  the  tlefenders,  and  enables  them  to  hold 
out  after  the  re.st  of  the  town  has  been  captured.  A 
citadel  must  fully  command  the  fortifications  of  the 
city,  and  have  a  large  s]iace  round  it  clear  of  build- 
ings.    See  <'ii.ylt,  and  Fm-tijicalion. 

CIVIC  CEOWN.— A  crown  considered  aniona;  the 
Romans  more  honorable  than  any  other  reward.  It 
was  given  for  saving  the  life  of  .i  citizen  in  battle  or 
assa\ill.  It  was  given  to  Cicero  for  his  discovery  of 
Catiline's  Conspiracy,  and  to  the  Kmperor  Augustus. 
The  Civic  Crown  was  inereiy  a  wreath,  at  first  of 
twigs  of  elm,  then  of  Ix'ech,  and  lastly  of  oak.  The 
one  to  whom  it  was  given  had  the  right  to  wear  it 
always.  When  he  appeared  in  jiublic,  if  Senators 
were  present,  they  rose  to  do  him  honor,  and  he  was 
excused  from  all  troublesome  duties  and  services, 
with  the  same  immunities  for  his  father  and  his 
father's  father. 

CIVIEEE. — A  small  hand-barrow  which  is  carried 
bv  two  men.  and  is  much  used  by  the  artillery. 

CIVIL  AUTHOEITY.— The  relation  between  the 
military  and  civil  authorities  is  set  forth  in  the  59th 
Article  of  War.  Resix-ct  for  the  ci\il  authorities  is 
the  duty  of  all  citizens,  and  especially  of  those  in  the 
military  service.  As  the  objects  of  the  military  ser- 
vice are  of  national  interest,  it  is  very  dc  siralilc  that 
kindly  relations  exist  between  soldiers  and  other  citi- 
zens. A  ci\-il  officer  charged  with  the  execution  of 
process  should  receive  proper  facilities  for  its  service 
on  making  known  his  character  to  the  nearest  Com- 
manding Olliccr.      See   Civil  Serrkt  and  Posse  Coiii- 

iUtlnn, 

CIVIL  DEPARTMENTS.— Branches  of  the  British 
army  under  the  War  Office.  They  include  the 
Control  Department,  Medical  Department,  Veterinary 


Department,  Chaplain's  Department,  Education  De- 
partment, and  the  Administration  of  .Justice. 

CIVIL  EMPLOYES.— The  Chief  of  each  ^U'itan- 
Bureau  of  the  War  Department,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Secretary  of  War,  regulates  as  far  as  practi- 
cable the  employment  of  hired  citizens  required  for 
the  a<lministrative  service  of  his  Department.  He 
distributes  the  aggi-egate  number  which  can  be  al- 
lowed, whether  rated  as  clerks,  teamsters,  mechanics, 
or  laborers,  to  the  several  .Military  Departments  ac 
cording  to  the  innnberof  trtxjps  therein,  or  according 
to  the  work  to  be  done.  Except  for  the  Corps  of 
Engineers,  the  grades  of  pay  of  clerks  and  other  em- 
ployes under  the  Staff  Departments  of  the  army 
whose  siilaries  are  not  fixed  by  law  are  authorized  as 
follows:  There  are  six  clns.ses  of  clerkships,  and 
each  clerk  or  employe  within  the  scope  of  this  regu- 
lation is  graded  for  pay  in  accordance  therewith,  viz. : 


Class. 


First  class. .. 
Second  class 
Third  class. . 
Foiirlli  class 
Fifth  class.. 
Sixth  class.. 


Pay  per  Pay  per 

niomh. 

anuum. 

$83.1-1 

$1,000 

100  00 

1,300 

116  86 

1.400 

133  33 

1,600 

150  00 

1,800 

166  66 

3,000 

Any  compensation  greater  than  the  above  must 
receive  the  special  approval  and  sanction  of  the  Sec- 
retarj-  of  War;  but  nothing  in  this  regulation  is  con- 
strued as  prohibiting  the  payment  of  smaller  .salaries 
than  the  above  for  such  lower  grades  of  clerkships  as 
the  wants  of  the  service  may  require.  The  selection 
of  employes  as  clerks,  etc. ,  is  left  to  the  officer  em- 
plojing  them,  provided  such  selection  has  the  ap 
proval  of  the  Commander  of  the  Di^^sion  or  Depart- 
ment in  which  the  officer  may  be  serving,  and  the 
approval  of  the  Head  of  the  Militarj'  Bureau,  when 
serving  at  depots,  arsenals,  posts,  and  stations  not 
under  the  immediate  control  of  a  Division  or  Depart- 
ment Commander.  When  practicable,  persons  hired 
in  the  military'  service  are  paid  at  the  end  of  the  cal- 
endar month,  and  when  discharged.  When  r,  hired 
person  is  discharged  and  not  paid,  a  certified  state- 
ment of  his  personal  .services  and  of  wages  due  is 
given.  In  computing  the  wages  of  laborers  employed 
at  a  per-diem  allowance,  the  actual  niunber  of  days 
is  to  be  a.scertained  and  allowed.  The  day  on  which 
serWcc  begins  and  the  day  on  which  service  ends 
should  be  counted  in  the  computation  of  the  wages 
earned.  Laborers  emiiloyed  by  the  month  and  ac- 
tually perfomiing  their  first  day's  labor  on  the  31st 
day  of  any  month  are  paid  for  that  day.  Citizens  in 
the  emploj'  of  any  branch  of  the  military  service,  ex- 
cept laliorers,  teamsters,  and  like  classes  of  em])loyes, 
when  traveling  under  competent  orders,  or  upon  sum- 
mons as  w  ilnesses  before  Jlilitary  Courts,  are  entitled 
to  trans|ioi1ation  in  kind;  or,  if  no  transportation  be 
provided,  they  may  charge  the  cost,  actually  jjaid  by 
them,  of  travel  fare  by  the  usual  conveyances,  inclu- 
sive of  transfer  to  and  from  depots,  not  exceeding 
fifty  cents  each,  and  of  one  berth  in  sleeping-cars,  or 
on  ste.'imers  where  an  extra  charge  is  made  Ibercfor. 
Pa\ment  of  parlor-car  fare  is  prohibited.  In  addition 
to  ilie  above,  the  sum  of  four  dollars  per  day  west  of 
the  3Iis.si.ssippi  River,  and  three  dollai-s  and  a  quarter 
east  thereof,  is  allowed  for  each  and  every  day  un- 
avoidably consumed  in  travel,  or  on  duty  under  the 
order  or  .summons;  provided  that  where  meals  are 
included  in  the  transportation,  or  fare,  by  steamers, 
no  per  diem  shall  be  charged.  Laborers,  teamsters, 
and  like  classes  of  employes,  traveling  as  above  stated, 
are  entitled  to  stich  actual  and  necessary  exi)enses  on 
account  of  tninsporlation  and  subsistence  as  may  be 
authorized  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  which  make.s 
payment  of  the  account — except  when  the  employe 
is  in  receipt  of  a  ration  from  the  L'nited  States,  in 
which  ease,  if  it  be  impracticable  to  carry  his  rations 
\vith  him,  instead  of  expenses  of  subsistence,  as  above 


CIVILIAN. 


358 


CLEARANCE  ANGLE. 


confemplated.  he  is  paid  commutation  of  rations  at 
thf  usual  rail's.  Actual  ox|H'n.si'.>:,  as  conteniplalcii 
alKjve,  arc  payable  as  follows :  To  Paymaslors' 
cliTks  ami  cilizin  \vitMos.<es  bifurc  Military  Courts,  by 
the  Pay  Departnieiit  ;  to  citizens  employed  at  ar- 
senals ilnil  armories  (cost  of  Iransixirlalion  included), 
from  appropriations  for  the  sorviec  of  tlie  Ordnance 
Deimrtnuni  ;  to  citizens  employed  on  public  works 
ami  fori ilieal ions  (cost  of  lransi>orlalion  included), 
from  the  appropriation  made  spccitically  for  the 
work ;  to  Coinniis-sjiries'  clerks.  Quartermasters' 
clerks  and  agents,  and  other  citizens  employed  with 
the  armv,  when  Iniveling  on  public  .service,  under 
onlers  of  competent  military  authority,  by  the  Quar- 
termaster's Department. 

CIVILIAN. — This  term  h:us  three  meanings,  which 
are  distinct,  thougli  intimately  related.  (1)  In  a 
jxipular  sense  it  siirnities  a  person  whose  pursuits  arc 
civil,  i.e..  neither  military  nor  clerical.  (2)  Asa  law- 
tcnn,  it  means  either  a  person  who  is  versed  in  the 
principles  and  rules  in  accordance  with  which  civil 
rights  may  Ix-  freely,  l)lamelcssly,  and  succcs.«fully 
vindicatetl  in  society  generally,  or  in  the  particular 
state  in  which  he  belongs.  (3)  One  who  has  made  a 
siXK'ial  study  of  these  rules  and  principles  as  exhib- 
ited in  the  laws  and  covernmcnt  of  Rome  (the  Roman 
civil  law).  The  civil  law  of  Rome  exercised  such 
influence  upon  llic  formation  of  the  municipal  sys- 
tems of  almost  all  the  States  of  modern  Europe  that 
those  who  devoted  themselves  to  its  study  were  re- 
garded as  "civil"  or  municipal  lawyers  par  ejcel- 
Jencf. 

CIVIL  SEKVICE.— A  general  name  for  all  the 
duties  rendered  to  and  paid  for  by  the  State,  other 
than  those  relating  to  naval  and  military  matters. 
Civil  serrice  in  the  United  States  was  partiaUv  intro- 
duced in  the  Customs  and  some  other  offices  in  1877 
and  the  years  following,  but  up  to  tliis  lime  it  has 
made  no  grcjit  progress.  The  general  jirinciples  of 
the  system  are  the  s;inie  as  in  England,  involving  the 
separation  of  officials  from  all  absorbing  political  par- 
tisimship,  and.  in  general,  the  retention  of  capable 
and  deser\'ing  Civil  Officers  through  the  succes.sive 
changes  of  Administration.  It  involves  also  the  pro- 
motion of  worthy  public  servants  as  vacancies  may 
occur.  It  lays  the  foundation  for  all  this  in  confer- 
ring offices,  not  as  reward  for  j)artis;ui  services,  but 
on  strict  comiH'titive  examination  as  to  character, 
CJipaeity,  and  education.  By  many  it  is  pronounced 
Itoth  impracticable  and  undesirable;  by  others,  a  tine 
ideal  not  likely  to  Ix?  realize<l;  imil  by  others,  an  in- 
dispenstible  practical  reform. 

CIVIL  'WAR. — A  war  Ijctween  two  or  more  por- 
tions of  a  Country  or  State,  each  contending  for  the 
mastery  of  the  whole,  and  each  claiming  to  be  the 
legitimate  government.  The  term  is  also"  sometimes 
applied  to  war  of  rebellion,  when  the  rebellious  Pro- 
vinces or  ix)rlions  of  the  Slate  are  contiguous  to  those 
containing  the  seal  of  government.  Sec  Insurrection 
and  liih  l/iiiii . 

CLAH. — In  Heraldr\-,  a  term  for  an  escalop  or 
cockle  shell,  and  suppo.sed  to  indicate  that  the  bearer 
has  Ijcen  a  crusiidcr.  or  has  made  long  voyages  by  sea. 

CLARI6ATI0N. — In  Roman  anti(|uily,"a"ceremony 
which  .ilways  i;re((deda  formal  declaration  of  war. 
The  Chief  of  the  Heralds  went  to  the  territory  of  the 
enemy,  where,  after  some  .solemn  prefatorv"  indica- 
tion, he,  with  a  loud  voice,  intimated  that  lie'dedared 
war  against  them  for  certain  rca.sons  specified,  such 
as  injury  done  lo  the  Roman  allies,  or  the  like 

CLAT  BREECH-LOADER.  —  An  apparatus  with 
which  one  -idc  (jf  ilic  breech  is  enlarged  to  receive  a 
s<rew-plug,  a  little  more  than  twice Ihc'diameter of  the 
liore.  A  hole  in  the  plug  forms,  when  the  hitler  is 
uns<Tewed  half  a  turn,  a  continuation  of  the  bore, 
lliroiigh  which  the  charge  is  lo;iiled.  IJy  screwin'' 
up  the  plug  half  a  turn,  the  S(jlid  pari  of  il"  covers  the 
end  of  the  bore  and  .sets  closely  agiunst  il.  The 
breech  is  thus  opened  b^v  one  niovejnent,  and  the 
parts,  though  large,  are  simple;  but  the  obmus  de- 


fect is  the  great  difficulty  of  applying  a  suitable  gas- 
check. 

CLAYES.— In  sapping,  hurdles  to  form  blinds  for 
working-parties.  Reinforced  with  earth,  they  are 
substanlially  (/((Ai///!*,  and  ;ia  such  arc  of  a  more  per- 
manent character.  Frequently  written  CUiyinutges, 
and  iis<'d  to  cover  the  timber-work  of  galleries. 

CLAYMORE. — The  Gaelic  name  for  a  kind  of  sword 
at  one  lime  much  used,  but  not  so  well  known  at 
present.  It  had  a  double-edged  blade,  about  -l;)  inch- 
es long  by  2  inches  broad;  its  handle  wa-s  often  13 
inches  long,  and  its  weight  U  or  7  pounds.  This 
sword  is  now  principally  used  by  Ihe  officers  and 
non-commissioned  officers  of  Highland  regiments. 

CLEANING  MATERIALS.  -  Cleaning-materials  for 
small-arms  and  accouterments  are  issued  by  the  Ord- 
nance Departmetit  to  Company  Commanders,  at  the 
rate  of  one  box  per  company.  On  the  mider  side  of 
the  cover  of  each  box  is  pasted  Ihe  following  printed 
notice,  \nz. :  "This  box  contains  two  quart  cans  of 
anti-corrosive  and  lubricating  'cosmoline'  oil;  one 
box  holiling  40  ounces  scouring-material,  marked  1, 
composed  of  12  ounces  parattine,  18  ounces  flour  co- 
rundum, 6  ounces  cosmoline  oil,  4  ounces  lamp-black, 
melted  together;  one  box  hoUling  1(5  ounces  leiilhcr- 
polish,  marked  2,  composed  of  13  ounces  baybeiTy 
tallow,  3  ounces  lamp-black,  melted  together;  one 
box  holding  40  oimces  compres.sed  whiting,  marked  8; 
one  chamois-skin;  one  wire  scratch-brush.  For  re- 
moving rust  and  cleaning  brass-work:  Rub  off  a  tery 
littk  from  box  1  on  a  cloth  or  on  the  end  of  the  finger. 
For  rust,  use  a  soft  stick.  Finish  with  whiting  for 
bright  work,  anil  oil  for  browned  work.  For  polish- 
ing accouterments:  1.  Rub  off  a  little  on  the  soft 
cloth  from  box;  2.  Rub  it  well  on  the  leather,  and 
I  finish  lightly  T\-ith  a  soft  cloth.  Lubricating-oil:  Ap- 
j  ply  the  oil  lightly  with  a  rag. 

I  "If  Ihe  browning  is  rubbed  off  the  barrel,  dismount 
Ihe  barrel  and  remove  the  breech-block  and  parts  of 
the  extractor.  Oil  the  bore  of  Ihe  barrel  and  stop  up 
each  end  with  a  plug.  Wash  Ihe  outside  of  the  barrel 
with  hot  soap-suds  or  lye  of  wood-iishes,  to  remove 
'  grease,  ^\'ash  off  with  clean  hot  water.  AVhen  dry, 
applj-  the  browning-mixture,  which  is  composed  of 
13  parts' of  water  and  1  part  of  nuiriatic  acid  by  meas- 
ure, with  a  sponge  or  rag.  Put  the  barrel  a.side  to 
rust,  in  a  dam]>  and  warm  place,  from  three  to  four 
hours.  Rub  off  Ihe  coat  of  rust  so  ft)rmed  with  the 
stecl-nire  scratch-brush;  and  repeat  this  three  or  four 
times.  After  each  rusting  pour  on  boiling  water  for 
several  minutes  to  destroy  the  acid;  use  the  scratch- 
brush  as  before,  and  finish  with  an  oiled  rag.  In 
case  the  other  parts  get  worn,  a  similar  treatment 
should  be  employed.  When  convenient,  the  action 
of  the  brf)wning-mixture  can  Ix-  promoted  by  laying 
the  barrel  in  a  closed  box  with  a  few  cloths  wet  with 
hot  water  and  spread  so  as  not  to  touch  the  barrel; 
the  box  should  be  set  in  a  warm  place.  The  scratch- 
brush  should  be  used  lengthwise  of  Ihe  barrel.  When 
the  brush  gets  worn  down,  untwist  the  wire  around 
it  sufficiently  to  forma  new  head."  The  weight  of 
the  box  tilled,  is  18  pounds.    See  Gire  of  Snmll-iirnis. 

CLEARANCE.— In  ordnance,  the  linear  di.sfance  be- 
tween the  body  of  the  ijrojectile  and  the  twre  of  the 
giui.  The  amount  of  Ihe  elearaiuc  Ixfore  Ihe  pro- 
jectile moves  is  the  difference  between  the  depth  of 
the  groove  in  the  gun  and  the  iirojection  of  the  stud 
on  the  iirojeclilc;  but  when  the  jirojecfilc  is  in  motion 
and  cenlered  in  the  l>ore,  the  clearaticc  all  round  the 
projectile  will  be  half  the  windage  over  the  l)odv. 

CLEARANCE-ANGLE.— All  gims  fitted  with  a'front 
sight  on  the  toj)  of  the  piece  between  the  tninnions 
have  what  is  called  a  cUartince-<iii{]te.  This  nuiy  be 
defined  as  the  angle  of  elevation  obtained  when  the 
bottom  of  Ihe  notch  of  the  rear  sight  and  the  top  of 
the  front  sight  and  the  notch  on  the  muzzle  are  in 
line.  If  the  rear  sight  is  raised  above  this  angle,  the 
front  sight  falls  Inflow  flu-  line,  joining  the  notcli  of 
the  rear  sight  and  the  muzzle.  The  muzzle-notch 
must  then  be  taken  as  the  second  point  of  sight. 


CLEARING-SCREW. 


359 


CLEPSYDRA. 


CLEARING-SCREW.— In  some  fire-arms,  a  screw  at  ' 
risrht  angks  to  the  nipple,  and  affording  a  comnmui- 
cation  with  the  chamljer. 

CLEARY  LITTER.  — In  1875  Assistant  Surgeon 
P.  J.  A.  Cleary,  U.  S.  Army,  reported  to  the  Surgeon  i 
General's  Ottice  his  observations  in  the  Indiim  Terri- 
tory on  the  faeility  with  wliieh  the  Indians  trans- 
ported their  sick  and  aged  or  infirm  on  lilUrs  dragged 
Iiy  ponies,  and  suggested  that  analogous  conveyances 
might  be  utilized  for  the  tninsporf  of  wounded,  in 
cavalry-scouts  au<l  in  marches  in  ditlitmlt  country 
where  the  use  of  wheeled  vehicles  was  impracticable. 

The  drawing  shows  the  moiliticalion  of  the  Indian 
litter  proposed.  Each  side-ix>le  is  jointed;  by  with- 
drawing a  pin  it  comes  apart,  leaving  the  shafts  in 
the  harness,  and  the  stretcher-frame  disconnected. 
The  length  of  the  connected  side-poles  shoidd  be  17 
feet,  viz. :  5  feet  occupied  by  the  horse,  3  feet  from 
rear  of  horse  to  first  traverse  or  cross-piece  of  litter, 
7  feet  for  bed  of  lilter,  a  feci  from  bed  of  litter  to  the 
end.  The  advantages  which  Ihe  litter  appears  to 
possess  are:  1.  Simplicity  of  construction.  •.>.  Facil- 
it}'  of  transportation,  as  it  can  be  easily  rolled  up  iuid 


CLEATS.— Small  blocks  of  wood  used  commonly 
for  securing  movable  articles  Avhich  are  likely,  as  at 
sea,  to  roll  over  or  be  displaced.  In  the  artillery  ser- 
vice they  are  used  in  tlifferent  parts  of  gim-carriages 
for  fixing  l(]()ls,  etc, 

CLEMMONS  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gun  is  an  a- 
daptation  of  a  magazine  to  the  United  States  Spring- 
field rifle.  The  alterations  are  as  follows:  The  left 
side  of  the  receiver  is  cut  away  nearly  to  the  bottom 
of  the  well.  The  portion  removed  is  replaced  by  a 
piece  the  interior  of  which  is  somewhat  the  shape"  of 
the  half  cartridge.  This  piece  is  open  at  the  rear  in 
order  to  receive  cartridges  from  the  magazine.  A 
groove  is  cut  in  the  left  side  of  the  butt-stock  for  the 
magazme-tube,  and  is  covered  by  a  brass  plate.  The 
magazine-spring  and  cartridge-foUiiwer  are  of  the 
usual  form.  To  the  rear  of  the  follower  one  end  of 
a  iJiece  of  tape  is  attached;  the  other  end  is  connected 
wilh  an  ordinary  clockwork  by  which  the  tape  may 
be  wound  up,  drawing  back  the  follower  and  com- 
pressing the  magazine-spring.  On  the  inner  surface 
of  the  piece  alTached  to  the  receiver  is  a  spring, 
pivoted  at  its  front.  This  spring  has  a  thumb-piece, 
which  may  be  locked  back  by  a  spring-catch.  The 
split  spring  serves  as  a  magazine  cartridge-stop.  The 
magazine-spring  ha\ing  been  compres.sed  by  winding 
up  the  clockwork,  the  magazine  is  filled  with  car- 
tridges by  backing  them  down  from  the  receiver.  A 
pawl  is  then  released  from  a  ratchet,  by  means  of  a 
slide,  and  the  magazine-s])ring  bears  on  the  column 
of  cartridges.     When  the  breech-block  is  closed   it 


Cleary  Litter. 


carried  either  in  a  wagon  or  strapped  to  a  horse. 
3.  It  is  drawn  by  one  animal.  4.  It  reipiires  but  om' 
man  to  work  it.  .').  The  facility  with  which  a  patient 
can  be  brought  into  a  hospital:  by  detaching  it  at  the 
joint  it  is  converted  into  a  hand-litter  on  which  the 
patient  is  readily  conveyed  to  the  ward  of  the  hos- 
pital. 6.  Its  general  adaptability  for  any  kind  of 
ground:  in  cros.sing  canons  and  deep  gullies  the  litter 
proper  could  be  easily  detached,  and  a  man  at  either 
end  carry  it  as  a  hand-litter  over  any  obstruction  and 
again  attach  it;  and  finally,  for  any  slight  obstruc 
tion,  the  driver,  without  detaching  it.  could  lift  the 
rear  end  (the  forward  part  being  held  in  the  harness) 
until  the  obstruction  was  pa.s.sed.  7.  Were  it  to  be 
scut  out  with  a  cavalry  comman<l  (wilh  other  supplie-s) 
and  not  required  for  actual  use,  it  would  occupy 
but  a  small  space,  and  need  not  have  even  a  horse 
sent  with  it — when,  if  required,  the  trooper's  horse 
could  be  used  to  haul  it.  Btit  one  point  in  the  har- 
ness needs  special  notice,  viz.,  the  straps  across  the 
liorse's  liips,  which  su|iport  the  .shafts;  the  object 
being  to  prevent  the  horse,  in  ctise  he  rears  up,  from 
jumping  out  of  the  shafts  or  kicking  the  patient. 
By  these  strajis  the  horsf  lift.<<  the  litter  every  time  he 
attempts  to  kick,  and  so  cannot  reach  the  patient. 
Straps  attached  to  the  side-poles,  and  passing  under 
the  arms  and  buttocks  of  the  patient,  counteract  the 
tendency  to  slip  due  to  the  incline  of  the  litter. 


strikes  the  thumb-piece,  presses  it  back,  and  lets  in  a 
cartridge  from  the  magazine.  By  pressing  on  this 
thumb-piece,  the  breech-block  liaving  been  opened 
sulticiently  to  overcome  the  spring-catch,  the  cartridge 
is  thrown  into  the  receiver;  it  nmst  then  be  pushed 
into  the  chamber  in  the  usual  maimer. 

As  a  magazine-gun,  si,\  motions  arc  necessary  to 
operate  it.  viz.,  cocked,  oiU'iied,  loaded  (two  motions), 
closed,  fired.  As  a  single-loader,  the  usual  five  mo- 
tions are  neces.sary  to  operate  it.  The  gun  carries 
five  cartridges  in  the  magazine,  one  opposite  the  re- 
ceiver, and  one  in  the  chamber.  See  Magazine-giiii. 
and  Spn'iififiild  Rifle. 

CLEPSYDRA. — An  instniment  for  measuring  time 
by  the  efflux  of  water  through  a  small  orifice.  Two 
kinds  have  been  in  use — one  wherein  the  fluid  is  sim- 
ply allowed  to  escape  through  the  orifice,  the  other 
in  which  the  imiformity  of  the  flow  is  secured  by 
maintaining  the  fluid  at  a  constant  level  in  the  in.stni- 
ment.  The  first  would,  like  a  sand-glass,  give  only 
an  accurate  measure  of  the  time  occupied  in  the 
escape  of  the  whole  fluid ;  of  a  shorter  timp  it  would 
be  an  inaccurate  mea.sure.  as  the  pressure  under  which 
the  escape  takes  ])lace  at  the  commencement  is  greater 
than  at  any  instant  thereafter,  and  constantly  dimin- 
ishes with  the  height  of  the  fluid  column.  In  the 
second,  the  flow  must  be  nearly  uniform;  and  if  the 
water  be  received  into  a  uniform  graduated  tube  as  it 


CLICK. 


360 


CLOSED  WORKS. 


eiscapcx,  wc  have  a  tolerably  pood  clock.  The  rate 
of  the  flow,  howfver,  is  iilTeflod  l>y  teiiil>cmturc  niul 
biiMiiu-lric  pressure.  The  clcpsydni  is  supposeil  to 
huvi'  licfii  us«>(l  iimonir  tin-  (  liiiUliaiis.  The  Homiins 
einployiil  it  extciisivtiy.  Tlic  iiivnitior.  of  tlie  peiulu- 
luui  hiVs  supcrsedi'd  it  in  iikhIctii  ludlisliciil  investiga- 
tions. The  ihrtrifitl  rlork  is  a  doeliwork  inuchine,  in 
which  an  electro  inasnet,  by  means  of  an  electric  I'ur- 
rent  regularly  interrupted .  is  bol  h  the  motor  ami  there- 
gtdalor.  It  "is  so  constructed  that  at  each  oscillation  of 
the  pendulum  the  current  is  (>penc<l  and  dosed,  and 
thus  an  armalwie  In^ats  the  seconds  exactly.  Toillus- 
tnilc  the  use  of  this  contrivance,  or  the  depsydni, 
suppose  that  on  the  railroad  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco  each  station  has  an  electric  clock,  and  that 
from  the  New  York  station  a  conilucting  wire  pas,ses 
to  all  the  cUn'ks  on  the  line  as  far  as  San  Francisco. 
When  the  cuirent  passis  in  this  wire,  all  the  clocks 
will  .simultaneously  indicate  the  same  hour,  the  sjuue 
minute,  and  the  same  second;  for  electricity  travels 
with  such  proiligious  velocity  that  it  takes  an  inaijpre- 
ciable  time  to  go  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 
See  EUrtric  C'epKydra. 

CLICE. — An  ancient  Turkish  saber,  very  long  and 
ciirveil.     Now  obsolete. 

GLIDE. — .V  machine  of  war,  u.'cd  during  the  Mid- 
<lle  Ages  to  throw  rocks  on  besieging-parties. 

CLIMAX  GUNCLEANEE.  — A  gun-cleaning  ar- 
rangement palenl(<l  by  the  United  States  Cartridge 
Company,  and  sivid  to  lie  very  effective  in  its  work. 
It  has  a  lower  joint  made  of  brass  tubing,  and  form- 
ing a  reservoir  to  contain  the  cleaning  fluid.  The 
elmner  is  made  of  a  .solid  \i\vve  of  brass,  and  has  a 
small  hole  drilled  through  it,  which  opens  at  one  end 
into  the  reser\-oir,  and  terminates  at  a  point  between 
the  rubbers.  The  cktiiiir  is  shouldered  and  has  a 
brass  washer  on  each  side  of  each  rubber,  by  which 
the  rubbers  can  be  expanded  to  produce  anj-  desired 
friction  by  turning  the  rod  to  the  right  after  the 
cleaner  is  inserted  in  the  barrel. 

The  operation  is  as  follows:  After  putting  the  rod 
together,  adjust  the  rubbers  to  lit  the  gun.  then  till 
the  reservoir  with  the  liquid  to  be  used,  screw  the 
cleaner  in  the  reservoir,  insert  in  the  barrel,  and  the 
liquid  will  flow  down  into  the  chamber  formed  by 
the  rubbers,  and  loosen  the  dirt.  The  rubbers  will 
remove  it.  After  cleaning,  remove  the  dernier,  screw 
in  a  wiper,  and  wipe  out  the  barrels.  If  it  is  wished 
to  oil  the  gun,  remove  the  rubbers,  saturate  the 
■Wiishers  with  oil,  and  put  them  on  the  cleaner  in 
place  of  the  rubbers. 

CLINCHER-WORK.— A  mode  of  uniting  armor- 
plates  in  which  the  edges  are  lapped  and  secured  by 
one  row  of  rivets.  It  is  distinguished  from  earcel- 
build  in  the  res])ect  that  in  the  latter  the  edges  of  the 
plates  are  brought  together  and  the  joint  covered  by 
an  interior  /(//*  or  irelt,  to  which  the  pjates  arc  secured 
by  two  rows  of  rivets,  one  to  each  plate. 

CLINOMETER.— An  instrument  used  in 
determining  the  slo|)e  of  cuttings  and  em- 
bankments, the  inclination  of  the  trun- 
nions, etc.  It  has  a  {(uadrant  graduated 
to  degrees  and  fixed  at  the  end  (if  a  long 
bar  which  is  laiil  adown  the  slope;  an 
inde.x  turns  upon  the  center  ol  the  ipiad- 
nuit,  to  which  a  sjiiril  level  is  ;ittached. 
The  level  iK-ingset  horizontally,  the  angle 
of  the  same  will  be  indicated  liii  the  quad- 
rant as  the  latter  partakes  of  the  motion 
of  the  rod. 

The  dniwing  shows  the   Abney  level, 
an  English   modification  of    the   "hand- 
level,"    combining   with   it   an   excellent 
clinometer.   When  the  level  is  centered  bv 
wttingtlie  vernier-arm  to  zero  on  the  divid- 
ed arc,  the  bubble  is  .seen  Ibrough  tlw  eye 
end  and  the  level  ii.sceriainecl  iirecisi'ly  as  with  the 
Locke's  level.     And  the  main   tube  being  scpiare  it 
can    Ix;   applied    to   anv   surface,   the    inclination  of 
which  may  be  a-seertaiued  by  bringing  the  level-bub- 


ble into  its  center,  and  reading  off  the  angle  to  five 
minutes  by  the  vernier  and  arc.  The  inner  and 
shorter  arc  indicates  the  lines  of  dilTi  rent  degrees  of 
slope,  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  vernier  being  applied 
to  the  lines  and  the  bubble  brought  into  the  center  as 
usual.     See  Iland-lt'rel. 

CLIP. — An  instrument  for  lifting  heavy  shells.  It 
is  used  in  England  with  muzzle-loading  guns  from 
the  74neb  to  the  12-incli. 

CLIPEADUS. — The  soldiers  in  ancient  times  who 
were  armed  with  the  Grecian  buckler,  which  was 
large  and  round.  By  cHjhikIiik  chht hi yiie  was  imder- 
stood  combatants  who,  in  place  of  the  shield,  wound 
their  coats  (rhUimyde)  around  their  left  arms. 

CLIPEUS.  —  A  large  shield  worn  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  which  was  originally  of  a  circu- 
lar form,  made  of  wicker-work  or  wood  covered  with 
ox-hides  several  folds  deci),  and  bound  round  the 
edge  with  metal. 

CLITZ  INTRENCHING-TOOL.— This  projiosed  iii- 
treurhiiig-tool  consists  of  a  sheet-.steel  blade,  turned 
up  on  one  edge  and  .slightly  curved  cylindrically 
near  the  point.  It  is  set  in  a  light  wooden  handle 
split  for  its  reception,  and  securely  riveted  together 
through  the  tang  of  the  blade.  This  tool  is  intended 
for  exclusive  use  as  a  mechanical  implement,  and 
frequently  the  straight  edge  is  cut  into  .saw-teeth. 
The  soldier  should  never  be  separated  from  an  in- 
trenching-too!  of  some  description.  Many  are  the  in- 
stances recorded  where  it  was  impossible  to  forward 
the  intreuchihg-toiilH  to  the  front  until  after  the  ex- 
igency for  their  use  had  passed,  and  the  men  were 
compelled  to  use  tin  plates,  tin  cans,  fragments  of 
canteens,  kiuves,  sticks,  etc.,  in  order  to  get  tempo- 
rary shelter  from  the  encm)''s  most  galling  fire.  See 
Farriiir  Kaife-trnitel  iiml  Triit-pef/  anil  Trmrel  bayonet. 
CLOSE. — A  term  in  Heraldry.  AV'hen  the  wings  of 
a  bird  are  down  and  close  to  the  body  it  is  described 
as  done.  The  term  is  used  only  with  reference  to 
birds  addicted  to  flight,  such  as  the  eagle,  falcon, 
etc.  Of  dunghill  cocks,  and  other  domestic  fowls, 
it  is  understood  that  their  wings  are  in  this  position. 
Harnacles,  and  bits  for  horses,  are  said  to  be  clone 
when  they  are  not  to  be  imderstood  as  extended. 

CLOSE  "column.— A  column  of  troops  in  which 
the  subdivisions  are  at  less  than  full  distance;  that  is, 
less  than  the  length  of  one  of  the  subdivisions. 

CLOSED  WORKS.— A  field-work  may  have  to  tire 
on  all  sides  of  the  imsition,  over  a  limited  portion  of 
a  circle,  or  in  special  directions  only,  according  to 
th"  positions  which  may  be  occupied  by  the  enemy's 
artillery.  These  different  circumstances  give  rise  to 
three  kinds  of  field-works,  viz.:  1.  Field-works  ex- 
posed to  the  artillery -fire  of  the  enemy  in  one  direc- 
tion only,  or  in  front;  2.  Field-works  exposed  to  ar- 
tillery-fire of  the  enemy  on  the  flanks  as  well  as  in 
front;  3.  Field-works  exposed  to  this  flre  upon  all 
sides  of  the  po.sition.  It  is  evident  that  in  t lie  trace 
of  a  work  of  the  first  kind,  the 
position  which  the  enemy  may 
have  in  its  front  need  only  be 
considered.  The  trace  of  a 
work  of  the  second  kind  must 
be  considered  \aider  the  sup- 
position that  the  enemy  may 
appear    in    front    and    on   the 


Abii'_-\  l,'_\  i.l  aud  Cliuometer. 
I 

flanks;  that  is,  in  a  portion  bounded  by  a  part  of  a 
circle.  The  trace  of  a  work  of  the  third  kind  must 
be  considered  under  the  supposition  that  the  enemy 
may  appear  on  all  sides  of  the  work.     Parapets  are 


CLOSE  OBDEK. 


361 


CLOTH.TESTEB. 


needed  on  all  sides,  in  the  works  of  the  third  kind, 
lo  shelter  the  men  from  the  enemy's  fire;  and  that 
they  arc  only  needed  on  the  exjxjsed  sides,  in  works 
of  the  first  and  s<eond  kinds.  Tlie  works  of  the 
first  and  second  kinds  may  then  he  left  open  on  the 
sides  not  exposed  lo  artillery-fire,  or  they  ma}'  he 
closed  hy  some  ohstruction.  The  trace  of  a  closed 
work  may  be  of  any  form,  either  circular,  square, 
quadrilateral,  polygonal -reirular  or  irrejridar  —  all 
salient  angles,  or  some  salient  and  some  reentering 
angles.  i 

CLOSE  OKDEK.— In  tactics,  the  space  of  about  one- 
half  pace  between  ranks.  In  the  United  States  .ser- 
vice, the  distance  between  ranks,  from  Ijack  to  breast, 
is  faring  diMfinct';  \m\  on  rougli  ground,  and  when 
marching  in  double  time,  it  is  increased  to  'i'i  inches; 
ujjon  halting,  the  rear  rank  closes  to  facing  distance. 
When  the  knapsack  is  worn,  the  distance  between  the 
ranks  is  increased  by  the  depth  of  the  knapsack.  In 
alignment.s  in  doul)le  rank,  the  rear-rank  men  cast 
their  eyes  to  the  side  of  the  guide  with  the  front-rank 
men,  and  maintain  the  proper  distance  between  the 
ranks. 

CLOTH.  —A  material  formed  by  weaving  or  inter- 
texture.  In  arsenals  this  material  is  much  used,  and 
is  of  various  kinds — viz.,  book-muslin,  buntin,  can- 
vas, doosootie  (an  Indian  name),  serge,  viliy,  waxed 
cloth,  and  silk.  The  cloths  enumerated  are  made  use 
of  for  the  following  purposes;  Book-muslin,  for  the 
bottom  of  sieves,  etc.;  buntin,  for  colors;  canvas,  as 
shown  under  that  head;  doosootie,  for  capjiing  car 
i'asses,  and  it  is  also  occasionallj*  used  for  package  and 
in  making  blowing-bags;  serge,  for  serWee  cartridge- 
bags;  vitry,  which  is  a  finekindof  canvas,  for  making 
paulins  aiid  powder-cloths,  occasionallj-  for  Kiinch 
blowing-bags,  sponge-caps,  and  gun-aprons,  also  for 
saddle-wrajjpers;  waxed  cloth,  for  i)Owder-bairels 
(H  yard  being  required  to  pack  a  powder-barrel  in), 
and  for  ■VM'apping  round  elevating  screws,  fuses,  etc. ; 
silk,  for  exercising  and  .saluting  cartridges,  though 
.he  use  of  this  material  is  likery  to  be  extended  to 
service  cartridges. 

CLOTHING.— The  President  of  the  United  States  is 
authorized  to  prescribe  the  kind  and  quality  of  cloth- 
ing ft)  be  issued  annually  to  the  troops  of  the  United 
States.  The  manner  of  issuing  and  accounting  for 
clothing  is  establi^ihcd  by  general  regidations  of  the 
War  department.  But  whenever  more  than  the 
authorized  quantity  is  required,  the  value  of  the  extra 
articles  is  deducted  from  the  soldiers'  pay;  and,  in 
like  manner,  the  soldiers  receive  pay  according  to  the 
annual  estimated  value  for  such  authorized  articles  of  I 
uniform  as  shall  not  have  Ijcen  issued  to  them  in  each  , 
year.  When  a  .soldier  is  discharged,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  PajTuaster  GeniTal  to  pay  him  for  clothing  not 
drawn.  The  Quartermaster's  Department  distributes 
to  the  army  the  clothing,  camji  and  garrison  e(|ui|)age 
required  for  the  use  of  the  troops.  Eveiy  Commander 
of  a  Company,  Detachment,  or  Recruiting  Station,  or 
other  oflieer  receiving  clothing,  etc.,  renders  (luarterly 
returns  of  clothing  according  to  prescribed  forms  to 
the  Q\iarterniast<iGenend.  All  otlicers  charged  with 
the  issue  of  clothing  are  required  to  make  good  ar.y 
loss  or  ilamage,  uides  they  can  show  to  the  .satisfaction 
of  the  Secretary  of  \\'ar,  by  one  or  more  depositions, 
that  the  deficiency  was  occasioned  by  unavoidable 
accident,  or  was  lost  in  actual  service,  without  any 
fault  on  their  part;  or,  in  case  of  damage,  that  it  did 
not  result  from  neglect.  Purchasing  clothing  from  a 
soldier  is  prohibited. 

In  England  many  changes  and  imiirovcments  have 
been  recentlv  made  in  the  Clothing  Department  of 
the  army,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  the  soldiers' 
dress  was  principally  while,  witli  green  or  russet  for 
special  corps.  In  t^ueen  Elizabeth's  reign  a  sum  of 
Is.  8(7.  was  allowed  weekly  for  each  soldier's  clothing. 
The  uniform  then  con.sisted  of  a  cassock  of  Kentish 
broadcloth,  a  canvas  doublet,  kersey  stockings,  trou- 
sers of  kersey  broadcloth,  neat's-leather  shoes,  and 
Holland  shirt.      In  1678  an  infantrj-  soldier's  dress 


was  valued  at  £2  13».,  and  a  dragoon's  as  high  as 
t'6  \fix.  At  one  time  Lords-lieutenant  attended  to 
the  clothing  of  the  troops,  each  in  his  own  County; 
but  the  duty  was  afterwards  transferred  to  the  State. 
Captains  of  companies  clothed  the  men,  stopped  the 
money  out  of  the  jiay,  and  made  a  profit  on  the  trans- 
action. The  i)rivilege  afterwards  pa.s.sed  to  the  Colonels 
of  regiments.  The  sum  provided  by  the  State  everj' 
jear  was  for  the  "  clTective"  strength  of  the  regiment; 
and  any  vacancies  put  an  additional  sum  into  the 
pockets  of  the  Colonel.  From  1746  to  1855  .soldiers' 
pay  was  debited  with  "  off -reckonings,"  as  a  means  of 
paying  for  the  clothes  suiiplied  to  the  men.  Under 
this  system  the  Colonel  received  from  the  State  so 
much  mouej'  annually  for  clothing  his  regiment,  and 
then  contracted  with  wholcsjile  tailors  for  a  supply 
on  the  lowest  terms.  In  1854,  just  before  a  change 
was  made  in  the  system,  the  Colonel's  profit,  on  the 
clothing  for  a  private  in  the  Line,  was  15s.  'id.  per 
man. 

The  disasters  during  the  early  months  of  the  Cri- 
mean AVar  having  created  a  national  demand  for  re 
forms  in  militarj-  matters,  a  change  in  the  mode  of 
army  clothing  was  one  of  the  results.  By  a  Royal 
Warrant,  dated  June  '^1,  1855,  the  Colonels  of  regi- 
ments were  awarded  certain  annual  smns  of  money  in 
lieu  of  off-reckonings.  The.se  sums  varied  from 
£1"200  to  .€500,  and  were  to  be  given  in  addition  to 
the  pay.  From  that  date  all  the  troops  have  been 
clothed  by  the  Government,  the  off -reckonings  being 
calculated  nearly  as  before,  but  paid  by  the  country 
to  the  Colonels.  AVhen  the  War  Office  was  remodeled 
about  the  same  time,  a  Clothing  Department  was 
added  to  it;  and  it  was  now  found  that  the  clothing 
for  a  full  regiment  of  1091  non-commissioned  officers 
and  rank  and  file,  in  the  Line,  cost  about  £2500  per 
annum.  The  clothing  is  now  contracted  for  more 
openly  than  under  the  former  system;  and  better 
materials  arc  hence  obtained  without  any  increa.se  in 
cost.  The  Government  has  a  factory  on  its  own  ac- 
count, but  a  large  part  of  the  supply  is  obtained  by 
contract.  Formerly  soldiers'  coats  were  too  often 
made  of  veiy  loose,  spongy  materials;  but  now  the 
inspection  is  rendered  much  more  severe;  and  the 
cloth  provided  for  jirivates  is  as  good  as  that  worn  bj- 
sergeants  a  few  years  ago,  while  the  cloth  worn  b.v 
sergeants  now  is  correspondingly  improved. 

CLOTH-TESTER.— A  machine  for  ascertflining  the 
tensile  strength  of  materials  by  an  even  direct  ])idl, 
also  by  a  side  or  tearing  strain;  it  is  designed  for  test- 


ing materials  for  tentage.  blankets,  clothing,  etc.  The 
drawing  shows  such  a  contrivance  with  the  following 
dimensions:  Extreme  height,  2  feet  5  inches;  extreme 


CLOUT. 


363 


COAL. 


leiurtl),  2  feet  3  inches;  extreme  \*'idth,  12  inches; 
wpurht,  a.',  |>ouiuls.  AiliipUition:  Tinsile  specinicns 
12  iiK-ht-s  loiijr  by  ;5  iiiclit-s  wiile  or  k-ss,  capacity  500 
pounds.  Tbis  nmchinc  is  ii  recent  iuvuiilion,  and  is 
u  prc)it  assi-slauce  to  t^uarttTinasters  and  others  who 
purchase  cotlou  and  wixjieii  materials  and  are  respon- 
sible for  their  quality.  The  niachiue  reatiily  coni- 
pun-s  articU-s  of  clothing  with  that  of  any  standard 
grade.     Siv  Tenlinyiiiiic/iiiu: 

CLOUT. — -Vn  iron  shielil  or  plate  placed  on  a  piece 
of  tiinlKr  in  a  c-arriajri' — jis  on  an  a.vletree — to  take 
the  rubliinu'  and  ke*']'  the  wood  from  beiiij:  worn. 

CLOVE-HITCH.— Two  lialf-hilche.s.  To  make  this 
hitch  irivc  the  rope  a  turn  around  the  object,  pass  the 
end  of  the  rope  round  its  .standing  part,  and  then 
through  the  bight.  To  make  a  eUm-liilcli,  relieat  the 
motion  around  the  standing  part  and  through  the 
bight,  and  stop  the  end  to  the  standing  part.  Sec 
Cvrtiage. 

CLUB. — In  mililan,'  evolutions,  to  throw  troops  into 
confusion;  to  defonii  through  ignorance  or  inadver- 
tency. To  chih  a  battaliun  miplies  a  temporary  ina- 
bility in  the  Commanding  Officer  to  restore  any  given 
body  of  men  to  their  natural  front  in  line  or  column. 

CLUNACULUM. — A  poniard  carried  by  certain  Ro- 
man troops  in  ancient  times.  It  was  ,so  called  because 
it  WHS  carried  on  tlie  back  of  the  soldier. 

CNEMIDAS.— A  kind  of  leggings,  made  of  bronze, 
which  were  worn  by  Grecian  soldiers. 

COAL. — The  use  of  coal  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
known  to  the  ancients;  nor  is  it  well  known  at  what 
time  it  began  to  be  used  for  fuel.  Some  -say  that  it 
W!is  used  by  the  ancient  Britons;  and  at  all  events  it 
was  to  some  e.xtent  an  article  of  hou.schold  consump- 
tion duringthe  Anglo-Sa.von  period  ascarly  asy52  A.D. 
There  seems  to  be  reason  for  thinking  tliat  England 
was  the  tirst  European  country  in  which  coal  was  | 
used  to  any  considerable  extent.  Atout  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  it  began  to  be  emiiloycd  in  ! 
London,  but  at  first  only  in  the  arts  and  manufactures; 
and  the  innovation  was  com]ilained  of  as  injurious  to 
human  health.  In  lilHi  the  Parliament  petitioned 
the  king,  Edward  II.,  to  prohibit  the  use  of  coal,  and 


l.t<.liii'r  Coal-cutting  Machine, 
a  proclamation  was  accordingly  issued  against  it;  but  I 
owing  to  the  high  jjricc  of  wood  its  use  soon  l)ecame 
gi'neral  in  London.     It  was  for  a  long  time  known 
there  a.s  stu-mul,  because  imported  by  sea.     Several 
theories  us  to  the  mode  of  the  (origin  of  coal  have  been 
put  forth  from  linw  to  time.     The  one  now  generally 
iiclicvcd  in  is  that  the  rank  and  lu.xuriant  vegetation  ! 
which  prevailed  during  the  carl)oniferous  age  grew  ' 
and  decayed  upon  land  but  sligbtly  raised  above  the 
M-a;  thill  by  slow  subsidence  this  thick  hiyer  of  vege- 
t.ible  matter  sunk  below  the  water,  and  became  gnid 
iially  covered  with  sjmd,  nnid,  and  other  mineral  sed 
iinent;  that  then,  by  some  slight  upheaval  of  the  sca- 
l)ottom  or  other  process,  a  land-surface  was  once  more 
fonned.  and  covered  with  a  dense  ma-is  of  plants, 
which  in  course  of  time  decayed,  sank,  and  became 
overlai<l   with  silt  an<I  sand  as   before.     At  length 
thick  masses  of  stnilitie<l  matter  would  accumulate, 
pnxlucing  gre.at  pressure,  and  this,  iicling  along  witli 
chemical   changes,   would   gradually  mineralize  the 
vegetable  layers  into  coal.     Some  e.xperiinenls  made 
by  Dr.  Lindley,  u  few  years   ago,  showed  that  of  [ 


a  large  munber  of  plants  kept  immersed  in  water 
for  two  years,  the  ferns,  lycopodiums.  and  pines  were 
those  wliich  had  the  greatest  powers  of  resisting  deejay, 
and  coal  appears  to  be  mainly  composed  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  ancient  representatives  of  these  thrt-e 
orders  of  plants.  The  interesting  fact  has  also  Ix-en 
lately  proveti,  by  Uuxley,  Morns,  Carruthers,  and 
others,  that  in  many  instances  the  bituminous  matter 
in  coal  is  almost  wholly  formed  of  the  spore-cases  and 
spores  uf  plants  allied  to  ovir  club-inos,ses  and  ferns. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  wood, 
peat,  lignite  or  brown  coal,  juid  true  coal  indicate  by 
their  composition  the  changes  which  vegetable  mat- 
ter undergoes  by  decay  and  pressure;  and  a  table  in 
which  a  considerable  number  of  examjjles  of  each 
substance  could  be  given  woidd  show  how  gradually 
these  substiiuces  pass  into  each  other: 

Wood.        I'eat.      Lignittf.      Coal. 

Carbon 50.0        60.0        65.7        82.6 

Hydrogen....     6.2  6.5  5.3  5.6 

Oxygen 4:18        33.5        29.0        11.8 

100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0 
In  each  of  these  bodi<s  there  is  usually  a  small  per- 
centage of  nitrogen,  which  in  the  above  table  has  not 
Ix;en  separated.  In  passing  from  wood  or  peat  to 
coal,  the  proportion  of  oxygen  imd  hydrogen  de- 
creases, these  subsUmces  being  given  off  in  the  fomi 
of  marsh-g!is  and  carbonic  acid  in  the  process  of  de- 
ca\'.  Since  the  prosperity  of  our  great  national  iu- 
dustries,  as  well  as  much  of  our  domestic  comfort, 
depends  on  the  continuance  of  an  abundant  supply  of 
che;ip  fuel,  much  anxiety  has  arisen  of  late  years  re- 
garding the  future  supply  and  price  of  coal.  Since 
the  fall  of  1873  a  great  lise  has  taken  place  in  its 
price.  This  is  partly  owing  to  the  imusmdly  high 
rate  of  miners'  wages  which  has  prevailed,  and  partly 
to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  richest  and  most  ea.silv 
worked  English  coal-seams  are  becoming  exhau.steif. 
Taking  into  account  the  coal  which  probably  exisl> 
under  the  iiermian,  new  red  s;mdstone,  and  other 
superincumbent  strata  in  the  L'uiled  Kingdom,  the 
Coal  Commissioners  increase  their  estimate  of  the 
quantity  still  available  for  use  to  146, -480  millions  of 
tons.  At  the  present  rate  of  annual  pio(luclii>n — 
namely,  123,500,000  tons— this  would  last  llStt  years. 
But,  as  may  be  supposed,  the  estimates  which"  have 
been  put  forth  regarding  the  probable  duration  of  our 
coal-fields  are  very  various,  some  authorities  asserting 
that,  owing  to  increase  in  population  and 
the  increasing  consumption  of  coal  in  fac- 
tories, about  100  years  will  suffice  to  ex- 
haust them.  Between  this  and  the  oth- 
er extreme  of  about  1000  years,  formed  oil 
the  assumplion  that  the  population  of  the 
country  will  but  slightly  increase,  there 
are  innimierable  conjectures  and  estimates. 
The  annual  production  of  coal  through- 
out the  world  has  been  roughlv  estimated  at  260,000,- 
000  tons,  including  about  17,000,000  tons  of  lignite- 
and  coal  from  the  formations  newer  than  the  coal- 
mea.sures  of  Europe.  Nearly  one  half  of  this  totjil 
was  raised  in  Great  Britain.  Excluding  lignite  the 
figures  are  as  follows: 

Tons 

Great  Britain 125,000,000 

United  States 48,000,000 

Germany 3.">.000,000 

France  17,500,IK)0 

Belgium 17,000,000 

Austria 4.700,000 

New  South  Wales 1 .300,000 

■     Ru.«.sia 1,000,000 

Spain 750,000 

India 700,000 

Other  Europe 125,000 

British  North  America 7.50,000 

Chili 200,000 

Australia 50,000 

In  America  the  first  coal  discovered  was  by  Father 


COAST-BATTERIES. 


363 


COATED  PROJECTILES. 


Hennepin,  near  what  is  now  Ottawa,  111.  The  first 
milling  of  coal  was  in  1813,  when  live  hoat-loads  of 
flinty  coal  were  floated  down  the  Lehigh  River  and 
sold  in  Philadelphia  for  $21  per  Ion.  The  fuel  of  the 
period  was  almost  entirely  of  wood,  Liverpool  coal 
being  a  rare  luxury-.  As  late  as  1821  only  22,122  tons 
of  eoal  (Liverpool)  were  imported  into  the  United 
States.  The  lirst  regular  shipments  of  coal  from  the 
Peim.sylvauia  mines  begin  in  1820.  Thecoal  industry 
of  Pennsylvania  has  reached  enormous  proportions, 
the  annual  product  being  valued  at  over  |50, 000,000. 
Besides  more  than  20,000,000  tons  of  anthracite  coal 
there  are  mined  in  Pennsylvania  near  10,000,000  Ions 
of  bituminous  coal  annually.  Of  bituminous  coal  the 
States  of  Ohio  and  Illinois  produce  the  next  most  ex 
tensive  yield,  each  about  3,000,000  tons  annually.  In 
1870  there  were  1566  collieries  in  the  United  States, 
employing  92,454  hands,  and  invested  capital  to  the 
amount  of  $110,000,000.  In  1820  the  total  coal  pro- 
duct of  Pennsylvania  was  less  than  2000  tons.  It  is 
now  more  than  30,000,000  tons  per  annum. 

One  of  the  most  successful  applications  of  com 
presscd-air  engines  has  been  in  the  working  of  coal- 
cutting  machines.  Of  these  machines.  Firth's  in  Eng- 
land, Gladhill's  in  Scotland,  and  Brown's  in  America 
have  been  in  practical  operation  for  several  years; 
but  they  can  as  yet  only  be  economically  worked 
under  exceptionally  favorable  circumstances.  A  very 
satisfactory  form  f)f  the  coal-cutting  machine  has  an 
engine  with  a  reciprocating  pistfin  tlri\ing  a  massive 
steel  pick,  in  any  desired  direction,  and  at  a  very  ma- 
terial sa\ing  in  hewing,  or  kirriKg.  The  motive 
power  of  the  engine  is  highlj'  compr&ssed  air,  con- 
densed by  the  steam  engine  at  the  mouth  of  the  pit, 
and  this  elastic  air  is  conveyed  b_v  slender  pipes  down 
the  shaft  and  along  the  mine  to  the  breast  where  the 
coal  is  being  worked.  The  compressed  air  is  pumped 
by  the  steam-engine  into  a  receiver  at  the  pit-head 
during  its  otherwise  idle  hours,  or  by  its  suqilus 
power  when  ilrawing  up  the  eoal,  or  pumping  out 
the  water  from  the  mine,  and  is  condensed  to  a  ten- 
sion of  forty  or  flfty  pounds  to  the  stjuare  inch.  It  is 
conducted  in  metallic  pipes  4.^  inches  in  diameter, 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  and  thence  in  pipes 
of  a  smaller  diameter  to  the  workings,  tubes  of  1  or 
1}  inch  caliber  bringing  it  lo  the  cylinder  of  the  ma- 
chine. This  compressed  air,  when  set  free  at  each 
alternating  stroke  of  the  piston,  imparts  to  the  adja- 
cent portions  of  the  mine  a  pure  dry,  cool  atmosphere, 
from  a  well-known  law  of  all  air  and  gases,  that 
when  compressed  they  develop  heat,  and  when  ex- 
panded under  a  relaxation  of  pressure  they  are  rela- 
tively cool. 

The  dramng  repre.sents  the  Lechner  coal-cutting 
machine,  much  u.sed  in  America.  The  under  cut- 
ting by  this  machine  is  done  by  a  revolving  hori- 
zonal  cutter- bar  of  from  three  to  four  feet  in 
length,  driven  into  the  coal  by  two  small  engines  at- 
tached to  a  stationary  frame.  The  cutter-bar  is  re- 
volved by  two  endless  steel  chains,  and  when  the 
desired  depth  of  cut  is  reached,  is  withdrawn  almost 
instantly  by  the  smaller  reversed  screw.  The  cuttings 
are  removed  hy  means  of  .scraper-chains,  as  seen  in 
the  drawing.  The  machine  is  placed  in  front  of  the 
coal  at  one  side  of  the  room,  on  the  floor  of  the  mine; 
the  cutter-bar  is  driven  into  the  coal  Ave  feet,  and  by 
the  reversed  screw  mentioned  above  is  withdrawn,  ' 
when  the  machine  is  moved  over  the  length  of  the 
cutter-bar  used,  and  another  cut  is  made,  withdrawn 
again,  and  set  over  as  before,  and  .so  on  continually, 
until  the  entire  room  is  under-cut,  when  the  machine 
is  placed  on  a  car  for  the  purpose,  and  run  into  an- 
other room.  The  time  required  to  make  the  cut,  3  lo 
4  feet  wide,  4  inches  high,  and  5  feet  deep,  is  from  6 
to  8  minutes;  withdrawing  and  setting  over,  3  min-  I 
utes.  Time  consumed  by  each  cut,  10  minutes.  See  i 
Avthrnfilf  and  Coke.  \ 

COAST-BATTERIES.  —  Batteries  erected  along  a 
coast  to  protect  the  entrances  of  harbors  and  ports. 
They  are  armed  with  artillery  of  the  largest  caliber  to  ! 


oppose  the  landing  of  an  enemy.  The  nature  of  ord 
nance  for  coast-defenses  in  England  was  in  1860  rec- 
ommended to  lie  as  follows:  the  10-inch  gun  of  86 
cwt. ;  the  68-pdr.  of  95  cwt. ;  the  8-inch  gun  of  65 
cwt.;  the  32-pdr.  of  56  cwt.;  the  13  inch  sea-service 
mortar.  Since  the  introduction  of  rifled  arlillerj-  and 
armor-plated  ships,  the  old  smoothbore  guns,  which 
formerlj'  were  used  for  coast-defense,  have  l)een  su- 
perseded by  the  heavier  rifled  onlnancc  of  the  pres- 
ent dav.     See  Ordnaiue. 

COAST-GUARD  LIGHT.— A  light  used  for  signals, 
and  which  burns  about  five  minutes.  It  has  super- 
seded the  coast-guard  port-tire,  and  its  composition 
consists  of  saltpeter,  7  pounds;  sulphur,  1  pound  12 
oimces;  red  orpiment,  8  ounces.  The  top  of  Ihe  com- 
position is  primed  with  mealed  powder,  and  the  flash 
blows  off  the  cap.  It  is  ignited  by  placing  a  G.S. 
primer  in  the  hole  in  the  head  of  the  apparatus,  and 
a  sharp  blow  with  a  pin  jnojecting  from  it  .sets  the 
light  on  tire.  The  primer  is  made  on  a  similar  plan 
to  the  friction-tube;  Ihe  pin  is  roughed  and  coated 
with  friction-tube  comjiosition. 

COATED  PROJECTILES.— The  surfaces  of  projec- 
tiles to  wliieli  llie  lead  covering  is  attached  is  smooth,, 
and  the  cannelures  formerly  in  ase  to  secure  strength 
in  the  attachment  of  the  lead  are  now  omitted.  The 
lead  coating  is  held  on  by  tinning,  and  at  first  cast  on 
quite  thick,  but  afterwards  lurneil  off  in  a  lathe,  leav- 
ing the  usual  projecting  bands.  The  iron  surface  of 
the  projectile  Is  cast  smooth,  and  then  dipped  in  a  so- 
lution of  sal-ammoniac;  after  this  it  is  immersed  in  a 
bath  of  melted  zinc,  and  at  the  same  time  revolved 
on  its  long  axis  by  means  of  an  iron  rod  inserted  in 
the  fuse-hole.  During  this  revolution,  which  is  done 
by  one  workman,  another  presses  a  mass  of  sal-am- 
moniac, fastened  to  the  end  of  an  iron  rod,  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  projectile.  After  a  sufficient  amoimt  of 
zinc  is  made  in  this  way  to  adhere  to  the  surface,  the 
projectile  is  placed  in  an  iron  mold  and  the  lead  coat- 
ing cast  on  it.  The  lead  coat  occasionally  becomes 
detached  in  spots,  where  the  lead  has  lisen  up  into 
blisters  from  the  formation  of  gas  underneath  it,  oc- 
casioned by  voltaic  action  Ix'tween  the  different  met- 
als. Such  blisters  are  generally  very  small,  and  may 
l)c  pricked  and  then  hammered  down,  without  affect- 
ing the  fitness  of  the  projectile  for  service.  If  left  to 
develop  themselves,  they  have  been  known  to  attain 
a  large  size. 

The  surface  of  the  coating  usually  has  raised  bands 
or  welts  to  take  the  rifling  of  the  piece.  In  the  (Jer- 
mim  service  the  front  band,  a,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  is 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


smaller  in  diameter  tlian  the  others.  Next  larger  is 
the  band  b,  then  comes  the  band  r,  and  largest  in  di- 
ameter of  all  is  the  rear  band,  d.  The  lead  coating 
is  preserved  from  injury  by  two  grommets,  which  are 
nearly  severed  to  facilitate  removal,  and  the  projec- 
tiles are  stored  in  racks  fitted  in  the  shell  room. 
Sometimes  the  body  of  the  projectile  is  not  strictly 
cylindrical,  but  ratiier  smaller  at  the  base,  the  lead 
coating  bringing  the  finished  body  into  a  cylinder. 
This  form  Is  considered  ^ood  for  penetration,  but 
any  lead  coating  must  considerably  retard  the  projec- 
tile in  endeavoring  to  force  its  way  through  armor. 


COAT  OF  ARMS. 


364 


CODS. 


This  leiul  coviring  c-auscs  a  great  wiistc  of  power,  us 
it  is  Ihc  ironpiirt  alone,  of  the  shell,  that  can  do  work 
a^.iinst  the  itim  philes.  and  couseiiuenlly  a  eonsitleru- 
ble  force  is  exiH-ntled  in  projectins;  a  part  of  the  pro- 
jwtile  whieli  is  useless  for  the  work  which  has  to  be 
iKTfonned.  A  heariu!:  of  lead  uixjii  iron  is,  mechan- 
icallv  s|M-aking,  one  of  the  worst  conceivable,  and 
purticularlv  uniler  high  pressures  and  veloi'ities.  The 
iwrticient  of  friction  for  a  be;irin,i;  of  lead  u|K)n  c:isl- 
in)n,  wruufihl  iron,  or  steel  is  gn'ulerllmii  for  that  of 
almost  any  other  two  metals;  and  it  increases  very 
decidedly  "in  some  contacts  with  an  increase  of  tem- 
perature. 

The  projectiles  of  the  3inch  steel  boat-u'un  arc  fitted 
with  a  copper  rotation-belt  over  the  center  of  gnivily, 
as  shown  in  Fi.:.  2.  The  belt  has  a  length  of  Iwariiur 
of  i  inches  and  a  taper  towards  the  front;  it  is 
•rrooved  aroimd  the  rear  part.  Al)Out  .3  of  an  inch 
from  the  base  is  titled  a  steadyingring,  .25  of  an  inch 
broad,  and  semicircular  in  section.  On  the  e.Mcrior 
of  the  cylinder  of  the  project  lie,  and  about  over  its 
center  o"f  gravity,  a  broad  groove  or  recess  is  cut  .03 
of  an  inch  in  depth,  and  as  long  as  the  rotation-belt 
(which  it  is  to  receive).  At  .4  of  an  inch  from  the 
base  of  the  projeclile  another  groove  is  cut,  of  similar 
depth  and  f  inch  wide;  this  is  to  receive  the  guide- 
ring.  A  cold-chisel  is  then  used  to  nick  the  l)otloms 
of  ihese  grooves  all  around  at  intervals  of  about  i  an 
inch;  the  direction  of  the  chisel-marks  lieing  length- 
wise of  the  projtKtile,  and  their  depth  about  two  or 
three  hundredths  of  an  inch. 

Cylindrical  rings  of  copper  are  ca.st  in  sand-molds, 
and  of  length  suitable  for  making  rotation-bells  and 
gviide-rings.  The  interior  diameter  of  these  rings  is 
very  slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  cylindrical  part 
of  the  projectile.  The  thickness  of  tlie  metal  is  .l.T 
of  an  inch.  The  rings  are  then  slipped  over  the  pro- 
jectiles, and  S(]Uee/.ed(or  i)erMianently  compressed)  l)y 
a  screw  press  into  the  grooves  prepared  for  tlieni. 
This  operation  not  only  tills  the  grooves  complclely 
and  makes  the  rhiL's  hug  the  body  of  the  projeclile. 
but  also  forces  the  copper  slightly  into  llie  marks  left 
by  the  cold-chisel  at  tiie  bottom  of  the  gn>f)ves;  thus 
IKjwerfully  assisting  to  prevent  any  possihilily  of  the 
belt  slipping  circumferenlially  upon  llie  projectile. 
The  ]iri>jeetiles,  with  their  rough  l)elts  and  rings  on 
them,  are  then  centered  in  the  lathe,  and  the  biarings 
are  carefully  turned  down  to  the  diameters  and  pro 
files  given  on  the  drawings.  See  Coiiij>re»>iii>n-]}rojic- 
til'n.  Liiiil-oiatint]  PriiirxK.  and  PriyccHlis. 

COAT  OF  ABM8.— In  the  military  irajipings  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  coat  of  arms  held  the  place  of  the 
IMiliidaiii)  iitniii  of  the  luieient  Roman  Captains.  It 
was  a  coat  worn  by  Princes  and  Great  Barons  o\er 
their  armor,  and  descended  to  the  knee.  It  was 
made  of  cloth  of  gold  or  silver,  of  fur  or  of  velvet, 
and  bore  armorial  insignia.  The  "  coat  of  anns," 
as  understood  by  Ilenddry  in  the  present  day,  is 
nothing  more  than  a  relic  of  the  ancient  armorial  in- 
aiirniu,  divested  of  the  coal  on  which  it  used  to  be 
embroidered. 

COAT  OF  MAIL.— In  the  armor  of  the  Middle 
Ag.'s.  a  siiil  made  of  metal  scales  or  rings,  linked  one 
within  iiMolher.     See  Armor. 

COCKADE.— According  to  Wedg\vood,  this  word 
signified  originally  a  cocked  hat,  or  a  hat  with  the 
broad  Hap  looped  up  on  one  side,  and  was  then  ap- 
plied to  the  knot  of  ribbon  with  which  the  loop  was 
ornamented.  Another  view  is  that  it  is  derived  from 
riMjiinrI,  a  Ixau,  or  one  fond  of  gjjy  trappings.  The 
word  is  now,  li<)wev<M-,  restricted  to  signify  an  ap- 
Ijcndage  to  the  hiad-dress  woni  as.-i  military  "or  naval 
ilistinetion.  Badges  of  disiinction  were  early  had 
recourse  to  in  party  and  civil  warfare.  A  sprig  of 
br<X)m  {/ilaiitti  ijrni><la)  was  the  badge  of  the  House  of 
Hlantagi'nel.  In  Kngland,  during  the  w:n-s  between 
the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  tin  adherents  of 
the  f<>rm<r  party  wt're  dislingnlshcd  by  a  while  and 
the  latter  by  a  red  rose  worn  In  the  (up.  The  jvirly 
<irL'ani/.ed  at  the  Court  of  Ch;irle^  IX.  of  France  to 


perpetrate  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  recog- 
nized one  another  by  a  paper  cross.  The  faction  of 
the  hVoiide,  opposed  to  Cardinal  Mazarin,  wore  stalks 
of  corn  for  the  .siune  purpose;  and  certain  military 
bands  were  called  Uinrtu  r<rU«,  from  decorating  their 
lances  with  green  twigs.  The  use  of  cockades,  as 
marks  of  distinction  in  campaigns  and  battles,  t)ccanie 
very  general  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Eugene  and  Marlborough  gave  the  Ger- 
mans, "English,  and  Dutch,  composing  their  armv,  a 
tuft  of  corn  or  gra.ss  as  their  signal  or  cockade.  'The 
use  of  the  cockade  began  to  be  more  fixed  in  the  War 
of  Succession.  White  being  the  color  of  France,  and 
red  of  Spain,  the  two  colors  were  unitwl  in  the  cock- 
ade of  the  combined  army.  At  last,  in  1767,  an 
authoritative  regulation  determined  that  every  French 
stildier  should  wear  a  coekiide  of  while  slutf ;  and  in 
17S2  cockades  were  prohibited  to  all  but  soldiers. 
From  this  time  till  the  Revolution  the  cockade 
was  an  exclusively  military  badge;  and,  both  in 
France  and  England,  "to  mount  the  cockade"  was 
.synonymous  with  becoming  a  soldier.  But  in  the 
enthusiasm  of  1789,  the  citizens  of  France  generally 
assumed  the  tricoloreil  ribbon  as  the  badge  of  natioii- 
ality  and  patriotism,  which  was  .soon  also  given  to 
the"  army.  The  three  colors  were  blue,  white,  and 
red:  white  had  long  been  the  color  of  France  and  its 
kings;  the  blue  is  understood  to  have  come  from  the 
baimer  of  St.  Martin,  and  the  red  from  the  oriflamme. 
Long  before  the  Revolution,  the  three  colors  were 
used  in  combination:  they  were  given  by  Ilcniy  IV. 
to  the  Dutch,  when  they  desired  him  to  confer  on 
them  the  national  colors  of  his  Country,  and  haveever 
since  been  borne  by  the  Dutch  Republic  and  King- 
dom of  the  Netherlands.  At  the  Restoration,  the 
white  cockade  of  the  Monarchy  ag-ain  took  its  place, 
but  bad  to  give  way  once  more  to  the  tricolor,  which 
continues  to  be  the  cockade  of  the  French  army. 
Black,  with  .some  distinction,  enters  into  the  cockades 
of  the  German  nations.  The  Austrian  is  black  and 
yellow;  and  the  Prussian  was  black  and  white,  aban- 
ilonetl  for  tlie  black,  yellow,  and  while  of  the  Gk-r- 
man  Empire.  After  the  German  War  of  Liberation 
in  18i;j,  a  national  cockade  of  black,  red,  and  gold 
came  into  general  use,  and  was  afterwards  assumed 
by  the  military  and  by  officials  The  wearing  of 
these  German  cockades  was  proliibiled  in  1832  by  n 
Res<ilution  of  the  German  Diet;  but  in  1848  they 
were  again  introduced,  not  only  liy  patriots  as  a  badge 
of  Gennan  union,  but  into  the  armies.  The  national 
colors  of  Belgium  are  black,  yellow,  and  red.  Cock- 
ades of  these  colors  were  worn  by  almost  the  whole 
population  of  Brussels  on  occasion  of  the  Constilii- 
lional  Festival,  July  21,  18(50.  Cockades  of  green, 
white,  and  red  are  worn  in  Italy.  The  Continental 
cockade  is  generally  in  the  shaiie  of  a  tiat  disk,  some- 
times of  metal,  sometimes  of  silk  or  other  stuff,  with 
the  colors  (lis|iosi<l  concentrically. 

COCK-FEATHER.— In  archery,  the  feather  which 
stood  up  in  the  aiTow,  when  it  was  correctly  placed 
upon  the  string,  perpendicularly  upon  the  cock  or 
notch. 

CODE.— 1.  A  body  of  laws  established  by  the 
Legislative  Authority  of  the  State,  and  designed  to 
regulate  completely,  so  far  as  a  statute  may,  the  sub- 
jects to  which  it  relates.  The  earliest  and  most  com- 
plete Code  of  the  American  States  is  thai  of  Louis- 
iana, finished  in  1824,  the  work  of  Edward  Living- 
ston, a  member  of  the  celebrated  family  of  that  name 
in  New  York,  and  wjis  based  on  the  Code  Na]X)leon- 
enne.  It  has  3.522  Articles  in  one  series,  but  com- 
prises threebooks— (l)of  Pcnsons;  (2)  of  TInngs,  and 
the  Modification  of  Property;  (3)  of  the  Dillerent 
Modes  of  Acquiring  Properly.  A  Code  was  com- 
jileted  in  Massjichu.setts  in  183.'),  and  it  was  revised 
t.venty  years  later.  New  York's  first  Code  formed 
the  Re\nsed  Statutes  of  1830.  There  have  lu-en  van 
ous  more  or  less  eomplele  revisions,  and  there  is  the 
whole  or  a  part  of  a  further  revision  now  before  the 
Legislature.     All  except  the  latest  new  Stales  have 


COEHOBN  MORTAR. 


365 


COFFEE. 


compilations  of  the  coditicd  editions  of  tlieir  laws. 
David  Dudley  Field  of  New  York  has  been  active 
and  eminent  in  the  work  of  coditication. — 2.  A  list 
of  signal-svmbols. 

COEHORN  MORTAR.— The  Coehorn  mortar,  wlilch 
takes  its  name  from  its  inventor,  General  Coeliorn,  is  a 
very  small  bronze  mortar,  designed  to  throw  a  34- 
lX)under  shell  to  distances  not  e.xcecding  12(K)  yards. 
Its  weight  is  104  lbs.,  its  ma.\imum  charge  i  lb.  of 
powder,  and  it  is  mounted  on  a  wooden  block  fur- 
nished with  handles,  so  that  two  men  can  easily  carrj- 
it  from  one  part  of  a  work  to  another.  In  the  late 
war  this  piece  was  much  used  in  the  field  agaiasl 
troops  covered  by  ritle-jiits.  At  Fort  Wagner,  Gen- 
eral Gillinore  sjiys  that  it  followed  close  on  the  heels 
of  the  s;ippei-s  and  did  good  service  against  the  enemy 
who  were  not  sheltered  against  vertical  tire.  If  tired 
with  frictionprimei's,  this  mortar  should  be  provided 
with  a  shield  of  sheet-iron  so  placed  as  to  prevent  the 
fragments  of  the  primers  from  Hying  among  the  gim- 
ners. 

To  serve  the  piece,  four  men  are  necessary:  one 
chief  of  detachment,  one  gmmer,  and  two  cannoneers. 
The  implements  and  equipments  are  carried  In  a 
ba.sket,  which  is  put  near  and  in  rear  of  the  mortar. 
They  are  as  follows:  primer-pouch,  containing  prim- 
ing-wire, primers,  and  lanyard;  gunner's  pouc-h,  con- 
taining gunner's  level  and  a  pair  of  small  pincers; 
one  quadrant,  one  sponge,  one  plummet,  and  one 
mallet.  A  small  wedge  is  used  as  a  quoin.  The 
mortar  should  have  a  permanent  line  of  metal  mark- 
ed on  it;  otherwise  this  must  be  marked  as  for  the  10- 
inch  siege-mortar.  The  shells  should  be  strapped 
with  tin,  and  be  provided  with  cord  handle.  They, 
together  with  the  powder  and  fuses,  are  kept  in  the 
service-magazine.  The  service  of  the  piece  is  analo- 
gous to  that  for  the  10-inch  siege-mortar. 

When  Coehorn  mortjirs  accompany  troops  in  cam- 
paign, they  may  be  carried  onordiiirirv  tield-cais,sons; 
each  caisson  carrying  one  mortar,  together  with  sixty 


its  equipments  (weighing  311  pounds),  and  sj.xtecn 
boxes,  each  containing  eight  shells  and  weighing  168 
pounds,  or  2688  pomuls,  making  a  total  of  2999 
pounds:  a  fair  load,  on  good  roads,  for  four  horses 
or  six  mules.    See  .\fiiit(ii\ 

COEHORN  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— Coe- 
horn's  method  of  alt;ick  was  the  very  opposite  of  that 
of  his  contemporary  and  rivjU;  whilst  Vauban  ad 
vanced  surely  and  slowly,  sparing  life  and  intrenching 
every  step,  Coehorn  sacrificed  everything  to  time,  and 
trusted  to  an  overwhelming  fire  of  ariillery  and  auda- 
cious assaults.  At  Bonn,  in  1703,  besides  a  large 
park  of  heavy  ordnance,  he  employed  oOO  snudl  mor- 
tiirs  to  throw  grenades.  Coehorn  has  been  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  modern  Dutch  school. 

COFFEE.— This  most  important  article  of  the  sol- 
diors  ration  owes  its  exhilarating  and  refreshing 
properties  to  the  presence  of  three  substances:  1. 
Caffeine,  which  occurs  in  the  roasteil  bean  to  the  ex- 
tent cf  I  to  1  per  cent;  2.  A  wUitile  oil,  which  is  not 
present  m  the  raw  bean,  b\it  is  developed  during  the 
process  of  roasting  to  the  extent  of  only  one  part  in 
about  50,01)0  of  the  roasted  coffee;  3.  Astringent  acids, 
resembling  t;umic  acid,  but  called  caffeo-tannic  an(l 
caffeic  acids.  The  average  composition  of  unroasted 
coffee  is  as  follows: 

Caffeine 0.8 

Legumin  (vegetable  caseine) 13.0 

Gum  and  sugar 1.5.5 

Caffeo-tannic  and  caffeic  acids 5.0 

Fat  and  volatile  oil 13.0 

Woody  fiber 34.0 

Ash 6.7 

Water 12.0 

100.0 

When  the  beans  are  roasted  till  they  assume  a  red- 
dish-brown color,  they  lose  15  per  cent  by  weight 
and  gain  30  per  cent  in  bulk;  when  further  roasted 


Abele  Coffee-roastinK  Machine. 


rounds  of  ammunition.  The  mortar  is  carried  on 
the  cais.son-botly,  the  front  chest  being  removed  for 
this  purpose.  The  piece  is  securely  lashed  with  ropes 
through  the  handles.  The  remaining  amn\unilion- 
chests  are  arranged  to  carry  thirty  slu'Us  each.  The 
l)owder  is  in  cans,  and  a  set  of  measures  (from  one  to 
six  oimces)  should  be  provided.  The  shells  should 
l)e  charged  and  the  fuse-plugs  driven,  ria<ly  for  the 
insertion  of  the  fuses.  A  caisson  with  chest  similarly 
arranged  .should  accomp:iny  each  piece.  The  mortars 
may  also  be  carried  in  ordinary  army  transportation- 
wagons.     Each  wagon  will   carrj'  one  Coehorn  and 


till  they  Income  cheslntit-brown,  they  have  lost  20 
per  cent  by  weight  and  increased  50  per  cent  in  bulk; 
whilst  if  the  roasting  is  continued  till  the  iK^ans  be- 
come dark  brown,  they  lose  25  per  cent  in  weight 
and  acquire  50  jier  cent  in  bulk.  The  l)eans  should 
never  be  darker  than  a  light  brown  color,  which  Ls 
qiiite  suHicient  to  bring  out  the  excellent  aroma  and 
other  c(ualitiis  of  the  coffee;  and  when  the  roasting  is 
carried  further,  more  or  less  charring  is  the  result, 
and  a  ilisagreeable  burned  smell  is  produced,  which 
tends  to  overcome  the  natural  pleasant  aroma. 
Frequently  on  the  march  and  in  camp  there  are  no- 


COFFER-DAM. 


366 


COFFER  MAGAZINE. 


facilities  for  proiK-rly  roasting  oolTec,  iiml  exiHTiencc 
liiui  shown  thill  It  is' well  for  troops  in  the  tiuM  to  he 
supplied  with  eoffiK-  previously  n)aste<l  at  the  (le]M)ts. 
The  ilniwinfT  shows  the  Ahele  roasting  machine,  em- 
iiloveil  at  most  military  posis  ami  supplyHlepols. 
This  machine  ha.s  every  lulvanlajie  of  the  old-style 
sliding  evliiuler,  together  with  iiuincrons  important 
improviments.  ChargiHl  and  diseharjred,  both  at  the 
same  end  in  front,  it  saves  W  per  cent  of  space,  with 
lime  and  lalnir  to  the  tender,  and  maintains  jxjrfect 
ventilation  Ihroiijjhout,  to  oxiilize  the  coffee  by  in- 
haling <'urrents  ot  air;  with  outlets  for  the  exhalation 
of  ga-s  and  steam  from  within.  When  desired  it  may 
have  forced  circulation,  as  by  a  fan  (and  water  a(l- 
mitled  from  the  hydrant  or  from  a  tank  al)ove);  while 
the  coffee  is  easily  examined  at  every  stage  in  oxida- 
lion.  without  interfering  with  the  work  or  stopping 
the  action  of  the  machine.  The  important  points  ac- 
comi>lished  in  the  machine  are: 

1.  To  keep  the  material  in  uniform  motion,  to  and 
fro,  by  means  of  ingeniously  constructed  shovels  and 
.stirrers  that  will  expo.se  every  particle  to  exactly  the 
same  degree  of  heat. 

2.  To  draw  in  through  openings  in  front  a  cuiTcnt 
of  oxidizing  air  to  .surround  the  coffee  during  that 
chemical  change;  m:iking  up  in  part,  by  the  oxygen 
absorbed,  for  any  subsequent  loss  and  neutralizing  the 
gases,  to  be  blown  off  hy  the  same  currents  of  air  to- 
wards the  rear  of  the  furnace  into  the  smoke-stack 
above. 

3.  To  pro\nde  for  the  immediate  escape  of  steam 
from  within,  by  means  of  an  exhaling  ventilator,  lo- 
cated over  the  cylinder  in  front. 

The  usual  methods  of  preparing  coffee  are,  first,  by 
Jiliration;  second,  by  infusion;  third,  by  boiling. 
Filtration  gives  often,  but  not  alwaj's,  a  gcjod  cup  of 
coffee.  When  the  pouring  the  boiling  water  over  the 
ground  coffee  is  done  slowly,  the  drops  in  passing 
come  in  contact  with  too  much  air,  whose  oxygen 
works  a  change  in  the  aromatic  particles,  and  often 
destroys  them  entirely.  The  extniction,  moreover,  is 
incomplete.  Infusion  is  accomplished  by  making  the 
water  boil,  and  then  putting  in  the  grouiid  coffee;  the 
vessel  being  immediately  taken  off  the  fire  and  allowed 
to  stand  quietly  for  about  ten  minutes.  The  coffee  is 
ready  for  use  when  the  jxiwder  swimming  on  tbe  sur- 
face falls  to  the  bottom  on  slightly  stirring  it.  This 
method  gives  a  very  aromatic  coffee,  but  one  contain- 
ing little  extract.  '  Boiling,  lus  is  the  custom  in  the 
East,  yields  excellent  coffee.  The  powder  is  put  on 
the  lire  in  cold  water,  which  is  allowed  merely  to  lx)il 
up  a  few  seconds.  The  fine  particles  of  coffee  are 
drunk  with  the  beverage.  If  boiled  long,  the  aromatic 
parts  arc  volatilized,  and  the  coffee  is  then  rich  in  ex- 
tract but  poor  in  aroma. 

Coffee  does  not  retjird  the  action  of  the  bowels,  a.s 
strong  infusions  of  tea  generally  do,  ])artly  Iwcause 
there  is  less  of  the  astringent  principle,  and  also  owing 
to  the  presence  of  the  aromatic  oil  which  tends  to 
move  the  l)owels.  The  important  offices  which  coffee 
fulfills  are,  to  allay  the  .sensation  of  hunger;  to  pro- 
duce an  exhilarating  and  refreshing  effect;  and,  most 
im|X)rlant  of  all,  to  diminish  the  amount  of  wear  and 
tear,  or  waste  of  the  animal  frame,  which  proceeds 
more  or  less  at  every  moment.  The  grounds  of  coffee 
are  very  mitritious,  from  containing  s<j  much  legumln; 
and  some  of  the  Ea.stern  nations  take  advantage  of 
thi.s  and  use  the  grounds  as  well  as  the  infusion.  In 
many  other  respects,  coffee  pos.sesscs  similar  proper- 
tie*  to  lea.  I 

An  endles.s  variety  of  apparatus  have  Iwen  contrived 
(and  some  of  them  of  great  eomplexitv)  for  preparing 
coffee  for  the  table.  The  chief  olijcct  aimed  at  is  to 
obtain  the  liquor  free  from  all  sediment.  One  of  the  ! 
Kimplest  of  these  contrivances  is  the  percolating  coffee- 
ix)t.  The  ea.siest  w.iy  of  making  coffee,  requiring  no 
special  apparatus,  and  as  satisfactory  in  the  result, 
perhaps,  as  any,  is  to  put  two  ounces  of  coffee  into 
a  small  saucepan  or  coffee|)ot;  pour  over  it  a  pint  of 
iH.iling  water,  and  allow  it  to  stand,  clo.sely  covered 


up.  by  the  side  of  the  fire  (1"it  ""'  'o  ''*''')  for  five 
minutes.  The  liquor  may  then  be  simply  poured  off 
the  grounds,  or  it  may  be  straiyed  through  a  cloth, 
and  then  returned  to  the  sjiuccpan  or  coffee-pot  (jire- 
viously  rin.si'd  out),  and  warmeil  again.  8oyer  recom- 
mends that  before  the  boiling  water  is  poured  in  the 
s;iucepan  should  be  set  dry  on  the  fire,  and  the  powder 
stirred  till  it  Is  quite  hot,  but  not  in  the  lea.st  burned. 
In  France,  a  pint  of  boiling  milk  is  added  to  a  pint  of 
coffee.  The  chief  effect  of  adding  chicory  to  coflfee  is 
to  deepen  the  color. 
For  s|X!cial  cases,  such  as  journeys  and  marches, 
j  where  it  is  impossible  to  be  burdened  with  the  neces- 
)  sary  machines  for  roasting  and  grinding,  coffee  may 
be  carried  in  ;i  iiowdered  form,  and  its  aromatic 
properties  ]ueserved  by  the  following  process:  One 
jKiund  of  the  roasted  berries  is  reduced  to  powder 
I  and  immediately  welted  with  a  .synip  of  sugar,  ob- 
tained by  pouring  on  three  ounces  of  sugar  two  ounces 
of  water,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  a  few  minutes. 
When  the  ]iowder  is  thoroughly  wetted  with  the 
syrup,  two  ounces  of  fiiuly-powdered  sugar  are  to  be 
added,  mixed  well  with  it,  and  the  whole  is  then  to  Ix; 
spread  out  in  the  air  to  dry.  The  sugar  locks  up  the 
volatile  parts  of  the  i offee,  so  that  when  it  is  dry  they 
cannot  esaipe.  If  coffee  is  now  to  be  made,  cold 
water  is  to  be  poured  over  a  certain  quantity  of  the 
powder  and  made  to  boil.  Ground  coffee  prepared 
in  this  way,  and  which  lay  exposed  to  the  air  for  one; 
month,  yielded,  on  being  boiled,  as  good  a  beverage 
as  one  made  of  freshly-roasted  berries. 

COFFER-DAM.— A "  water-tight  structure  used  in 
engineering  for  excluding  the  water  from  the  founda- 
tions of  Ijiidges,  quii} -walls,  etc.,  so  as  to  allow  of 
their  being  built  dry.  Coffer-dams  are  generally 
formed  of  timber  piles  driven  close  together  (called 
sheeting)  in  two  or  more  rows,  according  to  the  depth 
of  water  and  the  nature  of  the  bottom;  the  space  be- 
tween the  rows,  which  may  vary  from  four  to  ten 
feet,  being  spooned  out  down  to  the  solid  and  imper- 
vious bottom,  and  filled  up  with  clay  puddle.  Some- 
times they  are  made  of  only  one  row  of  piles  of  the 
full  height,  calked  above  low  water,  with  a  low  or 
dwarf  row  outside  to  confine  the  puddle  up  to  that 
le^'cl,  or,  where  there  is  no  wave  or  current,  with  a 
mere  bank  of  clay  thrown  against  the  otil.side;  and 
occasionally  the  ujiper  work  is  formed  of  horizontal 
planking,  fixed  on  open  main  piles,  and  calked  in  the 
joints.  When  the  bottom  is  rock,  so  as  to  prevent 
piles  being  driven,  and  is  not  much  below  low  water, 
coffer-dams  are  occasionally  formed  of  two  stone  walls, 
with  a  spiice  between  filled  with  clay. 

The  coffer-dams  spoken  of  are  all  what  are  called 
liigh-water  dams,  and  exclude  the  water  at  all  slates 
of  the  tide.  They  require  to  be  provided  with  sluices, 
to  allow  of  the  water,  when  first  to  be  excluded,  get- 
ting out  during  the  ebb,  and  to  shut  against  it  during 
the  flood.  Tlie  remainder  of  the  water,  and  all  leak- 
ages, must  be  got  rid  of  by  pumps,  generally  worked 
by  a  stcaiiK'ngim-.  For  moderately  shallow  founda- 
tions, and  more  especially  where  there  is  a  great  rise 
and  fall  of  tide,  tidal  dams  are  often  used.  These  are 
sometimes  made  of  sheeting-piles,  but  are  of  ten  boxes 
formed  of  pliuiking  or  of  irt)n,  weighted  and  sunk 
into  the  ground  by  digging  inside  in  the  same  way 
that  wells  are  sunk.  These  dams  can  only  be  tiscd 
for  a  couple  of  hours  or  thereabouts  at  low  water, 
and  of  course  require  to  be  i)umi)ed  out  every  tide. 
All  coffer-darns  require  to  be  strongly  shored  within, 
to  prevent  their  being  forced  inwards  by  the  pressure 
of  the  external  water;  and  the  rows  of  piles  re(iuire  to 
be  strongly  lx)lted  together,  to  overcome  the  pressure 
of  the  clay  imdflle,  which  otherwise  would  burst 
them. 

COFFER-MAGAZINE.— A  magazine  of  coffer-work 
foniied  by  making  the  frames  of  six-inch  scantling; 
each  frame  is  composed  of  two  uprights,  termed 
HtiinrhioiiK,  and  a  cap  and  ground-sill,  well  nailed  to- 
gether; it  is  six  feel  wide,  and  six  feet  high  in  the 
cli'ar.     These  frames  are  placed  upright,  imd  parallel 


COHESION. 


367 


COILED  TUBES. 


10  each  other,  aljout  two  and  a  half  fec-t  apart;  tlicy 
are  covered  on  the  top  and  sides  by  IJ-inch  plank, 
which  is  termed  a  xhctting.  The  magazine  otherwise 
is  constructed  in  the  usual  manner.     See  Magazine. 

COHESION.— Tlie  name  given  to  tliat  siJecies  of 
:iitracti(iii  Ijy  wbicli  the  particles  of  matter  are  held 
together  so  as  to  form  boilies,  and  its  measure  is  the 
resistance  wliicli  Ixjilies  offer  to  any  mechanical  force 
tending  to  separate  their  parts.  In  ga.seous  bodies 
cohesion  is  altogether  wanting ;  their  atoms  even 
repel  one  another.  In  liquids,  notwithstanding  the 
ejise  with  which  the  particles  slide  on  one  another, 
the  operation  of  cohesion  is  distinctly  seen  in  the 
formation  of  drops.  Cohesion  is  strongest  in  solids  ; 
and  degrees  of  cohesion,  in  this  case,  are  much  the 
same  thing  as  degrees  of  solidity.  It  is  the  force  of 
cohesion  that  constitutes  the  strength  of  materials. 
After  the  particles  of  a  body  have  been  completely 
separated,  it  is  found  that  through  cohesion  thej-  wiil 
reunite,  if  jiressi-d  sutiicieutly  close  together.  "Two 
clean,  smooth,  freshly  cut  pieces  of  lead  placed  to- 
gether will  cohere  so  as  to  require  a  very  consider 
able  force  to  separate  them;  and  it  has  not  unfre- 
quently  happened  in  plite-glass  manufactories  that 
polished  plates  of  glass  have  cohered  so  completely 
that  they  have  been  cut  and  worked  as  a  single  piece. 

If  the  particles  of  matter  had  no  property  in  rela 
tion  to  one  another,  except  their  mutual  irnpenetra- 
bility,  the  universe,  it  has  been  said,  would  be  like  a 
mass  of  sjind,  without  variety  of  state  or  form.  As 
it  exists,  however,  it  demonstrates  the  cross-action  of 
several  universjd  jjroperties  of  matter.  Among  those 
which  most  affect  its  state  and  form  are  heat  and 
cohesion.  It  may  bp  said  that  bodies  assume  the 
solid,  liquid,  or  aPriform  states,  just  according  to  the 
proportion  that  the  cohesion  of  their  particles  liears  to 
those  forces  which,  like  heat,  tend  to  separate  them. 
Upon  modifications  of  the  colic^ve  force,  and  its  re- 
lations to  other  molecular  forces,  would  seem  to  de- 
pend such  properties  as  ela.sticity,  brittleness,  duc- 
tility, etc. 

COHOBT. — In  the  ancient  Roman  armies,  a  cohort 
was  a  portion  of  a  legion,  consisting  nsuallj-  of  600 
men.  Grenerally  there  were  ten  cohorts  to  a  legion. 
Marius  introtluccd  the  cohort  instead  of  the  maniple 
as  the  unit  of  force;  forming  it  of  three  maniples, 
and  abolishing  the  ancient  modes  of  classification. 
The  cohort  preserved  both  the  number  and  designa- 
tion of  the  officers  attaclieil  to  the  maniples.  It  was 
commanded  by  the  First  Centurion,  until,  under  the 
emperors,  it  received  a  Superior  Officer,  termed  the 
Prefect  of  the  Cohort.  The  use  was  also  introduced 
of  making  of  the  lirst  cohort  a  rorpa  d'ilite,  to  which 
was  intrusted  the  eagle,  under  the  orders  of  its  prim- 
iple.  The  order  of  battle  by  cohorts  depended  upon 
circumstances;  usually  five  were  placed  in  the  first 
and  five  in  the  second  line.  The  number  of  ranks  of 
the  cohort  was  also  variable;  depending  on  the  front 
necessarj-  to  be  presented  to  the  enemy. 

COIE. — Among  the  armor  of  the  >fiddle  Ages,  the 
coif  was  a  sort  of  defensive  hood,  surmounted  by  a 
helmet,  sometimes  continuous  with  the  hauberk,  and 
sometimes  separate.    See  Armir. 

COILED  TUBES.— The  pig  from  which  is  made  the 
bar-iron  employed  at  the  West  Point  foundry  in  the 
fabrication  of  tubes  for  gun-conversion  is  derived 
chiefly  from  the  Lake  Champlain  magnetic  ores,  and 
from  some  of  the  hematite  ores  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
suitable  proportions  of  kind  and  grade  to  yield  a 
satisfactory  metal  being  the  result  of  much  careful 
experiment.  The  various  operations  of  puddling, 
rolling,  etc.,  differ  in  no  particular  respect  from  the 
ordinarj-  methods  employed,  except  in  the  greater 
care  exercised  to  secure  a  high  standard  for  the  qual- 
ity of  the  product.  A  brief  notice  here  will  therefore 
suffice.  The  charge  of  pig-iron  is  first  heated  to 
redness  by  the  waste  heat  from  the  reverberatory  fur- 
nace, and  is  then  thrown  into  the  hearth  along  with 
a  quantity  of  cinder.  The  charge  consists  of  4-18 
pounds,  the  jneld  of  blooms  amoumting  to  about  95 


per  cent  of  the  metal  charged;  the  amount  of  coal 
con.sumert  is  2375  pounds  per  ton  of  puddle-bars,  and 
the  time  occupied  from  the  charging  of  the  furnace 
to  the  withdrawal  of  the  puddle-balls  is  alxjut  1} 
liours.  The  process  in  the  furnace  is  what  is  termed 
the  "boiling  process,"  and  the  regulation  of  the 
draught  during  this  period  is  an  operation  requiring 
great  care  and  good  judgment,  as  upon  it  the  quality 
of  the  bar-iron  will  in  great  mesLsure  depend.  It  is 
important  that  the  iron  designed  for  gun-tubes  shall 
not  be  too  "drj-,"  i.e.,  deficient  in  cinder,  as  such  an 
iron  crumbles  under  a  high  heat,  and,  at  best,  welds 
but  imperfectly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  presence  of 
anj'  considerable  quantitj-  of  cinder  indicates  an  in- 
sufficient "  working,"  besides  furni.shing  for  the  bore 
of  the  gun  a  material  that  is  not  sufficiently  homo- 
geneous and  compact  to  resist  well  the  eroding  action 
of  the  powder  gases.  The  puddle-ball,  under  the  ac- 
tion of  the  hammer,  is  formed  into  a  bl<x)m  about  18 
inches  long,  by  4  or  5  inches  square,  smil  weighing 
about  100  pounds.  The  blooms,  before  cooling,  are 
pa.'sed  between  the  rollers — both  "roughing"  and 
"finishing" — and  result  in  what  are  termed  "muck- 
bars,"  long  flat  bars  from  4  to  2  inches  wide,  and  \ 
inch  thick.  The  "muck-bars  '  are  cut  up  and  piled. 
The  piles  are  then  placed  in  the  furnace  and  raised 
to  a  white  heat,  when  thej-  are  subjected  to  a  suc- 
cession of  rollings,  by  which  they  are  converted  into 
bars  about  23  feet  long  and  i  inch  thick.  Each 
time,  before  being  passed  between  the  rollers,  the 
piles  are  turned  one  fourth  round,  so  that  the  com- 
pres,sion  of  the  metal  takes  place  in  directions  that 
are  alternately  parallel  and  ])erpen<licular  to  the  lay- 
ers. The  operations  of  cutting,  piling,  and  rolling 
are  then  repeated,  and  the  resulting  bar  or  plate 
cut  into  lengths  of  53  inches,  and  piles  made  about 
9i  inches  high  by  7  wide,  for  the  final  rolling.  The 
top  and  bottom  plates  of  these  last  piles  are  about 
f  inch  thick,  while  the  intermediate  plates  are  1- 
inch  thick.  At  this  stage  the  i)iles  are  passed  be- 
tween the  rollers,  at  first  with  the  layers  harizontal, 
but  are  afterward  so  manipulated  that  the  comers  of 
the  piles  shall  take  the  groove  in  the  rollers.  The 
precaution  is  taken  in  heating  the  piles  to  separate 
.slightly  the  successive  layers,  m  order  that  the  heat 
may  more  readily  penetrate  the  mass,  and  Iwth  in 
piling  and  rolling  the  iron  it  is  important  that  the 
direction  of  the  fiber  should  be  preserved  always  the 
same.  In  the  finished  bar  the  elementary  plates 
stand  parallel  with  the  depth,  the  ]X)sition  most 
favorable  to  their  final  consolidation  in  the  subse- 
quent process  of  coil-welding.  The  length  of  the 
bar  is  about  28  feet,  and  the  cross-section  hexagonal 
in  form,  to  compensate  for  the  changes  in  form  inci- 
dent to  the  process  of  coiling. 

By  making  the  bar  simply  trapezoidal  in  cross-sec- 
tion, it  was  found  that  in  coiling  the  sides  become 
concave,  thereby  forming  a  pocket  which,  in  the  sub- 
sequent process  of  uniting  the  folds  of  the  coil,  served 
as  a  receptacle  for  cinder,  and  proved  an  obstjjcle  to 
perfect  welding.  In  order  to  avoid  a  feature  so  ob- 
jectionable the  shoulders  were  added,  whence  a  sup- 
ply of  metal  can  be  drawn  to  fill  up  the  canity  of  the 
sides.  The  ends  of  the  finished  bar  are  cut  off  to 
where  the  material  is  thoroughly  welded  and  per- 
fectly sound,  the  greater  length  being  taken  from  the 
end  nearer  the  furnace-door,  as  being  the  colder  end. 
The  bar  is  now  ready  for  shipment  to  the  foundry. 


Sulphur 

Phosplionis 

Manganese 

Silicon 

Slag  and  oxide  of  iron . 

Carbon  

Iron 


Sample 
marked 
English. 


0.047 


Sample 

marked 

^Vjnerican. 


0.374 
0.018 
1.308 
O.OfM 
96.1.^9 


0.037 
Trace. 
1.248 
0.089 
2.144 
00»i 
96.4«8 


100  000 


100.000 


COILXO  TUBES. 


368 


COILED  TUBES. 


The  table  herewith  exhibits  a  resemblniuo  Ik'- 
twocn  Ihi-  two  varifties  of  iron  which  is  remiirli 
alilf.  siiicc  thf  Aiiurii-jin  niaiiufui-turfis  possfs.s«'<l 
no  aixunile  knowktigi'  of  llic  nioiic  of  falirication 
of  the  EuLtlish  iron,  but  wore  guidod  almost  en- 
tirely in  tlii'ir  efforts  by  sueh  imperfect  datji  as 
could  be  •;Uiine<l|from  n'porl.s  of  Parliamentary  C'om- 
mitlcos  on  the  failure  of  a  larjre  number  of  coiled 
wrouglit-iron  tulvs  in  Enjfhuul;  reports  of  whieli  the 
chief  value  lay  in  their  |x)inl!ng  out  the  nature  of  ex- 
isting ilefect-s'  in  material  aiuf  manufacture,  rather 
than  the  coursi'  of  practice  by  which  those  defects 
nii^ht  be  renioviti  or  avoided. 

The  bar-iron,  as  received  at  the  foundry,  is  in 
Icnffths  of  1(5*,  and  18  feet  for  the  A  tube,"  and  of 
2t5  ifwt  for  the  B  tube,  the  cross-section  of  the  latter 
iK'inj:  a  square  of  2  a  inches  on  a  side.  The  weights 
are  about  as  follows: 

Pounds. 

Long  bar  for  A  Uthc 749 

Short  bar  for  A  tube 678 

Bar  for  B  tube 608 

The  A  tube  is  composed  of  four  sections  or  short 
tubes  weldetl  together,  each  section,  as  well  as  the 
B  tul)c,  consisting  of  two  bars,  which  are  united  end 
to  end  before  coiling.  The  long  bars  for  the  A  IuIh.' 
arc  employed  in  the  breech-section,  in  order  to  give 
that  section  such  length  that  tlie  joint  between  it  and 
the  next  section  shall  be  well  in  advance  of  the  B 
tube. 

To  prepare  the  bars  for  welding  they  are  sorted  in 
ixiirs,  and  the  ends  to  be  united  shaped  for  scarfing. 
At  the  .same  time  the  other  ends  are  tapered  bv  heat- 
ing and  hammering,  and  an  eye  and  shoulder  formed 
for  purposes  in  coiling.  The  V  scarf,  by  alTording 
a  firm  grasp  to  the  ends,  and  bye.vposing  a  large  sur- 
face for  welding,  is  thought  to  insure  a  strong  joint; 
yet  so  great  is  the  strain  thro\vn  upon  the  bar  in  the 
operation  of  coiling  that  separation  does  sometimes 
take  place  at  that  point.  The  welding  is  readily  per- 
formed by  means  of  a  "hollow  fire"  and  an  adjacent 
steam-hammer.  The  joint  is  subjected  to  three  lieats. 
At  the  first  heat  the  bars  are  butt-welded  by  means  of 
sledges;  a;  the  second  and  third  lieats  tlie  joint  is 
lap-wcHod  by  the  steam-hanuner,  the  hexagonal 
cross-section  being  afterward  restored  by  interix)sing 
a  we<lge-shaped  tool  between  the  l)arand  the  hammer. 
While  in  the  fire,  one  end  of  the  bar  abuts  against  a 
heavy  limlxT,  and  the  other  end  Ls  repesitedly  struck 
uiK)n  with  a  sledge  to  close  and  upset  the  joiiit.  The 
coiling  process  is  a  familiar  one,  the  method  pursueil 
at  Wi'st  Point  dilTering  in  no  importiint  respect  from 
the  English  method.  The  grates  and  ash-pits,  seven 
in  uumU'r,  are  ranged  along  one  side,  and  the  draught 
enters  under  the  grates.  The  blower  is  worked 
bv  the  engine  that  revolves  the  coiling  apparatus. 
The  numlH-r  of  fires  employed  at  any  one  tiinc'  ^le- 
l>ends  upon  the  length  of"  the  bai-s  to  be  heated. 
About  ninety  bushels  of  anthracite  coal  a  day  are 
consumed  in  each  grate.  At  the  rear  of  the  oven  is  a 
roUcr-wav  U|>on  which  the  bars  are  moved  into  tlie 
oven.  The  slope  of  the  oven  and  trestle-work  facili- 
tates the  insertion  of  the  bars;  but,  as  a  featureof  the 
construction,  it  resulted  rather  from  the  inclination 
of  the  ground  on  which  the  oven  is  built  than  from 
design.  The  bjirs  are  pushed  into  the  oven  as  far  as 
it  is  possible  to  |)usli  them,  and  then  a  long  iron  hook 
is  pas.sed  in  from  the  front  and  hooked  into  the  eye 
in  the  end  of  the  bar.  A  chain  leading  from  tiie 
windla-ss  of  a  steani-cnme  is  connected  with  the  hook, 
anil  the  bar  isdriiwn  forward  by  the  revolution  of  the 
windlas.-).  It  requires  about  three  hours  to  heat  the 
oven,  and  after  that  about  one  hour  to  heal  the  iron 
to  a  bright  redness,  the  tem|M'ratuie  riMpiired.  The 
oven  has  a  capacity  for  eight  bars;  but,  to  .secure 
greater  facility  in  handling,  more  than  four  are  sel- 
dom healed  at  once.  The  coiling  apparatus  is  .shown 
in  the  drawing:  n  is  a  mandrel,  slightly  eonieal  in 
form,  on  which  the  bar  is  wound;  li  is  a" rollei-miide 


over  which  the  bar  passes,  and  by  means  of  which 
the  exterior  diameter  of  the  coil  is  regulated;  c  is  a 
sliding  guide  which  regulates  the  spiral  of  the  coil. 
At  rf"  is  the  steam-piston  which  communicates  the 
motion.  On  the  mandrel  is  an  iron  disk,  e,  through 
which  is  inserted  a  pin  or  key,  /,  and  the  end  of  the 
bar  is  attached  to  the  mandrel  by  passing  Ix'tween  it 
and  the  key,  and  hooking  over  the  latter  by  means  of 


STEAM  Q  CRANE 


the  shoulder.  In  this  position  the  narrow  side  of  the 
bar  is  down  or  against  the  mandrel.  The  apparatus 
ha\-ing  been  put  into  gear,  the  mandrel  revolves, 
winding  the  bar  around  it.  To  remove  the  coil  the 
apparatus  is  thrown  out  of  gear,  the  cap-squares  of 
the  mandrel  are  removed,  and,  by  means  of  the 
steam-crane  standing  immediately  in  rear,  the  man 
drel  is  unshipped  and  swung  round.  The  coil  is  then 
started  b^-  driving  in  wedges  between  the  end  of  the 
coil  and  "the  disk^^; ,  after  which  it  is  readily  re-moved. 
After  coiling,  the  cross-section  of  the  bar  is  slightly 
concave  on  the  exterior  and  convex  on  the  interior  of 
the  coil,  while  the  distances  between  the  folds  are  less 
on  the  interior  than  on  the  exterior.  It  requires  one 
hour  to  coil  four  bars. 

When  removed  from  the  mandrel,  the  ends  of  the 
bar  project  out  from  the  coil,  and  the  folds  are  very 
open,  varying  from  1  to  H  ini^b  on  the  exterior.  The 
ends  are  therefore  heated  and  hammered  round  to 
conform  to  the  curvature  of  the  coil.  The  next  step  is 
one  of  closing  the  folds  aiui  welding  them.  For  these 
operations  there  are  provid«l  two  cast-iron  tubes, 
banded  with  wrought-iron  hoops,  termed  "  welding- 
pots."  These  iwtsare  cylindrical  witliout,  but  .slightly 
conical  within,  and  are  of  two  sizes,  the  dianieterof  the 
smaller  Vieing  141  inches,  and  of  the  larger  14J  inches, 
at  bottom.  In  connection  with  the  pots  is  used  a  short 
iron  cylinder  about  9  inches  in  lieight  and  14  inches  in 
diameter,  termed  the  "cheese,"  which  receives  dire'Ctly 
the  impact  of  the  hammer.  The  coil  is  at  first  heated 
to  redness  in  an  ordinary  reverberatory  heating-fur- 
nace, and  then  transferred,  by  means  of  a  jxirter-bar 
suspended  from  a  crane,  to  the  smaller  welding-pot, 
where  it  is  simply  luesscd  under  the  hammer.  The 
effect  of  this  operation  is  to  close  the  folds  along  the 
surface  of  the  bore.  The  ]iorter-bar  is  provided  with  a 
heavy' sliding  counterpoise  to  facilitate  liandling  it.  In 
order  to  avoid  weak  or  imperfect  welding  of  the  folds, 
it  is  desirable  that  the  process  should  commence  at 
the  interior  surface  of  the  coil  and  progress  gradually 
outward,  thus  lea\ing  to  the  last  an  oix;n  joint  at  the 
exterior  for  the  escape  of  the  cinder  squeezed  out  in 
the  operation.  This  end,  it  is  thought,  is  secured  by 
the  particular  form  of  cross-section  given  to  the  bar, 
and  by  the  precaution  taken  of  first  closing  the  folds 
along  the  interior  surface  before  proceeding  to  the 
welding.  The  coil  is  now  replace<l  in  the  furnace 
and  subjected  lo  a  welding-heat,  which  occupies  from 
2}  to  3  hours.  It  is  then  removed  to  the  smaller 
welding-pot,  and  the  "cheese"  dropped  up<m  it,  and 
hammere<l  till  the  latter  sinks  to  a  certain  mark 
chalked  upon  it.  The  pot  is  then  turned  over,  and 
the  coil  withdrawn  by  means  of  blocks  and  tackle. 
The  coil  is  then  heated  for  the  third  time,  and  the 
same  operation   as  above  repeated,  exce|>t  that  the 


COILED  TTTBES. 


369 


COILED  TTTBES. 


larger  pot  Ls  employed.  The  length  of  tlie  coil  after 
closing  folds  is  about  -i}  feet,  and  the  exterior  diame- 
ter 13  or  13i  inches.  After  being  withdrawn  from  the 
large  pot,  the  length  is  about  3  feet;  the  exterior  diam- 
eter about  that  of  the  pot,  and  the  interior  diameter 
from  5  to  7  inches.  The  width  of  fold  in  the  coils  for 
the  A  tube  is  now  about  2.75  inches,  while  in  those  for 
B  tubes  it  is  about  2  inches.  The  hammer  employed  in 
welding  the  coils  is  an  8-ton  steam-lianmicr."  The 
drawing  shows  the  coil  at  the  following  stages  of  its 


•fabrication,  viz.:  after  being  removed  from  the 
mandrel  of  the  coiling  apparatus,  and  after  weld- 
ing of  the  folds.  In  Engliind,  the  process  of  coil- 
welding  differs  as  follows  from  the  above:  The  coil 
liaving  been  subjected  to  a  welding-heat,  "  it  is  placed 
vertically  under  the  steam-hammer,  and  receives  a 
few  smait  blows  to  weld  the  folds.  It  is  then  thrown 
on  its  side,  and  being  gradually  turned  is  hammered 
(or  patted)  all  round  to  straighten  it.  It  is  then  raised 
vertically  again,  and  a  punch  or  mandrel — rather 
oyer  half  the  length  and  a  little  larger  than  the  inte- 
rior diameter  of  the  coil — is  hammered  down  its  own 
length.  The  coil  is  next  placed  on  its  side  and  ham- 
mered round  that  half  of  its  length,  thus  being  made 
very  compact,  and  large  enough  to  let  the  mandrel 
fall  out.  After  this  the  coil  is  again  raised  vertical, 
and  the  mandrel  is  forced  in  the  opposite  end,  and 
the  process  repeated.  The  reason  a  long  mandrel  is 
not  forced  through  the  whole  length  of  the  coil  is 
that  it  would  tend  to  separate  the  folds.  The  coil  is 
replaced  (upright)  in  the  furnace  for  the  second  heat- 
ing, and  much  the  same  process  is  followed  to  render 
the  ring  more  consolidated  as  well  as  more  shapel}'." 
By  the  American  process,  there  seems  to  be  no  ten- 
dency whatever  to  separate  the  folds  duiing  any  part 
of  Uie  operation.  The  coil  is  withdrawn  from  the 
welding-pot  by  connecting  the  tackle  with  an  iron 
rod,  which  pa.sses  down  the  interior  of  the  coil,  and 
is  held  by  a  key  at  the  bottom,  so  that  the  strain  is 
transmitted  to  that  point. 

After  welding  the  folds.the  coil  is  extremely  rough 
and  tmeven  on  the  interior;  it  Is  therefore  removed  to 
the  shops,  wlierc  it  is  rough-bored  to  within  .7o  inch 
of  the  true  diameter  of  the  tube,  which  furnishes  a 
straight  and  uniform  bore  for  the  formation  of  the 
tube.  The  exterior  is  comparatively  smooth  and 
cylindrical.  To  unite  two  or  store  coils  to  form 
a  tube,  the  ends  are  faced  and  reciprocally  re- 
ces.sed;  that  is,  a  projection  is  formed  at  one  end  of 
a  coil,  while  a  recess  is  bovetl  in  the  corresponding 
end  of  another  coil.  Tue  height  of  the  projection  is 
a  little  greater  than  the  depth  of  the  recess,  in  order 
that  a  close  joint  may  be  obtained  on  the  interior. 
The  recess  is  then  exjxindcd  by  heat  and  shrunk  over 
the  projection,  so  that  the  two  coils  are  sulticienlly 
stuck  together  to  admit  of  being  put  into  the  furnace 
for  welding.  An  iron  rod,  with  a  key  at  one  end  and 
a  nut  on  the  other,  is  jiassed  through  tlie  sections,  and 
the  nut  screwed  up  to  prevent  separation  in  shrink- 
ing. The  furnace  for  welding  the  sections  is  so  con- 
structed that  an  intense  heat  shall  act  only  upon  the 


joint.  The  butt-welding  is  performed  by  means  of  a 
])owerful  screw-press.  The  furnace  and  welding  ap- 
paratus are  sliown  in  the  following  drawing.  The  tube 
is  placed  in  the  furnace  by  means  of  a  crane  and  a  por- 
ter-bar; the  bars  a  ii  are  then  raised  on  the  support- 
ing-props b,  the  cross-head  c  and  the  screw  d  ad- 
justed to  the  ends  of  the  tube,  and  the  wedges  e 
inserted.  The  furnace  is  then  entirely  closed  around 
the  tube,  and  the  draught  turned  on.  It  requires 
about  three  hours  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  metal 
on  the  interior  of  the  tulx'  to  a  welding-heat,  a  point 
which  is  ascertained  by  means  of  a  hole  pierced  through 
the  cross-head  c  and  covered  with  a  plate  of  mica, 
which  permits  of  the  interior  of  the  tube  being  seen. 
A  welding-heat  being  obtained,  the  screw,  which 
works  in  the  cross-head  /  as  a  nut,  is  tightened  by 
means  of  the  handle  h,  till  the  tube  is  compressed 
lengthwise  i  inch.  The  tube  is  then  turned  half  arotmd, 
the  heat  renewed  for  about  ten  miiuites,  and  another 
turn  given  to  the  screw,  by  which  a  further  compres- 
sion of  ^  inch  is  obtained.  The  proi)s  are  then 
knocked  out,  the  '  ais  fall  down,  and  the  tube,  which 
is  considerably  bulged  at  the  joint  by  the  compression 
it  has  undergone,  is  removed  to  the  steam-hammer 
and  "patted"  into  shape,  as  well  as  lap-welded. 
Sand  is  thrown  on  the  joint  during  this  operation,  to 
protect  the  iron  and  prevent  the  formation  of  scale. 
The  face  of  the  hammer,  as  well  as  the  top  of  the  an- 
vil, is  semi-cylindrical,  to  conform  to  the  exterior  of 
the  tube.  Two  sections  being  thus  welded  together, 
another  is  added  in  a  similar  manner,  and  then  an- 
other section  which  completes  the  tube.  The  Eng- 
li.sh  method  of  welding  the  sections  is  as  follows: 
After  shrinking  two  sections  together,  as  above,  the 
tube  is  put  crossways  through  a  furnace  so  constructed 
that  the  heat  acts  only  on  the  joint.  When  the  joint 
arrives  at  a  welding-heat,  a  stout  iron  bar  is  pa.ssed 
through  the  tube;  this  bar  is  keyed  up  at  one  end,  and 


by  means  of  a  screw-nut  worked  by  a  long  lever  at 
the  other  end,  the  two  coils  are  welded  or  pressed 
together.  The  joint  is  afterwards  tapped  under  the 
hammer.  The  furnace  and  apparatus  as  described 
for  welding  sections  were  devised  by  Jlr,  Colin  Tol- 
mie.  Superintendent  of  the  *Forge-shops  at  the  West 
Point  foundry,  and  the  experience  so  far  had  with 
them  has  been  very  ssitisfactory.  The  furnace  has  a 
capacitj-  for  about  1.500  pounds  coal  (anthracite  coal 
l)eing  employed)  and  is  so  arranged  as  to  consiune 
its  own  gases.  The  amount  of  coal  consumed  in 
welding  thirteen  sections  is  about  6900  pountls.  It 
requires  ten  hours  to  heat  up  the  fiu'nace  when  cold. 


conr. 


370 


COLIC^ 


and  about  four  hours  when  working  daily.  The  lire 
is  alwnvs  replenisheil  during  nn  interval  when  the 
tulx'  is"  withdrawn,  so  lis  not  to  interfere  with  the 
heating.  While  in  the  furnace,  should  the  joint  be- 
come une«iually  heate<l.  saud  is  thrt>wn  in  upon  the 
hotter  jiart  to  liiualize  the  temperature. 

The  tulR-  is  now  transferred  from  the  forge  to  the 
shops,  and  placed  in  the  lathe,  where  it  is  rough- 
turnitl  and  nuiL'h  and  tine  bored.  TIic  breech-cui)  is 
then  screwed  in,  the  brt^cch  end  of  the  tutx-  turned 
down  o\'er  a  length  of  32  inches  for  the  reception  of  I 
the  B  tube,  and  the  spiral  gas-channel  cut  upon  it. 
The  bneclicup  is  a  solid  forging  stamix.'d  into  shape 
under  the  steam-hammer,  turned  inside  and  out.  and 
screwed  on  the  exterior  with  a  thread  of  live  to  the 
inch.  The  B  tube  consists  of  two  bars  unilcil,  coiled, 
etc.,  in  the  siune  manner  as  a  section  of  the  A  tube,  j 
It  is  rough-turned  to  13.75  inches,  the  exterior  diame- 
ter of  the  main  jwrtiou  of  the  A  tube,  and  linishcd 
bored  to  10  inches.  It  is  shrunk  on  the  A  tube  with 
.0t)3  inch  shrinkage  in  the  diameter.  The  shrink- 
ing operation  is  a  simple  one.  The  B  tube  stands 
vertically,  breech  down,  over  a  wood-tire,  while  a 
large  0]X'n  cylinder  of  sheet-iron  surrouiuis  it.  When 
sufficiently  heated  the  A  tulje  is  lowered  b^-  a  crane 
into  place,  the  weight  of  the  A  tube  forcm^  the  B 
tulie  well  "  home"  to  the  shoulder  upon  the  tormer. 
Water  is  then  thrown  upon  the  exterior  near  the 
shoulder,  to  cool  the  B  tube  in  that  vicinity  first,  and 
thus  prevent  nn  open  joint,  which  is  apt  to  occur 
from  the  longitudinal  contraction  of  the  B  tube  in 
cof)ling. 

The  tube  at  this  stage  is  subjected  to  a  water-test  of 
140  ix)iuids  to  the  square  inch,  and  is  turned  to  fit 
the  casing,  allowing  a  "  play"  of  .007  inch  in  the 
diameter  between  it  and  the  casing  for  a  distance  of 
32  inches  from  the  bottom,  and  of  .015  inch  for 
the  remainder  of  its  length  To  determine  this  play, 
it  is  necessary  to  accurately  measure  the  diameters  of 
the  Iwre  of  the  casing  and  of  the  exterior  of  the  tube; 
the  former  are  measured  with  the  star-gauge,  the  lat- 
ter either  by  meaas  of  horse.shoe-gauges  or  a  diame- 
ter-calipers specially  designed  for  the  purpose,  and 
measuring  to  .001  inch.  The  tube  is  tilled  either 
before  or  after  its  insertion  into  the  casing,  as 
may  happen  to  be  most  convenient.  The  weight  of 
bar-iron  employed  is  about  6770  pounds.  The  weight 
of  the  finished  tube  is  about  3100  pounds.  The 
operations  of  inserting  the  tube  into  the  casing  and 
securing  it,  of  venting,  final  proof,  etc.,  are  fully  de- 
scribed in  the  fabrication  of  converted  gims.  The 
collar  for  securing  tlie  tube  at  the  muzzle  is  mafle  of 
tul)e-iron,  fagoted  and  hammered  out  to  a  proper 
size.  It  is  then  bent  to  a  circle  over  a  mandrel,  and 
the  ends  welded  together.  See  Converted  Gum,  Fab- 
rication of  Tuixg,  and  Water-tent. 

COIN. — In  gunnery,  a  kind  of  wedge  to  lay  under 
the  breech  of  a  gun  in  order  to  raise  or  depress  the 
metal.     Written  also  Q>mn. 

COIK. — The  fiber  of  the  cocoanut.  Very  excellent 
rope  for  naval  purposes  is  made  from  it,  and  is  valtfed 
on  account  of  its  lightness,  elasticity,  and  strength. 
Coir-cable  is  (irepared  in  Ceylon,  on  the  Malabar 
Coast,  in  the  Maldive  and  Laccadive  Islands,  and  in 
most  places  along  the  eastern  an(l  western  coasts  of 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  where  cocoanut-trecs  grow. 
Sponges  for  guns  have  Ixen  made  from  the  fiber, 
but  they  arc  not  equal  to  sponges  made  of  wool  for 
this  purpose,  and  arc.  moreover,  liable  to  take  fire. 

COKE.— A  fuel  much  used  for  melting  inm  in  the 
founilry  cuijola,  and  obtained  by  the  heating  of  coal 
in  ovens,  or  other  arrangemeiits  where  little  air  is 
admitted.  Caking  coal  is  most  suitable  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  coke.  The  process  is  conducted  either 
(I)  in  hcaivs  or  ridges,  or  (2)  in  ovens.  The  coking  in 
heaps  is  called  the  Jleiler  method,  and  consists  in 
l)lacing  the  coal  in  round  stacks,  or  in  long  ridges, 
occasionally  to  the  length  of  200  feet.  During  the 
building  of  the  coal,  wooden  stakes  arc  drivt'ii  in, 
which  are  uftenvards  taken  out,  and  lighted  coal  in- 


tro<luced  at  numerous  places  at  the  same  time.  As 
the  coal  becomes  heated,  iiuich  smoke  and  va|X)r  are 
evolved,  which  mainly  consist  of  tar,  water,  and  coal- 
ga-s.  Whenever  the  smoke  ceases  to  be  evolved,  the 
process  of  coking  is  regarded  as  concluded,  and  the 
mound  or  ridge  of  red-not  cinder,  or  coke,  is  covered 
over  with  fine  coal-dust,  which,  excluding  the  air, 
extinguishes  the  combustion.  At  places  where  the 
0]X'ration  of  coking  is  conducted  regularly  on  the 
large  scale,  it  is  customary  to  erect  brick  chimneys 
or  coltmms,  about  the  height  of  the  proposed  mound, 
and  to  build  the  coal  round  these,  placing  the  larger 
ma.s.ses  in  the  center,  the  smaller  pieces  outside,  and 
ultimately  covering  the  whole  with  tine  coal  or  dross. 

A  more  economical  plan  of  i>reparing  coke  is  to 
introduce  the  coal  into  fire-brick  ovens.  The  coal  is 
introduced  by  the  top,  and  being  lighted,  a  little  air 
is  admitted  by  openings  in  front.  Whenever  the 
coal  ceases  to  evolve  smoky  vapor,  every  opening  is 
closed,  and  the  oven  is  allowetl  to  cool  down  for  13 
to  24  hours.  A  dooriu  front  is  then  opened,  and  the 
coke  being  raked  out  whilst  still  hot,  water  is  thrown 
upon  it,  to  stop  the  combustion.  Small  coal  may  he 
use<l  if  it  belongs  to  the  caking  kind;  and  a  little 
water  sprinkled  over  it  causes  the  caking  operation 
to  proceed  more  completelj-.  The  proportion  of  coke 
obtained  from  coal  in  Great  Britain  ranges  from  54  to 
73  per  cent,  so  that  in  rouml  numbers  the  better  class 
of  coal  for  this  purpose  loses  a  fourth  of  its  weight. 
At  the  same  time  the  coal  increases  in  volume  to  the 
extent  of  about  one  fourth.  Coke  is  a  hard,  brittle, 
porous  .solid,  with  a  color  varjing  from  iron-gray  to 
blackish  gray,  and  more  or  less  of  a  metallic  luster, 
and  does  not  soil  the  fingers.  It  absorbs  moisture 
from  the  air,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  30  per  cent, 
and  contains  an  amount  of  ash  ranging  from  i  up  to 
15  per  cent.  It  gives  off  no  smoke  in  burning,  is  of 
gre;it  value  as  a  fuel,  evolnng  a  very  large  amount 
of  heat. 

The  advantages  of  coke  of  the  best  quality  (Con- 
nells\illc  coke)  may  be  enumerated  as  follows:  1st. 
Coke  will  melt  iron  much  more  quickl}'  than  coal. 
3d.  Coke  melts  iron  so  much  softer  than  any  other 
fuel  as  to  save  very  considerably  on  that  alone,  by 
making  solid  and  perfect  castings.  3d.  One  pound 
of  coke  will  melt  two  to  four  pounds  more  iron  than 
a  pound  of  coal.  4th.  Coke  makes  minimum  quan- 
tity of  slag.  Furnace  does  not  have  to  be  "picked 
out "  when  coke  is  used.  5th.  Coke  requires  much 
less  blast.  6th.  Coke  contains  the  smallest  percent- 
age of  sulphur  and  other  impurities,  and  the  highest 
percentage  of  fixed  carbon.  7th.  By  melting  the 
iron  very  soft  and  hot,  it  admits  the  use  of  much 
more  scrap  than  with  any  other  fuel.  8th.  On  ac- 
count of  saving  in  time,  rctluction  of  strain  on  blow- 
ers and  power  for  blast,  there  is  a  con.sequent  great 
saving  in  labor  and  other  general  exi)enses.  9th.  A. 
good,  clean  "drop"  at  end  of  heat,  and  fiu-nace  is  left 
in  good  shape.     See  Anthrarite  and  Ciial. 

COLD-BLAST. — Air  forced  into  a  smelting-furnace 
at  a  natural  temperatine,  in  contradistinction  to  a 
heated  blast,  which  is  more  economical,  but  produces 
an  inferior  qualitv  of  iron. 

COLDSHORT.— A  void  or  seam  in  a  casting  occa- 
sioned by  the  loo-rapid  congelation  of  the  metal,  which 
failed  to  till  the  mold  perfectly. 

COLD-SHOET  IRON. — Iron  containing  phosphorus, 
which  may  lie  forged  and  welded  while  hot,  but  is 
brittle  when  cold, 

COLDSTREAM  GUARDS.— A  regiment  in  the  Foot- 
piarils  or  Household  Brigade;  it  is  the  oldest  corps 
m  the  British  army  except  the  First  Foot.  General 
Monk,  in  1660,  raised  a  corps  at  Coldstream,  which 
was  at  first  called  "Monk's  Regiment;"  but  when 
Parliament  consented  to  give  a  brigade  of  guards  to 
Charles  II.,  this  corps,  under  the  name  of  Coldstream 
Guards,  was  included  in  it. 

COLIC. — .V  complaint  with  which  horses  are  not 
unfrequenlly  attacked,  caused  by  indigestion,  consti- 
pation, spasm,  strangury.    The  "remedy  for  this  com- 


COLICHEMASOE. 


371 


COLONEL. 


plaint  is  thus  explaiued:  The  attack  will  generally 
yield  to  the  lirst  or  second  dose  of  the  usual  colic- 
mixture,  with  injections  of  warm  soap-and-water,  and 
with  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine  in  it;  friction  being 
used  to  the  surface  of  the  l)elly.  If  there  is  constipa- 
tion, give  a  dose  of  the  prescribed  mixture,  with  a 
teaspoonful  of  ginger  in  it ;  if  the  pain  continues  and 
becomes  more  constant,  bleed,  tiiking  from  six  to  ten 
quarts  of  blood,  continue  the  injections,  and  give  a 
dram  of  opium  every  hoar,  blister  the  belly,  clipping 
the  hair  off  tirst.  The  cure  for  colic  is  powdered 
opium,  1  dram;  ginger,  powdered,  2  drams;  allspice, 
powdered,  3  drams;  caraway-secnis,  powdered,  4 
drams — made  into  a  bolus. 

COLICHEMARDE.— A  variety  of  sword  in  great 
favor  for  dueling  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XTV.  Its 
peculiarity  is,  that  from  the  hilt  the  blade  for  some 
length  is  tolerably  broad,  then  suddenly  by  a  rec- 
tangular step,  on  each  side,  it  becomes  narrow,  and 
terminates  in  a  very  shaiii  point.  This  conformation 
of  the  blade  has  the  advantage  of  placing  the  center 
of  gravity  in  the  hilt,  and  con-sequently  the  weapon 
is  remarkable  for  its  lightness  and  convenience  in  the 
hand.  This  is  sometimes  called  Koidc/gtnark  sword, 
and  the  word  CoUchemarde  is  only  a  corruption  of 
the  word  Kiinigsmark. 

COLISMAKDE. — A  long  slender  sword  used  in  an- 
cient limes;  a  combat  sword.     See  Colichtmaide. 
COLLAR. — A  device  placed  upon  the  chase  of  a  gun 
to  make  its  diameter  equal  to  that  of 
the  body  of  tbe  piece.     This  enables 
the  gun  to  be  rolled  with  facilily.    It 
is  made  of  pieces  of  scantling  joint- 
ed together  after  the  manner  of  the 
staves  of  a  cask,  and  hooped  with 
stout  bands  of  iron.     It  is  shoved 
over  the  muzzle  on  to  the  chase,  and  is  secured  with 
wedges  of  wood. 

COLLAB-MAKEBS.— Artiliccrs  appointed  for  the 
repair  of  draught-harness.  In  the  English  artillery, 
on  tirst  appointment,  they  have  the  rank  and  cloth- 
ing of  Bombardiers,  and  reckon  service,  as  such, 
without  increase  of  pay.  After  live  years'  service,  if 
Bombardiers,  they  have  the  rank  and  clothing  of 
Corporals,  and  reckon  service  for  pension,  as  such, 
without  increase  of  pay.  The  four  senior  Collar- 
makers  of  each  brigade  are  allowed  the  rank  and 
clothing  of  a  Serseant,  but  without  increase  of  pav. 

COLLEGE  OF  ABMS.— A  collegiate  body,  founded 
by  Richard  III.  in  1483,  consisting  of  tlie  heraldic 
officers  of  England,  who  were  a.ssigned  a  habitation 
in  the  parish  of  Allhallows-tlieLess,  in  London. 
Various  charters  confirmed  the  privileges  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Arms,  and  it  was  reincorporated  by  Philip 
and  Mary,  who  bestowed  on  it  Derby  Hou.se,  on 
whose  site  in  Doctors'  Commons  the  present  College 
was  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  The  presidency 
of  the  College  is  vested  in  the  Earl  Marshal,  an  office 
now  hereiUtarj'  in  the  family  of  Howard  Duke  of 
Norfolk;  he  nominates  the  three  kings  of  arms,  six 
heralds,  and  four  pursuivants,  who  are  the  members 
of  the  collegiate  chapter.  Persons  having  a  heredi- 
tarj'  claim  to  arms,  which  has  been  disused  for  one  or 
more  generations,  are  empowered  by  the  Heralds' 
College  to  resume  them,  on  proof  and  registration  of 
pedigree.  A  person  who  h;us  no  hereditari-  claim, 
and  wishes  a  grant  of  amis,  must  memorialize  the 
Earl  Marshal,  and  show  that  he  is  in  a  condition  to 
"  sustain  the  rank  of  gentry."  An  important  depart- 
ment of  the  College  is  the  recording  of  peiligrees. 
Any  pedigree  showing  the  existing  state  or  descent 
of  a  family  may,  if  accompanied  with  sufficient  evi- 
dence, lie  entered  on  the  books  of  the  College.  The 
members  of  the  College  have  salaries,  but  derive  their 
principal  income  from  fees  charged  for  assistance  in 
tracing  pedigrees  and  titles,  and  for  the  granting  and 
registration  of  arms.  In  Scotland  the  corresiwnding 
functions  belong  to  the  Lyon  Court.     See  IleniMry. 

COLLET.— In  gunnery,  that  part  of  a  cannon  which 
is  between  the  astragal  and  the  muzzle. 


COLLETIN.— The  ancient  name  for  that  part  of  the 
armor  which  protected  the  neck  and  upper  part  of 
the  breast.     See  Armor. 

COLLIMATOR. — An  instrument  for  laying  guns 
and  mortars,  and  especially  adapted  for  laying  them 
for  night-firinir.  But  the  same  appliance  as  is  used 
by  night  could  be  made  available  by  day,  with  the 
embrasures  closed,  thus  protecting  the  giinners  from 
the  fire  of  the  encmv. 

COLLODIONIZED-PAPER  PROCESS.— Paper  lieing 
substituted  for  glass  in  this  process,  as  a  basis  upon 
which  to  support  the  film,  a  great  increase  in  porta- 
bility is  arrived  at,  as  the  sensitive  sheets  may  be  car- 
ried in  a  portfolio,  and  employed  in  the  same  manner 
as  drj-  collodion  plates.  "There  are  difficulties,  how- 
ever, in  the  way  of  its  successful  practice,  which  have 
prevented  it  from  becoming  as  pojjular  as  it  deserves 
to  be.  The  following  is  a  brief  summarv  of  the 
manipulations.  Mr.  Corbin,  the  inventor  of  the  pro- 
cess, ascertained  that  a  peculiar  collodion  was  requi- 
site, the  formula  of  which  is  as  follows:  ether,  650 
parts;  alcohol,  350  parts;  pjToxyline,  15  parts;  iodine, 
li  parts.  The  collodion  so  prepared  is  poured  on 
the  glass  in  the  usual  way,  and  sensitized  in  a  bath 
containing  only  1  per  cent  of  nitrate  silver  and  *  per 
cent  of  nitric  acid.  The  plate  having  remained  in 
this  bath  about  "2  minutes,  is  withdrawn,  and  freely 
washed  with  water;  it  is  then  immersed  in  a  .sohition 
of  1  per  cent  of  iodide  of  potassium,  to  insure  the 
complete  decomposition  of  the  whole  of  the  free 
nitrate  of  silver  not  removed  by  the  washing.  A 
piece  of  negative  paper  is  now  coated  with  a  solution 
of  gelatine,  containing  6  parts  gelatine  to  100  parts 
water;  the  dimensions  of  the  paper  should  be  rather 
less  than  the  glass,  and  the  gelatinized  side  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  collodion  film  in  a  dish  of  water, 
any  intervening  water  being  expelled  by  passing  a 
glass  rod  lightly  over  it.  The  edges  of  the  collwiion 
film  which  project  beyond  the  paper  are  folded  back 
on  it.  and  the  film  and  paper  removed  together.  The 
now  crillodionized  palmer  is  laid,  film  uppermost,  on  a 
glass  plate,  coated  with  a  preservative  solution,  com- 
posed of  equal  parts  of  albumen  and  honey,  diluted 
sufficiently  to  enable  it  to  flow  freely  over  the  paper. 
The  film  is  lastly  sensitized  in  a  soliltion  of  nitrate  of 
silver,  5  parts;  glacial  acetic  acid,  5  parts;  water,  100 
parts;  it  is  then  freely  washed  as  before  in  water,  and 
himg  up  to  dry.  As  it  is  apt  to  wrinkle  in  drjing,  it 
should  be  attached  by  all  four  corners  to  two  lines, 
nmning  one  under  the  other.     See  Phoiography. 

COLONEL. — The  highest  officer  of  a  regiment;  any 
grade  above  this  converts  him  into  a  General  Officer 
belonging  to  the  army  collectively,  rather  than  to  any 
one  regiment.  Before  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the 
chief  officer  of  an  English  regiment  was  Captain,  but 
in  1588  the  title  of  Colonel  had  become  familiar.  In 
the  British  army  at  the  present  day,  except  in  the 
Artillery  and  Engineers,  the  office  of  Regimental 
Colonel  is  a  sinecure,  the  real  active  Commander  of 
the  Battalion  being  the  Lieutenant  Colonel.  The 
Colonel  receives  higher  pay  and  dignity.  The 
Colonels  are  Generals  who  have  had  what  is  called  a 
regiment  "  given  to  them"  as  a  reward  for  long  ser- 
vice, and  virtually  as  a  retirement.  The  pay,  except 
in  the  Guards  (where  it  is  higher),  is  £1000  a  year. 
The  army  estimates  provide  for  about  150  regimental 
(otherwise  called  "honorarj-")  Colonels  of  Cavalry 
and  Infantrj-,  and  for  about  a  sixth  of  that  number 
Colonels  Commandant  in  connection  with  the  Artil- 
lery and  Engineers.  There  is  a  frequent  outcry 
against  these  appointments  when  viewed  as  sinecures, 
but  looked  upon  as  retirements  for  deserving  old  offi- 
cers there  is  little  that  is  objectionable  in  them.  The 
rank  of  Colonel  was  above  those  which  were  purchas- 
able. Apart  from  regimental  rank  there  is  the  army 
or  brevet  rank  of  Colonel,  through  which  all  officers 
must  pa.ss  on  the  way  to  General  Officer.  It  is  at- 
:  tained  by  specified  service  in  certain  positions  as 
Lieutenant  Colonel.  In  the  Austrian,  Prussian,  and 
i  Russian  armies,  where  the  regiments  are  very  large. 


i;OLON£L  COMMANDANT. 


372 


COLORED  FIRES. 


the  Colonelcies  arc  mostly  lionoran-  posts,  hold  by 
Einp<'rors,  Kings.  Princes,  anil  other  liistinmushcil 
IXTsons.  There  is  no  niiilerial  (iiffcn-nre  in  Ibc  |^osi- 
lion  of  Colonel  in  the  American  a.s  conii)areil  with  the 
British  arniv.  The  nmk  is  between  Lieutenant 
Colonel  anil  Briipulier  C.eiieral,  and  the  extent  of 
command  is  usually  a  siiiL'le  R'srimcnt. 

COLONEL  COMMANDANT.— The  Chief  of  n  Bri- 
ipidc  of  Artillerv,  En-cincei-s.  or  Marines,  in  the  Eng- 
lish service.  T'his  position  is  analogous  to  that  of  a 
Colonel  of  a  Re^ment.  who  receives  what  is  termed 
the  •  •  Colonel's  Allowance. "  In  the  early  days  of  this 
rank  in  the  Artiller\-.  the  connection  of  the  Colonels 
Connnanilant  with  "their  battalions  remained  of  the 
closest  (lescription.  Xo  otVucr  was  alloweil  to  be  pro- 
moted, undiT  the  rank  of  Field  Ollicer,  without  a 
recommendation  from  the  Colonel  Commandant  of 
the  battalion  in  which  he  iinght  be  serving.  Nor  was 
anv  exchange  allowed  without  the  consent  of  l)oth  the 
Colonels  Commandant  concerned.  Even  nowadays, 
liefore  an  Adjutant  is  ai)i)oinled  to  a  Brigade  of  Ar- 
tillerv. the  Colonel  Commandant  hiis  to  be  consulted, 
and  nominates  the  officer  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  Commander-in-Chief. 

COLONEL  GENERAL.— An  honorary  title,  or  mili- 
tary rank,  which  is  bestowed  in  foreign  services. 
Thus,  the  Prince  of  the  Peace  in  Spain  was  Colonel 
General  of  the  Swiss  Guards. 

COLONIAL  ALLOWANCE.— An  allowance  granted 
to  British  regiments  in  cerlain  Colonies  to  meet  the 
extra  expenses  of  foreign  ser\ice.  The  amount  varies 
with  the  Colony;  in  some  it  is  half  as  much  more  as 
the  ordinarj-  piiy;  in  others  it  is  more.  The  names 
of  the  Colonies  at  which  a  colonial  allowance  is 
ammted  are  the  Mauritius,  Ceylon,  Straits,  China, 
West  Indies,  Africa,  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  No  such 
allowance  is  granted  to  regiments  in  Canada.  Austra- 
lia and  New  Zealand  have  no  British  troops. 

The  only  advantage  enjoyed  by  troops  in  the  Medi- 
terranean is  tlie  issue  of  " extra  rations."  Regiments 
in  India  receive  Indian  pay. 

COLONIAL  CORPS.— Cerlain  re^ments  forming 
part  of  the  regidar  army  of  Die  British  Empire,  and 
l)aid  for  out  of  the  Imperial  Revenue^.  They  were 
never  very  tixed  in  number,  varying  with  the  circum- 
stances of  the  Colonies  in  which  they  were  located. 
The  following  were  the  names  of  the  Corps,  the  num- 
bers provided  for  in  the  army  estimates  for  1860-61, 
when  these  regiments  were  at  their  largest  recent 
cstabli.shmcnt,  and  the  composition  of  each  Corps, 
whether  British  or  native: 

Three  West  India  regiments 

(afterwards  raised  to  five)  3,420  Negro. 

Newfoundland  Veterans. . .  229  British. 

Ceylon  Rities L.^B.")  Native. 

"      Invalids 163  Native. 

Cape  Mounted  RiHes 1,084  Boers  and  natives. 

JIalta  Fencibles 638  Native. 

Canadian  Rities 1.100  British. 

St.  Helena  Regiment 433        " 

Gold  Coast  Artillery a.'Jl  Native. 

Falkland  Islands  Company.  37  British. 

African!  Artillerymen 64  Native. 

Hong  Kong  Gun  La.scars. .  88        " 

These  Corps,  comprising  about  9.5  companies,  had 
.somewhat  over  1000  ollicers,  commissioned  and  non- 
commissioned, and  about  the  .same  number  of  horses. 
All  the  Corps  were  officered  bv  British,  excei)t  the 
Malta  Fencibles.  The  Cape  iilounled  Rities  was  a 
Jlountcd  Infantry  Corps. 

As  llie  Colonies  obtained  self-government,  and  the 
military  theory  of  employing  troops  only  in  larL'c  Ix)- 
dies  gained  ground,  it  was  considered  as  against  Impe- 
rial Polity  to  maintain,  out  of  the  Imperial  Revenue, 
Corps  which  were  tieil  to  one  Colony,  and  not  availa- 
ble for  the  generid  defense  of  the  Empire.  Accord- 
ingly the  Colonial  Corps  have  been  gradually  dis- 
banded, and  there  survive  only  two  West  India  regi- 
ments and  the  Malta  Fencibles. 


COLOR  BEARER.— The  besircr  of  the  colors.  The 
Color  scrgeanis    are    the   Regimental    Color-bearcrs. 

See  ('ol'irntiyiiiiil. 

COLORED  FIRES. — Tlie  materials  for  colored  fires 
should  lie  as  ])ure  as  can  be  obtained;  those  which 
crystallize  should  be  procured  in  the  ciystalline  .stale. 
Tiiey  should  be  genendly  first  dried,  ground  fine, 
weighed  out  and  mixed.  The  composition  is  then 
moistened  and  pre.s,sed  into  shape.  Some  of  the 
materials,  such  as  the  flowers  of  sulphur  and  lamp- 
black, ought  to  be  first  well  washetl  in  warm  water. 
Antimony,  glitss,  copper  filings  ought,  iis  well  as  other 
materials",  to  be  pa.ssed  through  sieve  No.  1.  All  the 
materials  should  lie  i>erfeetly  dry.  Those  which 
contain  water  of  crystallization,  as  the  barium  nitrate, 
strontium  nitrate,  and  copper  sulphate,  should  have 
it  driven  olT.  For  this  i)urpose,  place  the  s;dt  in  a 
broad,  sliallow  vessel  in  a  water-bath,  or  on  a  moderate 
fire,  and  stir  it  till  it  be  perfectly  dry,  taking  it  off 
the  fire  some  minutes  before.  As  the  copper  sulphate 
is  easily  decomjiosed  in  this  operation,  and  as  the  sul- 
phuric acid  set  free  might  occasion  a  spontaneous  cx- 
Jjlosion  when  the  copper  sulphate  was  brought  in  con- 
tact with  tlie  chlorates,  two  parts  of  liquid  ammonia 
are  iwured  by  degrees  on  the  copjier  sulphate  pow- 
dered and  yet  hot.  (The  ammonia  neutralizes  the 
acid,  and,  instead  of  injuring  the  color,  it  heightens 
it.  The  .Siime  jiroccss  should  be  adopted  with  other 
decomposable  salts.)  A  thick  liquid  of  an  indigo- 
blue  color  is  obtained;  place  it  on  the  fire,  and  warm 
It  gentl}'  until  it  liecomes  a  thick  jiaste;  then,  lea\ing 
only  a  few  coals  under  it,  stir  it  with  a  spatula  and 
crush  it  into  a  powder. 

The  materials  are  ground  in  a  mortar  with  a  pestle, 
or  on  a  sieve  %vith  copper  balls  .4  inch  in  diameter, 
of  equal  weight  with  the  composition  to  lie  ground. 
All  tlic  utensils  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  To 
pulverize  antimony  melt  it  and  [lour  it  into  a  cast-iron 
mortar  previously  ^varmed;  when  the  metal  is  on  the 
point  of  congealing  stir  it  briskly  with  the  pestle;  it 
is  thus  reduced  to  tine  grains,  w  Uich  are  then  pulver- 
ized with  a  pestle.  Zinc  and  other  similar  metals  are 
treated  in  the  same  way.  To  obtain  shellac  in  the 
state  of  a  fine  powder,  it  is  first  broken  into  pieces 
and  melted  with  its  weight  of  niter.  The  mass  is 
then  ground  as  usual,  and  the  powder  thus  obtained 
is  washed  in  pure  water  till  all  the  niter  is  removed. 
The  resins  and  other  substances  insoluble  in  water  and, 
difficult  to  pulverize  in  their  pure  state  are  treated  in 
the  same  manner.  All  materials  when  pulverized 
should  be  passetl  through  hair-sieve  No.  1.  They 
ought,  if  possible,  to  be  sifted  when  warm,  and 
placed  away  immecliately  in  well-stoiipered  bottles  to 
preserve  them  from  inoisUire.  The  chlorates  should 
be  pulverized  in  a  marble  mortar  with  a  hard-wood 
pestle.  The  mortar,  pestle,  and  sieve  should  be  used 
only  for  a  single  clilorate,  and  the  whole  operation  be 
lierformed  in  ii  place  apart  to  avoid  accidents.  The 
chlorate  can  be  ground  and  maniiiulated  by  itself 
without  danger;  but  when  it  is  mixed  with  sulphur, 
charcoal,  etc.,  it  exiilodes  very  readily. 

Each  material  should  lie  weighed  accurately  by  it- 
self, according  to  the  proportions  laid  down  by  au- 
Ihority.  The  materials,  after  being  ^veighed  out,  are 
poured  on  a  sheet  of  iiasleboard,  and  mixed  as  well 
as  possible  with  the  hand;  they  are  then  jiassed  three 
times  through  sieve  No.  2,  keeping  the  sieve  station- 
ary, and  stirring  the  materials  with  the  hand.  If  a 
chlorate  enters  into  the  coni])osilion,  begin  liy  mi.xing 
all  the  nialerials  on  a  pasteboard,  except  the  sulphur, 
charcoal,  lamp-black,  sugar,  tallow,  and  sliellac. 
AVhen  they  are  well  mixed,  add  the  combustible  ma- 
terials separately,  mix  them  thoroughly,  and  then 
add  the  chlorate.  Pass  the  comiiosition  three  times 
through  sieve  No.  2.  using  a  feather  for  the  inirpose. 
All  these  maiiipulaliniis  with  compositions  into  which 
a  chlorate  enters  sliuuld  lie  performed  in  a  place 
aside,  and  with  a  small  ((uantity  at  a  time.  Compo- 
sitions thus  inepared  should  lie  in'eserved  in  well- 
stoppered  bottles,  carefully  labeled.    Those  contain- 


COLOE-GUAED. 


373 


COLOE  SALUTE. 


ing  chlorates  sliould  be  placed  away  from  the  rest, 
and  apart  from  each  other. 

Compositions  are  (lami)eued  by  pouring  the  pure  or 
gummed  liquid  on  them,  a  little  at  a  time,  and  mi.v 
in;;  it  well  with  the  hand  or  a  wooden  knife.  Com- 
positions should  not  be  dampened  until  just  before 
they  are  to  be  molded.  All  compositions  may  be 
tirmly  compressed,  provided  care  be  taken  to  avoid 
friction  and  blows  with  those  containing  chlorates. 
However  gi'eat  the  care  taken  in  the  choice  of  mate- 
riids,  their  proportions  and  manipulations,  it  is  difli- 
cidl  always  to  gel  uniform  results.  It  is  nccessjuy, 
therefore,  to  try  tlie  mi.xtures  and  moilify  the  proi)or- 
tions  as  may  be  required.  In  every  composition  there 
are  certain  "substances  which  are  used  to  furnish  oxy- 
gen for  the  consumption  of  the  rest;  the  nitrates  and 
chlorates  are  such.  There  are  other  substances,  as 
sulphur,  charcoal,  and  vegetable  matters,  which  are 
burned ;  and  others  which  are  only  used  to  give  color 
to  the  tlame,  as  antimony,  lead,  copper,  strontia,  etc. 
The  same  sul)stances  may  furnish  o.\ygen  and  color 
the  flame  at  the  same  time.  Certain  materials  arc 
used  only  to  heighten  the  color,  as  the  mercuric  chlo- 
ride and  the  ammonium  chloride;  the  action  of  the 
latter  is  weaker  than  that  of  the  former. 

When  a  composition  burns  too  slowly,  there  is  an 
excess  of  coloring  matter,  or  of  that  which  is  to  be 
burned,  or  some  other  substance  (as  water,  for  exam- 
ple), very  rarely  of  that  which  furnishes  o.xygcn. 
When  the  com|>osilion  burns  too  fast,  it  is  necessary 
to  add  coloring  matter,  or  such  substances  as  sugar, 
rosin,  or  tallow,  which  operate  by  .separating  the  sub- 
stances, supplying  the  oxygen  from  those  which  are 
burned,  and  at  the  .same  time  keeping  up  the  com- 
bustion. Generally,  the  quicker  the  combustion  the 
jnore  will  the  flame  approach  to  whiteness,  whatever 
may  be  the  coloring  principle;  and  the  slower  the 
combustion  the  more  certaiutj'  there  will  be  of  obtain- 
ing the  desired  color.    See  Compositiona and  Fiiv-iror/.s. 

C0L0B-6UAED.— In  each  Infantry  Battalion  of  the 
United  States  Army  there  is  a  Color-guard,  composed 
of  a  Color-sergeant  and  seven  Coiporals,  which  is 
posted  as  the  left  four  of  the  right  center  company. 
The  front  rank  is  composed  of  the  Color-sergeant  and 
three  senior  Corporals,  one  posted  on  his  right  and 
two  on  his  left;  tlic  rear  rank  is  composed  of  the  four 
remaining  Corporals.  The  Corporals  are  placed  in 
the  order  of  rank  from  right  to  left.  The  Color- 
sergeant  and  Color-corporals  are  selected  from  those 
most  distinguished  for  bravery,  and  for  precision 
under  arms  and  in  marching.  The  Color-sergeant 
carries  the  national  color.  The  regimental  color 
(when  present)  is  carried  by  a  Sergeant,  who  tiikes 
the  place  of  the  Corporal  on  the  left  of  the  Color- 
sergeant. 

The  colors,  delivered  by  the  Colonel  into  the  hands 
of  the  Color-bearer,  are  escorted  by  the  Color-guard 
to  the  Color-conipany,  on  its  parade-ground:  and  in 
like  maimer  are  escorted  back  to  the  CoU)ncrs  (juar- 
tcrs.  The  Color-guard,  by  command  of  the  Color- 
sergeant,  presents  nriiiK  on  receiving  and  on  parting 
with  the  colors;  in  the  latter  case  the  Color  guard  re- 
turns to  the  ciurry  by  command  of  the  senior  Color- 
corporal. 

The  Color-guard  executes  the  order  arms,  carry 
arms,  the  l<jii(/in;/i>  ■.mdjtringn.  In  rendering  honors 
it  executes  the  prfxciif,  rerem',  and  rent  oit  iirms.  On 
drill,  in  addition  to  the  above,  it  executes  .«'(///;</;■/ and 
n'g/it  Khonliler  iirinx.  It  executes  the  other  move- 
ments in  the  manual  only  when  specially  directctl. 
The  bayonets  of  the  Color-guard  are  habitually  carried 
in  the  scabbard. 

COLOE  PAETY.— The  two  Oflicei-s,  in  the  English 
service,  w  ho  carry  the  colors  of  a  regiment :  as  a  rule, 
the  two  jiniior  Lieutenants.  Four  Sergeants  arc  also 
told  off  to  assist,  of  whom  one  stands  between  the 
two  OtTicers  and  three  form  a  rear  rank. 

COLOES. —  I.  In  Heraldry,  the  colors  used  are  gen- 
erally red,  blue,  black,  green,  and  purple;  which  are 
cjilletl  gules,  azm-e,  sable,  vert  or  sinople,  and  pur- 


pure.  •Tennc  or  tawny,  and  sanguine  or  blotxl-color, 
sometimes  occur,  but  they  are  not  common.  Yellow 
and  white,  again,  are  not  colors  in  the  heraldic 
sense,  but  metals;  they  are  called  or  and  argent,  and 
are  always  rejiresented  by  gold  and  silver.  It  is  a 
fundamental  and  invariable  rule  iu  blazon  not  to  put 
color  upon  color,  or  metal  upon  metal ;  thus,  if  the 
field  be  of  a  metal,  the  bearing  must  be  of  a  color, 
and  tke  versa.  The  only  exception  is  sidd  to  be  the 
arms  of  Jerusalem,  which  were  given  to  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon,  which  are  argent,  a  cross  poteiice  or,  be- 
tiri'i'ii  four  crosslets  of  the  same.  Apparent  exceptions 
to  this  rule  in  common  blazon  are  (1)  abatements  or 
marks  of  cadency  or  dilTerence,  labels,  crescents, 
batons,  and  the  like;  and  i'i)  extremities  or  adjuncts 
to  animals,  or  other  objects,  such  as  tongues,  claws, 
horns,  etc. ;  but  neither  of  these  are  regarded  as  in- 
dependent bearings.  Colors  and  metals,  when  en- 
gi-aved.  are  generally  indicated  by  dots  and  lines:  or, 
gold,  by  dots;  argent,  silver,  is  left  plain;  gules,  red, 
is  indicated  by  perpendicular  lines  from  lop  to  bot- 
tom; azure,  blue,  bj'  horizontal  lines  from  side  to 
side;  sable,  black,  by  horizontal  and  perpendicular 
lines  crossing  each  other;  nrt,  by  diagonal  lines  from 
right  to  ]eft;jnirpure,  by  diagonal  lines  from  left  to 
right;  lenne,  by  diagonal  lilies  from  left  to  right, 
crossed  by  horizontal  lines;  and  sanguine,  bj'  lines 
crossing  diagonally  from  left  to  right,  and  from  right 
to  left.     See  IleraMri/. 

2.  Certain  kinds  of  flags  carried  with  the  army. 
Standards,  banners,  pennons,  guidons,  ensigns,  aiid 
colors  are  militarj'  flags,  each  originally  having  a  dis- 
tinct meaning,  now  to  some  extent  departed  from. 
The  ensigns  were  the  original  of  those  which  are  now 
called  colors,  and  which  especially  belong  to  infantry 
regiments,  in  England.  The  colors  are  square  flags, 
larger  than  the  standards  carried  by  the  cavalrj-.  In 
former  times  there  was  one  for  each  comjiany;  but 
now  there  are  generally  two  for  a  battalion,  consti- 
tuting "  a  pair  of  colors;"  one  of  which  is  called  the 
Royal  or  First,  and  the  other  the  Regimental  or  Sec- 
ond. Both  are  about  6i  feet  by  6,  made  of  silk,  with 
cords  and  tassels  of  crimson  and  gold,  and  fixed  to  a 
stafT  about  10  feet  long.  The  Royal  Color  or  Flag  is 
nearly  alike  for  all  the  regiments;  with  abluegrouiid, 
an  imperial  crown,  the  numl)er  of  the  legiment,  and 
the  union  cross  of  St.  George,  St.  Andrew,  and  St. 
Patrick.  The  Regimental  Color  depcnils  for  its  tint 
on  the  facings  of  the  uuifonn  of  the  regiment ;  in  its 
center  is  in.scribed  the  number  or  designation  of  the 
regiment,  with  its  crest  and  motto,  if  any;  and  aroimd 
are  the  names  of  the  victories  and  camjiaigns  in  which 
the  corps  has  sensed.  A  sulialtern  ollicer  carries  the 
colors,  and  certain  nonconunissioncd  officers  are  set 
apart  as  a  g-uard.  The  colors  sjnnbolize  the  good 
name  and  fame  of  the  regiment,  and  are  on  that 
accoimt  protected  in  action  with  .sedulous  care;  a 
victor  always  counts  among  his  achievements  the 
number  of  colors  captured  from  the  enemy.  When 
a  regiment  obtains  new  colors,  they  are  usually  sol- 
emnly presented  by  some  hidy  of  distinction.  The 
presentation  is  made  with  much  military  pomp,  and 
the  Chaplain  of  the  Regiment  reads  a  prayer  prepared 
for  the  occa.sion.  A  member  of  the  Heralds'  College 
is  "  Inspector  of  Regimental  Colors,"  the  iiost  being 
at  present  held  by  Garter-Kingal-Arms.  Besides  the 
above,  there  are  small  camji-colors  of  the  same  tint 
as  the  facings  of  the  regiment,  to  designate  the  part 
of  the  camp  the  corps  occupies.  Rifle  regiments  do 
not  carry  colors. 

In  the  United  States,  eacli  regiment  of  infantry  and 
artillery  has  two  colors,  one  national  and  one  regi- 
mental. See  Artillery  Colors,  Camp  Colors,  Engineer 
Cohii's,  Escort  of  the  Color,  Flags,  Infantry  Colors,  and 
Stanihirih 

COLOE  SALUTE.— The  Color-bcarer  carries  the  heel 
of  the  color-lance  supported  at  the  right  hip;  the  right 
hand  gra.sps  the  slatf  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder,  to 
hold  it  steady.  The  C'olor-bearer  sjdules  with  the 
colors  as  follows:  1.  Slip  the  right  hand  along  the 


C0L0B-8EBOZA1TT. 


374 


COLT  EEVOLTEB. 


staff  to  the  height  of  the  eye;  lower  the  stjiff  by 
stmighteuiiig  the  anil  to  its  full  extent,  the  heel  of  the 
lanee  ri'iiiaiiiing  at  the  hip.  2.  Bring  back  the  lance 
to  the  habilual  |i<i>ition. 

COLOR  SEBGEANT.  — The  Sergeant  detailed  to 
carry  the  Keirimental  Colors.  He  is  usually  selected 
for  military  deportment  and  st)ldierly  bearing,  and 
■when  carrying  the  colors  is  esc^orted  by  a  guard  of 
seven  CoriJorals.  In  the  British  army  the  Color-ser- 
geant is  n  non-conimissioni'd  officer  of  higher  rank 
and  better  pay  than  the  oRliiiary  Sergeants.  There  is 
one  to  each  company  of  infantry;  and  the  office  is 
specially  given  to  meritorious  soldiers.  The  Color- 
sergeant  wears  an  honorary  badge  over  the  che\Tons, 
and  receives  2*.  orf.  per  day.  He  fulfills  the  ordinary 
regimental  and  company  duties  of  Sergeant;  but  in 
addition  to  these,  he  attends  the  colors  in  the  licld, 
or  in  the  front  of  a  camp,  or  near  headquarters  in  a 
garrison.  A  Color-sergeant  may  be  degraded  to  the 
rank  of  Sergeant  for  misbehavior,  but  only  by  the  de- 
cision of  a  Court-Martial. 

COLT  MAGAZIKERIFLE.  — A  new  rifle  recently 
develojuHi  and  [lerfeeted  by  the  Colt  Arms  Company. 
The  drawing  shows  the  arm  and  it.s  parts  in  the  posi- 
tion that  they  will  have  immediately  after  the  piece 


into  the  fonvard  notch  of  the  carrier  and  hold  it  in 
position;  then  if  a  cjirtridge  be  drojiped  on  the  car- 
rier from  the  top,  a  slight  jtrcssure  on  it  will  droj)  the 
carrier  to  the  rear  notch,  leaving  the  cartridge  in  the 
proper  position  for  entering  the  chamber  by  the  action 
of  the  guard-lever.  This  arrangement  enables  the  rifle 
to  be  used  as  a  single  breech-loader  when  the  maga- 
zine is  emjity.  The  firing-pin  lever,  h,  throws  the 
firing-pin  back  by  the  first  motion  of  the  guard-lever, 
and  holds  it  back  until  the  completion  of  the  loading. 
The  ejector,  (",  throws  out  the  emi)ty  shell  as  soon  as 
it  has  been  extracted  from  the  chand)er.  The  ejector 
works  by  the  action  of  the  V-spring  contained  m  the 
lug  of  tlie  bolt.  There  is  a  cleaning-rod  In  the  stock 
of  the  rifle,  which  can  be  taken  out  by  opening  the 
cover  in  the  butt-plate.     See  Magazine-gun. 

COLT  REVOLVER.— This  widely  known  revolver 
differs  from  others  iu  the  following  points,  \\i. :  The 
hand,  or  finger,  or  pawl  which  revolves  the  cylinder 
has  two  points,  one  above  the  other.  The  upper  en- 
gages the  ratchet  of  the  cylinder  when  the  revolution 
begins.  But  before  the  nccessstry  sixth  of  a  revolu- 
tion could  be  made,  as  the  pawl  moves  in  a  plane, 
and  the  ratchet-tooth  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  whose 
plane  is  quite  perpendicular  to  the  pawl's  plane  of 


C!olt  Magazine-rifle. 


is  fired.  The  action  of  the  movable  parts  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  gUard-lever,  a,  is  set  free  and  thrown  for- 
wanl  bv  the  right  hand.  The  first  part  of  this  move- 
ment draws  the  firing-pin,  b,  from  the  head  of  the 
cartridge,  and  releases  the  magjizine-gate,  c,  causing 
it  to  hold  back  and  stop  the  cartridge  which  follows 
that  which  has  already  entered  the  carrier.  As  the 
movement  of  the  guard  progres-ses,  the  bolt,  d,  is 
drawn  to  the  rear,  ejecting  the  empty  shell,  cocking 
the  hammer,  e,  and  raising  tlie  carrier,  /,  .so  that 
when  the  movement  forward  is  finished,  the  cartridge 
in  the  carrier  is  m  line  with  the  chamber  of  the  rifle,  I 
and  just  in  its  rear.  Reversing  the  movement  of 
the  jruard-lever  pushes  the  toll  forward,  drives  the 
cartridge  into  the  chamlx:r,  and  throws  the  carrier 
down  into  position,  so  that  it  receives  another  cart- 
ridge just  a.s  the  reverse  motion  is  completed.  The  i 
lx)lt  is  brought  clear  forward,  and  the  extractor  ' 
hooked  over  the  cartridge-head  before  the  magazine- 
gate,  c,  is  released,  thus  preventing  (he  bloelTing  of 
the  breech  action.  This  feature  is  jieculiar  to  Ibis 
rifle.  The  firing-pin  is  held  back  positively  until  the 
cartridge  hius  enlered  the  chainlier  and  the  bolt  is 
locked,  preventing  the  possjbililv  of  premature  ex- 
plosion. The  carrier  has  at  its  rear  two  notches,  q 
with  a  spring  arranged  to  hold  it  in  one  of  two  posi- 
tions. If  the  lever  lie  brought  forward,  and  the  car 
rier  be  raised  without  a  cartridge,  the  .spring  will  drop 


[  motion,  the  pawl  would  lose  its  hold  on  the  tooth, 
I  and  the  revolution  of  the  cylinder  would  stop.     To 
j  prevent  this   the  second  iioint  is  addetl,  and  just  as 
I  the  first  point  will  disengage   from  the  ratchet,  the 
second  or  lower  point  engages  another  tooth  of  the 
ratchet  and  completes  the   revolution.     By  this  ar- 
rangement the  pawl  actuates  a  larger  ratchet  than  it 
could  otherwise,  and  therefore  exerts  more  force  ujxm 
the  cylinder,  by   acting   u|ion   a    longer    lever-arm. 
This   ijcmiits  a  .smaller-sized  cylinder  for  the   .sjime 
i  diameter   of    ratchet.     The  cylinder  has  a  bushing 
which  projects  in  front  of  it,  and  gives  three  surfaces 
uixm  which  the  cylinder  revolves,  thus  diminishing 
the  chance  of  sticking  from  dirt  or  rust,  and  also 
giving  a  very  small   axisu|)on  which  to  revolve,  de- 
'  creasing  the  moment  of  friction.     AVhen  the  ejector 
is  used  it  springs  l)ack  to  its  place  and  is  ready  for 
!  use  again,  avoiding  the  necessity  of  putting  it  back. 
To  take  the  arm  apart,  half-cock  the  pistol,  loosen 
the  catch-screw  which  holds  the  ceiiter-iiin,  draw  out 
the  center-jMii,  open   the  gate,  and    the  cylinder  can 
then  be  withdrawn.     To  remove  the  ejector,  turn  out 
the  ejector  tulie-screw,  then  push  the  front  end  away 
from  the  barrel  and  pull  it  towards  the  muzzle.     The 
barrel  cm\  then  be  unscrewed.     The  stock  can  be  re- 
moved l)y  turning  out  the  two  screws  just  tiebind  the 
hammer,  and  that  at  the  l)ottom  of  the  strap.     All 
the  parts  of  the  lock  are  then  displayed,  and  can  be 


<!OLT  EEVOLVEE. 


375 


COLT  EEVOIVEB. 


readily  separated.  The  cylinder  bushing  should  be 
pushed  out  for  cleaning.  To  remove  the  gate,  turn 
out  a  screw  in  the  lower  side  of  the  frame  ( hidden  by 
the  trigger-guard),  then  the  gate-spring  and  catch  can 


gate,  cock  and  fire  it  ( taking  it  in  the  right  hand),  or 
biing  the  hammer  to  the  safety-notch  as  may  be  de- 
sired. To  Eject  the  Cartrklt/i;-s/ieiln. — 1st  motion:  Hold- 
ing the  pistol  in  the  ief t  hand,  half-cock  with  the  right 


Fio.l. 


Fia.2, 


NOHENCLATCRE. 


A. 
B. 

B'. 
■C. 
D. 

E. 
T. 


Barrel. 

G. 

Hammer. 

N. 

Trigger  and  screw. 

T. 

Frame. 

H. 

Wain-spring. 

o. 

Haninier-noU'hes. 

U 

Recoil-plate. 

I. 

Hamnier-roll  and  rivet. 

R 

Filing-pin  and  rivet. 

Cylinder. 

J. 

Hammer-srrew. 

^■'. 

Ejector-rod  and  spring. 

V 

Base-pin. 
(iuara. 

K. 

Hamnier-cani. 

Fjector-tnbe. 

w 

L. 

Hand  and  spring. 

H. 

Ejector-head. 

X 

Back-strap. 

M. 

Bolt  and  screw. 

a. 

Ejector-tube  screw. 

V 

Short-guard  screw. 

Sear  and  Iwlt  i  combinedl 

spring  and  screw. 
Back-strap  screw. 
Maiu-spri  ng-screw. 
Front  sight. 
Y.»  Base-pin  catch-screw. 


l)e  withdrawn,  and  the  gate  can  be  pushed  out.  The 
best  sperm-oil  shoulil  be  used  for  oiling  the  pails. 
To  Load  t/ie  I'/ntnl . — 1st  motion:  Holding  tlie  pistol  in 
the  left  hand,  muzzle  downwards,  half-cock  it  with 
the  right  hand  and  open  the  gate.  2d  motion :  Insert  tlie 
•cartridges  in  succession  with  the  right  hand,  close  the 


hand  and  open  the  gate.  2d  motion :  Eject  the  .shells  in 
succession  witli  tlie  ejector  pushed  by  the  right  hand, 
moving  the  cylinder  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
of  the  left  hand.  Wlien  the  shells  have  been  ejected, 
the  pistol  is  ready  for  the  2d  motion  of  loading. 
There  are  three  notches  in  the  hammer  of  this  pistol. 


COLUHBIADS. 


376 


COLUMN  OF  MABCH. 


The  first  is  the  snfety- notch,  the  second  is  the  hnlf- 
cock-notch,  luni  the  third  is  the  cock-notch.  The  pistol 
cannot  lie  lirc<l  when  llie  hnninier  rests  in  the  sjifety- 
nolcli  or  hiilfcock-uotch,  luul  can  he  tired  by  pulling 
the  trip.irer  wlieu  the  hammer  rests  in  the  coeknoteh. 
The  pistol  should  Ih'  carried  habituallj'  with  the  ham- 
mer n-slinjr  in  the  safely -notch. 

The  dr.iwin^  are  verliad  projections  of  this  arm 
(one-half  size).  Fiji.  2  shows  the  arrangement  of  the 
■working  parts,  and  is  referred  to  in  the  nomenclature. 
The  two  back-strap  screws  jiLst  In'hind  the  hammer, 
the  st(X-k,  the  long-jruartl  screw,  gale,  gate-catch 
screw,  pile-spring,  and  gate-calch  are  not  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  The  pile  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  operation 
of  tile  parts  is  very  simi>le.  As  the  hammer  is  cock- 
ed, the  hand,  which  is  jjivoled  to  its  lower  portion, 
rises  and  engages  Ihe  ratchet  on  the  ba.se  of  the  cylin- 
der, and  C'luses  it  to  revolve.  The  lower  point  or 
linger  of  the  hand  engjiges  with  oneof  the  teeth  of  tlie 
rntchct  just  as  the  revolution  of  Ihe  cylinder  lias 
carried  away  the  i)reccding  toolh  from  the  upjicr 
fingi'r  of  the  liand.  Tliis  eomiileles  and  insures  tlie 
re\-(ilution  by  increasing  the  ellective  leverage  of  Ihe 
hand.  Tlie  bolt  MVngages  the  sloivnotehes  in  the  sur- 
face of  Ihe  cylinder,  to  prevent  Ihe  momentum  of  the 
cylinder  from  cjirrjini^  it  past  the  tiring-point.  It  is 
caused  to  disengage  from  them  by  the  action  of  the 
hammer-cam  K,  which,  rising  during  the  cocking  of 
the  hammer,  pressi's  up  the  rear  end  of  tlic  liolt  and 
lilxMiiles  its  front,  end  from  the  notch.  Wlien  the 
revolution  is  about  complete  Ihe  bevih.d  lower  sur- 
face of  Ihe  hammer-cam  comes  opposite  the  point  of 
contact  on  the  bolt.  At  this  moment  the  tail  of  the 
liolt  (being  slit  so  as  to  have  a  iatcial  spring,  and  Ihe 
head  being  pres-sed  upward  by  the  Hat  spring  I')  slides 
down  over  Ihe  inclined  surface  of  Ihe  cam,  and  the 
head  engages  with  Ihe  stop-notch  in  the  cylinder. 
The  spring  U  is  slit  and  lient  so  as  to  act  upon  both 
the  boll  and  the  trigger.  Tlie  liushing  arounil  Ihe  base- 
pin  is  useful  liy  affording  another  surface  for  the  re- 
volulion  of  the  cylinder,  and  thereby  diminishes  the 
chances  of  sticking  from  dirt  or  rust.  15i)lli  the 
cylinder  and  bushing  may  revolve  on  the  base-pin, 
which  in  liirn  may  revolve  in  its  own  liearings. 

COLUHBIADS. — A  species  of  sea-coast  cannon  whicli 
combine  certain  (jualilies  of  Ihe  gun,  howitzer,  and 
mortar;  in  other  words,  they  are  long,  chambered 
pieces,  capable  of  projecting  solid  shot  and  shells, 
with  heavy  charges  of  powder,  at  high  angles  of  ele- 
vation, and  are,  therefore,  etpially  suited  to  tlie 
defense  of  narrow  chimnels  and  distant  roadsteads. 
The  coliunbiad  was  invented  by  the   late  Colonel 


Hodman  Columhiad. 

Bumford,  and  used  in  the  War  of  1S13  for  tiring  solid 
shot.  In  1N44  Ihe  model  was  changed,  by  lenglhcn- 
iiig  Ihe  Iiore  and  increasing  Ihe  weight  of  nielal,  to 
cnalile  it  to  endure  an  increased  charge  of  i)ow(ier, 
or  J  of  the  weight  of  the  solid  sbol.  Si.\  years  after 
this  it  was  discovered  rfiat  Ihe  pieces  thus  idtered  did 
not  always  possess  the  rerpiisite  .strength.  In  18.")8 
they  were  degra<led  to  ihe  rank  of  shell-iruHs.  to  be 
tired  with  diminisheil  charges  of  powder,  and  their 
places  supplied  with  pieces  of  improved  model.  Tlie 
changes  made  in  forming  the  new  model  consisted  in 
giving  greater  thickness  of  metal  in  the  prolongation 


of  the  axis  of  the  liore,  which  was  done  by  diminish- 
ing the  length  of  the  bore  it.self;  in  substituting  a 
hemispherical  bottom  to  the  bore,  and  removing  the 
cylindrical  chamlier;  in  removing  the  swell  of  the 
muzzle  and  bitse-ring;  and  in  rounding  off  Ihe  comer 
of  the  lireeeh.  From  the  fact  that  all  the  trial-pieces 
have  successfully  endured  very  severe  tests,  it  is  to  be 
inferrtnl  that  Ihe  defects  of  the  previous  model  arose 
from  the  presence  of  a  cylindrical  clmml>er,  and  a 
deficiency  of  metal  in  the  prolongation  of  the  bore. 
In  1860  the  model  proposed  by  Captain  Hodman  was 
adopted  for  all  sea-coast  cannon.  This  model  is 
.shown  in  the  drawing;  it  does  not  differ,  however,  in 
its  essential  i>articulars  from  the  model  of  1858.  See 
t<efi-<'<Mtat  Attilli  ry. 

COLUMN. — In  military  evolutions,  a  mass  of  sol- 
diei-s  several  ranks  in  depth,  pre.st'iiting  a  formation 
different  from  that  which  arises  from  spreading  them 
out  (■;(  Um'.  There  may  be  columns  of  brigailes,  of 
regiments,  of  battalions,  or  of  companies;  presenting 
a  front  of  limited  width,  but  a  depth  depending  on 
the  number  of  elements  in  the  column.  If  a  battalion 
consists  of  len  companies,  then  a  "battalion  in  col- 
umn" has  all  the  companies  posted  one  behind  an- 
other. According  to  the  density  of  Ihe  column  it  is 
called  open  or  chge.  In  a  battalion,  when  the  distance 
between  any  one  company  and  the  one  iniinedialely 
before  it  is  .such  as  to  admit  of  their  wheeling  into- 
line,  Ihe  formation  is  called  open  column;  when  the 
distance  lietwecn  the  front  rank  of  one  company  and 
the  rear  rank  of  Ihe  one  before  it  is  only  a  few  yards, 
it  is  done  column;  when  intermediate  between  these 
two,  it  is  /lalf-diskiiice  column.  The  relative  advan- 
tages of  column  and  line,  in  drawing  up  troops  for 
action,  are  among  Ihe  matters  closely  studied  by  the 
commanders  of  armies:  the  French,  as  a  general  rule, 
have  rather  favored  the  formation  in  column;  Ihe 
English,  that  in  line.  Sometimes  the  name  coliemn  is 
given  to  thai  which,  in  effect,  is  a  small  army. 

COLUMN-CRANE.— Essentially  a  jib-crane  arranged 
to  revolve  around  a  li.xed  center-column  williin  the 
mast,  the  column  being  utilized  for  suiiporting  the 
tloor  alxive.  This  type  of  crane  is  built  of  any  desired 
capacity  from  1  Ion  to  10  Ions,  although  for  capaci- 
ties above  ">  tons  it  is  liest  if  possible  lo  arrange  the 
cranes  independently  of  the  supporting  columns.  As 
seen  in  the  engra\'ing  on  the  opposite  page,  Ihe 
mast  consists  of  two  ivrought-iron  channel-beams 
securely  titled  to  heavy  castings  at  top  and  bottom, 
each  of  which  latter  contains  horizontal  rollers,  trav- 
eling upon  turned  paths  on  the  center  column,  the 
lower  or  foot  casting  being  (irovidedalso  with  vertical 
rollers,  traveling  upon  a  circu- 
lar path  around  the  foot  of  the 
column.  The  vertical  rollers 
carry  Ihe  weight  of  the  crane 
and  load,  while  the  horizontal 
thrust  at  top  and  bottom  is  re- 
ceived upon  the  horizontal  rol- 
lers. Thus  arranged,  the  ro- 
tation of  the  crane  isas.smooth 
and  easy  as  that  of  a  crane 
turning  upon  pintles  in  the 
usual  way.  All  of  the  other 
details  of  this  crane  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  jib-crane. 

This  type  of  crane  is  de- 
signed especially  for  use  in 
foundries  where  an  upper  tloor  is  supported  ujion  col- 
umns which  cannot  be  removed,  and  around  which 
it  is  therefore  desirable  that  the  cranes  should  rotate. 
Thus  arranged  they  have  all  the  convenience  and 
ajjplicnbility  of  ordinary  jib-cranes.  See  Cranea  and 
Jih-rrinie. 

COLUMN  OF  MARCH.— A  formation  assumed  by 
1roo])s  on  the  line  of  march,  which  is  governed  partly 
by  tactical  considerations,  |)arlly  by  arrangements  for 
supply,  etc.  This  formalioii  consists  lirst  of  an  ad- 
vanced-guard, which  is  purely  tacticol.  At  Ihe  head 
of  the  column,  or  with  the  advanced-guard,  come  the 


COLiniN  SHAPES. 


377 


COMBINED  MARCHES. 


Siip|)ere  to  clear  the  roads,  to  repair  bridges,  and  gen- 
erally to  facilitate  the  march  of  the  column.  Next 
conies  Ihe  tirsl  brii^adc  of  infantry,  with  iiilrench- 
ing  tools,  for  throwing  up  covering  works,  if  needed. 
Its  anihulance-wagons  are  kept  in  the  rear,  or  should 
be  so,  and  are  not  allowed  to  be  under  tire.  All  trans 
port  of  sick  from  the  field  of  battle  shoidd  be  carried 
out  by  stretchers.  The  position  of  artillery  with  such 
a  force  should  be  regulated  by  tactical  considerations. 
If  not  required  it  should  be  in  rear  of  the  infiintry, 
but  if  wanted  should  be  in  rear  of  the  first  battidion, 
or  first  brigade,  sometimes  between  brigsides.  Artil- 
lery, if  between  infantry,  must  conform  t'JMtli/  to  Ihe 
pace  of  infantry,  which  is  very  fatiguing  anil  trying 
to  the  horses;  if  in  rear,  they  can  make  longer  halts 
and  vary  pace.  Mounted  corps,  when  praelicable, 
should  march  at  later  hours  than  dismounled  men; 
if  the  column  comes  unexpectedly  on  the  enemy,  it  is 
easier  to  trot  artillery  past  infantry  than  to  hurry  up 
infantry  past  artillerj-.     The  s;iiue  principles  which 


The  10-inch  machine  stands  on  a  hollow  column, 
the  base  of  which  measures  36  by  27  inches.  The 
stroke  nuiy  be  graduated  to  any  ixiinl  within  its  ex- 
treme limit.  The  cutler  slide  has  a  quick  return,  and 
the  cross-feed  is  automatic  and  adjustable.  Extreme 
length  of  stroke,  10  inches;  traverse  of  table,  16  in- 
ches; distance  between  tableto])  and  bottom  of  .slide, 
Hi  inches.  Weight,  including  countershaft  and  \ise, 
1750  pounds.  Speed  of  countershaft,  having  12  b}' 
3  inches  tight  and  loose  pulleys,  120  revolutions  per 
minute. 

The  24-inch  machine  designed  for  verv  heavj'  work, 
by  the  Pond  ilachiue  ToorCompany,  L'nited  States, 
ha.s  a  stroke  of  24  inches,  automatic  cross-feed  of  21 
inches.  The  table  am  be  lowered  to  admit  of  a  ])iece 
being  planed  16  inches  high.  This  table  is  provided 
with  an  angle-plate  on  one  side,  with  a  V-shaped  slot 
to  admit  of  a  rouud  piece  being  planed  upon  il.s  end. 
Has  a  quick  return  on  the  back  stroke,  and  a  cone- pul- 
ley w  ith  two  changes  for  cast  iron  or  steel.     Weight, 


Column  crane. 


are  applied  to  artillery  may  be  also  to  cavalrj',  and 
such  of  it  as  is  not  with  the  advaneed-.guard  is  gener- 
ally in  rear  of  all  the  force.  It  is  desirable,  if  not 
imperative,  that  artillery  and  cavalry  .should  not  have 
to  conform  to  infantrv  pace.     See  Marches. 

COLUMN-SHAPER.— A  machine  much  used  in  ar- 
mories for  die- work,  and  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases 
a  substitute  for  the  more  ex|iensive  shaping  'c.achine. 
It  is  emjiloyed  in  various  sizes  for  different  work. 
The  6-ineli  machine  has  a  stroke  6  inches,  adjustable 
to  any  less  distance;  traverse  of  table  8  inches,  ("utter- 
slide  has  a  quick  return,  and  the  cross-feed  is  auto- 
matic and  adjustable.  The  vertical  adjustment  of 
the  table  is  3  inches,  and  the  extreme  distance  between 
the  lop  of  the  table  and  the  under  side  of  Ihe  cutler 
slide  is  6  inches.  A  hand-wheel  attached  to  the  cone- 
shaft  permits  the  machine  to  be  run  by  hand  in  an 
emergency.  Weight,  including  vise  and  covmlershaft, 
600  pounds.  Speed  of  countershaft,  having  8  by  2i^ 
inches  tight  and  loose  pizlleys,  180  revolutions"  per 
minute. 


2000  pounds.     Speed  of  countershaft,  150  revolutions 
a  minule.     See  Shaping-machine. 

COMBAT. — An  engagement  of  no  great  importance 
or  magnitude,  or  one  in  which  the  parties  engaged 
are  n<il  armies.     See  Sinr/le  Coinhat. 

COMBINED  MARCHES.— When  the  movements  of 
divisions  and  corps  are  made  independent  of  each 
other,  but  having  the  same  object  in  common,  they 
are  known  as  combined  niarche.'i.     They, are  arranged 
with   the  intention   of  having  the   several   columns 
arrive  at  a  given  position,  but  coming  from  ilifTerent 
directions.      It  would  be  a  great  risk  to  .select  the 
t  point  of  concentration  within  an  area  controlled  b}' 
the  enemy,  and  a  plan  made  wilh  this  intention  woidd 
be  faiUly.     Each  column,  until  it  came  within  sup- 
j  porting  distance  of  the  others,  woidd  lie  a  detached 
!  force  and   exposed   to   the  dangers   of  being  over- 
whelmed before  support  could  reach   it.      jSlilitary 
1  writers,  as  a  rule,  condemn  Ihe  independent  action  of 
j  detachmets,  cither  to  effect  a  diversion  or  make  a  com- 
I  bined  march.   Sec  Concentration-marches  and  Marches. 


COMBINED  KETALS. 


378 


COKBUSTION. 


COMBINED  METALS.— The  term  "  Imilt-up"  is  ap- 
plir.l  lo  Iliosc  cauiuiii  in  wliich  llie  |iriiuipiil  parts 
iiri'  forinnl  si-piirati'lv  and  tlun  united  ti\!;i>Ili<.r  in  a 
pt-culiiir  nianiur.  Tlie  objeit  of  tins  mode  of  manu- 
fatturf  is  lo  tx>m'*l  the  defitts  of  one  iiuitenal  by 
intnxluiing  another  of  oppasiie  qualities.  As  for  in- 
stance- trials  have  been  made  to  increase  the  hard- 
ness and  therefore  endumuce,  of  bronze  cannon,  bv 
castj'ns;  them  around  a  core  of  steel,  which  formed 
the  surface  of  the  liore.  Built-up  cannon  are  not 
neces.sarily  comiwsotl  (if  more  than  one  kind  of  metal : 
some  ol  the  most  noted  are  made  of  steel,  orwrought- 
iron  alone.  In  this  CJise,  the  defects  wliich  we  have 
seen  lo  accompany  the  working  of  large  masses  of 
wroughtiron,  viz.i  crystalline  structure,  false  welds, 
cracks,  etc.,  are  obviatetl,  by  first  forinmg  them  in 
small  miusses,  as  rings,  tubes,  etc..  of  good  quality, 
and  then  uniting  them  separately.  .  The  mode  of 
uniting  a  built  gun  may  be  by  welding  the  parts,  by 
shrinking  ov  forcing  one  over  the  other,  or  by  screwing 
tliem  toirether.  It'has  lieen  shown  by  Barlow's  law 
that  all  parts  of  the  sides  of  a  cannon  are  not  strained 
equally  and  are  therefore  not  brought  to  the  breaking 
point  "at  the  same  time.  Any  arrangement  of  the 
parts  by  which  the  explosive  strain  is  distributed 
e<iually  "over  the  entire  thickness  of  the  piece  neces- 
sarily "brings  a  greater  amount  of  resistance  into  play 
to  prevent  rupture. 

There  are  two  general  plans  for  acqpmplishing  this, 
-viz. :  First,  bv  producing  a  strain  of  compression  on 
the  metal  nearest  the  surface  of  the  bore.  This  is 
termed  an  "initial  strain,"  and  is  brought  about  by 
shriukimr  heated  bands  or  tuljcs  around  the  part  to  be 
compressed,  or  by  slipping  a  tulx-  into  the  bore,  which 
has  lK«n  slightly  enlarged  by  heat.  In  either  case  it 
Is  apparent  that  the  extent  of  the  strain  depends  on 
the  relative  size  of  the  titling  surfaces  and  tlie  amount 
of  heat  used  to  produce  expansion.  Owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  regulating  the  heal,  it  is  preferred  by 
some  to  "force  the  parts  together  by  hydraulic  pressure 
after  they  have  been  carefully  bored  and  turned  to 
the  proper  size.  The  second  plan  is  based  on  "  vary- 
ing elasticity,"  imd  is  accomplished  by  placing  that 
metal  which  stretches  most  within  its  elastic  limit 
around  the  surface  of  the  Iwre,  so  that  by  its  enlarge- 
ment the  explosive  strain  is  tninsmitted  to  the  outer 
parts.  By  the  selection  of  suitable  materials  and 
their  proper  management,  both  of  these  plans  may  Ix- 
combined  in  the  same  gun,  and  thereby  give  it  in- 
creasc<l  strength,     i^ee  C'aniioii-meUil». 

COMBLAIN  RIFLE.  — A  breech-loading  arm  re- 
sembling the  Sharp  ritie.  The  mountings,  receiver, 
and  breech-block  of  this  arm  are  made  of  phosphorus- 
bron-/.e;  the  barrel  is  made  of  steel.  The  militia  of 
Belgium  are  anned  with  the  Comblain  ritle,  while  the 
regular  troops  have  the  Albini-Brilndlin  gun.  wliich 
has  a  breech-block  operating  like  that  of  the  Spring- 
field ritle.  See  Aliini-Jirdiidlin  Gun  and  SmuU- 
armn. 

COMBUSTION.— The  term  applied  to  the  process  of 
burning,  which  usually  consists  in  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  uniting  with  the  constituents  of  the  combustible 
substance.  Thus,  the  c<inibuslion  of  coal  is  due  to 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  passing  into  a  state  of  chemical 
union  with  the  carbon  and  the  hydrogen  of  the  coal, 
fonning  carbonic  acid  (CO,)  and  water-vapor  (HO). 
Such  chemical  combinations  are  always  accompanied 
by  the  production  of  more  or  less  lieai,  as  in  the  case 
of  decaying  wood  and  other  vegi-tablc  matter;  but  it 
is  only  when  the  action  is  so  ra]iid  as  to  evolve  intense 
heat  aecompanicil  by  light  thai  the  process  is  called 
burning  or  combustion.  Though  the  gaseous  oxygen 
ha.s  as  much  to  do  with  the  process  as  the  more  solid 
material,  coal,  woo<l,  paper,  or  cloth,  vet  the  latter  is 
alone  styled  the  coinliuMUik  or  hiirniiir/  hodi/,  whilst 
the  oxygen  is  invarialily  named  the mimortir  of  com- 
bustion. A  few  substances  burn  at  ordinary  temper- 
atures, such  as  phosphorus,  which  glows  when  ex- 
ix)ac<l  to  the  air;  but  the  generality  of  substances, 
such  as  wood,  coal,  etc.,  require  to  be  raised  in  tem- 


perature or  be  set  Are  to  before  they  possess  the  power 
of  combining  -nith  the  o.xygen  of  the  air.  The 
amount  of  heat  given  out  by  tlie  various  combustibles 
when  bunietl  is  capable  of  being  measured,  and  is 
definite.  The  same  weight  of  the  same  combustible 
invariably  evolves  the  sjime  amount  of  heat  during 
its  complete  combustion;  liut  ditTerent  combustible 
substances  irivc  off  different  amounts  of  heat.  The 
mode  in  wliich  the  heat  evolved  may  be  measured  is 
either;  (1)  to  observe  the  quantity  of  ice  w-hich  a 
given  weight  of  the  combustible  will  melt  when  biim- 
fng:  (2)  to  notice  the  weight  of  water  which  the 
combustible  will  convert  into  steam;  or  (8)  to  esti- 
mate the  number  of  pounds  of  wat(  r  which  the  burn- 
ing bo<lv  will  raise  from  32  to  212  F.  The  last  phin 
is"  the  "more  ea.sily  managed  and  accurate.  The 
amount  of  heat  e"volved  apiwars,  however,  to  \ye 
proportional  to  the  quaiility  of  oxygen  retpiired  to 
burn  the  various  combustibles.  Thus,  when  a  simi- 
lar volume  of  oxygen  gas,  or  even  ordinan-  air,  is 
allowed  to  flow  against  the  various  combustible  sub- 
stances, the  following  results  are  obtained: 


One  pound  of  Oxygen  combined  with 


Baisesfrom 
3'2  to  S12  degrees  F. 

Hydrogen  29^  lbs.  of  water. 

Charcoal  29 

Ether / 28 

Alcohol 28i 

While  the  absolute  amount  of  heat  evolved  during 
the  combustion  of  any  burning  body  is  the  s!\me,  yet 
the  sensible  heat  may"  vary  according  to  the  rapidity 
of  the  process.  Thus,  w-hen  phosjihorus  is  exposed 
to  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures,  it  very  slowly 
combines  with  oxygen,  and  gives  out  little  heat  at 
any  one  moment,  i)ut  it  is  diffused  over  a  great  length 
of  "time;  whilst  if  the  phosphorus  is  set  fire  to  in  the 
air,  it  burns  yi\-idly,  and  gives  out  much  heat  and 
light  for  a  short  lime;  and  still  further,  if  the  burn- 
ing phosphorus  be  placed  in  pure  oxygen,  it  enters 
info  most  yi\id  combustion,  and  evolves  a  most  in- 
tense heat  and  brilliant  light  for  a  still  shorter  time. 
In  the  latter  instances,  the  heat  evolved  at  any  one 
moment  is  greater,  because  more  rapid,  than  that 
given  off  at  the  same  time  during  the  slower  inocess 
of  combustion:  |but  when  allowed  to  proceed  to  a 
termination,  there  is  as  much  heat  produced  during 
the  whole  time  occupied  in  its  development.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  the  coal  placed  in  a  furnacj?. 
So  long  as  the  door  of  a  furnace  is  open,  and  there  is 
little  draught  of  air  through  the  fuel,  a  modciiite 
amount  of  "heat  is  evolved,  which  may  last  for  several 
hours:  but  when  the  door  is  shut,  and  much  air  is 
drawn  throuch  the  coal,  the  Utter  is  more  quickly 
burned,  and  more  heat  is  evolved  during  a  shorter 
period  of  time  than  lieforc,  but  in  the  long-run  there 
is  the  same  amount  of  heat  evolved. 

Temperature  and  atmospheric  pressure  considerably 
influence  the  products  obtained  from  burning  gun- 
powder. When  exposed  in  the  open  air  to  a  teni]x;r- 
ature  irraduallv  increasing  to  .572  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
the  sulphur  siiblimes.  taking  with  it  a  portion  of  the 
carixm.  This  was  show  ii  by  Saluces,  who  pa.sscd  the 
volatilized  products  through  a  screen  of  very  fine 
cloth,  and  found  carbon  deposited  on  it.  Pow-der 
may  be.  therefore,  completely  decomposed  by  a  grad- 
ual" heat,  \vithout  ex))losioii ;  but  when  suddenly 
brought  in  contact  with  an  ignitcil  body,  the  temper- 
ature of  which  is  at  least  .j72  degrees  Fahrenheit,  the 
sulphur  has  not  time  to  sublime  before  explosion 
takes  jilaee.  The  proportions  for  war-powder  for  the 
United  Slates  service  are  seventy-six  i)arts  of  niter, 
ten  of  suljihur,  and  foiirleen  of  carbon.  By  the 
atomic  theory  the  proiiortions  should  Ix'  74.64  niter, 
11.85  .Hulplnlr,  i:i..'Jl  earlxm.  If  we  adopt  these  last 
proportions,  the  formula  for  gunpowder  becomes 

(N0»  +  K0)-|-S  +  3C. 

If  we  suppose  the  ingredients  to  be  pure,  and  to  ar- 


couzs. 


379 


COMMAND. 


range  themselves  under  the  influence  of  heat  accord- 
ing to  tlieir  strongest  affinities,  there  will  result  one 
equivalent  of  nitrogen,  three  of  carbonic  acid,  and 
one  of  sulphide  of  potassium,  for 

(NO5  +  KO)  +  S  +  3C  =  N  4-  SCO,  +  SK. 
The  products  are,  therefore,  either  solid  or  gaseous. 
Usually,  powder  contains  a  slight  quantity  of  mois- 
ture; the  ingredients  are  not  absolutely  pure,  nor  are 
they  proportioned  strictly  according  to  their  combJB- 
ing  equivalents;  it  might  be  expected,  therefore,  that 
the  actual  would  differ  from  the  theoretical  results. 
The  actual  gaseous  products  obtained  by  combustion 
are  principally  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid,  sometimes 
carbonic  oxide,  a  little  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  car- 
biiretted  hydrogen,  and  nitrous  oride.  The  solid  pro- 
ducts are  sulphide  of  potassium,  sulphate  of  poiassa, 
carbonate  of  pidassa  (mingled  with  a  little  carbon),  anA 
traces  of  sulphur.  TVhen  the  sulphide  of  potassium 
<"omes  in  contact  with  the  air.  it  is  converted  into  sul- 
phate of  potassa,  and  gives  rise  to  the  white  smoke 
which  follows  the  explosion  of  gunpowder.  A  por- 
tion of  the  sulphide  is  sometimes  condensed  on  the 
surface  of  the  projectile,  which  accounts  for  the  red 
appearance  of  shells  sometimes  observed  in  mortar- 
firing.  The  solid  products  are  probably  volatilized 
at  the  moment  of  explosion  by  the  high  temperature 
which  accompanies  the  combustion;  i5ut,  coming  in 
contact  with  bodies  of  much  lower  temperature,  they 
are  immediately  condensed.     In  chambered  arms. 


Density  of 
products  of 
combustion 

Xo.  of  volumes 
of  expansion. 

.95 

l.OoSU 

.90 

i.ini 

.85 

l.lTOS 

.80 

l.iVX) 

.T5 

l.:«:i3 

.70 

1.4286 

.65 

1.5:»5 

.60 

1.6667 

.55 

1.8182 

.50 

2.a»oo 

.45 

2.2222 

.40 

2.5000 

.35 

2.8.571 

.30 

s.xm 

.23 

4,0000 

.20 

5.0000 

.17 

5.88*1 

.16 

6.2500 

.15 

6.6667 

.14 

7.1429 

.13 

7.692.3 

.12 

8  33:» 

.11 

9.0909 

.10 

10.0000 

.9 

11.1111 

.8 

12.5000 

.7 

14.2857 

.6 

16.6667 

.5 

20.0000 

Total  Work  that  the  Gcn- 
powder  is  capable  of 
Realizing. 


Per  kilogramme 

burned,  in  kilo- 

grammeters. 


3210.8 
63.39.6 
9412.8 
12443.3 
li>460.8 
18488.1 
21544.9 
24630.8 
27841  9 
31153.7 
34614  0 
3829<1  0 
422.34  7 
46565  9 
51414.8 
57031.7 
60952.1 
62:J68.1 
63884.4 
6.M70.1 
67138  4 
68940.1 
70855.4 
72903.7 
75214.5 
77679  9 
80162.1 
a3582.1 
8?244.4 


Per  poimd 
burned,  in 
foot-tons. 


4.70 

9.29 

13.79 

IS.Zi 

22.65 

27.08 

31.56 

36.11 

40.78 

45.62 

50.70 

56.08 

61.86 

68-21 

73.31 

8:i.53 

89.35 

91.45 

93.64 

93.94 

98.39 

101.00 

103  82 

106.87 

110.18 

113  81 

117.83 

122.42 

187.79 


small  drops  of  sulphur  may  be  observed  condensed 
on  the  sides  of  the  bore,  which  show  that  the  sulphur 
lias  been  volatilized;  and  we  know  that  good  powder  | 
turns  on  paper  and  leaves  no  trace.  This  fact,  how- 
ever, was  most  completely  shown  by  the  exjierimcnts 
of  Count  Rumford.  This  celebrated  observer  used  a 
small  ci^rouvette  of  great  strcngtli,  which  he  partially 
filled  with  powder,  and  hermetically  closed  ^vith  a 
heavy  weight.  The  powder  was  fired  by  heating  a 
jKjrlion  of  the  eprouvette  to  redness.  "Whenever  the 
f»rce  was  sufficient  to  raise  the  weight,  the  entire 
products  cscajX'd;  when  it  was  not,  a  solid  substance 
was  found  condensed  on  the  surface  of  the  bore  fur-  : 
thest  from  the  source  of  heat.  | 

The  late  researches  of  Captain  Noble  and  Mr.  Abel 
on  fired  gunpowder  have  resulted  in  certain  import- 
ant conclusions.  From  them  it  appears  that  the  per- 
manent products  of  fired  gunpowder  are  onlv  43  per 
cent  of  gas  and  57  per  cent  of  matter,  which  ulri- 


mately  a.ssumes  a  solid  form.  The  temperature  of 
the  explosion  Ls  about  4000  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and 
though  much  of  the  heat  is  spent  in  performing  the 
work  of  moving  the  shot  or  conducted  away  by  the 
metal,  so  that  the  expanded  gases  would  contract  and 
lose  a  great  deal  of  their  i>ower,  the  matter  which 
will  ultimately  be  solid  but  is  at  the  moment  of  ex- 
plosion tluid.'by  reason  of  the  great  heat,  gives  up 
much  of  its  heat  when  coming  to  the  solid  form,  and 
thus  keeps  up  the  tempei-,itvu-e  of  the  g-a.ses,  causing 
them  to  retain  their  high  expansion.  These  gases,  i^ 
allowed  to  cool  down  to  a  freezing  temperature, 
would  occupy  about  2<S0  times  the  bulk  of  the  jmw- 
der  they  sprang  from.  The  tension  of  the  products 
of  combustion,  when  the  powder  entirely  tills  the 
space  in  which  it  is  tired,  is  about  64(X)  atmospheres, 
or  about  42  tons  per  square  inch.  Therefore,  if  no 
air-space  be  left  and  the  shot  be  delayed  until  the 
powder  is  entirely  con.suraed,  there  willbe  a  pressure 
everj'where  within  the  powder<'hamlx;r  of  42  tons  in 
each  square  inch  of  the  interior.  From  the  results  of 
their  experiments  they  formed  the  foregoing  table, 
which  shows  the  greatest  amount  of  work  in  project- 
ing a  shot  that  can  be  obtained  per  pound  of  powder 
from  a  charge  in  any  gun.  When  the  charge  is  fired, 
it  begins  to  push  the  shot  fomard.  If  the  gun  is  very 
short,  so  that  the  shot  can  esea|ie  from  the  pressure 
at  once,  the  velocity  given  to  it  will  be  small.  Thus, 
within  practical  limits,  the  longer  a  projectile  is  kept 
tmder  the  influence  of  the  tired  charge,  the  greater 
will  be  the  velocity.  This  subject  will  be  further 
considered  under  other  headings.  See  Explosion, 
6un}>oirder,  and  Velocity  of  Combustion. 

COMES. — An  officer  among  the  Romans,  with  terri- 
torial jurisdiction  in  the  produces,  and  especially  on 
the  frontiers. 

COMIGNE. — A  shell  of  extreme  magnitude,  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  person  who  originally  in- 
vented it. 

COMMAND. — 1.  A  body  of  troops,  or  any  military 
force  or  post,  under  the  command  of  an  officer. 

2.  The  height  of  the  interior  crest  above  the  site  is 
the  command  of  the  work.  The  term  is  also  used  to 
exjjress  the  height  of  the  interior  crest  of  one  work 
above  that  of  another,  or  above  any  particular  point 
within  range. 

3.  An  officer  m.ay  be  said  to  command  at  a  separate 
post  when  he  is  out  of  the  reach  of  the  orders  of  the 
Commander-in-Chief,  or  of  a  Superior  Officer,  in  com- 
mand of  the  neighborhood.  He  must  then  issue  the 
necessaiy  ordei's  to  the  troops  under  his  command,  it 
being  impossible  to  receive  them  from  a  Superior  (Jffi- 
cer.  If.  upon  marches,  guards,  or  in  quarters,  differ- 
ent corps  of  the  army  happen  to  join  or  do  duty  to- 
gether, the  officer  highest  in  rank  of  the  Line  of  the 
army,  Marine  Corps,  or  ililitia,  by  commission, 
there  on  duty  or  in  quarters,  commands  the  whole, 
and  gives  orders  for  what  is  needful  to  the  service, 
unless  otherwise  specially  directed  l\v  the  President, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  case.  In  all  matters  re- 
lating to  the  rank,  duties,  and  rights  of  officei-s,  thestime 
rules  and  regulations  ai)ply  to  otlieers  of  the  regular 
army  and  to  volunteers  "commissioned  in  or  mus- 
tered into  said  service,  under  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  for  a  limited  period.  Officers  of  the  militia  of 
the  several  States,  when  called  into  the  sernce  of  the 
United  States,  shall  on  all  <letachments,  Courts-Mar- 
tial, and  other  duty  wherein  they  may  be  employed 
in  conjunction  with  the  reirular  or  volunteer  forces 
of  the  United  States,  take  rank  ne.xt  after  all  officers 
of  the  like  grade  in  Siiid  regular  or  volunteer  forces, 
notwithstanding  the  commis.sions  of  such  militia  offi- 
cers may  be  older  than  the  commissions  of  the  said 
officers  of  the  regiUar  or  volunteer  forces  of  the 
United  States.  The  Acts  of  Congress  giving  rank  to 
officers  of  the  Medical  and  Pay  Departments  of  the 
army  provide  that  they  shall  not.  in  virtue  of  such 
rank,  be  entitled  to  command  in  the  Line  or  other  Staff 
Departments  of  the  army;  and  so,  if  any  other  legal 
restrictioos  on  rank  exist",  they  must  be  fbtind  in  some 


OOHHANOANT. 


380 


COMMAND  OF  PABAFET> 


positive  sUtuU".  This  necessity  is  made  pliiiu  by  the 
consideniliou  that  miliUiry  rank  mtans  a  range  of 
miliUtrti  sHbtirdiiMtuni.  Higher  ranlc.  therefore,  crc- 
ati-d  by  law  caunot  lx>  made  subordinate  to  lower 
rank,  except  by  jxxsitive  law;  or,  in  other  words,  a 
junior  cannot  command  a  si'uior,  unless  the  law  shall 
otherwise  decree.  The  ViitX  Article  of  War  is  ara- 
biinious,  from  the  use  of  the  words  "  Line  of  the 
Army;"  our  hjjislalion  ha\ini;  applied  those  words  to 
conlradisliniruish  lieirular  TnH)ps  from  Militia,  and 
also,  in  many  casi's,  the  sjime  words  are  correlative 
and  conlnulislinctive  of  St;»fT  of  the  Army.  "  But," 
says  President  Fillmore,  after  a  caiffid  examination 
on  his  part,  to  deterniiue  the  ((ueslion,  "I  tiud  but 
one  Act  of  Congress  in  which  the  words  '  Line  of  the 
Army  '  ha^e  Iwen  cmplovcil  to  designate  the  Heguhir 
Army  in  contradistinction  to  the  Jlilitia,  and  none  in 
which  they  have  manifestly  been  used  as  contradis- 
tinctive  of  brevet."  AVhatever  ambiguity,  therefore, 
may  exist  imder  the  122d  Article,  in  respect  to  the 
right  of  command  on  the  part  of  ollicers  of  Staff  Corps 
and  Departments,  the  article  does  \w\  decree  any  re- 
striction on  brevet  rank;  and  heiu-e  the  great  princiiile 
that  rank  on  duty  confers  military  command  has  its 
full  force  in  respect  to  commissions  by  brevet,  and  all 
other  commissions  not  restricted  by  law.  The  Presi- 
dent,  as  Commander-in-Chief  under  the  122d  Article 
of  War,  may  relieve  any  officer  from  duty  with  a 
particular  command,  or  he  may  assign  some  officer  of 
superior  rank  to  duly  with  a  command;  but  the  laws 
have  not  authorizeil  him  to  place  :i  junior  in  command 
of  a  senior,  and  that  power  which  creates  rank,  viz., 
Congress,  is  alone  authorized  to  place  restrictions  on 
its  meaning.     See  linnA: 

COMMANDANT. — In  military  matters,  a  temporary 
Commander,  in  place  of  the  real  Chief;  such  as  a  Cap- 
tain Commandant,  Lieutenant  Commandant,  etc.  In 
foreign  armies  the  designation  is  more  frequently  ap- 
plied than  in  the  Biitish,  especially  to  the  Command- 
ers of  Garrisons. 

COMMANDANT  OF  CADETS.— Tlie  Commandant 
of  Cadets.  ap[i(iiiitid  by  the  President,  has  the  imme- 
diate command  of  the  battalion  of  Cadets  at  tlie  U.  S. 
Military  Academy.  He  is  also  the  Instructor  in  the 
Tactics  of  the  three  arms  of  tlie  ser\ice,  and  in  the 
rules  of  Militarj-  Police,  Disci|)line,  and  Adniinisiia 
tion.  For  instruction  in  infantry  tactics  and  military 
police  and  discipline  the  Cadets  are  organized  into  a 
battalion  of  four  companies,  under  thc'Conuuandant 
of  Cadets,  and  assigned  to  quarters  accordiuglv;  each 
company  Ix-ing  under  the  command  of  an  officer  of 
the  army,  designated  as  Assistant  Instructor  of  Tac- 
tics. The  otiicers  and  non-comnussioned  officers  are 
appointed  by  the  Superintendent,  from  a  list  submit- 
ted by  the  Conmiandant  of  Cadets.  This  selection  is 
made  from  those  Cadets  who  have  been  most  studi- 
ous, soldier-like  in  the  performance  of  their  duties, 
and  most  exenqilary  in  their  general  deportment  Iii 
general,  the  Officers  are  taken  from  the  first  class,  the 
Sergeants  from  the  tirsl  and  second  classes,  and  the 
Corporals  from  the  second  and  third  clas,ses.  The 
Conunandanl  of  Cadets  is  charged  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  battalion,  and  with  the  instruction  of 
Ca<lcls  in  all  the  rules  of  militarv  police,  discipline, 
and  administration.  He  is  assisted  in  these  duties  bv 
the  four  A.ssistant  lustruelors  of  Tactics,  who  arc 
(pKirlered  in  the  Cadet  Barracks  during  the  academic 
year.  During  ihe  encampment  the  Commandant  and 
these  four  .\vsistaiits  :ire  quartered  in  cami) 

COMMANDEK-IN-CHIEF.— The  President,  by  the 
Constitution,  is  "  Commaiuler-in-Chief  of  the  "army 
and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the 
several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual  ser\ice  of 
the  I'liited  Slates."  Under  Ihe  s:ime  authority  he 
nominates,  luid  by  and  with  llieadvice  ,ind  consent  of 
the  Senate  appoints,  and  commissions  all  commis- 
sioned officers  of  the  regular  army.  In  the  Biiiish 
army  the  Commaniler-in-Chicf  is"  the  hiirhesi  Staff 
appointment.  It  is  held  by  the  General  connnandiii" 
all  the  forces  in  India,  ami  wouKl  pnjbably  be  iriveu 


to  the  leader  of  any  large  army  in  the  field,  whether 
abroad  or  at  home.  Formerly  the  army  at  home 
was  administered  by  an  oflicer  of  this  rank;  but  since 
the  death  of  the  Tiuke  of  Wellington,  in  1852,  the 
military  administration  has  vested  in  an  officer  hold- 
ing no  higher  commission  than  that  of  "  General  on 
the  Staff;"  who  is  called  the  General  (or  Field-Mar- 
shal, according  to  the  holder's  army  rank)  Command- 
ing-in-Chief.  Since  185.5  this  officer  has  been  strictly 
sjibordinate  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War.  The 
office  of  the  Commander-in-Chief,  technically  known 
as  the  "  Horse-guards,"  is  a  Department  of  the  War 
Office,  and  comprises  the  sub-departments  of  the 
Military  Secretary,  the  Adjutant  General,  and  the 
Quarlerm:ister  General,  with  a  staff  of  clerks.  Un- 
der the  "War-Office  Act"  of  1870,  and  by  Orders 
in  Council  of  that  year,  the  officer  Commanding-in- 
Chief  is  one  of  the  tliree  great  officers  who  admiiustcr 
the  military  jiffairs  of  the  country  imder  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  for  War;  his  department  being  that 
of  military  command,  discipline,  and  promotion.  In 
practiie  be  makes  all  promotions  and  military 
aiipoiiitments,  though  in  theory  these  are  all  made 
on  the  responsibility  of  the  Secretary  of  State.  Ap- 
pointments to  very  important  positions  on  the  Staff 
would  not  be  made  without  the  suijervision  of  the 
Minister  and  probable  concurrence  of  the  Cabinet. 
The  officer  Commanding-iu-Chief  is  responsible  for 
all  recruiting  operations,  and  for  the  appropriation 
of  troops  to  particular  localities  ;  but  he  exercises 
rather  a  general  inspectional  control  than  any  imme- 
diate command  over  the  men.  The  actual  command 
vests  in  the  General  Officers  commanding  the  districts 
into  wliieb  the  Kingdom  is  jiarceled. 

COMMANDER  -  IN  -  CHIEF'S  DEPARTMENT.—  A 
department  of  the  British  army  which  consists  of  the 
Adjutant  General  and  Quartermaster  General,  nomi- 
nally amalgamated,  but  working  apart.  The  follow- 
ing branches,  at  the  Horse-guards,  are  called  divi- 
sions, and  are  thus  told  off  :  ililitary  Secretary;  Intel- 
ligence; Auxiliary  Forces;  Military  Education.  Adju- 
tant General  and  Quartermaster  tJeneral  are  ordinary 
combatants,  to  whom  are  intrusted  respcctivelj'  the 
departments  of — Adjutant-General  :  Recruiting,  Dis- 
charges, Discipline,  Inspections.  Quartermaster  Gen- 
eral :  Keturns,  Movement  of  Troops,  Intelligence.  To 
the  Jlilitary  Secretary's  Department  are  intrusted 
First  Apjiointments,  Promotion,  Rewards,  Staff  Ap- 
pointments, and  Exchanges.  The  above  is  the  distri- 
bution of  the  Staff  at  the  Hoi-se-guards,  and  these 
divisions  are  adhered  to  in  the  smaller  fractions  as 
closely  as  possible. 

COMMANDERY.— The  title  of  the  meeting  or  meet- 
ing-place of  Freemasons  who  have  reached  Ihe  degree 
of  Knights  Templar.  Its  origin  was  with  the  Knights 
of  Malta  of  the  Jliddle  Ages,  and  was  tirsl  applied  to 
sums  saved  from  the  revenues  of  the  Oriier  for  the 
support  of  war  against  the  Moslems.  It  soon  came 
to  mean  pei'sons  and  places  rather  than  things,  and 
the  "  Grand  Commander"  became  Ihe  next  office  to 
the  Grand  JIa.ster.  Among  the  religious  establish- 
ments suppressed  in  England  by  lleiny  VIII.  were 
more  than  fifty  Commanderies  of  Knights  Templai'S. 

COMMAND  OF  FIRE.—  An  ex-press'ion  for  the  dif- 
ference of  cominand  of  two  works  situated  on  the 
Simir  horizontal  i^round. 

COMMAND  OF  OBSERVATION.— When  the  com- 
mand of  the  parapet  is  only  sullicient  to  permit  the 
defenders  of  a  work  to  look  over  the  parapet  of 
another  work  it  is  named  coiiiiiunnl  of  ohserrniion. 

COMMAND  OF  PARAPET.— In  horizontal  sites  the 
parade  may  be  taken  either  on  the  natural  surface 
or  below  if.  In  inclosed  works  it  should  always  be 
on  the  natural  surface  to  kecj)  the  parade  dry.  In 
lines,  iiarlicularly  if  of  great  extent  and  thrown  up 
mertly  to  receive  battle  or  for  a  short  occupancy,  the 
parade  may  consist  of  a  .shallow  Irencb  behind  the 
par;i|)et  which  is  formed  of  Ihe  earth  taken  from  the 
trench.  The  general  form  of  the  iiarapet  is  the  same 
in  Iwth  ca.ses.     Its  dimensions  will   vary  with  the 


€0MUAin)8. 


381 


COUHISSABIAT  D£FABTH£5T. 


kind  of  soil  used  in  its  construction;  with  the  time 
and  means  that  can  be  employed  ;  with  the  time  that 
the  work  is  to  remain  occupied;  and,  finally,  with 
the  time  and  means  that  the  enemy  can  dispose  of  in 
the  attack,  and  the  degree  of  resistance  that  the  work 
should  offer.  The  command  of  the  interior  crest 
should  be  so  regulated  as  to  intercept  the  enemy's 
missiles  and  to  "shelter  the  assiiiled.  Men  of  the 
greatest  ordinary  stature,  in  bringing  their  muskets  to 
an  aim,  do  not  fire  at  a  higher  "level  than  about  five 
feet ;  therefore  any  mass  of  this  height  in  front  of 
them  will  just  intercept  their  fire  ;  but  this  mass 
would  not  shelter  a  man  standing  behind  it  ;  to  effect 
this,  in  the  case  of  the  tallest  men  usually  foimd  in 
the  ranks,  the  interior  crest  should  be  at  least  six  feet 
six  inches  above  the  terre-plein.  The  command  must 
then  be  regulated  by  these  two  facts,  and  this  princi- 
ple may  be  laid  <Io\vn :  The  comnmnd  of  a  fidd-icork 
over  the  ground  occupied  by  the  assailant  should  be  at 
least  fite  feet ;  and  six  feet  six  inches  ocer  that  occupied 
by  the  assailed.  In  following  this  rule  for  the  com- 
mand, we  deprive  the  assailant  of  a  plunging  fire  upon 
the  parade ;  but  as  a  breast-height  of  five  feet  is  too 
high  for  men  of  ordinary  stature  to  fire  over  it  and 
give  their  pieces  any  sensible  depression,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  throw  up  a  banquette  for  this  purpose 
behind  the  parapet,  which  would  add  to  the  time  and 
lalx)r  of  constructing  the  work.  On  this  account  it  is 
best  to  give  the  parapet  only  the  height  to  admit 
effective  firing  over  it,  which  is  about  four  and  a 
quarter  feet.  In  the  drawing,  which  represents  a 
profile  of  this  height,  the  plunge  of  a  man  standing 


A,  Paraput;  H,  Trench;  C,  Banquette-tread 

at  sixty  feet  in  advance  of  the  parapet  would  be  only 
three  inches  below  the  level  of  the  point  a,  at  the 
point  b,  or  his  bullet  would  strike  seven  feet  above  the 
point  at  the  rear  of  the  parade,  which  is  the  most 
exposed  position  for  a  man  to  be  standing.  See  Field- 
fortification. 

COMMAND^. — There  are  two  kinds  of  commands 
in  the  military  service:  the  preparatory  command, 
such  as /</rica  »■(/,. which  indicates  the  movement  that 
is  to  be  executed,  and  the  command  of  execution,  .such 
as  march  or  halt,  or,  in  the  Manual  of  Arms,  the  part 
of  the  command  which  causes  the  execution.  The 
tone  of  command  is  animated,  distinct,  and  of  a  loud- 
ness proportioned  to  the  number  of  men  under  instruc- 
tion. Each  preparatory  command  is  pronounced  in 
an  ascending  tone  of  voice,  but  always  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  command  of  execution  may  be  more 
energetic  and  elevated.  On  foot  the  command  of 
execution  is  pronounced  in  a  tone  firm  and  brief.  In 
mounted  movements  the  preparatory'  commands  are 
more  or  less  prolonged  to  insure  their  being  heard ; 
tlie  command  of  execution  is  always  prolonged.  The 
trumpet  is  used  for  giving  commands  whenever  it  can 
be  done  to  advantage. 

COMMILITONES.— A  word  having  the  same  signifi- 
cance with  the  Romans  as  the  English  term  comrade- 
noldii  rs. 

COMMISSARIAT. — A  name  given  to  the  organized 
system  whereby  armies  are  provided  with  foo<l  and 
daily  necessaries  other  than  those  connected  with  ac- 
tual warfare.  Among  the  ancients  the  Romans  de- 
voted the  most  attention  to  the  Commissariat:  the 
Queestors  were  the  Commissaries.  In  feudal  times 
the  soldiers  were  mainly  dependent  for  food  on  their 
lords;  but  they  lived  verj-  much  by  pliuider.  Dur- 
ing the  wars  of  the  Crusaded  the  Commissariat  was  so 
utterly  neglected  that  thousands  died  of  star\-ation. 
In  England  the  first  germ  of  the  modem  Commis- 


.sariat  apjx-ared  in  the  office  of  Proriant-master,  in  the 
time  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Under  Charles  I.,  Com- 
missaries were  stationed  in  the  different  Counties. 
Under  Marlborough's  command  the  troops  were  sup- 
plied by  contract ;  he  received  a  percentage,  and  jiec- 
ulation  was  verj-  common.  After  many  changes  dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  a  Commis.sary  General 
was  appointed  in  1793,  to  "siipcrinlend  all"  contracts 
for  food  and  forage.  The  dire  experience  of  the  Cri- 
mean War  showed  how  greatlj'  reform  was  required 
in  this  important  Department.  In  1858  and  1859,  ac- 
cordingly, it  was  newly  organized;  and  remained  un- 
til 1870  a  War-Office  DcpartTuent,  under  a  Commis- 
sary General-in-Chief.  In  1870  the  Commissju-iat  was 
merged  with  other  supply  departments  in  the  great 
"Control  Department,"  which,  under  the  Surveyor 
General  of  the  Ordnance,  performed  all  the  civil  ad- 
ministrative duties  of  the  army.  In  Dcceml)er,  1875, 
the  Control  Department  fell  from  its  high  estate,  and 
the  "  Commissariat  and  Transport  Department"  arose 
from  its  ashes.  Its  duties  are  the  provision  of  food, 
fuel,  lodging,  and  transport:  a  function  on  which  it 
is  needless  to  say  the  very  existence  of  the  army  de- 
pends. The  Department  is  administered  by  the  Di- 
rector of  Supplies  at  the  War  Office,  who  is  an  officer 
on  the  Staff  of  the  Surveyor  General.  In  the  United 
States  service  this  Department  is  under  charge  of  the 
Commissary  General  of  Subsistence,  who  has'the  rank 
of  Brigadier  Gefieral.     See  Subsistence  Department. 

COMMISSARIAT  DEPAETMENT.— A  warrant  has 
been  lately  issued  by  which  the  Control  Department 
of  the  English  army  has  been  atolished;  and  all  its 
branches  except  the  Pay 
Sub-dtpartment  have  been 
recla.ssified  and  divided  in- 
to (a)  the  Commissariat  and 
Transport  Department,  (A) 
the  Ordnance  Store  Depart- 
ment, placed  under  the 
direction  of  the  Surveyor 
General  of  Ordnance.  Its 
organization  is  laid  down 
as  follows:  1.  All  officers  of  the  Commis-sariat  and 
Transport  Department  and  of  the  Ordnance  Store  De- 
partment shall  hold  commissions.  2.  Officers  of 
these  Departments  shall  be  the  officers  of  and  shall 
command  the  Army  Service  Corps.  3.  The  ranks  of 
the  officers  of  the  respective  Departments  shall  be  as 
follows:  Commissarj-  General,  Deputy  Commissary 
General,  Assistant  Commissary  Genenil,  Commissary, 
Deputy  Commissary,  Assistjmt  Commissarj',  Sub- 
assistant  Commissarj'.  4.  The  relative  rank  of  these 
officers  shall  be  as  follows:  Commis,sarj-  General — 
with  an  army  in  the  field,  special;  otherwise  as 
Major  General;  Deputj*  Commissary  General,  as 
Colonel;  Assistant  Commissary  General,  as  Lieu- 
tenant Colonel;  Commissarj',  as  ilajor;  Deputy 
Commissary,  as  Captain;  Aksistant  Commissjiry, 
as  Lieutenant;  Sub-assistant  Commissarj',  as  Sub- 
lieutenant; and  such  relative  rank  shall  regulate 
their  quarters  and  militarj'  allowances,  including  pen- 
sions for  wounds,  and  pensions  and  allowances  to 
their  wives  and  families,  except  in  the  case  of  a  Sub- 
assistant  Commissarj",  who  for  these  purposes  shall 
rank  as  Lieutenant.  5.  Appointments  to  the  Commis- 
sariat and  Transport  Department  and  to  the  Ordnance 
Store  Department  shall  be  conferred  upon  such  offi- 
cers, non-commissioned  officers,  and  civilians  as  may 
be  recommended  by  the  Secretarj'  of  State.  6.  Can- 
didates shall  be  subject  to  such  educational  examina- 
tion as  the  Secretary  of  State  maj'  from  time  to  time 
determine.  7.  Siii>assistant  Commissaries  shall  be 
liable  to  Ik?  removed  from  the  service  for  moral  or 
physical  unfitness,  or  if  thej'  fail  to  make  satisfactory 
progress  in  qualifying  themselves  for  permanent  ser- 
vice in  the  Department.  8.  Sub-assistant  Commis- 
saries, after  two  years'  satisfactorv  service  as  such, 
maj'  receive  commissions  as  Assistant  Commissiiries. 
Those  officers  who  mav  have  lx?en  appointed  from 
the  armj'  shall  resign  tlieir  commissions  as  combatant 


COMMISSABT. 


382 


COHHISSABT  SESOEANTB. 


otlicers  upon  receivin;;  commissions  as  Assistant 
t'ommissarieis.  9.  Scrvu-o  as  Siil>assistant  Commis- 
sary sliall  count  towards  rcliri'mcnt  from  tlii'  hijrUcT 
ranks  of  the  rispt-itivc  Dtparlments.  10.  Tbu  iK-ri- 
mls  of  siTvice  towards  ri'lircmi'm  six-citied  in  Article 
IT  sliall  1k'  api>licalilc  to  officers  of  the  t'ommiss;iriat 
ami  Tninsi^orl  Dcimrtmcnt  or  of  tlic  Ordnance  Store 
Deixnrtnient,  and  in  tlie  case  of  otlicers  jiromotod 
from  tlie  ranks  sliall  include  scr\ieo  in  all  srades,  liut 
not  less  than  one  half  of  such  perio<ls  shall  consist  of 
s»Tvice  as  a  conmiissioned  officer.  11.  C)llicei'si)[  the 
rank  of  Deputy  or  Assistant  t'onunissjiry  shall  be  se- 
lected for  the  iii>ix)intments  of  Adjutant  and  Quarter- 
master in  the  Army  Service  Corps.  Vi.  Combatant 
otlicers  while  under  jirobalion  may  at  any  time  be 
ordered  to  return  to  their  reirfments.  l:i.  An  officer 
sliall  be  elisrilile  for  ])romotion  to  the  under-mentioned 
ranks  if  he  shall  haye  seryed  on  full  pay  for  the  fol- 
lowintr  periods,  datini;  fix>m  his  tirst  entrance  into 
the  seryice:  To  the  rank  of  Commissarj-  General, 
thirteen  years,  of  ^vhiell  at  least  three  shall  haye  been 
as  Depiitv  Commissar}-  General;  to  the  rank  of 
Dei)uly  cbmmiss'try  General,  ten  years,  of  which  at 
least  tiine  (including  probationary  service)  shall  have 
been  as  Assistant  Commissjiry  Genera!.  14.  If.  dur- 
ins  active  service,  a  temporary  ausrmentation  of  the 
Commissjjriat  and  Transport  "Department  or  of  the 
Ordnance  Store  Deiiartmenl  shall  become  necessary, 
the  General  Officer  Commanding  may  irrant  to  OtVi- 
cers  of  those  Departments  permi.'vsion  to  hold  tempo- 
rarily the  hiirber  rank  in  ^^■hich  they  may  in  such  an 
emersency  be  called  upon  to  act,  or  may  temporarily 
appofnt  Combatant  Officers,  reporting  his  proceedings 
for  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  State.  15.  A 
Combatant  Officer  so  apjwintcd  shall  receive  the  pay 
and  allowances  of  the  departmental  rank  in  which  he 
shall  lie  employed,  in  lieu  of  all  other  emoluments. 
16.  Officers  shall  be  allowed  to  count  their  jireWous 
departmental  or  combatant  service  as  service  in  the 
Commissariat  and  Transport  Department  or  in  the 
Ordnance  Store  Department.  IT.  Officers  who  sliall 
have  completed  a  total  full-pay  service  of  thirty 
yeai-s,  including  previous  departmental  or  combatant 
service,  shall,  on  giving  six  months'  notice,  have  an 
imqualificd  right  to  retire  on  retired  pay.  It  shall, 
however,  be  competent  to  the  Secretary  of  State  to 
place  officers  on  the  retired  list  after  a  meritorious 
service  of  twenty  years,  including  departmental  or 
combatant  service,  if  by  rea.son  of  mental  or  botlily  in- 
firmity of  a  permanent  nature  (to  be  certitied  by  a 
Medical  Board),  contracted  in  the  service,  they  shall 
be  untit  for  further  dut}-;  or  in  ca.se  of  reduction  of 
establishment,  or  retirement  imder  the  provisions  of 
Articles  18  and  19.  18.  The  retirement  of  officers 
who  have  attained  the  rank  of  Assistant  Commissary 
General,  or  who  are  above  that  rank,  shall  be  com- 
piUsory  at  the  age  of  si.xty  years.  19.  The  retirement 
of  officers  below  the  rank  of  Assistant  Commissary 
General  shall  be  compulsorj-  at  the  age  of  tifty-tive 
years. 

COMMISSARY.— A  name  applied  to  an  olBeer  who 
has  charge  of  the  subsistence  of  troops,  miLsfers,  etc. 
The  tenn  is  applied  in  general  to  any  one  to  whom 
the  power  and  authority  of  another  is  committed.  In 
this  sense  it  is  nearly  e(|uivalent  to  Commissioner. 
In  ecclesiastical  law  a  Commissary  is  an  officer  ap- 
pointed by  a  bishop  to  exercise  jurisdictifin  in  parts 
of  the  diocese  which  are  so  distant  from  the  episcopal 
city  that  the  people  cannot  be  conveniently  summoned 
to  attend  the  principal  Court.  When  the  papal  author- 
ity, and  all  iurisiliciion  which  fiowed  from  it,  was 
aliolislied  in  Scotland.  Iiy  the  Acts  of  l.-)ti(l  and  156T, 
a  supreme  Commissary  Court  was  estalilishe<l  in  Edin- 
burgh, bv  a  grant  of  Queen  Mary,  dated  February  8, 
I'lCa.  This  Court  had  jurisdiction  in  actions  of  di- 
vorce, declarators  of  marriage,  nullity  of  marriage, 
and  all  actions  which  originally  lielonged  to  the 
bishop's  Ecclesiastical  Courts.  Its  piiwcrs  were 
gradually  conjoimd  willi  Ihciscof  the  Court  of  Ses- 
sion, and  it  vva.s  finally  abolished  in  1830,  the  small 


remains  of  its  once  important  jurisiliction  lieiug  united 
in  the  Sheriff  of  Edinburgh.  The  inferior  Commis- 
Siiriats,  which  hail  usually  lieeii  commensurate  with 
the  dioceses,  were  dealt  with  by  a  previous  statute,  each 
County  being  erected  into  a  separate  Commissariat, 
of  wliich  the  Sherill  was  Commissjiry.  The  jurisdic- 
tion of  these  Courts  so  conjoined  with  that  of  Sheriffs 
was,  in  18T6,  finally  tpuisferred  to  the  SherilTs  abso- 
lutely, and  the  separation  between  the  two  sets  of 
officers  ended,  except  in  the  case  of  the  CommLssary 
Clerk  of  Eilinburgh. 

The  term  was  used  in  the  old  French  service  to  ex- 
press a  variety  of  military  occupations,  as  it  is  in  the 
Control  Department  of  "the  British  service  at  the 
presei.t  day. 

COMMISSARY  GENERAL  OF  PRISONERS.— An  of- 
ficer aiuiiiunecd  in  time  of  war  to  su]iei'iiiteud  the 
treatment  of  prisoners,  and  charged  with  the  enforc- 
ing of  such  regulations  as  may  lie  necessary  for  their 
welfare.  He  has  authority  to  call  for  such  reports 
from  officers  in  conuuand  of  guards  over  prisoners  a» 
may  be  necessiiry  for  tlie  proper  discharge  of  his  own 
duties,  and  he  should  be  prepared  to  furnish  all  infor- 
mation in  relation  to  prisoners  called  for  by  the  Adju- 
tant General.  A  full  record  of  all  prisoners  is  kept 
in  the  office  of  the  Commissary  General  of  Prisoners, 
in  suitable  Ijooks,  giving  the  name,  rank,  regiment, 
and  company  of  each  military  prisoner,  the  residence 
of  each  civil  prisoner,  with  the  charges  against  him, 
and  the  time  and  place  of  capture  or  arrest.  Any 
special  information  of  importance  is  added  from  time 
to  time  in  the  column  of  remarks.  When  disposed 
of  by  exchange  or  otherwise,  the  fact  and  authority 
for  it,  with  the  time,  should  be  noted  on  the  record. 
The  Commis.sary  General  of  Prisoners  is  empowered 
to  visit  places  at  which  prisoners  may  be  held,  and  to 
recommend  to  the  General  w  hose  guards  are  resixm- 
sible  for  them  whatever  modification  in  their  treat- 
ment may  seem  to  him  proper  or  neces.sary,  and  re- 
port the  same  to  the  War  Department.  Sec  Pn«o tiers 
of  Win: 

COMMISSARY  OF  MUSTER.— An  officer  charged 
with  mustering  in  ami  mustering  out  of  troops.  Dur- 
ing the  CivirWar  in  the  United  States  this  duty 
was  extensively  performed  liy  Staff -officers,  who  were 
known  officially  as  Commis.saries  of  Musters. 

COMMISSARY  OF  ORDNANCE.— The  departmental 
title  given  to  an  officer  of  English  artillery  who  has 
charge  of  an  arsenal  in  India.  Each  officer,  on  being 
appointed  to  the  Ordnance  Department'  remains  on 
probation  until  he  has  passed  an  examination  in  the 
various  subjects  appertaining  to  the  cliarge  of  an  ar- 
.senal,  such  as  accounts,  the  nomenclature  and  use  of 
stores,  the  working  of  metals,  etc.,  when,  if  found 
qualified,  he  is  posted  to  the  Department.  The  duties 
attached  to  the  office  of  a  Commissjiry  of  Ordnance 
will  be  found  in  the  Ordnance  Codes  of  each  Presi- 
dency. 

COMMISSARY  SERGEANTS.  —  Non-commissioned 
Staff-officers  appointed  liy  the  Secrelarii'  of  War  from 
Sergeants  who  have  faithfully  served  five  j'cars  in  the 
Line,  three  of  which  shall  have  been  in'tlie  grade  of 
non-commissioned  officers.  Sergcjints  receiving  these 
appointments  are  droiiiicd  from  the  rolls  of  the  regi- 
ment or  ciiiiiiniMy  in  vvhieli  they  hiivc  lieen  serving. 
Captains  report  to  their  Colonels  such  Sergeants  as, 
by  their  conduct  and  service,  merit  ii))pointnients  as 
Commissary  Sergeants,  setting  forth  the  description 
and  length  of  service  of  the  Sergeant;  the  portion  of 
his  service  he  was  a  non-commissioned  officer;  his 
general  character  as  to  fidelity  and  wlirlcty;  his 
qualifications  as  a  clerk,  jmd  his  fitness  for  the  duties 
of  the  position  for  which  he  is  recommended.  From 
the  nature  of  the  duties  assigned  to  these  Sergeants 
it  is  evident  that  their  judicious  selection  is  of  no 
small  importance  to  the  int<rests  of  the  service. 
While  the  law  contem))lates  in  the  appointment  of 
Com.missary  Sergeant  the  better  preservation  of  pub- 
lic propeity  at  the  several  iiosts,  there  is  also  a  furlher 
consideratio:: — that  of  offering  a  rewjird  to  faithful 


COMMISSION. 


383 


COMMUTATION  OF  QUABTEBS. 


and  well-tried  Sergeants,  ami  thus  giving  encourage- 
ment to  deserving  soldiers  to  hope  for  substantial 
promotion.  Colonels  and  Captains  cannot  be  too 
l)articular  in  investigating  the  charactei-s  of  the  can- 
didates, and  in  giving  their  testimony  as  to  their 
merits.  The  duty  of  the  Commissary  Sergeant  is  to 
assist  the  Commissarj-  in  the  discharge  Of  all  the 
duties  of  his  office,  viz.,  such  as  receiving,  storing, 
preserving,  transferring,  issuing,  sellmg,  and  accoum- 
mg  for  the  subsistence  supplies  at  the  ix)st,  accord- 
ing to  the  regulations  of  the  Subsistence  Department; 
but  the  presence  of  a  Commissary  Sergeant  at  a  post 
in  no  manner  relieves  the  Commissary  frojn  the  re- 
sponsibility for,  and  projier  care  of,  subsistence  sup- 
plies. At  jiosts  where  there  is  no  commissioned 
otticer  the  Commissary  Sergeant  is  responsible  for 
subsistence  supplies,  and  is  governeil  by  the  Kegida- 
tions  of  the  Subsistence  Department  iii  issuing  and 
accounting  for  the  same. 

COMMISSION.— A  writing,  in  the  form  of  a  war- 
rant or  letter-patent,  authorizing  one  or  more  persons 
to  perform  duties  or  e.\erci.se  powers  belonging  to 
another,  or  to  others.  Instruments  of  delegation, 
bearing  this  title,  are  issued  to  Officers  in  the^Army 
and  Na\y,  Judges,  Justices  of  the  Peace,  and  others. 
In  the  British  service,  commissions,  commencing 
with  the  Sub-lieuteuauts  of  the  army,  are  given  to 
candidates  after  passing  the  prescribed  examination 
before  the  Ci%-il-Service  Examiners,  when  they  are  sent 
to  Sandhurst  College  for  further  instructior_,  chiefly 
of  a  military  nature.  They  are  not  posted  to  regi- 
ments until  they  have  passed  the  final  examination, 
except  those  who  are  gazetted  to  regiments  in  India, 
which  they  proceed  at  once  to  join.  After  serving 
one  year  with  their  regiments,  they  are  attached  to 
garrison  cla.s.ses  in  India,  and  undergo  a  couree  of 
military  instruction  required  to  qualify  them  for  pro- 
motion to  the  rank  of  Lieutenant.  Militia  Lieuten- 
ants are  eligible  for  commissions  in  the  regular  army 
after  serving  for  two  trainings  in  a  militia  regiment; 
on  pa.ssing  the  usual  examination  they  are  further 
subjected  to  such  regulations  as  to  age  or  otherwise 
as  may  be  issued  from  time  to  time  by  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  War. 

COMMISSIONAIRES.— A  body  of  old  or  di.sabled 
soldiers  who,  on  being  pensioned,  are  formed  into  a 
Coi-ps,  and  stationed  in  London  and  Edinburgh. 
They  are  employed,  for  the  most  part,  as  porters  and 
in  positicjns  of  tnist,  sucli  as  door-keepers  over  jewel- 
lers' shops.  They  run  also  as  messengers.  They 
must  be  men  of  uncxccjitionablc  character  to  whom 
these  |Mists  and  duties  are  intrusted. 

COMMISSIONERS  OF  ARRAY.- The  predcces.sors 
of  the  modern  Lords-lieutenant,  whose  duties  con- 
sisted, amongst  others,  of  .seeing  enforced  in  feudal 
times  the  observance  of  regulations  which  had  for 
their  object  the  maintenance  of  able-bodied  men  in 
the  realm  for  the  protection  of  the  land. 

COMMON  MINE. — Tha  lertn  cmn moii  ;««'«<' is  applied 
to  a  crater  w  hen  its  radius  is  equal  to  the  line  of  least 
resistance.  "When  the  crater  radius  is  greater  than 
the  line  of  least  resistance,  the  terms  orercharyed  miiie 
and  globe  of  compresaion  are  used.  When  the  crater 
radius  is  less  than  the  line  of  least  resistance,  the  mine 
is  termed  undirc/iarf/td.  A  small  mine  with  a  line  of 
least  resistance  not  greater  than  nine  feet,  formed  by 
sinking  a  shaft  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
placuig  the  charge  at  the  l)Ott(mi  of  it,  is  termed  a 
foiiydnse.  The  temi  caiiioufli  t  is  applied  to  small  mines 
used  to  suffocate  the  enemy's  miners  without  pro- 
ducing an  external  explosion. 

COMMON  TIME.— In  marching,  the  length  of  the 
direct  step  in  common  time  in  the  United  States 
service  is  -.is  inches,  and  the  cadence  is  at  the  rate  of 
90  steps  i)er  minute.  The  length  of  step  and  cadence 
varies  in  different  services.     See  Cndt'iiri'  and  Shp. 

COMMUNICATIONS.— 1.  In  speaking  of  the  com- 
munications of  an  army,  common  roads,  railroads, 
navigable  rivers,  canals,  and  telegraph  lines  are  usu- 
ally meant,  as  it  is  by  means  of  these  that  the  differ- 


ent parts  of  an  army,  in  its  military  operations  upon 
land,  are  connected  with  each  other.  The  establish- 
ment of  these  communications,  and  their  maintenance, 
give  the  General  in  commanil  of  an  army  great  .so- 
licitude. So  important  are  they  in  niiliiary  opera- 
tions that  they  largely  influence  the  General  in  his 
selection  of  the  theater  of  operations,  if  the  choice  is 
left  to  him.  The  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
these  communications  form  a  part  of  the  duties  ordi- 
narily a-ssigned  to  the  Engineers,  and  the  construction 
of  bridges  plays  a  most  important  part  of  this  par- 
ticular duty. 

2.  The  communications  form  a  very  important  cle- 
ment in  the  defen.se  of  permanent  works.  The  size 
and  disposition  of  the  communications  should  vary 
with  the  character  of  the  work  in  which  they  are 
placed.  In  small  works,  which  from  the  size  of  their 
ganlsous  are  calculated  to  make  only  a  strictly  ])as- 
sive  defense,  communications  of  just  s'uflicient  dimen- 
sions for  the  passage  of  the  troops  from  point  to  point 
will  serve  cverj'  purpose,  and  can  be  more  easily  bar- 
ricaded and  otherwise  defended.  Rut  for  large 
works  having  full  garrisons  the  communications 
should  be  such  that  sorties  of  all  arms  and  in  large 
bodies  can  be  quickly  made.  With  communications 
of  this  character  a  besieging  force  would  be  con- 
strained to  adopt  extraordinary  measures  of  sjifety, 
keeping  large  guards  in  the  trt'nches  to  secure  them 
from  such  sorties,  to  which  they  would  be  continually 
exposed. 

All  communications,  to  serve  properly  their  ends, 
should  fulfill  the  following  conditions;  1.  They 
should  never,  from  their  |)osition,  compromise  the 
safety  of  the  enceinte.  Freiiuent  instances  could  be 
cited  of  works  which  have  been  surprised  by  an  ene- 
my obtaining  possession  of  the  gates.  Therefore  too 
many  precautions  cannot  be  taken  to  secure  the  prin- 
cipal outlet  from  the  body  of  the  jjlacc  from  similar 
attempts.  2.  They  should  admit  of  a  convenient 
circulation  of  the  besieged.  To  subserve  this  i)ur- 
pose,  the  dimensions,  slopes,  etc.,  of  the  posterns, 
ramps,  and  other  similar  works  should  be  convenient 
for  the  service  to  which  they  are  applied ;  and  they 
should  be  jilaced  in  .such  positions  as  lead  directly  to 
the  point  to  be  reached.  3.  The  position  chosen"  for 
anj'  comnumication  should  be  such  that  when  an 
enemy  gets  possession  of  it  he  may  obtain  no  advan- 
tage by  it.  To  be  useless  to  an  enemy,  the  commu- 
nication, when  in  his  possession,  should  not  ofl"er  a 
shelter  for  his  works,  nor  enable  him  to  carry  them 
on  with  more  ease.  This  end  will  be  obtained  by 
placing  the  communications  in  a  position  to  be  swept 
by  the  fire  of  the  works  in  their  rear,  and  so  arrang- 
ing them  as  to  preserve  the  counterscarp  wall  un- 
broken. 4.  The  communications  should  be  covered 
from  everj-  point  where  an  enemy  might  establish 
himself,  during  the  whole  period  that  they  can  be  of 
service  to  the  besie|;ed;  and  they  should  be  swejit  by 
the  fire  of  the  enceinte.  Without  these  precautions, 
an  enemy  might  cut  off  all  communication  from  the 
enceinte  with  the  outworks;  and  in  case  of  retreat, 
the  troo])s  could  not  derive  any  a.ssislance  from  the 
enceinte,  if  he  attempted  to  press  upon  them.  5. 
They  should  be  so  placed  as  not  to  compromise  the 
retreat  of  the  troops  This  is  effected  by  jjlacing  the 
communications  in  the  re-enterings,  which  are  the 
most  secure  points,  as  an  enemy  to  reach  tliem  will 
have  to  brave  a  powerful  column  of  flank  fire.  Bar- 
riers, gates,  and  movalile  bridges  of  timber  should  be 
placed  at  suitable  points,  to  cut  off  one  communica- 
tion from  another,  and  thus  arrest  the  progress  of  a 
pursuing  enemy.  6.  Finally,  each  work  should  he 
independent  of  every  communication  except  that  one 
destined  for  its  particular  use.  This  is  an  important 
object,  as  it  prevents  an  enemy,  should  he  succeed 
ii.  gaining  ijosse.ssion  of  a  communication  leading 
through  it,  from  seizing  upon  the  work  itself.  See 
Bridi/(s.  Conred  Coiiiiiiiiukntion,  Gakieay,  Postern, 
li'inij),  and  Sfii/rs. 

COMMUTATION  OF  QUARTERS.- Officers  on  duty 


COMMUTATION  OF  SATI0N8. 


384 


COMPANY. 


witliout  troops  at  places  wbcro  thi-rc  arc  no  public 
quarters  are  entitletl  to  conimuljition,  which  is  paid 
liy  the  Pay  Departmenl  at  the  nile  authorized  by  law. 
Commutation  of  quarlers  is  paid  only  at  the  station 
for  which  it  is  clainutl,  and  by  the  st"nior  (lisbursinir 
Paymaster  tbereal,  or,  if  there  be  no  Payma.ster  at 
the  station,  by  tlie  C"bief  Paymaster  of  the  IVjiart- 
menl,  or  .such Of  bis  sulKirdinates  as  he  may  desijrnate 
ujion  the  oflicer'.s  ai>plicalion.  The  follownijr  olticers 
are  entitled  to  the  allowance  of  quarleiN,  ami  to  pur- 
chase fuel  at  the  legal  rates,  viz.:  (_)lflcei-s  who.  tor 
the  convcnieni'c  of  the  Goverumcnl,  are  directed  to 
await  onlers  for  a  limited  iK-riod  at  a  designated  sta- 
tion where  there  are  no  public  quarters  until  the 
pro|H'r  lime  arrives  for  giving  lliem  spccitic  orders. 
The  following  are  the  present  rales  of  conunulation 
in  the  I'nited  States  army:  Lieutenant  General,  $100 
per  month:  for  all  other  grades  the  rate  is  $12  per 
month  i>er  room. 

COMMUTATION  OF  RATIONS.— Commut.ll ion  of 
rations  at  thirty  cents  may  be  paid  to  soldiers  sta- 
tioned wlierc  the  Governnicnt  does  not  otherwise  pro- 
\ide  for  their  subsistence,  on  satisfactory  evidence 
that  they  have  not  received  rations  or  an  equivalent 
therefor  "during  the  period,  for  which  comnuilation  is 
claimed.  Conunulation  may  also  be  paid  a  soldier 
traveling  under  orders  on  dctacbe<l  command,  wlicn  it 
is  impraclicable  to  carry  his  rations,  at  the  rate  of  one 
doUara  day,  or  less,  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may  direct. 
The  amount  is  paid  by  the  Commis.sary  when  due,  or 
in  advance  upon  the  order  of  the  Commanding  Otli- 
cer,  for  the  necc.s.s;irj'  number  of  days'  travel.  The 
voucher  should  show  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
duty,  and  the  certiticate  of  a  Conunissioned  Officer  or 
the  atlida\it  of  the  soldier  must  be  added  that  it  was 
impracticable  for  him  to  carry  his  rations.  It  should 
also  be  accompanied  1  ly  the  order  directing  the  journey 
to  be  made,  or  a  duly  aulhcnticaled  copy  thereof. 
AVhen  it  is  proper  that  the  original  order  should  be 
retained  by  tlie  soldier,  the  amount  paid  him  for  com 
mutation  should  be  noted  thereon,  with  time  and 
place  of  payment,  duly  signed  by-  the  Commissary. 
Commutation  of  rations,  at  the  Vale  of  twcnty-tive 
cents,  is  allowed  to  soldiers  on  furlough  by  competent 
authority.  Payment  is  not  made  until  the  expiration 
of  the  furlough,  or  after  discharge,  if  furlouglied  till 
then.  The  furlough  must  state  the  date  up  lo  which 
the  soldier  has  been  subsisted,  and  must  be  presented 
with  the  claim  for  commutation  with  the  certiticate  of 
a  Commissioned  Officer  that  the  soldier  had  returned 
to  duly  at  its  expiration.  The  officer  who  pays  the 
commutation  indorses  the  fact  upon  the  furlough, 
and  ccrtilies  upon  his  account  of  the  payment  that  he 
has  so  done. 

COMPAGNIES  DE  DISCIPLINE.— Companies  cre- 
ated by  Naiiokdii  I.  in  1S02;  thel)iisisof  their  original 
organi/jUion  was  laid  liy  a  royal  order  in  1818.  This 
order  fixes  the  number  of  companies  at  ten— six  of 
fusileers  and  four  of  juoneers,  the  former  to  be  com- 
posed of  soldiers  of  the  annv  who  were  guilty  of  in- 
discipline, and  the  latter  to  be  fonned  of  nun  of  the 
former  who  were  deemed  incorrigible.  The  number 
of  companies  is  now  reduced  to  seven,  and  these  are 
stationed  in  Algeria.  There  are  also  four  companies 
similarly  organized  which  are  stationed  in  the  French 
Colonies. 

COMPAGNIES  DORDONNANCE.— The  name  of  a 
corjis  of  cavalry  which  was  organized  in  Prance  by 
Charles  VII.  in  14:30;  it  numbered  sixteen  companies, 
and  the  entire  sirenglh  was  9H00  men.  This  was  the 
first  regular  cavalry  organized  in  France. 

COMPANY. — In  military  organiz:ition,  a  company 
is  iui  aliquot  part  of  a  regiment  or  battalion.  In  the 
British  service,  the  companies  in  an  infantry  rciri- 
mcnt  are  generally  ten  or  twelve,  or,  if  there  are  two 
battalions,  each  lia.s  Ibis  number  of  companies.  The 
arrangement  is  made  to  facililati^  command  and 
evolutions.  The  Captains  and  Lieutenants  are  all 
Compiniii  OffinrH.  The  Captain  is  ihe  chief  of  the 
comi)any,  and  the  Lieutenants  are  his  subalterns  or 


assistant.s.  The  company  is  further  separated  into 
two  Kubdirixidiin,  of  two  sections  each.  In  roimd 
numbers,  and  without  reference  lo  special  instances,  a 
full  company  may  be  considered  to  comi)rise  about 
100  men,  a  subdivision  50,  and  a  section  25.  Under 
the  Cajitain's  superintendence  the  Lieutenant  com- 
mands tlie  first  and  second  .sections,  the  Sublieutenant 
Ihe  third  and  fourth,  with  a  Sergeant  to  each  section. 
Each  company  has  its  own  arm  and  aecoutennent 
chests,  anil  keei)s  its  own  books.  A  cavalry  regi- 
ment is  subdivided  into  tronps  instead  of  companies; 
Ihe  Knginccrs  and  Marines,  into  companies;  but  Ihe 
artillery  corres|)onding  tenn  is  halttri/-  In  the  Ger- 
man army,  a  con.pany  comprises  about  250  men, 
under  a  Captain,  who  is  a  moiuited  officer,  and  three 
Subalterns. 

In  the  United  States  army,  all  branches  of  the  ser- 
vice are  divided  into  companies.  Infantry  com- 
panies in  time  of  war  are  expected  to  numbxr  about 
100  men.  A  battalion  of  infantry  has  10  companies, 
and  each  company  has  a  Cajitain  and  two  Lieutenants. 
In  Ihe  cavalry  a  company  is  sometimes  called  a  troop, 
and  in  the  artillery  a  battery 

The  company,  dismounted,  is  fonned  in  double 
rank,  the  men  being  arranged  according  to  height, 
;  \\ith  the  Corporals  in  the  front  rank,  and  on  the  right 
and  left  of  platoons.  In  the  right  wing  of  the  bat- 
talion, the  tallest  Corporal  and  tallest  man  form  the 
right  file,  the  shortest  Corporal  and  shortest  man  the 
left  lile.  In  the  left  wing,  the  tallest  Corporal  and 
tallest  man  form  the  left  file,  the  shortest  Corporal 
and  shortest  man  the  right  file.  The  company  is 
divided  as  nearlj'as  possible  into  two  equal  parts, 
called  platoons;  the  division  falling  between  two 
fours.  For  the  pur]>ose  of  making  the  platoons 
equal,  the  number  of  fours  may  bo  increased  by 
leaving  vacant  the  places  of  numbers  t\vo  and  three 
in  some  of  the  fours  of  the  rear  rank.  When  the 
company  is  small,  the  division  into  platcxms  maybe 
omitted,  in  which  case  the  Corporals  are  posted 
according  to  height  on  Ihe  right  and  left  of  the 
front  rank.  The  company,  when  small,  may  also  be 
formed  in  .single  rank.  The  right  iilatoon,  when  in 
line,  isdvsignnted  the  first  platfxm;  the  left,  the  second 
})latf>on.  In  column,  the  leading  platoon  is  the .;?;•«<, 
the  rear  the  second.  The  designations  change  when- 
ever, by  facing  to  the  rear,  the  left  becomes  the  right 
of  the  line,  or  the  rear  becomes  the  head  of  the 
column. 

Posts  of  Officers,  Sergeants,  and  Trumpeters  or  Field- 
music. — The  Captain  is  two  3'ards  in  front  of  the 
center  of  the  company.  As  instructor,  he  goes 
wherever  his  presence  is  necessary.  The  Urst 
Lieutfnant  is  two  yards  in  rear  of  the  center  of  the 
first  platoon;  the  Second  Lieutenant  is  two  yards  in 
rear  of  the  center  of  the  second  platoon.  Each 
Lieutenant  is  the  chiif  of  the  platoon  behind  which 
he  is  posted.  The  Fir.it  Sergeant  is  on  the  right  of 
the  front  rank;  the  ol/ur  Sergeants  arc  in  the  line  of 
file-closer.s,  the  second  opposite  the  left  file  of  the 
companj',  tlie  tieird  opposite  the  second  file  from  the 
right,  the  fourth  on  the  left  of  the  First  Lieutenant, 
the^yyAonlhc  right  of  the  Second  Lieutenant;  the 
file-closers  arc  as  equally  distributed  along  the  line  as 
possible.  The  battalion  being  in  line,  the  Second 
Sergeant  of  cither  the  left  or  right  conqiany  places 
himself  in  the  front  rank,  whenever  his  tlank  of  the 
company  is  the  Hank  of  the  battalion.  The  Trump- 
eters, when  not  united  as  the  Trumpeters  of  the  bat- 
talion, are  in  Ihe  line  of  file-closers,  between  the  First 
Lieutenant  and  the  Third  Sergeant,  and  conform  to 
all  the  movements  of  Ihe  file-closers.  On  tlie  march, 
when  the  Trumpeters  are  reciuired  to  Jilay,  they 
march  at  the  head  of  the  column.  Whin  there  is  a 
Third  Lieutenant,  be  is  po.sled  between  the  First 
Lieutenant  and  the  Fourth  Sergeant.  File-closers  are 
officers  or  non-commissioned  ofiicers  posted  two 
yards  in  rear  of  the  line;  it  is  their  duty  to  rectify 
mistakes  and  to  insure  steadiness  and  promptness  iu 
the  ranks. 


COMPANY  FUND. 


385 


COMPENSATING-GUNPOWDEE. 


COMPANY  FUND. —The  savings  arising  from  an 
economical  use  of  tbe  rations  of  a  company  (except- 
ing the  saving  of  flour)  constitutes  the  ruiapauy  J'aud, 
which  is  kept  in  tbe  hands  of  the  Captain  or  other 
Commander  of  the  company,  and  disbursed  by  bim 
exclusicdy  for  the  benefit  of  the  fidi^ted  men  of  the  coia- 
/Mtny,  as  follows:  1.  For  improvement  of  the  soldiers' 
table-fare,  and  for  their  comfort  in  quarters.  2.  For 
garden-seeds  and  utensils.  ;J.  For  such  exercise  and 
amusement  as  may  be,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Com- 
pany Commander,  for  the  benefit  or  comfort  of  the 
majority  of  tbe  enlisted  men  of  the  company.  Xn 
account  of  the  company  fund  is  kept  by  the  officer  in 
whose  bands  it  Ls  deposited,  which  is  subject  to  the 
inspection  of  the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  post  or 
regiment,  and  returns  of  it  are  rendered  (juarlerly  (or 
oftener  if  required)  to  the  Commander  of  the  regi- 
ment. After  examination  at  regimental  head<iuarters 
of  the.se  returns,  an  abstract,  showing  in  detail  the 
receipts  and  expenditures,  is  forwarded  to  the  Adju- 
tant Grcneral  of  the  army  through  the  Department 
Commander      See  Pout  Fund  and  Regimental  Fund. 

COMPASS. — The  directive  power  of  the  magnet 
seems  to  have  been  unknown  in  Europe  till  late  in 
the  twelfth  century.  It  appears,  however,  on  very 
good  authority,  that  it  was  known  in  China,  and 
throughout  the  East  generally,  at  a  very  remote  peri- 
od. The  Chinese  annals  indeed  assign  its  discovery 
to  the  year  2634  B.C.,  when,  they  ssiy,  an  instrument 
for  indicating  the  south  was  constructed  by  the  Em- 
peror Hou-ang-ri.  At  first  they  would  appear  to 
have  used  it  exclusively  for  guidance  wWle  traveling 
by  land.  The  earliest  date  at  which  we  hear  of 
their  using  it  at  sea  is  somewhere  about  300  a.d. 
According  to  one  accoimt,  a  knowledge  of  the  com- 
pass was  brought  to  Europe  by  Marco  Polo,  on  his 
return  from  his  travels  in  Cathay.  It  was  long  con- 
tendetl  that  the  compass  as  a  nautical  instrument 
was  first  invented  by  Flavio  Gioja,  a  native  of  Amalfi, 
about  the  year  1362;  and  that  that  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples  where  he  was  bom  has  a  compa.ss  for 
its  arms.  For  this  there  is  no  authority  whatever,  as 
the  compass  was  well  known  as  a  nautical  instrument 
before  his  time.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  Gioja 
may  have  made  .some  improvement  in  the  instrument 
or  in  the  mode  of  suspending  it. 

The  compass  is  variou.sly  mounted.  The  drawing 
shows  the  plain  pocket-compass,  having  a  3-inch 
needle  and  sights  folding  down  close  to  the  gla-ss.  A 
variety  of  the  compass  known  as  the  "dip"  consists 


Plain  Ct'iiiiiass. 

essentially  of  a  magnetic  needle  so  suspended  as  to 
move  readily  in  a  vertical  direction,  the  angle  of  in- 
clination or  "  dip"  being  measured  upon  the  divided 
rim  of  a  small  compass-box.  VVTien  in  use,  the  ring 
or  bail  is  held  in  the  hand — the  compass  box  by  its 
own  weight  takes  a  vertical  position— and  must  also 
be  in  the  plane  of  the  magnetic  meridian.  In  this 
position  the  needle,  when  tmaffectcd  by  the  attrac- 
tion of  iron,  as,sumcs  a  horizont.nl  line,  as  shown  by 
the  zeros  of  the  circle.  AVhen  brought  over  any  mass 
of  iron  it  dips,  iind  thus  detects  the  presence  of  iron 
ores  with  cert;unty.  If  the  conipa.ss  is  held  horizon- 
tally it  serves  as  an  ordinary  pocket-compa.ss,  and  in 
dicates  tbe  magnetic  meridian,  in  the  plane  of  which 


it  should  be  held  when  used  to  ascertain  the  dip  of 
the  place  where  the  observation  is  made.  The  Nor- 
wegian compa.ss  is  a  modification  of  the  one  used  in 
northern  Europe.  It  has  a  needle  of  either  3  or  4 
inches  resting  upon  a  single  vertical  pivot  so  as  to 
n;ove  freely  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  thus  place 
itself  with  certjdnty  in  the  magnetic  meridian;  while 
at  the  same  time,  being  attached  to  the  needle-cap  by 
two  delicate  pivots,  one  on  each  side,  it  is  free  to  dip, 
like  that  of  the  ordinary  compass. 

The  following  method  of  finding  the  points  of  the 
coinptLss  by  means  of  a  watch  is  novel  and  quite  use- 
ful when  traveling  without  the  compass,  or  when  the 
compass  used  has  its  needle  deflected  by  local  ciiuscs. 
halve  the  number  ofhuurs  ninee  the  last  midnight  and 
point  the  corresponding  dial-number  ioirard  the  irun — 
the  line  from,  VI  to  XII  will  be  then  due  north.  As 
an  example,  suppose  tbe  time  to  be  4  p.m.  =  16 
hours  since  the  last  midnight.  Hold  the  watch  in 
front  of  the  body  with  the  VIII  pointed  toward  the 
sun :  the  line  from  VI  to  XII  will  then  run  due 
north.     See  Solar  Comjinss. 

COMPASSIONATE  ALLOWANCE.  — An  allowance 
made  to  Ihe  children  of  deeea.sed  BritLsli  military  and 
naval  officers  left  in  neces.sitous  circumstances.  The 
annuities  vary  from  £8  to  £20  a  year,  according  to 
the  rank  of  the  deceased  officer,  and  are  tenable  up 
to  tbe  age  of  18  in  the  case  of  boys,  and  to  that  of 
21  as  regards  females,  or  imtil  mamage  if  that.hap- 
pen  earlier.  This  measure  is  more  general  than  a 
compassionate  allowance  which  arose  out  of  the 
sympathy  of  the  British  nation  with  tbe  army  during 
tbe  Crimean  War.  Royal  warrants  were  issued  in 
18.54  and  18.56  defining  and  explaining  allowances 
made  to  the  widows  and  children,  or  other  specified 
relations,  of  military  officers  who,  after  the  date  of 
the  declaration  of  war  with  Russia,  bad  been  killed 
in  action,  or  had  dietl  of  woimds received  in  that  war. 
The  claims  on  Uiis  fimd  die  out  as  years  advance,  of 
course. 

COMPENSATING  GTJNPOWDEE.— A  new  mechan- 
ico-chemioil  explosive  for  hea\'}'  artillery  purposes, 
projiosed  by  Lieutenants  A.  E.  Miltimore  and  C.  A. 
L.  Tolten,  Vnited  States  Army.  The  latest  Ameri- 
can powder,  hexagonal,  and  tbe  English,  cubical,  the 
latter  used  in  tbe  81-ton  gun,  are  steps  in  retro- 
grade. They  are  not  accelerators:  this  principle 
has  been  siicrificed  to  the  attainment  of  density  and 
uniformity.  These  forms  of  powder  beautifully  il- 
lustrate the  relation  between  a  large  surface  of  com- 
bustion and  a  diminished  strain  upon  tbe  gun,  and 
thus  fulfill  their  inissioti;  still  they  are  but  tempo- 
rary expedients.  It  is  different,  however,  in  the 
case  of  the  perforated  ciike.  Powder  thus  treated 
conserves  its  force  well  and  strains  the  gun  toward 
tbe  minimum,  and  for  this  rea.son  it  has  very  naturally 
been  adojrted  by  one  of  tbe  greatest  military  powers 
in  Europe,  for  use  in  the  strongest  gun.  In  the  mean 
time,  with  the  detonating  cla.ss  of  explosives  we  have 
been  mainly  eng;iged  in  reducing  the  intensity  of 
their  action,  nor  have  any  of  them  yet  come  within 
the  limits  of  artillery  requirements.  Explosion  in 
tlie  ca.se  of  gun-cotton  is  not  combustion;  it  is  more 
of  a  disintegration,  a  loss  of  equilibrium,  taking  place 
as  it  were  instantly  throughout  the  entire  mass. 

Both  of  these  explosives  pos,se.ss  valuable  resources 
for  the  artillerist,  yet  neither  of  them  fulfills  in  itself 
all  the  requirements  of  a  projectile  agent.  While 
powder  has  considerable,  gun-cotton  has  almost  un- 
limited power;  the  explosion  of  tbe  former  can  be 
governed,  that  of  the  latter  has  hitherto  been  unruly. 
But  the  very  means  we  take  to  curb  the  first  force  of 
powder  reduces  to  a  minimum  its  already  relatively 
small  power-capacity.  If  we  couKI  obtain  an  explo- 
sive whose  action  would  be  similar  to  that  of  hex- 
agonal powder  until  the  projectile  bad  taken  up  a 
rapid  velocity,  and  which  .should  then  burn  up  witli 
all  tbe  energy  of  gun-cotton,  we  would  have  a  most 
valuable  accelerator. 

The  endeavor  to  use  these  two  substances  In  com- 


COMPENSATIHG-OnNFOWDER. 


3SG 


COMPENSATINOGUNFOWDEB. 


binuiion  \ei\  to  the  invcnlioii  of  compcnsatingpow- 
iler.  Till-  iileii  is  to"  build  up"  grains,  cakfs,  or 
masses  out  of  two  or  iiiori'  explosives,  or  out  of  tlio 
sjime  fxplosivf  in  vary- 
iuj;  conditions,  in  suc-h 
a  manni-r  that  these  ex- 
plosives shall  be  igniled 
»'/(•<•< A*if</,v  by  the  actual 
eonilmstion  of  the  several 
layers  down  lo  them.  For 
instance,  suppose  we  have 
n  large  grain  of  such  |X)W- 
(ler.  Its  form,  for  dis- 
cussion, is  inimalerial;  let 
it  be  a  sphere  of  gunpow- 
der an  inch  in  (liameler, 
and  imagine  it  to  possess 
;\n  interior  and  concentric  core  of  gun-cotton  half  an 
inch  in  diameter.  Such  a  grain  would  be  constructed 
with  a  scientitic  reg-ard  lo  the  peculiar  clianicterislics 
of  each  substance,"  and  would  evidently  burn  upon 
the  accelerative  j^rinciple.  Let  us  examine  the  theo- 
retical conjbuslion  and  effect  of  a  charge  of  such  pow- 
der tired  in  a  gun.  The  relative  amounts  of  the  two 
explosives  would  s;>tisl'v  the  (Uinandsof  the  compen- 
sating principle,  and  at"  the  siune  time  the  reasonable 
precaution  of  reducing  the  mori'  explosive  substance 
to  its  minimum  effecliVe ijuanlity.  Immediately  after 
inflammation  the  •runiiowder  would  commence  to  be 
rapidly  consumed  in  towards  the  cotton.  The  exterior 
layer  "burning  tirst  would  prejiare  the  way  for  the 
more  violent  explosion  of  the  interior  one.  and  being 
it.self  in  larire  grains,  would  offer  a  minimum  surface 
to  combustion  during  its  tirst  and  most  decisive  in- 
stant.s.  The  powder  part  of  the  grain  would  thus  be 
suited  to  large  charges  and  guns. 

It  takes  but  a  few  one-hundredths  of  a  second  for 
all  the  powder  to  be  consumed.     In  the  mean  time 
the  projectile  will  have  acquired  its  motion  as  in  the 
CiLse  of  the  ordinary  charge  of  powder  alone,  for  thus 
far  there  has  been  "no  difference  in  the  explosion,  and 
will  have  reached  a  point  in  the  bore  Ix'yond  wliich, 
with  powder  alone,  i:o  material  gain  is  to  be  realizeil 
from  the  gun's  length.     The  sniall  amoimt  of  pow-  I 
der  which  wotild  now  remain  unconsumed,  were  the  , 
grain  homogeneous,  would  Ijarely  evolve  gas  rapidly 
enough  and  in  sufficient  quantities  to  till  up,  or  <v««- 
penmlf  for,  the  increasing  sjiace  Ix'hiud  the  projectile, 
and  would,  of  course,  be  useless  for  acceleration.    For  j 
all  practical  purposes  a  powtler-grain  might  as  well  1 
t)e  holliDr  from  this  point  inwards.    But  just  here  the 
valuable  part  to  be  played  by  the  interior  core  of  the 
compensiiting  grain  is  to  be  noticed.     Exploding  at 
this  moment  with  great  rapidity  and  force,  it  checks  1 
any  tendency  of  the  gas  to  lose  its  tension,  comiH'n-  \ 
sates  for  the  increasing  space  in  rear  of  the  projectile, 
and  indeed  actually  gives  it  a  tinal  and  valuable  ac- 
celerating impetus.     The  great  force  thus  developed 
by  the  gun-cotton  in  this  last  stage  will  not  be  exerted 
against  the  walls  of  the  ,gun,  as  would  be  the  case  in  ' 
the  explosion  of   a  charge  of  gun-cotton  alone,  but 
will  e\idenlly  be  directed  towards  the  line  of  least 
resistance  thus  artiticially  prei)ared  for  it.   The  cotton, 
in  fact,  will  lind  a  condition  of  affairs  in  the  bore  of 
the  gim  that  is  especially  favorable  for  its  action.     It 
is  no  longer  confined  to  a  space  just  sufficient  to  con- 
tain it  l)efore  combustion,  but  finds  a  continually  in- 
creasing one  iiitf)  which  to  expand,  a  cushion  of  gas 
against  which  lo  impinge,  and   an   already   rapidly 
moving  projectile  to  accelerate.  "  | 

In  ll)e  employment  of  mammoth  jxiwder,  even  in 
its  most  approved  form,  we  have  to  contend  against 
a  very  serious  element — irmiliii/,.  These  large  grains 
are  found  lo  lx;only  jiarlially  consumed;  still  burning 
they  are  thrown  out  of  the  gun  along  with  the  projec-  I 
tile.  That  is,  when  the  combustion  has  reached  a 
cerLain  point  the  projectile  leaves  the  gun,  and  all  the 
powder  remaining  unconsumed  is  wasle<l.  This  waste 
reaches  the  enormous  amount  of  60  per  cent.  The 
introduction  of  on  interior  core  of  higher  explosive  { 


I)roperlies  can  be  made  to  do  away  with  this  expcndive 
loss.  Forty  pounils  of  [wwder  do  all  the  work  in  a 
service-charge  of  one  hundred  pounds.  Reckoning 
gun-cotton  as  only  four  times  the  strength  of  gun- 
powder, fifteen  pounds  of  it  would  be  equivalent  to 
the  sixty  pounds  of  powder  thai  are  wasted.  If,  then, 
we  imagine  this  amount  of  cotton  intioducetl  as  a 
core  into  the  forty  irorking  pounds  of  |)owder  (the 
size  and  number  of  the  grains  remaining  the  same), 
we  shall  ha\  e  a  charge  stronger,  by  the  equivalent  of 
sixty  efficient  pounds,  than  the  present  service-charge 
of  the  15-inch  Hodman  gun.  Il  must  be  remembered, 
moreover,  that  such  a  charge  will  expend  its  first 
forty  pounds  in  impressing  the  projectile  with  its 
present  normal  velocity  (loUO  or  IfiOd  feeti,  and  that 
the  remaining  15  pounds  ("/«•<•  mid  <i  hit'f  the  iri/ue  vf 
till  first  fiirtji)  oi  force-generator  will  work  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances  as  a  |>ure  accelerator. 
We  sliall  thus  eliminate  the  great  waste  of  the  one, 
curb  the  straining  action  of  Ixith,  and  obtain  a  true 
artilliry  jiowder, — lighter  and  four  and  one  half  times 
more  effective,  charge  for  charge,  than  our  best  gun- 
liowder. 

It  will,  perhaps,  repay  us  to  examine  this  proposed 
combination,  and  its  constituent  jiarts,  under  their 
chemical  symbols.  The  theoretical  burning  of  gun- 
powder is  expressed  by  the  following  equation: 

3XO3K  +  3C  +  S=3C0,  +  2X+  SK, (A) 

The  explosion  of  the  gim-cotton  is  given  by  the  for- 
mula 

2C.H,(NOj)305  =  3CO5  +  9C0  -t-  6N  +  70H,. .  .(B) 

In  the  explosion  of  compens;iting-powder,  the  ele- 
ment succaixion  is  most  noticeable.  This  is  favorable 
to  the  stability  of  the  several  gases  of  its  constituents 
when  broui/hi  ttiyether  under  such  peculiar  conditions. 
The  similar  nature  of  the  products  of  combustion  of 
gimpowder  and  gim-cotton  seems  to  preclude  any 
tendency  (which  very  dissimilar  gases  might  have) 
to  result  differently  in  combination  than  they  do  when 
separated.  Hence  we  may  simply  combine  these 
two  reactions  by  addition,  and  obtain  a  legitimate  ex- 
pression for  the  explosion  of  compensiiting-powder, 
namely: 

[2XO3K  -f  3C  +  S]  -f  r2C6HT(NO.),OJ  =  (SCO, 
+  3CO,)  -f  9C0  -f  (2N  -f  6N1  -j-  70H,  -1-  SK, 

=  6C0,  -f  9CO  +  8N  -f  70H.  +  SK, (C) 

It  Is  barely  po.ssible  that  the  water  In  this  reaction 
may  be  turned  to  account  for  Uie  oxidation  of  the 
sulphide.  But  in  this  case  hydrogen,  a  still  more 
elastic  gjis,  would  be  freed,  anil  take  the  place  of  the 
steam.  Such  a  variation  would  result  in  greater 
chemical  action  and  therefore  in  the  production  of  a 
higher  temperature,  all  of  which  would  finally  be  ap- 
preciated in  ballistics  as  an  accelerator.  Comparing 
these  reactions  critically,  we  may  obtain  a  very  clear 
idea  of  the  gas-capacity  and  character  of  the  powder 
that  will  result  from  the  combination  propo.sed.  It 
must  be  recalled,  in  this  comparison,  that  while  the 
powder-gases  rcsidt  from  a  progressive  cumhiiuttioii 
of  its  elements,  those  of  the  detonator  come  from  its 
almost  instantaneous  dimntegrntion.  It  is  also  to  be 
noticed  that  the  volume  of  the  latter  gases  is  many 
times  greater  than  that  of  the  former,  and,  from  the 
large  amoimt  of  water  it  contains,  that  it  has  all  the 
elasticity  of  steam. 

It  is  claimed  that  gunpowder  itself  acts  as  an  ac- 
celerator, from  the  fact  that  the  great  heat  of  it-s  con- 
fined explo.sion  must  expedite  the  change  into  gas  of 
its  interior  layers, — just  as  a  coal-tire  burns  better  and 
belter  until  it  reaches  its  maximum.  This  is  obvi- 
ously the  case,  though  it  is  not  an  appreciable  argu- 
ment when  offered  against  a  combination  that  is  a 
n()ticcablc  accelerator.  This  very  feature,  however, 
will  work  in  favor  of  the  compeiisiiling  construction, 
for  the  acccUrateil  liurniiig  of  the  powder-jacket  will 
oidy  be  of  importiuice  during  a  very  brief  period,  im- 
til  the  grain  has  become  relatively  small,— beyond 


COMPLEMENT  OF  THE  CUETAIN. 


387 


COMFKESSED  BRONZE. 


this  point  it  is  valueless;  but  the  interior  core  explod- 
ing at  this  same  moment*will  take  up  and  carry  to 
its  climax  this  action,  .so  well  begun.  See  Gun- 
jxjinler. 

COMPLEMENT  OF  THE  CUKTAIN.— That  part  in 
the  interior  sidu  of  a  forliticatioii  which  makes  the 
ilciniirorirc. 

COMPLEMENT  OF  THE  LINE  OF  DEFENSE.— 
The  remainder  of  the  line  of  defense  after  the  angle 
of  the  tlank  is  taken  away. 

COMPLIMENT.— The  iisual  military  marks  of  re- 
spect shown  by  a  1)odyof  troops  toofflcial  personages, 
to  an  olHcer,  or  to  another  botly  of  troops. 

COMFONE. — A  term  in  Heraldry  .synonymous  with 
Gobony.  When  a  bordeur,  pale,  bend,  or  other  ordi- 
nary, is  made  up  of  two  rows  of  small  squares,  con- 
sisting of  alternate  metals  and  colors,  it  is  called  com- 
pont.     See  Heraldry. 

COMPOSITIONS.— The  term  composition  is  applied 
to  all  mechanical  mixtures  which  by  combustion  pro- 
duce the  effects  .sought  to  Ix;  attained  in  pyrotechny. 
If  these  compositions  be  examined,  it  will  be  fouiid 
that  many  of  thcni  are  derived  from  gunpowder,  by 
an  admixture  of  sulphur  and  niter,  in  proportions  to 
suit  the  required  end.  Compositions  are  prepared  in 
a  dry  or  liquid  form;  in  either  ca.se  it  is  necessary 
that  the  ingredients  shotdd  be  pure  and  thoroughly 
mixed. 

For  dry  compositioiLs  the  ingredients  are  pidverized 
separately,  on  a  mealing-table,  with  a  wooden  muUer; 
they  are  then  weighed  and  mixed  with  the  hands,  and 
afterwards  passed  three  limes  through  a  wire  sieve  of 
a  certain  fineness.  When  a  highly  oxidizing  sub- 
stance, as  the  chlorate  of  potassa,  is  present,  great 
care  must  be  observed  in  mixing  to  avoid  friction  or 
blows  which  might  lead  to  an  explosion.  When  coarse 
cbarcoal  or  metals  in  grains  are  used,  they  should  be 
added  after  the  other  ingredients  have  been  mixed  and 
sifted. 

When  it  becomes  neces.sarj'  to  use  fire  to  melt  the 
ingredients,  the  greatest  precaution  is  necessary  to 
prevent  accident,  especially  when  gunpowder  enters. 
The  dry  parts  of  the  composition  may  be  generally 
mixed  together  tirst,  and  put  by  degrees  into  the 
kettle,  when  the  other  ingredients  are  fluid,  stirring 
well  all  the  time.  When  the  drj'  ingiedients  are  very 
inflammable,  the  kettle  must  not  only  be  taken  from 
the  fire,  but  the  bottom  must  Ije  dipped  in  water  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  accidents. 

The  following  table  shows  the  rate  of  burning  of 
the  more  important  compositions: 


_  Cross  of   the  Ord«r 
1"        Compostella. 
In 


the  protection  of  the  pilgrims,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  the  canons,  resolved  to  found  an  Order  of  the 
same  kind  as  that  of  the  Hospitallers  or  Templars. 
The  Pope  granted  his  as.sent  in  a  bull,  ilated  oth  July, 
1175,  accomi>aiiied  with  the  statutes 
of  the  Order.  Whatever  conquests 
were  made  from  the  infidel  were 
declared  the  property  of  the  Order, 
and  a  council  of  13  knights  was 
vested  with  authoiitv  to  elect  and 
depose  a  Grand  Master.  The 
knights  made  vows  of  poverty, 
obedience,  and  celibacy,  and  pro- 
fessed their  belief  in  the  Immacu- 
late Conception.  To  protect  Chris- 
tians and  convert  infidels  they 
vowed  to  be  the  only  object 
their  wars  w  ith  the  Saracens, 
most  of  the  great  battles  between  Christian  and  Moor 
the  red  cress  of  the  Order  was  conspicuous.  The 
conquests  of  the  Order  itself,  combined  with  the  grate- 
ful munificence  of  the  nation,  spcedil)'  increased  its 
wealth  and  jjower  beyond  those  ot  any  of  the  other 
orders  of  knighthood.  In  addition  to  the  three  large 
commanderics  of  Leon,  Castile,  and  Montalvan,  it 
po.s.'e.ssed  nearly  200  minor  commanderies,  compris- 
ing, it  is  said,  more  than  200  priories,  with  many 
fiefs,  cloisters,  hospitals,  castles,  boroughs,  two  towns, 
and  178  villages,  exclusive  of  its  ix)sse.ssions  in  Por- 
tugal. This  enormous  wealth  and  power  of  the  Order 
excited  the  jealousj-  of  the  Crown,  in  which,  in  1522, 
the  Grand-mastership  was  pennanently  vested  bj'  the 
Pope.  Ha\"ing  thus  become  merely  honorarj-  and 
dependent  on  the  Cro^vn,  the  order  rapidly  decreased 
in  importance. 

COMPRESSED  BRONZE.— The  density  and  hard- 
ness of  bronze  have  been  increa-scd  by  tempering,  by 
compression  when  in  a  fluid  stale,  and,  with  still 
greater  success,  by  the  process  of  Jlr.  Dean,  tirst  tried 
in  the  United  States  in  isflis,  and  a  method  e.xactlj' 
similar  introduced  by  General  Uchatius  in  Austria 
in  187.3.  The  latter  e.vperimented  with  bronze  can- 
non compressed  whilst  fluid,  with  others  cast  about 
a  copper  core,  and  finally  with  the  plan  jjroposed  by 
Mr.  Dean,  which  consisted  in  casting  the  piece  solid 
in  an  iron  mold  or  "chill,"  and,  after  boring  it  to 
near  the  required  size,  compressing  and  hardening 
the  layers  of  metal  by  forcing  into  the  bore  a  series 
of  mandrels  or  plugs  of  hard  steel.  Gtms  so  made 
compare  most  favorablj' with  those  of  banded  steel; 
they  have  internally  the  same  strength,  homogeneity. 


Dimensions. 


Length  of  case  inches 

Interior  diameter do. 

Weight  of  composition ounces 

Time  of  burning,  per  inch seconds 


Wheel-fires. 


Standino-pikes. 


Common     White.      Chinese. 


8.75 
0.75 
3.5 
17 


8.75 
0.75 
3.5 
17 


8.75 
0.75 
4 
SI 


Sun. 


11 

0.75 

5 
SS 


Star. 


8 
0.75 

4 
SO 


Boman 
candles. 


19 

0.75 

5 
45 


Lances. 

Port-pires. 

Change. 

able 
wheels. 

Dihensions. 

Red. 

White.    Blue. 

Yellow. 

Green. 

Red. 

White. 

Blue. 

YeUow. 

Green. 

Ulac. 

Length  of  case       inches 

4 

0.32 
141 
90 

4            5 
0.32       0.32 
140         150 
90          90 

4 

0.32 
150 
90 

4 

0.82 
160 
90 

3 

1 

547 

60 

3 

1 
560 
65 

8 

1 
546 
45 

3 

1 

545 

65 

3 

1 

660 

65 

3l        3 

Interior  diameter do. 

Weight  of  composition grains 

Time  of  burning seconds 

1 
550 
45 

0.73 
250 
60 

See  r<7*«  and  Fire-W'>rks. 

COMPOSTELLA.— St.  James,  the  elder,  was  adopted 
as  the  patron  saint  of  Spain,  after  the  victorj'  of 
Clavijo,  and  his  relics  were  presen-ed  at  Compostella, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Galicia.  The  marvels 
supposed  to  be  performed  by  these  relics  drew  vast 
numbers  of  pilgrims,  for  whose  support  hospitals 
were  established  bj-  the  pious  canons  of  St.  Eloy. 
The  vicinity  of  the  Moors  ha\-ing  subsequently  ren- 
dered the  highroads  unsafe,  13  noblemen  united  for 


and  hardness,  and  the  elasticity  increases  from  the 
exterior  toward  the  interior.  They  show  no  spots  of 
tin,  and  the  alloy,  not  being  brittle,  is  much  less  sub- 
ject to  erosion  than  ordinary  bronze.  General  Ucha- 
tius considered  erosion  to  be  the  result  of  a  purely 
mechanical  action,  and  that  brittle  metal,  or  in  bronze 
gims  the  hardest  parts,  was  most  liable  to  be  so  af- 
fected. Jlr.  Dean  increa-sed  the  density  of  his  bronze 
from  8.321  to  8.875,  and  the  tenacity  from  27,238  lbs. 
to  41,471  lbs.  per  square  inch,  whilst  (Jeneral  IJcha- 


COMPRESSIONPKOJECTILES. 


388 


CONCENTHATION-MARCHES. 


tius  obtained  a  tenacity  of  over  72,000  lbs.  This 
nioilc  of  i-oustruction  lias  lK-<'n  adopted  by  the  Aus- 
trian Oovcmnu'iit.  and  is  now  boiii^  tried  iu  the 
United  Sl;il<s.      See  Ih-mizt'. 

COMPRESSION-PRO  JECTILES— The  systems  under 
this  elii.-^-^  ililler  iu  the  luituie  and  amiiiijenient  of  the 
metid  to  Ix.'  etnupres-sed.  Solid  shot,  shells,  and 
shrapnel  can  be  luse'd  in  each.  A  projectile  of  tliis 
system  is  conipose<l  of  a  cast-iron  or  steel  Iwdy,  and 
of  a  lead  cojiling  caj>t  over  and  between  rinj,'s  project- 
in::  fronj  the  Ixxly  of  the  projectile.  Bands  of  lead, 
exteiulin.?  beyond  the  j^pemnd  surface,  are  compressed 
by  the  lands" as  the  projectile  is  forced  through  the 
bore  of  the  piece.  A  construction  more  generally 
u.sed  is  to  have  the  b<xly  smooth,  ami  to  attach  Uie 
coating  chemically;  to  accomplish  this,  the  body  is 
thoroughly  clcimed,  and  immersed  in  a  solution  of 
sal-auunoniac;  next  it  is  covered  with  jxiwdered  s;d- 
ammouiac,  and  dijiped  tii-st  into  melted 
zinc  and  afterwards  into  melted  tin;  it 
is  then  placed  in  a  nielal  mohUtnd  the 
lead  cast  ujion  il.  The  lK>le  in  the 
base  is  closed  by  a  s<'rcw-iilug,  which 
has  a  ring  for  handling  the  projectile 
and  for  e.xtnicting  il  from  the  piece 
•3  when  necessary. 

In  the  French  system  these  projec- 
tiles have  two  IikihIh,  B  and  B  ,  of  eop- 
,  per.  attached  by  being  forced  into  an- 

^  ;;?'.,"^H  nular  undercuts  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing. To  favor  the  compression,  trian- 
gular grooves  are  cut  around  the  surface  of  the 
bands.  The  forward  band  is  placed  near  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  projectile:  its  diameter  is  only  about 
.02  inch  "greater  than  the  calilier  of  the  piece,  and 
therefore  does  not  assist  in  giving  rotation,  but  only 
in  centering  the  projectile;  the  accuracy  of  tire  is 
thereby  increased,  but  the  velocity  at  the  muzzle  of 
the  piece  is  slightly  reduced.  See  Coated  Projectiles, 
Frenrh  PrnjerlHtji,  and  Pr&jertiles. 

COMPRESSIVE  SYSTEM  OF  RIFLING.— This  sys- 
tem eiiitiraccs  all  projectiles  whicli  are  loaded  in  a 
chamber  and  then  forced  by  the  acticai  of  the  pow- 
der through  the  bore  of  the  gun,  the  diameter  of 
which  across  the  lands  is  less  than  the  superior  diam- 
eter of  the  projectile.  Projectiles  of  this  class  are 
necessarily  contined  to  breech-loading  guns,  and,  as 
the  name  of  their  class  implies,  lake  the  grooves  by 
compression.  The  general  character  of  the  ritling  in 
breech-loaders  consists  in  a  great  number  of  shallow 
grooves  usually  narrowing  toward  the  muzzle  to 
make  up  for  the  slip  and  abrasion  of  the  leaden 
jacket  of  the  projectile.  The  Armstrong  system  of 
rifling  for  breech-loaders,  formerly  used  in  the 
English  service,  does  not  dilfcr  in  principle  from 
this.  The  rifling  consists  of  a  great  number  of  shal- 
low, narrow  grooves  (the  T-inch  has  76),  the  object 
being  to  give  the  soft-metal  covering  a  very  large 
iK'aring  on  the  dri\-ing-side  of  the  grooves,  and  tlius 
prevent  stripping,  and  make  up  for  want  of  depth. 
See  Si/Hkiii  "f  liiflinij. 

COMPULSION.— A  constraint  upon  an  oflicer's  will 
wherein  he  is  compelled  to  do  that  which  his  judg- 
ment disapproves,  and  which,  it  is  to  be  presumed, 
his  will  (if  left  to  itself)  would  reject.  As  punish- 
ments are,  therefore,  only  inflicted  for  the  abuse  of 
that  free  w  ill  which  Gt<xl  has  given  to  man,  it  is  highly 
just  and  e(|uitidile  that  an  otticer  should  be  excused 
for  those  acts  which  are  done  through  unavoidable 
force  and  compulsion. 

COMPULSORY  SERVICE.— The  power  a  govern- 
ment has  of  conipclling  the  people  of  a  country  to 
take  up  arms  in  defense  of  the  nation.  This  nature 
of  enlistment  is  unknown  in  the  British  army,  except 
in  the  militia,  and  then  only  in  case  of  a  deliciency 
of  recruits;  but  in  Continental  armies  the  system  is 
universal. 

COMRADE. — A  fellow-soldier  in  the  same  regiment 
or  coiiipanv,  and  who  acts  lus  the  friend  of  another 
soldier.     The  term  cjmrade  is  aUso  extended  so  as  to 


include  all  the  members  of  a  particular  corps,  branch 

of  the  service,  or  the  arniv*genendlv. 

CONCAVE  ORDER  OF  "BATTLE.'- If  an  attack  is 
made  siiiiullaueiiusly  on  both  wings,  and  the  center 
is  refused,  the  attacking  army  will  assume  a  line  of 
battle  which  will  be  concave  towards  the  enemy's 
line.  If  the  attacking  army  possesses  a  decided  su- 
periority in  numbers,  thU  order  obtained  by  a  simul- 
taneous attack  on  both  wings  and  refusing  the  center 
might  be  employed.  It  is  evident  that  even  iu  this 
ca.se  mutual  assistance  could  not  b<'  given  by  the 
troops  making  the  attacks,  and  il  would  possess  all 
the  defects  of  a  division  of  forces  upon  the  tield  of 
battle.  This  order  of  battle  wa-s  used  by  Hannibal 
when  he  won  his  great  victory  over  the  iiomans  at 
Canine.  Circumstances  will  geneniUy  decide  when 
this  order  of  battle  should  be  used;  all  other  things 
being  equal,  it  .should  not  be  used  in  preference  to 
the  oblique  onler.     Sec  Cunrer  Ord  r  of  Buttle. 

CONCENTRATION.— Collection  iiito'a  narixiw  space 
round  a  <enler.  In  strategy,  the  collecting  on  a  cer- 
tain point  of  the  ditfercnt  bodies  forming  an  army, 
to  meet  the  enemy  with  the  greatest  uumljer  of  men 
]X)ssible.  For  a  General  to  divide  his  forces,  unless 
for  special  purposes,  is  to  court  defeat  in  detail.  An 
instjince  of  this  is  afforded  by  the  War  of  1870-71, 
when  the  French,  divided  into  six  separate  Corpg 
d'Armi'i',  incapable  of  supporting  each  other,  were 
defeated  piecemeal  by  the  Germans,  who  had  concen- 
trated all  their  forces  into  three  powerful  armies. 

CONCENTRATION-MARCHES.— Marches  made  by 
sevend  bodies  of  troops  starting  from  points  separated 
from  each  other  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  these 
troops  together  at  some  stated  place.  Forced  marches 
arc  much  used  in  concentrating  troops,  especially  be- 
fore a  battle.  Many  examples  are  given  in  military 
history.  As  strategical  operations,  marches  may  be 
divitled  into  two  principal  cla.s,ses:  those  of  concen- 
tration beyond  the  sphere  of  action  of  the  enemy,  and 
those  of  maiicuivr  executed  within  this  sphere.  In 
the  former  the  forces  arc  only  brought  to  that  point 
where  the  latter  commences.  In  the  campai.gn  of 
180')  it  is  noted  that  the  two  corps  in  Hanover  and 
Hollaiul,  under  Bernadotte  and  Marmont,  were  di- 
rected upon  Wurtzburg,  whilst  those  on  the  English 
Channel  were  directed  on  the  lihiue  between  ^laun- 
heim  and  .Strasburg.  Having  reached  these  points 
without  any  apiirehension  of  an  enemy's  presence, 
the  grand  maneuver  for  throwing  them  on  the  en- 
emy's right  tlankand  rear  commenced;  those  columns 
on  the  right,  being  nearer  the  enemy,  moving  more 
slowly,  and  having  their  flank  nearest  the  enemy 
carefully  guarded  by  a  corps  assigned  to  this  service; 
those  on  the  left  moving  more  rapidly  and  pivoting 
on  the  right;  whilst  the  whole  was  so  combined  that 
in  a  few  hovirs  a  large  force  could  be  concentrated  on 
any  fraction,  if  unexpectedly  attacked  whilst  carry- 
ing out  this  grand  movement. 

In  the  second  splendid  campaign  of  Napoleon  in 
Germany  against  the  Austrians,  that  of  IHOi),  the  stune 
admirable  series  of  jirovisions  is  to  be  seen.  Seeing 
the  evidently  hostile  attitude  of  Austria,  the  first  step 
of  Napoleon  was  to  mass  his  forces  at  those  points 
from  which  they  could  be  rajiidly  thrown  upon  the 
Austrian'  dominions.  For  this  purpose  he  chose 
Wurtzburg,  Augsburg,  and  Strasburg  as  the  points 
for  concentration.  On  and  towards  the  lirst  point  he 
directed  tlie  major  part  of  his  forces  from  Saxony 
and  from  the  north  of  Germany;  on  the  second,  the 
forces  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hanau;  on  the  third, 
those  from  the  interior  of  France.  Whilst  in  Italy 
he  directed  Prince  Eugene  with  .50,001)  men  to  ap- 
proach the  Frioul.  These,  with  other  minor  move- 
ments, drew  aroimU  Austria  another  of  those-  Napo- 
leonic meshworks  which  had  already  proved  so  dis- 
astrous to  her.  The  Austrian  army  of  20(1,0110  men 
were  to  concentrate  in  the  neighborhood  of  Halis- 
bonnc,  on  the  Danube;  part  on  one  side  and  a  part 
on  the  other  side  of  this  stream,  but  .so  as  to  render 
mutual  assisloQcc.    Not  knowing  where  he  with  cer- 


COKCENTBIC. 


389 


CONBOTTIEEI. 


ttiinty  sliould  find  the  main  liody  of  the  Austrians, 
Napoleon  decided  upon  trusting  nothing  to  mere  haz- 
ard, hut  to  he  governed  in  his  movements  liy  recog- 
nized military  principles.  To  this  end  he  withdrew 
Davoust  from  Katisbonne,  on  the  Danube,  awl  threw 
forward  Massena  so  as  to  concentrate  his  entire  force 
at  Ahensburg,  a  small  place  on  the  river  Abens,  and 
about  midway  between  Ingoldstadt  and  Katisbonne. 
Here  he  deciiled  to  break  through  the  Austrian  cen- 
ter, thus  separating  the  two  Archdukes,  Charles  and 
Louis.  In  these  plans  he  was  aided  by  the  tardine.ss 
of  movement  of  the  Austrians  upon  which  he  counted, 
and  also  by  the  state  of  the  weather,  by  which  the 
roads  were  nuich  injured.  The  result  of  these  skill- 
fully combined  marches  was  that  the  Archduke 
Charles  was  forced  upon  Ratisbonne,  and  obliged  to 
retreat  across  the  Danube  into  Bohemia;  the  other 
main  fraction  of  the  Austrian  army  retiring  succes- 
sively behind  the  Inn  and  the  Traunn,  leaving  the 
road  to  Vienna  open  to  Napoleon. 

In  this  conjuncture  of  operations,  Napoleon,  after 
considering  the  military  aspect  of  affairs,  decided  to 
march  direct  upon  Vienna.  In  taking  this  step  he 
had  not  only  to  follow  up  the  Archduke  Louis,  but 
to  provide  against  the  junction  of  the  Archduke 
Charles  with  him,  by  recrossing  the  Danube.  The 
jirincipiil  points  where  this  passage  might  have  been 
effected  are  Straubing,  Pas,sau,  Lintz,"  and  Krems, 
These  it  was  of  the  first  importance  to  secure  by 
anticipating  the  Austrian  movements  on  them.  To 
carry  out  these  measures,  Massena  received  orders  to 
descend  along  the  Danube,  to  be  followed  by  Da- 
voust, and  by  General  Dupas;  and  each  in  succession 
to  occupy  tlie  places  just  mentioned,  thus  securing 
the  army  from  an  attack  either  in  flank  or  in  rear  by 
the  Austrians  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  At 
the  same  time  Bes.sieres  was  ordered  to  push  forward 
beyond  Landshut,  on  the  Iser,  and  keep  closely  on 
the  heels  of  the  enemy's  retreating  column;  whilst 
Lannes,  under  the  immediate  command  of  Napoleon, 
moved  between  the  columns  of  3Ias.scna  and  Bes- 
.sii^res,  so  as  to  throw  this  force  upon  either  of  these 
two,  as  circumstances  might  demand.  Further  to 
secure  his  right  on  their  tlank,  the  Bavarians,  his 
allies,  were  directed  to  occupy  ilunich,  and,  ]iusliing 
from  there  through  Salzburg  into  the  Tyrol,  observe 
the  Archduke  John,  and  give  timely  warning  of  his 
movements.  These  profound  combinations  met  with 
all  the  succeas  they  merited.  Anticipated  by  the 
rapid  movements  and  daring  of  the  French  at  every 
iwint,  the  Archduke  Charles  was  unable  to  join  the 
forces  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  which  last, 
despairing  of  being  able  to  cover  Vienna,  effected  a 
crossing  to  the  left  bank  at  Krems.     See  Marches. 

CONCENTRIC— Having  a  common  center.  This 
term  in  warfare  is  applietl  to  a  covering  army  operat- 
ing from  a  common  center  against  widely  separated 
bodies  of  the  enemy  advancing  towards  that  center; 
hence  it  becomes  a  concentric  army.  The  invasion 
by  the  enemy  may  take  pluce  either  on  one  or  two 
lines.  To  operate  methodically,  and  to  the  best  ad- 
vant;ige,  the  covering  armj',  if  a.ssailed  on  two  lines, 
should  place  on  each  of  these  a  retarding  force  at 
first,  considering  these  as  wings,  while  the  mass  in 
reserve  is  held  ready  to  give  a  preponderance  to  cither 
wing,  or  to  both  in  succession.  In  all  Napoleon's 
operations  against  a  divided  enemy  this  princijile  is 
api^arent.     See  Vonfentration-marches. 

CONCRETE.— A  mi.vture  of  hydraulic  or  other 
mortar  with  gravel  or  shingle,  which,  on  hardening, 
forms  an  artificial  conglomerate.  The  best  concrete 
is  made  by  well  mixing  liydraulic  mortar  (see  Cement) 
with  snnrl  and  sufficient  water  for  complete  hydra 
tion,  and  then  adding  the  shingle  or  screened  ballast, 
and  mixing  them  well  together.  An  inferior  concrete 
may  be  made  by  laying  the  shingle  into  the  founda- 
tion or  other  place  where  the  concrete  is  required,  and 
then  pouring  mortar  upon  it,  to  fill  the  interstices  be- 
tween the  pebbles.  The  principal  use  of  concrete  is 
to  form  a  basis  of  artificial  stone  for  buildings  that 


rest  upon  loose  or  damp  subsoils.     Such  a  basis,  if 

well  made,  forms  a  solid  foundation-slab  tipon  which 

the  weight  of  the  whole  structure  is  equally  distri- 

I  butcd.    It  also  resists  the  capillarj'  ascent  of  moisture 

!  from  the  soil,  which  would  otherwise  take  place 

[  through  brick-work  or  porous  stone. 

CONCUSSION-FUSE.- A  fuse  put  in  action  by  the 
I  discharge,  but  the  effect  of  that  action  is  restrained 
I  until  it  strikes  the  object.  Such  a  fuse,  in  order  to 
be  serviceable,  must  not  only  produce  explosion  on 
striking,  but  it  must  not  produce  it  on  the  shock  of 
the  explosion  of  the  charge,  nor  of  that  produced  by 
the  ricochets  of  the  projectile  in  or  out  of  the  gun. 
These  fvises  have  usually  consisted  of  some  combina- 
tion of  the  highly  explosive  fulminates,  but  the  ex- 
treme danger  of  using  them  has  been  a  great  obstjj- 
ele  to  their  adoption.  See  Fune,  PtTcunsuin-fune,  and 
t'</>lii>//<i rd  Fii-v\ 

CONDEMNED  ANIMALS.— Animals  in  the  public 
ser\iee  condcmncil  as  unfit  for  work.  In  the  United 
States  army,  all  horses  and  mules  inspected  and  con- 
demned as  unfit  for  military  service  are  athertised 
for  sale,  and  disposed  of  within  ten  days  from  date 
of  advertisement,  and  if  not  sold  within  the  ten  days 
aic  shot  on  the  eleventh  day.  The  advertisement  is 
made  in  accordance  with  advertising  regulations  in 
force,  but  at  posts  remote  from  places  where  news- 
papers are  published  the  advertisement  is  made  by 
posted  notice.  When  horses  and  mules  condemned 
are  sold,  or,  in  default  of  sale,  shot,  report  is  made  at 
once  to  the  Quartermaster  General,  through  the  regu- 
lar military  channel,  of  the  execution  of  the  order. 
Great  care  is  exercised  in  the  branding  of  condenmed 
horses  and  mules  with  the  letters  I.  C.  (Inspected — 
Condemned). 

CONDEMNED  PROPERTY.— In  the  military  ser- 
vice, property  unfit  for  further  service  and  worthless. 
Property  unfit  for  the  puqwse  for  which  it  was  de- 
signed may  often  be  applied  to  other  uses.  Inspect- 
ing officers,  in  recommending  the  disposition  to  be 
made  of  condemned  property,  especially  of  the  Quar- 
termaster's Department,  should  bear  in  mind  that 
there  is  hardly  any  species  of  material,  however  worn, 
which  cannot  be  put  to  some  use.  Old  linen,  cotton, 
wool,  iron,  etc.,  can  all  be  worked  up  in  some  new 
form,  and  wood  can  be  used  as  fuel.  No  condemned 
articles  that  have  anj'  salable  value  should  be  recom- 
mended "to  be  dropped,"  unless  there  be  special 
reasons  therefor,  which  reasons  should  lie  stated  in 
the  report.  The  Inspector  should  mark  the  letters 
I.  C'.  (Inspected — Condemned)  upon  all  property  con- 
denmed and  ordered  to  be  dropped  from  the  returns, 
with  a  brand,  stencil,  cold-chisel,  steel  cutter,  or 
punch,  deiiending  on  the  material  to  be  marked. 
Should  it  happen,  when  final  action  is  had,  that  the 
Inspector's  recommendation  is  disapproved,  the  marks 
should  be  canceled,  and  a  certificiite  of  the  fact  given 
to  the  officer  account<ible.  See  Inspcclum  of  Con- 
demwd  Pro  pert//. 

CONDOTTIERI. — The  name  given  in  the  fourteenth 
century  to  the  leaders  of  certain  bauds  of  military  ad- 
venturess who,  for  booty,  otTercd  their  services  to  any 
party  in  any  contest,  and  often  practiced  warfare  on 
their  own  account  purely  for  the  s)\ke  of  plun<ler. 
These  mercenaries  were  called  into  action  liy  the  end- 
less feuds  of  the  Italian  States  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of  their  leaders 
were  Guarnieri,  Lando,  Francis  of  Carniagnola  (about 
1412),  and  Francis  Sforza  (about  U'tO).  The  last- 
mentioned  made  himself  Duke  of  Milan.  The  Ccmt- 
jmgnii'n  Gmmlfn  in  France,  during  the  fourteenth 
century,  resembled  the  bands  led  by  the  Italian  Con- 
dottieiT.  They  oricinated  in  the  long  bloody  wars 
between  France  and  England.  The  mischief  done 
by  them  became  so  intolerable  that  in  several  parts 
of  the  country  the  peasantry  armed  themselves  and, 
under  the  name  of  Pacifirei.  formed  a.ssociations 
against  the  phmdcrers.  Nevertheless,  these  French 
Condottieri  were  so  powerful  that,  in  1361,  they 
routed  the  king's  forces  which  had  been  sent  against 


CONOUCTOBS. 


390 


CONDnCTORS. 


them,  at  Brininis,  near  Lvon.  and  slew  the  Constable 
of  Fnincc,  Jnoiucs  ilc  liovirlxm;  liut  Ihr  Consliilile 
(hi  Gues<lin  iitrsimdfd  llum  to  !><.-ek  llii-ir  fortune  in 
tlio  S|iani-li  stTviiv. 

CONDtlCTOKS.— 1.  In  the  Koyal  Artillen,-,  Con- 
ductors are  \\>(f<f  artilKrymcn  \vlio  have  charge  of 
the  aininiiiiilidti-waLroiis  in  the  ticld;  they  are,  to  some 
extt-nl.  under  the  conlivl  of  the  Commissariat  t)rticei-s, 
who  have  lo  provide  means  of  tnmsporl:  but  since 
the  recent  chanires  in  tlie  Comniis&irial  Uepartment 
thev  have  l>een  more  exclusively  under  the  control  of 
iheir  own  pmiKT  artillery  otBccrs. 

2.  Conductor,  in  olectiicity.  is  a  term  applied  to  a 
body  aipable  of  transmitliug  an  electric  current.     If 


stances  are  found  to  possess  the  power  of  conducting- 
electricity  in  very  dUIerent  degrees.  The  following 
.series  classitics  the  more  common  substances  accord- 
ing to  their  conducting  powers,  beginning  with  the 
iH-st  and  ending  with  the  worst  conductors:  Con- 
ductors—The ni'etals.  graphite,  sea-water,  sjjring-wa- 
ter,  rain-water.  Semi-conductors — Alcohol  and  ether, 
dry  W(M)d,  marble,  paper,  straw,  ice  at  'i'i '  F.  Non- 
conductors— Dry  metallic  oxides,  fatty  oils,  ice  at 
13  P.,  phosphorus,  lime,  chalk,  caoutchouc,  camph- 
or, porcelain,  leather,  drj'  paper,  feathers,  hair,  wool, 
silk,  gems,  glass,  agate,  wax,  sulphur,  resin,  amber, 
and  shellac. 
The  arrangement  into  conductors,  semi-conductors, 


No.  1— One  conductor  of  16  No.  33  copper  wires. 


No.  11— One  conductor,  tinsel  cord,  with  lateral  cotton  and 
double  wrap  of  cotton  cover.  Much  used  for  Kidder  and 
other  battery  electrodes. 


No.  13— Two  conductors  of  14  No.  3.3  copper  wires  in  strands 
insulated  with  silk,  and  laid  up  in  form  of  three-strand 
cord. 


No.  13— One  conductor,  tinsel  cord,  covered  with  worsted 
braid. 


No.  14— Two  conductors,  tinsel  cord.  Both  conductors  cov- 
ered with  worsted  braid,  the  whole  covered  with  fine 
worsted  braid. 


No.  7— One  conductor  of  copper  wires  wound  spirally  on  a 

strong  cord.  No.  15-One  conductor,  tinsel  cord,  covered  with  silk  braid 


No.  8— One  conductor  of  small  copppr  wires  wound  spirally 
on  a  strong  coi'd. 


(UrttUliU 


No.  16— One  conductor,  tinsel  cord.    One  wrap  of  worsted 
and  two  cotton  braids  outside.    For  telephone-switches. 


No.  9-Two  conductors,  heavy  switch-cord.  Western  Union 
style,  each  conductor  composed  <.f  w  tlat  copper  wires 
wound  spirally  on  i-.i.-il.  .a.li  .  ..Ti.lu.ior  heavily  wrapped 


No.  17— Two  conductors  of  25  No.  36  copper  wires,  each  con- 
ductor insulated  with  a  wTap  of  cottoti.  a  layer  of  gutta- 
percha, and  an  outside  braid  of  silk.  This  is  an  entirely 
water-proof  cord,  much  used  in  electric  lighting. 


No.  10-One  conductor  of  ni  No.  33  popper  wires,  with  green 
and  gold  olored  silk  braid  cover.  For  Rheostats  and 
other  purposes  where  large  and  flexible  condnctoi-s  are 
required. 


g>mAAK^jKat»j.ftaggaQggn« 


No.  18— Gold  tinsel  cord,  not  covered,  small  size. 


No.  19— Gold  tinsel  cord,  not  covered,  large  size. 


a  rod  of  metal  \w  made  to  touch  the  prime  conductor 
of  an  eleelrical  machine  iniiiuiliulelv  after  llic  iilnle 
has  cea-sed  to  rotate,  every  tnicc  of  eli'ctricily  imme- 
diately disappears.  But  if  llie  rod  were  of'sliellac 
little  or  no  diminution  would  he  perceptible  in  the 
electrical  excitement  of  the  Cdiiductor.  The  inel.il  in 
this  ca.se  leads  away  tlie  electrit  ity  into  the  IkmIv  of 
the  experimenter,  and  thence  intothe  groiiml,  wiiere 
it  becomes  lost,  and  it  receives  in  conse()uenee  the 
name  of  a  conductor.  The  shellac,  for  the  opposite 
reason,  is  called  a  non-conductor.    Different  sub- 


and  non-conductors  is  made  with  reference  to  fac- 
tional electricity,  or  clcctn'city  of  a  high  tension. 
The  subsl.incis  which  arc  semi-conductors  for  fric- 
tionid  electricity  are  found  to  be  almost,  if  not  alto- 
gether, iion-ooiiducting  for  the  electricity  of  the  gal- 
vanic battery,  which  is  too  feeble  to  force  a  passage 
tliroutrh  tbein.  The  metals,  which  appear  to  be  all 
nearly  alike  condueting  for  frictional  electricity,  offer 
widely  differing  resistances  to  the  transmission  of  the 
galvanic  current.  By  ex])eriments  made  -with  gal- 
vanic electricity,  it  is"  found  that  the  more  ortlinary 


CONDUCT  PREJUDICIAL. 


391 


CONFEDERATION. 


metals  stand  thus  as  regards  their  powers  of  conduc- 
tion, beginning  as  before  \vitii  tlie  best  conductor: 
Silver,  gold,  copper,  brass,  zinc,  iron,  platinum,  tin, 
nickel,  lead,  German  silver,  mercury.  An  increase 
of  temperature  lias  in  the  metals  the  elTect  of  lessen- 
ing the  conducting  power,  whilst  in  almost  all  other 
substances  it  has  an  opposite  effect.  Gla.ss  becomes 
conducting  at  a  red  heat,  and  so  do  was,  sulphur, 
amber,  and  shellac,  when  fused. 

When  a  conductor  is  placed  on  non-conducting 
supports,  so  as  to  prevent  the  electricity  communi- 
cated lo  it  from  passing  into  the  ground,  it  is  said  lo 
be  insulated.  The  usual  insulating  material  employed 
in  the  constnietion  of  electrical  apparatus  is  gluss, 
which,  though  not  so  perfect  a  non-conductor  as  the 
others  lower  in  the  scale,  far  exceeds  them  in  hard- 
ness and  dui'abilily.  In  a  damp  atmosphere  glass 
becomes  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  moisture,  which 
very  considerably  diminishes  its  insulating  power. 
Hence  arises  the  necessity  in  certain  states  of  weather 
of  heating  so  as  to  drj-  all  electrical  apiiaratus  jirc- 
vious  to  use.  This  imperfection  is  very  much  less- 
ened by  covering  the  glass  with  shellac  varnish.  The 
very  fact  that  a  conductor  may  be  insulated  indicates 
that  the  air  is  a  non-conductor.  Dry  air  posse.s.>*s 
this  properly  in  a  high  degree,  while  moist  air  ren- 
ders insulation  for  any  length  of  time  impossible. 

The  drawing  shows  a  variety  of  conducting  cords, 
manufactured  by  Messrs.  L.  G.  Tillotson  &  Company, 
New  York,  and  used  for  various  military  purposes, 
principally  in  ballistic  experiments  and  sub-marine 
mining.     See  ^fi)u•>l. 

CONDUCT  PREJUDICIAL  TO  MILITARY  DISCI- 
PLINE.— All  crimes  not  capital,  and  al!  disorders  and 
neglects,  which  olhcers  and  soldiers  may  be  guilty  of, 
to  the  prejudice  of  good  orderandmilitar}- discipline, 
though  not  mentioned  in  the  Articles  of  War,  arc 
taken  cognizance  of  by  a  General,  or  a  Regimental, 
Garrison,  or  Field-officers'  Court-Martial,  according 
to  the  nature  and  degree  of  the  offense,  and  punished 
at  the  discretion  of  such  Court.     See  Articles  of  War. 


tent.  The  general  form  of  the  cone  of  dispersion  will 
present  a  curved  surface,  which  is  concave  outwards; 
for  experiment  goes  to  prove  that  when  a  variable 
cause  acts  an  infinite  number  of  times,  the  variations 
of  this  cause  tend  to  neutralize  each  other,  and  we 
may  then  assimilate  its  effecls  to  those  of  a  constant 
accelerating  force,  acting  in  the  same  manner  as 
gravity.  The  separation  of  the  projectiles  is  not  in 
proportion  to  the  ranges,  but  increa.ses  more  rapidly. 
The  ame  of  dispersion  becomes  longer,  with  equal 
deviations,  as  the  velocity  of  the  projectiles  increa.ses; 
or  in  other  words,  the  tire  is  more  accurate  as  the 
velocity  is  increased.  Ancient  artillerists  were  aware 
of  this  principle,  and  in  consequence  employed  for 
small-arms  charges  much  larger  than  those  now  in 
general  use. 

CONE  OF  SPREAD.— The  imaginary  cone  contain- 
ing the  diverging  bullets  or  fragments  upon  the  ex- 
plosion of  a  shell.  With  shrapnel  shells  this  con/'  is 
verj- long;  while  with  segment  shells  it  is  very  short 
and  wide,  and  these  s\uA\%  are  consequently  most  ef- 
fective when  burst  close  up  to  the  object.  See  Cone 
of  DiKjii  rsiim . 

CONE  SEAT. — A  projcctmg  piece  of  iron  welded 
to  the  barrel,  near  the  breech,  for  the  purjwse  of  sus- 
taining the  cone.     See  fiiirrel. 

CONFEDERATE  PROJECTILES.— The  ritle-projec- 
tiles  used  by  the  Confederates  in  the  late  war  Ije- 
longed,  with  a  few  except  ions,  to  the  expanding  class. 
Fig.  1  represents  a  shell  with  a  copper  ring  (A)  lilting 
into  a  rabbet  formed  around  its  base  in  casting.  This 
projectile  would  seem  to  resemble  the  Parrolt  projec- 
tile in  its  construction.  The  lower  edge  of  the  band, 
however,  projects  below  the  bottom  of  the  base,  which 
in  Parrott's  it  does  not.  Recesses  are  fonned  in  the 
sides  of  the  rabbet  to  prevent  the  ring  from  turning. 

The  projectile  represented  in  Fig.  2  has  a  thick 
circular  plate  of  copper  attached  to  its  base  by  means 
of  a  screw-bolt  at  its  center.  To  prevent  it  from 
turning  around  this  bolt  there  are  three  pins,  or  dow- 
els, fastened  into  the  base  of  the  projectile,  and  pro- 


ff\\ 

;r--^u 

Fio.  1. 


Fia.Z. 


Fro.  3. 


Fio.  4. 


CONDUCT    UNBECOMING    AN   OFFICER   AND   A 

GENTLEMAN.— This  offense  is  punished  with  dismis- 
sion by  si-ntcnce  of  a  General  Court -.Martial.  What 
constitutes  the  offense  is  not  defined,  but  it  is  left  lo 
the  moral  sense  of  the  Court-JIartial  to  determine. 

CONE. — The  vent-plug  which  is  .screwed  into  the 
barrel  of  a  tire-arm.  The  outer  end  is  the  nipple  for 
receiving  the  percussion-cap.  The  fmictions  of  the 
cone  are  to  support  the  percussion-cai>  when  exploded 
by  the  hammer,  and  to  conduct  the  Idame  to  the  vent 
of  the  piece.  To  increase  the  effect  of  the  hanmier, 
the  upper  surface  of  the  cone  is  diminished  by  cham- 
fering the  corners.     See  Barrel. 

CONE  OF  DISPERSION.— The  cones  of  dispersion 
of  projectiles  comprise  all  the  causes  of  error  in  tir- 
ing, whether  resulting  from  the  arm  itself,  from  the 
projectile  antl  the  resistance  of  the  air,  or  from  the 
want  of  practice  or  skill  in  the  mark,sman.  The 
causes  of  irregularity  in  firing,  although  greater  in 
the  horizontal  than  in  the  vertical  direction,  are  con- 
siderable in  the  latter.  They  raise  or  depress  the  pro- 
jectiles, and  change  the  ranges  to  an  appreciable  ex- 


jeeting  into  corresponding  holes  in  the  circular  plate. 
This  ]ilate  is  slightl,v  cupped,  and  the  angle  between 
it  and  the  bottom  of  the  projectile  is  tilled  with  a 
grea.'^ed  cord  for  lubricating  the  Iwre  of  the  gun. 

Fig.  3  represents  a  projectile  of  the  Blakelv  class, 
with  its  expanding  cuj)  ot  copper  («).  Instead  of  the 
soft-metal  studs  which  are  placed  on  the  forward 
part  of  the  Blakelv  projectile,  this  projectile  has  a 
raised  band  carefully  Uniied  to  tit  the  bore. 

Fig.  4  represents  a  Reed  projectile,  in  which  the 
exjianding  cup  is  made  of  copper,  as  shown  at  n. 
This  cup  is  placed  in  the  mold,  and  the  body  of  the 
projectile  is  cast  upon  it.  See  Erpeihding  Projectiles 
afid  Projictiles. 

CONFEDERATION.— An  alliance  of  Xations.  States, 
or  Princes;  sonu-times  used  for  a  single  Nation,  as 
thai  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  the  ofticial  title  of 
which  is  "The  Mexican  Confederation."  The  Ger- 
man Confederation  was  formed  immediately  after  the 
Vienna  Congress  of  181.5.  In  .luly,  1778,  the  Uniied 
Colonies  (afterwards  the  United  Slates  of  America) 
agreed  to  the  "  Articles  of  Confederation  and  Perpet- 


COHnS£HCE. 


392 


CONSTABLE. 


ual  Union  1)otwoen  the  States  of  New  Hampshire,  Mass- 
arliusi'tts  U:i\.  l{li(Klf  I-^laiiil  and  Pioviili'iuc  Planta- 
tions, Ciaimrtii'ul,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  IVnnsyl- 
viinia.  Delaware,  Maryland.  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  and  f}et)ri;ia."  In  tht-si'  Artieles  are 
set  forth  the  principles  of  jrovennnent  which  were  a 
few  years  later  einlKxlied  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  Stales,  with  such  additions  as  were  nece.ssjiry 
■•  in  order  to  fonn  a  more  i>irfi-<i  union.  "  In  Soutli 
America  is  the  Arjjentine  Confedenition,  and  Switzer- 
land  iss<imetimesealKHl  the  Swi.s.s  Confederation.  The 
Confeilenition  of  the  lUiine  wjis  formed  in  1800  by  a 
number  of  German  States,  under  the  protection  of 
NaiKiK-on. 

CONFIDENCE.— This  term,  in  a  militarj-  sense,  has 
reference  to  the  facility  with  which  .some  otlicers  jrain 
the  contidcnceof  theirinen.  This  most  essential  qual- 
ity m  a  Commander  Ls  of  the  hicchest  importance,  and 
cannot  be  ovcrnited:  without  It,  a  disji-ster  may  at 
any  moment  occur  in  the  day  of  battle;  but  with  it, 
and  the  knowledge  of  military  science  combined,  suc- 
cess in  the  operjilions  of  an  army  may  be  a.ssiired. 
HLstory  atTords  examples  of  buttles  h;ivins  been  Io.st 
by  the  inost  celebrati'd  Generals  because  tlievdid  not 
pf>.s.sess  this  contidence.  At  the  battle  of  Thymbra, 
when  Cyrus's  horse  fell  under  him,  Xenophon  takes 
notice  of  what  imixirtance  it  is  to  a  Commander  to  be 
loved  by  his  soldiers.  The  danger  of  the  king's  per- 
son became  the  danger  of  the  army:  and  bis  troops 
on  that  occiision  pive  incredible  proofs  of  their  cour- 
age and  bravery. 

CONFIDENTIAL  REPORTS.  —  Rciwrts  on  Regi- 
ments, as  to  their  elliciency,  conduct,  etc.,  forwarded 
yearly,  in  England,  by  Genend  Officers  Commanding 
to  the  Adjutant  General  for  the  information  of  the 
Commander-in  Chief.  Reports  on  the  qualifications 
of  officers  for  promotion  are  sent  to  the  Military  Sec- 
retary at  the  liorse-guiirds  for  submission. 

CONFINEMENT. — Non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers  charged  with  crimes  are  iLsually  confined  un- 
til tried  by  Court-Martial  or  released  by  jiroper  author- 
ity. No  officer  or  soldier  who  is  put  in  arrest  should 
continue  in  confinement  more  than  eight  days,  or  im- 
til  such  time  an  a  Court-Marfial  can  be  assembled. 

CONFISCATION.— The  appropriation  to  the  public 
use  of  ]>rivale  i)roperty.  A  rigid  which  is  conferred 
under  certain  circinnstances  by  the  laws  of  war.  See 
Oiiilrnlitiiid  iif  Tl'i/r. 

CONGREVE  GUN.  — A  24-pounder  gun  of  conical 
form,  proposed  in  1813  by  Sir  W.  Congrevc.  It  had 
a  much  greater  thickness  of  metal  at  the  breech  than 
those  of  the  old  construction:  the  extra  thickness  was 
supposed  to  give  a  reacting  power  to  the  gun,  which, 
however,  is  an  erroneous  idea,  not  supported  by  facts. 
The  gun  is  now  obsolete, 

CONGREVE  ROCKET.— A  rocket  guided  by  a  long 
■woo<len  stick  attached  to  its  base,  and  a  terrible  wei'.pon 
of  war,  with  ranges  which  no  ordnance  of  its  time  (  ould 
attain.  Discarding  the  small. sizes,  Congrevc  made  12- 
pound,  18-pound,  and  82-pound  rockets,  which  he 
charged  with  canister-shot,  bullets,  and  other  mis.siles. 
The  stick  for  a  l)2-p(>und  rocket  was  18  feet  in  length, 
and  the  maxinuun  range  ;J.")()0  yards.  The  range 
could  be  incn.'a.sed  by  discharging  the  rocket  from  a 
cannon,  with  a  time-"fu.se  to  ignite  it  at  the  cannon's 
utmoflt  range,  when  the  rocket  commences  its  own 
course.  As  mis.siles,  these  rockets  were  found  to  an- 
noy most  seriously  the  defenders  in  any  fortified 
work,  anil,  in  a  bombardment,  they  speedily  set 
houses  and  buililiiigs  on  tire.  In  tbe"tiel(l.  also,  the 
plunging,  ricoelietting  motion  of  the  rocket  greatly 
disturbed  Ixith  cavalry  and  infantry.  The  Coniireve 
rockets  were  first  tried  on  actual"  service,  and  with 
fatal  effect,  at  the  attack  en  Copenhagen  in  1807 
See  Ri-h  I. 

CONROY  RIFLE.— A  breech-loading  small-arm  hav- 
ing a  fi.xed  chamber  closeil  by  a  movable  breech-block, 
which  rotates  alnaU  a  horizontal  axis  al  ilO  to  the 
a.xis  of  the  barrel,  and  lying  al>ove  the  axis  of  the  bar- 
rel and  in  rear — 1x.'iug  moved  from  Ixrlow.     This  arm 


is  provided  with  a  falling  breech-block,  moved  by  a 
sliding  trigger-guard,  the  with<lniwal  of  which  re- 
tracts the  tiling-pin,  brings  the  hammer  to  the  half- 
cock,  and  drops  the  block,  which  strikes  in  its  de 
scent  and  operates  the  usual  bent-lever  extractor.  By 
pushing  the  trigger-guard  forward  again,  the  block 
is  raisi'd,  when  by  bringing  the  hammer  to  the  full- 
cock  the  piece  is  closed  and  ready  to  hi'  fired.  The 
blow  of  the  hammer  is  not  delivered  directly  upon 
the  firing-pin,  but  on  an  intermediate  lever  pivoted 
Ixiow  its  point  of  impact  on  the  firing  pin,  and  strik- 
ing it  so  as  to  impel  it  forward  in  the  line  of  the  axis 
of  the  bore.  This  gun  lias  been  nuxlified  by  substi- 
tuting for  the  sliding  guard  the  more  powerful  motor 
found  in  the  usual  swinging  guard-lever,  the  angle 
formed  by  which  with  the  stock  when  the  piece  is 
opened  being  about  30°. 

CONSCRIPTION. — The  system  whereby  the  French, 
since  the  year  179.5,  and  some  other  foreign  armies  are 
recruited.  It  differs  essentially  from  the  English  sys- 
tem in  l)eing  compulsory,  and,  taken  for  all  m  all,  a.s 
a  <lislurbance  of  the  system  of  employment  in  all 
grades  of  society,  is  probably  the  most  expensive 
means  of  recruitment  yet  (le\  ised.  Every  Frenchman 
may  be  called  to  enter  the  army  at  the  age  of  20;  but 
those  who  choose  to  enlist,  as  early  as  18.  He  cannot 
again  be  called  upon  to  serve.  The  term  is  for  5 
years  in  the  Reirular  Army,  4  in  the  Army  Reserve,  5 
years  in  the  Territorial  Army  (Militia),  and  6  in  the 
Territorial  Reserve.  This  brings  the  conscript  to  40 
years  of  age,  when  his  liability  to  service  cejises.  The 
law  of  1872  reorganizing  the  French  army  forbids  the 
providing  of  substitutes  by  coiLscripts.  An  account 
is  kept  of  the  number  of  youtlis  in  France  who  iieach 
the  age  of  20  in  each  year  (about  280,000).  All  those 
are  exempt  from  conscription  who  are  under  5  feet  2 
inches  in  height;  or  have  any  natural  infirmities  un- 
fitting them  for  active  service:  or  are  the  eldest  of  a 
family  of  orphans;  or  are  the  oiUy  sons  of  widows,  or 
of  disabled  fathers,  or  of  fathers  above  70  years  of 
age;  or  are  intended  for  the  Church;  or  are  pupils  at 
certain  Colleges.  Moreover,  if  two  brothers  are  drawn 
ius  conscripts,  and  the  younger  is  efficient,  the  elder 
is  declared  exempt;  and  if  of  two  only  brothers  one  is 
already  in  the  army,  or  has  retired  through  wounds 
or  infirmity .  the  other  is  exempt.  Culprits  and  felons 
are  not  allowed  to  enlist.  The  law  of  1872  nuiking 
military  -service  obligatory  on  all  Fienchnien  (save  in 
the  above  ca.ses)  has  a.ssiniilated  the  French  anuy  sys- 
tem to  that  enforced  in  Piussia  since  1813. 

CONSTABLE.— Whether  this  officer  was  called  ori- 
ginally Comes  SUihiili—lhv  Covmt  of  the  Stable,  or 
blaster  of  the  Horse  (as  alleged  by  Ducange) — or  the 
Koning  Slapel— Stuff  and  Stay  of  "the  King  (as  Coke, 
Selden,  and  others,  with  less  reason,  have  main- 
tained)— the  Constable,  both  in  France  and  England, 
was  a  military  personage  of  the  very  highest  rank. 
The  Constable  of  France  rose  gradually  in  impor- 
tance from  the  comparatively  modest  po.sition  of  an 
Officer  of  the  Household,  till  at  li;st  he  became,  ej-  offi- 
cio, the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  army  in  the  ab- 
.senee  of  the  Monarch,  the  highest  .ludgein  inilitary 
offen.ses  and  in  all  questions  of  chivalry  and  honor, 
and  the  supreme  regidator  and  nrbilrulor  in  all  mat- 
ters connected  witli  tilts,  tournaments,  and  all  mar- 
tial displays.  The  office  of  Constable  is  traced  back 
by  Anseline  to  Alberic,  who  held  it  in  lOtiO;  but  the 
first  Constable  of  France  who  appeared  at  the. head 
of  an  army  was  Matthew,  the  Second  Seigneur  de 
Montmorency.  The  office  was  suppres.si'd  tiy  Louis 
XIII.  in  ltiC>t!.  Among  tlie  offices  of  the  "Ancient 
Monarchy  which  were  restored  by  Napoleon  for  mere 
purposes  of  state,  that  of  Constable  was  one.  His 
brother.  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  afterwards  King  of 
Holland,  was  created  Grand  Constable,  the  Vice-Con- 
stable being  Marshal  Berthier.  The  office  was  again 
alx)Iished  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  and  hits 
not  since  been  re-established.  But  besides  the  Con- 
stable of  France,  almost  all  the  great  vivs.sals  of  the 
Crown  had  Constables  who  filled  analogous  offices  at 


CONSTABLE  OF  THE  TOWER. 


393 


CONSTITUTION. 


their  minor  Courts.  There  were  Constables  of  Bur- 
gundy, of  Chanip;i!!;ne,  and  of  Nonnandy;  the  latter 
of  whom  niav  l)e  regarded  a.s  the  ]irogenitor  of  the 
Constable  of  "England. 

Shortly  after  the  Conquest,  a  Lord  High  Constable 
of  England  appears,  ha\-ing  powers  and  privileges 
closely  corresponding  to  those  of  the  Constable  of 
France.  His  position  as  Judge  of  the  (.jourt  of  Chiv- 
alry, in  conjunction  with  the  Earl-Mareschal,  and  the 
limitation  ot  his  power,  which  followed,  are  explained 
under  Coi'iiT  of  CiinALiiY.  The  ottice  was  abolished 
1)V  Henry  VHI.  on  the  attainder  of  Edward  StatTord, 
liukeof  Buckingham;  and  a  Lord  High  Constable  is 
now  appointed  only  on  the  occurrence  of  great  State 
Ceremonies,  e.g.,  a  Coronation.  The  High  Constable 
of  Scotland  was  an  t)Bicer  verj'  similar  to  the  Consta- 
ble of  France  and  England.  After  the  Rebellion  the 
offices  of  the  Inferior  Constables  dependent  on  the 
High  Constable,  such  as  the  Constable  of  the  Castle, 
were  abolished,  but  that  of  the  High  ttonslable  him- 
self was  expressly  exempted,  and  still  exists  in  the 
uoble  family  of  Errol.  The  privileges  attaching  to 
this  office  are  now  entirely  honorary;  but  in  \'irtue  of 
it,  the  Earl  of  Errol  is  said  to  be  the  tirst  subject  in 
Scotland  after  the  Blood-Royal;  and  on  the  occasion 
of  the  \isit  of  King  George  IV.  to  Edinburgh,  the 
then  Earl  was  allowed  to  take  precedence  of  the  pos- 
sessors of  all  other  hereditary  honors.  The  present 
Earl  of  Errol  is  the  twenty -seconil  High  Constable  of 
Scotland. 

CONSTABLE  OF  THE  TOWEB.— In  England,  a 
General  Officer  who  has  the  chief  superintendence  of 
the  Tower,  and  is  Lord-lieutenant  of  the  Tower 
Hamlet-s.  He  holds  his  appointment  by  letters-patent 
from  the  Sovereign,  and  is  not  removable  at  pleasure. 

CONSTITUTION.— The  following  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  relate  to  the  land  and  naval  forces:  Pre- 
amble— We.  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order 
to  *  *  provide  for  the  common  ilefense  *  *  do  ordain 
and  estiiblish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  Stjites  of 
America.  Art.  I.  Sec.  1.  All  legislative  powers  here- 
in granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives.  Art.  I.  Sec.  8.  The  Congress  shall 
have  power — C/in/sel.  *  *  To  pay  the  debts  and  pro- 
vide for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of 
the  United  States.  *  *  Clause  9.  *  *  To  define  and 
pvmish  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations.  *  *  Clause 
10.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  re- 
prisal, and  make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land 
and  water.  Clut'ne  "iX.  To  raise  and  support  armies; 
but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that  use  shall  be 
for  a  longer  term  than  two  years.  Clniise  12.  To  pro- 
vide and  maintain  a  navy.  ClaimelS.  To  make  ndes 
for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces.  (V/nw  14.  To  provide  for  calling  forth 
the  militia  to  execute  the  l;iws  of  the  Union,  suppress 
insurrectioiLS,  and  repel  inva-sions.  Vlauxe  1.5.  To 
proride  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the 
militia,  and  for  governing  such  \k\v\  of  them  as  may 
Ije  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Unitid  Stales,  re- 
serving to  the  Suites,  respectively,  the  ;ippoiutment  of 
the  officers,  and  the  authoritj'  of  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress. 
Clause  16.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  *  *  over 
all  places  purcha.seil,  by  consent  of  the  legislature  of 
the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection 
of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock  yards,  and  other 
needful  buildings.  CluuseVi.  Tomakeall  lawswhich 
shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  exe- 
cution the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 
vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the 
United  Stsvtes,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 
Sec.  9.  Clause  2.  *  *  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when, 
in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety 
may  require  it.  *  *  Sec.  10.  Clause  2.  *  *  No  State 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress  **  keep  troops 
or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace  ^  *  or  engage  in  war, 
unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger 


as  will  not  admit  of  delay.  Art.  II.  Sec.  1.  Clause!. 
The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of 
the  United  States  of  Anieriai.  *  *  Sec.  2.  Clause  1 . 
The  President  shall  be  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
army  and  navj'of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia 
of  the  several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States.  *  *  Sec.  3.  Clause  1.  *  * 
He  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed; 
and  shall  commission  all  officers  of  the  United  States. 
Art,  III.  Sec.  3.  Clause  I.  Trea.son  against  the  United 
States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them, 
or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and 
comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason, 
imless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witne.s,ses  to  the  same 
overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  Court.  Clause  2. 
The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punish- 
ment of  treason;  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall 
work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during 
the  life  of  the  person  attainted.  Art.  IV.  Sec.  4. 
Clause  1.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  everj- 
State  in  this  Union  a  republican  fonn  of  government; 
and  shall  protect  each  of  them  agiiinsi  invasion,  and 
on  the  apiilicatiou  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  e.xecu 
tive  (when  the  legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against 
domestic  violence. — Amendments  t»  the  Constitution: 
Art.  I. — Congress  shall  make  no  law  res|)ecting  an 
establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  ex- 
ercise thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech 
or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peace- 
ably to  a.ssemble,  and  to  petition  the  Government  for 
redress  of  grievances.  Art.  II. — A  well-regulated 
militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and"  bear  arms  shall 
not  be  infringed.  Art.  III.— No  soldier  shall,  in  time 
of  peace,  be  quartered  in  ;uiy  house  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war  but  in  a 
manner  to  lie  prescribed  by  law.  Art.  V. — No  person 
shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise 
infamous  crime,  unless 'on  a  i)resentment  or  indict- 
ment by  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the 
land  Of  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual 
serWce.  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall 
any  person  be  subject  for  the  .s;une  offense  to  be  twice 
put  in  jeojiardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  com- 
pelled, in  any  criminal  case,  to  be  a  witness  against 
himself,  nor  to  l)e  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  prop- 
erty, without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private 
property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  com- 
pensation. 

The  power  of  making  rules  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  armies,  as  well  as  the  power  of  raising 
armies,  having  in  ex-press  terms  been  conferred  on  Con- 
(irexs,  it  is  manifest  that  the  President  as  Commander- 
in-Chief  is  limited  by  the  Constitution  to  the  simple 
command  of  such  armies  as  Congress  may  niise,  under 
such  rules  for  their  government  and  regulation  a-s 
Congress  maj- appoint.  "The  authorities  [says  Alex- 
ander Hamilton]  essential  to  the  care  of  the  common 
defense  are  these:  To  raise  armies;  to  build  and  eq\iip 
fleets;  to  ]irescribe  rules  for  the  government  of  both; 
to  direct  their  operations;  to  provide  for  their  support. 
These  powers  ought  to  exist  without  limitation;  he- 
causc  it  is  impossible  to  foresee  or  to  define  the  extent 
and  variety  of  national  exigencies,  and  the  correspon- 
dent extent  and  variety  of  the  means  which  may  be 
necessary  to  satisfy  them."  Defective  as  the  present 
(okl)  Confederation  has  been  proved  to  be,  this  prin- 
ciple appears  to  have  been  fully  recognized  by  the 
framers  of  it;  although  they  have  not  made  proi^er 
or  adequate  provision  for  its  exercise  Congress  has 
an  unlimited  discretion  to  make  requisitions  of  men 
and  money;  to  govern  the  army  and  navy;  to  direct 
their  operations.  The  government  of  the  military  is 
that  branch  of  the  code  which  embraces  the  militarv 
Hierairhy,  or  the  gradual  distribution  of  inferior 
authority.  From  this  jirinciple  proceeds  the  localiza- 
tion of  troops,  their  discipline,  remuneration  for  im- 
portant services,  the  repression  of  all  infractions  of 
the  laws,  and  everything,  in  fine,  which  the  legislature 
may  judge  necessarj-  either  by  ndes  of  appointment 


CONSULATE. 


394 


CONSULATE. 


or  promotion,  penalties  or  rewanls,  to  raninlain  an 
ttliiieul  and  wilUlisciplined  army.  But.  as  if  to 
avoid  all  niisconsinutinn  on  this  point,  the  Constitu- 
tion not  oiilv  declaivs  tliat  C'onj^ress  shall  make  rules 
for  the  gort'nimtnl,  but  also  for  the  rtgnlatioii  of  the 
anny;  and  reguliiti""  sljrnilies  precise  determination 
of  fuuetions,  method,  forms,  and  restrictions  not  lo  l)e 
deimrlt'd  from.  Il  is  evident,  therefore,  lliat  the  de- 
siu'n  of  the  franier;  of  the  Constitution  was  not  to  in- 
vest tlie  Pivsident  with  jHiwers  ovit  the  army  in  any 
deu'ive  parallel  with  powers  i)os.ses.sed  liy  the  King  of 
Great  Britain  over  the  British  army,  whose  prcroij^a- 
tive  emhnices  the  o'liiiii-iiiil  and  f/itr<riiii><'i>l  of  all 
forces  niisi'd  and  niainl;iined  liy  him  with  the  consent 
of  Parliament:  but  their  purpose,  on  the  contrary, 
was  to  iriiard  in  all  possible  way.s  aiif.u'nst  executive 
usurpation  bv  leaving  with  Voiigrens  the  control  of 
the  Federjil  "forces  which  it  iios.sc.s.scd  under  the 
Articles  of  the  Confederation,  and  at  the  same  lime  to 
strengthen  the  lowers  of  Congress  by  giving  thai 
boilv  an  imrestricled  right  lo  raisf  arniies,  provided 
appropriations  for  Ihiir  support  should  not  extend 
Ix'Voiid  two  years.  Thi'  eoniniaiid  of  tlie  army  and 
navy  and  militia  called  into  service,  subject  to  such 
rules  for  tlieir  government  and  regidal ion  as  Congress 
may  make,  was  given  by  the  Constitution  to  the 
President;  but  the  power  of  making  rules  of  govern- 
ment and  regulation  is  in  reality  that  of  Supreme 
Command,  and  hence  the  President,  lo  use  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Ftdt  raliKt,  in  his  relation  to  the  army 
anil  navy,  is  nothing  more  than  the  "  First  General  ami 
Athiiiia'l  of  On'  C'liifeeleran/;  "  or  the  first  officer  of  the 
military  hierarchy  with  functions  a.s.signed  by  Con- 
gress, "a  curious  example  of  this  eontemporuneous 
constniction  of  the  Constitution  is  found  in  a  letter 
from  Sedgwick  to  Hamilton.  Congress,  in  raising  a 
provisional  array  in  IT'.tS.  created  the  office  of  Com- 
mander of  the  Army  with  the  title  of  LieiiUuant 
Oemral.  A  year  subseiiuintly  a  provision  was  made 
by  law  for  changing  this  title  to  tliat  of  General.  This 
last  provision  gave  great  offense  to  Mr.  Adamij,  then 
President,  who  considered  it  as  an  evidence  of  the  de- 
sire of  Congress  lo  make  "  A  General  orer  the  Preai- 
ilenl."  So  strangely  was  he  po.s,sessed  with  this  idea 
that  he  never  commissioned  Wasliington  as  General, 
but  the  latter  died  in  his  office  of  l.ieiittnant  Gi  neral; 
the  President  evidently  thinking  that  the  title  of  Gen- 
eral conveyed  a  signiticancy  which  liclonged  to  the 
President  alone,  although  the  Commander  of  the  Army 
might  in  his  opinion  very  properly  take  the  title  of 
LUiitenant  General,  and  thus  have  his  subordination 
to  the  Comniander-in-t'hicf  of  the  army  and  navy 
and  militia  clearly  indicated.  It  is  plain,  therefore,  no 
less  from  the  appointment  by  the  Constitution  of  the 
Prrsiilent  as  Commander-in-Chief,  than  from  all  con- 
tcmnoraneoiis  construction,  that  his  fimclions  in  re- 
spect lo  the  army  are  those  of  First  General  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  no  degree  derived  from  his 
|X)wers  as  First  Civil  Magistrate  of  the  I'nion.  The 
advocates  of  Executive  Discretion  over  the  army  must 
therefore  seek  for  lhi>  Pre.sident's  autliorily  in  his 
nnlitarv  capacity,  restrained  as  lliat  is  l)y  the  ]iowers 
gmnleil  to  Congress,  which  embrace  the  laising,  sui)- 
jMirt,  government,  and  regulation  of  armies;  for  there 
can  be  no  limitation  of  that  authority  which  is  to 
provide  for  the  defense  and  protection  of  the  com- 
munity, in  any  matter  e.s.sential  to  its  efficacy;  that  is, 
in  any  matter  essential  to  the  farnailnm,  ' dirertiim , 
or  r.-jniHirt  of  tin:  National  Forces.  After  the  fore- 
going investigation  of  the  luucstricted  power  of  Con- 
gress in  res|(ecl  lo  the  army,  mre  onli/  in  the  appoint- 
meni  of  the  head  of  all  the  national  foreeii,  naral  and 
militart/,  il  will  be  plain  that  the  2(1  Section  of  the 
Constitution,  in  giving  lo  the  President  the  nomina- 
tion and  appointment,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
const'nt  of  the  Senate,  of  all  other  oftiefm  of  the  United 
States  irhow  aojutintinentH  are  not  herein  otherwise 
prorided  far,  ej-eli/di's  officers  of  the  arm v  and  navy. 
riic  power  of  raising  arnnes  an<l  making  rules  for 
their  govcrnraent  and  regulation  necessarily  involves 


the  power  of  making  rules  of  appointment,  promotion, 
reward,  and  punishment,  and  is  therefore  a  pro\ision 
in  the  Constitution  otherwise  providing  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  officers  of  the  land  and  naval  forces.  So 
true  is  this  that  the  principle  has  been  acted  on  from 
the  foundation  of  the  Government.  Laws  have  bi-cn 
pa.ssi'd  giving  to  general  and  other  officers  the  appoint- 
ment of  certain  inferior  officers.  In  other  citses  the 
President  has  been  confined  by  Congress,  in  his  selec- 
tion for  certain  offices  in  tlie  army,  to  particular 
classes.  Again,  rules  have  been  made  by  Congress 
for  the  promotion  of  officers,  another  form  of  appoint- 
ment; and  in  18-4()  an  army  of  volunteers  was  raised 
by  Congress,  the  officers  of  wliich  the  Acts  of  Congress 
directed  should  be  appointed  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  States  in  which  the  Iroojis  were  raised,  excepting 
the  Genertil  Officers  for  thosi-  troops,  who  were  to  be 
appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate — a  clear  recog- 
nition that  the  troops  thus  raised  by  Congress  were 
United  Stales  troops  and  not  militia.  It  is  certainly 
true  that  the  military  legislation  of  the  country  hsis 
for  long  years  vested  a  large  discretion  in  the  Presi- 
dent in  respect  to  appointments  and  other  matters 
concerning  the  army;  Imt  it  may  well  be  asked  whether 
tixed  rules  of  apiiointments  and  promotion  which 
woidd  prevent  the  exercise  of  favoritism  by  the  Ex- 
ecutive might  not,  with  the  greatest  advantage  to  the 
army  and  the  countiy,  be  adopted  by  Congress? 
Military  prejudices  are  not  only  inseparable  from, 
but  they  are  essential  to,  the  military  profession.  The 
govermnent  which  desires  to  have  a  satisfied  and  use- 
ful army  must  consult  them.  They  cannot  be  molded 
at  its  pleasure;  it  is  vain  to  aim  at  it.  These  are 
maxims  which  sliould  lead  Congress  to  the  adoption 
of  rules  of  appointment  and  promotion  in  the  armj' 
which  would  )nevent  all  outrages  to  the  just  pride  of 
officers  of  llie  army.  The  organization  of  every  new 
regiment,  where  the  aiijiointment  of  the  officers  has 
been  left  to  Executive  {)iscretion,  shows  that,  if  the 
desue  has  been  felt  in  Ihat  (juarter  to  cherish  or  cul- 
tivate pride  of  profession  among  the  officers  of  the 
army,  the  feeling  has  been  repressed  by  other  con- 
siderations. -Ml  pride  of  rank  has  been  so  far  crushed 
by  this  system  of  Executive  Discretion  that  il  is  ap- 
parent, it'  Congress  cannot  provide  a  better  rule  for 
the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army,  a  gene- 
rous rivalry  in  distinguished  services  mu.st  be  super- 
seded by  political  activity.  Hulesof  appointment  and 
promotion  limiting  the  discretion  of  the  President, 
and  at  the  same  time  giWiig  effect  to  opinions  in  the 
army,  might  easily  l>e  devised;  or  borrowed  from 
existing  ndes  in  the  French  army,  which,  without 
ignoring  the  important  principle  of  seniority,  would 
at  tlie  same  time  afford  scopi'  and  verge  for  rewards 
for  distinguished  services.  No  army  can  be  kept  in 
war  in  tlie  highest  vigor  and  etficienej'  without  re- 
wards for  distinguished  activity,  and  the  appointment 
of  Todleben  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  shows  how  far 
almost  superhuman  efforts  may  be  prompted  by  in- 
vesting a  C'ommaiiiler  in  the  tielcl  with  the  power  of 
selccling  his  immediate  assistants.  Colonels  of  regi- 
ments with  us  now  erercise  this  authority  in-selecting 
Regimental  Adjutants  and  Quartermasters.  Why 
should  not  the  same  trust  be  repo.sed  in  Commanding 
Generals  of  Departments,  Brigades,  Divisions,  and 
Armies'/  And  why  should  not  all  necessary  restric- 
tions (such  as  those  in  operation  in  the  French  armies) 
be  put  upon  the  President  in  making  promotions  for 
distinguished  services,  and  also  in  original  appoint- 
ments, in  oilier  to  secure  justice  to  the  army,  and 
thsreby  promot<'  the  best  interest-s  of  the  coimtry? 
See  Artirhs  of  War. 

CONSULATE.— This  supreme  magistracy  of  the 
French  Republic  was  established  after  the  Revolu- 
tion of  the  ISth  Brumaire,  and  lasted  to  the  Coro- 
nation of  Napoleon.  On  the  sudden  overthrow  of 
the  Directory  with  the  Coiislittiiion  of  the  year  III., 
the  members  of  the  Council  of  the  Ancients  and  the 
Five  liundred,  or  rather  tho.se  of  them  who  approved 
of,  or  submitted  to,  that  act  of  violence  on  the  part 


CONTACT-LEVEL. 


395 


CONTEMPT  OF  COUKT, 


of  Bonaparte's  grenadiers,  appointed  three  Consuls — 
Sieyes,  Bonaparte,  and  Roger  Ducos.  This  approach 
to  a  monarchical  govcrnniint  was  confirmed,  Decem- 
Ixr  13,  1799,  by  the  Constitution  of  the  year  VIII.,  by 
which  Bonaparte  was  made  First  Consul,  with  Cam- 
baceres  and  Lebrun  as  second  and  third;  each  was 
elected  for  ten  years,  and  was  re-eligible.  The  pow- 
ers of  the  First  Consul  were  made  almost  absolute. 
He  promulgated  the  laws,  appointed  or  dismissed 
Jlinisters,  A.mba.s.sjidors,  Members  of  the  Council  of 
State,  -Mililarj'  and  Naval  Officers,  and  all  Civil  and 
Criminal  .Judges,  except  Justices  of  Peace  and  mem- 
liere  of  the  Court  of  Cas.s;ition.  Ilis  income  was 
li.xed  at  .500,000  fnuRS,  and  that  of  his  inferior  col- 
leagues at  l.iO,000  francs  each.  Bonaparte  took  up 
his  residence  at  the  Tuileries,  and  held  a  splendid 
Court.  By  Kesolutions  of  the  Senate,  in  May,  1802, 
Bonaparte  was  re-elected  for  ten  additional  years,  and 
in  August  of  the  same  year  was  made  First  Consul 
for  life.  In  the  appeal  made  to  the  nation,  out  of 
3,577,3.i9  votes,  3,.')68,885  were  in  favor  of  Bonaparte. 
The  adulation  of  the  Senate  and  people  now  knew  no 
limit.  Nothing  but  the  imperial  name  and  insignia 
were  wanting  to  complete  the  picture  of  absolutism, 
and  these  were  suiiplied  May  18,  1804,  when  Napo- 
leon was  made  Emperor. 

CONTACT-LEVEL.— A  valuable  adaptation  of  the 
spirit-level  for  the  production  of  exact  di\isions  of 
scales,  and  generally  for  the  determination  of  very 
minute  ditferences  of  length.  The  device  consists  of 
a  very  delicate  level  pivoted  at  its  middle  and  across 
its  length,  with  a  small  tilt-weight  at  one  end,  which 
tips  always  in  one  direction.  From  the  center  of 
the  level  downward,  a  short  rigid  arm  extends  with 
a  plain  polished  surface  perpehdioilar  to  the  chord 
of  the  level,  and  against  which  the  contact  is  made. 
The  carrier  of  this  an-angement  is  either  fixed,  or 
mounted  on  a  slide  governed  by  a  micrometer-screw. 
If  now  the  end  of  a  rod  terminating  in  a  hardened 
steel  point  be  moved  along  horizontally  till  it  bears 
against  the  contact-ann,  the  level  will  gradually  as- 
sume the  horizontal  position,  and  the  movement  of 
the  bubble  as  indicated  by  the  scale  upon  the  gla.ss 
will  depend  upon  the  relalion  between  the  radius  to 
which  the  level-tube  is  ground  and  the  length  of  the 
contact-lever.  If  the  latter  is  A  an  inch  long,  and  the 
radius  of  the  glass  tube  is  400  feet  (levels  for  astro- 
nomiciil  puqioses  are  ground  to  a  sweep  of  800  and 
1000  feet  radiu.s),  we  have  the  relation  between  the 
lever  and  radius  as  1  is  to  9600;  and  as  -.J^  of  an  inch 
can  readily  be  read  from  the  level-scale,  ^ptuVini  "f  '>" 
inch  will  be  the  difference  in  length  which  eacli  divi- 
sion on  such  a  .scale  indicates.  When  it  is  remem- 
bered that  such  a  determination  of  length  can  be  re- 
]>cated  indefinitely,  and  that  the  readings  are  made 
without  the  aid  of  a  magiiifyingglass  or  artificial 
illumination,  the  perfection  and  beauty  of  the  method 
will  be  ap|)reciateil. 

CONTACT-SLIDE  BASE  APPAEATUS.— This  per- 
fected apjiaratus, designed  by  Piofc.ssor.J.  E.  Hilgard, 
Superinlenelent  of  the  United  Slates  Coast  Survey,  and 
represented  on  jjage  396,  consists  of  two  measuring- 
bars  4  meters  long,  exactly  alike,  and  supported  on 
trestles.  The  measurement  is  made  by  bringing  these 
bars  successively  in  contact,  which  is  ettcctcd  by 
means  of  a  screw  motion  and  defined  by  the  coinci- 
dence of  lines  on  the  rod  and  contact-slide.  Each 
bar  consists  of  two  jiieces  of  wood  about  8  by  14  cm. 
square  and  a  little  less  than  4  meters  long,  firmly 
screwed  together.  Between  the  pieces  of  wood  is  a 
brass  frame  carrying  three  rollers,  on  the  central  one 
of  which  rests  a  steel  rod  about  8  mm.  in  diameter. 
On  each  side  there  is  a  zinc  lube  9  mm.  in  diameter. 
The  rod  and  tulK-s  are  supported  throughout  their 
length  on  similar  systems  of  rollers.  The  zinc  tubes 
form  with  the  steel  rod  a  metallic  differential  ther- 
mometer, and  are  so  arranged  that  one  tube  is  secured 
to  one  end  of  the  rod,  being  free  to  expand  in  the 
other  direction,  the  other  tube'  being  in  a  like  manner 
fastened  to  the  other  end  of  the  rod.    The  zinc  tubes, 


therefore,  with  any  change  of  temperature,  expand 
or  contract  in  opjiosing  directions,  and  the  amount 
by  which  the  expansion  of  the  zinc  exceeds  that  of 
the  steel  is  measured  by  a  fine  scide  attached  to  the 
rod,  while  the  zinc  tulK'  carries  a  correspondin''  ver- 
nier. The  cut  shows  this  arrangement,  which  is 
identical  on  l)oth  ends  of  the  bars;  a  perforation  in 
the  wood  of  the  bar  allows  this  scale  to  be  read.  In 
addition  to  these  metallic  thermometers  a  mercurial 
thermometer  is  attached  to  the  bar  aliout  midway  of 
its  length.  The  rods  and  tubes  thus  forming  a  united 
whole  are  lengthwise  movable  on  the  rollers  by  means 
of  a  milled  nut  working  in  threads  cut  on  the  steel 
rod,  which  passes  through  a  circular  opening  in  the 
brass  plate  screwed  to  the  wooden  bar,  and  against 
which  the  nut  presses.  Two  strong  spiral  spri  ugs  pull 
the  rods  back,  and  the  nut  is  always  pressed  against 
the  plate.  One  end  of  the  rod  is  defined  by  a  plain 
agate  securely  fastened  to  it;  the  other  end  carries  the 
contact-slide,  having  an  agate  with  a  horizontal  knife- 
edge.  This  slide  is  a  short  tube,  fitting  over  the  end 
of  the  rod,  and  inished  outward  bj-  a  spiral  spring. 
A  slot  in  the  tube  shows  an  index-plate,  with  a  ruled 
line  fjistened  to  the  rod.  To  align  the  bars  properly 
a  small  telescope  is  placed  on  each  bar,  and  can  be 
adjusted  to  bring  the  line  of  collimation  over  the  axis 
of  the  rod.  The  trestle,  shown  in  the  upper  left-hand 
corner  of  the  illustration,  consists  of  a  strong  tripod- 
stand,  carrying  a  frame  with  two  upright  guides  for 
two  cross-.slides,  which  are  separated  by  a  movable 
wedge.  These  cross-slides  can  be  clamped  in  any 
position.  By  moving  the  wedge,  the  bar  resting  be- 
tween the  uprights  is  either  elevated  or  depressed. 
To  obtain  smooth  movements,  friction-rollers  are  pro- 
vided. To  move  the  bars  sideways,  a  coarse  screw 
takes  hold  of  a  projectitm  on  the  lower  side  of  the  bar, 
by  turning  which  the  bar  can  be  moved  laterally. 
There  are  three  pairs  of  trestles,  alike  in  constniction 
with  the  exception  lh;il  the  upi^cr  slide  of  the  trestle 
intended  for  the  forward  end  of  the  bar  carries  a  roll- 
er on  which  the  bar  rests,  while  the  other  has  a  fixed 
semi-cylindrical  surface  for  the  support  of  the  bar.  In 
making  the  measurement,  the  bars  being  four  meters 
in  length,  the  stands  are  .set  up  at  distances  of  two 
meters,  each  bar  being  supported  at  one  fourth  its 
length  from  the  ends,  as  indicated  by  the  painted 
black  bands.  Each  bar  has  a  sector  with  level  alidade 
attached  to  one  side,  by  which  its  inclination  can  be 
read  off  to  single  minutes. 

CONTEMPT.— Any  oflicer  or  soldier  who  shall  use 
contemptuous  or  disrespectful  words  against  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  the  Vice-President, 
against  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  or  against 
the  Chief  Magistrate  or  Legislature  of  any  of  the 
United  Sttiles  in  which  he  may  be  quartered,  shall 
be  ptmished  as  a  Court-JIartial  shall  direct.  Any 
officer  or  soldier  who  shall  behave  himself  with  con- 
tempt or  disrespect  towards  his  Comm:mding  Officer 
shall  be  punished  by  the  judgment  of  a  Court-JIartial. 
No  person  whatsoever  shall  use  anj-  menacing  words, 
signs,  or  gestures  in  presence  of  a  Court Martial,  or 
shall  cause  any  riot  or  disorder,  or  disturb  their  pro- 
ceedings, on  the  penalty  of  being  punished  at  the 
discretion  of  the  sjiid  Court-M&rlial.  Contempts  thus 
rendered  summarily  punishable  by  Court.s-Martial  are 
of  public  and  self-evident  kind,  not  depending  on  any 
interpretation  of  law  adinitthig  explanation  or  re- 
quiring further  investigation.  Courts-Mai  tial  some- 
times act  on  this  power.  At  other  times  individuals 
so  offending  are  placed  in  arrest,  and  charts  are 
preferred  for  trial.  A  Regimental  Court-SIartial  may 
punish  summarily,  but  are  not  competent  to  award 
punishment  to  Commissioned  Officers.  A  Regimented 
Court-Martial  in  such  ca.ses  would  impose-  arrest. 
Citizens.  nc)t  soldiers,  would  Ix;  removed  from  Court. 

CONTEMPT  OF  COOKT.  —  There  is  probably  no 
country  in  which  Courts  of  Law  are  not  furnished  with 
the  means  of  vindicating  their  authority  and  preserv- 
ing their  dignity  by  calling  in  the  aid  of  the  executive, 
in  certain  circumstances,  without  tlie  formalities  usu- 


COKTEHPT  OF  COUET. 


396 


CONTEMPT  OF  COURT. 


ally  attending  a  trial  and  sentence..  Of  this,  the 
simplesl  iiislauie  is  wlieif  a  Jmlge  orders  tlio  police 
to  I'uforcc  silcmc.  or  to  dear  the  Court.  Contempts 
J>y  resisting  the  process  of  a  Court  arc  in  Eiiglaiul 


like,  has  been  an  offense  at  common  law  in  England 
of  the  hisrhest  kind  since  the  times  of  the  Anglo- 
iSaxons  ;  iind  in  Scotland  it  is  a  statutory  offense, 
punislial)lc  either  capitally  or  by  very  severe  arbitrary 


puni.shed  by  altaclimcnt;  conlenipt.s  done  in  tlie  face 
of  the  Court,  by  directly  obatruclinL'  its  procoedinjrs, 
mav  be  visited  'wiib  commitment  and  tine.  Striking 
a  Supreme  Judge  in  the  discharge  of  his  duty,  or 
even  threatening  him  by  drawing  a  weapon,  or  the 


pains.  Tn  the  latler  country  minor  contempts  are 
pimishable  arbitrarily,  either  ex  proprio  motti  of  the 
Court,  where  the  offense  has  come  under  its  imme- 
diate observation,  or  by  a  summary  complaint  at  the 
instance  of  the  public  prosecutor,  where,  though  not 


CONTEST. 


397 


CONTKACTION. 


committed  in  the  immediate  presence  of  the  Court,  it 
has  relation  to  a  matter  whicli  is,  or  lias  been  recently, 
in  ilependence  before  it.     See  dniti  nipt. 

CONTEST.— An  earnest  struggle  for  superiority,  de- 
fense, ortlielike;  strife  in  arms.  In  a  strictly  military 
.sense,  to  struggle  to  defend;  as,  the  troops  contested 
every  inch  of  ground. 

CONTINENTAL.— A  term  intended  as  the  opposite 
of  Provincial,  assumed  by  the  revolted  Ameiican  Col- 
onies early  in  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  an  effort 
being  made  to  induce  Canada  to  join  the  Thirteen 
Colonies.  Had  the  Canadians  agreed,  the  whole  of 
the  Continent  under  English  rule  would  have  been 
in  revolt.  The  first  general  representative  body  of 
the  Thirteen  Colonies  was  called  the  Contiiwntal  Con- 
gress.    See  Cimgress. 

CONTINGENT.— 1.  The  quota  of  troops  furnished 
to  the  conmion  army  by  each  member  of  an  Alliance 
or  Confederation  of  States.  The  word  was  especially 
applied  to  the  proportions  contributed  by  the  .several 
German  States  to  the  Army  of  the  Confederation, 
which  has  given  place  to  the  Empire. — 2.  In  the 
British  ser\ice,  the  sum  paid  monthly  to  each  Captain 
of  a  troop,  company,  or  battery  to  defray  the  expense 
of  stationery,  the  care  of  amis,  and  other  minor  de- 
mands. 

CONTINUED  LINES.— There  are  two  classes  of 
lines  —  condiiiu'd  lines  and  lines  irit/t  internals.  Con- 
tinued lines  present  no  openings  through  which  the 
enemy  can  penetrate  except  the  ordinary  outlets. 
Lines  with  intervals  consist  of  detached  works,  which 
are  inclosed  partly,  or  entirely,  throughout  their 
])erimeters,  arrangeil  in  defensive  relations  with  each 
other,  and  presenting  wide  intervals  between  them 
defended  only  by  their  tire.  The  same  general  prin- 
ciples apply  to  lines  as  to  other  field-works;  but  from 
their  great  e.vtent  they  usuallj"  receive  a  slight  relief, 
and  the  shuplest  angidar  figrucs  are  adopted  for  their 
plan.  In  laying  them  out,  the  Engineer  should  avail 
jiimself  of  all  the  natural  features  presented  by  the 
I)o.sition,  so  as  to  diminish  the  labor  of  erecting  artifi- 
cial ones.     See  Lines. 

CONTLINE.— The  space  between  the  strands  on  the 
outside  of  a  rope.  In  worming,  this  space  is  filled  up 
with  .spun  yarn  or  small  rope,  which  brings  the  rope 
thus  treated  to  a  nearly  C3iindrical  shape,  either  to 
strengthen  it  or  to  render  the  surface  smooth  and 
fair  for  serving  or  pa  reeling.     See  Corehige. 

CONTOISE.— A  llowing  scarf  worn  with  the  earliest 
crests  attached  to  the  helm.  It  gave  way  to  the 
muniling. 

CONTOURING.— A  tcmi  applied  to  the  oiitline  of 
any  figure,  and  consequently  to  that  of  any  .section  of 
a  solid  body;  but  when  used  professionally  in  connec- 
tion with  the  forms  of  ground  or  of  works  of  defense, 
the  outline  of  a  horizontal  section  of  the  ground  or 
works  is  alone  to  be  imderstood  by  it. 

CONTRABAND  OF  WAR.— A  name  applied  to  cer- 
tain commodities,  or  the  rules  relating  to  them,  during 
hostilities  between  States  which  acknowledge  what 
are  called  the  Laws  of  Nations.  One  such  law  is  thai 
neutral  Nations  must  not  caiTy  on,  for  the  ailvaiilage 
of  either  of  the  belligerent  powers,  any  branches  of 
commerce  from  which  they  are  excluded  in  time  of 
peace.  Another  is  that  the  name  of  Contraband  of 
War  shall  be  given  to  such  articles  as  jiertain  to  mili- 
tary or  naval  warfare — guns,  amnumition,  and  stores 
of  all  kinds.  Uidess  there  are  special  treaties,  dclin- 
ing  exactly  what  articles  are  contraband  of  war,  the 
interpretation  of  this  law  often  leads  to  much  embar- 
rassment. Another  law  insisted  on  by  England  dur- 
ing the  last  great  war  was  that  each  belligerent  shall 
have  a  right  to  visit  and  examine  neutral  ships,  to  see 
whether  they  carry  any  articles  which  are  contraband 
of  war,  and  which  seem  likely  to  be  intended  for  the 
enemy.  A  neutral  State  may  carry  on  ordinary  trade 
with  either  belligerent,  except  when  pievcnted  by 
blockade;  but  the  .ships,  according  to  the  above  i-ules, 
must  not  contain  articles  contraband  of  war;  nor  must 
a  conterminous  land-frontier  be  crosseil  by  such  com- 


modities. If  afmerchant  evades  these  rules,  he  does 
so  at  his  own  risk;  his  merchandi.se  may  Ix-  seized, 
and  his  own  Government  will  not  protect  him.  By 
the  law  and  practice  of  Nations  it  is  for  the  xVdmi- 
ralty  Court  of  the  capturing  power  to  decide  what  is 
or  what  is  not  contraband  (if  war.  Upon  such  ques- 
tions it  is  the  province  of  this  Tribunal  to  adjudicate;, 
and  from  its  tiuixl  judgment  there  is  no  appeal.  At 
various  times  discus-sions  have  arisen  whether  corn, 
hay,  or  coal  can  ever  be  included  in  the  list  of  articles 
contraband  of  war  ;  they  are  manifestly  articles  of 
peaceful  commerce,  but  they  are  also  essential  to  the 
maintenance  of  an  army,  and  sometimes  a  supply 
woidd  give  one  belligerent  a  great  advantage  over  the 
other.  Especially  is  this  the  case  in  reference  to  coal, 
in  the  present  age  of  war-steamers. — Contraband  in 
commerce  depends,  however,  upon  the  special  laws 
of  each  country. 

CONTRACTION.— 1.  The  state  of  being  drawn  into  a 
narrow  compass,  or  cf  becoming  smaller.  In  horses' 
feet  it  is  brought  on  from  bad  shoeing,  hot  stables, 
or  confinement.  The  foot  becomes  oblong  instead  of 
round.  The  remedy  to  be  applied  should  be  thin  sole 
and  quarters,  and  the  feet  kept  moist;  also  tips  or 
spring  .shoes,  tar  or  hoof  ointment. 

2.  All  solid  bodies  contract  their  size  in  the  operation 
of  cooling.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  if  the  different 
parts  of  a  body  cool  unequally  they  will  contract  un- 
equally, and  the  body  will  change  form,  provided  it  be 
not  restrained  by  the  presence  of  a  suiJerior  force;  if 
it  be  so  restrained,  the  contractile  force  will  diminish 
the  adhesion  of  parts  by  an  amount  which  depends 
on  the  rate  of  cooling  of  the  different  parts,  and  the  con- 
tractibilitj'of  the  metal.  This  is  an  important  consider 
ation  in  estimating  the  strength  and  endurance  of 
cannon,  particularly  those  made  of  cast-iron,  as  will 
be  seen  by  examining  the  form  of  the  casting  ami  the 
method  of  cooling  it.  The  general  form  of  the  casting 
is  that  of  a  solid  frustum  of  a  cone;  it  is  therefore 
cooled  from  the  exterior,  which  causes  the  thin  outer 
lajer  to  contract  first,  and  force  the  hotter  and  more 
yielding  metal  within  toward  the  opening  of  the  mold. 
Following  this,  the  adjacent  layer  cools  and  tends  to 
contract ;  but  the  exterior  layer,  to  which  it  coheres, 
has  become  partially  rigid,  and  does  not  fully  yield 
to  the  contraction  of  the  inner  layer.  The  result  is, 
the  cohesion  of  the  particles  of  the  inner  layer  is 
diminished  by  a  force  of  extension,  and  that  of  the 
outer  layer  increased  by  a  force  of  compression.  As 
the  cooling  continues.  Ibis  operation  is  repeated  until 
the  whole  mass  is  brought  to  a  imifonn  temperature; 
and  the  straining  force  is  increased  to  an  extent  which 
depends  on  the  .size  and  form  of  the  mass,  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  it  is  cooled,  and  the  contractibility  of 
llie  particular  metal  used.  All  cannon,  therefore, 
that  are  ci.oled  from  the  exterior  are  affected  by  two 
straining  forces — the  outer  portion  of  the  metal  being 
conipre.s.sed,  and  the  interior  extended,  in  proportion 
to  their  distances  from  the  neutral  arts,  or  line  com- 
[losed  of  particles  which  are  neither  extended  nor 
compressed  by  the  cooling  process. 

The  cfTect  of  this  unequal  contraction  may  be  so 
great  as  to  crack  the  interior  metal  of  cast-iron  cannon, 
even  before  it  has  been  subjected  to  the  force  of  gun- 
powder; and  chilled  rollers,  which  are  cooled  very 
rapidly  by  easting  them  in  iron  molds,  have  been 
known  to  split  open  longitudinally,  from  no  other 
cause  than  the  enormous  strains  to  which  they  are 
thus  subjected.  The  strain  produced  by  the  action  of 
a  centnd  force,  as  gunpowder  acting  in  a  cannon,  is 
not  distributed  equally  over  the  thickness  of  metjd. 
Barlow  shows  that  it  (iiminis/ies  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  from  the  center  increases.  It  follows  from 
this  thatthe  sides  of  a  cannon  arc  not  rent  asunder  as 
by  a  simple  tensile  force,  but  they  are  torn  apart  like 
a"  piece  of  cloth,  commencing  at  the  surface  of  ihe 
bore.  This  is  contiimed  by  ex-perience;  for  Ihe  inner 
jioiliou  of  the  fractured  suVface  of  a  ruptured  gun  is 
found  to  be  stained  with  the  smoke  of  the  powder, 
while  the  outer  portion  is  untouched  by  it.     It  will 


CONTRACTS. 


398 


CONTRACTS. 


Ihu-i  Ik-  stTn  that  the  effect  of  (mliiiary.eooling  is  todi- 
iiiiui><h  the  stn^nsitli  :mil  lianlius.;  of  lUc  metal  of  can- 
iioii  at  or  near  a  iK>im  where  llie  greatest  streiiirth  ami 
lianlius.1  an>  re<iuireU.  i.e.,  at  the  surface  of  the  tore. 
The  strains  priKlueeil  bv  un«|Ual  cooling  increase 
with  the  diameter  of  the  ciustiiig  ami  the  irregularity 
of  it.s  fonii.  Tliis  explains  tlie  great  dilticulty  which 
is  iiict)untere<l  in  inuUiug  large  castin)!!  camion  pro- 
portionallv  as  stroni:  as  small  ones;  and  also  how  it 
is  that  projections  like  Imnds.  moldings,  etc.,  injure 
the  strength  of  cannon.  It  also  explains  why  cannon 
made  of"  higir  cast-iron,  or  ca-st-iron  made  more 
tenacious  bv  partial  decarboni/ation,  are  not  so  strong 
as  cannon  inaile  of  weaker  iron;  for  it  is  well  known 
that  such  iron  contracts  more  than  the  latter  in  cool- 
iii"  and  therefore  produces  a  greater  strain  of  exten 
sion  on  the  surface  of  the  bore.  The  foregoing  con- 
sidenilioMS  led  Captain  Hodman  to  propose  a  plan  for  i 
cooling  cannon  from  the  interior,  hoping  thereby  to 
reverse  the  stnuiis  produced  by  external  cooling,  and 
make  them  contribute  to  the  endurance  rather  than 
to  U)c  injury  of  the  piece.  The  method  employed  is 
to  carrj-  off"  the  internal  heat  by  passing  a  stream  of 
water  through  a  hollow  core,  inserted  in  the  center  of 
the  moUlcaVitv  before  casting,  and  to  surround  the 
flask  with  a  inass  of  burning  coals  to  prevent  too 
rapid  radiation  from  the  exterior.  Extensive  trials 
have  been  made  to  test  the  merits  of  this  plan;  and 
the  results  show  that  cast-iron  cannon  made  by  it  are 
not  only  stronger  but  are  less  liable  to  enlargement  of 
the  bore  from  continued  tiring.  Indications  were 
shown,  however,  in  the.se  and  in  other  trials,  that  the 
strains  produced  bv  unequal  cooling  are  modified  by 
time,  which  probably  allows  the  particles  to  accom- 
modate themselves,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  their  con- 
strained position,  as  in  the  case  of  a  bent  spring  or 
hoop.     Sec  Cooling. 

CONTRACTS.— All  purcba.scs  and  contracts  for  sup- 
plies or  scrN-ices  fur  the  military  and  naval  service 
are  made  by  or  under  the  direction  of  the  chief  offi- 
cers of  the'Departments  of  War  and  of  the  Navy,  re- 
spectively. And  all  agents  or  contractors  for  supplies 
or  services  as  aforesiiid  render  their  accounts  for  set- 
tlement to  the  accountant  of  the  proper  department 
for  -which  such  supplies  or  services  are  required,  sub- 
ject, nevertheless,  to  the  ins])cction  and  revision  of 
the  officers  of  the  Trejusury.  Contracts  for  subsist- 
ence supplies  for  the  army,  made  by  the  Commis- 
sary General,  on  public  notice,  proWde  for  a  complete 
delivery  of  .such  articles,  on  inspection,  at  such  places 
as  shall  l)e  stipulated.  The  Quartermaster's  Depart- 
ment of  the  Army,  in  obtaining  supplies  for  the  mili- 
tary service,  states  in  all  advertisements  for  bids  for 
contracts  that  a  preference  shall  be  given  to  articles 
of  domestic  production  and  manufacture,  conditions 
of  price  and  quality  being  equal,  and  that  such  pref- 
erence shall  be  given  to  articles  of  American  produc- 
tion and  maiuifacture  pro<hued  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
to  the  extent  of  the  consumption  required  by  the 
public  service  there.  In  advertising  for  army  sup- 
plies the  Quartermaster's  Department  requires  all 
articles  which  are  to  be  u.si'd  in  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories of  the  Pacific  coast  to  be  delivered  and  inspect- 
ed at  points  designated  in  those  States  and  Territories; 
and  the  ailvertisements  for  such  sujiplies  are  pub- 
lished in  newspapers  of  the  cities  of  San  Francisco, 
in  California,  and  Portland,  in  Oregon.  Contract.s 
are  not  made  at  posts  unloKs  specially  ordered,  and 
are  not  so  ordered  unless  the  stores  rei|uired  can  be 
prcKaircd  at  such  posts  as  economically  as  if  sent  from 
other  markets  or  from  depots;  and  all  such  contracts 
are  made  out  in  the  name  of  and  signed  by  the  chief 
officer  of  that  branch  of  the  Staff  of  the  command  to 
which  they  pertain.  Whenever  practicable,  con- 
tract.s for  supplyinu  military  posts  with  fuel,  foRige, 
straw,  etc..  provide  fordclivery.  monllily,  of  tlie quan- 
tities required  each  month,  in  order  to  avoid  unneces- 
sary accumulation  of  propcily  at  posts,  and  to  dis- 
triljute  expenditure  therefor  throughout  the  year,  and 
to  prevent  risk  of  great  loss  by  tire  or  other  cause. 


Except  in  the  rare  ca.scs  where  the  United  States 
may  elect  to  exercise  its  reserved  right  to  reject  pro- 
posals, contracts  are  awarded  to  the  lowest  respon- 
sible bonn-fidt'  bidder,  who,  when  reciuired,  produces 
a  proper  article,  and  whose  proposd  therefor  is  not 
unreasonable  in  amount.  The  following  is  the  Fonii 
of  a  General  Contract: 

Articles  of  apri-ement  enteral  Into  this day  of  , 

eigliteiMi    liuudred   ami ,  between    ,  Unlt*d 

States  Arniv,  nf  tlie  first  port,  and ,  of  tlie  county 

of ,  State  of ,  lit  the  second  part:  This  aereemeut  wit- 

nessetli.  Tliat  the  said ,  for  and  in  behalf  of  the 

L'nited  States  of  .\nieriea.  and  the  said ,  for 

^ lieirs,  executors,  and  adiuiuistrators,  have  mutu- 
ally agreed,  and  by  these  presents  ili>  mutuiilly  covenant  and 
afti-ee,  to  and  with" each  oilier,  as  follows,  viz.:  [Uere  give  the 
name  of  the  contractor,  and  state  wliat  he  agrees  to  do  by 
introducing  in  succ-ession  those  aiticles  of  the  agreemenl 
which  detlue  his  duties;  such,  for  instance,  as  fix  the  place 
and  date  of  dehverv  ot  ilie  supjilies  or  ijerformanee  of  the 
services;  as  give  the  (|iiaiitily.  iiuulity.  and  ilescription  of  the 
supplies  to  l)e  furnished,  character  of  Ilieir  packages,  etc..  or 
nature  of  the  service  to  be  rendered;  all  in  such  detad  as  may 
\ie  requisite.  Also  here  insert  those  articles  wtiich  relate  to 
terms  of  payment;  the  action  to  be  taken  tiy  the  United 
States  in  case  of  failure  or  detlciency  on  the  part  of  the  con- 
tractor- and  anv  other  conditions  which  should  l)e  embodied 
in  a  contract  stipulating  for  the  delivery  of  supplie-s  or  for 
the  |)erforinaiice  ot  a  service.  |  No  member  ot  or  delegate  to 
Congress,  nor  any  person  l)elonging  to.  or  employed  in.  the 
militarv  service  o't  the  United  States,  is  or  shall  be  adimtted 
to  any  share  or  part  of  this  contract,  or  to  any  benefit  which 
may  arise  herefrom.  [Hen'  add.  to  nny  contract  mode  irith 
(III  'incorv'irated  cohi/hdi  v  for  it.i  general  benefit,  the  fnlloir- 
iiio  irorih,  viz.:  "  But  this  xtipnlation.  so  far  as  it  relates  to 
viemhersofor  delegate.i  to  Coiiaress,  is  not  to  lie  con.itrued 
to  e  rtend  to  th  is  con  tract."]  This  contract  shall  be  subject  to 
approval  of  (a.ii"c  the  proper  officer].  In  witne-ss  whereof, 
the  undersigned  have  hereunto  placed  their  hands  and  seals 
the  date  first  herein  before  written. 
Witnesses: 


Approved: 


Approved; 


(Executed  in  quintupUcate.) 
,18-. 


-  Commanding . 


,18. 


■  Commanding  ■ 


I  do  solemnly  swear  that  the  foregoing  is  an  exact  copy  of 

a  contract  made  bv  me  personally  with ;  that  I 

made  the  same  fairly  -nnthout  any  l>eneflt  or  advantage  to 
myself,  or  allowing  any  such  benefit  or  advantage  corruptly 

to'  the  said '—,  or  any  other  person;  and  that  the 

papers  accompanying  include  all  those  relating  to  the  said 
contract,  as  required  by  the  statute  in  such  case  made  and 
provide<l. 

» 

Subscribed  and  sworn  to  before  me  this  day  of  , 

eighteen  hundred  and .  


Xo  contract  is  entered  into  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States  unless  the  contractor,  upon  the  execu- 
tion of  the  contract  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  practi- 
cable, furnishes  a  bond  iiccording  to  the  form  pre- 
scribed. Execution  ot  bonds  may  be  waived  when 
the  contract  involves  no  greater  sum  than  five  hun- 
dred dollars  in  value.  The  amount  of  the  penalty  of 
the  contractor's  bond  is  not  less  than  one  tenth  of,  nor 
more  than  the  full  sum  of,  the  total  consideration  of 
1  the  contract ;  the  amount  to  be  fixed,  in  each  ca.se,  by 
,  the  officer  representing  the  United  States.  The  Form 
of  the  Contractor's  Bond  is  as  follows: 

I  Know  aU  men  by  these  presents.  That  we  rname  of  obligor], 
of  li-c^ideiice  of  oliligor.  giving  town,  county.  State,  etc  ].  as 

1  principal,  and  I  iinine  of  sureti/],  ot  \reside7ice  of  stiretu],  and 
f.miiir  ../•  sureliA.  of  {residence  of  suret)/].  as  sureties,  are 
held  anil  lioiind  unto  the  United  States  of  America  m  the 

penal  sum  of dollars,  to  the  payment  of  which  smn.  well 

and  truly  to  be  made,  we  do  bind  our.selvcs.  our  heirs  execu- 

I  tors,  anil  administrators,  jointly  and  severaUy,  firmly  by  these 
presents.  .        «  iq 

<      Oiven  under  our  hands  and  seals  this day  or  - — ,  ii*— . 

1  The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such  that,  vv  hereas  tne 
above- bounden  |  nam,  „f  ,,l,lii,<trl  has,  on  the-—-  day  of ■, 

:  18—.  entered  into  a  contract  with  InaiiK-  and  description  or 
offlcci-l,  for  [hereset  forth  in  brief  the  subject  of  the  contract]: 

I      Now,  therefore,  if  the  above-bounden  [name  of  obligor], 


CONTRACT-SURGEONS. 


399 


CONTROL  DEPARTMENT. 


heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  shall  and  will,  in  all  re- 
spects, dulv  and  fully  ohserve  and  perform  all  and  singular 
the  covenants,  conditions,  and  agreements  in  and  by  the  said 
contract  atcreeti  and  covenanted  by  to  be  ob- 
served and  performed,  and  according  to  the  true  intent  and 
meaniiiir  <'t  th*' said  contract,  and  as  well  during  any  period 
of  extension  of  said  contract  that  may  be  granted  on  the  part 
of  the  United  .States  as  during  the  original  term  of  the  same, 
then  the  above  obligation  shall  be  void  and  of  do  effect;  other- 
wLse  to  remain  in  fiUl  force  and  virtue. 
Witnesses; 

.  .      IL.  B. 


L.  B. 
L.  S. 


(Executed  in  duplicate.) 

Tbe  sureties  are  to  make  and  subscribe  affidavits  of 
justification  on  the  back  of  the  bond;  tbe  sum  in 
which  the}'  jointly  justify  to  be  double  the  amount  of 
the  penalty;  the  affidavit  to  be  taken  before  any  offi- 
cial or  person  authorized  or  permitted  by  the  laws  of 
the  United  States,  State,  Territory,  or  District,  to  ad- 
minister oaths. 

The  justification  is,  if  practicable,  followed  by  the 
certificate  of  a  Judge  of  a  United  Stales  Court  or 
United  States  District  Attorney,  or,  in  their  absence, 
by  some  other  civil  official  of  the  United  States,  wlio 
certifies  that  the  sureties  are  known  to  him,  and  tliat, 
to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief,  each  is  pecu- 
niarily worlli,  over  and  above  all  his  debts  and  liabili- 
ties, the  sum  stated  in  his  affida\'it  of  justification. 
But,  if  ncces.sary  or  more  convenient,  .separate  certifi- 
cates may  be  furnished  as  to  each  surety.  See  Pro- 
posah. 

CONTRACT  SURGEONS.— In  the  United  States  ar- 
my, these  are  physicians  employed  from  civil  life,  at 
a  "specified  compensation,  to  perform  the  duties  re- 
quired of  Commissioned  >Iedical  Officers,  when  for 
uny  reason  the  numljer  of  the  latter  is  insufficient. 
AVhile  they  have  no  rank,  they  still  have  the  allow- 
ances of  an  Assistant  Siu'geon,  and  are  entitled  to  the 
same  protection  in  their  positions,  also  to  the  same 
respectful  subordinate  ctjinluct  and  to  the  same  niili- 
taiT  courtesy  from  enlisted  men,  as  if  they  were  Com- 
missioned Officers.  They  are  placed  in  the  position 
of  Commissioned  Officers,  so  far  as  relates  to  their 
duties  as  Surgeons,  by  the  Grovemment.  Surgeons 
from  ci\il  life  who  tender  their  serrices  for  the  liene- 
fit  of  the  sick  and  wounded  in  the  field,  luider  the 
inv-itatiou  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  are  each  allowed 
transportation  to  and  from  the  place  where  their  ser- 
vices may  be  needed,  and,  while  so  employed,  the  use 
of  a  public  horse,  a  tent,  and  the  privilege  of  i)urcha.s- 
ing  subsistence  stores  from  the  Subsistence  Depart- 
ment.    See  Acting  AsainUinf  Sitrgeoiix. 

CONTRAMURE'. — In  fortification,  a  wall  erected  be- 
fore another  partition-wall  to  strengthen  it,  so  that  it 
may  receive  no  damage  from  the  adjacent  buildings. 
CONTRAVALLATION.— A  name  .sometimes  given 
to  a  bell  of  field-works  thrown  up  around  and  facing 
the  place  invested,  to  render  the  besiegers  secure 
against  surprise.     See  Cotintenallatioii. 

CONTREFORTS.— Brick  -  work  which  is  added  to 
the  revetment  of  a  rampart  on  the  side  of  iLc  terre- 
plein,  and  which  is  equal  to  its  height.  CoiUreforts 
are  used  to  support  the  body  of  earth  with  which  the 
rampart  is  formed.  They  are  likewi.sc  used  in  the 
revetments  of  counterscarps,  in  gorges,  and  demi- 
gorges,  and  frequently  form  a  part  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  powder-magazines,  which  arc  bomb-proof. 
See  Ctninltrfort. 

CONTRIBUTION.— In  a  military  scn.se,  an  imposi- 
tion or  tax  levied  on  the  people  of  a  conqueied  town 
or  country-. 

CONTROL  DEPARTMENT.— One  of  the  Ci\il  De- 
partments of  the  British  anny,  having  for  its  object 
an  efficient  and  economical  control  over  the  Depart- 
ments it  supervises.  It  may  be  .siiid  without  exag- 
geration to  be  one  of  the  most  important  Departments, 
for  on  it  depends  the  custody  and  supply  of  all  stores, 
whether  of  food  or  ammunition,  the  provision  of 
transport,  etc.  It  takes  the  place  of  what  was  for- 
merly the  Commissiiriat  Department,  in  addition  to 
other  duties,  such  as  were  formerly  in  the  hands  of 


the  Quartermaster  General.  Without  the  thorough 
efficiency  of  this  Department  no  army  can  exist  in 
the  field;  failure  would  probably  entail  defeat  and 
all  the  disiisters  attending  such  a  calamitj-.  We  have 
an  instiince  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War  of  the  disas- 
ters likely  to  occur  to  an  army  who.se  Commissariat 
is  unequal  to  the  demands  upon  it.  Take  the  ca-seof 
the  French  army  at  Sedan,  which,  it  is  saiil,  from 
want  of  proper  Commissariat  arrangements,  was  one 
of  the  causes  that  prevented  it  from  effecting  the  re- 
lief of  Metz,  and  was  consequejitly  overwhelmed  by 
the  Prussian  army.  The  Control,  as  at  present  or- 
ganized, is  comparativelj-  a  new  Department.  The 
historj-  of  its  fomialion  is  to  be  foimd  in  the  various 
Blue  Books  on  the  subject,  dating  back  to  1859;  but 
it  was  in  the  year  1870  that  the  Department  was 
consolidated,  and  divided  into  three  administrative 
ranks,  namely  :  Controller's,  ranking  with  a  Major 
General ;  Deputy  Controller's,  ranking  with  a  Col- 
onel; Aiisistant  Controller's,  ranking  with  a  Lieuten- 
ant Colonel;  and  two  Executive  Sub-Departments — 
(1)  Supply  and  yrrtn-vpo/Y,  which  include  the  issue  and 
accoimt  of  stores  and  provisions,  superintend  and  di- 
rect all  transport,  officer  and  command  the  Army 
Service  Corps;  and  (2)  Pny.  For  the  mitnagement  of 
the  Supply  and  Transport,  three  Commissaries  arc 
attached  who  command  the  Army  Service  Corps,  and 
who  rank  as  follows :  Commissjiry,  with  Major; 
Deputy  Commis.sarj',  with  Captain;  A.ssistant  Com- 
niis,sary,  with  Lieutenant.  For  the  duties  of  the  Pay 
Department  there  are  three  grades  of  officers,  viz. ,  Pay- 
master, Deputy  Paymaster,  and  .tV-ssistant  Paymaster, 
ranking  in  the  same  position  as  stated  for  Commis- 
Siiries.  Firet  appointments  in  the  executive  branches 
of  the  Control  Department  are  conferred  on  Ci\ilians 
selected  by  competitive  examination,  or  on  Subalterns 
of  the  army  and  well-deserving  Non-commissioned 
Officers.  The  limit  of  age  is  17  to  'id  for  Ci\ilians,  22 
for  Subalterns  of  the  army  and  militia.  In  the  regula- 
tions of  1870  for  the  Control,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
first  ten  paragraphs  relate  to  general  duties  of  the  De- 
partment, and  11  to  18  lay  down  the  duties  of  Control 
Officers  towards  the  General  Officer  Commanding. 
These  instructions  show  that  the  Control  Officer  is 
independent  of  the  General  in  Command,  in  being 
able  to  communicate  direct  with  the  Secretary  of 
War — which  means  that  the  Control  Department  is 
under  the  War  Office,  instead  of  the  Commander-in- 
Chief,  which  appears  to  be  a  mistake.  On  this  point 
most  military  men  are  in  accord,  and  there  is  in 
BUtrkirijod'K  Magazine  for  October,  1874,  a  verj'  good 
article  en  the  subject  of  the  Control  Department, 
showing  its  unsuitiibleness,  as  at  present  constituted, 
either  for  war  or  peace.  The  article  is  written  by  a 
General  Officer  of  gi-eat  experience.  General  Lysons; 
it  is  full  of  good  sen.sc  and  militarj'  knowledge,  and 
may  In;  taken  as  the  view  entertained  by  most  mili- 
tary men  who  have  passed  their  lives  in  the  field.  A 
return  to  the  old  organization  of  the  Commi.ssariat 
Department  seems  to  be  demanded,  and  will  doubt- 
less be  reverted  to  ln'fore  long:  it  was  soimd  and 
good;  it  stood  the  test  of  years  of  practicsU  experi- 
ence; it  giew  under  the  hard  hand  of  necessitv;  it 
carried  the  army  through  all  the  difficulties  of  the 
Peninsular  War,  and  led  the  troops  to  victories  the 
most  brilliant  in  the  annals  of  history.  Many  officers 
think  it  unadvisable  to  mix  up,  in  one  Depart- 
ment, supply,  store,  passage  transport,  and  half  a 
dozen  other  things,  each  of  which  shovdd  be  a  De- 
partment of  it.self.  To  crowd  Department  upon 
Department  under  one  head,  and  to  expect  efficiency, 
is  simply  courting  failure.  On  the  formation  of  the 
Control,  the  following  separate  branches  of  the  army 
were  amalg-amated  with  it,  viz.:  Commi.ss;iri:it  ;  Bar- 
racks; Military  Stores;  Purvevor's;  Army  Tr.insport 
— then  known  as  the  Jlilitary  Train,  to  which  a  large 
number  of  civil  and  military  employes  were  also  at- 
tached, dispersed  in  a  varietj'  of  Sub-Departments, 
ha\ing  no  connection  with  each  other.  The  Control 
Department  is  presided  over  by  a  Surveyor  General 


CONTBOLLEB. 


400 


CONVERTED  GURS. 


of  Onlnanco  at  the  War  Dfllct,  who  has  uiuIct  him  a 
Dirii-tor  of  Transport  ami  Siipjilics.  iiiul  a  Director 
(if  >Iililarv  Stores.  The  admiuistnilive  branch  con- 
sists as  is  shown  alwvc. 

CONTBOLLEB.— Anoflicer  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep 
tinancial  aci-ounls,  or  to  sec  tliat  they  are  properly 
kept  ami  audited.  In  Ihe  Lniled  States  Treasury  De- 
partment there  an-  the  First  and  Second  Controllers  to 
e.xamine  accounts  and  sign  drafts;  and  also  a  Con- 
troller of  the  Currency,  who  furnishes  circulating 
notes  to  bjinks.  In  aiuie  of  the  States,  a.s  New  York, 
a  Controller  is  elecled  by  the  pi'ople  who  has  general 
charge  of  the  tinancial  affairs  of  the  State.  There  is 
also  a  Controller  in  the  city  of  New  York,  elected  by 
IHipular  vote.  In  the  Brili-sh  service,  the  Controller 
is  the  highest  grade  in  the  Control  Department.  He 
ranks  with  a  >Iajor  General. 

CONVALESCENT.  —  A.soldierdischarged  from  hos- 
pital, but  who  is  not  strong  enough  to  dohisdutv. 

CONVALESCENT-HOSPITAL  DEPOTS.  —  Encamp- 
ments of  huts  or  tents  for  Ihe  reception  of  men  dis- 
charged from  the  genend  hospital,  and  who  retpiire 
no  longer  medical  allendanee,  but  at  the  .sjime  lime 
are  not  lit  to  join  the  ranks,  from  a  want  of  strength. 
Such  depots  relieve  the  general  hospital,  and  are  bet- 
ter places  for  the  convalescent  thim  a  crowded  sick- 
room, as  they  are  removed  from  a  bad  atmosphere, 
and  have  consequently  a  favorable  chance  of  gaining 
strength.  As  regards  hospitals,  the  Medical  Depart- 
ments is  resjxinsible  for  the  u.se  of  all  stores,  and  for 
timely  requisitions,  but  the  Control  Department  is 
responsible  for  such  stores  being  supplied.     ^  i 

CONVENTION.— An  agreement  entered  mto  by 
troops  which  are  opposi'd  to  one  another,  either  for 
the  suspension  of  hostilities  or  the  exchange  of  pri- 
soners.    See  Truce'. 

CONVEESION. — 1.  A  term  used  in  ordnance  no- 
menclature when  condemned  stores  are  converted 
or  turned  into  use  for  other  pur|ioscs.  The  term  is 
made  use  of  when  smoothbore  guns  are  converted 
into  rifled  gims. — 2.  A  change  of  front,  as  of  a  body 
of  troops  attacked  in  the  Hank. 

CONVEETED  GUNS.— A  tenn  applied  to  Cflst-iron 
guns  lined  with  w  rouuht-iron  or  steel  tubes.  The 
coils  for  the  tubes  are  made  entirely  of  wrought- 
iron  bars,  specially  prepare<I  by  iK-iiig  put  three  times 
through  roughing-rolls ;  puddled  iron  is  hard  and 
brittle  and  is  not  by  it.«elf  suitable  for  guns.  A  suffi- 
cient number  of  bars  are  piled  or  faggoted  together  to 
form  a  bar  of  the  size  it  is  intended  to  roll.  The  pile, 
comiwsed  partly  of  puddled  iron  and  ]iartly  of  scrap,  | 
the  former  being  placed  always  on  the  outside,  on 
account  of  the  more  even  surfaces,  is  raised  to  white 
heat  and  rolled  into  a  long  bar  alx)ut  24  feet  long, 
and  varjing  in  section  from  2i  to  7  inches,  according 
to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  It  is  then 
cut  into  lengths,  ag-ain  faggoted,  raised  to  a  welding 
heat  and  pa.s.sed  between  the  rollei-s;  one  rolling  may  ' 
be  sufficient.  The  siction  of  the  bar  is  slightly  tra- 
]>ezoidal,  m  order  that  when  the  hot  bar  fs  wound 
round  the  mandrel,  narrow  side  inward,  the  spread- 
ii!g  of  the  inside  and  the  narrowing  of  the  outside 
may  l)c  neutralized,  and  no  space  left  between  the 
folds  of  the  coils.  To  weld  the  bars  together,  the 
ends  must  be  scarfed  down  and  placed  from  opposite 
sides  in  a  furimce,  from  which,  when  they  arrive  at 
a  white  heat,  they  are  withdrawn  and  welded  under  ' 
an  adjacent  steam-hammer,  s;ind  having  been  thrown  ! 
on  the  hot  bars  (as  is  indeed  customary  in  the  case  of 
all  forgings)  in  order  to  clean  the  surface  and  prevent 
scale  forming,  by  converting  the  superticial  oxide  into 
a  li(iuid  sillaite  which  will  flow  off  of  its  own  accord 
or  Ix'  S(|ueezed  out  by  the  hammer.  Another  bar  is 
welded  on  in  a  similar  maimer,  and  so  on  until  a 
sufficient  length  is  obtained  for  the  required  coil. 

The   bar  to  be  coiled,  having   Ihe  ends  flattened  i 
down,  is  placed  on  trestle  rollers  in  front  of  a  long  ' 
reverberatory  furnace  with  a  ctiiinney  at  the  far  en(l 
and  grates  along  its  sides.     A  chain  l>eing  hooked 
into  an  eye  or  hole  in  the  end,  the  bar  is  drawn  by 


machinery  into  the  furnace.  When  the  bar  arrives 
at  a  brigh't-red  heat,  the  end  near  the  door  is  drawn 
out  by  means  of  Ihe  .sjime  e^'c,  iuid  is  attached  to  a 
pin,  this  end  being  cooled  with  water  to  prevent  it 
tearing  away  with  the  weight  of  the  bar;  this  pin  is 
connected  with  a  slightly  tapering  iron  roller  or  man- 
drel flxeil  aero.ss  and  in  front  of  the  door  of  the  fur- 
nance;  Ihe  mandrel  tapers  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
removal  of  the  tinished  coil.  The  apparatus  is  then 
put  into  gear,  and  the  mandrel  revolves,  winding  the 
bar  around  it.  During  the  process  scales  form  l)e- 
twcen  the  folds,  but  their  effect  is  almost  nullified  by 
subseqiunl  healing  and  forging,  sand  being  used  to 
assist  in  liqiiifying  Ihe  o.xide  as  stated  above.  When 
the  coil  is  fonneil,  the  lixed  extremity  is  hammered 
off  the  pin  and  water  is  poured  on  that  end  to  cool  it, 
in  order  that  the  folds  there  may  not  be  opened  out 
in  taking  off  the  coil.  If  the  coil  is  large,  a  short 
iron  bar  is  placed  with  one  end  resting  on  the  ground 
and  the  other  end  agjunst  the  extremity  which  has 
been  removed  from  the  ])in.  The  mandrel  is  then 
turned  in  Ihe  sjime  direclion  as  that  in  which  it  re- 
volved when  the  coil  was  being  formed,  and  the  coil, 
being  prevented  from  revolving  by  the  iron  prop,  is 
loosened  and  slips  down  toward  the  narrow  end  of 
the  mandrel.  The  mandrel  is  then  lifted  up  by  a 
crane  and  the  coil  drops  off. 

For  the  welding,  which,  especially  in  tubes  for  lin- 
ing guns,  must  be  done  wiUi  great  care,  the  coil  is 
placed  \ipright  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  for  were 
it  placed  on  its  side  it  should  be  turned  over  in  or- 
der to  be  equally  heated  all  through,  and  moreover 
drippings  from  the  lire-brick  which  line  the  furnaec 
would  probably  drop  from  the  roof  in  Iwtwcen  the 
folds.  The  tuiie  being  intended  for  an  inner  one,  two 
furnaces  have  to  be  used;  one  is  at  a  low  temperature, 
(termed  a  blue  light),  and  when  the  coil  arrives  at  a 
red  heat  it  is  brought  out  and  transferred  to  the  other, 
where  it  is  brought  to  a  welding  heat.  This  is  foimd 
to  be  more  economical  than  by  placing  the  cold  coil 
at  once  into  a  verj-  hot  furnace,  and  also  prevents  any 
injury  to  the  iron  which  would  result  from  so  doing. 
In  all  cases  of  welding  it  is  necessary  not  only  to 
strike  while  the  iron  is  hot,  but  that  the  surfaces  to 
Ix'  joined  should  be  perfectly  clean;  the  while  hot 
coil  is  therefore  transferred  from  the  furnace  to  the 
steamhanuner  as  quickly  as  possible,  not  neglecting 
to  throw  sand  upon  it.  The  coil  is  first  placed  verti- 
cally under  the  hammer,  and  receives  a  few  smart 
blows  to  weld  Ihe  folds;  it  is  then  thrown  on  its  side, 
and  being  gradually  tm-ned,  is  hammered  (or  jiatted) 
all  round  to  straighten  it.  It  is  then  raised  vertically 
again  and  a  punch  or  maiulrel  rather  over  half  the 
length  and  a  little  larger  than  the  interior  diameter  of 
the  coil  is  hammered  down  its  own  length;  the  coil 
is  next  placed  on  its  side  and  hammered  round,  that 
half  of  its  length  thus  being  made  very  compact  and 
large  enough  to  let  the  mandrel  fall  out;  after  this  the 
coil  is  again  raised  vertically,  and  the  mandrel  is 
forced  in  the  opposite  end,  and  the  process  repeated. 
The  mandrels  are  of  coiled  iron  and  very  hard.  The 
rea.son  why  a  long  nianilrel  is  not  forced  through  the 
whole  length  of"  the  coil  is  that  it  would  tend  to 
separate  the  folds. 

The  coil  is  replaced  in  the  furnace  for  a  second 
heating,  and  much  Ihe  sjune  process  is  followed  to 
render  the  ring  more  consolidated  as  well  as  more 
shapely;  a  tine  mandrel  is  also  used  to  make  the  in- 
terior more  ixrfecl;  and  in  order  lo  prevent  the  tube 
from  being  l)ell-moullied,  a  flexible  .steel  bar  is  used 
under  the  hanuner  lo  flatten  the  ends.  Before  the 
coil  is  removed  from  the  hammer,  water  is  thrown 
over  it,  which,  forminginto  steam,  blowsoffthe  black 
scales  and  shreds  where  the  work  is  good,  but  a  black 
spot  is  left  l)y  the  water  if  there  is  a  bad  part.  In 
order  to  form  lining-lubes,  several  of  these  coils  have 
to  be  united.  To  weld  them  together,  Ihe  coils  have 
to  be  faced  (turned  smooth  at  the  ends)  and  recipro- 
cally reces.sed;  that  is,  a  projection  (spigot)  is  formed 
at  one  end  of  a  coil,  while  a  recess  (faucet)  is  bored  in 


C0N7EBTED  GUNS. 


401 


CONVESTED  GUNS. 


the  corresponding  end  of  another  coil.  The  height  of 
tlie  shoulder  is  a  little  greater  than  the  depth  of  the 
recess,  in  order  that  a  close  joint  inav  be  obtained  on 
the  interior.  The  recess  is  then  expanded  by  heat 
and  .shrunk  over  the  projection,  so  that  the  two  coils 
are  attached  securely  enough  together  to  admit  of 
their  being  put  into  the  furnace  for  welding.  For 
the  inner  barrel,  which  is  intended  fo  lie  the  entire 
length  of  the  bore,  the  tube  is  put  crossways  through 
a  furniinee  so  constructed  that  intense  heal  acts  on 
the  joint  while  the  remote  ends  project  out.side. 
When  the  joint  arrives  at  a  welding  lieat,  a  stout 
iron  bar  is  pa.ssed  right  through  the  tube;  this  bar  is 
keyed  at  one  end,  and  by  means  of  a  screw-nut, 
worked  by  a  long  lever  at  the  other  end,  the  two  coils 
are  pressed  and  thus  welded  together.  This  pre.ss\ne 
slightly  bulges  the  metal  at  the  junction,  so  it  must 
be  straightened  under  a  steam-hammer.  Another 
coil  is  then  added  on  in  a  similar  manner,  and  .so  on 
until  tie  tube  is  of  the  required  length. 

The  tube,  if  for  an  8-inch  ritle,  after  having  it.s 
neces.sary  length,  is  then  rough  and  tine  bored  to 
about  7.92  inches  diameter,  and  the  recess  in  the 
breech  cut  and  tapped  for  the  wrought-iron  cup. 
The  cup  for  closing  the  breech-end  of  the  barrel  is 
forged  and  stamjjed  into  shape  under  the  steam-ham- 
mer. It  is  turned  inside  and  outside,  and  furnished 
on  the  outside  with  a  thread  of  four  or  live  to  the 
inch.  It  is  then  screwed  tightly  home.  The  tube  in 
this  stiite  is  proved  with  water-pressure  of  130  pounds 
to  the  square  inch,  to  ascertain  that  the  cup  tits  tightly 
and  that  there  is  no  leakage.  The  Ijreech-end  of  the 
A  tube  is  then  turned  over  a  length  of  40  inches  for 


t^m^^m^ 


amount  of  extension,  in  fact,  as  that  due  to  its  elastic 
limit  or  pressure  of  12  tons  to  the  square  inch  of 
section).  Therefore  it  is  not  neces.sarv  to  have  more 
than  500  F.,  which  will  allow  a  good  working  mar- 
gin. With  respect  to  the  mode  of  cooling  during  the 
process  of  shrinking,  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  a 
long  coil  or  tube  cooling  .simultaneously  at  both  ends, 
for  this  would  cause  the  middle  portion  to  be  drawii 
out  to  an  undue  .state  of  longitudinal  tension.  There- 
fore, in  some  cases,  water  is  projected  on  one  end  of 
a  coil  so  as  to  cool  it  tirst.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
expansion  of  the  inner  tube,  thus  obstructing  or  re- 
tarding the  operation  of  cooling,  water  is  circulated 
through  the  interior  by  means  of  the  usual  supply- 
pipe  and  siphon.  In  the  manufacture  of  these  tubes, 
samples  of  each  week's  work  are  tested  for  tensile 
strength  and  elasticity,  and  usually  with  most  favor- 
able results;  the  stretching  weight  being  about  13 
tons,  and  the  breaking-weight  23  tons,  per  square 
inch. 

Before  inserting  the  coiled  wrought-iron  barrels, 
the  cast  iron  gun  should  be  bored  out  to  the  required 
size  and  the  bore  afterwards  carefully  ad  lusted  by 
lapping  with  leaden  block  and  sjind  and  water.  The 
taper,  if  any,  from  the  breech  toward  the  muzzle, 
should  be  uniform,  antl  in  no  place  .should  the  eccen- 
tricity exceed  .003  inch.  The  muzzle-end  .should  be 
.screwed  with  an  allowance  of  .01.5  between  the  diame- 
ters of  the  ring  and  the  gun;  the  .screwed  part  should 
be  longer  than  required  for  the  ring,  so  as  to  insure 
the  rear  end  of  barrel  being  in  contact  with  the  cast- 
iron  at  the  end  of  the  bore.  A  "  gas-indicator  hole" 
is  drilled  through  the  breech-end,  so  that  it  will  come 


Eight-iDoh  Cou  verted  Rifle. 


the  B  tube  previously  bored,  and  a  spiral  gas  channel, 
.03  inch  deep  and  .1  inch  wide,  is  cut  round  its 
exterior,  communicating  with  the  star  grooves  cut  in 
the  end  of  the  barrel  and  the  gas-escape  through  the 
cast-iron  breech. 

The  li  tube  consl.sts  of  two  coils  united,  and  being 
rough-turned  to  a  diameter  of  about  13.75  inches,  anil 
finished-bored  to  10.75  inches,  it  is  shrunk  on  with 
.003  inch  shrinkage  in  the  diameter.  The  B  tube 
in  order  to  be  shrunk  on  the  A  tube  has  to  be  bored 
to  that  degree  of  smoothness  which  is  necessarj'  for 
close  contact  and  mutual  support,  and  is  gauged  to 
I  |,'j^  of  an  inch  every  few  inches  of  it.s  length  as  well 
as  at  every  shoulder  it  may  have.  To  these  measure- 
ments the  shrinkage  is  added,  and  a  jilan  made  out 
according  to  which  the  exterior  of  the  inner  coil  or  A 
lube  must  be  tine-turned  in  order  that  it  may  exceed 
in  diameter  the  bore  of  the  outside  coil  by  the  re- 
quired amount  of  shrinkage  at  the  respective  points. 
This  plan,  together  with  a  series  of  corresponding 
"  horseshoe"  giiuges(verj'  accurately  adjusted),  is  then 
furnished  to  the  turner,  who  turns  down  the  inside 
coil  to  the  proper  size.  The  operation  of  shrinkage 
is  very  simple.  The  outer  coil  is  exTianded  bj'  heat 
until  it  is  sufficiently  large  (if  a  large  mass,  by  means 
of  a  wood  tire,  for  which  the  tube  itself  forms  the 
flue;  if  a  small  mass,  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  at  a 
low  temperature).  It  is  then  raised  up  by  a  travel- 
ing crane  overhead,  and  dropped  over  the  part  on  Xd 
which  it  is  to  be  shrunk,  which  is  placed  verticallj'  in 
a  pit  ready  to  receive  it,  and  where  the  tube  and 
jacket  cool  off.  The  heat  required  in  shrinking  is  not 
very  great.  Wrought-iron,  on  being  heated  from  02° 
F.  (the  ordinary  temperature,  say)  to  213',  expands 
linearly  about   ,n'n,i   part  of  its   length    (the  same 


nearly  opposite  the  junction-line  of  the  plug  in  the 
barrel.  All  sharp  edges  in  the  interior  of  the  gun 
should  be  taken  off,  and  the  bore  carefully  cleaned 
and  oiled.  The  barrel  is  turned  to  the  measurements 
taken  from  the  gun  when  finally  prepared  to  receive 
the  barrel.  These  measui-ements  should  be  taken  at 
least  every  6  inches  from  the  muzzle  to  within  13  in- 
ches from  the  breech,  when  they  sliould  be  taken  at 
every  inch.  From  the  muzzle  "to  a  point  34  inches 
from  the  breech,  the  difference  between  the  bore  and 
the  size  of  the  barrel  should  not  exceed  .015  of  an 
inch,  and  from  thence  to  the  bottom  of  the  bore  .007 
of  an  inch. 

The  Imrrcl  can  be  turned  by  means  of  an  expand- 
ing mandrel  placed  in  the  muzzle,  the  center  being 
left  in  tlie  plug  at  the  bottom  of  the  barrel.  The  re"- 
duced  part  for  the  muzzle-ring  should  be  .01  of  an 
inch  less  in  diameter  than  the  bore  of  the  ring;  the 
breech  of  the  ring  should  be  square  to  the  face  against 
which  it  is  screwed.  The  radius  at  the  breech-end  of 
barrel  should  not  be  in  contact  with  the  casing,  but 
should  have  .05  of  an  inch  clearance;  thus  if  the  gun 
has  been  bored  out  ^\ith  a  1.7  railius  tool,  the  barrel 
.should  be  turned  to  1.75  inch  radius.  When  fitting 
the  barrel  into  the  gun,  all  bearing-surfaces  should  be 
well  oiled.  It  is  most  convenient  to  place  the  gun  on 
trestles  about  3  feet  6  inches  high.  The  barrel  is 
lifted  by  a  crane  and  entered  as  far  as  the  slings  will 
permit.  The  slings  are  then  placed  round  theVnd  of 
the  expanding  mandrel,  and  at  the  outer  end  of  the 
mandrel  are  bolted  two  strong  cross-bars  bv  which 
the  barrel  is  worked  round  while  it  is  being  drawn  in 
by  the  cnine  The  indicator-hole  allows'"the  air  to 
escape.  The  plug-center  should  not  be  taken  off  un- 
til it  comes  in  contact  with  the  bottom  of  the  bore. 


CONT£BT£B. 


40i 


COHVOT. 


when  it  may  be  turned  off  and  the  hrccch-cnd  well 
iiiiirknl  nitii  thin  rt'ilKjul  paiiil.  The  harril  .sliould 
then  bt'  ainiin  tikti  in  ami  well  worked  ajrainsl  the 
cn-iing,  i;reiit  nire  beiujr  taken  that  the  end  of  the  bar- 
rel abuts  truly  ajniiiist  the  bottom  of  tlie  l)ore.  A 
small  scri'W  is  inserlt'd  at  about  the  middle  of  the 
length  of  the  barn'l,  to  pn-veut  the  jiossibility  of^  the 
barrel  lurniiig  round  in  thcjrun  duriii!;  tiriiiir.  When 
the  tul>e  i<  properly  adjiisteil,  the  collar  is  securely 
screwed  into  the  iiiiizzle.  The  muzzle  of  the  gun  is 
then  faceil,  and  the  bore  lapix'il  and  rilled.  The  old 
vent  is  elos*>d  with  a  wrought-iron  scre\v-i)lug,  a  new- 
vent  (copper-bushed)  iH'ing  placed  nearer  the  muzzle. 

The  drawing  represents  an  H-iiich  converted  rille, 
testeil  with  the  following  results:  Six  i)reliminary 
roimds  were  tired,  using  charges  ranging  from  20  to 
30  |)ounds.  Four  hunilred  and  fifty  rounds  were 
tired  with  battering-charges  of  3o  jiounds  of  hexagonal 
])owder  and  an  average  weight  of  projectile  (Butler)  of 
171  |K)unds.  All  examinations  up  to  the  one  hundred 
ami  seventieth  tire  failed  to  discover  any  evidence  of 
injury  to  the  system;  but  impressions  taken  of  the 
bore  at  this  round  showed  a  line  line  extending  from 
the  commencement  of  the  land  immediately  in  front 
of  the  vent  to  the  cojiiht  bushing.  This  proved  to 
be  an  initial  rupture,  as  at  175  rounds  a  crack  had  de- 
veloped from  the  vent  to  the  nuizzle  in  and  througli 
the  tulw.  The  firings  were  continued  from  this  point 
up  to  the  four  hundred  and  tifty  sixth  (the  breaking 
round),  making  a  total  of  286  rounds  which  the  system 
endured  after  the  rupture  of  tlic  lul)e.  The  gun  was 
tired  after  the  complete  rupture  of  llie  inner  lube — at 
the  one  hundred  and  seventy  tifth  round — to  test  how 
long  the  jacket  and  the  cjist-iron  ca.sing  would  stand 
battering-charges.  Evidence  of  rupture  of  the  jacket  ; 
was  noted  at  the  liust  few  rounds,  and  the  gun,  when 
burst,  e\ndcntly  was  being  held  together  by  a  weak- 
ened cast-iron  ca-sing,  probably  cracked  on  its  in-  ' 
tcrior  surface.  The  steel  in  lx)th  jacket  anil  tube, 
although  of  g(XKl  quality,  was  evidently  too  high  and 
inextensible  to  secure  the  verj'  best  residts.  I 

An  analysis  of  the   record  shows  as  follows:    A  ' 
mean  initial  velocity  of  1379  feet,  using  35  pounds  i 
powder  and  projectile  of  about  185  pounds;  the  mean  ' 
maximum  pressure  being  30,453  pounds  per  square  : 
inch,  and,  for  a  shot  of  170  pounds,  a  velocity  of  1425  ' 
feet,  and  a  corresponding  mean  maximiun  ])re.ssure  of 
29,622  pounds.     Forty-six  shots  of  about  the  weight  ^ 
of  the  former,  and  283  shots  of  about   the  weight  i 
of  the  latter,  were  fired.     The  mean  weight  of  all 
projectiles— using  35-pound  charges— is  171  pounds; 
the  mean  velocities  and   pressures  ol)tained  are  re- 
spectively 1419  feet  and  29,668  pounds.     No  anoma- 
lies are  apparent  in  these  resixcts,  awl  the  record  | 
shows  a  general  accordance  with  the  results  attained 
in  other  trials.     The  star-gauging  at  the  one  hundred 
and  seventieth  round  indicated  a  maximum  enlarge- 
ment of  .010  inch;  at  the  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
fifth  round,  of  .0115  inch,  the  result  of  the  cnick; 
from  this  point  to  the  four  hundred  and  fifty -.second 
round  the  maximum    eidargeinent  was    .0235  inch. 
The  gutta-i)ercha  inipns,sions  taken  at  various  times 
during  the  progress  of  the  trial  indicated  no  sjx'cial 
erosion  from  the  gases;  but,  as  the  tilings  progressed, 
spawls  were  gradually  developed  along  the  line  of 
the  crack  in  the  tutK^     See   Jireech-iniii-rthn,  Coiled 
Tiihffi,  Fiihririition  of  Tube»,  Orduniice,  PaUiser  Gun, 
and  I'unmK  (liiii. 

CONVEKTER.— In  melallurgj',  a  receptacle  holding 
iron  which  is  to  be  oonverteii  into  steel;  a  spherical 
vca-sel  lined  with  fire-clay,  the  bottom  having  mi- 
meroiLS  holes  through  which  a  powerful  blast  is 
driven  during  the  proce».s.  From  this  vessel  the 
liquid  steel  is  iHjured  into  molds.    Sec  Ji/Mired  Steel. 

CONVERTING. — 1.  DecarlKaiizing,  or  changing  ca.st- 
iron  into  steel.  2.  A  name  applieci  to  changing  muz- 
zle-loading arms  tobreeih-loaders,  and  which  in  some 
form  has  taken  place  with  the  sm.dl  jirms  of  most 
national  armaments.  From  among  the  various  com- 
peting plans  for  converting  the  £nfield  rifle  of  the 


English  service  into  a  breech-loader,  that  of  Snider 
was  adopteil.  The  cost  of  conversion  is  about  15«. 
English  for  each  rifle.  The  method  is  a.s  follows; 
AI)ont  two  inches  of  the  barrel  are  cut  away  at  the 
breech,  and  a  solid  breech-slopper  working  side- 
ways on  a  hinge  is  placed  in  the  opening  thus  nuide. 
Through  this" stopper  passes  a  piston,  one  end  of 
which,  when  tJle  breech  is  closed,  n-ceives  the  blow 
from  the  hammer,  wliile  the  other  connnuuicatesit  to 
the  center  of  the  cartridge,  thus  firing  the  latter.  The 
empty  cartridge-case  is  retracted  after  each  dise^harge 
by  means  of  sliding  back  the  stopper  t)n  its  pintle, 
when  the  tilling  of  the  piece  tips  out  the  shell  anil 
another  can  be  inserted.  The  Springfield  rifle  is  also 
coMNcrlcd  inio  a  breech-loader.     See  ('oiirerU'd  Ouim. 

CONVEX  ORDER  OF  BATTLE.— If  an  attack  is 
made  in  the  ei  nter  of  the  enemy's  line,  refusing  both 
wings,  the  general  direction  of  the  line  of  battle  of 
the  attacking  army  will  be  convex  towards  the  en- 
emy's line.  This  order  of  battle  Inis  been  frequently 
used,  and  possesses  the  advanUige  of  jjroduciug  great 
results  when  the  attack  is  successful.  It  po.sse.s.scs  the 
disadvantage  of  selecting  ns  a  point  of  attack  the 
strongest  i)art  of  the  enemy's  line,  anil  in  case  of  re- 
l)ulse  the  failure  is  apt  to  be  followed  by  great  dis- 
aster if  the  enemy  makes  a  vigorous  cotmter-attack. 
See  ('oitaice  Order  of  liattle. 

CONVOY. — To  conduct  a  convoy  in  safety  through 
an  enemy's  territory,  where  it  is  exposed  to  attat'ks 
either  of  regular  or  of  partisjm  troops,  is  one  of  the 
most  hazardous  operations  of  war;  owing  to  the  ea.se 
with  which  a  very  inferior  force  may  take  the  escort 
at  di.sadvantjige  in  defiles,  or  other  positions  favorable 
to  an  ambuscade  or  surj^rise,  and  to  the  difficulty  of 
seeming  a  long  column,  like  that  presented  by  a  con- 
voy, from  a  sudden  attjick. 

The  escort  should  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  beat 
off  any  presumed  force  that  the  enemy  can  bring 
against  it.  A  weak  escort  will  ordy  hold  out  a  temp- 
tation to  the  enemy  to  attack  the  convoy.  When  the 
convoy  is  of  very  great  importance,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary, besides  giving  it  a  strong  escort,  to  throw  out 
detachments  between  its  line  of  march  and  the  enemy; 
and  when  there  are  posts  occupied  by  our  troops  along 
this  line,  they  should  keep  up  a  vigilant  svstem  of 
patrols,  piLshing  them  as  far  out  as  practicable,  so 
that  the  escort  may  receive  aid  and  timely  notice  of 
auj'  hostile  movement.  The  escort,  when  it  is  deemed 
neces.sjiiy,  should  be  composed  of  all  arms;  but  always 
of  both  infantry  and  cavalry,  as,  from  the  necessity 
of  gaining  limely  infonnation  of  the  enemy's  ap- 
proach, patrols  of  cavalry  must  be  pu-shed  out  to  some 
distance,  lioth  in  from  and  on  the  flanks. 

As  the  convoy  must  be  perfectly  hemmed  in  and 
guanled  on  all  points  by  its  escort,  the  latter  is  u.su- 
ally  divided  into  five  iirincipal  portions  with  this  ob- 
ject; an  adv;inced-guanl,  which  is  preceded  by  a 
small  delachment  to  scour  and  search  the  ground  in 
front  of  the  line  of  inarch;  a  rear-guard;  flankers; 
and  the  main  body.  For  the  purpose  of  jiresenting  a 
surticieni  force  upon  those  points  of  the  convoy  that 
will  iirobably  be  assailed,  the  main  Ixxly  issubdivided 
into  four  unequal  portions;  one  half  of  it  will  consti- 
tute a  reserve;  one  fourth  will  form  a  guard  for  the 
center  of  the  convoy;  and  the  remaining  fourth  will 
be  divided  into  two  equal  portions,  one  of  which  will 
march  directly  at  the  head  of  the  convoy,  and  the 
other  close  in  its  rear.  This  subdi\i.sion  of  the  main 
body  is  made  on  the  supposition  that  the  enemy  will 
attack  the  convoy  cillier  at  the  center,  or  in  the  fnmt 
or  rear.  If  the  attack  is  made  upon  either  of  the  two 
last  points,  the  divisions  for  their  protection  can  be 
readily  reinforced  l)y  the  advanced-  or  the  rear-guard. 
As  the  reserve  must  be  in  reailiness  to  reinforce  any 
point  menaced,  and  to  offer  a  vigorous  resistance,  its 
strength  should  be  greater  than" either  of  the  other 
divisions. 

The  order  of  marcli  of  the  escort  will  be  regulated 
mainly  Iiy  the  natural  features  of  the  ground  pas.sed 
over.     Tbe  advanceti-guard  will  precede  the  convoy 


CONVOY  OF  PEISONEES. 


403 


COOKING. 


about  a  thousiind  paces.  The  detachment  hy  which 
it  is  preceded,  and  which  should  consist  of  cavalry, 
will  push  forward  as  far  a.s  it  can  with  safety,  taking 
care  to  scour  thoroughly  all  the  ground  jjassed  over. 
The  flankers,  which  will  also  usually  be  composed  of 
cavalry,  will  l)c  dinilcd  into  platoons,  and  be  thrown 
out  as  far  a.s  circumstances  will  permit.  Each  pla- 
toon will  throw  out  a  small  detachment,  on  its  outer 
tlank,  which  last  will  furnish  vedettes  to  move  along 
the  outward  tlank  of  the  detachment.  The  reserve 
will  usually  occupy  some  point  near  the  center  of  the 
convoy.  The  rear-guard  will  leave  about  1000  paces 
between  it  and  the  tail  of  the  column.  The  di\'isions 
immediately  at  the  head  and  tail  ot  the  train  will  keep 
close  to  the  convoy.  The  center  division  will  usually 
be  divided  into  two  portions,  one  being  on  each  flank 
of  the  convoy;  a  space  of  eight  or  ten  paces  l)eiug  left 
in  the  center  of  the  train,  for  these  portions  to  pass  to 
either  tlank,  as  circumstances  may  require. 

The  convoy  is  placed  under  the  orders  of  an  officer, 
subordinah'  to  the  Commandant  of  the  escort,  who  is 
charged  with  everything  appertaining  to  its  police, 
etc.  A  detachment  of  Pioneers,  or  .Sappers,  shoiUd 
precede  the  convoy,  to  repair  the  roads  and  bridges, 
etc.  A  few  wagons,  with  all  the  ueces-sary  impk'- 
ments  for  the  Sappers,  should  accompany  the" convoy; 
and  it  is  also  recommended  to  earn,-  with  it  a  few 
eheraut-de-frige,  the  lances  of  which  "are  of  iron,  and 
connected  with  the  bodies  by  hinges,  to  pack  conve- 
niently, in  order  to  form  a  temporarj'  obstacle  against 
the  enemy's  cavalry,  when  the  convoy  parks  for  the 
night,  or  when  threatened  with  an  attack.  When  a 
part  of  the  convoy  consists  of  bat-horse.s  or  mules, 
they  should  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  column  of 
wagons,  as  they  are  found  to  travel  better  in  this 
position  than  when  in  the  rear. 

All  the  usual  precautions  to  guard  a  column  on 
the  march  against  a  surprise  should  1*  redoubled  in 
cases  of  convoys.  The  patrols  on  the  flanks  and  in 
front  should  push  as  far  out  as  practicable,  so  that 
the  convoy  mny  have  timely  warning  of  an  enemy's 
api^roach,  in  order  to  )iark,  according  to  circum- 
stances, before  an  attack  can  be  made.  'With  drivers 
accustomed  to  their  business,  half  an  hour  at  lea.st 
will  be  recpiired  for  this  operation.  The  advanced- 
guard  should  be  particularly  careful  to  occupy  by 
detachments  smy  lateral  roads  which  might  offer  the 
enemy  a  favorable  point  of  attack  on  the  convoy. 
These  detachments  will  keep  their  posts  until  the 
convoy  has  pa.s-sed;  and  they  will  join  the  rear-guard 
as  it  comes  up.  The  officer  in  command  of  the  head 
di\ision,  marching  with  the  convoy,  will  see  that  his 
detachment  moves  on  regularly,  as  the  pace  of  the 
convoy  will  be  regulated  by  it;  and  from  lime  to 
time  he  will  bring  it  to  a  halt,  to  allow  the  carriages 
to  close  up:  this  precaution  must  be  carefully  attended 
to  when  near  an  enemy. 

If  menaced  with  an  attack,  the  divisions  at  the  head 
and  rear  of  the  convoy  will  keep  their  positions  and 
repel  the  enemy  by  their  fire  should  he  attack;  the 
center  di\ision  will  move  to  the  tlank  menaced,  and 
take  position  to  cover  the  two  center  sections  of  the 
convoy;  the  reserve  will  move  towards  the  point 
threatened;  the  advanced-  and  rear-guards  and  flank- 
ers will  close  upon  the  convoy  to  be  in  readiness  t<i 
act  as  circumstances  may  reqiiire.  Before  entering  a 
defile,  a  detachment  from  the  reserve  should  be  sent 
forward  to  secure  its  flanks  and  outlet,  and  then  send 
out  patrols  in  all  directions  to  examine  the  ground  in 
front  and  see  that  all  is  safe.  As  the  convoy  comes 
up  to  a  point  designated  in  rear  of  the  defile,  it  is 
parketl  in  lines  of  sections.  The  center  division  of 
the  escort  will  join  the  advanced-guard  to  cover  the 
front;  the  rear-guard  will  take  position  to  cover  the 
rear,  the  flankers  on  the  flanks,  and  the  reserve  in  a 
central  position  to  advance  upon  the  point  which  may 
be  attacked.  When  the  patrols  report  all  safe,  the 
advanced-guard  and  center  division  pass  the  defile, 
and  proceed  far  enough  beyond  it  to  cover  the  ground 
where  the  convoy  will  park  as  it  reaches  the  other 


side;  the  reserve  and  flankers  will  cover  the  flanks  of 
the  c-onvoy  as  it  moves  to  its  new  position,  and  will 
then  take"  post  as  before;  the  rear-giiard,  joined  bv 
any  detachments  left  to  secure  particular  points  oh 
the  flanks  of  the  defile,  will  follow  .so  soon  as  the 
convoy  and  the  rest  of  the  troops  are  in  [Kjsition. 
When  all  the  troops  have  passed,  strong  detachments 
are  si'ut  forward,  in  all  directions,  at  least  one  hour 
before  the  convoj-  is  again  put  in  motion. 

When  the  escort  takes  position  at  night  within  the 
park  for  defease,  the  reserve  will  be  posted  in  the 
center,  and  the  divisions  that  march  with  the  convoy 
in  rear  of  their  respective  sections.  The  advanced- 
and  rear-guards  and  the  flankers  will  take  post  with- 
out, and  establish  their  outposts  and  .sentinels  in  the 
usual  way  for  sjifety.  The  cannon,  placed  at  the 
angles  of  the  park,  will  be  sui)ported  by  detachments 
of  infantry  and  cavalry  in  their  rear.  The  different 
divisions  will  throw  forward  skirmishers  to  meet  the 
enemy  if  he  attacks;  whilst  others  will  occupy  the 
wagons  from  which  they  can  tire.  Should  the  enemy 
not  be'  beaten  off  by  the  fire  of  these  troops,  the  re- 
serve will  sally  out  and  attack  with  the  bayonet. 

An  attack  upon  a  convoy  is  a  comparatively  easy 
and  siife  operation,  and  may  be  made  with  a  force 
quite  inferior  to  the  escort,  "as  the  latter  is  obliged, 
for  the  security  of  the  convoy,  to  keep  on  the  defen- 
sive. It  will  asually  be  best  to  attempt  a  surprise, 
choosing  points  which  are  favorable  to  ambuscades. 
The  manner  of  conducting  the  attack  will  depend 
upon  its  object,  whether  it"  be  to  caiJture  the  entire 
convoy,  to  cut  off  a  part  of  it,  or  simply  to  delay  its 
march".  In  the  first  case,  the  escort  must  be  beaten 
and  dispersed,  whilst  a  detachment  is  sent  to  secure 
the  convoy.  In  the  second,  an  attack  may  I>e  made 
on  one  point  with  the  ^iew  of  drawing  the  main  body 
of  the  escort  to  the  defense  of  that  point,  whilst  a  de- 
tachment attempts  to  cut  off  the  part  of  the  convoy 
from  which  the  escort  has  lieen  with('.rawn.  In  the 
last  case  the  convoy  will  be  fnijuently  menaced  with 
an  attack,  to  force  it  to  hall  and  park  for  defense; 
the  roads  will  be  obstructed,  bridges  broken  down, 
etc. 

If  the  attack  is  successful,  the  main  body  of  the 
troops  should  be  kept  together  in  position,  to  cover 
the  captured  convoy,  whilst  the  detachment  sent  to 
.secure  or  destroy  it  is  performing  its  duty.  The 
cavalrj-  will  endeavor  to  disperse  the  escort,  and 
bring  in  all  the  horses  that  may  have  been  cut  loose 
from  (he  convoy.  The  precaution  should  be  taken 
of  having  spare  horses  in  harness,  in  readiness  to  take 
the  places  of  those  which  the  escort  may  have  cut 
loose,  or  maimed,  to  prevent  the  wagons  from  being 
carried  off.  For  the  attack  of  a  convoy  parked  for 
defense  some  pieces  of  artillery  will  be  necessjiry, 
and  howitzers  will  be  found  particularly  useful. 
Without  the  aid  of  this  arm  it  will  be  verj'  difficult 
to  force  a  defensive  park  with  infantry,  unless  the  es- 
cort is  very  feeble,  or  the  position  chosen  for  the  park 
presents  covers  within  the  effective  range  of  mus- 
ketry, from  which,  after  keeping  up  a  well-directed 
fire,  a  rush  mav  be  made  on  the  park.     See  Train. 

CONVOY  OF  PEISONEES.— The  rules  laid  down 
for  convoys  in  general  apply  equally  to  this  particu- 
lar cla.ss;  but  this  is  an  ojieration  presenting  many 
difficulties,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  always 
really  and  on  the  alert  to  aid  any  efforts  made  to  re- 
capture them.  Under  such  circumstances,  when  the 
convoj-  is  attacked,  the  prisoners  should  be  made  to 
lie  down,  and  warned  not  to  arise  tmder  penalty  of 
being  shot.     See  Convoy. 

COOKING. — Army  cookery  has  become  an  impor- 
tant feature  in  all  military  systems.     The  suffering 
in  the  Crimea  in  the  winter  of  1854-55  drew  public 
attention  to  the  subject;  it  was  then  found  that  cook- 
j  ing  was  little  imderstoo<l  by  the  British  troops,  and 
i  that  the  soldiers  seldom  had   meat   otherwise   than 
boiled.     M.  Soyer  was  sent  out  by  the  Government, 
j  principally  to  advise  in  reference  to  hospital  cooking, 
I  but  also  to  improve  the  system  of  camp-cooking,  so 


COOLING. 


404 


COOLING  OF  CASTINGS. 


far  as  military  routine  would  allow.  He  devised  new 
forms  of  stoves,  iiud  coiislrucle<i  recipes  for  using  to 
the  iH'st  iiilviinl'ii.'e  nil  the  avaihilile  provisions  for  a 
camp.  The  oHicers  at  Seluusioixil  made  a  highly 
favorable  report  of  Soyer's  fiel  Ikitflu  n,  a  kind  of 
cimi|vstove.  «ilh  a  caldron  holding  \'i\  gallons:  two 
such  stoves  would  easily  c(X)k  for  a  company  of  KX) 
men;  both  could  l>e  carric<l  by  one  mule,  with  sutti- 
<ieiit  drv  wihkI  for  three  days'  fuel.  Though  mainly 
intended  for  Ixjiling,  the  apparatus  afforded  facilities 
for  many  varieties  of  cooking.  When  "SI.  Soyer  re- 
tunuil  to  England  he  made  a  few  improvements; 
and  finally  the  apparatus  presented  itself  as  a  sort  of 
upright  ciui,  suitable  for  boiling,  steaming,  baking, 
rofi-sling,  stewing,  and  making  tea  or  coffee:  with 
fourteen  jiounds  of  fuel  one  of  tliese  would  cook  for 
fifty  men;  and  if  twentv  such  were  placed  near  to- 
gether, four  cooks  coviUf  serve  for  1000  men. 

A  Comniiltce  which  inquired  into  the  subject  of 
barrack  economy  some  years  ago,  recommended  that 
every  large  barrack  should  have  a  bakery  with  two 
ovens,  where  the  men  could  learn  to  make  and  bake 
their  own  bread  ;  and  also  that  the  barrack-kitchens 
.should  be  so  furnished  as  to  enable  the  men  to  bake 
their  meat  if  so  inclined,  instea<i  of  being  confined, 
as  heretofore,  almost  wholly  to  boiled  dimiers.  A 
School  of  C't>okery  hss  been  fonned  at  Aldcrshott, 
where  men  are  trained  to  act  as  Sergeant-cooks,  of 
whom  there  is  now  one  to  each  regiment.  His  duty 
is  to  superintend  and  direct  the  operations  of  the  sol- 
diers detailed  from  the  several  companies  to  act  as 
coi)k.«. 

At  various  times  in  1859  and  1860  certain  highly 
ingenious  forms  of  apparatus  were  tried,  to  test  the  j 
possibility  of  cooking  for  troops  while  ihi;  kitchen  it- 
iitlf  in  on  the  march.     One  of  the-se  inventions  consists  j 
of  a  compact  set  of  stoves  and  caldrons,  fitted  into  a  | 
wagf)n,  and  has  been  found  on  trial  to  answer  the 
purpose  perfectly.     For  a  detailed  account  of  field- 
cookery  and  cjimpaigu  recipes,  see  F.\Rnow's  MouN- 
T.vi.N  ScocTiNO,  Chapter  XII.  (New  York,  1883). 

COOLING. — The  operation  following  casting  in  the 
fabriealion  of  cast  gyns.  The  water  for  cooling  the  \ 
gun  is  tiiken  from  a  hydrant  where  the  supply  is  con- 
slant  and  uniform,  the  connection  being  made  by 
rubber  hose.  It  is  conducted  into  the  core  by  means 
of  a  mctjillic  tube  which  pas.ses  through  a  water-tight 
joint  in  the  center  of  the  c^ip  and  extends  to  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  bottom  of  the  barrel.  The  water 
con.se<|uently  passes  into  the  core  at  the  bottom  anil 
ascends  until  it  reaches  the  e.scape-pipc  and  is  dis- 
charged. The  rtow  of  the  water  commences  as  soon 
as  the  furnaces  are  tapped,  and  is  regulated  to  pro- 
duce, half  an  hour  after  the  csusting,  a  certain  change 
of  temperature,  nlwut  2.5",  between  entering  and 
leaving  the  core.  When  this  is  effected  the  rate  of 
tlow  remains  constant  until  the  core  is  removed.  .\s 
s<x)n  as  possible  after  the  casting  the  fire  in  the  pit  is 
kindle<l  and  kept  up  until  the  withdrawal  of  the  core- 
barrel;  it  is  allowed  to  die  out  gradually.  Meanwhile 
the  mouth  of  the  pit  is  kept  closely  covered.  When 
the  cliaiure  of  temperature  of  the  outflowing  water 
has  (x'C(jn)e  constant  or  nearly  so,  the  core-barrel  is 
withdrawn.  To  effect  this,  it  is  sometimes  neces-sary 
to  largely  increase  the  How  of  water  for  a  short  time, 
in  order  to  contract  the  barrel  enough  to  loosen  it 
from  the  casting.  As  soon  as  this  is  effected  the  ' 
flow  is  stopped.  The  rope  with  which  the  barrel  is 
wrapped  takes  flre  from  the  heat  of  the  casting  and  I 
is  consumed,  leaving  the  barrel  detached  from  the  ' 
comjiosition  surrounding,  and  allowing  its  withdraw- 
al witliout  difficulty.  As  soon  as  the  core-barrel  is 
with<lrawn  the  water  is  turned  into  the  bore,  being 
conveyed  by  the  conducting  pipe  to  the  bottom,  and  \ 
escaiiing  by  means  of  a  lube  ca.st  into  the  gun-head, 
entering  the  Ixire  a  few  inches  from  the  upper  end  of 
the  casting.  The  rale  of  flow  of  the  water  through 
the  bfjre  is  so  n'gulaleil  as  to  produce  a  change  of 
Ixiut  100°  between  entering  and  leaving  at  half  nn 
hour  after  the  removal  of  the  barrel.      It  is  then 


allowed  to  remain  constant  tintil  the  gun  becomes 
cool.  The  time  occupied  in  cooling  by  this  process 
varies  from  four  lo  six  days,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  gun;  for  a  •JO-inch  gun  a  longer  time  may  be  re- 
(piired  In  case  the  condition  of  the  melal  in  the 
furnace  before  casting  shoulil  indicate  that  a  slower 
rate  of  cooling  is  desirable,  the  process  of  cooling  by 
air  is  resorted  to  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  core- 
barrel.  The  cuiTcnt  of  air  is  furnished  by  a  rotary 
blower  driven  by  steam  or  water  power,  and  is  con- 
ducted into  the  gun  by  a  sheet-iron  pii^e  which  ex- 
tends to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  bottom  of  the 
bore.  Ctx)ling  by  this  process  usuallj'  requires  two 
or  three  days  more  than  by  the  water  process.  See 
Conlinfi  of  ('nutiiias  and  li/xliiuiii  Oun. 

COOLING  OF  CASTINGS.— The  enormous  time  re- 
quired by  a  large  casting  for  cooling  is  not  generally 
known.  A  solid  ca.sting  .sufficiently  large  for  a 
1.5-incb  gim  weighs  about  3.5  tons;  it  is  red-hot  three 
days  after  having  Ix'eii  cast,  and  only  becomes  cold 
enough  to  handle  after  a  fortnight.  The  cooling  of 
a  casting  must  be  uniform,  so  far  as  uniforaiit)-  is 
po.ssible.  This  Is  impossible  strictly  in  any  casting; 
the  approach  to  it  is  most  difficult  in  heavy  solid 
cjtstings,  and  hence  the  great  advantage  of  the  prac- 
tice of  hoUow-ciLsting  upon  a  suitably  made  core, 
admitting  of  internal  cooling  by  artificial  means. 

The  contraction  of  cast-iron  in  becoming  .solid  in- 
troduces strains  into  the  mass  by  consolidation  of  one- 
portion  of  the  casting  before  another.  When  a  large 
gun  is  cast  solid  and  the  metal  cools  in  the  ordinary 
way,  the  external  portions  solidify  long  before  the  in- 
terior has  ceased  to  be  liquid,  and  the  process  of  solidi. 
fication  is  propagated,  as  it  were,  in  parallel  lavers 
from  the  outside  to  the  center  of  the  mass.  AVhen 
the  first  layer  or  thickness  of  solid  crust  has  formed 
in  the  exterior,  it  forms  a  complete  arch  all  round,  so 
that  the  contrattion  between  fluidity  and  solidifica- 
tion of  each  subsequent  layer  is  accommodated  by 
portions  of  matter  withdrawn  radially  from  the  interior 
toward  the  still  c(K>ling  exterior;  that  is  to  say,  from 
a  smaller  toward  a  larger  circumference. 

The  final  effect  of  this,  propagated  to  the  center  of 
the  mass,  is  twofold.  First.  To  produce  a  \-iolent 
stjite  of  internal  tension  in  the  particles  of  the  metal 
in  radial  lines  from  the  axis  of  the  gun  inward  as  a 
cj'lindcr,  tending  to  tear  away  the  external  iK)rfion8 
of  the  mass  from  the  internal"  nucleus.  Second.  To 
|>roduce  about  the  center  or  along  the  axis  a  line  of 
weakness,  and  one  in  which  the  texture  of  the  metal 
is  soft,  porous,  and  of  extremely  low  specific  graWty. 
The  effect  of  this  unequal  contraction  may  be  so 
great  as  to  crack  the  interior  metal  of  cast-iron  can- 
non, even  before  it  has  been  subjected  to  the  force  of 
gunpowder ;  and  large  masses  of  iron  which  have 
been  cooled  very  rapidly  by  casting  them  in  iron  molds 
have  been  known  to  split  open  longitudinally,  from 
no  other  cause  than  the  enormous  strains  to  which 
thev  are  thus  subjected. 

"f  he  great  improvement  in  the  fabrication  of  cast- 
iron  gims  is  (.'aplain  Rodman's  process  of  cooling 
them  as  far  as  pos.sible  from  the  interior,  and  for 
this  purpose  casting  them  hollow.  The  design  is  to 
remedy  the  varir)us  ilefects  of  the  old  process;  princi- 
pally to  obviate  the  tendency  of  solid  castings  to  burst 
by  their  own  initial  strains)  l)v  reversing  the  process 
of  cooling  and  shrinking  described  above.  Since 
there  would  then  be  no  force  opposed  to  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  inner  lavers  of  metal,  except  the  trifling 
cohesion  of  the  liquid  or  pa.stj-  mass  that  thev  shrink 
away  from,  they  would  not  be  left  in  tension,  and 
therefore  they  could  not  exert  any  power  to  pull  the 
exterior  layers  into  compression. 

The  method  employed  is  to  carry  off  the  internal 
heat  by  pa.ssing  a  stream  of  water  through  a  hollow 
core,  inserted  in  the  center  of  the  mold-cavity  before 
casting,  and  to  surround  the  flask  with  a  ma.ss  of 
burning  coals  to  prevent  too  rapid  radiation  from  the 
exterior.  Extensive  trials  have  been  made  to  test  the 
merits  of  this  plan,  and  the  results  show  that  cast-iron. 


CO-ORDINATES. 


405 


CO-ORDINATES. 


cannon  made  by  it  are  not  only  stronger,  but  are  less 
liable  to  enlargement  of  the  bore  from  continual 
tiring,  the  surface  of  the  bore  beinj:  the  hardest  and 
densest  part  of  the  casting,  and  best  calculated  to  re- 
sist pressure  and  abrasion.  See  Coit-iron  Q-uns,  Oi-d- 
nance,  and  Eoi/miin  Gun. 

CO-ORDINATES.— What  is  termed  the  method  of 
co-ordinates  is  an  invention  of  Descartes,  whereby 
algebra  anil  the  calculus  may  be  employed  in  geomei- 
rieal  investigations.  The  method  is  sometimes  called 
algebraical  geometry — sometimes,  and  more  propeily, 
analytical  geometry;  and  it  is  commonly  treated  under 
the  head  of  "geometry  of  two  dimensions"  or  of 
"  geometry  of  three  ilimensions,"  according  as  it  is 
applied  to  investigate  the  proju-rties  of  tigures  all  in 
one  plane,  or  of  curved  surfaces.  The"  method  is 
capable  of  a  popidar  explanation.  Co-ordinates  are 
lines  so  measured  off  fiom  a  fixed  point,  called  the 
origin  of  co-ordinates,  and  along  fixed  lines  passing 
through  it,  called  the  axis  of  co-ordinates,  as  to  de- 
termine by  their  quantities  the  position  of  any  oth- 
er point  relative  to  the  origin.  The  first  step  is  to 
find  how  to  determine  the  position  of  a  point  in  a 
plane.  Take  any  fixed  point  in  it  for  the  origin  of 
co-ordinates,  and  through  it  draw  two  fixed  lines — 
the  co-ordinate  axes — at  right  angles  to  one  aiiotlier. 
Then,  if  the  perpendicular  distance  of  the  pouit  from 
each  of  these  axes  be  given,  its  position  will  be  deter- 
mined. Referring  to  Fig.  1,  if  P  be  the  point,  and  O 
be  taken  for  the  origin  of  co-ordinates,  OX,  OY  for 


place:  and  from  this  eciuation,  combined  with  that  of 

a  straight  line,  etc.,  every  property  of  the  circle  may 
be  determined.  It  1'  move  so  that  the  sum  of  the 
distances  from  two  fixed  points  shall  be  always  the 
Siune,  and  we  express  the  relation  between  .r  and  p  in 
that  ca.se,  we  sho\dd  have  the  equation  of  an  ellipse. 
This  suffices  to  show  in  a  general  way  the  nature  of 
the  method.  Equations  belweeu  .r  and  ,v  are  called 
the  equations  of  the  lines,  whether  straight  or  curved, 
traced  out  by  the  point  1^;  and  by  means  of  them, 
though  they  but  express  relations  between  quantities, 
the  (/ualitiin  of  the  lines  to  which  they  refer  may,  by 
artifices  exjilained  in  every  lreali.se  on  the  subject,  be 
detected.  Nay,  by  a.ssunung  equations  between  x 
and  y,  and  examining  the  lines  which  points  rejjresent- 
ed  by  them  would  trace,  many  singidar  curves  have 
been  discovered.  There  are  a  varietj-  of  conditions 
to  be  attended  to  in  the  interpretation  of  such  equa- 
tions, de]w>niling  on  the  assimiptions  set  out  with,  in 
choosing  the  origin  and  axis.  The  axis  of  .r  or  OX 
being  taken  to  the  right  of  the  origin,  and  the  axis  of 
>/  or  OY  being  perpendicular  to  it  and  above  it,  x  and 
y  are  counted  positive  when  they  are  measured  along 
their  axes  to  the  right  of  and  above  the  origin  respec- 
tively, and  negative  when  they  are  mea.sured  to  the 
left  and  downwsirds  respectively.  Suppose  r  =  OM 
=  ON,  and  y  =  MP  =  MP,  ="NP3  =  NP,:  the  co- 
ordinates of  the  points  P,  P,,  Pj,  Pi  would  be  (+J, 
+  y),  (  +  r,  -y),  (-J, +y),  (- x,  -y)  respectively. 
These  points  being  equidistant  from  O,  we  may  sup- 


( 

'■^ 

o 

P 

\ 

N 

7 

\1 

»s»_ 

L 

1/ 

tp 


^04. 


Fig.  :;. 


jr 


Fio.  .■}. 


the  axes,  then  if  we  know  NP  or  OM,  the  perpendicu- 
lar distance  of  P  from  OY,  and  measure  off  from  O, 
OM  on  the  axis  OX,  and  through  M  raise  a  line  per- 
pendicular to  OX,  1^  must  lie  in  this  line,  for  it  con- 
tains all  the  points  in  the  plane  which  are  at  the  per- 
pendicular distance  OM  iiom  the  axis  OY.  Simi- 
larly, if  ON  or  PM,  the  i)erpendieular  distance  of  P 
from  the  axis  OX,  be  known,  and  we  measure  that 
distance  off  from  <)  along  OY,  and  through  N  draw 
a  perpendicular  to  OY,  the  iioinl  must  be  in  that  per- 
pendicidar.  It  is  Ihcrcfoic  ;it  the  intei'seetion  of  the 
perpendiculars  through  .M  and  N  respectively.  When, 
as  in  the  figure,  the  fixed  lines  are  at  right  angles  to 
one  another,  the  co-ordinates  OM,  ON  are  called  the 
rectangular  co-ordinates  of  the  point.  Let  us  now  see 
what  use  can  be  made  of  this  mode  of  deteimining 
the  position  of  the  |)oint.  for  the  discovery  of  the 
properties  of  lines  and  surfaces.  As  the  values  of  the 
co-ordinates  change  for  the  different  points  in  the 
plane,  they  are  denoted  by  the  varialjles  f  and  //. 
Now,  if  we  suppose  the  point  P  to  begin  to  move 
according  to  a  determinate  law,  and  the  co-ordinates 
to  change  their  magnitudes  so  as  always  to  be  its 
co-ordinates,  knowing  the  law  of  P's  motion,  we  are 
able  to  exjiress  in  algebraical  jthra-seology  the  law  of 
the  corresponding  changes  in  its  co-ordinates.  For 
instance,  if  P  moves  so  .as  to  be  always  at  the  same 
distance  from  O,  OP  is  constant,  and  the  square  on 
OP  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  sqviares  on  OM  and 
PM.  Putting  this  into  algebraical  language,  we  have 
the  equation  x-  -\-  y''  —  R',  or  y  =  ±  ^  R'  —  x', 
where  R  =  OP.  This  is  called  the  equation  of  the 
circle  referred  to  its  center  as  origin,  and  lo  rectangii- 
lar  co-ordinates;  and  it  expresses  the  law  according 
to  which  the  changes  of  the  co-ordinates  must  take 


pose  a  circle  to  pass  through  them.  Recurring  now 
to  the  equation  of  the  circle,  y  =  ±  1  R'  —  x-,  the 
meaning  will  be  seen  of  the  two  values  +  and  —  oi  y 
given  by  the  quadratic.  Often  the  axes  of  co-ordinates 
selected  for  convenience  arc  oblique,  i.e.,  inclined  at 
some  other  angle  than  a  right  angle.  An  equation 
between  co-ordinates  referred  to  one  set  of  axes  may 
always  be  tRmsformed  to  co-ordinates  referred  to 
another,  by  the  process  known  as  the  transformation 
of  co-ordinates.  A  similar  transformation  of  equa- 
tions by  the  same  process  may  be  made  where  it  is 
desired  to  refer  the  line  to  a  new  origin. 

W' hat  has  been  said  above  refers  to  the  co-ordinates 
of  a  ]ioint  in  a  plane,  or  to  what  is  called  geometiy  of 
two  dimensions.  But  the  rationale  is  the  same  with 
that  of  connecting  in  eipiations  the  co-oniinates  of 
points  in  space — the  subjects  of  geometry  of  three  di- 
mensions. The  position  of  a  pouit  in  space  requires 
three  co-ordinates  to  determine  it,  and  these  are  usu- 
ally denote(l  liy  the  syndiols  .c.  ,v.  J.  An  origin  be- 
ing taken,  and  three  axes.  OX,  OY,  OZ.  mutually  at 
right  angles  to  one  another,  the  point  is  referre(l  to 
the  three  planes  through  these  axes,  z,  or  PN,  is  its 
height  above  the  pl.uie  through  YOX;  y,  or  NM,  is 
its  distance  per])en(lieul:irlv  from  the  plane  XOZ;  and 
x,  or  OM,  is  its  perpendicular  distance  from  the 
plane  ZOY.  It  is  clear  that  these  three  determine  the 
position  of  the  jjoinl.  In  three  dimensions,  as  hi  two, 
thc-problem  may  be  statwl  to  be  :  Given  the  law  of 
the  motion  of  P,  to  express  the  law  regulating  the 
variations  of  its  co-ordinates  as  ii  moves.  The  alge- 
braic expression  of  the  latter  law  is,  the  equation  of 
the  surface  traced  by  the  point  in  moving  over  all  the 
space  it  can  traverse  consistently  with  the  law  of  its 
motion.     The  method  of  co-ordinates,  l)eside9  its  ase 


COPIHO. 


406 


COPYING  MACHINES. 


in  gronu'try,  is  of  grciit  value  for  rt'solving  forces  in 
jrunnery,  luxl  also  for  finding  Ihe  resultaul  of  a  great 
nmny  of  tlieni.     See  Truieftory. 

COFINO. — The  nierlous  or  rising  parts  of  battle- 
ments an'  sometimes  called  eops,  but  the  term  coiiing 
is  usually  applied  to  the  covering  course  of  a  wall, 
which  is  "made  either  sloping  or  round,  s<i  as  to  tlirow 
oil  water.  Where  Ihe  coping  is  of  hewn  stone,  it  is 
fn-iiuently  ornamenled  with  a  circular  molding  run- 
ning aloiig  the  lop,  and  sometimes  the  angle  at  the 
lop  is  simply  taken  olT  to  prevent  it  being  chipped. 

COPPEK.-^One  of  the  most  luiciently-known  metals, 
whose  name  is  derived  from  the  Island  of  C'vprus, 
where  it  was  first  obtained  by  the  Greeks,  lu  the 
earlier  times  copper  does  not  appear  to  have  been  em- 
])loyed  by  itself,  but  always  in  admixture  with  other 
meijils,  principally  tin,  forming  what  is  now  called 
bronze.  There  is  every  reason  to  Ix'lievc  that,  next 
to  Ihe  large  quantities  of  tin  which  thev  obtained,  one 
of  Ihe  great  mducements  which  the  I^henicians  had 
iu  making  s«'arclies  for  metals  in  Great  Britain  was 
the  copper  which  they  procured  In  their  workings  in 
Cornwall. 

CopiK-r  is  sometimes  met  with  in  nature  in  a  state 
of  ptirily,  but  gcnerallv  it  is  associated  with  oxygen, 
water,  and  carbonic  acid,  forming  the  native  carbon- 
ate of  copper  or  malachite  (CuO,HO  +  CuO,CO.j),  or 
with  iron  and  sulphur,  forming  the  native  sulphurets 
of  copiH'r  and  iron  or  copper  pyrile«  (Cu2S,Fe2S3). 
In  smaller  tjuantity  copper  occurs  as  the  oxide  (CuO) 
and  sulphate  (CuOSOj),  and  in  all  cases  the  ore  is  ob- 
tained from  fissures  or  veins  in  other  rocks.  The 
principal  yield  of  co]iper-ore  in  Great  Britain  is  from 
Ihe  mines  in  Cornwall,  but  large  supplies  are  also  ob- 
tained from  Australia,  and  from  Cuba  ami  Chili  in 
South  America.  In  North  America,  in  the  ncighbor- 
hotnlof  Lake  Superior,  copi)cr-ore  occurs  abundantly,  ' 
and  a  vein  of  metallic  copper  is  there  found  which  in 
some  places  is  about  two  feet  in  thickness. 

In  the  extraction  of  copper  from  it.s  ores  the  metid- 
lurgic  proccs.s<s  followed  are  very  tedious  and  com-  | 
plicati'd,  which  mainly  arises  from  the  difficulty  of 
separating  the  iron  and  sulphur  from  the  copper. 
The  general  piiniiple  which  regulates  the  working-up 
of  the  ore  is  to  burn  away  the  sulphur  (S)  as  sulphur- 
ous acid  (SOi).  and  to  carry  olT  the  iron  by  means  of 
rtuxes  in  Ihe  form  of  scoria'  or  slag.  Metallurgists 
enumerate  ten  distinct  steps  in  the  production  of  com- 
mercially pure  copper.  I 

Copper  has  the  equivalent  31.7 — new  system,  63.4. 
It  is  Ihe  only  red  metal,  has  the  specific  gravity  8.78 
when  cast,  and  8.06  when  rolled  or  hammered;"  fuses 
at  1006  F  ,  and  at  a  white  heat  passes  off  in  vapor, 
and  burns  with  a  green  flame.  It  is  very  malleable, 
and  can  thus  be  beaten  out  into  thin  leaves;  is  very 
ductile,  so  as  to  admit  of  being  drawn  out  into  thin 
wires;  and  its  tenacity  is  only  inferior  to  that  of  iron. 
It  is  a  powerful  coiufuclor  of  electricity,  and  hence  is  , 
employed  in  the  construction  of  lightning-conductors 
and  in  telegraph-wires  for  underground  or  submarine 
cominunication.  Copper  is  also  employed  largely  in 
the  sheathing  of  wooden  vessels  and  iirthe  arsenal.       | 

Copper  forms  many  compounds.  There  are  two 
oxides,  the  black  oxide  (CulJ)  and  the  red  oxide 
(Cu,0).  The  latter  is  employed  in  eolorini:  gla.ss  of  a 
ruln-rcd  tint.  The  i/reiu  n/nt  which  forms  on  the 
surface  of  a  copi>er-sheeted  ship,  and  on  copper  coins 
and  ves.sels  which  lie  in  moist  places  for  some  time, 
is  a  carbonate  of  copper,  and  is  due  to  the  carbonic 
acid  and  oxygen  of  the  air  acting  upon  the  copper  in 
Ihe  presence  of  moisture.  It  is  very  poisonous,  and  , 
hence  any  barnacles  w  liich  may  atla"ch  themselves  to  [ 
the  coppiT  sheathing  are  poisoned.  The  carlKinate  of 
copper,  under  the  name  of  blue  rerdiU'r,  is  lart'Cly 
Iirepared  and  sold  as  a  pigment.  The  subclilori(fe  o"f 
copper,  moistened  and  ex|K)sed  to  the  air,  yields  the 
pigment  known  jis  lininxirick  ijreiii.  There  are  .sev- 
eral comiMjunds  obtained  by  allowing  acetic  acid  to 
act  upon  oxide  of  copper  which  are  commercially 
called  Uur  and  green  renlitjrU.     The  suljihate  of  coif- 


|H'r,  or  blue  rilrinl  (CuO.SOa  -|-  .'illO),  is  pn  pared  by 
dis.solving  the  black  oxide  in  suli>liuric  acid,  and  al- 
lowing the  salt  to  crystallize  out.  The  crystals  are 
large  and  present  a  fine  blue  color.  It  Is  soluble 
in  water,  and  is  extensively  used  by  the  <lycr  for  the 
production  of  several  blue  ami  green  colors.  The 
soluti(m  of  blue  vitriol  is  also  emi>loyed  in  the  pre.s- 
ervation  of  timber  from  dry-rot,  and  it  forms  a  con- 
stituent of  some  writing-inks.  See  Bronze  and  Can- 
ni'it'Uittiils. 

COPPER  SCIS8EL.— The  clippings  of  copper  left 
after  the  formation  of  percussion-caps,  friction-tubes, 
coinatre,  etc. 

COPTIC  LEGION.— In  1799  Ihe  French  troops  in 
Egypt,  not  receiving  any  reinforcements,  grew  weaker 
every  day  through  loss  in  combat  and  disca-sc,  when 
I  General  Kleber,  who  commanded  after  the  departure 
of  Napoleon,  organized  a  Corps  of  Copts,  or  native 
Christians,  about  600  strong,  which  was  known  as 
the  Coptic  Legion.  They  were  aimed  the  same  as 
the  French  soldiers. 

COPYING. — A  term  applied  in  i)hotography  to  the 
reproduction  of  paintings,  engravings,  manuscripLs, 
mai>s,  etc.  The  kinds  of  camera  and  lens  most  suit- 
able for  the  puqiose  will  be  found  described  under 
their  respective  heads;  the  quality  and  condition  of 
chemicals  uecessarj'  are  based  upon  the  facts,  tluit 
long  exposure  is  almost  invariably  re(iuired,and  that, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  it  is  desired  to  copy  black 
marks  iqion  a  white  ground,  as  in  a  sheet  of  music, 
for  exami>le.  Where  it  is  obvious  that  nothing  that 
can  be  called  a  middle  tint  is  re(iuired,  but  simply 
pure  black  and  white,  recourse  slK)uld  be  had  to  or- 
ganic matter  in  the  bath;  a  little  acetate  of  .soda  and 
an  extra  amount  of  acetic  acid  maybe  also  added, 
and  an  old  collodion  containing  free  iodine  employed. 
It  is  imporlant  that  the  work  or  .surface  to  be  cojjied 
slioidd  be  placed  in  a  strong  light,  and  e.xaclly  at  right 
angles  lo  the  axis  of  the  lens,  which  should  be  iux- 
nislied  with  a  .<»«»^?  stop.  These  three  conililions,  it 
will  be  seen,  are  such  as  are  calculated  to  insure  den- 
sity iu  the  blacks  of  the  negative,  freedom  from  dis- 
tortion, and  sharpness  at  the  edges  of  the  picture. 
The  copying  of  oil-))aintings  seems  to  the  amateur, 
at  first  sight,  to  present  almost  insuperable  difficul- 
ties, on  account  of  the  reflected  liglit  from  the  var- 
nish pa.ssing  through  the  lens,  and  producing  black 
patches  on  the  negative.  This  may.  however,  be 
completely  avoided  by  the  employment  of  a  lens  of 
long  focus,  which  admits  of  Ibe  oblique  pencils  of 
liglit  passing  off  without  entering  the  camera.  At- 
tention to  the  laws  of  the  reflection  of  light  will  sug- 
gest to  the  reader  the  importance  also  of  avoiding  a 
bright  liglit  immediately  behind  the  camera,  as  the 
rays  of  light  would  then  fall  on  the  varnished  sur- 
face, nearly  at  right  angles,  and  be  reflected  into  the 
camera.  The  oil  painting,  tlieicfoii'.  though  placed 
in  strong  sunshine,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  vigor 
to  the  more  obscure  ])arts,  shoulil  be  -^o  arranged  as 
to  allow  the  light  to  fall  on  it  at  an  angle  of  about 
•i'l'  or  40  . 

COPYING  MACHINES.  — The  various  contrivances 
for  procuring  duplicalfs  of  writings  w  illioul  Ihe  la- 
lH)r  of  transcribing  tluiu  may  l)e  reduced  to  t\vo 
cla.s.se8.  In  the  one  the  writing  is  first  made  and 
then  copi<'d;  in  Ihe  other  the  copy  and  Ihe  original 
are  iirodu<ed  at  Ihe  same  lime.  1"he  es.sence  of  the 
first  melhod  is  this:  In  writing  the  original,  an  ink 
is  used  that  is  made  for  the  iiurpose,  or  common  ink 
thickened  by  Ihe  addition  of  a  little  sugar.  When 
the  writing  is  dry,  a  damped  sheet  of  thin  unsized 
paper  is  laid  ujion  it,  and  over  this  a  piece  of  oiled 
paper.  The  whole  is  then  subjected  to  pressure,  and 
the  damped  paper  is  found  lo  have  taken  off  an  im- 
|)ressi()n  of  tlie  writing.  It  is  of  course  the  reverse 
of  the  original,  but  Ihe  nature  of  the  paper  allows  it 
to  be  read  right  on  the  other  .side.  The  machines  for 
ecmimunicating  Ihe  ])res.sure  are  of  various  kinds. 
Some  pass  the  .sheets  between  rollers  like  Ihe  copper 
plate  press;  others  act  on  the  principle  of  the  com- 


COBBIE. 


407 


COBDAGE. 


mon  prinfing-press.  A  simple  plan  is  to  wTap  the 
sheets  round  a  wooden  roller  of  about  an  inch  diam- 
eter, lay  this  upon  a  table,  and  roll  it  under  a  flat 
board,  pressing  all  the  while.  Another  vcrj'  common 
method  of  copying  is  by  means  of  prepared  black- 
ened paper  laid  between  two  sheets  of  thin  writing- 
paper.  The  writing  is  traced  tirmly  on  the  tipper 
sheet  with  a  steel  or  agate  point  or  common  black- 
lead  pencil,  and  the  lines  are  foimd  trimsfcrred  in 
black  from  the  blacke.ied  sheet  to  the  paper  adjacent. 
By  ha\Tng  several  of  these  blackened  leaves,  a  num- 
ber of  copies  may  be  produced  at  once.  The  black- 
ened paper  is  prei^ared  by  saturating  it  with  a  mix- 
ture of  lard  and  lamii-bhiek,  and  cleaning  it  so  far 
that  it  will  not  soil  paper  imless  pres.sed  against  it. 

CORBIE. — A  word  obsolete  in  English  except  as  a 
heraldic  term  for  a  raven.     Sec  Heraldry. 

COBDAOE. — A  rojif  is  composed  of  threads  of  hemp 
or  other  hlirous  material.  These  threads  are  called 
yarns.  A  number  of  these  yarns  twisted  together 
form  a  ntnintl,  and  three  or  more  strands  twisted  to- 
gether f(jrm  a  rope.  The  ropes  in  ordinary  use  are 
composed  of  three  strands  laid  right-handed,  or,  as  it 
is  called,  with  the  sun.  Occasionally  a  large  rope  will 
be  found  laid  up  in  four  strands,  also  trilh  the  sun. 
This  is  generall}'  u.sed  for  stationary  rigging,  such  as 
shrouds,  guys,  heavy  gun-slings,  etc.,  and  is  some- 
times called  shroud-laid.  Small  halyards  are  some- 
times laid  with  four  strands  and  a  core;  this  kind  of 
rope  runs  more  smoothl}'  and  wears  longer.  Vuhle- 
laid  ra]>e  is  composed  of  nine  strands,  and  is  made  by 
first  laying  up  three  ropes  of  three  strands  each,  with 
the  sun,  and  then  laying  the  three  ropes  up  together 
into  one,  against  the  sun.  Right-hand  rope  must  be 
coiled  itith  the  sun,  and  cable-laid  rope  ayainst  the 
sun.  The  size  of  rope  is  always  given  in  inches  and 
fractions,  and  is  measiued  on  the  circunifirenee,  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  seldom  possible  to  get  a  scpiarely- 
cut  end  in  order  to  mesisure  the  diameter.  In  making 
requisitions  for  rope,  it  .should  be  clearly  indicated 
tkit  this  measure  is  the  one  considered.  Spun-yarn 
is  made  by  twisting  together  verj' loosely  two  or  more 
well-tarrecl  yams,  and  is  designated  by  the  number 
of  its  yarns;  as,  two-yarn,  three-yani,  etc.  It  is  used 
for  serving,  seizings,  stops,  etc. ,  and  is  very  pliable. 
Marline  is  also  made  of  tarred  yarns,  but  is  tightly 
twisted,  and  is  much  harder  and"  smoother  than  spun 
yarn.  It  is  not  tit  for  serving  when  the  rope  served 
IS  to  be  bent  up,  as  it  is  not  pliable  enough  to  cover 
the  rope  in  such  cu.scs.  The  Iright  of  a  rope  is  any 
part  not  an  end.  A  bight  is  formed  by  bending  or 
doubling  the  rope  so  as  to  form  a  loop.  This  dis- 
tinction should  be  particularly  jioted,  and  the  two 
terms  should  not  be  confounded.  The  interstices  be- 
tween the  strands  of  a  rope  are  called  the  jair.  and 
rope  is  called  long  or  short  jawed  as  it  is  loosely  or 
tightly  laid  up  together.  Tiiose  ropes  which  are  sta- 
tionary are  called  standing  rigging;  as,  guys  for  a  gin, 
gun-slings,  etc.  Those  which  run  through  blocks  or 
pulleys,  suchas  gin-falls,  trace-roi>es,  etc.,  are  running 
rigging. 

Worming  a  rope  is  filling  up  the  divisions  between 
the  strands  by  passing  spun-yarn  along  them,  to  ren- 
der the  surface  smooth  for  parceling  and  serving. 
Parceling  a  rope  is  wrapping  narrow  strips  of  canvas 
about  it,  well  tarred,  in  order  to  secure  it  from  being 
injured  by  rainwater  lodging  between  the'  parts  of 
the  service  when  worn.  The  parceling  is  put  on  irith 
the  lay  of  the  rojie.  Parceling  is  also  used  to  prevent 
chafing  or  cutting  of  a  rope  when  a  strain  is  brought 
against  a  rough  surface  or  sharp  edge.  For  this  pur- 
pose old  rope  or  canvas  wound  around  is  suflicieut. 
ti-rring  is  the  laying  on  of  spun-yarn  or  other  small 
stuff  in  turns  round  the  rope,  close  together,  and  hove 
taut  by  the  use  of  a  serving-board  for  small  rope  and 
serving-mallet  for  large  rope.  Small  ropes  are  sonie- 
timcs  served  without  being  vyornied,  as  the  cre\-ices 
between  the  strands  are  not  large  enough  to  make 
the  surface  very  uneven;  but  a  large  rope  is  always 
wormed  and  parceled  before  being  served.     The  ser- 


vice is  put  on  against  the  lay  of  the  rope.  Whipping 
is  securing  the  end  of  a  rope  with  twine  to  prevent  it 
from  fraying  out.  For  temporary  u.se  it  maybe  done 
by  winding  twine  about  the  end  of  the  rojie  and 
seeming  the  end  of  the  twine  l)y  passing  it  under  two 
or  more  turns  of  the  twine  and  pulling  it  tight.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  secure  the  ends  by  sewing  them 
through  the  rope,  so  that  each  stitch  may  lie  in  the  di- 
vision between  two  strands.  This  is  called  a  sewed 
whipping. 

Splicing  is  putting  the  ends  of  ropes  together  by 
opening  tlie  strands  and  placing  them  into  one  an- 
other, or  by  putting  the  stranils  of  the  ends  of  a  rope 
between  those  of  the  bight.     (Fig.  1.) 


A  Shart  Splice. — Unlay  the  strands  for  a  convenient 
length;  then  take  an  end  in  each  hand,  place  them 
one  within  the  other,  and  draw  them  clo.se.  Hold 
the  end  of  one  roiie  and  the  three  strands  which  come 
from  the  opposite  rope  fast  in  the  left  hand,  or  if  the 
rope  be  large,  stop  them  down  to  it  with  a  rope-yarn. 
Take  the  middle  strand,  which  is  free,  pass  it  orer 
the  strand  which  is  first  next  to  it,  and  then  through 
under  the  secontl  and  out  between  the  second  and 
third  from  it,  then  haul  it  taut.  Pass  each  of  the 
six  strands  in  the  same  manner;  first  those  of  one 
end  and  then  those  of  the  other.  The  same  opera- 
tion may  1k'  repeated  with  each  strand,  passing  each 
orer  the  third  strand  from  it,  under  the  fourth,  and 
through;  or,  as  is  more  usual,  after  the  ends  have 
been  stuck  once,  untwist  each  strand,  divide  the  yarns, 
pass  one  half  as  above  described,  and  cut  off  the  other 
half.     This  tapers  the  splice. 

A  Long  Splice. — Unlay  the  ends  of  two  ropes  to  a 
distance  three  or  four  tiines  greater  than  for  a  short 
splice,  and  place  them  within  one  another  as  for  a 
short  splice.  Unlay  one  strand  for  a  considerable 
distance  and  fill  up  "the  interval  which  it  leaves  with 
the  o]ipositc  strand  from  the  other  rope.  Twist  the 
ends  of  these  two  together,  then  do  the  Siime  with 
two  more  strands.  The  two  remaining  strands  are 
twisted  together  in  the  place  where  they  were  first 
crossed.  Open  the  two  last-named  strands,  divide  in 
two,  take  an  overhand  knot  with  the  opposite  halves, 
and  lead  the  ends  over  the  next  strand  and  through 
the  second  as  the  whole  strands  were  passed  for  the 
short  splice.  Cut  ofl"  the  other  two  halves.  Do 
the  same  with  the  others  that  are  i)laced  together. 


Fig.  2. 


Frc.  3. 


dividing,  knotting,  and  pa.ssing  them  in  the  same 
manner.  (Fig.  2.)  Before  cutting  off  <uii/ of  the  half 
■•(trands  the  rope  should  be  got  irell  upon  n  stretch. 
Sometimes  the  whole  strands  arc  knotted,  then  di- 
vided, and  the  half  strands  passed  as  above  described. 
This  splice  does  not  increase'  the  diameter  of  the  rope, 
and  is  used  for  splicing  a  fall  or  other  rope  that  runs 
through  blocks  or  pulleys. 

An  Eye-splice.— V\\\i\\  the  end  of  a  rope  for  a  short 
distance  and  lay  the  three  strands  upon  the  standing 
part,  .so  as  to  form  an  eye.  Put  the  first  end  through 
the  strand  next  to  it.  "Put  the  second  end  over  that 
strand  and  thuxiugh  the  second,  and  put  the  remaining 


COSBOH. 


403      CORMONTAIGNE  SYSTEM  OF  FOKTIFICATION. 


end  Ibrcuirli  the  third  strand  on  tlie  other  side  of  tlio 
rope.  (Fijr.  S.)  Tiiixt  them,  us  in  the  short  splice, 
tiv  dividiu'ff  the  strands  and  stickinj;  theni  again. 
"fUis  spUee  is  useil  to  form  u  jiormanent  loop  in  the 
end  of  a  roiK-. 

A  (>'n»mH<»^— Take  a  strand  just  unlaid  from  a 
rQ))e,  with  all  its  turns  in  il,  and  form  a  ring  of  the 
size  vou  wish  by  pulling  the  end  over  the  staniling 
part."  Then  lake  the  long  cud  and  carry  it  twice 
rouud  the  ring  in  llic  crevices,  following  the  lay  until 
the  ring  is  complete;  then  take  an  overhand  knot 
with  the  two  enils.  divide  the  yarns,  and  stick  theiu 
as  in  the  long  splice.  I'setl  for  a  tninnion-loop  for 
rolling  or  slewing  a  gun.  See  Blocks,  Mec/ianical  Ma- 
iitiinrs,  and  liopf. 

CORDON.— 1.  In  military  operations,  a  line  of  sen- 
trie^  incliisliii:  or  guarding  any  particular  space  of 
ground,  to  prevent  the  pas.s!ige  of  persons  other  than 
I  nose  belonging  to  the  army.  The  sentries  arc  placed 
within  sight  of  each  other.  If  intended  to  guard 
against  contagious  diseases,  it  is  called  a  Cordon  Sa/ii- 
hiire. 

2.  The  coping  of  the  escarp  or  inner  wall  of  the 
ditch,  someliiues  callcil  the  magistral  line,  as  from 
it  the  works  in  permanent  fortilicalion  are  traced.  Il 
is  usually  rounded  in  front,  and  projects  about  one 
foot  over  the  niiusonry;  while  it  protect.*  the  top  of 
the  revetment  from  being  sjitursited  with  water,  it 
also  offers,  from  projection,  an  obstacle  to  an  encmj' 
in  e><ula(linL'  the  wall. 

CORDUKOY  ROAD.— A    roadway    formed  of  logs 
laid  side  by  side  across  it,  as  in  marshy  places;  so 
called  froni  its  rough  or  ribbed  surface,  resembling 
corduroy. 
CORE-BARREL.— The  core-barrel,  as    represented 
in  the  engraving,  consists  of  a  water-tight 
iron  tube,  AD,  about  fifteen  feet  long  and 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  its  exterior 
diameter  at  the  head  being  twelve  inches, 
anil  tapering  one  fourth  of  an  inch,  at  the 
lower  extremity,  to  facilitate  its  withdrawal 
after  the  cast.  It  is  roiuided  at  its  lower  end, 
D,  and  fluted  throughout  the  cylindrical 
part,  to  allow  the  escape  of  gas  generated  by 
the  burning  of  the  composition  with  which 
it  is  covered.    To  prepare  the  core  for  cast- 
ing, journals  are  first  fitted,  at  either  ex- 
tremity of  the  barrel;  it  is  then  placed  in  a 
hori/.ontid  position  upon  an  iron  truck,  l)e- 
iiig  supported  by  the  journals,  which  rest  in 
bearings.    While  so  supported  it  is  easily 
turned  by  means  of  a  crank  attached  to  one 
of  the  journals,  and  is  first   wrapped  or 
.served  with  white-hemp  stuff  (18-thread), 
covering  that  portion  of  the  barrel  which 
comes   in   cont.ict  with  the   molten    iron. 
Over  this  a  coating  of  molding-composition 
is  applied  quite   wet,   which   is   wrapped 
with  twine,  to  insure  its  adhering.     When 
alK)Ut  h-alf  dry  the  outer  or  last  layer  of 
composition  is  ajjplicd,  which,  being  made 
quite  sticky,  adheres  readily.     Great  care 
is  taken  to  have  the  surface  of  the  core  |icr- 
feclly  smooth,  and  tlie  couiposition  of  uni- 
form lliickness.    The  diameter  of  the  core- 
barrel  for  a  l.l-inch   gun,  when  complete, 
is   l:i.75  inches  at  the   top,  and   slightly 
tapered  at  the  bottom.     When  ready,  the 
tnick  supportimr  the  core-barrel   is  rolled 
into  the  drying-oven,  and  when  perfectly 
dry  removed;  the  usual  lime  required  being 
eighteen  boiirs.      The  composilion   then  receives  a 
coating  of  coke-wash,  when  il  is  again  placed  in  the 
oven,  where  it  remains  until  thoroughly  drv.     Ujwn 
its  final  removal  the  journals  at  eillier  extremity  are 
removed,  Ik-Iu!.'  ri'])laced  by  the  regular  cap  on  lop, 
and  a  tight-filling  s<rew-plug  at  the  boMom,  which 
is  covered  with  molding<-omposition,  and  dried  by  a 
fire  built  under  it. 
The  gauge  for  centering  the  core  consists  of  a  long 


IB 


wooden  rod,  on  the  end  of  which  a  piece  of  Ixiard  is 
fixed  at  right  angles,  and  on  this  board  a  light  is 
placed.  The  length  of  this  prt)jecting  board,  previ- 
ously determined,  is  the  distance  the  core  should  l>e 
from  the  mold  when  in  the  center.  Having  adjusted 
the  core  in  the  mold  by  means  of  the  .screws  tittwl 
in  the  legs  of  the  spider,  it  iss  'cured  tirndy  by  clumps, 
made  to  fit  over  the  lop  of  the  frame  und  under  the 
tlunge  of  the  flask. 

The  core-barrel  is  withdrawn  about  eighteen  hours 
after  the  aisting,  !is  soou  as  the  metal  becomes  sufti- 
eiently  cool  to  permit  of  its  removal.  The  witli- 
druwiil  causes  no  delay  or  trouble,  as  the  rope  with 
which  it  is  wrapped  is  consumed,  and  therefore  leaves 
the  barrel  detuched  from  the  composilion  surrounding 
il,  the  latter  adhering  to  the  bore  of  the  gun.     See 

CORE-BOX.- The  core-box,  employed  in  the  fabri- 
cation of  hollow  projecliles  and  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing, consists  of  two  hemispherical  cups.  The  lower 
one  is  made  in  two  sections,  which  are  so  constructed 
as,  when  united,  to  receive  and  hold  the  .spindle  in 
place,  and  also  to  form  a  l)ase  for  the  core-box  to  rest 
upon  while  being  filled.  The  core  is  formed  by  pour- 
ing the  composition  into  the  opening  ut  the  lop  of  the 
upper  cup  and  ramming  it  down  until  the  interior 
space  is  filled.  The  surface  at  the  ojiening  is  then 
rounded  off  with  a  former,  and  the  core-box  is  re- 
moved. The  core  Is  then  thoroughly  dried  in  an 
oven  and  afterward  painted  with  coke-wash. 

The  reijuisite  compression  being  given  by  .screws, 
the  core  is  by  meaiLs  of  a  gauge  placed  exactly  in  the 


center  of  the  mold  and  supported  in  that  position  by 
the  stem  which  forms  the  fuse-hole.  The  stem  is 
perforated  with  small  holes  to  allow  of  the  escape  of 
steam  and  gas  generated  by  the  heal  of  the  melted 
metal;  that  purt  of  it  which  comes  in  contact  with 
the  melted  iron  and  forms  the  fuse-hole  is  coated  with 
sand.  In  pouring  the  melted  iron  into  the  mold  with 
the  ladle  care  shoidd  be  taken  to  prevent  scoria  and 
dill  from  entering  with  it,  and  for  Ibis  purpose  the 
sui'face  shoidd  be  skimmed  with  a  wooden  stick. 
After  the  iron  has  become  sufflcienlly  hardened,  the 
flasks  arc  i)|>cncd  and  flic  sand  knocked  from  the 
casting.  Then  the  core  is  broken  up  and  removed, 
and  the  interior  surface  cleaned  by  a  scrai)er.  The 
greatest  care  is  lo  be  taken  lo  remove  every  particle 
of  sand  or  fragment  of  iron  from  the  interior.  The 
sinking-head  or  )>rojecting  portion  at  the  gate,  and 
aroinid  the  base  where  the  two  halves  join,  is  taken 
olV  with  a  lile  or  chisel  if  necessary.  A  number  of 
the  lialls  are  now  jilaccd  in  a  large  revolving  iron 
cylinder,  which  by  friction  polishes  and  makes  the 
surface  more  miifonn.    See  Fiihiiratioii  uf  Projectilen. 

COREEf  SHOT.— An  elongated  proiccl'ile  having  a 
cavily  ill  Ihc  body  of  il.  This  cavity  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  throwing  the  center  of  gravity  towards  the 
front  end  of  the  projectile,  thus  insuring  greater 
steadiness  of  flight.  Tlie  hollow  projecliles  are  either 
shells  or  casc-shol,  both  of  wliicb,  in  Iheir  constj-uc- 
tion  and  use,  are  similar  lo  those  descrilied  for  smooth- 
bore guns.  l{ille-])rojeclilcs  have  a  length  of  two  to 
three  times  Ibeir  diameler,  depending  upon  the  pat- 
tern, and  whclhcr  .solid  or  hollow,  the  luller  being 
generallv  the  lon^'cr.     See  Pn'tcflilis. 

CORMONTAIGNE  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 
— Cornioiilai^'ne.  Ihc  iinnii'dialc  successor  of  Vauban, 
holds  a  place  only  second  lo  this  master  of  the  art  in 


COEMONTAIGNE  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.       409      CORMONTAIGNE  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 


the  estimation  of  the  engineers  of  the  French  school. 
In  planning  the  front  which  has  received  his  name, 
Corraontaigne  seems  to  have  applied  himself  rather 
to  remedy  the  defects  noticeable  in  the  methods  of 
Vauban  than  to  produce  any  radical  change  in  the 
combinations  which  had  thus  far  received  the  sjinction 
of  engineers  generally.  Observing  that  from  the 
great  height  given  by  Vaulian  to  his  scarp-walls 
tlicy  might  be  easily  breaclied  from  a  distance,  C'or- 
mi)nt;iigne  suppres.sed  the  small  wall  .supporting  the 
parapet  and  dimini.shed  the  height  of  the  scarp-wall, 
placing  the  top  of  it  on  a  level  with  the  crest  of  the 
glacis.  He  adopted  as  a  principle  thiit  all  mason  ry 
ultould  he  marked  frmii  thi'  fin  nf  the  enemy's  hatterkm 
at  a  diKtanre,  and  to  obtain  this  point  he  has  so  ar- 
ranged the  height  of  his  principal  scarps,  and  the 
command  given  to  the  glacis  crest  in  front  of  them, 
that  the  top  of  the  scarp  shall  not  lie  above  the  level 
of  the  crest,  thus  masking  from  view  the  entire  scarp, 
by  the  earth  forming  the  glacis,  from  all  positions  in 
advance  of  the  glacis  crest.  C'ormontaigne  was  the 
tirst  to  develop  clearly  the  intiuence  of  large  demi- 
lunes on  the  progress  of  the  attack,  by  their  forming 
deep  re-enterings  between  them  in  front  of  the  bastion 
salients.  Also  the  increased  strength  gained  by  forti- 
fying on  a  right  line,  or  on  polygons  with  a  great 
number  of  .sides.  In  lx)th  of  these  cases  the  fronts 
a.s.sailed  cannot  be  enveloped  by  the  as.s;ulant's  works, 
and  the  demi-lunes  from  their  salient  position  intercept 
the  prolongations  of  the  bastion-faces,  thas  masking 
them  from  the  positions  from  which  alone  an  entilad- 
ing  lire  could  be  brought  upon  them.  The  moditica- 
tions  of  Vauban's  trace  are  different  in  the  various 
works  of  C'ormontaigne;  but  the  following  he  indi- 
cates in  his  memoirs  as  the  one  preferred  by  him. 
The  exterior  side  is  360  yards;  the  perpendicular,  J; 
the  faces  of  the  bastions,  J  of  the  exterior  side;  the 
flanks  are  40  yards,  and  are  so  placed  that  the  curtain 
shall  be  130  yards.  This  combination  makes  the  lines 
of  defense  somewhat  less,  and  fhe  bastions  larger,  than 
in  Vauban's  method.  The  dimensions  of  the  enceinte- 
ditch  are  so  regulated  by  C'ormontaigne  as  to  furnish 
earth  sufBcient  for  the  embankments.  It  is  28  yards 
wide  at  the  salient,  and  from  'I  to  4  yards  wider  oppo- 
site the  tonaille  ;  this  admits  the  entire  tire  of  the 
tianks  to  sweep  the  ditch.  The  tenaille  is  made  \\  ith 
a  curtain  and  wings;  a  ditch  10  yards  wide  being  left 
between  it,  the  curtain,  and  the  flanks.  C'ormon- 
taigne placed  little  value  on  small  demi-lunes,  as  they 
form  but  slight  and  therefore  weak  reenterings  before 
the  bastions,  and  conse(iuently  retard  but  little  the 
enemy's  attack  uiion  llicin;  liesides  this,  a  small  demi- 
lune covers  but  very  ini])erfectly  the  shoulder-ang'.cs 
of  the  bastions.  To  remedy  these  defecls,  his  demi- 
lune is  so  laid  out  that  the  prolongations  of  the  magis- 
trals of  its  faces  will  intersect  the  bastion-faces  at  30 
yards  from  the  shoulder-angles;  the  lengths  of  its 
faces  being  120  yards.  To  circumscribe  as  much  as 
jiracticable  the  space  in  the  demi  iune  which  the  ene- 
my, after  he  gains  it,  requires  for  his  works,  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  demilune  terre-plein,  which  is  also  the 
top  of  the  co\nilerscarpof  the  redoubt,  is  drawn  at  20 
yards  from  the  magistral  of  the  face:  the  ditch  of  the 
redoubt  is  10  yards  wide,  and  the  magi'^lral  of  its  face 
is  parallel  with  the  cf)unterscarp.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  ditch  is  well  flanked  by  the  face  of  the  bas- 
tion near  the  shoulder-angle.  The  general  width  of 
the  covered-way  is  10  yards.  C'ormontaigne  enlarged 
considerably  the  re-entering  place-of-arms,  to  which 
he  added  a  redoubt  with  a  revetted  scarp  and  counter- 
scarp. The  addition  of  this  work  is  a  great  impro\e- 
ment  upon  the  covered- way  of  Vauban,  who  intlicales 
in  his  works  small  redoubts  of  earth,  or  tambours 
of  wood,  for  the  same  purpose.  C'ormontaigne's  re- 
doubt increases  the  strength  of  the  covered-waj;  the 
troops  assembled  in  the  covered-way  for  sorties  are 
secure  under  its  flres;  it  sees  in  reverse,  and  protects 
any  breach  made  in  the  face  of  thedemi-lune;  finally, 
it  serves,  in  connection  with  the  extremity  of  thedemi- 
lune,  to  cover  the  opening  left  between  the  flanks  of 


I  the  bastion  and  the  wings  of  the  tenaille,  through 

I  which,  if  a  breach  was  made  in  the  curtain,  the  in- 
terior retrenchments,  restmg  upon  either  the  flanks  or 
faces  of  the  ba-stion,  could  lie  turned.  Traverses  are 
placed  along  the  covered-way,  to  close  the  plaees-of- 
ai-ms,  defend  the  covered-way,  and  intercept  projec- 
tiles fired  in  ricochet.  The  crest  of  the  glacis  is  broken 
into  a  cremaillere  line,  to  allow  room  for  the  defiles 
of  the  traverses.  The  short  branches  of  the  crcmail- 
lOre  throw  a  fire  on  the  sjdients  of  the  covered-way; 
the  i)ositions  of  the  long  branches  iire  so  taken  that 
the  defiles  may  be  seen  and  swejjt  by  the  fire  of  the 
works  in  their  rear.  C'ormontaigne,  after  a  series  of 
trials,  whose  object  was  to  give  the  ditches  such 
dimensions  that  they  should  furnish  the  earth  re 
quired  for  the  embankments,  regulated  the  command 
of  the  different  works  as  follows:  The  lowest  work, 
which  is  the  demi-lune  covered-way,  he  lays  down  as 
a  rule,  shall  command  the  exterior  ground  by  not  less 
than  7+  feet;  and  the  works  most  advanced  shall  Ije 
commanded  by  those  in  the  rear.  It  was  found  that, 
for  the  purpose  of  equalizing  the  excavations  and 

I  embankments  of  the  front,  the  crest  of  the  demilune 
covered-way  should  have  a  command  of  lOA  feet 
above  the  natural  ground.  The  uest  of  the  bastion 
covered-way,  and  of  the  re-entering  place-of-arms, 
coninuvnds  the  crest  of  the  demi-hme  covered-way  by 
2  feet.  The  magistral  of  the  enceinte  is  horizontal, 
it.i  elevation  being  the  same  as  the  mean  elevation  of 
the  crest  of  the  bastion  covered- way.     The  scarp-wall 

;  is  ;iO  feet  high.  This  dimension  has  since  been  gen- 
erally adopted  by  engineers.  The  relief  of  the  te- 
naille is  detemiined  as  in  Vauban's  method,  so  as  not 
to  mask  the  fire  of  the  flanks  upon  the  ditch  opposite 
the  extremity  of  the  demilune;  as  it  is  here  that  a 
breach  may  Ije  ma<ic  in  the  bastion-face,  through  the 
ditch  of  the  demi-lune.  The  demi-lune  is  commanded 
bjthe  enceinte  3  feet,  and  by  its  own  redoubt  \\  feet. 

I  The  dend-lune,  therefore,  commands  its  covered-way 

!  7  feet.  The  redoubt  of  the  re-entering  place-of-amis 
conmiands  the  crest  of  the  glacis  only  4A  feet;  its  in- 
terior crest  is  so  placed  as  not  to  mask  the  fire  of  the 
bastion  faces  on  the  glacis  in  advance  of  it.  The  in- 
terior crests  of  all  the  works  are  7 J  feet  atwve  their 
terrc-pleins,  except  that  of  the  tenaille,  which  is  64 
feet;  and  of  the  redoubt  of  the  re-entering  place-of- 
aiTns,  which  is  9  feet.  The  interior  crests  of  the  faces 
of  all  the  works  exposed  to  enfilading  tires  are  one 
foot  higher  at  the  salients  than  at  the  extremities. 
The  pr()file  of  the  parapet  of  the  principal  outworks 
is  llie  same  as  that  of  the  enceinte.  The  communica- 
tions are  generally  of  the  same  nature,  and  placed 
about  in  the  same  positions,  as  in  Vaulian's  method. 
The  planes  of  the  glacis  are  .so  <letermined  that  they 
ma\'  be  swept  by  the  tire  of  the  works  in  the  rear; 
their  inclination  is  usually  about  twenty-four  base  to 

[  one  iH-rpendicular.  When  a  greater  command  of  the 
site  than  that  afforded  by  the  enceinte  is  requisite  on 
any  front,  Comiontaigne  places  a  cavalier  within  the 
bastion.  To  this  work  he  gives  thesiune  fonn  as  that 
of  the  bastion;  placing  the  faces  and  flanks  of  the  two 
pandlel  to  each  other.  The  faces  of  the  cavalier  are 
alone  revetted,  as  well  as  the  counterscarp  of  their 
ditch,  which  is  cut  within  the  bastion.  This  ditch  is 
broken  off  at  the  shoulder-angles  of  the  cavalier,  and 
directed  upon  the  faces  of  the  ba.stion;  thesi'  portions 
also  having  a  revetted  scar])  and  coimterscarp.  A 
parapet  is  tlirown  up  behind  the  scarp,  and  between 
the  flank  of  the  cavalier  and  the  ba.stion  faces;  thus 
isolating  the  anterior  portion  of  the  bastion,  and  fur- 
nishing an  interior  retrenchment  which,  when  the 
shoulders  and  flanks  of  the  bastions  are  masked  from 
the  as.s;iilant's  view,  can  only  be  carried  by  a  breach 
made  either  in  the  cavalierface,  or  in  tlie  portions 
resting  on  the  cavalier  and  bastion  faces.     From  the 

,  preceding  it  ap)iears  that  the  most  important  modi- 
fications made  by  Connontaigne  in  Vauban's  first 
method  consist — i.  In  the  means  tj\ken  to  cover  the 
vuuimry  from  disl.ant  batteries.     2.  In  more  capacious 

,  bastions  susceptible  of  receiving  efticient  permanent 


COEHET. 


410 


C0KP8. 


interior  rttrcm-linuMils.  3.  In  an  enlarged  denii-hine, 
whieh  pliut-s  the  bastions  in  strong  re-enterings,  covers 
llie  sln)ulder-iuigles,  jind  admits  of  a  redoubt  in  its 
interior,  whieb  Work  strengthens  the  demilune,  and 
sees  in  reverse  the  breach  made  in  the  bastion-face. 
4.  In  an  enlarge<l  re  entering  place-of-arms,  contain- 
ing a  redoul)t  which  strengthens  the  entire  covered- 
way,  and  covers  the  movement  of  the  troops  in  sor- 
ties. The.st-  moditications,  although  of  great  value, 
:uid  constituting  an  im|X)rtant  step  in  the  art,  still 
leave  much  to  be  desired  ;  and  engineers  since  Cor- 
niontaigne's  time  have  sought  to  reme<ly  the  defects  of 
his  methcxi,  of  which  the  following  are  the  principal: 
1.  The  enceinte  has  rather  too  slight  a  command,  and 
is  without  any  bomb  proof  shelters.  2.  The  inclina- 
tion of  the  sujierior  slope  of  its  paraj>ct,  which  is  J,  is 
too  small  to  have  the  ditches  well  flanked.  3.  A 
breach  can  Ik-  made  in  the  ba.stion-face  through  the 
ditch  of  the  demilune.  4.  There  are  dead  spaces  in 
the  ditch  of  the  demilune,  near  the  extremities  of  its 
faces,  a.  The  redoubt  of  tlie  re  entering  place-of-arms 
is  not  tenable  after  the  demilune  is  taken.  6.  The 
traverses  of  the  covered-way  do  not  afford  the  requi 
site  protection  to  that  work.  7.  Finally,  the  comnui- 
nications  are  mostly  inconvenient,  and  not  well  cov- 
ered from  the  a.s.sailant"s  tire.  See  Fortification  and 
Syiitem  of  Fortification. 

COENST. — 1.  A  metallic  wind-instrument  resemb- 
ling a  trumpet,  and  used  in  bands.  The  cornu  of  the 
Romans,  like  the  instruments  mentioned  in  Leviticus 
(.\xv.  9).  was  curved  and  fonned  from  a  horn.  It 
was  afterwards  of  metal,  probably  copper.  Its  inven- 
tion is  credited  by  Athenajus  to  the  Etruscans.  It 
differed  from  the  tibia  in  being  larger,  and  from  the 
tuba  in  being  curved.     It  had  no  keys  or  stopples. 

The  comet-i  piston,  represented  in  the  drawing,  is  a 


modern  w-ind-instniment  of  the  trumpet  kind,  is  gen- 
erally made  of  brass,  has  two  or  three  valves,  and  in 
bniss  bands  takes  the  soprano  and  contralto  parts.  It 
was  first  intrfKluced  in  France  as  an  orchestral  instru- 
ment. Its  tones  arc  less  powerful,  but  farmore  easily 
managesible.  than  those  of  the  trumpet.     See  Band. 

2.  fn  the  British  service,  the  lowest  grade  of  com- 
missioned officer  in  the  cavalry,  equivalent  to  Enm/n 
in  the  infantry,  liis  duly  being  to  be;ir  the  standard. 
With  the  Lieutenant,  he  a.ssisted  the  Captain  in  the 
daily  duties  connected  with  the  troop  to  which  he  be- 
longed. There  were  as  many  Cornets  in  a  cavalry 
regiment  as  there  were  troops.  A  Cornet "s  connnission 
used,  in  the  days  of  "  purclia.se,"  to  cost  £450;  but 
much  larger  sums  were  habituallv  paid,  varying  ac- 
coriling  to  the  celebrity,  or  ratlicr  the  fashionable 
character,  of  the  Corps.  The  pay  was  Six.  per  day,  with 
1».  or  U.  ti//.  extra  for  field-allowance.  The  hidf-pay 
varied  from  2*.  M.  to  :i«.  M.  The  pay  being  uttxTlV 
inconsistent  with  the  price  paid  for  the  comniissioti, 
none  but  wealthy  men  could  enter  the  cavalry.  In 
1871  the  rank  wa.s  abolished.  Sub-Lieutenauts  (who 
arc  merely  probationary  Lieutenants)  being  substi- 
tuted. 

COHNETTE-BLANCHE.— An  ornament  which  in 
ancietit  liinis  served  lo  distinguish  French  officers 
who  were  high  in  e<iinmand.  It  was  worn  by  them 
on  the  tops  of  their  helmets.     It  likewise  meant  a 


Royal  Standard,  and  was  substituted  in  the  room  of 
the"  Royal  Pennon.  The  Cornette-blanche  was  only 
inifurled  when  the  King  joined  the  armv;  and  the 
persons  who  served  under  it  were  Princes,  Noblemen, 
Slarshals  of  France,  and  old  Captains,  whose  orders 
came  direct  from  the  King. 

COKNING.— That  process  in  the  manufacture  of 
gun|K)wder  which  takes  place  after  the  cake  is  re- 
moved from  the  hydraulic  pres.s — having  been  pre- 
viously broken  down — to  the  granulating-house,  when 
it  is  pa.s,sed  through  rollers  anil  sieves,  until  the  dif- 
ferent-sized grains  are  formed.  Corning  is  another 
term  for  granulating.     See  Gunpoirder. 

COBONA. — An  upper  saddle-blanket  used  in  pack- 
ing. Next  to  the  skin  of  the  animal  is  placed  a  piece 
of  clean  cloth,  or  an  ordinary  woolen  blanket  neatly 
folded;  over  this  is  placed  the  corona.  It  is  made 
of  woolen  cloth,  witjj  worked  ornamental  borders, 
and  consists  of  two  or  three  folds  stitched  together. 
The  number  or  name  of  the  animal  to  which  it 
belongs  is  generally  stitched  upon  it  in  colored  cloth. 
In  tidiing  the  corona  off,  grasp  it  in  the  center,  front 
and  back,  let  the  sides  come  together,  and  place  it 
across  the  aparejo,  back  to  the  rear.  The  corona 
should  be  the  same  size  a.s  the  sjvddle-blanket,  and 
should  neatly  cover  it,  on  the  animal.    See  Packing. 

COKFOBAL. —  The  rank  below  that  of  Sergeant. 
In  the  British  army,  at  present,  Corjxiral  is  the  grade 
next  below  non-commissioned  officers.  When  the 
regiment  is  formed  as  a  corps,  he  has  no  function 
different  from  the  private  soldier.  In  barracks  or 
camp,  however,  he  exercises  certain  disciplinar)'  con- 
trol over  the  privates.  At  present,  in  the  British 
army,  there  are  32  Corporals  to  each  regiment  of  cav- 
alry, and  40  for  each  infantry  battalion.  They  re- 
ceive pay  varying  from  1».  3rf.  to  2*.  orf.  per  day. 
The  Lance  Corporal  is  an  as.sistant  Corporal,  who  re- 
mains, however,  on  private's  pay ;  he  wears  one 
chevron  on  his  arm,  and  two  when  he  rises  to  the 
rank  of  Corporal.  In  the  United  States  army,  a  Cor- 
poral is  the  lowest  officer  in  a  company,  standing  be- 
tween a  private  and  Sergeant,  and  does  duty  in  the 
ranks  as  a  private,  except  that  he  places  and  relieves 
sentinels,  and  at  drill  has  charge  of  a  squad. 

COBFOBAL  HAJOB. — In  the  British  service,  a  troop 
Corporal  Major  is  the  non-commissioned  officer  of  the 
highest  rank  in  a  troop  of  the  Household  Cavalry; 
his  position  and  authority  are  the  same  as  those  of  a 
Color-sergeant  of  infantry.  A  regimental  Corporal 
Major  is  the  non-commissioned  officer  of  the  highest 
rank  in  each  of  the  three  regiments  of  Household 
Cavalry,  and  corresponds  to  a  Sergeant  Major  of 
infantry. 

CORPOBAL  PUNISHMENT.— The  infliction  on  the 
bare  back,  by  means  of  a  cat-o'-ninc-tails,  of  a  certain 
number  of  lashes  for  crimes  committed  by  soldiers. 
Except  for  very  grave  offenses,  such  punishment  is 
seldom  resorted  to  in  the  army,  and  then  only  during 
war-lime  or  on  board  ship.  The  number  of  lashes  is 
limited  to  ."iO. 

COBPOBAL'S  GUABD.— An  exprcs.sion  used  to  in- 
dicate a  detachment  of  several  men  under  arms.  It 
may  be  ajiiilied  to  a  squad  equal  to  that  usually 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  Corporal  for  drill, 
jxilice.  guard-duty,  etc.  Generally  made  use  of  in  a 
derisive  manner. 

COBFS.— The  Articles  of  War  use  the  word  corjM 
in  the  sense  of  a  i)ortion  of  the  army  organized  l)y 
law  with  a  heail  and  members;  or  any  other  military 
boily  having  such  organizjition,  lus  the  JIarine  Corps. 
A  regiment  is  a  corps;  an  independent  company  is  a 
corps;  a  body  of  officers  with  one  head  is  a  corps,  as 
the  Tojiographical  Engineers.  Detachments  of  part-s 
of  regiments,  or  of  whole  regiments,  united  for  a  par- 
ticvilar  object,  whether  for  a  camitaign  or  a  part  of  a 
campaign,  are  not  corps  in  the  sense  of  the  Rules  and 
Articles  of  War,  for  such  Ixxlies  have  neither  bend 
nor  members  comnn'ssioned  in  the  particular  body 
temporarily  so  uniteil;  but  the  officers  with  such  de- 
tachment hold  commissions  either  in  the  corps  com- 


COBFS  ABTILLEBY. 


411 


COERESPONDENCE. 


posing  the  detachment,  in  the  army  at  large,  in  the 
Marine  Corps,  or  Militia. 

A  corps  o]x;rating  with  an  army  should  consist  of 
three  divisions  of  the  line,  a  brigade  of  artillery,  and 
a  regiment  of  cavalry.  If  the  corps  is  to  operate  in- 
dependently, the  cavalry  force  should  be  increased  to 
a  division.  The  same  principles  which  govern  the 
evolutions  of  a  division  are  applicable  to  a  corps. 
The  commands  of  the  GSeneral  are  communicated 
through  his  Staff -otficers;  the)'  are  general  in  tlieir 
nature;  embrace  the  particular  formation  he  may  de- 
sire for  each  division;  the  direction  the  line  is  to  ex- 
tend ;  the  point  where  its  right  or  left  is  to  rest ;  and 
such  further  instructions  as  may  be  necessary  lo  carry 
out  his  views.  Orderlies  for  the  Corps,  Division,  ami 
Brigade  Commanders  are  detailed  from  the  infajitry, 
and  are  mounteii. 

COBFS  ABTILLEBY.— A  portion  of  the  field-artil- 
lery left  at  the  entire  disposal  of  the  ( )tticer  Command- 
ing the  Artillery,  to  employ  in  any  manner  required 
by  the  Corps  Commander.  It  is  sometimes  termed 
reserve-artillery,  and  should  consist  of  both  light  and 
heavy  batteries.  It  fidtills  two  purposes — one  to  sup- 
port the  dirmonal  guns,  and  the  other  to  give  the 
means  of  combining  a  large  number  of  pieces  as  an 
ardlliry  iixus  for  a  decisive  elTort  either  offensive  or 
defensive.  | 

COBPS  D'ABMZE.— In  the  militarj-  system  of  the 
greater  Continental  European  States,  an  organization 
of  the  forces  in  the  time  of  peace.  The  whole  mili- 
tary strength  is  divideil  into  several  corps,  each  com- 
plete in  itself  as  an  array,  with  everything  needful  for 
service,  Staff  and  Artillerj -park  included.  The  Eng- 
lish army  is  now  distributed  into  eight  army  corps, 
stationed  in  eight  territorial  centers.  The  French  j 
army  had  in  ISiO  nineteen  mrps  d'armie ;  which  i 
have  been  increased  in  strength  by  the  recent  military  I 


present  the  Corps  has  one  Chief,  six  Colonels,  twelve 
Lieutenants,  twenty-four  Majors,  thirty  Captains, 
tweuty-six  First  Lieutenants,  and  ten  Seconil  Lieu- 
tenants; also  the  Battalion.  The  Corps  is  a  s|x,-cial 
arm  of  the  service,  charged  with  the  reconnoitcring 
and  surveying  for  military  purposes;  the  selection  of 
sites,  the  "formation  of  plans,  projects,  and  estimates 
for  military  defenses  of  every  kind;  the  construction 
and  repair  of  fortitications  and  defensible  works  of 
every  description,  whether  temporary  or  permanent; 
the  planning,  laying  out,  and  superintending  all  mili- 
tary works,  defensive  or  offensive,  of  troops  in  the 
tield,  camp,  or  cantonment;  the  examination  of  all 
routes  of  communication  by  land  or  by  water,  both 
for  supplies  and  for  military  movements;  the  plan- 
ning and  construction  of  militiiry  roads  and  bridges; 
the  planning  and  execution  of  such  works  of  river 
or  harbor  improvement,  including  sea-walls,  break- 
waters, and  light  houses,  as  may  be  a.ssigned  to  it  by 
law,  or  by  the  President  of  thetnited  States;  the  col- 
lection, arrangement,  and  preservation  of  all  reports, 
memoirs,  estimates,  plans,  drawings,  and  models  re- 
lating to  the  several  duties  above  enumerated.  All 
quarters  for  officers  and  soldiers,  all  workshops  and 
storehouses  required  within  the  lines  of  permanent 
fortitications,  are  constructed  by  the  Corjis  of  Engi- 
neers as  a  part  of  the  work.  Until  1866  the  Engineer 
Corps  had  the  superintendence  of  the  United  States 
Militarj-  Academy  at  West  Point,  but  since  that  year 
all  branches  of  the  service  are  admitted  to  their  share 
of  supervision.  See  Engbie^ring  and  Royal  Cvrpn  of 
Engineers. 

doBBECTIVE  GAUGES.— A  device  for  testing  and 
correcting  fixed  caliper-gauges,  and  also  as  a  refer- 
ence in  imy  case  to  prove  dimensions  within  it.* 
range;  the  disks  are  not  constructed  on  what  is  termed 
the  pyramid  plan;  each  one  is  separate,  ground  inde- 


Corrective  Gaup^^^ 


reorganization.  Glermany  had  in  the  same  year  eigh-  ' 
teen  corps  d'armee.  In  the  Austrian  service  the  nor- 
mal number  of  corps  d'annee  is  thirteen.  The  mili- 
tary strength  of  Russia,  as  finally  settled  in  1876,  is 
distributed  over  fourteen  military  districts.  See  Ar- 
my Ciirps. 

CORPS  DES  GUIDES. — A  body  originally  formed  in 
France  in  IT.iG.  consisting  of  one  Captain,  one  Fir."*! 
Lieutenant,  two  Second  Lieutenants,  two  Sergeants, 
two  Corporals,  one  Anspessade,  and  twenty  Privates, 
called  the  Fusilifr-rfuides.  Another  Corps  of  Guides 
was  also  formed  in  1796.  This  corps  now  forms 
part  of  the  Imperial  Guard. 

CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS.- A  Corps  orgsmized  in  the 
United  States  in  1.S02,  to  consist  of  one  Colonel,  one 
Lieutenant  Colonel,  two  Majors,  four  Captains,  four 
First  and  Second  Lieutenants,  and  Cadets, — the  whole 
number  not  to  exceed  twenty, — to  he  stationed  at  West 
Point,  and  to  constitute  a  Military  Academy.  In  1838 
the  Corps  was  increased  to  forty -seven  otficers,  and  a 
Corps  of  Toposraphical  Engini'crs  in  addition  wasor- 
ganized.  In  1846.  Sapi>ers.  Jliners,  and  Pontoniers 
(bridge  builders)  were  added.  In  1861,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Rebellion,  three  additional  companies  were 
provided  for,  and  one  of  Topographical  Engineers 
was  added.  This  company  was  disbandetl  in  1863, 
and  its  officers  sent  to  the"  Corps  of  Engineers.     At 


pendently  to  standard  size,  and  tested  b}?  tlie  measur- 
ing machine.  The  usual  set,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing, is  made  to  embrace  forty-nine  sizes,  advancing 
1)\'^ sixteenths  from  one  fourth  of  an  inch  to  two  and 
one  half  inches,  and  by  eighths  to  four  inches,  but 
can  lie  furnished  with  any  number  of  sizes  up  to  any 
required  diameter.  ^ca'Oauge,  Measuring-inachine, 
and  Standard  Scale. 

COBRESPONDENCE. —  All  official  correspondence 
between  the  Heads  of  the  different  Departments  of 
the  Staff  of  any  command  and  its  Commander  pas-ses 
through  the  Adjutant  General.  Assistant  Adjutant 
General,  or  Adjutant  of  the  command,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Communications  to  or  from  a  Commander 
and  those  under  his  command  pass  through  the  Ad- 
jutant General,  Assistant  Adjutant  General,  or  Adju- 
tant on  duty  with  it,  excepting  only  such  communica- 
tions between  a  Disbursing  Officer  and  the  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  in  which  be  serves  as  relate  exclusively 
to  the  ordinary  routine  of  business  in  their  own  De- 
partment. Ail  communications,  reports,  estimates, 
etc.,  from  officers  serving  at  a  military  post,  as  well 
as  communications  of  every  nature  addressed  to  them 
relating  to  affairs  at  the  post,  pa.ss  through  the  Past 
Commander.  All  communications,  whether  from  an 
inferior  to  a  superior,  or  rice  rers/r,  are,  as  a  general 
rule,  to  pass  through  the  intenuediate  Commanders. 


COBBIDOB. 


412 


COBUNDUM. 


In  cases  of  pressinj;  necessity,  wliidi  leave  no  time 
fi)r  rcgul.ir  comnuinicniion,  the  necessity  is  staled. 
The  siiine  rule  iroveriis  in  verlial  applications.  A 
Lieuteniuit  scekiiii;  an  iuiluljieuce  applies  thivngh 
his  Captain,  a  Captain  through  the  Adjutant,  and  so 
on.  This,  however,  is  not  interpreted  as  including 
matters  in  relation  to  which  the  intermediate  Com- 
manders can  have  no  knowledge,  and  over  which 
they  are  not  cxjicctcil  to  exercise  control  orlo  express 
opinion.  All  communications  from  superior  to  in- 
ferior officers  are  answered  through  the  same  chiui- 
uel  iLs  rweived. 

Officers  cannot  apply  to  the  Secretary  of  War  or 
Generid  of  the  Army  for  jiersonal  favors,  or  address 
Iheiu  on  olliciid  nialters  in  any  other  manner  than  is 
l>res<TilH-<l  liy  Regulations  and  military  usjigc.  All 
such  conununications  must  be  in  writing,  and  ad- 
dres-ifd  to  the  Ailjutant  Genend  of  the  Array,  through 
the  intiTineiliate  Commanders.  Applications  made 
in  any  other  mode  than  that  above  prescribed  are  not 
entertained,  but  are  construed  as  a  breach  of  disci- 
pline, subjecting  the  writer  to  arrest  and  trial  for  dis- 
obedience of  orders.  Generally  otHccrswho  forward 
cxmimunicalions  indorse  on  them  their  remarks  or 
opinion,  without  other  letters  of  transmittal.  Ollieial 
letters  should  genend  ly  refer  to  one  matter  onl}-. 
Those  transmitting  rolls  and  returns  should  refer  to 
no  other  subject.  Applications  for  opinions  or  deci- 
sions uixm  questions  relating  to  official  business  are 
not  made  by  persons  in  the  militarj'  ser\ice  to  the 
Judge  Advocate  General,  or  to  officers  connected  with 
other  branches  of  the  Government,  as  the  Attorney 
Genend.  or  officers  of  the  Treasury  Department, 
without  first  .submitting  such  question  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  through  the  regular  channels.  Xo  offi- 
cer is  add  re.s.s<Hl  in  orders  or  official  communications 
by  any  title  other  thiin  that  of  bis  actual  rank.  All 
comnmtiications  on  public  senice  are  marked  on  the 
enveloix'  "Official  Busines.s." 

Whenever  more  than  three  pages  of  the  sheet  used 
are  re(|uired  for  the  body  of  the  communication,  an 
additional  half-sheet,  or  more  if  ncccs.s;ny,  is  neatly 
pasted  to  the  first  sheet,  so  that  the  outer  page  may 
be  left  entirely  blank.  Letter-paper  is  folded  in 
three,  foolscap  in  four,  equal  folds,  parallel  with  the 
writing.  The  iimer  eiige  of  the  sheet  is  the  top  when 
folded.  The  left-haml  fold  of  the  outer  page  is  the 
first  fold.  The  first  fcld  is  used  exclusively  for  a 
brief  analysis  of  the  contents  of  the  original  com- 
munication, the  office  marlvs,  and  noting  of  inclos- 
ures.  Indorsements  commence  at  top  of  the  second 
fold,  and  follow  each  other  in  regular  order  of  date 
on  successive  folds,  leaving  room  after  each  for  office 
marks.  In  no  ca.se  should  a  loose  wrapper  be  placed 
aroun<l  an  t)fficial  paper,  except  as  a  mere  covering, 
on  which  nothing  is  to  be  written;  but  additional 
space  for  indorsiinents  should  be  provided  by  neatly 
pasting  slips  of  paper  on  the  under  side  of  the  la.sf 
fold — right-hand  edge  of  the  original  paper — each 
slip  to  c<)rres|X)nd  in"  length  and  w'iilth  (when  pitsted 
on)  with  the  length  and  "width  of  the  original  fold, 
and  to  turn  back  upon  the  last  fold  like  tlie  leaves  of 
a  lxx)k.  By  this  arrangement  the  first  fold  on  which 
the  office  marks  and  brief  are  made  is  always  outside. 
Printed  lal)els,  by  way  of  indorsement,  are  "not  pasted 
on  the  papers;  thev  cause  the  folds  to  crack,  and  in- 
cresLse  the  bulk  of  the  paix'rs.  All  inclosurcs  arc 
nmnbered,  and  liear  the  proper  office  marks.  Inclos- 
urcs of  the  original  commimieation  are  noted  on  the 
first  fold,  just  below  tlie  l)rief.  If  others  are  added 
when  an  indors<Mnent  is  made,  the  number  of  them  is 
noted  at  the  foot  of  their  appiopriate  indorsement,  and 
also  on  the  first  fold  of  the  original  communication, 
and  to  the  latter  notation  is  added  the  mimt«'r  of  the 
indorseiiKMit  to  which  they  l)elong,  thus:  Oiu'  indm- 
lire — Fiph  iiiiliir/uminl.  Inclosurcs  to  indorsements 
are  numlicriHl  in  the  s;ime  series  as  those  to  the  ori- 
ginal paper,  and  the  numlicr  of  the  indorsement  to 
which  they  belong  is  added  Ih'Iow.  If  few  in  nuin- 
ber  and  not  bulky,  inclasurcs  may  be  kept  inside 


the  original  paper.  If  otherwise,  they  will  l)e  folded 
together  in  a  wrapper  marked  '■  Inclosurcs, " as  an  ac- 
cdrnpanviiig  package. 

COKRIDOK.— The  covered-way  lying  aroiiud  the 
wbnlc  compass  of  the  fortifications  of  a  place. 

CORROSION. — A  six'cies  of  dis.solution  of  metallic 
bodies  either  by  an  acid  or  a  sidine  menstruum  Can- 
non-metals should  be  able  to  resist  the  corroding  ac- 
ti<m  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  heat  and  the  products 
of  combustion  of  the  powder;  should  be  susceptible 
of  being  easily  bored  and  turned;  and  should  not  be 
too  costly,  on  account  of  the  very  great  number  and 
weight  of  caimon  required  for  the  military  service. 

CORBOSIVE  SUBLIMATE.— A  laboratory  substance 
described  as  the  bichloride  of  mercury.  It  is  formed 
by  introducing  hot  mercury  into  chlorine  gas;  the 
mercury  intlames  and  the  bichloride  is  formed.  There 
are  other  ways  oi  preparing  it.  What  is  tenned  ky- 
anizing  is  applying  this  substance  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  timber,  cordage,  aiils,  tent-cloths,  and  other 
fabrics  from  ilecay  by  mold,  or  by  the  ravages  of 
insects.  This  mode  of  preserving  the  articles  men- 
tioned is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Kvan. 

CORRUGATED  IRON.  —  Comnion  sheet  -  iron,  and 
what  is  improperly  called  " galvanized-iron"  (i.e., 
sheet-iron  coated  with  zinc  by  immersion  in  a  bath  of 
the  fased  metal),  have  of  late  lieen  made  available  for 
manj'  useful  purposes,  by  \-irtue  of  the  great  addi- 
tional strength  imparted  to  the  sheets  by  corrugation, 
which  is  merely  an  application  to  metallic  substjinces 
of  the  old  coiurivauce  of  "  goffering  or  crimping,"  by 
means  of  which  the  frills  of  the  olden  time  were 
made  to  keep  their  shape.  The  sheets  of  metal  are 
passed  between  rollers,  the  surfaces  of  which  are 
formed  into  rounded  grooves  and  ridges,  the  ridges 
of  one  roller  tilling  the  grooves  of  the  other.  The 
metal  in  passing  between  these  is  compresse'd  into  a 
waving  form,  or  corrugated.  It  will  be  e;isily  under- 
stood that  a  piece  of  sheet-metal,  of  gi\en  size  and 
thickness,  if  rolled  up  to  form  a  tube,  will  resist  a 
much  greater  bending  strain  thim  when  fiat.  Now 
the  curves  of  the  corrugation  may  be  regarded  sis  a 
scries  of  half-tubes,  and  the  additional  strength  is  due 
to  the  application  of  the  same  principle.  Walls  and 
roofs  of  temporary'  buildings  are  now  extensively 
made  of  this  material.  Railway-sheds,  emigrants' 
houses,  temporary  churches,  store-rooms,  and  sheds 
for  dock  yards,  etc.,  are  among  the  common  applica- 
tions. >tr.  Francis,  of  Xew  York,  has  ai^plied  the 
principle  to  the  construction  of  light  boats,  the 
.strength  of  which,  and  their  power  of  resisting  vio- 
lent blows,  such  as  boats  are  subject  to  on  landing 
through  a  surge,  is  said  to  be  remarkably  great.  On 
this  account  they  are  proposed  to  be  used  for  life- 
boats, ships'  bdafs,  etc.  They  a'e  made  by  stamping 
the  metal  in  enormous  dies,  of  the  shape  and  size  of 
the  boat,  and  grooved  for  the  recpiired  corrugjitions. 
Small  boats  thus  constructed  recpiiro  no  internal 
bracings,  the  requisite  rigidity  and  strength  being 
given  entirely  by  the  corrtigations. 

CORSELE'T.—" A  small  ctiiniss,  or  i>iece  of  armor  to 
cover  the  front  of  the  body,  worn  formerly  by  pike- 
men.     See  Ariiinr. 

CORSEQUE.— The  common  name  of  the  ranseur  in 
Pranci .     See  Iiaii»ti/r. 

CORSESCA.— A  kind  of  spear  used  in  the  sixteenth 
century.     Now  obsolete. 

CORSC— An  Italian  word  used  to  express  not  only 
the  racing  of  horses  (without  riders),  but  also  the  slow 
driving  in  jirocession  of  handsome  equipages  through 
the  ))rincipal  streets  of  a  town,  such  as  almost  always 
takes  place  in  Italy  on  festivals.  This  custom  has 
given  a  name  to  many  streets  in  almost  all  the  larger 
townsof  Italy.  The" best  known  of  these  is  the  Corso 
in  Honu'.  wliich  is  the  scene  of  the  celebrated  diver- 
sions of  the  carnival. 

CORTEGE.— The  official  staff,  civil  or  militarj-;  a 
train  of  allendants.     Sec  Tritimpli. 

CORUNDUM. — A  lianl  mineral  consisting  of  crys- 
talline alumina.     The  sapphire  and  ruby  are  allied 


COSIONE. 


413 


COUNCIL  OF  ADMINISTRATION. 


substances  of  different  colors.  Corundum  is  used  in 
powder  of  varying  lincncss;  is  made  u))  into  wheels 
and  laps  with  gums,  resins,  glue,  etc.;  and  is  em- 
ployed in  the  armory  in  the  form  of  cones,  cups, 
tiles,  slabs,  wheels,  lajis,  bobs,  points,  and  tapes. 

COSIGNE.— The  French  expression  commonly  used 
for  the  ii;irole  or  countersign. 

COSSACKS.— A  jx'ople  inhabiting  those  parts  of  the 
Ru.ssian  Empire  ^\  hich  bonier  on  the  northern  domin- 
ions of  Turkey,  Poland,  and  the  .southern  contines  of 
Siberia.  Botli  the  name  and  origin  of  this  people  are 
involved  in  great  uncertainty.  They  seem  to  have 
none  of  the  national  characteristics  of  the  Rus.sians, 
and  are  probably  a  mixed  Caucasian  and  Tartar  race. 
They  form  a  sort  of  independent  rei)ublic,  paying  no 
taxes  to  Russia,  but  cheerfully  contributing  their  nu- 
merous anil  valuable  contingent  of  men,  who  are 
well  known  as  the  most  harassing  light  troops  that 
ever  exercised  a  predatory  warfare  in  the  tniiu  of  any 
army. 

COSTON  SIGNAL-LIGHTS.— These  consist  of  red, 
green,  and  white  lights  and  their  various  combina- 
tions, representing  the  different  numbers  and  pend- 
ants. The  colors  assimilate  a.s  far  as  possible  with 
those  of  the  day-flags.  The  case  is  made  of  fusi-- 
paper  3  inches  long  and  U  inch  in  diameter.  A 
cylindrical  block  of  soft  wood  i  inch  long  forms  the 
bottom,  with  a  wooden  nipple  attached  to  tit  into 
the  signal-holder  or  tiring-pistol.  Through  the  cen- 
ter of  the  bottom  is  a  small  hole  with  a  thin  copper 
tube  ,',;  inch  in  diameter,  extending  through  the 
middle  of  tlie  case  to  within  i  inch  of  the  top.  Hol- 
low drifts  are  used  in  tilling,  which  are  struck  fifteen 
moderate  blows  with  a  half-pound  mallet  for  each 
charge.  The  ca.sc  is  filled  to  the  top  of  the  copper 
tube;  the  last  charge  l)eing  i  ounce  of  mealed  powder. 
A  small  strand  of  quick-match  is  put  through  the 
copper  tube  and  wooden  l)Ottom,  the  upper  end 
stitched  to  the  side  of  the  paper  case  above  the 
mealed  powder,  and  the  lower  end  split  to  make 
sure  of  its  ignition  by  the  cap  from  the  pistol.  The 
top  of  the  case  is  covered  with  a  thin  wafer  of  brown 
paper  immediately  over  the  quick-match  and  mealed 
powder;  then  over  all  is  a  pasteboard  top  with  a  rim 
secured  to  the  body  of  the  case  bj-  a  strip  of  pajKT 
pasted  on  the  two.  The  wooden  bottom  is  covered 
with  shellacked  paper.  The  signal  is  finally  cov- 
ered with  white,  red,  or  green  paper,  according  to  the 
color  of  the  composition,  and  packed  in  laboratory- 
boxes  for  issue. 

The  several  colors  in  the  Coston  signals  are  in- 
tended to  burn  from  8  to  10  seconds.  In  a  signal 
composed  of  three  colors  1^  charges  of  the  composi- 
tion of  the  last  color  to  be  burned  are  put  in  first  and 
driven;  a  thin  circular  disk  of  paper  is  put  in  the 
case  on  top  of  this  composition,  then  IJ  charges  of 
the  second  color  are  piit  in  and  driven,  a  piece  of 
paper  put  on,  and  then  11  charges  of  the  first  color  to 
be  burned  are  put  in  and  tlrivcn. 

When  a  signal  is  composed  of  Imt  tT\'0  colors,  the 
lower  third  of  the  paperca.se  is  filled  with  powdered 
clay,  and  driven  the  same  as  the  composition,  then 
on  top  of  this  clay  the  second  colored  composition  is 
driven,  and  on  that  the  first.  When  but  one  color 
forms  a  signal,  two  thirds  of  the  case  is  first  filled 
with  clav,  and  the  composition  driven  in  the  upper 
third,  'fhe  following  compositions  are  used  for  Cos- 
ton  signals: 

For  the  white  signals — .5  parts  sublimate  of  sul- 
phur; 5  parts  sulphuret  of  antimony;  2  parts  red  oxide 
of  lead;  3  parts  sulphuret  of  arsenic;  *  part  bleached 
shellac;  24  parts  nitrate  of  potash. 

For  the  red  light  — 16  part.s  chlorate  of  pota.sh; 
6  parts  oxalate  of  strontium;  2  jiarts  bleached  shel- 
lac; 2  parts  sugar  of  lead;  i  part  desiccated  lamp- 
black. 

For  the  green  light — 4  parts  chlorate  of  mercury; 
2  parts  bleached  shellac;  12  parts  chlorate  of  bariiun. 
See  Sitiriol-rnrket. 

COTICE.— In  Heraldry,  one  of  the  duninutives  of 


the  bend.  It  is  a  fourtli  part  of  the  bend,  and  is  usu- 
ally borne  in  couples  with  a  head  between.  Some- 
times written  Cont.     See  Iknthiry. 

COTTON  WASTE.— The  refu.se  cotton  collected  in 
cotton-mills.  It  is  used  for  wiping  machinery,  and 
should  be  put  away  wilh  care  in  some  out-of-the-way 
place  when  the  work  of  the  day  is  over,  or  sat\irate(i 
in  w  aler  with  a  solution  of  soda  and  boiled,  when  the 
oil  will  be  extracted.  In  its  oily  state  with  i)articular 
oils,  such  as  vegetable-oils,  it  is  liable  to  sjioiitaneous 
combustion,  and  should  not  therefore  he  left  about. 
It  is  very  dangerous,  as  will  be  realized,  to  leave  it 
in  houses  where  gunpowder  is  manufactured.  It  is 
not  at  all  unlikely  that  the  explosion  in  many  gun- 
powder-housies,  the  reason  of  which  has  been  un- 
known, has  been  caused  from  cotton  waste  contain- 
ing oil  having  been  left  in  the  houses  at  night,  and 
thus  ignited  the  building  or  buildings.  In  some  cot- 
ton \\  asle  itself  there  are  the  elements  of  fire. 

COUCHANT.— In  Heraldrj',  a  beast  lying  dow  n,  and 
with  his  head  up,  is  cmuliant.  If  the  head  is  down, 
he  is  dortiiant.     See  Heraldry. 

COUDIEEES.— Small  plates  of  metal,  of  various 
shapes,  fixed  together  by  straps  and  buckles,  over 
the  mail,  in  order  to  give  an  increa-^ed  security  to  the 
elbows. 

COTJLLABT.— A  military  instrument  of  war  used  in 
the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  for  the  purpose 
of  casting  great  stones. 

COUNCIL  OF  ADMINISTEATION.— A  Board  of  Of- 
ficei-s  periodically  assembled  for  the  administration 
of  certain  business  matters.  In  the  United  States  ser- 
vice, the  Commanding  Otflcer  of  everj'  post,  at  least 
once  in  everj-  two  months,  on  muster-days,  convenes 
a  Pout  Council  of  Adtiiinistratioii,  to  consist  of  the 
three  regimental  or  company  officers  next  in  rank  to 
himself;  or,  if  there  be  b>it  two,  then  the  Uro  ne.xt;  if 
but  one,  the  one  next;  and  if  there  be  none  other  than 
himself,  then  he  himself  acts.  Regimental  Councils 
of  Administration  consist  of  the  three  officers  of  the 
regiment  on  duty  at  headquarters  next  in  rank  to  the 
Commander.  The  junior  member  records  the  i)ro- 
ccedings  of  the  Coimcil  in  a  book,  and  submits  the 
same  to  the  Commanding  Officer.  If  he  disapprove 
the  proceedings,  and  the  Council,  after  a  reconsidera- 
tion, adhere  to  its  decision,  a  copy  of  the  whole  is 
sent  by  the  Officer  Conmianding  to  the  next  higher 
C'ommander,  whose  decision  is  final,  and  entered  in 
the  Council-book,  and  the  whole  is  published  in 
Orders  for  the  information  and  goverimient  of  all 
concenied.  The  proceedings  of  Councils  of  Admin- 
istration are  signed  by  the  P*resident  and  Recorder, 
and  the  Recorder  of  each  meeting,  after  entering  the 
whole  proceedings,  together  with  the  final  order 
thereon,  deposits  the  book  with  the  Commanding  Offi- 
cer. In  like  manner,  the  approval  or  objections  of 
the  Officer  ordering  the  Council  are  signed  with  his 
own  hand.  The  Post  Council  prescribes  the  quantity 
and  kind  of  clothing,  small  equipments,  and  soldiers' 
neces-sjiries,  groceries,  and  all  articles  which  the  Post 
Traders  maj-  be  required  to  keep  on  hand;  examines 
the  Post  Traders'  books  and  papers,  and  fixes  the 
tariff  of  prices  of  the  Siud  goods  or  commodities;  in- 
spects the  Po.st  Traders'  weights  and  measures:  fixes 
the  laundress'  charges,  and  makes  regulations  for  the 
Post  School.  Councils  of  Administration  at  posts  oc- 
cupied by  companies  of  the  s:ime  regiment,  at  regular 
meetings"  set  aside  and  cause  to  be  paid  over  to  tlie 
regimental  treasurer  fifty  per  cent  of  the  amount  ac- 
cruing to  the  post  fund  during  the  preceding  two 
months  after  deducting  the  expenses  of  the  bakerj-. 
This  amount  is  carried  by  the  Regimental  Treasurer  to 
the  credit  of,  and  will  constitute,  the  regimental  fund. 
When  a  post  is  garrisoned  by  companies  of  ;!ilTerent 
regiments,  the  Council  makes  an  equitable  divi.sion 
ofthe  sum  allotted  to  the  regimental  fund,  and  causes 
the  sum  belonging  to  each  regiment  or  corjis  to  lie 
paid  over  to  its  Treasurer.  In  csise  of  the  loss  of  regi- 
mental, post,  or  company  funds,  the  circumstances  of 
the  loss  are  carefully  iiivestigated  by  the  Council  of 


COUNCIL  OF  WAK. 


414 


COUNTEB  OUARO. 


Ailmiiiislnitiou,  iiud  rc|M)rtc'il  with  a  recomiiU'iKliition 
as  to  the  rfsi)ousibilily,  tlirout'li  the  pro|XT  chiiuucls, 
to  the  Adjuiaut  GfUfral,  for  Uecision  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  War. 

COUNCIL  OF  WAK.-^A  conference  of  officers,  in 
niililiiry  nr  naval  warfare',  on  some  matter  in  which 
the  C'ommaniler  wishes  to  fortify  bis  jmljrment  by  an 
apiH-al  to  that  of  others.  The  F^rench  make  a  s|X'(ial 
provision  for  a  Council  of  Defense  in  a  garrison. 
The  Governor  or  Cominandanl  may  summon  the 
I  leads  of  Departments  to  meet  him  in  consultation 
whenever  be  may  think  such  a  step  desirable;  and 
the  opinions  expre.s.si'd  at  such  meetings  are  placed 
upon  reconl.  The  t'ommandant  of  a  gsirrison  gener- 
ally solicits  the  oi>inion  of  a  Council  of  War  liefore 
surrendering  to  besiegers.  The  English  Military 
Cotle  Icjives  these  matters  to  the  discretion  of  the 
C'ommaniler. 

COUNTER  APPROACHES.— With  a  strong,  well- 
disciplined  giirrison,  skillfully  commanded,  one  of  the 
most  efficient  auxiliary  means  of  defease  is  to  be 
found  in  counter-approaches  from  the  main  defensiye 
works  on  the  point  of  attack,  towards  the  position  of 
the  besieger's  lints.  Tlie.se  consist  of  simple  trenches 
pushed  forward  from  the  most  advanced  works  as  far 
as  can  be  safely  done  with  a  view  of  obtaining  enlilad- 
ing  and  reverse  fires,  both  of  artillery  and  infantry, 
on  the  trenches  and  batteries  of  the  besiegers.  The 
front  to  be  occupied  by  the  counter-approaches,  the 
distance  to  which  they  should  be  pushed  forward  in 
advance  of  the  main  works,  and  the  direction  they 
should  ri'ceive  will  depend  upon  the  natural  features 
of  the  site,  the  positions  and  strength  of  the  lx;sieger's 
works,  and  the  bearing  of  the  main  defensiye  works 
upon  the  ground  over  which  the  counter-approaches 
must  be  run. 

The  portions  of  the  liesiegcr's  works  that  the  counter- 
approaches  can  be  made  most  effective  against  are  his 
batteries  and  bis  Iwyaux  of  approach.  Positions, 
therefore,  should  be  given  to  the  coiuiter-approaches, 
and  a  sufficient  front  to  obtain  enfilading  and  slant 
reverse  views  on  the  boyaux  with  artillery  and  nuis- 
ketry,  and  a  fire  of  Sharp-shooters  on  the  batteries, 
with  a  complete  \iew  of  the  ground  in  advance  of 
them,  not  obstructing,  however,  the  fire  of  the  main 
defenses.  The  trenches  by  which  they  are  coimectctl 
with  the  defensive  works  should  be  enfiladed  by  these, 
and  should  be  so  run  that  the  retreat  of  the  troops 
through  them  shall  not  be  liable  to  be  cut  off,  whilst 
they  should  offer  a  convenient  and  short  line  of  com- 
munication. To  prevent  them  from  being  of  imme- 
diate use  to  the  Ixsiegers,  if  carried  by  open  assault, 
the  reverse  of  the  trenches,  even  of  those  which  are 
enfiladed  from  the  main  defensive  line,  sboulii  receive 
a  gentle  slope  to  the  rear  to  enable  the  trench  to  be 
swept  by  a  slant  or  even  direct  fire  from  the  works  in 
the  rear.  If  good  positions  can  be  found  for  them, 
the  counter-approaches  should  be  supported  by  strong 
field-works;  otherwise  stockaded  keeps  for  small  de- 
tachments may  be  made  at  suitable  points  to  assist  in 
repelling  any  ojieti  a.s.s;iult  of  the  besiegers. 

From  the  most  advanced  line  of  the  counterap- 
proacbes,  picked  men  may  be  sent  forward  to  occupy 
good  position.s  to  aimoy  the  artillerists  and  working 
parties  of  the  besiegers  by  taking  shelter  behind  any 
cover  from  fire  or  by  digging  boles,  from  which,  by 
throwing  the  earth  in  front,  they  can  speedily  gaiii 
cover.  These  holes  may  be  gradually  enlarged  so  as 
to  contain  three  or  four  men  each,  wlio  can  lie  readily 
rallied  for  mutual  sujiporl  against  open  assjuills  bV 
small  detachments  of  the  besiegers,  or  for  small  sorties 
against  their  workmen.  The  counter-approaches  will 
also  be  usi-d  for  jjosilions  for  movable  batteries  of 
light  ritled  guns,  which  can  l)e  shifted  from  point  to 
point  during  the  day,  wherever  they  can  best  aimoy 
the  besieger's  works  and  find  cover,  and  be  witii- 
dra'.vn  at  night  to  .secure  them  from  the  danger  of 
capture.  During  Ibis  period  the  Engineer  Ollicers and 
workmen  are  employed  in  organizing  the  ]K)int  of  at- 
t;ick  for  a  rigorous  defense.     The  covered-\vavs  arc 


palisadi  il  with  care.  TamlKiurs,  or  block-houses,  are 
e.stablisbe<l  in  the  salients  of  the  most  advanced  and 
ex|)os«'d  outworks,  and  al.so  in  the  re-eulerings,  where 
guards  are  constjintlv  i>oste(V.     See  AppriHirhes. 

COUNTER-ARCH.— In  fortification,  a  vertical  arch 
coiinccling  the  to]is  of  the  counterforts. 

COUNTER-BATTERY.— A  battery  employed  to  dls- 
mounl  or  silence,  by  direct  fire,  the  guns  of  an 
enemy's  works.  In  such  a  batteiy  the  interior  crest 
should  be  nearly  parallel  to  the  line  to  be  counter- 
battered.  A  position  somewhat  oblique  to  the  line, 
so  that  the  shot  of  the  battery  may  enter  the  embra 
sures  obliquely,  is  also  a  good  one  for  tearing  away 
the  cheeks  of  the  embrasures  and  exposing  the  guiis 
of  the  defenses.  Whenever  a  position  has  to  l)e 
taken  up  for  an  enfilading  or  a  counter-battery,  in 
which  the  direction  that  can  be  given  to  the  interior 
crest  is  very  oblique  to  that  which  it  ought  to  receive, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  make  the  embnusures  of  the 
battery  with  a  corresponiling  obliquity  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  parapet;  but  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  of 
these  embrasures  when  very  oblique,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  break  the  interior  crest  into  a  serrated  line,  to 
allow  the  muzzles  of  the  guns  to  be  run  the  requisite 
distance  into  the  embrasures;  placing  one  side  of  the 
indent  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  embrasure, 
and  the  other  parallel  to  it. 

For  ricochet,  the  batteries  are  best  armed  with 
smooth-bore  18-  and  2-t-pouuders  and  8-inch  howit- 
zers. The  fire  of  the  guns  is  mainly  directed  against 
the  artillery  of  the  defenses;  that  of  the  how  itzers  to 
sweep  the  covered-ways  and  ditches,  to  destroy  the 
palisiidings  and  the  traverses  by  the  explosion  of  the 
shells  that  may  lodge  in  them.  As  a  general  rule, 
there  need  not  be  more  than  seven  pieces,  nor  should 
there  usually  be  less  than  three  in  any  one  battery; 
the  numlxT  depending  upon  the  bearing  which  the 
artillery  of  the  part  to  be  silenced  may  have  upon  the 
ground  on  which  the  works  of  the  besiegers  must  be 
placed.  The  batteries  should  be  sis  far  asunder  as 
practicable,  so  as  not  to  invite  a  concentration  of  the 
fire  of  the  defenses  upon  any  point,  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  a  large  number  of  pieces  on  it,  and  thus  mul- 
tiply the  chances  of  the  loss  both  to  the  troops  and 
maU^riel. 

The  greater  i^art  of  these  batteries  will  occupy  fixed 
positions  during  the  time  they  are  in  use,  and  which, 
as  has  been  stated,  will  depend  upon  the  positiotLs 
occupied  by  the  artillery  of  the  besieged.  Other  bat- 
teries of  lighter  caliber,  which  can  be  easily  shifted 
from  point  to  point,  as  the  exigency  may  reqtiire,  can 
be  used  in  combination  with  these,  by  taking  aclvan- 
tage  of  any  natural  covers,  or  by  throwing  up  slight 
parapets  like  those  in  ordinary  field-works.  For  bat- 
teries of  ritled  guns,  with  long  ranges,  the  guns  may 
safely  and  advantageously  be  placed  in  barbette.  For 
positions  within  more  certain  range  of  the  besieged 
works,  the  guns  should  be  jilaced  in  embrasures  more 
or  less  open  according  to  the  field  of  fire  desired. 
Sec  liiiKi  rit'H  and  h'lifi/inHnr/  liiittrry. 

COUNTER  CHANGED.— In  Heraldry,  when  several 
metals  and  colors  are  intermi.xed,  one  being  .set  against 
the  other,  I  hey  are  said  to  be  counter-changed. 

COUNTERFORT.— In  fortification,  a  mass  of  stone 
or  lirick  work  added  to  the  revetment  of  a  rampart,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  form  a  buttress  for  resisting  the 
pressure  of  the  ma.ss  of  ejirth.  Counterforts  occur  at 
intervals  of  about  twenty  feet,  and  assist  in  preventing 
the  earth  from  i^tishingdown  the  revetment-wall  into 
the  ditch.  When  jimperly  constructed,  counterforts 
very  effectually  enable  tbe'walls  to  resist  the  shock  of 
distant  artillery.  Tiny  have  been  made  dovetailed. 
firl<i)i//ii/(ir.  and  ilhiiiinxtied. 

COUNTER-GUARD.— 1.  An  outwork  designed  to 
defend  the  two  faces  of  a  bastion  or  ravelin  from  a 
direct  fire,  so  as  to  retjird  a  breach  being  made.  The 
counter-guard  consists  of  two  lines  of  rampart  par- 
allel  to  the  faces  of  the  bastion  or  ravelin,  and  sepa- 
rated from  them  by  a  narrow  ditch.  The  crest  of 
the  counter-guard  must  be  some  three  feet  lower  than 


COUNTEB-HURTEBS. 


415 


COUNTEBMIKES. 


that  of  the  works  it  covers,  in  order  not  to  obstruct 
the  defense.  Lest  the  enemy  should  estaljlish  a  bat- 
tery on  the  counter-guard,  the  terre-jilein,  or  flat  space 
behind  its  parapet,  is  made  very  narrow.  Noizet 
speaks  of  the  counter-guard  as  a  valuable,  and  some- 
times a  necessary,  element  of  a  front;  preferring  it 
in  some  ca.ses  to  the  demi-lune.  Like  all  other  out- 
works, when  used,  it  should  be  tiauked  by  the  en- 
ceinte flanks,  be  swept  on  the  interior  by  the  lire  of 
its  faces,  and  not  intercept  their  tire  on  the  ground 
in  advance  of  it.  Vauban,  in  his  third  method,  forms 
his  enceinte  with  a  high  scarp-wall,  of  the  same  di- 
mensions and  form  as  in  his  tirst  method;  and  he 
procures  his  flanking  aiTangemeuts  for  the  enceinte 
by  small  bastioned  towers  of  ma-sonry,  which  are 
Ciusemated  in  the  lower  story,  and  have  mi  open  bat- 
tery in  the  upper,  covered  by  a  masonry  parapet. 
This  enceinte  he  covers  with  spacious  counter-guards 
of  the  form  of  lunettes,  the  faces,  flanks,  and  gorges 
of  which  are  revetted,  and  which  cover  the  bastioned 
towers  of  the  enceinte;  and  between  the  flanks  of 
these  counter-guards,  and  covering  the  curtain  of  the 
enceinte  between  the  bastioned  towers,  he  places  a 
tenaille.  A  demilune,  in  the  form  of  a  lunette,  is 
placed  in  front  of  the  counter-guards  and  tenaille; 
•within  which  he  has  placed  a  redoubt  with  a  revetted 
scarp  and  coimtersearp.  The  whole  of  this  combi- 
nation of  outwork-s  he  incloses  with  a  covered-way 
ammged  in  the  usual  manner.  C'ormontaigne  uses 
the  counter-guard  only  as  an  exceptional  outwork; 
and  has  applied  il,  in  some  of  the  works  constructed 
by  him,  to  strengthen  a  point  that  would  otherwise 
have  been  too  weak;  but  not,  as  by  Vauban,  as  a  con- 
stituent [lart  of  his  method.  Two  of  the  most  emi- 
nent modern  Engineers,  Coehorn  and  C'arnot,  in  their 
methods,  use  earthen  counter-guards  to  cover  their 
enceintes,  giving  them  only  sufficient  thickness  at  the 
top  for  a  parapet  and  a  banquette  fur  infantry;  .so 
that,  being  taken  bj'  the  assiiilant,  he  will  not  find 
sufticient  room  to  place  a  breach-battery  upon  their 
terre-pleius  against  the  enceinte.  In  this  way  they 
serve  chiefly  as  masks  or  face-covers  to  the  enceinte- 
faces.  Haxo  forms  of  the  counter-guard  a  constitu- 
ent element  of  his  method,  giving  it,  like  Vauban, 
the  form  of  a  lunette.     See  Ovtwork^. 

2.  A  plate  of  metal,  flat  or  concave,  plain  as  in 
open  work,  found  on  the  side  of  the  barrel  (and  per- 
pendicular to  its  axis)  in  swords  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. 

COUNTEB-HUBTEES.— In  gimnerj',  pieces  of  iron 
bolted  to  the  rails  on  which  the  gun-carriage  moves 
to  check  it  in  front  and  rear. 

COUNTEKMAND.^To  revoke,  as  a  former  com 
mand;  to  direct  or  order  in  opposition  to  an  order 
previously  given,  thereby  annulling  it  or  prohibiting 
its  execution. 

COUNTEBMABCH.— An  evolution  by  which  a  body 
of  men  change  front,  and  at  the  same  time  retjiin  the 
same  men  in  the  front  rank.  On  the  same  principle, 
a  whole  army  will  sometimes  change  front.  If  after 
the  covmterniarch  the  order  about  facf  be  given,  the 
same  front  will  be  preserved,  with  the  rear  rank  in 
front,  and  what  was  previously  the  right  now  serving 
as  the  left.  A  rear  rank  may  also  become  a  front 
rank  by  merely  countennarching  round  the  end  of 
the  latter,  which  remains  stationary. 

To  place  a  piece  of  artillery  and  its  caisson  in  the 
same  relative  positions  on  the  groimd  they  occupied 
l)cforc,  b\it  facing  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  In- 
structor commands:  1.  CouiiUrmarch,  2.  March.  At 
the  command  march,  the  leading  carriage  reverses, 
and  moves  at  once  to  the  position  occui)ied  by  the 
rear  carriage  at  the  beginning  of  the  movement;  the 
rear  carriage  follows  the  track  of  the  leading  one, 
reverses  on  the  Siime  ground,  and  preserves  its  dis- 
tance. On  the  completion  of  the  countermarch,  the 
section  moves  forward  in  the  new  direction.  To  halt 
the  section  upon  the  completion  of  the  countermarch, 
the  Instructor  commands:  1.  Section,  2.  H.\lt.  The 
command  halt  is  given  when  the  heads  of  the  lead- 


horses  of  the  leading  carriage  reach  the  position  oc- 
cupied by  the  hind  part  of  the  rear  carriage  at  the 
beginning  of  the  movement. 

COUNTEBMINES.— Galleries  or  chambers  exca- 
vated under  the  glacis  or  some  other  part  of  a  defense- 
work  of  a  fortress.  Their  purjio.se  is  to  foil  a  besieger. 
In  a  fortress  on  a  large  scale  there  are  cnveloping- 
galleries,  counterscarp -galleries,  listening-galleries, 
galleries  of  communication,  ancl  other  subterranean 
pa-ssages,  imder  various  parts  of  the  outworks,  all  for 
the  purpose  of  assisting  the  defenders  in  discovering 
and  frustrating  plans  laid  by  the  Ix'sicgers.  Listen- 
ing-galleries are  sometimes  pushed  forward  even  to 
the  foot  of  the  glacis.  In  such  places  si'lected  men 
put  their  ear  to  the  ground,  and  listen  for  the  aji- 
proach  of  the  enemy,  as  denoted  bj'  the  sound  of  tools 
used  in  driving  a  mine  or  gallery  of  attack,  The 
sound  of  a  pickaxe  so  emiiloyed  can  be  heard  through 
the  groimd  at  a  distance  of  BO  feet.  As  there  are  no 
openings  above,  tliese  galleries  cannot  be  driven  be- 
yond a  certain  distance,  as  the  sappers  would  be 
stifled  for  want  of  air.  If  a  mine  be  flriven  to  blow- 
up the  defen.se-works,  a  countermine  is  driven  to 
blow  up  the  besiegers;  and  sometimes  the  two  parties 
carry  their  works  so  far  as  to  meet  in  the  subterranean 
passages,  and  there  fight.  If  there  be  only  a  thin 
wall  of  earth  left  between  them,  they  will  fire  pistols 
through  bored  holes,  or  drive  in  cartridges  or  smoke- 
balls.  This  terrible  work  is  mostly  carried  on  b3' 
.s;ippers  and  miners. 

The   systems  of  countermines  proposed  by  most 
writers  on  this  branch  of  the  defense  are  genendly  of 
too  complicated  a  character  to  admit  of  being  exe- 
cuted at  a  reasonable  cost,  and  they  require  for  their 
service  not  only  a  large  amount  of  powder,  but  also  a 
great  mmiber  of  miners.     The  following  arrangement 
has  been  proposed  to  meet  in  a  simple  and  satisfac- 
tor)' manner  the  requisites  of  a  subterranean  defense: 
Parallel  to  the  capital  of  an  assailable  salient  of  the 
work,  four  listening-galleries  ma.y  run  out   to  a  dis- 
tance trom  50  to  80  yards  beyond  the  salient;  the  in- 
j  terval  between  these  galleries  being  twice  the  line  of 
i  least  resistance  of  the  heaviest  charged  mines.     If  we 
,  take  this  line  at  7  yards,  or  21  feet,  which  is  about 
:  the  greatest  for  common  mines,  the  interval  of  the 
galleries  will  be  15  yards.     The  dimensions  of  the  lis- 
tening-galleries for  alxiut  the  first  20  yards  may  be 
those  of  a  grand  gallery,  and  the  remaining  part  may 
be  a  common  gallerj".     These  galleries  will  depart 
from  a  transversal  grand  gallery  about  6  yards  in  ad- 
,  vancc  of  the  counterscarp  at  the  .sjdieni,  which  will 
I  serve  as  a  commimication  between  them,  and  also  as 
I  a  depot.     Other  transversals  of  the  size  of  half-galler- 
(  ies,  or  branches,  will  be  made  at  diflFerent  intervals 
for  the  purpose  of  ventilation.     This  group  of  galler- 
ies will  have  their  outlet  into  the  ditch,  through  two 
galleries,  one  leading  from  each  extremity  of  the 
transversal  grand  gallery. 

To  flank  thLs  group,  other  listening-galleries  may 
extend  obliquely  outwards  from  the  two  outside  par- 
allel galleries.  To  serve  the  mines  of  this  group,  a  ser- 
ies of  ascending  branches  may  lead  from  the  galleries 
to  chambers,  placed  midway  between  the  galleries, 
and  having  a  line  of  least  resistiuice  of  4  yards.  This 
will  place  these  chambers  at  about  8  yards  from  the 
two  adjacent  galleries.  Smaller  branches  may  lead, 
if  necessary,  from  these  last  branches  to  other  groups 
of  chambers  having  a  line  of  lea-st  resistance  of  2  or 
3  j'ards.  A  series  of  chambers  with  lines  of  least  re- 
sistance of  T  yards  will  be  established  in  juxtjiposition 
with  each  listening-g;illery.  Froiu  this  arrangement 
it  will  be  readily  seen  that  ground  over  the  mines  can 
be  entirely  broken  up,  and  that  the  successive  explo- 
sions of  "the  mines  of  one  group  will  destroy  the 
branches  and  galleries  which  lead  to  them,  without 
injuring  those  of  other  groups.  The  object  of  this 
disposition  is  to  blow  up  by  repeated  explosions  the 
ground  over  which  the  enemy  must  approach  upon 
the  assailed  salient.  Groups  of  gjilleries  and  mines 
similar  to  the  one  in  advance  of  the  salient  may  be 


COUVTXB  FABOLE. 


416 


COUNTEHSCAHP  GALLEBT. 


iiiranjrcil  for  the  dofcns«>  of  tho  interior  of  the  work 
lit  Ihf  siilii'nt.  As  ihf  air  in  tlio  crallcrics  of  mines  is 
li;ilile  to  l)eeonie  foul  from  various  causes,  some  me- 
ehaniesil  c-ontrivances  anil  ehemieal  methods  by  which 
the  vitiated  air  can  be  removed  and  fresh  air  inlro- 
duceil  have  to  1h'  resorti'd  to  for  the  pur|)osi'  of  ena- 
blinjr  the  miners  to  circulate  throuv;li  them  with 
safety.  Air  pumps,  bellows,  ami  artilieial  draufthts, 
proeiirisl  b_v  kindling  a  tire  at  one  of  the  outlets  of  a 
system  of  "pilleries,  are  the  onlinary  expedients  by 
which  this  object  is  attained. 

The  great  iH'cuniarv  outlay  requisite  in  establishing 
a  system  of  g-alleries,  the  time  and  lalwr  for  their  con- 
struction, besides  the  large  corps  of  exixTienced  mi- 
ners and  the  e.xtni  provision  of  powder  demanded  for 
their  ellicient  service  when  the  .system  embraces  any 
consiilerable  extent  of  surface,  has  led  Engineers  to 
consider  whether  the  end  proposed  by  subterranean 
means  of  defense  might  not  be  attained  by  some  more 
simple  expedients.  Since  the  applicalioii  of  galvanic 
currents  to  exploding  mines,  and  the  facilities  which 
it  affords  to  ellect  this  at  very  considerable  distances, 
it  has  been  proposed  to  substitute  isolated  shafts  for 


Countermining  Opt-rations  at  Siege  of  Sebastopol. 

galleries,  placing  them  in  positions  most  suitable  to 
attiiin  the  besieger's  works.  The  shafts,  to  give  them 
a  character  of  permanency,  may  be  lined  with  ma- 
sonrj-  and  receive  a  stone  "or  iron  cover,  which  may 
tH!  concealed  from  \-icw  by  placing  it  several  feet  be- 
low the  surface.  When  wanted  for  service,  the  shaft.s 
are  ehargeil  and  tamped  in  the  usual  manner,  and  con- 
nected with  a  galvanic  battery  by  insulated  wire  con 
duetors,  laid  sulbciently  far  belo'w  the  surface  of  the 
ground  to  be  without  the  sphere  of  the  besieger's  ex- 
cavations and  of  other  accidents. 

We  find  remarkable  countemiining  operations  at 
the  siege  of  Sebasloixil.  There  the  French  had  to 
work  under  far  more  uiifavoral)le  circumslanecs  than 
the  Russians;  the  system  of  countermines  of  the  latter 
ln-ing  well  ventilated  by  shafts  sunk  in  the  ditch  of 
biLstion  No.  4,  and  others  in  the  glacis,  and  also  being 
l)clow  strata  of  a  hard  limestone  rock,  anil  the  French, 
moreover,  having  a  greater  distance  to  push  their  gal- 
leries to  reach  tlie  Russian  counteniiines  than  these 
were  from  their  defensive  works  in  their  rear.  Svith 
lhes<!  disadvantages,  the  French  resolved,  about  March 
14,  IH.'i.'i,  to  l)reak  up  sullicient  gro\md  between  their 
ihinl  ])arallel  and  the  ditch  of  bastion  Xo.  4,  by  a 
connected  series  of  mines,  to  give  them  front  enough 
for  a  fourth  parallel,  which  was  to  contain  troops  to 


cover  their  further  mining  openttions.  All  of  their 
subseijuent  mining  labors  on  this  point,  up  to  the 
<lo.-i«'  of  the  siege,  tended  to  this  object;  and  at  this 
period  the  effect  of  Iheir  arduous  labors  is  shown  in 
the  drawing.  A  is  the  sjdient  of  bastion;  B,  l)Ottoni 
of  ditch  and  entrance  to  countermines,  C,  (.';  D,  D, 
crater  formed  by  explasions  of  French  and  RiLssian 
mines;  E,  E,  French  galleries  of  attack;  F,  third  par- 
allel from  which  French  attack  was  made;  G  and  U, 
communications  between  third  parallel  and  PYench 
trenches  in  and  around  the  bonlcrs  of  crater,  D,  D,  D. 
During  these  operations  the  French  executed  about 
100  feet  of  ramps  and  shafts,  and  about  41M)0  feet  of 
galleries  and  branches.  They  exploded  six  under- 
chargeil  mines  and  camouHets;  twenty  stone  fougas- 
ses;  thirty-live  over-charged  mines;  imd  sixty-four 
over-charged  sliafls:  making  a  total  of  one  hujidred 
and  twenty -live  explosions;  using  in  all  atout  130,(X)0 
poundsof  powder.  Their  losses  in  killed,  in  wounded 
from  momentary  suffocations,  and  in  tho.se  rescued 
after  having  been  buried  alive,  among  their  own  mi- 
ners and  some  auxiliary  force  from  the  infantry  of 
the  line,  were  two  hvmdrcd  and  twenty-eight  in  all; 
of  which  eight  were  oflicers,  killed  cither  in  the  mines 
or  trenches  by  explosions,  and  eight  by  the  Russian 
fire.  Not  only  did  the  PYeuch  use  theifmines  to  gain 
a  footing  for  their  fourth  parallel,  but  they  were 
obliged  to  resort  to  the  same  means  to  open,  in  the 
rock,  commimicafions  between  these  two  parallels. 
See  lilititer,  Gnlleri/,  and  Mines. 

COUNTER-PAKOLZ.— A  word  given  in  any  time  of 
alarm,  as  a  signal.     See  Parole. 

COUNTER-PASSANT.— In  Heraldry,  a  term  for  two 
beasts  pa.ssing  each  other  the  contrary  wav. 

COUNTERPOISE  CARRIAGE.— A  "sort  "of  carriage 
which,  aiijiliid  to  a  gun  mounted  in  barbette,  allows 
it  to  re'oil  beliintl  the  parapet  or  other  shelter,  and 
by  means  of  a  counterpoise  brings  it,  or  assists  in 
bringing  it,  again  into  buttery  after  it  has  been  loaded. 
In  the  Moncrieff  carriage  the  counterpoise  is  a  heavy 
weitjht  between  the  cheeks  of  the  lop  carriage.  In 
the ^ving  carriage  the  weight  is  in  a  well  under  the 
liintle  block,  and  is  attached  to  the  carriage  by  a  wire 
cable. 

COUNTER-ROUND.— A  body  of  officers  who.se  duty 
it  i<  to  fiecnicnlly  visit  and  inspect  the  rounds  and 
sciiliiiels. 

COUNTERSCARP.— The  side  of  the  ditch  opposite 
to  the  parapet.  The  slopes  of  the  scaqi  and  counter- 
scarp will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the 
action  on  it  of  frost  and  rain.  The  scarp  is  less  steep 
than  the  counterscarp,  because  it  has  to  sustain  the 
weight  of  the  parapet.  It  is  usual  to  give  the  slope 
of  the  scarp  a  base  equal  to  two  thirds  of  the  Iwise  of 
the  natural  slope  of  a  mound  of  fre.sh  earth  whose  al- 
titude is  equal  to  the  depth  of  the  ditch;  the  base  of 
the  counteiscarp-slope  is  made  equal  to  one  half  the 
same  base. 

To  determine  the  exact  dimensions  of  flie  ditch 
for  a  given  jiarapet  requires  a  mathematical  calcula- 
tion. On  the  tield  a  result  may  be  obtained  approxi- 
mating sulliciently  near  the  truth  for  practice,  by  as- 
suming the  dciilh  of  the  ditch  and  dividing  tlie  sur- 
face of  the  i)rofile  of  the  jiarapct  by  it  to  obtain  the 
width.  In  excavating  the  ditch  it  will  be  found  that 
more  earth  will  be  furnished  at  the  salients  than  is 
required  there  for  the  i)arapet;  and  that  the  re-enter- 
ings  will  not  always  furnish  enough.  On  this  ac- 
count the  width  of  the  ditch  should  not  be  uniform, 
but  narrower  at  the  sjilients  than  at  the  re-enlerings. 
See  Srtirji. 

COUNTERSCARP  -  GALLERY.—  The  counterscarp- 
gallery  consi.vts  of  a  framework,  covered  on  top  with 
a  sheeting,  which  is  jilaced  within  the  counterscarp 
at  the  .salients.  The  front  of  the  gallery  is  made  of 
nine-  or  ten  inch  scantling,  placed  upright,  and  ar- 
ranged with  loop-hole  defenses;  these  pieces  are  con- 
nected at  top  by  a  cap-sill.  Cro.ss-pieces  are  notched 
on  the  cap-sill  "about  three  feet  apart;  they  are  sup- 
ported by  shores  placed  four  feet  from  the  front 


GOTTRTEBSCABF-WALL. 


417 


COtmTEB- SHAFT. 


piece.  The  cross-pieces  may  project  three  feet  be- 
jond  the  shores,  and,  if  neces.sar3-,  be  braced  from 
the  shores.  The  gallery  is  covered  on  top  b3'  1}- 
inch  sheeting;  and  tehind  in  a  similar  manner, 
but  only  to  the  height  of  live  feet  above  the  bottom. 


A,  Section;  B,  Elevatiua  of  a  CounterscarivgaUery  for  a  Work 
with  a  RevetttKi  Scarp,  C. 

This  arrangement  gives  a  free  space  behind  the  back 
sheeting  for  the  play  of  the  rammer  in  loading.  The 
height  of  gallery  niay  be  only  seven  feet;  its  width, 
according  to  the  foregoing  arrangements,  is  four  feet. 
It  should  be  covered  on  top  by  at  least  three  feet  of 
earth.  The  level  of  the  gallery  should  be  the  same 
as  the  ditch;  and  there  should  be  a  small  ditch  in 
front  of  it,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  closing  on  the 
loop-holes,  or  obstructing  their  tire  by  filling  the 
ditch  in  front  of  them  by  means  of  sand-bags,  fas- 
cines, etc.  The  entrance  to  the  gallery  is  by  a  narrow 
door.     See  Scarp-ijallery. 

COUNTEKSCAKP-WALL.— A  revetted  counterscarp 
is  regarded  as  addinir  to  the 
difficulty  of  descending  into 
the  ditch,  and  as  offering 
jjreater  security  against  an 
open  assault.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  wall  should  not  be 
less  than  12  or  15  feet  in 
height  to  offer  a  serious  im- 
pediment; in  any  case,  where 
motives  of  economy  do  not 
imperioasly  demand  it,  the 
counterscarp-wall  of  the  en- 
ceinte should  be  from  18  to 
24  feet  in  height.  This  height 
will  not  only  give  great  se- 
curity to  the  ditch,  but,  as 
'  will  be  seen  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  siege- works  of  the 
as-sailant,  it  will  delay  con- 
siderably his  progress,  as  the 
gallery  by  which  he  must 
generally  reach  the  bottom  of 

the  ditch  from  the  level  of  the  covered-way  terre- 
plein  is  one  of  the  slowest  and  most  laborious  of  his 
operations. 

Besides  giving  greater  security  against  a  surprise,  a 
revetted  counterscarp  enables  the  a.ssailed  to  circulate 
through  their  ditches  even  when  the  assailant  has  es- 
tablished his  trenches  along  the  glacis-crest,  as  the 
top  of  the  counterscarp-wall  will  screen  the  troops 
pa-ssing  along  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  It  also  affords 
facilities  for  forming  a  countcrscarp-galleiy  behind 
it,  loop-holed  for  the  defense  of  the  ditch  in  an  open 
assault,  which,  for  small  works  ^vithout  thorough 
flanking  arrangements,  will  be  found  very  serWce- 
able.  Be-sidcs,  this  gallerj'  will  be  found  of  great 
■utility  where  a  system  of  defensive  mines  is  to  fonn 
a  part  of  the  defenses.  But  as  counterscarp-galleries, 
if  seized  by  the  as.sailant,  may  be  turned  against  the 
defenses,  it  is  important  that  they  should  be  placed 
io  positions  where  they  will  be  oi  little  value  to  the 
assailant  if  seized  bj-  him. 

The  necessity  for  revetting  with  a  wall  of  masonry 
the  scarp  and  counterscarp  of  a  wet  ditch  in  which 
the  water  can  be  retained  at  a  level  of  six  feet  in 


depth  is  not  so  obvious;  as  when  the  ditch  is  wide 
the  oljstacle  of  the  water  alone  would  seem  to  be  suffi- 
cient to  secure  the  place  from  a  surpri.se.  JIany 
works  under  this  condition  have  been  built  with  sim- 
ple earthen  scarps  and  counterscarps;  in  some  in- 
stances a  cheminnle-ronde  being  formed  bj-  leaving  a 
wide  bcrm  between  the  foot  of  the  exterior  slope  and 
the  crest  of  the  scarp,  and  planting  a  loop-holed 
stockade  near  the  cresl.  But  in  rigorous  climates, 
where  the  water  freezes  quickly,  a  wet  ditch  is  no 
longer  a  security  in  winter;  and  a  revetted  scaqj  of  at 
least  24  feet  m  height,  with  a  steep  earthen  counter- 
scarp, is  a  better  security  against  a  surprise  than  the 
expedients  projwsed  of  keepuig  an  open  channel 
along  the  middle  of  the  ditch  of  12  feet  in  width, 
pilmg  up  on  each  side  of  it  the  ice  taken  from  the 
chaimel,  and  throwing  water  over  the  exterior  slopes 
to  freeze  and  form  a  slippery  surface  to  an  assatUting 
column.     See  S'lirp-r/itUery. 

COUNTEE-SHAFT.— An  opposite  and  parallel  shaft 
driven  by  band  or  gearing  from  the  former  one.  The 
drawing  shows  the  counter-shaft  which  accompanies 
the  Tanite  Company's  large  No.  5  wheel  enierj-grin- 
dcr,  much  used  in  amiories.  The  counter-shaft  may  be 
overhead,  or  it  may  receive  the  impulse  from  below. 
The  Pratt  clutch  is  generally  applied  to  the  coimter- 
shaft.  This  clutch  is  imsurpassed  in  ease  of  work- 
ing, freedom  from  binding,  durability,  and  readiness 
of  adjustment.  The  shipper-slide  has  no  transverse 
strain;  the  clutch- jaws  cannot  become  bound;  the 
contact  of  the  surfaces  to  produce  motion  is  perfect; 
there  is  no  shock  in  starting  or  reversing — no  sudden 
tension  of  the  belts,  or  undue  strain  upon  the  shipper- 
handle.  Counter-shafts  with  this  clutch  may  or  maj' 
not  be  provided  with  cones.     The  Pratt  friction-pui- 


Coiinter-siiaft. 

leys  are  furnished  with  sleeves  and  collars  for  adap 
tjition  to  many  machines  where  instantaneous  starting 
and  stopping  is  desirable.  A  turea<led  shoe  is  fur- 
nished with  the  collar,  by  means  of  which  the  attach- 
ment maj"  be  made  to  an  ordinary  straight  shaft,  by 
threading  the  shaft  a  length  slightly  exceeding  the 
thickness  of  the  collar. 

Supposing  we  have  a  main  shaft  running  110  revo- 
lutions, and  a  12-inch  hand-lathe  counter-shaft  with  8- 
inch  tight  and  loose  pulleys  running  220  revolutions, 
we  can  find  the  following  elements  in  a  very  simple 
manner:  1.  To  find  the  size  of  the  pulley  on  the 
main  shaft,  multiply  the  diameter  of  the  pulley  on 
the  counter-shaft  by  its  number  of  revolutions"  and 
divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  main  shaft.     The  quotient  will  be  its  diameter: 

8  X  220  =  1760,  ~  =  16  inches  diameter.     2.  To 

find  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  counter-shaft, 
multiply  the  diameter  of  the  pulley  on  the  main  shaft 
by  its  number  of  revolutions  and  di\ide  the  product 
by  the  diameter  of  the  pulley  on  the  counter-shaft : 


COUNTEBSION. 


418 


COTTFLES. 


1760 
16  X  110  =  1760,  -—-  =  220  revolutions.     8.    To 

find  llic  size  of  the  pulley  on  the  counter-shaft,  mul- 
tiply tlu-  (liiinu'tiT  of  tin"  pulley  on  the  msiin  shaft  by 
its  luiinU'rtif  rcvululiiins  mul  (li\idi'  Iho  prcKliu-l  by  the 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  counter-shaft:  16  X  110 

=  1760,   .,'.,     =  8  inches  diameter. 

CODNTEESIGN. — A  watchworil  or  number  jrivcn 
dailv  ill  linie  «{  war  by  the  (.'ommanrter  of  an  army 
to  tlie  force  under  liis  command,  in  order  that 
friends  may  I>e  distinguished  from  foes;  it  is  ex- 
chunjred  befwi  en  Liiards,  and  intrusted  to  those  em- 

g loved  on  duly  in  puardiiijr  the  camp  or  gniTison. 
;efore  the  enemy,  the  countersign  must  be  given  by 
every  one  who  approaches  n  sentrj-'s  post,  otherwise 
he  will  not  1h'  j>ermitted  to  pass.     See  PartAf. 

COUNTERSINK. — An  enlargement  of  a  hole  to  re- 
ceive the  head  of  a 
screw  or  bolt.  The 
sides  of  the  hole  are 
merely  chamfered  if 
the  hole  is  to  receive 
the  head  of  an  ordi- 
nary woikIcu  screw. 
Wlien  a  flat -headed 
screw  or  the  head  of 
a  bolt  is  to  be  let  in 
flush  with  or  below 
the  surface,  a  tlat 
bottom  is  required. 
The  countersinking- 
machine  is  quite  a 
useful  one  in  the  ar- 
senal and  armory  on 
general  work  such  a.s 
strap-  and  T-  irons, 
metal  plates,  harness, 
hooks,  etc.,  where 
several  holes  are  to 
be  made,  on  a  regu- 
lar or  irregular  line, 
as  each  piece  can  be 
drilled  and  counter- 
sunk at  one  opera- 
tion. The  engraving 
represents  six  spin- 
dles; but  the  appara- 
tus may  be  provided 
with  any  nuniber  re- 
quired, according  to 
the  work  to  be  done. 
The  drills  can  be  ad- 
justed very  close  to 
each  other,  or  seve- 
ral inches  apart,  even 
while  the  machine  is 
running.  The  spindles  are  suspended  from  a 
frame  fastened  to  the  ceiling,  and  power  is  applied 
to  the  upper  ends  by  melius  of  belts  from  horizontal 
counter-shafts.  The  engraving  shows  but  one  table- 
slide;  some  countersinking-machines  have  two  tables, 
with  which  the  ofierator  tan  do  two  different  kinds 
of  work  at  once  if  desired,  or  he  can  use  all  the  spin- 
dles on  one  table. 

A  very  convenient  countersink  and  drill  combined 
is  so  constructed  that  the  countersink  follows  the 
drill,  and  the  job  Is  tiiiished  at  one  operation,  saving 
the  adjusting  of  work  and  tools  twice.  The  counter- 
sink is  so  shaped  that  it  may  be  readily  groimd  when 
dull,  and  is  finished  with  round  shanks  either  i  or  Jj 
inch  diameter. 

COCNTEE  SWALLOWTAIL. —  In  fortification,  a 
kinil  of  oulwiirk  very  nuirh  resembling  a  single  tc- 
nailli'.      See  SirnltDirtnil. 

COUNTER -TRENCHES.— Trenches  made  against 
the  liesiegers,  which  consequently  have  their  parapets 
tumc<l  against  the  enemy's  approaches,  and  arc 
enfiladed   from  several  parts  of  liie  place  on  purpose 


to  render  them  useless  to  the  enemy  if  he  should 
chance  to  lome  into  possession  of  them.  See  Voun- 
Ur-<il'j'ro(ie/irii. 

COUNTEE-TAIE.— An  heraldic  fur.  It  differs  from 
Fiiir  by  having  its  cups  or  bells  of  the  same  tincture* 
placed  base  against  base  and  ])oint  against  point. 
The  tinctures  aic  "/•  and  diitn.     See  Ihraldi-y. 

COUNTERVALLATION.— In  military  engineering, 
a  chain  of  posts  constructed  by  the  besiegers  of  ii 
fortitied  place  ;  it  completelj'  surrounds  the  place  at 
a  certain  distance,  and  is  intendetl  to  prevent  sorties 
of  the  besieged.  The  post-s  are  generally  small 
redoubts,  either  isolated  or  connected  by  a  line  of 
earthworks.  It  is  only  during  very  protracted  sieges 
that  countervallalions  are  conslrucled.  They  bear  a 
certain  relation  lo  circumvallation. 

COUNTER -WORKS.— Works  undertaken  for  the 
purpose  of  dtstroying  or  rendering  useless  those  of 
an  <  iicinv.     See  Vounhr-miiuH. 

COUNTRY.— The  region  outside  of  a  fort  down  to 
whicli  the  glacis  slopes.     See  SiU'. 

COUP  DE  MAIN.— A  sudden  and  vigorous  attack 
for  the  purpose  of  instantaneously  capturing  a  posi- 
tion.    See  (_/iiiiyt_. 

COUP  DE  POING.— A  small  pistol  with  a  wheel- 
lock,  invented  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  made 
entirely  of  iron,  and  the  barrel  is  about  6i  inches  in 
length.     It  is  called  tfi-zerol  in  Germany. 

COUP  D'CEIL. —  The  art  of  distinguishing  by  a  ra- 
pid glance  the  weak  points  of  an  enemy's  position, 
and  of  discerning  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
offered  by  any  given  space  of  country,  or  .si'lecting 
with  judgment  the  most  advantageous  position  for  a 
camp  or  battle-field.  Experience  is  a  great  aid  in  the 
acquisition  of  this  necessary  military  faculty,  but 
exijcrience  and  science  alone  will  not  gi-^e  it. 

COUPED. — A  term  in  Hcraldiy.  used  to  describe 
the  head  or  any  limb  of  an  animal  cut  off  from  the 
trunk,  and  smooth.  It  is  distinguished  from  i-nieed, 
i.e.,  forcibly  toni  off,  and  therefore  ragged  and  un- 
even. A  distinction  is  also  made  between  coiipid  and 
(Muped  close,  the  latter  signifying  that  the  head  or  limb 
is  cut  off  close,  leaving  no  part  of  the  neck  or  trunk 
attached  to  it.  When  cros.ses,  bars,  bends,  and  the- 
like,  are  cut  so  as  not  to  touch  the  sides  of  the  escut- 
cheon, they  are  also  sjiid  to  be  couped.    See  Utraldrj/. 

COUPE-GORGE.— This  term,  literally  mcjiuing  ci'it- 
(liriHit,  is  itsed  in  a  military  sen.se  to  signify  any  spot 
or  position  which  affords  an  enemy  so  many  advan- 
tages that  the  troops  who  occupy  it  must  either  sur- 
render or  be  cut  to  pieces. 

COUPLES.— The  name  given  in  statics  to  pairs  of  * 
equal  parallel  forces  acting  in  opposite  directions, 
and  at  different  points  of  a  bodv.  It  is  shown  in  the 
article  Par.vllel  FoitCES  that  -when  two  parallel 
forces  act  in  opposite  directions  on  a  body,  they  may 
be  replaced  by  one  equal  to  their  difference  acting 
parallel  to  them  in  the  direction  of  the  greater,  at  a 
point  not  between  but  beyond  the  points  where  they 
are  apjilied  ;  and  which  point  recedes  the  further 
from  their  ])oints  of  application  the  nearer  they 
approach  equality,  getting  to  an  infinite  distance 
when  they  become  equal,  and  when  Iheir  resultant 
accordingly  is  zero.  In  this  limiting  citse  the  forces 
constitute  a  couple;  they  have  no  tendency  to  tranxlale 
the  body ;  their  action  goes  wholly  to  make  it  rotate 
abr)Vit  an  axis  passing  through  its  center  of  gravity, 
and  perpendicular  to  the  plane  in  which  the  couple 
acts.  Such  iH'ing  the  case,  a  couple  cannot  be  replaced 
or  coimteracted  by  any  single  force,  for  such  a  forco 
would  produce  translation;  it  can  only  be  replaced  or 
balanced  by  other  couples.  The  length  of  the  stnught 
line  which  meets  the  lines  of  action  of  the  forces 
at  right  angles  is  called  the  "arm"  of  a  couple,  and 
the  product  of  the  force  into  its  arm  is  called  its 
"  moment."  Most  of  the  leading  propositions  in  the 
theory  of  couples  are  readily  seen  to  be  true,  as  soon 
as  they  are  sfiited.  For  instance,  as  the  axis  round 
which  a  couple  fends  to  make  a  l)ody  rotate  pas.ses 
through  the  body's  center  of  gravity  perpendicularly 


COUPLING-STSAP. 


419 


COTTET  MARTIAl. 


to  the  plane  of  the  couple,  it  does  not  matter  what 
position  the  couple  occupies  in  its  own  plane.  Also, 
supposing  the  body  to  Ix'  rigid,  the  couple  may  be 
moved  iuto  any  plane  parallel  to  its  own,  provuled 
its  new  position  be  rigidly  connected  with  the  origi- 
nal position.  It  is  also  obviou-s,  on  the  principle  of 
the  lever,  that  the  efficiency  of  the  couple  deix-nds 
on  its  moment  simply,  so  that  its  arm  may  be  short- 
ened or  lengthened  at  pleasure,  provided  the  force  be 
increased  or  diminished  as  the  case  may  require,  so 
as  always  to  make  the  product  of  the  force  and  arm 
the  same.  Suppose  ropes  fastened  at  the  bow  and 
stern  of  a  ship  pulling  with  equal  force  in  opposite 
directions;  they  will  make  the  ship  turn  round  an 
a.\is  through  its  center  of  gravity,  at  a  rate  depending 
on  the  force  applied  to  the  ropes.  If  the  ropes  lie 
fastened  to  opposite  points  of  the  ves.sel  nearer  mid- 
ships, it  will  only  turn  round  at  the  Mine  rate,  pro- 
videil  the  force  applied  to  the  ropes  be  increawd; 
and,  on  experiment,  it  would  be  found  that  the  force 
must  be  increased  so  that  its  product  into  the  dis- 
tance between  the  ropes  shall  equal  the  product  of 
the  force  in  the  first  case  into  the  length  of  the  ship. 
Through  this  we  can  compound  coupTes  acting  in  the 
same  plane,  for  we  can  turn  them  round  till  their 
arms  coincide,  and  then  give  them  a  common  arm; 
their  forces  will  then  act  in  llie  same  lines,  when 
their  resultant  into  the  arm  will  lie  the  new  couple. 
So  two  couples  which  are  situ;;te<l  in  planes  inclined 
at  any  angle  to  each  other  may  be  replaced  by  a  single 
couple.  Suppose  the  couples  both  to  be  moved  in 
their  respective  planes  till  their  arms  coincide  with 
the  line  of  intersection  of  the  planes,  CD.  Bilng 
them  then  to  a  common  anu  in  this  line,  AB.  At 
each  end  of  this  arm  we  shall 
have  a  pair  of  forces,  say  P  and 
Q,  inclined  lo  one  another  at  the 
/t  z)'^^'''''^  \  angle  of  inclination  of  the  planes. 
r.    ^    ^  ]       Their  resultant,  by  the  composi- 

tion of  forces,  will  be  a  force  R, 
acting  in  a  line  Ix'tween  the  planes. 
We  shall  have  then  forces  R  act- 
ing at  each  end  of  the  arm,  and 
evidently  in  directions  parallel 
and  fipposite.  R  X  arm  AB,  then, 
is  thi'  moment  of  the  resultant 
couple.  Having  seen  how  to  com- 
pound couples  whose  plimes  are  inclined  to  one  an- 
other, the  theory  of  the  composition  of  couples  may 
be  said  to  be  complete;  for  if  they  are  in  parallel 
planes,  we  know  we  can  bring  them  into  the  same 
plane  and  to  a  common  arm,  and  so  into  a  common 
couple.  In  statical  theory,  an)'  number  of  forces 
acting  on  a  bod}',  and  not  in  equilibrium,  may  be 
reduced  to  a  single  force,  a  single  couple,  or  a  sin- 
gle force  and  a  single  couple.  We  have  shown  that 
the  couples  may  all  be  reduced  to  one,  as  well  as 
those  forces  which  do  not  produce  couples.  If  the 
single  force  do  not  act  iierpendicularly  to  the  plane 
of  the  couple,  it  can  always  be  compounded  with  the 
forces  of  the  couple,  so  as  to  reduce  the  whole  to  a 
single  force;  if  it  act  perpendicularly,  tlien  it  cannot 
be  compounded  with  the  couple,  and  the  body  will 
have  at  once  a  motion  of  translation  and  motion  of 
rotation.     See  Fora!  and  Rotation. 

COUPLING-STEAP. — A  strap  connected  to  the  off 
bit-ring  of  the  off  horse,  thence  through  the  near  bit- 
ring,  and  leading  back  to  the  harness  of  the  near 
horse.  Used  with  artillery-horses,  and  also  for  rest- 
ive horses  in  ordinar}'  service. 

COUPTJHE.— A  passage,  about  twelve  or  fifteen  feet 
broad,  cut  through  the  glacis  in  the  re-entering  angle 
of  the  covered-way,  to  facilitate  sjiUies  by  the  besieged. 
They  are  sometimes  made  through  the  lower  curtain 
to  let  Imats  into  a  little  haven  built  in  the  re-entering 
of  the  counterscarp  of  the  outworks. 

COUBCON. — A  long  piece  of  iron  which  is  used  in 
the  artillerj-  and  which  serves  to  constrain  or  tighten 
cannon. 
COUBIEBS.  —  Government  servants  employed  for 


I  carrying,  securely  and  expeditiotisly,  important  dis- 
patches. Active  and  accustomed  to  travel,  speaking 
several  languages,  and  witli  a  sufficient  idea  of  their 
I  own  consequence,  they  will  set  out  at  a  moment's  no- 
tice, pursue  their  way  by  steamer,  by  rail,  by  hired 
voiture,  or  on  horseback,  with  little  intcnnission  by 
night  and  bj-  day,  until  they  reach  their  destination. 
Acquainted  with  routes,  officials,  and  methods  of 
clearing  the  wav,  and  provided  with  all  proper  cre- 
dentials, including  a  requisite  supply  of  cash,  noth- 
ing inlerrupis  them  in  their  eager  course. 

COUEONEMENT.— In  fortification,  this  term  signi- 
fies the  most  exterior  part  of  a  work  when  besieged. 
Sometimes  written  Counmuement. 

COUBTEL. — An  ancient  mililarj-  implement  which 
served  both  for  a  knife  and  a  dacger. 

COTIET  MAETIAL.— A  Court  for  the  trial  of  any- 
one belonging  to  the  army  or  navy  for  some  breach  of 
militarj'  or  naval  law.  The  mcmliers  of  the  Court  fill 
the  functions  both  of  Judge  and  Jury.  In  the  British 
army,  Courts-ilartial  are  Genentl,  District,  or  liegi- 
iiu'Ktul.  The  first  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  em- 
powered to  award  death  or  transportation  for  life  as 
a  punishment  to  the  offending  person.  It  consists  of 
thirteen  Commissioned  Officers,  if  so  many  can  be  ob- 
tained at  the  time  and  place;  and  a  Deputy  Judge 
Advocate  is  specially  apjiointed  to  conduct  the  prose- 
cution. A  Non-commissioned  Officer,  or  a  Private, 
may  be  tried  by  any  one  of  the  three  kinds  of  Court, 
but  a  Commissioned  Officer  only  bj-  a  General  Court- 
ilartial.  A  Dintrii-t  or  Garrinun  Court-Martial  may 
be  convened  by  a  Field-officer  commanding  a  district 
or  corps,  without  requiring  the  Sovereign's  sign-man- 
ual. It  consists  of  a  number  of  members,  varying 
from  three  to  seven,  with  a  Captain  or  higher  officer  to 
act  as  Deputy  Judge  Advocate.  Such  a  Court  tries 
Warrant  Officers,  Non-commissioned  Officers,  and 
Rank  and  File,  and  can  only  treat  such  offenses,  or 
alleged  offenses,  as  meet  with  secondary  pimisbment. 
A  Regimental  Court-Martial  may  be  convened  by  the 
Commanding  Officer  of  a  regiment  or  detachment;  it 
consists  of  three  or  more  members;  it  treats  of  minor 
offenses,  and  can  award  onlv  minor  punishments.  In 
all  these  kinds  of  Court-5larlial  the  members  are 
sworn  in;  the  Court  is  an  open  or  public  one;  the 
vote  or  sentence  is  decided  by  majority,  the  junior 
members  voting  first;  but  two  thirds  of  the  whole 
number,  in  a  General  Court-Martial,  are  necessary  to 
give  validity  to  a  sentence  of  death.  Before  execu- 
tion, the  sentence  of  every  military  Court-JIartial  has 
to  be  approved  and  confirmed  by  the  Convening  Au- 
thority. Sometimes  Courts  of  Jiiqniry  are  held  in- 
stead "of  a  Court-Martial,  not  to  try  or  to  punish,  but 
to  make  an  investigation;  the  memlxrs  not  being 
on  oath.  Such  a  Court  occasionally  precedes  a 
Court-Martial.  In  the  United  States  the  Court  is 
composed  of  from  five  lo  thirteen  Commissioned  Offi- 
cers of  suitable  rank.  Regimental  Courts-Martial, 
having  jurisiliction  of  minor  offenses,  consist  of  not 
less  than  three  Commissioned  Officers;  Garrison 
Courts-Martial  are  similarly  constituted.  A  General 
Court-Martial  for  the  army  can  be  held  only  on  the 
order  of  the  President,  or  of  the  Commander  of  the 
Army,  or  an  officer  commanding  a  separate  Depart- 
ment. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  order  appointing 
a  General  Court-Martial,  the  last  paragraph  being 
omitted  when  the  Court  can  be  kept  up  w  ith  thirteen 
members: 

Head<)vartkbs, ,  etc. 

A  General  Court-Martiatis  appointeil  to  met-t  at .  on 

the  day  of ,  or  as  soon  tliiTeafter  as  practicable, 

for  the  trial  of ,  and  such  other  prisoners  as  may 

be  brouKbt  before  it. 


DETAO.  FOR  THB  COUET. 


10.  . 

11. 

12.  • 
18.  • 


J.  A. 


COUBTHABTIAL. 


420 


COTJKT-MAKTIAL. 


A  greattr  number  of  ofBcrrs  than  thiwe  named  cannot  be 
affiembled  vrilhout  manifeiit  injury  to  tbe  senive. 
By  onliT  of .  ' 

AMst^1nt  Adjtttattt  General. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  74lh  Article  of  War,  of- 
ficers who  may  appoint  a  Court-Martial  arc  compe- 
tent to  appoint  a  Juil.i.'c  Advocate  for  the  sjime.  Ac- 
conlinsrlv,  a  Judge  Advocate  must  hv  apiwinted  for  a 
Rcgimeiital  or  a  trarristni  Court-Martial  in  like  man- 
ner as  for  a  General  Court.  The  President  of  a 
Coun-Martial.  besides  his  duties  and  privileges  as 
menilKT.  is  the  orsan  of  the  Court  to  keep  order  and 
conduct  its  business.  He  speaks  and  acts  for  the 
Court  in  each  ca.se  where  the  rule  has  been  prescribed 
by  law,  rejmlation,  or  its  own  resolution.  In  all 
their  delilxratious  the  law  secures  the  equality  of  the 
members.  The  86th  Article  of  War  docs  not  confer 
on  a  Court-Martial  the  power  to  punish  its  own  mem- 
bers. For  disorderly  conduct  a  member  is  liable  as 
in  other  otTenscs  ajniinst  military  discipline;  improper 
words  are  to  be  taken  down,  auil  any  <li.sordcrly  con- 
duct of  a  member  reportetl  to  the  Authority  conven- 
ing the  Couil.  Application  for  delay  or  postpone- 
ment of  trial  must,  when  practicable,  be  made  to  the 
Authority  convening  the  Ci)urt.  When  made  to  the 
Court,  it  must  he  before  plea,  and  will  then,  if  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Covirt  well  founded,  be  referred  to  the 
Authority  convening  the  Court,  to  decide  whether  the 
Court  should  be  adjourned  or  dissolved,  and  the 
charges  reserved  for  another  Court.  Upon  applica- 
tion by  the  accused  for  postponement  on  the  ground 
of  the  absence  of  a  witness,  it  ought  distinctly  to  ap- 
pear on  his  oath — 1st,  that  the  witness  is  material,  and 
how;  2d,  that  the  accused  has  u.sed  due  diligence  to 
procure  his  attendance;  and,  3d,  that  he  has  rea.sona- 
blc  ground  to  believe,  and  does  believe,  that  he  will 
be  able  to  procure  such  attendance  within  a  reason- 
able time  stated.  Prisoners  are  tried  on  joint  charges 
only  for  offenses  necess;irily  invohing  concert  of  ac- 
tion. In  all  other  cases  the  charges  must  be  separate. 
Whenever  the  same  Court-JIartial  tries  more  prison- 
ers than  one,  and  they  are  arraigned  on  separate  and 
distinct  charges,  the  ("otnl  is  sworn  at  the  commence- 
ment of  each  trial,  and  the  proceedings  in  each  case 
are  made  up  separately-. 

The  Judge  Advocate  summons  the  necessarj-  wit- 
nesses for  the  trial;  but  he  does  not  summon  any  wit- 
ness at  the  exjjense  of  the  United  States,  nor  anv  offi- 
cer of  the  army,  without  the  order  of  the  Court, 
unless  satisfied  that  his  testimony  is  material  and 
iiecess;iry  to  the  ends  of  justice.  UtBcers  or  enlisted 
men  who  receive  a  summons  to  attend  as  witnesses 
before  any  Militarj'  Court,  Board,  or  any  Civil  Court, 
or  other  Tribunal  competent  to  issue  subjiwnas  to 
witnesses,  outside  the  limits  of  the  Department  where 
they  may  Ix;  serving,  before  starting  to  ol)ey  the  sum- 
mons, forvvanl  it  through  the  proper  channels  to  the 
Commanding  General  of  the  Department,  that  the 
necessary  orders  may  Ix;  issued.  Orders  from  com- 
petent military  authority  are  required  for  the  move- 
ments of  all  othcers  and  eidistcd  men  in  such  cases. 
In  cases  of  extreme  urgency,  and  when  the  public  in- 
terest woidd  be  liable  to  suffer  by  delay.  Post  Com- 
manders may  authorize  immediate  departure  in  obe- 
dience to  the  summons.  In  such  cases  special  reports 
are  made  of  the  facts  and  reasons  to  the  Dejiartmeiit 
Commander  for  his  approval  of  the  action  taken.  A 
Post  Conunander  who  may  be  summoned  is  governed 
by  the  foregoing.  The  Judge  Advocates  of  Military 
Courts,  in  i.ssuing  process  under  section  1202,  Re\-is(;cl 
Statutes,  to  compel  the  attendance  as  wilnc.sses  of  per- 
sons not  in  the  military  .service,  formallv  direct  the 
same  to  stmie  officer  designated  liy  the  Dcinutment 
Commander  as  available  for  the  service.  The  nearest 
Jlilitary  Commander  will  thereupon  furnish  the  neccs 
sary  military  force  for  the  execution  of  the  process 
■whenever  such  force  shall  be  actually  required.  The 
preliminary  summons  or  subpa'na "  may  be  served 
tqxin  a  witness  by  any  person  whatsoever.  Cases  of 
habitual  drunkenness  "and  utter  worthlcssness,  which 


have  not  already  been  made  the  occasion  of  a  trial  by 
Court-Martial,  "may  l>e  tried  under  the  charge  of 
"Conduct  to  the  iirijudice  of  good  order  and  military 
discipline,"  with  separate  specifications  for  each  one 
of  the  acts  of  drunkenness.  Civil  employes  of  the 
Vt'nr  Department  serving  with,  or  other  jiersons  prop- 
erly attached  to,  an  army  in  the  tielil  in  time  of  war, 
nniy  be  understood  as  agreeing  that  thev  will  submit 
themselves  for  the  time  being  to  military  control. 
Accordingly,  under  the  63d  Article  of  VVar,  such 
persons  are  within  military  jurisiliction,  as  pro\-idcd 
for  in  siiid  article,  when  their  treachery,  defection,  or 
insubordination  might  endanger  or  embarnuss  the 
army  to  which  they  belong  in  its  operations  against 
what  is  known  in  militjiry  phrase  as  "an  enemy." 
To  enaljle  the  officers  of  an  army  to  preser\-e  good 
order  and  discipline  is  the  object  of  this  paragraph, 
and  these  may  be  as  necessary  in  the  face  of  hostile 
savages  as  in  front  of  anv  other  enemy.  When  an 
army  is  engaged  in  offensive  or  ilefcnsive  ojx^rations 
ag;nnst  a  public  euemv,  it  ma}'  be  said  to  be  "  in  the 
ticld. "  The  fact  that  troops  are  oix-ratingin  a  region 
of  country  chiefly  inhabited  by  hostile  Indians,  and 
remote  from  the  exercise  of  ci\il  authority,  may  en- 
ter into  the  description  of  "an  army  in  the  field." 
Under  other  circumstances,  these  civil  employes  do 
not  belong  to  the  military  establishment  in  a  sense 
making  tlieni  amenable  to  trial  by  Court-Martial. 
The  legal  pimishmeuts  for  soldiers  by  sentence  of 
Court-Martial,  according  to  the  offense  and  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Court,  under  the  law,  are:  death;  con- 
finement; confinement  on  bread-and -water  diet;  soli- 
tary confinement ;  hard  labor;  ball  and  chain;  forfeit- 
ure of  pay  and  allowances;  discharges  from  ser\-ice, 
and  reprimands;  and,  for  Non-conimis-sioucd  Officers, 
reduction  to  the  raiiks.  The  idea  of  punishment  or 
degradation  is  not  associatcil  with  the  honorable  and 
important  duty  of  guards  b_v  imposing  sentences  of 
extra  tours  of  guard-duty.  Solitary  confinement,  or 
confinement  on  bread  and  water,  cannot  exceed  four- 
teen days  at  a  time,  with  intervals  between  the  periods 
of  such  confinement  not  less  than  such  jx^riods,  and 
not  exceeding  eighty-four  days  in  any  one  year. 

^\'hen  the  sentence  of  a  Court-Martial  is  imprison- 
ment, the  Court  indicates  whether  the  prisoner  shall 
be  confined  in  a  penitentiary  or  a  militarj-  prison,  ac- 
cording to  law  and  the  nature  of  the  offense.  WTien 
the  Court  has  sentenced  a  prisoner  to  a  military  pngon 
for  anj'  offense,  no  power  is  competent  to  increase  the 
punishment  by  designating  a  peititintian/ua  the  place 
of  confinement.  In  order  to  keep  men  who  are  con- 
fined for  purely  military  offenses  ajiart  from  the 
moral  influence  of  sucli  as  are  convicted  of  jienal 
offenses,  it  is  desirable  thai  Courts-Martial  shouKl 
designate  confinement  in  a  peniteiitiarj'  instead  of  a 
military  prison,  wheu  it  can  be  done  legallj'  vmder  the 
97th  Article  of  War.  The  sentence  of  a  Court-Mar- 
tial involving  confinement  for  a  definite  period  of 
time  is  considered  as  beginning  from  the  date  of  the 
jiromidgation  of  the  sentence  in  Orders,  if  the  person 
sentenced  is  in  custody  at  that  time,  unless  the  time 
of  its  commencement  is  otherwise  e.V])re&sly  fixed  bj' 
the  sentence  of  the  Court  or  in  the  Order  promulgat- 
ing the  proceedings.  AVlun  soldiers  under  sentence, 
or  awaiting  sentence,  commit  other  offenses  for  which 
they  are  tried  and  sentenced,  the  second  or  cumula- 
tive sentence  may  be  exectited  upon  the  exiiiration  of 
the  first,  whether"  the  C^ourt  or  Reviewing  Authority  so 
specify  or  not.  A  sentence  to  confinement,  witli  or 
without  forfeiture  of  pay,  caimot,  in  terms,  be  made 
to  commence  at  a  date  prior  to  the  confinnation  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  Court.  If  it  is  jiropcr  to  take 
into  consideration  the  length  of  confinement  to  which 
the  prisoner  has  been  subjected  previous  to  such  con- 
firmation, it  may  be  done  by  the  mitigation  of  the 
sentence,  so  that  its  term  from  the  date  of  approval 
shall  not  extend  beyond  the  period  contemplated  by 
the  Court  or  by  the  Reviewing  Officer  When  a  sen- 
tence imposes  forfeiture  of  the  monthly  pay,  or  of  a 
stated  portion  of  the  monthly  pay,  for  a  certain  num- 


COTTST-HABTIAL. 


421 


COUBT-HABTIAL. 


bcr  of  montlis,  the  force  of  the  sentence  is  to  stop/or 
each  month  the  amount  stated.  Thus,  tin  (hlhirs  of  ' 
iKoiithly  pay  for  one  ymr  would  lie  a  stoppage  of  one  [ 
Iiundred  and  twenty  dollars.  When  the  sentence  is 
silent  as  to  the  date  of  conunencement  of  the  forfeiture 
of  pay,  it  betrins  with  tlie  date  of  proniulgatiun  of  the 
sentence  in  Orders,  and  does  not  apply  to  pay  accrued 
previous  to  that  date.  This  holds  good  whether  the 
sentence  imposes  a  forfeiture  of  a  speeilie<l  sum  or 
one  of  a  certain  amount  per  month.  Where  the  s;ime 
time  is  covered  by  two  or  more  forfeitures,  they  must, 
as  to  such  time,  apply  together,  until  all  are  satisfied. 
The  rate  of  forfeiture  for  a  given  time  will  then  be 
the  aggregate  of  the  rates  of  the  several  forfeitures 
applicable  thereto,  whether  the  actual  rale  of  pay  for 
the  time  be  greater  or  less. 

A  Court-Martial  cannot  assign  and  make  over  the 
pay  of  a  soldier  to  any  other  iierson,  and  the  receipt 
of  such  person  is  not  a  sufficient  voucher  for  the  Dis- 
bursing Officer.     Nor  can  a  soldier  be  required  to  re- 
ceipt for  money  paid  without  his  consent  to  another 
person.     The  Authority  which    has  designated   the  i 
place  of  confinement,  or  Higlier  Authority,  can  change 
the  place  of  confinement,  except  in  case  of  prisoners 
confined  in  the  Leavenworth  Military  Prison,  who  are  j 
subject  only  to  the  orders  of  the  Secretary  of  War. 
Onlnance  Sergeants,  Commissary  Sergeants,  and  Hos-  1 
pltal  Stewards,  though   liable  to  discharge,  may  not  ! 
iie  reduced.     Nor  are  they  tried  by  Regimental  or  l 
Garrison  Courts  Martial,  unless  bj'  .special  permission! 
of  the  Department  Commander.     Every  Court-^^Iar- 
tial  keeps  a  complete  and  accurate  record  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, to  be  authenticated  by  the  signatures  of  the 
President  and  .Judge  Advocate,  who  also  certify,  in 
like  manner,  the  sentence  pronounced  liy  the  Court  in 
each  case.     The  record  must  show  that  the  Court  was 
organized  as  the  law  requires;    that  the  Court  and 
Judge  Advocate  were  duly  sworn  in  the  iiresence  of 
the  prisoner;  that  he  was  pre\iously  asked  whether  \ 
he  had  any  objection  to  any  member,  and  his  answer 
thereto.     A  copy  of  the  Order  appointing  the  Court  is 
entered  on  the  record  in  each  case.     The  record  is 
clearly  and  legibly  written,  as  far  as  practicable,  with- 
out erasures  or  interlineations.     The  pages  are  num- 
bered, with  a  margin  of  one  inch  on  the  left  side  of 
each  page,  and  at  the  top  of  the  odd  and  bottom  of 
the  even  pages;  through  this  last  margin  the  sheets 
are  stitched  together;  the  documents  accompanying 
the  proceedings  are  noted  and  marked  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  alford  an  ea.sy  reference.     No  recommenda-  j 
tion  is  embraced  in  the  body  of  the  sentence.     Those 
members  only  who  concur  in   the  recommendation 
sign  it.  I 

The  record  of  the  proceedings  of  a  Court-Martlal 
is  Indorsed  on  the  first  fold,  by  the  Judge  Advocate 
or  Recorder  of  the  Comt,  with  the  name  of  the  place 
where  the  Court  is  held;  the  date  when  the  procceil- 
ings  were  signed;  the  designation  of  Order  convening 
the  Court;  the  names  of  the  Presiding  Officer,  the 
Judge  Advocate,  and  of  the  Prisoner  tried. 


.  18-. 

Proceedings  of  a  General  Court  Martial, 
convened  by  Special  Orders  Xo.  — , 
dated  Headquarters  Department  of 


Colonel  A B , 

Cavalry. 

Pi-esident, 

Lieutenant  C D . 

Infantry, 

Judge  Advocati:. 


CASE  TRIED. 

Private  E F , 

Artillery. 

The  Judge  Advocate  transmits  the  proceedings 
without  delay  to  the  officer  ha\'ing  authority  to  con- 
firm the  sentence,  who  states  at  the  end  of  the  pro- 
ceedings In  each  case  his  decision  and  orders  thereon. 


^Vhen  a  ^Military  Court  adjourns  for  three  days  or 
more,  the  members  belonging  to  the  command  where 
it  assemltles,  or  to  adjacent  posts  (to  which,  with  the 
sanction  of  the  Department  Commander,  they  retin-n 
on  the  daily  adjournments),  will  be  liable  to  duty 
with  tlieir  respective  commands  during  the  time  of 
such  adjourmnent,  and  the  adjournment  should  l)e 
reported  by  the  Judge  Advocate  or  Recorder  to  the 
Conmianders  concerned.  When  the  Court  adjoimis 
for  less  than  three  days,  its  members  will  ordinarily 
be  exempt  from  other  duty  during  that  time.  This 
paragraph  is  directopi-  only,  and  may  be  modified  by 
Department  Commanders,  according  to  the  exigencies 
of  the  ser\ice.  When  a  Court  adjourns  without 
day,  the  members  return  to  their  posts  and  duties 
unless  othenvise  ordered  by  the  President  or  Com- 
petent Authority. 

AN'hen  General  Courts-Martial  try  cases  requiring 
the  decision  of  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
they  should  not  be  dissolved  until  his  action  is  pro- 
mulgated; bitt  upon  the  completion  of  the  trial  the 
members  should  be  ordered  to  resuitie  their  res])ective 
duties.  \Vhen  a  Court-Martial  appears  to  have  erred 
in  any  respect,  the  Reviewing  Authority  may  recon- 
vene the  Court  for  a  reconsideration  of  its  action, 
with  suggestions  for  its  guidance.  The  Court  may 
tliereupon,  should  it  concur  in  the  views  submitted, 
proceed  to  remedy  the  errors  pointed  out,  and  may 
raodifv  or  completely  change  its  findings.  The  ob- 
ject of  reconvening  the  Court  in  such  a  ca.se  is  to  af- 
ford it  an  opportunity  to  reconsider  the  record,  for 
the  purpose  of  correcting  or  modifying  any  conclu- 
sions thereon,  and,  also,  to  make  any  amendments  of 
the  record  necessary  to  jierfect  it.  Anything  like  a 
reojiening  of  the  case,  by  calling  new  witnesses,  or 
recalling  those  already  examined,  is  wholly  foreign  to 
the  proceeding.  The  power  to  pardon  or  mitigate 
the  punishment  ordered  by  a  Court-Martial  is  vested 
in  the  Authority  confirming  the  proceedings  (except 
in  case  of  prisoners  confined  in  the  Leavenworth  Mil- 
itary Prl.son),  and  in  the  President  of  the  United 
States.  An  abatement  of  five  days  upon  each  month 
of  consecutive  good  conduct  may  be  allowed  to  mili- 
tarj'  prisoners  upon  each  sentence  to  confinement  for 
over  six  months.  For  the  Leavenworth  Military 
Prison  the  orders  are  Issued  by  the  Commander  of 
the  Jlilitarj'  Department  of  the  Missouri.  All  other 
orders  for  pardon,  mitigation,  or  discharM  of  prison- 
ers confined  In  the  Leavenw  orlh  ]yiilitar\- Prison  must 
emanate  from  the  ^^■a^  Department  "An  crder  re- 
mitting forfeiture  of  pay  operates  only  as  to  time  sub- 
sequent to  its  date.  Tlie  forfeiture  contimics  opera- 
tive for  the  time  between  date  of  promulgation  of 
sentence  and  date  of  order  of  remi.sslon,  and  at  the 
rate  fixed  in  the  sentence  if  the  forfeiture  be  one  of  a 
certain  amount  per  month;  or,  if  it  be  of  a  specified 
sum.  at  the  rate  of  the  soldier's  current  pay,  less  de 
duction  for  Soldiers'  Home.  To  this  extent  a  remitted 
forfeiture  must  stand  as  a  charge  against  the  soldier's 
paj'  until  s;itisfied.  In  case  of  a  sentence  contemplat- 
ing pajiiient  of  a  stated  sinu  to  a  soldier  upon  his  re- 
lease from  confinement,  such  payment  is  made  only 
when  there  is  sufficient  balance  to  his  credit  after  de- 
ducting all  aullu>rized  stoppages. 

Company  Commanders  should  be  careful  in  noting 
sentences  upon  muster-rolls  to  give  all  of  the  data 
affecting  pay,  including  the  dates  of  the  several  orders 
of  sentence  and  remission.  Where  one  or  more  iiay- 
ments  have  been  made  to  the  soldier  for  time  sub- 
sequent to  date  of  an  order  of  sentence,  the  muster- 
roll  should  be  made  to  show  the  amount  that  has 
been  dedtieted  on  account  of  the  forfeiture.  The 
data  required  by  this  regidation  should  continue  to 
be  borne  on  succcs.slve  muster-rolls  until  tlie  entire 
amount  of  the  forfeiture  for  the  time  between  dates  of 
orders  of  sentence  and  remission  shall  have  been  de- 
ducted. 

Whenever  prisoners  are  sent  to  the  Leavenworth 
Military  Prison  to  serve  out  llieir  sentences,  the  order 
promulgating  the  sentence,  and  the  descriptive  list  (to 


COUST  OF  CHITALBT. 


422 


COTTST  OF  INQUIBT. 


wbifh  will  Ik-  iippciuUtl  a  statement  of  conduct),  are 
forwardoil  witli  tlieni. 

The  emjiloynient  of  a  Hoix>rtor,  under  section  1203, 
Rcnstil  Statutes,  is  only  authorized  for  General 
Courts-Martial  in  eas<-s  when'  the  Authority  convening 
the  I'ourl  may  consider  such  an  ollieer  neces-vury. 
Svhen  l<e|><>rters  are  employed,  they  mv  allowed  not 
to  e.xeeol  ten  dollars  a  dav,  to  ci>ver  the  whole  iteritHl 
of  at).s4'nee  from  their  residence,  traveling,  or  on  duty. 
If  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Court  lie  chanwd, 
transiK)rlation  in  kind  is'allowiti.  They  are  paid  l)y 
the  Pay  Department  on  the  usual  cerfiticate  of  the 
Judge  Atlv(K'ate. 

Under  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  it  is  made 
the  iluly  of  Contmanding  Otlicers  to  see  reparation 
made  to  the  party  or  parties  injured,  from  the  pay  of 
soldiers  who  are  guilty  of  abuses  or  disorders  com- 
mitted against  citizens."  l'|H)n  proper  representation 
by  any  citizen  of  wanton  injury  to  his  person  or  prop- 
erty, accomitanied  by  satisfactory  proof,  the  Com- 
manding Otiieer  of  the  troops  causes  the  damage  to  be 
assessed  by  a  Board  of  Otiiiers.  the  amounts  stoppt'd 
against  the  pav  of  the  offenders,  and  reparation  made 
to  the  injured  party.  This  prix'ceding  is  indei^end- 
enl  of  any  trial  or  sentence  by  Court-.Nlartial  for  the 
criminal  offense.  See  Pidd<>fficer's  Oiiirt,  Oiirrimn 
Court- Mil rtiitl.  General  Court-Mtirtial,  and  Heginuntal 
Coiirt-Mnrtinl. 

COURT  OF  CHIVALRY.— A  Military  Court  estab- 
lished by  Edward  111.,  of  which  the  Earl  Marshal 
and  Ihe  Lord  High  Constal)le  were  joint  Judges. 
When  held  before  the  Earl  Marshal  alone  it  was 
merely  a  Court  of  Honor;  but  when  both  were  pres- 
ent it  was  also  a  Criminal  Court.  Having  encroached 
on  the  common  law,  its  jurisdiction  was  detine^l  by 
an  Act  under  which  the  Court  claimed  jiower  to  give 
relief  to  such  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  as  thought 
themselves  aggrievetl  in  matteis  of  honor,  and  to 
keep  ui)  the  distinctions  of  degrees  and  quality.  In 
criminal  ca.ses  a  jury  was  snorn;  but  in  general  the 
proceedings  of  the  Court  were  summary  matters,  be 
ing  brought  under  its  cognizance  by  comjilaint  or 
petition.  An  attempt  was  made  to  revive  the  func- 
tions of  the  Court  in  Queen  Anne's  time;  but,  except 
as  represented  by  the  Earl  Marslial's  Court  (see  Col- 
Uge  of  AriiiK).  it  has  now  gone  into  abevance. 

COURT  OF  HONOR.— A  Military  Court  atithorized 
by  the  regulations  of  the  Prussian  service,  convened 
for  the  puqmse  of  sustaining  the  honor  of  the  .service 
and  of  individuals,  and  of  punishing  ofliecrs  who  may 
be  found  giulty  of  conduct  de^  iating  even  in  the  least 
from  the  principles  which  actuate  military  men  as  men 
of  honor.  The  Court  of  Honor  of  a  regiinent  consists 
of  all  Conunissioned  Otlicers  in  it  except  the  prosecu- 
tor, the  defendant,  near  relations,  olticei-s  aitpearing 
as  witnesses  in  the  case,  otticers  on  leave,  detached 
service,  vmdcr  arrest,  or  awaiting  trial  before  any 
Court;  and  has  for  its  regular  busine.ss  management  a 
Councilor  Honor,  consisting  of  the  Senior  "Captain, 
Senior  First  Lieutenant,  and  Senior  Second  Lieuten- 
ant. The  Court  has  juristliction  over  all  acts  or  omis- 
sions (not  providetl  for  by  any  tixed  laws)  which  arc 
unotli<'er-like  or  ungentlemaidv  in  their  nalure,  par- 
ticularly such  as  contracting  debts,  improper  choice 
of  sociifty,  excessive  use  of  into.xicating  liquors,  gam- 
.  bling,  ()uarrels,  carelessness  or  neglect  of  duty,  and 
scandal.  With  the  exception  of  General  Otlicers.  all 
olliccrsof  the  Standing  Army,  the  Heserve,  the  Land- 
wehr,  and  those  of  the  H<'tired  List  are  subject  to 
the  laws  of  the  Court  of  Honor.  The  Court  to  in- 
vfcstigate  the  conduct  of  a  Field-officer  is  made  up  of 
the  Field-officers  of  the  division  to  which  the  officer 
belongs. 

COURT  OF  INQUIRY.— In  cases  where  the  Gen- 
eral or  Commanding  Ollieer  may  order  a  Court  of 
Inquiry  to  exanune  into  Ihe  nature  of  any  transac- 
tion, accusation,  or  imputation  aL'ainst  anv  officer  or 
.soldier,  the  sind  Court  shall  consist  of  one  or  more 
officers,  not  exceeding  three,  and  a  Judge  Advcx-iite, 
or  other  suitable  iwrson  as  a  Kecorder,  to  reduce  the 


proceedings  and  evidence  to  writing,  all  of  whom 
shall  lie  sworn  to  the  faithful  perfonnanee  of  duty. 
This  Court  shall  have  the  sjime  power  to  summon 
witnesses  as  a  Court-.Martial,  and  to  examine  them  on 
oath.  But  they  shall  not  give  their  opinion  on  the 
merits  of  the  cn.se  excepting  they  shall  be  theivlo 
specially  required.  The  parlies  accused  shall  also  be 
jK'nnitted  to  cross-exair.ine  and  interrogiite  the  wit- 
nesses so  as  to  investigate  fully  the  circumstances  in 
the  question.  The  proceedings  of  a  Court  of  Inquiry 
must  be  authenticated  by  the  signature  of  the  Re- 
corder and  the  President,  and  delivered  to  the  Com- 
manding Officer,  and  the  s:nd  proceedings  may  be 
admitted  as  evidence  by  a  Courl-Martial,  in  cases  not 
capital  or  extending  to  the  dismission  of  an  officer, 
provided  that  the  circiunstances  are  such  that  oral 
testimony  cannot  Ix?  obtained.  But  Courts  of  Inquiry 
are  prohibited  unless  directed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States  or  demanded  by  the  accused.  The 
Court  may  1m?  ordered  to  report  the  facts  of  the  case 
with  or  without  an  ojunion  thereon.  Such  an  order 
will  not  be  ctimidied  with  by  merely  reporting  the 
endence  or  testimony;  facts  being  the  result,  or  con- 
clusion established  by  weighing  all  the  testimony, 
oral  and  documentarv,  before  the  Court. 

When  a  Court  of  hKjuiry  is  directed  to  be  assem- 
bled, the  order  should  state  whether  the  Court  is  to 
report  the  fads  or  not,  and  also  whether  or  not  it  is 
to  give  an  opinion  on  the  merits.  The  Court  should 
also  be  instructed  whether  its  attention  is  to  be  ex- 
tended to  a  general  investigation,  or  to  be  confined  to 
the  examination  i>{  particular  points  only,  as  the  case 
may  seem  to  require,  in  the  judgment  of  the  officer 
under  whose  authority  it  is  as.sembled.  Where  the 
subject  is  multifarious,  the  Court  should  be  instructed 
to  state  its  opinion  on  each  point  separately,  that  the 
proper  authority  may  be  able  to  form  his  judgment. 

The  Court  may  sii  with  open  or  dosed  doors,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  transaction  to  be  investi- 
gated. The  Court  generally  sits  with  open  doors; 
but  there  may  lie  delicate  matters  to  be  examined 
into  that  might  render  it  proper  to  sit  with  doors 
clo.scd.  The  form  of  proceeding  in  Courts  of  Inquiry 
is  nearly  the  same  as  that  in  Coiuts-Martial:  the  mem- 
bers being  assembled,  and  the  parties  interested  called 
into  Court,  the  Judge  Advocate  or  Recorder,  by  di- 
rection of  tlie  President,  reatls  the  order  by  which 
the  Court  is  constituted,  and  then  administers  to  the 
members  the  following  oath:  "You  shall  well  and 
tiidy  examine  and  inquire,  according  to  your  evi- 
dence, into  the  mailer  now  Ixfore  you,  without  par- 
tiality, favor,  affection,  prejudice,  or  hojie  of  reward: 
so  hel])  you  G(k1."  The  accusijtion  is  then  read,  and 
the  witnesses  are  exanuncd  by  the  Court;  and  the 
liarties  accused  are  also  pennitted  to  cross-examine 
and  interrogate  the  wilnesses  so  as  to  investigate  fully 
the  circumstances  in  question.  The  examination  of 
witnes.ses  Ix'ing  linished,  the  parties  Ix?fore  the  Court 
may  address  the  Court  should  they  see  fit  to  do  so; 
after  which  the  President  orders"  the  Court  to  be 
cleared.  The  Hecorder  then  reads  over  the  whole  of 
the  proceedings,  as  well  for  Ihe  ptirjiose  of  correct- 
ing the  record  as  for  aiding  the  memory  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Court.  After  mature  delilieration  on  the 
evidence  adduced,  they  proceed  to  find  a  state  of 
facts,  if  so  directed  by  the  order  constituting  the 
Court,  and  to  declare  whether  or  not  the  grounds  of 
accuwition  are  sufficient  to  bring  the  matter  before  a 
General  Court-Marlial;  and  also  to  give  their  opinion 
of  the  merits  of  Ihe  case  if  so  re(juired.  The  Court 
should  be  careful  to  examine  the  order  by  which  it  is 
constituted,  and  be  particular  in  conforming  to  the 
directions  contained  therein,  either  by  gi\ing  a  gen- 
eral oi>inion  on  the  whole  matter,  a  statement  of  fact.s 
only,  or  an  o))inion  on  such  facts.  The  proceedings 
of  Courts  of  Inquiry  have  been  reUiriud  to  be  recon- 
sidered when  Ihe  Court  has  been  unmindful  of  these 
points.  It  has  been  settled  that  a  member  of  a  Court 
of  IiKiuiry  may  be  objected  to  for  cause.  The  pro- 
ceeilings  must  Ix'  authenticated  by  the  signatures  of 


C01TSSINET  A  HOTTSaUETAIBE. 


42.- 


C07£S£D  DEFENSES. 


the  President  and  Recorder,  and  delivered  to  the 
Commanding  Otlicer  or  Autliority  which  ordered  the 
Court;  and  the  said  proceedings  may  be  admitted  in 
evidence  by  a  Court-Martial,  in  cases  not  capital  nor 
extending  to  the  dismission  of  an  officer,  provided 
oral  testimony  cannot  be  obtained.  Transactions 
may  Ixjcomc  the  subject  of  investigation  by  Courts  of 
Inquiry  after  the  lapse  of  any  number  of  years,  on  the 
application  of  the  partv  accused  or  by  order  of  the  ' 
President  of  the  Unitecl  States;  the  limitation  men- 
tioned in  the  Articles  of  War  being  applicalile  only 
to  General  Courts-Martial.  It  is  not  necessary  to  pub- 
lish tlie  proceedings  or  opinion  of  the  Court,  although 
it  is  usually  done  in  General  Orilers.  The  Court  is 
dissolved  by  the  Authority  that  ordered  it  to  convene. 

COUSSINET  A  MOUSftUETAIEE.— A  bag  formerly 
■worn  by  a  Frencli  soldier  on  his  left  side  beneath  the 
cross-lielt.  It  lnuig  on  a  hook  near  the  butt  of  his 
masket.  The  ex])ression  likewise  signifies  a  wedge 
Jised  to  support  the  mortar  in  its  frame. 

COUSTIL  A  CROC— A  short  sword  of  Italian  origin 
used  in  the  fifteenth  centurj',  and  very  much  like  the 
anelfict. 

COUTEEE. — An  ancient  piece  of  armor  which  cov- 
ered the  elbow.     At  present  but  little  used. 

COTJVRE-BASSINET.— A  plate  that  moves  on  a 
hinge  and  covers  the  priming  after  it  has  been  placed 
above  the  pan  or  bassinet. 

COVEE. — 1.  Natural  or  artificial  protection  from 
the  fire  of  the  enemy,  the  former  being  afforded  by 
liills,  woods,  banks,  walls,  etc.,  the  latter  by  fortifi- 
cations constnictcd  for  the  puqiose.  3.  To  stanil  ex- 
actly in  front  or  in  rear  of  another  man  or  object. 

COVERED  COMMUNICATIONS.  —  Shelter-t'renches 
are  nnich  used  to  afford  covered  communications 
along  a  given  front;  to  connect  the  works  in  a  "  line 
with  intervals;"  to  bring  a  musketry -fire  upon  grotmd 
which  cannot  be  swept  by  the  fire  from  a  particular 
work,  etc.  A  trench,  when  used  as  a  communica- 
tion for  infantry  only,  should  be  made  three  feet  deep, 
and  four  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  The  earth  should 
be  thrown  on  the  side  towards  the  enemy,  and  then 
leveled  off  in  the  form  of  the  .su]ierior  sloj)e  of  a  par- 
Jipet,  .so  that  the  men  in  the  trench  can  fire  over  this 
mass  of  earth.  If  the  trench  is  to  be  used  for  the 
pa.s.sage  of  artillery,  or  to  be  used  by  bodies  of  troops 
passing  from  one  point  to  another  along  the  front,  the 
least  width  at  bottom  should  be  made  eight  feet,  and 
the  height  of  the  top  of  the  mound  of  earth  should  be 
at  least  six  feet  and  a  half  above  the  bottom  of  the 
trench.  The  side  of  the  trench  toward  the  enemy 
should  be  cut  into  offsets,  and  arranged  so  as  to  allow 
a  fire  of  musketrj'  over  the  parapet.  Shelter-trenches 
are  rarely  made  to  follow  a  straight  line,  but  usually 
conform  to  the  contour  of  the  ground.  The  trace 
should  be  marked  on  the  groimd  if  there  is  time  to  do 
it.  It  will  economize  the  laborof  the  troops,  and  avoid 
an  unnecessary  waste  of  time.  The  trace  should  be 
governed  by  the  general  rules  laid  down  for  field-works, 
and  great  care  should  be  taken  that  it  cannot  be  en- 
filaded by  a  fire  of  the  enemy.  Profiles  are  not  neces- 
sary. The  points  which  would  be  occupied  by  them 
may  be  marked  by  men  standing  ujion  the  edge  of 
the  proposed  trench  towards  the  enemj-.  A  line 
"would  then  be  marked  on  the  ground,  by  a  pick,  pass- 
ing through  the  points  selected.  Parallel  to  this  line, 
and  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  rear  of  it,  the  line  of 
troops  should  be  formed  The  front  rank,  furnished 
with  intrenching-tools,  would  be,rfn  the  digging;  the 
rear  rank  would  lie  down.  Reliefs  sliould  lie  formed, 
and  the  trench  rapidly  executed.  The  slielters  for 
artillery  or  cavalry  may  be  made  in  a  very  sliort  time, 
in  a  way  similar  to  that  shown  for  the  sheltei'-trench 
for  infantry.  On  undulating  ground  the  shelter-trench 
for  infantry  is  fre([uently  on  (he  slope;  the  shelter  for 
artillery  would  generally  be  on  or  behind  the  crest. 
A  piece  of  artillery  on  the  crest  of  undulating  ground 
can  be  quickly  run  vnider  cover,  if  it  be  desirable. 
This  cover  can  be  q\iickly  and  easily  imjiroved,  by 
making  a  slight  excavation  and  arranging  a  mass  of  . 


earth  in  front  of  the  gun.  Slopes  of  thLs  kind  could 
be  used  for  infantry  as  well  as  for  artillery;  and  where 
a  simple  screen  is  the  main  object  to  he  had,  the  com- 
munication would  be  along  the  reverse  slope.  See 
Commi/hir/ilioiix. 

COVERED  DEFENSES.— To  this  class  belong  those 
constructions  and  arrangements  intended  to  shelter 
the  troops  and  matt'riel  from  vertical  tire.  Scarp  and 
counterscarp  galleries,  ca.semates,  ca.semated  caixjn- 
ieres,  lionib-proof  barracks,  etc.,  are  examples.  In 
the  permanent  works  of  more  recent  construction  in 
our  own  country  and  in  Europe,  revetment-walls  with 
relieving  arches  have  in  most  cases  l)cen  introduced 
instead  of  tlie  onlinary  tliick  walls  with  comiterforts, 
which  had  been  hitherto  the  usual  mode  of  retaining 
the  earth  of  the  rampart  and  parapet.  The  piers  of 
the  relieving  arches,  which  also  serve  as  counterforts 
to  the  revetment-wall,  are  rectangular  in  plan,  and 
usually  run  1)aek  from  Vi  to  16  feet.  They  are  from 
4  to  6  feet  thick,  and  jilaceil  from  12  to  18  feet  apart 
between  their  center  lines.  The  arches  are  usually 
full  center  and  two  feet  thick,  with  a  I'ough  shapeti 
capping  which  adds  an  additional  thickness  from  9 
to  12  inches  over  the  crown  of  the  arch.  When  the 
scarp-walls  are  entirel}-  delaehcd,  leaving  an  open 
conidor  between  them  and  the  rampart,  they  are 
pierced  with  one  or  two  tiers  of  loop-holes,  from 
which  a  fire  can  be  brought  upon  the  ditch  and  upon 
the  terre-plein  of  the  covered-way,  or  any  work  in 
front  of  the  enceinte.  To  give  cover  to  the  men  at 
the  loop-holes,  arched  recesses  are  made  in  the  thick- 
ness of  wall,  or  else  short  counterforts  are  built  back 
from  the  wall,  which  serve  as  the  piers  of  covering 
arclres.  The  width  of  the  rece.s.ses  .should  admit  of 
three  or  four  loop-holes  at  the  usual  distance  apait, 
their  height  and  depth  being  sufficient  to  give  the 
men  shelter  from  vertical  fire  and  allow  them  to  han- 
dle their  amis  with  convenience.  The  most  simple 
method  of  arranging  a  gallery  liehind  a  counterscarp- 
wall  for  the  defense  of  a  ditch  is  to  build  another 
wall  ])amllel  to  that  of  the  counterscarp,  and  to  throw- 
au  arch  over  between  the  two  to  cover  the  top  of  the 
gallerj-.  The  counterscaiTi-wall  is  pierced  with  loop- 
holes aiTanged  in  the  same  w  ay  as  in  scarp-galleries. 

Caponiere  defenses  for  the  ditches  are  classed  un- 
der the  head  of  what  are  termed  difingive  casemates, 
which  are  bomb-proof  aiched  stnictures  for  receiving 
cannon,  firing  through  eml)ras>ues  pierced  in  the 
front  or  mask  wall  of  the  casemates.  Defenses  of 
this  class,  w  hen  used  to  flank  the  ditch,  are  tenned 
casniuikd  caponieres.  These  defen.ses  are  usu- 
ally placed  in  the  ditch  at  the  middle  point  of  the 
side  or  front  to  be  flanked.  The  outline  of  their  plan 
is  mostly  that  of  a  lunette,  the  flanks  being  perpen- 
dicular to  the  line  of  the  scarp,  and  the  two  faces 
making  a  salient  angle  of  (iO  .  The  caponiere  is 
either  built  in  juxtaposition  with  the  enceinte,  or  else 
detached  from  it.  In  the  latter  case  an  inclosure  is 
formed  between  the  two  by  a  loop-holed  wall  which 
connects  the  flanks  with  the  scarp-wall.  Each  flank 
consists  of  one  or  two  tiers  of  arched  chambers,  the 
piers  of  the  arches  being  perpendicular  to  the  back  of 
the  walls  of  the  flank.  Each  chamber  is  of  .sufficient 
dimensions  for  the  service  of  a  single  gun  with  a  con- 
tracted field  of  fire.  In  some  cases  looji-holes  are 
pierced  for  small-anns  on  each  side  of  the  embra- 
sure; in  others  the  casemates  of  one  story  are  pierced 
for  cannon,  and  the  other  for  small-anns.  The  case- 
mates are  closed  in  rear  by  a  thin  wall,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  windows  forlight  and  venlilalion;  and 
the  piers  are  pierced  with  doorways  to  fonn  a  com- 
munication between  the  chambers  and  to  assist  the 
ventilation.  Flues  or  vents  are  made  in  the  front 
wall,  just  under  the  arches,  for  a  like  p\in>ose.  Where 
it  may  be  neeessjiry,  the  lower  floor  is  drained  by  a 
conduit  throusrh  the  front  wall. 

It  should  be  observed  that  whatever  advantages 
covered  defenses  afford  as  shelter  from  the  as.sallant's 
fire,  they  present  the  inconveniences  of  a  compara- 
tively niin-ow  and  obstructed  field  of  view  to  the  as- 


COVEEED  FLANK. 


424 


CBASLE.. 


sailed,  which  is  further  obscured  by  tlie  smoke  which 
mav  iralher  within  the  pillerv,  nnd  in  front  of  the 
lo«ipiioles.  fwm  these  causis  the  assiiiled  hnvinc  to 
aim  at  a  venture,  his  lire  is  likely  to  be  less  effective 
than  in  o[Hn  defenses,  where  the  smoke  disperses 
nipidlv  and  leaves  a  clear  tield  of  \new.  The  same 
may  iV  said  of  looivholed  walls  covering  exterior 
corridors  Avhere  the  space  to  the  rear  is  confined. 
Owuijr  to  these  considenitions,  loop-holed  and  covered 
defenses  of  the  kind  in  question  should  be  restricted 
to  s]>ecial  defensive  purposes,  where  an  object  within 
tlie  field  of  tire  can  be  attained  with  some  cerlauify 
whether  seen  or  not  by  the  a.ssailed;  as,  for  example, 
the  protection  of  a  ditch,  or  a  scarp- wall  which  can- 
not 1k'  flanked  from  within  the  work;  for  sweeping  a 
covered-way,  or  the  interior  of  any  outwork  which 
cannot  Ijc  brought  well  under  the  fire  of  the  iianipel 
of  the  main  work.  As  the  main  object  of  covereil 
defenses  is  protection  against  shells,  it  is  essential 
that  the  arches  of  the  galleries  should  be  bomb-proof. 
As  the  span  of  these  arches  is  usuallj'  small,  a  thick- 
ness of  3  feet  given  to  the  masonrj',  nnd  a  covering 
from  4  to  6  feet'bf  earth  above  it,  are  ordinarily  con- 
sidered sufficient  for  the  object  in  \-iew.  "With  regard 
to  the  front  walls  of  these  constructions,  as  they  are 
too  thin  to  withstand  the  direct  action  of  artillery, 
they  must  either  be  covered  by  earthen  masks,  as  a 
itlacis  raised  Iwyond  the  counterscarp,  for  example,  or 
be  used  only  in  positions  where  they  are  not  exposed 
to  this  tire.     See  CiMinale^. 

COVERED  FLANK. — The  platform  of  tUe  ca.scmate, 
which  lies  hid  in  the  bastion.  These  retired  flanks 
are  a  great  defense  to  the  opposite  bastion  and  pas- 
sage o*  the  ditch,  because  the  besiegers  can  neither 
sec  nor  casilv  dismount  their  uiuis. 

COVERED-WAY— COVERT-WAY.— In  fortification, 
an  open  corridor  or  passage  bordering  the  ditches  of 
the  enceinte  and  outworks,  if  there  l)e  any,  forming  a 
continuous  line  of  commimicatioh  around  the  fortifi- 
cation, masked  from  flic  view  of  the  enemy  by  an 
embankment  of  sufficient  height  to  cover  the  troops 
in  it.  The  covering  embankment  is  arranged  towards 
the  covered-way  like  an  ordinary  parapet,  and  receives 
on  the  exteriora  gentle  slope  or  glacis.  This  outwork 
is  indis|)ensable  to  a  garri.son  determined  on  an  active 
and  vigorous  defen.se.  By  means  of  it  the  garrison 
have  a  covered  position  beyond  the  ditch  where  they 
can  assemble  with  safety,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  s(]rtie,  or  to  guard  the  ditches  and  the  com- 
numications  across  them;  and  it  affords  them  also  a 
secure  point  of  retreat  if  repulsed  in  a  sortie,  as  a  re- 
serve left  in  the  covered-way  will  be  at  hand  to  clieck 
the  pursuit  by  their  fire,  and  enable  the  retreating 
party  to  gain  the  enceinte.  The  covered-way  prevents 
all  access  to  the  ditch  by  a  strong  fire  of  musketry, 
which  sweeps  all  the  exterior  ground,  and  affords 
facilities  for  posting  beyond  the  ditch  .sentinels  and 
small  detachments  to  guard  the  ditches  and  the  com- 
mimicafions  across  them.  It  is  the  most  indispensable 
of  all  the  outworks,  and  if  is  only  in  rare  cases  that 
we  can  do  without  it.  Vauban  placed  a  high  value 
on  this  work,  which,  to  use  his  own  words,  "costs 
less  to  the  defense  and  more  to  the  assault  than  any 
other  work."     See  (}ntirork». 

COVERING  FASCINES.- Fascines  made  of  stout 
picket  siulT,  not  less  than  one  inch  thick,  without 
any  mixture  of  small  brushwood.  They  may  be 
used  in  ]ilace  of  planks  for  the  superstructure  of 
wooden  liridges;  and  may  also  be  used,  if  no  stout 
planks  or  spars  are  to  Ije'had.  for  the  roofs  of  field 
jiowflermagazincs.  They  may  lie  made  of  the  usual 
di;iniet(r  of  nine  inches.  Their  length  will  depend 
upon  Ihi'  iiarlicular  purpose  for  which  they  are  in- 
tend iil 

COVINARII.— The  soldiers  who  fought  on  the 
roriinin,  ;i  kind  of  war-chariot  used  by  the  ancient 
Britons  and  Belgians. 

COWARDICE.— Want  of  courage  to  face  danger. 
The  Articles  of  War  declare  that  any  oHleer  or  sol- 
dier who  mislx'haves  himself  before  the  enemy,  rims 


away,  or  shamefully  abandons  any  fort,  post,  or 
guard,  which  he  is  conunanded  to  defend,  or  speak.s 
words  inducing  others  to  do  the  like,  or  casts  away 
his  arms  or  ammimition,  or  quits  his  post  or  colors  to 
jilunder  or  pillage,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  Courl-M;irtial  may  direct. 

COW-BOYS. — A  liand  of  marautlers  in  the  time  (Tf  the 
American  Revolution,  con.sisting  mostly  of  refugees 
who  atihered  to  the  British  side,  and  who  infested  the 
so-called  ruiitml  (/n/niul  lying  l)etween  the  American 
and  British  lines,  plunilering  all  tliose  who  liad  taken 
the  Oath  of  Allegiance  to  the  Continental  Congress. 
The  tcnn  has  recently  been  applied  to  marauding 
parties  in  the  'Western  Strifes  and  Territories. 

CRAB. — A  winch  on  a  movable  frame  with  power- 
gearing,  used  in  coniu'Ction  with  derricks  and  other 
nonpennanent  hoisting-machines.  The  larger  gear- 
wheel is  on  the  sliaft  of  the  roller,  and  is  rotated 
by  the  spur-pinion  and  hand-cranks.  The  crab  or 
geared  capstan  used  in  mechanical  maneuvers  con- 
sists of  a  strong  frame  of  oak  timber  firndy  fastened 
to  the  ground  1)}'  stakes,  or  tied  by  rings  in  the  ends, 
of  the  side  pieces.  The  l)oftom  side  pieces  are  joined 
by  two  cross-braces,  between  the  tenons  of  which,  ami 
through  from  end  to  end  of  e;ich,  passes  a  liolt,  firmly 
fastening  the  frames  together.  The  bottom  and  top 
side  pieces  are  joined  by  four  upright  and  eight  in- 
clined braces.  A  bolt  passes  through  the  upright 
braces  from  top  to  bottom,  binding  the  parts  together. 
Extending  across  the  frame  are  two  shafts,  which  rest 
in  cast-iron  boxes  fastened  to  the  top  pieces.  Upon 
one  is  fastened  a  cast-iron  drum  and  a  large  geared 
wheel,  having  110  tcetli;  on  the  other  a  small  geared. 
wheel  with  14  teeth  and  the  cranks  for  turning,  which 
are  held  in  place  by  nuts.  This  axle  has  a  motion  in 
the  direction  of  its  length  to  disengage  the  geared 
wheels  when  desired.     See  Mechinifiil  Manewren. 

CRACKED  HEELS. — From  careless  grooming,  wash- 
ing horses'  legs  and  imperfectly  drjing  them,  permit- 
ting them  to  stand  in  accumulations  of  tilth  or  ex]iosed 
to  draughts,  the  skin  becomes  inflamed,  tender,  itchy, 
thickened,  and  by  and  by  cracked.  An  ichorous 
noisome  discharge  exudes,  and  lameness  often  results. 
In  animals  with  xonniX,  gximmy  legs  it  is  sometimes 
constitutional;  underbred  horses  with  rough  hairy 
fetlocks  present  the  majority  of  cases;  wlnte  heels, 
Ix'ing  more  delicate,  are  especially  affected;  whilst 
the  hind  limbs,  exposed  as  they  are  to  filth  and  cold,, 
suffer  most  frequently. 


Cradle. 


CRADLE. — A  machine  used  for  transporting  heavy 
guns  short  distances.  It  is  made  of  oak,  and  consists 
essentially  of  two  parallel  rails  13  feet  0  inches  long 


CSASEBS. 


425 


CBAITES. 


and  10  by  12  inches  thick.  Thcw  rails  arc  united  by 
a  tnuisom  near  each  end  and  one  in  the  middle;  tbesie 
transoms  have  such  length  as  to  make  the  entire  width 
of  the  cradle  60  inches.  A  bolster  is  placed  over  each 
end-transom;  the  ends  of  these  bolsters  are  flush  with 
the  exterior  siiies  of  the  rails.  The  bolsters  for  the 
support  of  tlie  breech  are  6  inches  hi;jli  and  8  inches 
thick;  that  for  the  cliase,  V)  inches  high  and  6  inches 
thick;  the  middle  part  of  the  top  of  each  is  slightlj' 
hollowed  out  to  form  seats  for  the  piece.  A  movable 
bolster,  having  notches  at  each  en<l  to  fit  upon  the 
rails,  is  intended  to  be  placed  tight  up  against  the 
middle  part  of  the  gun  after  it  has  been  placed  on  the 
cradle.  Diagonal  braces  are  fitted  inside  iK'tween  the 
rails  and  transoms.  The  under  part  of  tlie  ends  of 
the  rails,  both  front  and  rear,  is  beveled  off,  so  that, 
in  moving  in  either  direction,  the  rollers  can  be  caught 
under  the  craille  witlt  facility.  The  under  .surfaces 
of  the  rails  are  shod  with  iron  to  prevent  them  from 
splintering  out.  A  ring  is  attached  l)y  a  link  and  eye- 
bolt  to  each  end-transom  for  the  purpose  of  attaching 
blocks  and  tackle  when  moving  the  cradle  and  piece. 
The  cradle  moves  on  wooden  rollers;  each  roller  is  78 
inches  long  and  7  inches  in  diameter.  From  six  to 
ten  rollers  are  required;  they  rest  and  move  on  way- 
planks  laid  on  the  groimd.  See  Mechanical  Maneu- 
vers. 

CSAKEBS. — A  term  applied  to  the  choice  soldiers 
of  various  organizations  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 

CEAKYS. — An  ancient  term  commonly  applied  to 
great  guns.     It  is  now  quite  obsolete. 

CKAMPETS.— A  term  vers-  frequently  applied  to 
the  cramp-rings  of  a  >word-scalibard. 

CKAMPTON  KOTAKY  PUDDLING  -  FURNACE.  — 
This  furnace,  used  iu  the  Royal  Gun  Factory,  is  de- 
sigueil  to  accomplish  the  following  points:  (a)  The 
utilization  of  slack  or  small  coal  without  the  produc- 
tion of  smoke;  (4)  the  automatic  feeding  of  fuel  and 
air  in  proper  proportions,  l)y  which  only  jjerfect  com- 
bustion can  be  effecteil;  ('■)  the  production  of  heat  of 
the  highest  intensities  with  perfect  regularity  both  a:; 
regard  intensity  and  quality;  ((f)  the  constriiction  of 
puddlitig-fumaces  wiUiout  brick-work,  composed  of 
a  single  chamber,  in  which  the  gas  is  produced,  con- 
sumed, and  the  material  treated;  (e)  the  reduction  of 
wear  and  tear  both  of  the  lining  and  of  the  furnace 
b.v  the  prevention  of  unecjual  contraction  and  cxjian- 
sfon;  (f)  also  to  effect  the  fettling  of  the  rcvoh-ing 
fumaci'  in  a  quick,  simple,  and  eilective  manner;  (g) 
and,  lastly,  to  eliminate  phosphorus  and  sulphur  from 
common  pig  to  such  an  extent  as  to  enable  good  steel 
to  Ik;  produced  from  it. 

This  puddling-fumace  consists  of  a  cylindrical  ca- 
sing of  wrought-iron,  the  easing  being  made  double, 
so  that  a  water-space  is  formed  both  at  the  sides  and 
at  the  ends.  To  the  center  of  one  end  is  attached  a 
two-way  cock,  which  communicates  with  two  pipes. 
Through  one  pipe  the  incoming  water  is  conducted 
direct  to  the  front  of  the  furnace,  while  through  the 
other  heated  water  escapes  at  a  temperature  of  90  de- 
grees. The  main  body  of  the  furnace  is  hooped  at 
two  points  by  steel  tires,  these  tires  each  taking  a 
bearing  upon  a  jiair  cif  canying-wheels.  These  carry- 
ing-wheels or  rollers  turn  on  Ivarings  .supported  bj- 
plummerbltTcks  fixed  to  the  large  cast-iron  baseplate 
which  carries  the  whole  furnace.  The  turning-gear 
of  the  furnace  is  verj-  simple,  and  consists  of  a  pinion 
engaging  a  toothed  segment  lx)lted  to  the  casing,  and 
worked  by  a  small  engine  with  diagonal  cylinders. 
The  supply  of  the  powdered  fuel  is  arranged  by 
means  of  a"  revolving  worm  or  creeper,  which  carries 
the  dust  along  the  duct,  where  it  is  deposited  in 
front  of  the  extremity  of  an  air-pipe  leading  from  the 
fan,  the  blast  from  w"hich  delivers  the  coaUlust  into 
the  furnace  and  assists  in  its  combustion.  It  may 
be  here  stated  that  at  the  time  the  trial  of  this  fur- 
nace was  proposed  coal  was  at  an  enormous 'price, 
and  any  economy  of  fuel  was  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance. "  The  results  of  experiments  with  this  furnace 
showed  that  the  iron  produced  from  it  was  defective 


in  the  following  important  qualifications:  1.  It  could 
not  be  often  reheated;  2.  It  was  not  free  from  blister; 
3.  It  was  often  red-short.  These  defects  render  it 
imsuitable  for  the  manufacture  of  ordnance.  See 
Furnace  and  Iron. 

CEANE-DBEDGE.— A  variety  of  drcdgingmachine 
fonnerly  used,  but  now,  in  a  great  measure,  super- 
seded by  the  boom-dredge.  The  crane-dredge,  as 
commonly  built,  is  provided  with  a  set  of  three- 
threaded  blocks,  for  multiplying  the  hoisting-power; 
but  since  these  augment  the  prejudicial  resistance  of 
friction,  and  increase  the  time  of  hoisting  and  discharg- 
ing the  filled  dipper,  we  have  a.sstimcd  the  drum-strain 
to  be  transmitted  directly  to  the  dipper-bail.  This  is 
fair  for  comparative  purposes,  since  it  reduces  both 
dredges  to  the  same  relative  conditions — the  new 
dredge  being  generallj-  worked  with  a  single  chain, 
although  the  threaded"  blocks  might  be  applied  to  it 
if  deemed  expedient.  It  is  apparent  that  at  com- 
mencement of  work  the  greater  the  angle  included 
between  the  hoisting  or  excavating  chain  and  the 
dipper-handles,  the  greater  will  be  the  force  in  the 
direction  of  the  bank,  and  the  smaller  in  the  line  of 
the  dipper-handle.  Experiments  have  been  conduct- 
ed with  a  \iew  to  making  this  angle  as  large  as  possi- 
ble without  impairing  the  efliciencj'  of  action,  and  the 
first  step  in  this  direction  was  the  invention  of  the"ex- 
tension-crane,"  which  remedied  the  matter  a  trifle; 
then  followed  the  arm  pivoted  to  the  long  side  of  the 
crane,  and  bearing,  at  its  outer  end,  sheaves,  over 
which  the  hoisting-chain  was  worked.  This  invention, 
while  fulfilling  its  mission,  was  yet  so  annoying  in  its 
action  that  it  was  abandoned. 

In  the  common  form  of  the  crane-dredge,  the  angle 
included  between  the  excavating-chain  and  the  dipper- 
handles  is  about  8°.  After  much  study  and  exten- 
sive experiments,  Mr.  Ralph  R.  Osgood  invented  his 
boom-dredge,  in  which  the  angle  in  question  is  almost 
30  .  Since  the  component  oif  force  in  the  direction 
of  the  bank  is  almost  directly  pro]>ortional  to  the  size 
of  this  angle,  the  boom-dredge  will  have  a  bank  force 
nearly  3.5  times  as  great  as  given  by  the  crane-dredge. 
The  boom-dredge,  by  dispensing  with  fall-blocks,  is 
enaljled  to  raise  its  load  quicker,  and  with  less  loss 
of  power  by  friction,  than  the  crane-<lredge;  and  also 
requires  a  shorter  dipper-handle,  from  the  fact  that 
its  uppermost  point  of  support  —  the  friction-t'lutch 
or  brake — is  brought,  by  means  of  the  falling  or  mova- 
ble boom,  10  feet  or  more  nearer  the  dipper.  It  is 
also  strained  less,  thus  requiring  less  material  for  its 
consti-uction  and  being  less  liable  to  bend  or  break. 
See  Boom-dredge,  Dredging^machine,  and  Eicarator. 

CBANES. — Cranes  are  employed  for  moving  ord- 
nance, molds,  and  other  heavj'  mas-ses  about  a  foun- 
dry. They  are  fitted  with  cog-wheel  gearing  to  ob- 
tain power  at  the  expense  of  time,  and  are  often 
worked  by  steam.  Care  must  lie  taken  to  give  great 
strength  to  this  machine,  and  to  cause  its  motion  to  be 
easy  on  its  pivot.  When  proiXTly  adjusted  a  weight 
may  be  lifted  and  transported  from  one  point  to  an- 
other, anjwliere  within  the  limits  of  the  circle  de- 
scribed by  the  arm. 

Cranes  are  most  clearly  classified  by  reference  to 
their  modes  of  transferring  their  loads  horizontalh'; 
and,  thus  considered,  are  found  to  divide  themselves 
into  the  following  groups,  \\i.:  1.  Rniary — In  which 
the  load  is  revolved  around  a  fixed  center,  such  as  a 
mast  or  column.  2.  Rectilinear — In  which  the  load 
is  moved  in  straight  lines,  in  one  or  more  directions. 
Both  types  of  cranes  are  subflividcd  into  two  general 
classes  as  to  their  movements,  \vl.  :  (A)  Fijid — A\'hen 
their  supporting  members  are  fixed  in  some  ix.'nnancnt 
location.  (B)  ilomble — When  the  crane  as  a  whole 
can  be  moved  about.  And  into  four  oilier  general 
clas.«es  as  to  their  source  of  motive  power,  viz. :  (a) 
Hand — 'When  the  motions,  either  vertical  or  horizon- 
tal, are  effected  by  manual  power.  ('<)  Poirtr — When 
the  motions  arc  e&ectcd  by  power  derived  from  line 
shafting  driven  by  a  stationari'  engine  or  other  fixed 
motor,     (c)  Stca'n: — When  the  motive  power  is  de- 


CKARZS. 


426 


CBANE8. 


rived  from  a  steam-cndnc  nttached  diirotly  to  tlie 
crane  itself  and  morinu'  with  it.  (rf)  HydmiiUf  — 
■When  Ibe  motive  power  consists  of  hvdmiilic  prcs- 
sun'  olitained  from  a  pump  or  accumulator,  and  car- 
rietl  to  llie  cnuie  by  pilK-s. 

A  further  distinction  is  coveretl  by  the  term  lofo- 
motire,  which  is  ajiplied  to  cranes  (usually  of  the 
rotarj-  type)  which  are  capable  of  propelling  them- 
selves uJh)!!  a  roadway  or  track.  Rotary  cranes  com- 
prise the  following  principal  t)7H.>s,  viz.:  1.  Siring- 
eriinet — In  which  the  central  ma.st  is  pivoted  to  the 
tloor  and  nx)f  of  the  building,  and  the  load  is  sus- 
pended from  a  block  tixed  at  the  outer  end  of  an  arm 
proje<'ting  horizontally  from  the  mast,  the  only  hori 
zontal  motion  iK'ing  one  of  rotation.  2.  Jib-franM — 
In  whiih  the  central  mast  is  pivoted  to  the  floor  and 
roof  of  the  buildinir,  and  the  lojid  is  susiwnded  from 
a  trolley  traveling  in  and  out  upon  an  arm  or  jib  pro- 
jectinglaterally  from  the  mast.  3.  Column-cranes— 
Whicii  consist  of  a  jib-crane  constructed  to  revolve 
around  or  upon  a  fi.xid  cohnnn  forming  the  support 
of  a  building  or  floor.  4.  Pillar-cmnfn— In  which 
the  central  column  or  pillar  is  entirely  supported  by  a 
heavy  foundation  built  at  its  base,  and  the  load  is 
suspended  from  a  Ixiom  projecting  from  the  pillar 
and  revolving  with  it  or  around  it.  '>.  DerrM'-cranes 
— Which  consist  of  a  jil)-crane  for  yard  use,  the  up- 
per end  or  ])ivot  of  the  mast  being  held  in  pasition  by 
guv-riHls  or  stays,  instead  of  by  attachment  to  a  roof 
or  ceiling.  6.  Wnlking-cram'K — Which  consist  of  a 
pillar-  or"  jib-crane  mounted  on  wheels,  and  arranged 
to  travel  by  power  or  bv  hand  upon  one  or  more  rails. 
7.  Locoinothi'-cranes — Which  consist  of  a  pillar-crane 
mounted  on  wheels,  and  provided  with  a  steam-en- 
gine and  toiler,  the  ix)wer  of  which  is  available  for 
operating  the  crane  and  for  propelling  it  upon  its 
tracks. 

ReHiUnear  Cranes  comprise  the  following  principal 
types,  \iz.:  1.  Bridge-cranes — In  which  a  tixed  bridge 
spans  an  opening,  and  the  load  is  sasjicnded  from  a 
truck  or  trolley  capable  of  moving  across  the  bridge. 
3.  Tram-cranes — In  which  a  truck  or  short  bridge, 
from  which  the  load  is  suspended,  is  arranged  to  travel 
longitudinally  upon  a  pair  of  overhead-rails,  but  is 
without  capacity  for  transverse  motion.  3.  Trareling- 
cranes — In  which  a  rectangular  space  is  provided 
with  overhead-tracks  upon  two  of  its  opposite  sides, 
and  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  arranged  to  travel  longi- 
tudinally upon  these  tracks,  the  load  being  suspended 
from  a  truck  or  trolley  cajiable  of  moving  transversely 
across  the  bridge,  so  "that  the  load  may  1k'  moved  to 
or  from  any  jwint  within  the  entire"  rectangle.  4. 
Gantries— la  which  an  overhead-bridge  is  supported 
at  each-  end  by  a  frame,  or  trestle,  extending  down- 
wards, and  having  wheels  in  its  ba.se  to  permit  of 
travel  upon  two  longitudinal  tracks  laid  upon  the 
ground,  so  that  the  entire  structure  can  move  endwise 
upon  the  latter,  and  the  load,  which  is  suspended  from 
a  truck  or  trolley  on  the  bridge,  can  lie  moved  trans- 
versely across  the  briilge.  5.  liotarii Britlgecranes — 
W^hich  combine  a  rotary  with  a  rectilinear  movement, 
and  consist  of  a  bridge  hanng  one  end  ]nvoted  to  a 
central  pier  or  post,' while  the  other  or  outer  end 
travels  on  a  circular  overhead-track,  or  is  supported 
by  a  giuitry-frame  traveling  upon  a  circular  track 
u|ion  the  gr-ound,  the  load  being  suspended  from  a 
truck  or  trolley  traveling  transversely  across  the 
bridge. 

The  most  important  factor  in  the  economy  and  con- 
venience of  a  crane  is  the  mechanism  by  which  the 
load  is  lifted  and  lowered,  as  it  must  nee<'s.snrily  come 
into  action  every  time  the  crane  is  used.  Inall  ap- 
plications of  power,  from  whatever  source  derived,  it 
nmst  Ik."  remembered  that  the  gearing  of  a  machine 
can  only  modifv  the  power  applied  in  one  of  two 
ways,  \nz.:  (1)  Sy  reducing  its  velocity,  and  proixjr- 
tionatcly  increasing  its  force  or  "pull."  (2)  By  in- 
creasing the  velocity,  and  proportionately  decreasing 
the  intensity  of  the  jKiwer  transmitted."  'Under  no 
circunvstances,  miless  the  motive  force  is  increased 


can  power  Ix;  gained  except  by  a  sacrifice  in  speed,  or 
can  speed  be  increased  except  by  a  si>crifice  in  power. 
If  either  or  both  must  be  increased  without  diminish- 
ing the  other,  it  can  only  be  accomplished  by  sup- 
plying more  motive  jiower.  The  function  of  gearing, 
then,  is  to  change  the  force  or  direction  of  the  ]x)wer 
applied.  If  it  is  well  designed  and  constructed, 
tills  may  l)e  done  with  only  a  small  loss  from  fric- 
tion; while  if  badly  made,  the  gearing  may  absorb 
much  power  in  wasteful  friction  of  its  moving  |)arts. 
In  machinery  for  hoisting,  the  "  purclia.se,"  or  conver- 
sion of  velocity  into  lifting  jiower,  is  usually  effected 
]iartly  by  a  multiplication  of  the  ropes  or  "chains  of 
the  tackle  through  which  the  load  is  suspended,  and 
partly  by  gearing  within  the  machine,  which  latter 
thus  Ix^comes  an  iniiwrtant  feature  in  crane-work. 
The  gearing  ordinarily  used  for  this  purpose  consists 
either  of  spur-wheels  and  i)inions  or  of  worm-wheels 
and  worms,  or  Ixith  combined,  and  the  smoothness 
and  economy  of  power  of  the  machine  depend  largely 
upon  the  maimer  in  which  the  gearing  is  made. 

A  second  feature  of  piime  importance  in  the  hoist- 
ing-gear of  a  crane  is  the  inotle  of  sustaining  the  load, 
and  guarding  against  its  "running  down"  when  the 
application  of  the  motive  ]50wcr  is  discontinued. 
This  has  heretofore  Ix'en  accomplished,  in  machines 
having  spur-gearing,  by  a  ratchet-wheel,  the  jniwl  of 
whiclT  has  to  be  eutirely  disengaged  to  permit  lower- 
ing to  occur,  or  by  a  brake,  which,  when  on,  prevents 
all  motion  of  the  machine,  and  which  requires  to  be 
held  or  thrown  off,  both  in  hoisting  and  lowering.  In 
machines  having  worm-gearing  the  end  is  attained  by 
a  constniction  of  the  worm-wheels  such  that  the  fric- 
tion between  the  worm  and  the  wheel  is  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  backward  rotation  of  the  worm  under  the 
pressure  of  the  teeth  of  the  worm-wheel  Ciiused  by  the 
load,  the  resistance  thus  generated  sufficing  to  prevent 
the  running  down  of  the  load.  There  is  a  current 
opinion  among  machinists  in  general  that  worm-gear- 
ing offers  so  disastrous  a  frictional  resistance  in  wear, 
that  its  use,  except  for  purposes  where  little  ix)wer  is 
to  be  transmitted,  and  where  certain  slow  movements 
are  to  be  effected,  is  not  permissible  in  good  mechan- 
ism. This  view  is  supported  by  most  of  the  text- 
books, which  invariably  represent  the  laying  out  of 
the  teeth  by  considering  the  worm  as  a  rack  with  in- 
clined teeth  where  the  pitch-lines  of  the  worm  and 
wheel  are  taken  on  a  plane  pa.ssing  through  the  a.xis 
of  the  worm.  Now,  the  fact  is  that  the  use  of  worm- 
cearing  for  hoists,  cranes,  boring- bars,  lathes,  etc., 
has  Ix'en  growing  in  favor  and  it  is  found  that  neither 
excessive  loss  cf  jiower  nor  excessive  wear  of  gearing 
ensues.  In  regard  to  friction,  it  is  established  thai 
for  the  ordinary  ratio  of  wheel  to  worm,  SiW  not  to 
exceed  60  or  80  to  1,  well  titled  worm-gear  will  trans- 
mit motion  backward  throuirh  the  worm,  exhibiting 
a  lower  coefficient  of  friction  than  is  found  in  any 
other  description  of  running  machmery. 

In  order  to  reach  this  result  the  following  method 
of  laying  out  a  worm-gear  and  worm  is  employed. 
Assume  the  teeth  on  the  worm  to  be  .B-i  of  the  pitch 
radially,  of  which  .GOP  is  to  be  the  line  of  contact 
with  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  (on  the  radius  .and  also  on 
the  plane  through  the  middle  of  the  teeth),  and  that 
.05P  l)e  for  clearances  between  the  roots  and  points 
of  worm  and  wheel  teeth.  Let  the  teeth  of  the  wheel 
follow  the  circle  of  the  worm  thnmshout  the  arc, 
whicli  ought  not  to  exceed  m  .  Let  R  =  outside 
radius  of  worm;  R/j  =  radius  of  pitch  of  worm;  F 
=  face  of  wheel  at  r(X)t  of  teelh;  and  P  =  pitch  of 
teeth:  then  R/)  =  i-J  R  -j-  (H  _  .fiP)  cos  (/  [- ,  and 
F  =  2(R  -I-  .05  P)  sin  a.  To  simplify  the  jirix-ess  of 
la>ing  out  worm-wheels,  it  has  been  usual  to  make  the 
outside  radius  of  the  worm  R  =  2P,  and  the  angle  a 
=  00  ,  wh.'u  R;)  =  1.606P,  and  F  -  2.0.5P.  The 
effect  of  this  nielhod  of  setting  out  pitch-lines  for  the 
teeth  of  screw-gearing  is  to  lirins:  the  bearing,  or 
working  lines  of  contact,  for  Ixith  orders  of  teeth 
more  nearly  on  the  true  pitch  line,  and  not  to  throw 
much  effort  or  work  on  the  ixtints  of  the  teeth  of  the 


CBANES. 


427 


CBANXS. 


worm-wheel  outside  of  the  true  pitch-line.  The  fol- 
lowing illustration  represents  a  wonn-whecl  and  wonn 
conslrticted  in  accordance  with  tlie  above  system,  and 
of  the  proportions  enii)loyed  in  the  Weston  cranes. 

In  all  cranes,  except  those  of  small  size,  i>ro%isiou 
should  be  made  for  one  or  more  changes  of  speed  in 
hoisting  and  lowering,  so  that  the  speed  may  be  varied 
according  to  the  load  and  the  nature  of  the  work  to 
be  done.  Cranes  operated  by  power  ntay  l)e  so  con- 
structed that  the  maximum  load  can  be  lifted  at  the 
quickest  speed;  but  they  are  usually  .so  proportioned 
that  this  can  be  done  only  at  a  slow  speed.  By  this 
plan  much  economy  of  gearing,  space,  and  cost  is 
effected,  and  the  practical  efliciency  of  the  crane  for 
all  ordinary  uses  is  not  impaired.  The  most  perfect 
construction  is  one  that  permits  a  change  of  speeds  to 
be  made  whether  the  hoisting-gear  is  in  motion  or  at 
rest,  and  which  sustains  the  load  automatically  while 
a  change  of  speed  is  being  made.  The  hoisting-gear 
of  a  crane  should  therefore  attain  the  following  re- 
sults, viz. :    (1)  Such  changes  in  direction  and  velocity 

t  I..TlMi-of  Roolof  Tiv>rt  1 

I       ITK  Seyl»n  o"  '^'■'^  Une.X  Y  ! 

L  L.  PlftQ.orTog.ofToolb 


'  Worm  wheel  and  Worm. 

■of  the  power  applied  as  will  give  the  desired  motions 
to  the  load.  (2)  The  accomplishment  of  tliis  with  a 
minimimi  lo.ss  of  ix)wer  through  friction.  (3)  The 
safety,  lx)th  of  the  operator  and  the  load,  under  all 
conditions;  to  insure  which  the  load  must  be  always 
self -sustained  and  incapable  of  "  running  down."  (4) 
Capacity  for  changes  of  speed  and  for  convenient 
transition  from  one  of  these  to  another  at  will, 
whether  the  gearing  is  in  motion  or  at  rest,  and  for 
the  automatic  support  of  the  load  during  the  act  of 
changing  speeds. 

In  some  types  of  rotarj-  cranes  no  traverse  mechan- 
ism exists,  except  an  aiTangemcnt  of  parts  whicli  pro- 
■\ndes  for  the  rotation  of  the  crane.  In  others,  such 
as  jib-  and  derrick-cranes,  provision  must  also  be 
made  for  moving  the  truck  or  trolley  horizontally  on 
the  jib,  and  the  same  provision  is  required  for  mov- 
ing the  trolley  of  bridge-  and  traveling-cranes  trans- 
versely on  the  bridge.  In  all  such  cases  a  separate 
mechanism,  distinct  from  the  hoisting-gear,  lias  here- 
tofore Ix-en  employed,  and  is  still  sometimes  desir!d)le 
or  convenient.  When  employed,  its  parts  should  \k 
as  few  and  simple  as  ixjssible,  and  it  should  be  so  far 


iudciK'ndent  of  the  hoisting-gear  as  to  |)ermit  either  to 
be  u.sed  at  any  time  separatelj-  or  conjointly.  In 
power-cranes  provision  should  be  made  for  accelerat- 
ing the  speed  of  the  trolley -travel  whenever  the  nature 
of  the  work  admits  of  it.  The  lx;st  iKissible  result  is 
attained  when  travel  of  the  trolley  is  effected  without 
varying  the  vertical  position  of  the  load,  and  without 
causing  useless  movement  of  the  hoisling-eliain  or 
rope  over  the  sheaves  through  which  it  sujiports  the 
load,  which  movement  would  involve  much  additional 
friction,  and  cause  rapid  wear  of  the  chain  or  rope. 
In  traveling-cranes  a  point  of  great  importance  is  the 
parallelism  of  the  bridge-travel  with  the  longitudinal 
tracks.  Any  defect  here  results  in  increased  resist 
ance  to  traction,  .and  any  considerable  error  might 
cause  derailment.  In  traveling-cranes,  as  heretofore 
built,  the  use  of  Hanged  wheelshas  been  relied  upon 
to  prevent  derailment,  and  the  propulsion  of  the 
bridge  has  been  effected  by  a  transverse  shaft  extend- 
ing the  whole  length  of  the  bridge,  and  connected  by 
gearing  with  the  truck-wheels  sui>porting  each  end 
of  the  bridge,  so  that,  by  revolving 
the  shaft,  the  truck-wheels  would  be 
rotated,  and  the  bridge  be  thereby  pro- 
pelled, provided  the  adhesion  between 
the  wheels  and  the  rails  was  sufficient. 
In  some  instances,  where  the  adhesion 
has  not  been  sufficient  to  prevent 
slipping,  a  cast-iron  rack  has  been  laid 
adjacent  to  the  longitudinal  tracks, 
and  extending  their  whole  length,  and 
pinions,  gearing  into  this  rack,  at- 
tached to  the  axles  of  the  truck-wheels, 
so  that  propulsion  is  effected  indepen- 
dently of  the  adhesion  of  the  truck- 
wheels  to  the  track.  If  the  load  were 
always  central  on  the  bridge,  and  the 
motive  jiower  always  applied  to  this 
shaft  at  the  center  of  its  length,  this 
plan  would  answer  well,  although  it 
is  somewhat  clumsy:  but  in  practice 
the  load  is  constantly  varying  in  posi- 
tion, and  the  motive"  power  is  applied 
at  one  end  of  the  long  transverse 
shaft,  so  that  torsion  of  the  shaft  in- 
duces a  considerable  variation  in  the 
travel  of  the  ojipositc  ends  of  the 
—  bridge.     This    error  is  a  conslanllj' 

varjing  one,  according  to  the  ixirtion 
of  the  load  resting  upon  each  truck, 
as  detei-mined  by  the  pasitiou  of  the 
trolley,  the  load"  being  never  equally 
distributed  between  the  two  trucks 
except  when  it  is  exactlj-  in  the  cen- 
ter. It  follows,  therefore,  that  this 
system  of  bridge-travel,  although  op- 
erative, is  radically  defective,  and 
that  its  use  involves  a  constant  loss  of  power  by 
needless  friction,  and  entails  a  proportionate  amount 
of  wear  and  tear  of  rails,  wheels,  and  driving- 
gear.  A  Ijetter  and  more  simple  method  of  bridge- 
propulsion  has  lately  been  introduced,  by  means  of 
which  the  lomritudinal  motions  of  the  bridge  are 
effected  by  jiuUint)  each  of  its  ends,  simultaneously 
and  at  equal  speed,  in  the  desired  direction.  For  this 
purpose  light  wire  cables  are  used,  which,  by  a  very 
simple  ami  ingenious  arrangement  of  guide-sheaves, 
arc  made  to  act  tts  a  "  squaring  device"  to  hold  the 
bridu'e  at  all  times  peqiendicular.  or  stiuare,  to  the 
tracks  upon  which  it  travels.  By  this  system  the 
friction  of  traction  is  reduced  to  a  mininuun,  and  the 
danger  of  derailment  from  unequal  travel  of  the  op- 
jiosite  ends  of  the  bridge  entirely  ob\iated.  From 
the  above  facts  it  becomes  evident  that  a  iK-rfect  sys- 
tem of  bridge-propulsion  must  hold  the  bridge  always 
absolutely  square  with  its  tracks,  and  must  profKl  the 
opposite  ends  of  the  bridge  in  the  same  direction,  at 
the  same  time,  and  at  the  same  speed,  however  un- 
equally the  load  may  be  distributed.  It  is  desirable 
also  that,  in  laree  cranes  at  least,  provision  be  made 


csAjns. 


428 


CRANES. 


for  startiiii;  the  briiljrt'  slowly  from  a  state  of  rest,  ami 
thi'n  incrnisinij  the  s|hih1,  and  also  for  varying  tbu 
speed  while  llie  bridge  is  iu  iuoUod. 


Cbtiin-wheel,  Guide,  and  Stripper. 

In  almost  every  type  of  crane  the  load  is  primarily 
carried  upon  a  flexible  cord  of  some  kind.      Xli's 
usually  consist.s  of  rope,  ei!hcr  hemp  or  wire,  of  of 
chain.     Eaih  of  these  has  distinc- 
tive merits  !ind  objections.     Ropes  

have  the  advantage  of  being  formed 
of  many  parts  or  fibers,  so  that  no 
splicing  (ir  welding  is  necessary  in 
their  manufacture,  and  they  thus 
have  an  assured  and  practically 
uniform  strength  throughout  their 
length.  Chains,  on  the  contiary, 
consist  of  a  series  of  independent 
links,  each  of  which  is  foniicd  from 
a  stnuglit  bar,  and  welded,  so  that 
a  single  imperfect  weld  injures  the 
whole,  the  strength  of  a  chain  being 
obviously  limited  by  the  strength 
of  its  weakest  link.  By  care  and 
good  workmanship,  however,  this 
danger  Ciui  be  avoided,  in  which 
case  the  chain  l)ecomes  as  safe  as 
the  rope,  and  much  more  durable. 
Where  a  rope  is  used,  the  hoisting- 
gear  must  necessjtrily  include  a 
drum  or  barrel  uiwn  which  the  rope 
is  wound  up  when  hoisting  takes 
place.  Chain  may  also  be  thus 
woimd  up  on  a  barrel,  and  this  has 
heretofore  been  the  common  prac- 
tice when  chains  have  been  em- 
ployed in  crane-construction,  and  a 
prominent  feature  in  cranes  of  large 
capacity  has  usually  been  a  propor- 
tionately large  "winding-barrel "  to 
receive  the  chain.  A  chain,  how- 
ever, admits  of  another  mode  of 
construction,  which  consists  in  .sub- 
alitutiug  for  the  wide  barrel  or  dnmi 
a  pocketed  "  eliain-wheel,"  consist- 
ing of  a  narrow  wheel  or  sheave, 
of  a  width  only  slightly  greater 
than  that  of  the  chain,  and  having 
fonned  uiK)n  its  peripher\'  a  series 
of  indentations  or  "pockets,"  ex- 
actly corresponding  in  size  and 
shape  with  the  links  of  the  chain, 
so  that  the  chain  and  the  pockets 
fit  togetheraeciirately,  and  slipping 
of  the  chain  upon  the  ehidn  wheel 
becomes  impossilile.  It  thus  follows  that  rotation 
of  the  chain-wheel  causes  positive  motion  of  the 
chain  at  a  speed  equal  to  the  circumferential  velo- 


city of  the  wheel,  in  a  manner  precisely  similar  to 
the  motion  of  a  rack  driven  by  a  pinion,  or  of  one 
spur-wheel  driven  bv  another. 

I'he  lx;st  material  for  the  chain- 
wheel  lias  been  found,  by  experience, 
to  be  soft  cast  iron,  as  this  causes 
the  least  wear  upon  the  chain,  and 
as  it  is  of  course  best  to  have  the 
wear  come  upon  the  wheel  (which 
is  easily  and  cheaply  replaced)  than 
upon  the  chain.  In  all  of  the  several 
types  of  cnuies,  the  chain-wheels  are 
made  and  inserted  so  as  to  be  easily 
rejilaeed.  This,  however,  does  not 
recpiire  to  be  frequently  done,  as  the 
wheels  will  usually  eiidure  live  or 
six  years  of  constant  use  before  wear- 
ing out.  To  further  insure  the  jiroper 
engagement  of  the  chain-wheel  and 
chain,  a  chain-guide  is  jirovided  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  The  func- 
tions of  this  chain-guide  are  (1)  to 
cause  the  chain  to  enter  i)roperly  in- 
to engagement  with  the  wheel;  (2)  to 
hold  it  in  engagement  with  sevend  of 
the  pockets  of  the  wheel,  so  that  the 
strain  upon  the  chain  is  distributed 
over  these  several  pockets,  and  "stripping"  of  the 
wheel  prevented;  and  (3)  to  permit  the  lower  half 
of  the  wheel  to  be  used  for  engagement  with  the 


Jlb-crace  Frame. 

chain  and  yet  cause  the  slack  side  of  the  chain  to 
follow  the  wheel  up  to  the  horizontal  center  line- 
again. 


CBAirZQUENIESS. 


429 


CBAP£. 


The  construction  by  which  these  results  are  oh- 
tained  is  clearly  illustrated  in  the  drawinjr,  in  which 
A  represents  a  pocketed  chain-wheel  mounted  upon 
the  plate  or  frame  B.  C  is  the  "  chain-guide,"  en- 
veloping the  lower  half  of  the  chain-wheel  A,  and 
bolted  securely  to  the  plate  B.  The  innner  curved 
surface  of  the  chain-guide  is  grooved,  and  is  of  such 
shape  as  to  leave  a  space  between  it  and  the  periphery 
of  the  chain-wheel  merely  sufficient  to  admit  the 
chain.  The  latter  is  thus  compelled  to  enter  proper- 
ly, and  is  held  securely  in  engagement  with  the 
pocketed  chain-wheel  throughout  the  arc  of  contact. 
At  E  the  chain-guide  carries  a  small  roller,  over  which 
the  slack  chain  passes  downward  into  a  suitable  box 
or  receptacle.  To  insure  the  proper  separation  of 
the  chain  from  the  chain-wheel  at  the  point  of  dis- 
engagement there  is  pro\ided  a  "chain-stripper." 
This  piece,  marked  D  in  the  drawing,  is  also  bolted 
to  the  plate  B,  and  isprovidcd  with  a.  projecting 
tongue  or  rib,  D',  the  point  of  which  lies  deep  in  the 
center  groove  of  the  wheel,  and  thus  strips  or  sepa- 
rates the  chain  from  the  wheel  sus  it  reaches  the  proper 
point,  and  prevents  any  clinging  of  the  chain  to  the 
wheel.  A  prolongation  of  the  "  stripper"  D  covers 
the  guidesheave  at  E  and  insures  the  proper  pas.sing 
downward  of  the  chain.  The  construction  of  the 
chain-wheel  and  its  adjuncts,  which  is  al)ove  illus- 
trated and  described,  constitutes  a  perfect  deWce 
for  hauling  in  and  pajing  out  chain,  whether  fully 
loaded  or  empt)-,  and  is  moreover  easier  upon  the 
chain,  and  more  conducive  to  its  endurance,  than 
any  ordinarj-  form  of  winding  barrel  or  drum.  With 
slight  modifications,  to  adapt  it  to  the  varying  condi- 
tions, this  construction  is  embodied  in  all  of  the  var- 
ious types  of  the  Weston  cranes. 

Construction  in  iron  has  been  adopted  almost  ex- 
clusively for  the  frames,  girders,  etc.,  of  the  Weston 
cranes.  The  great  variety  of  structural  shapes  of 
iron  which  are  now  obtainable,  and  the  increasing  ca- 
pacity of  our  rolling-mills  to  jjroduce  shapes  of  large 
area  and  of  great  length,  have  greatly  simplified 
and  cheapened  the  building  of  iron  crane  frames  and 
girders  of  moderate  sizes.  Wherever  the  dimensions 
of  the  work  admit,  these  irons  are  employed.  In 
machines  of  larger  size  resort  is  had  to  plate-girders, 
as  described  below,  while  for  the  columns  of  large 
pillar-cranes  and  similar  machines  cast-iron  in  single 
pieces  is  employed.  The  frames  of  small  jib-cranes 
may  frequently  be  constructed  by  using  a  single  iron 
for  each  of  the  principal  members,  in  which  case  the 
I-beam  section  is  found  best.  For  larger  sizes,  sjiy 
from  3  tons  upwards,  a  double  frame,  each  of  the 
principal  members  being  composed  of  two  channel- 
irons,  is  found  better.  The  latter  construction  is 
shown  in  outline  in  the  drawing,  in  which  the  jib,  A, 
mast,  B,  and  brace,  C,  are  each  composed  of  two  chan- 
nel-irons, separated  sufficiently  to  give  proper  room 
for  the  attachment  of  the  mechanism  and  to  permit 
the  main  chains,  depending  from  the  trolley,  to  pass 
between  the  two  irons  forming  the  jib.  The  best 
and  most  economic  construction  requires  that  the 
brace,  C,  shall  intersect  the  jib,  A,  at  a  distance  from 
the  mast  equal  to  four  fifths  of  the  extreme  effective 
radius  of  the  crane;  that  is,  that  the  distance  X  should 
be  one  fourth  as  great  as  the  distance  Y.  When  for 
any  reason  it  is  necessarj'  that  the  brace  intersect  the 
jib  at  a  point  nearer  to  the  mast,  as,  for  instance,  at  C  , 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  a  much  greater  depth  is 
necessary  in  the  irons  forming  the  jib,  and  frequently 
also  in  those  composing  the  mast.  Where  it  is  pos- 
sible to  obtain  greater  height  of  mast  above  the  jib, 
as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  at  M,  a  suspension-rod, 
N,  may  be  substituted  for  the  brace,  C,  and  the  latter 
omitted,  thus  gi\Tng  entire  freedom  below  the  jib. 
The  intersections  of  the  several  members  of  jib-cranes 
thus  constructed  are  best  united  by  the  overlapping 
of  the  web  of  one  part  upon  the  other,  and  by  gusset- 
plates,  all  firmly  fastened  by  proper  riveting, 

In  proi)ortioning  the  frames  and  girders,  such  di- 
mensions arc  adopted  as  will  insure  a  factor  of  safety 


of  «(>  throughout;  that  is,  such  that  the  strains  de- 
veloped, with  the  maximum  load  suspended  at  the 
I  center,  or  point  of  greatest  stnun,  shall  not  exceed 
1  one  sixth  of  the  breaking  strength  of  the  material  em- 
ployed. We  state  the  case  in  this  way  for  the  reason 
that  it  is  still  customary  with  most  engineers  to  make 
such  calculations  upon  the  basis  of  an  assumed 
' '  factor  of  safety. "  The  best  and  latest  practice,  how- 
ever, is  to  proportion  the  parts  with  reference  to  the 
elastic  strength  of  the  material  employed,  and  it  is 
the  present  practice,  so  far  as  ]x)ssible,  to  give  such 
dimeasions  to  the  f  rsimes  and  girders  that  under  no 
condition  shall  any  of  their  members  be  strained  to 
within  'jO  per  cent  of  the  elastic  limit  of  the  material. 
At  all  intersections  of  members,  and  at  points  of 
attachment  with  wrought  or  cast-iron  parts,  an  excess 
of  strength  is  alwaj-s  provided  to  allow  for  the  weak- 
ening of  bolt  and  rivet  holes  and  other  contingencies. 
Special  attention  is  given  to  securing  unusual  strength 
and  safetj'  in  these  details  of  the  Weston  cranes,  all 
of  which  are  based  upon  exact  and  careful  calcula- 
tion. A  comparison  of  one  of  these  cranes  with  most 
others  of  equal  nominal  capacitj'  will  show  much 
difference  in  the  amoimt  and  disposition  of  material 
employed,  so  that,  although  the  latter  may  ix)ssibly 
lift  their  full  nominal  load  without  breakmg  down, 
tlie  former  may  be  relied  upon  to  do  so  always  with 
aljsolute  safety.  Doubtless  a  load  of  10  tons  could  be 
lift^Ml  with  a  .i-ton  crane  without  disabling  it;  but  in 
executing  a  contract  to  furnish  a  Weston  crane  of  10 
tons  capacity,  the  builders  furnish  one  proportioned 
as  above  explained,  and  of  a  strength  such  as  to  make 
it  absolutely  safe  for  its  intended  work.  See  Bridge- 
crant.  Column- crane.  Derrick -crane.  Differential 
Pulley -block,  Ilooks,  Jib-crane,  Locomotice- crane. 
Pillar -crane.  Salary  Bridge -crane.  Swing-crane, 
Take-iipg,  Tracding  crane.  Trolleys,  and  Walking- 
cram'. 

CRANEftUENIEHS. — A  surname  given  to  .the  foot- 
troops  who,  in  ancient  times,  were  armed  with  the 
crinii'rmin. 

CRANEQUIN. — The  windlass  crossbow  anciently 
used  by  foot-soldiers  who  were  surnamed  crane- 
quiidi  rs. 

CRANK. — In  machinery,  an  arm  or  a  bend  on  an 
axle  or  shaft  which  may  be  driven  by  a  connecting- 
rod  or  by  the  hand,  its  use  being  to  convert  an  alter- 
nating straight  motion  into  a  continuous  revolution. 
A  crank  may  have  part  of  the  shaft  on  both  sides,  so 
that  one  rod  may  drive  two  wheels.  There  are  two 
positions  in  a  crank  in  which  the  connecting-rod  ex- 
ercises no  power  whatever;  viz.,  when  the  arm  of  the 
crank  is  jiarallel  to  the  comiecting-rod,  and  again 
when  the  crank  is  at  the  op])osite  point  of  its  course. 
A  push  or  pull  of  the  rod  in  such  circumstances  can 
only  press  the  shaft  Against  its  bearings.  The  eflfect 
is  greatest  when  the  rod  and  the  crank-arm  are  at 
right  angles,  and  it  decreases  gradually  on  both  sides 
of  that  position,  until  at  the  top  and  "bottom  it  is  re- 
duced to  nothing.  In  order  to  carry  the  crank  over 
these  dead  points,  as  they  are  called,  a  tly-wheel  is 
fixed  on  the  shaft;  this  receives  part  of  the  force  of 
the  rod  while  at  its  best,  acts  as  a  res<-rvoir, 'and  l)y 
its  stored-uii  momentum  carries  the  shaft  round  when 
the  rod  is  powerless. 

CRANNOGES.— The  name  given  in  Ireland  and  in 
Scotland  to  the  fortified  islands  in  lakes  which  were 
in  common  use  as  dwelling-places  and  places  of  ref- 
uge among  the  Celtic  inhabitants.  The  etiiTiiology  of 
the  \\ord  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  believed  to  refer  to 
the  timber  which  was  employed  either  in  the  fortifi- 
cation of  the  island,  or  in  "the  construction  of  the 
houses  which  were  placed  upon  it. 

CRAPE.— A  thin  fabric  made  of  raw  silk,  which 
has  been  tightly  twisted,  without  remo\-ing  the  vis- 
cous matter" with  which  it  is  covered  when  spun  by 
the  worm.  It  is  simply  woven  as  a  thin  gauze,  then 
I  dressed  with  a  thick  solution  of  gum,  which  in  dry- 
ing causes  the  threads  partiall.\-  to  unt^\-ist,  and  thus 
gives  a  wrinkled  and  rough  appearance  to  the  fabric. 


CSATSS. 


430 


CRESCENT. 


It  is  usually  dyed  black,  and  is  xised  for  mouming- 
apparpl. 

CKATEB.— Tbc  form  of  the  crater  in  ordinary  soils 
has  not  bcfn  accuratily  asciTtained.  The  only  use  of 
the  exact  determination  of  this  fonn  would  be  to  cal- 
culate pre<isel y  the  tiuantity  of  earth  thrown  from  the 
crater,  and  by  that  means  to  proportion  the  charjre  to 
the  effect  to  l)e  priKhiced.  Different  tigures  have 
bet'D  assigned  by  Engiuerrs  to  the  solids  constituting 
the  crater:  some  assuming  it  to  be  a  cone,  the  center 
of  the  powder  being  taken  as  the  vertex;  otliers,  a 
paralndoid.  the  center  of  the  |)Owder  Ix-ing  the  focus, 
etc.  To  afford  a  uniform  and  simple  nile  for  calcu- 
lating the  volume  ot  the  eniter,  the  solid  will  lx>  as- 
sumed as  a  truncated  cone,  the  radius,  O  D.  of  the 
lower  circle,  being  also  assumed  at  one  half  the 
radius,  P  B,  of  the  upjx-r  circle.  The  radius,  P  B,  of 
the  upper  circle  is  termed  the  cratt-r  radius;  the 
line,  < )  P.  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  powder  per- 
pendicular to  the  surface  where  the  explosion  takes 


Section  of  Crater. 

place,  the  line  of  least  resiaUtnce ;  and  the  line,  O  B, 
drawn  from  the  same  center  to  any  point  in  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  upper  circle,  me  radiua  of  explo- 
tion. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  supposed  by  miners  that  a 
crater  could  not  be  formed  with  a  radius  greater  than 
twice  the  lino  of  least  R'sistance  with  any  charge;  but 
the  experiments  of  Belidor  have  .shown  that,  by  suc- 
cessive augmentations  of  the  charge,  the  crater  radius 
may  be  increased  to  six  times  this  line,  but  not  much 
beyond;  that  within  this  limit  the  ratio  of  the  diame- 
ters of  the  craters  is  nearly  that  of  the  scjuare  root  of 
the  charges;  and  that  gjillcries  can  be  destroyed  by 
such  mines  at  distances  of  four  times  their  line  of 
least  resistance.  The  physico-mathematical  theory  of 
mines  is  still  very  imperfect,  owing  to  the  impractica- 
bility of  ascertaining  the  exact  effects  of  the  explosion 
of  powder  in  a  medium  which  is  seldom  homogene- 
ous, and  the  resistance  of  which,  arising  from  its 
tenacity,  compressibility,  etc.,  to  the  expansion  of  the 
gases,  can  only  be  arrived  at  by  a  wide  range  of  ex- 
periments made  with  minute  care.  From  the  want 
of  these  elementary  data,  the  formulie  at  present  in 
use,  to  determine  the  charges  for  different  media,  are 
neces-sarily  empirical,  and  their  results  are  to  be  relied 
on  only  within  the  limits  in  which  they  coincide  with 
experiments.  For  most  cases  in  practice  these  ap- 
proximations are  near  enough,  and  valuable  as  the 
only  guides  that  the  miner  has  to  refer  to.    See  Mines. 

CKAVAT. — A  part  of  the  uniform  prescribed  for 
officers  in  the  United  States  army.  The  cravat  is 
black,  and  the  tie  is  not  permitted  to  be  visible  at  the 
oiiening  of  the  collar,  ^(■ilher  cravats  nor  stocks  are 
worn  bv  the  euliste<l  men  when  on  duty. 

CBEEDMOOE  RIFLE-EANOE.  —  Tlie  largest  and 
most  coiiiplcte  rille-range  in  the  United  State.s.  It  is 
a  station  on  the  Long  Island  Itjiilroad,  about  10^ 
miles  ea-st  of  New  York,  was  estjiblished  in  IUTI,  and 
is  much  frcfiuenled  by  riHemen  for  target  jiract ice. 

CREESE.— A  -Malay  dagger,  generally  with  a  wavy 
or  Jl'imiii'/  bliide,  which  the  Malay  triljes  render  still 
more  fatal  by  dipping  into  jmison.  Sometimes  writ- 
ten CreiiM,  ("rtstrit,  Oris,  Krees,  and  Kris. 

CREU AILLE. — In  (ield-fortification,  the  term  cre- 
m/;////  is  employed  when  the  inside  line  of  the  parapet 
is  broken  in  such  a  manner  as  to  rescmlile  the  teeth 
of  a  saw.  This  advantage  is  gained  by  the  measure 
that  a  greater  fire  ain  be  brought  to  l)ear  upon  the  de- 
file than  if  only  a  .simple  face  wiuj  opj)ose(i  to  it;  and 
consc'iueutly  the  passage  is  rendered  more  difficult. 


CREMAILLERE  LINE. — An  indented  line,  consist- 
ing of  long  and  short  branches,  which  may  be  ar- 
ranged as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  long  branchea 
are  usually  made  70  ^ards  long,  or  more,  and  ar» 
directed  towards  ground  which  cannot  be  occupied 


CriTnailU^rc  Line. 

by  an  enemy.  The  short  branches  are  made  about 
30  yards  long,  and  are  usi-d  to  flank  the  Ions  branch- 
es. "  Instead  of  giving  the  long  branches  tlirections 
parallel  to  each  other,  they  may  all  1m'  directed  upon 
a  single  point,  which  the  enemy  cannot  reach.  See 
Lines. 

CRENAUX. — In  fortification,  small  openings  or 
loop-holes,  made  through  the  walls  of  a  fortified  towa 
or  place.  They  are  extremely  narrow  towards  the 
enemy,  and  witle  within;  so  tliat  the  balls  from  the 
besiegers  can  scarcely  even  enter,  whereas  two  or 
tliree  soldiers  may  fire  from  within. 

CRENEL— CRENELLE.— A  term  sometimes  used 
for  a  liiittlemcni.  but  more  frequently  for  the  embra- 
sures in  a  battlement.  The  adjective  crenellated  is  ia 
frequent  use  to  signify  that  a  building  is  supplied 
with  crenelles.     See  Battteinenl. 

CRENELLE.^In  Heraldrj-,  a  term  meaning  em- 
battled, and  used  to  signify  that  any  ordinary  is 
drawn  like  the  battlements  of  a  wall.      See  Heraldry. 

CREFISA. — The  iron-shod  shoe  worn  by  the  early 
Greek  philosophers  and  soldiers.  It  did  not  cover 
the  whole  of  the  foot. 

CRESCENT. — 1.  A  musical  instrument  consisting 
of  a  staff  with  arms  and  suspended  bells,  used  in  a 
band. — 2.  In  Heraldrj',  the  crescent  is  used  both  as 
a  bearing  or  charge,  and  as  a  difference,  or  mark  of 
cadency.  In  the  latter  case  it  designates  the  second 
son  anil  those  that  descend  from  him. — 3.  A  repre- 
sentation of  the  half-moon  with  the  horns  turned  up- 
wards, called  a  crescent,  is  often  used  as  an  emblem 
of  progress  and  success.  It  is  generally  spoken  of  as 
"The  Arms"  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  but  is  more 
properly  the  emblem  of  the  Empire  and  people — not 
a  very  appropriate  one  in  our  day.  It  was,  however, 
the  emblem  of  the  Greek  before  it  became  that  of  the 
Turkish  rule ;  and  at  the  present  day  is  frecjuently  to 
be  seen  on  churches  in  iloscow  and  el.sewhere  in  Rus- 
sia, generallj'sumiountetlwith  the  cross,  marking  un- 
questionably the  Byzantine  origin  of  the  Russian 
Church. — 4.  The  name  of  three  orders  of  knishthootl. 
In  1799,  after  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  the  Sultan  Selim 
III.  testified  his  gratitude  to  Xelson  by  sending  him 
a  crescent  richly  adorned  with  diamonds.  It  was  not 
intended  as  an  order,  but  Nelson  wore  it  on  his  coat, 
and  on  several  occasions  called  himself  the  Knight  of 
the  Crescent.  Selim  was  flattered  by  the  value  which 
the  English  Admiral,  already  decorated  with  so  many 
orders,  .seemed  to  attach  to  his  gift  ;  and  it  was  this 
circumstance  which  determined  him,  in  1801,  to 
found  the  Order  of  the  Crescent.  Mohammedans 
being  forbidden,  in  the  Koran,  to  cany  such  marks 
of  distinction,  the  order  is  conferred  only  on  Chris- 
tians who  have  done  si-rvice  to  the  State.  The  second 
person  on  whom  it  was  conferred  was  General  Seba.*- 
tiani,  for  his  defense  of  Constantinople  agiunst  the 
English  fleet  in  1.S07.  The  insurrection  of  the  Janis- 
Siiries  suspended  the  efforts  at  Europeani/.ing  which 
Selim  had  begun  ;  and  when  they  were  resumed  by 
Mahmud,  he  instituted  .several  other  decorations. 
There  was  an  old  Order  of  the  Crescent  instituted  at 
Algiers  by  Rene,  Duke  of  Anjou,  brother  and  heir  of 
Louis  III.,  King  of  Naples,  in  1464.  Its  objects  were 
those  common  to  the  religious  military  orders  of 
those  days :  the  honor  of  God,  the  defense  of  the 
Church,  the  encouragement  of  noble  actions,  and  the 
glory  of  the  founder.    The  Dukes  of  Anjou  and 


CBEST. 


431 


CSIHE. 


Helmet  and  crest 
of  Kut,'Ht-  lie  Ouinov, 
Earl  o£  Wiuohester. 


Kings  of  Sicily  were  sovereigns  of  the  order.  The 
badge  was  a  crescent  of  gold,  on  which  was  the 
word  Loz,  enameled  in  red  letters,  the  import  being 
Loz  (laus)  en  Croissant— Praise  by  Increasing.  Like 
many  other  orders  founded  by  the  smaller  sovereigns, 
the  Order  of  the  Crescent  did  "not  sur\ive  the  founder. 
See  Cadency. 

CREST. — 1.  In  fortification,  the  intersection  of  sur- 
faces making  a  salient  angle  with  the  plane  of  site. 
2.  Though  popularly  regjirded  as  the  most  important 
feature  in  heraldic  emblems,  the  crest,  in  the  eyes  of 
heralds,  is  an  external  adjunct  to  the  shield,  without 
which  the  bearing  is  complete,  and  which  may  con- 
sequently be  altered  without  materially  affecting  its 
signilicance.  Occupying  the  highest  ijlace  on  the 
helmet,  it  is  the  member  of  the  bearing  by  which  the 
knight  was  commonly  known  in  battle;  and  from 
this  circumstance  it  is  to  it  that  the  term  (oijiiisanct; 
(from  a/gnosco,  to  know)  is  properly  given.  Its  claim 
to  a  classical  origin  is  probably  better  than  that  of 
any  other  portion  of  coat-armor.  Jupiter  Amnion  is 
represented  as  haWng  borne  a  rams  head  on  his  hel- 
met, and  Mars  the  figure  of  a  lion  or  a  tiger.  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  on  the  pretense  that  he  was  sprung 
from  Jupiter,  assimied  the  nim^s 
head;  and  Julius  Ctesarbore  a  star, 
to  denote  that  he  was  descended 
from  Venus.  The  helmet,  as  we 
see  it  represented  on  ancient  statues 
and  gems,  was  frequently  adorned 
with  a  crest.  Sometimes  it  was  of 
horse-hair;  at  other  times  a  lion  or 
other  animal  was  placed  on  the 
helmet,  either  erect  or  couchant. 
Newton,  in  his  Dhphiy  of  Herald- 
ry, says  that  the  first  crest  to  be  met 
nith  in  the  monuments  of  English 
chivalry  is  that  on  the  great  seal  of  Richard  Civiir 
de  Lion.  The  helmets  in  this  inst.ince,  and  in  that  of 
Roger  de  Quincy,  Earl  of  Winchester,  differ  in  form 
from  those  afterwards  used,  the  crest  occupying  a 
much  larger  space.  Crests  are  said  to  have  come 
into  gentral  use  about  the  time  of  Henrj'  III.,  and  to 
have  been  used  as  marks  of  distinction  ijy  Command- 
ers in  the  Holy  Wars,  as  they  had  formerly  been  by 
the  Roman  Centurions.  For  lightness  they  were  often 
made  of  stuffed  leather,  which  was  gilt,  silvered  over, 
or  painted  —  a  circimistance  which  explains  their 
greater  size  then  than  in  later  times,  when  they  were 
made  either  of  wood  or  metal.  The  earliest  example 
of  the  wreath  on  which  the  crest  is  now  invariably 

f  laced  is  that  on  the  monument  of  Sir  John  Harsick. 
t  consisted  of  two  pieces  of  silk,  of  the  colors  of  the 
armorial  lx?arings  of  the  wearer,  twisted  together  by 
the  lady  who  had  chosen  him  for  her  knight.  Though 
crests  are  now  invariable  appendages  to  shields,  and 
many  of  them  are  appropriated  to  particular  families 
by  hereditary  descent,  they  are  believed  to  have  been 
originally  assumed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  wearers; 
and  thej'  are  even  now  less  strictly  under  the  cogni- 
zance of  the  heralds  than  the  devices  on  the  shield, 
which  must  always  be  assigned  by  competent  author- 
ity. Crests  are  so  various  that  a  classification  of 
them  is  scarcely  possible.  The  following  is  an  abridg- 
ment of  that  given  by  Newton,  who  has  written  very 
fully  on  the  subject.  The  most  ancient  class  of 
e.'ests  he  believes  to  have  consisted  of  ferocious  ani- 
mals, which  were  regarded  as  figuratively  represent- 
ing the  bearer  and  his  pursuits.  Secondly,  they  were 
device^  assumed  as  memorials  of  feats  of  chivalry, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  perpetuating  traditions  and 
family  legends,  either  in  addition  to  or  differing 
from  those  represented  on  the  shield.  Thirdly,  they 
served  only  to  give  a  more  prominent  place  to  objects 
already  represented  on  the  shield.  Fourthly,  tliey 
commemorate<i  religious  vows,  or  expressed  the  relig- 
ious or  knightly  aspirations  of  the  bearer.  Fifthly, 
they  were  mere  whims,  and  were  adopted  for  no  very 
definite  reason,  and  served  no  very  definite  purpose. 
As  many  of  them  belonged  to  persoas  not  on^-  uncon- 


nected by  family,  but  having  different  names,  they  no 
longer  served  the  purpose  of  distinction  when  sepa- 
rated from  the  shield.  To  this  latter  class  belong  the 
vast  majority  of  mo<lem  crests  lussimied  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  seal-engravers  and  coach-painters. 

CEESTED.— In  Heraldrj-,  when  a  cock  or  other 
bird  ha.s  its  comb  of  a  different  tincture  from  its  Inxly, 
it  is  said  to  be  crested  of  such  a  tincture,  naming  the 
tincture.     See  Heraldry. 

CRETE.— The  earth  thro^s-n  out  of  a  ditch  in  a  for- 
tification, trench,  etc.  The  most  elevated  part  of  a 
parapet  or  glacis. 

CRIB-BITING.— A  bad  habit  met  with  especially 
in  the  lighter  breeds  of  horses  and  those  spending  a 
considerable  amount  of  leisure  in  the  stable.  The 
act  consists  in  the  animal  seizing  with  his  teeth  the 
manger,  rack,  or  any  other  such  object,  and  taking 
in  at  the  same  time  a  deep  inspiration,  technically 
called  mnd-suckinrj.  Crib-biting  springs  often  fnmi 
idle  play,  may  be  first  indulged  in  during  gr(X)ming, 
especially  if  the  operation  is  conducted  "in  the  stall, 
and  the  animal  be  needlessly  teased  or  tickled  ;  is 
occasionally  learned,  apparently,  by  imitation  from  a 
neighbor  ;  and  in  the  first  instance  is  fre(iuently  a 
symptom  of  some  form  of  indigestion.  Its  indulgence 
may  be  suspected  where  the  outer  margins  of  the 
front  teeth  are  worn  and  nigged,  and  will  soon  be 
proved  by  turning  the  animal  loose  where  he  can  find 
suitable  objects  to  lay  hold  of.  It  usually  interferes 
with  thriving  and  condition,  and  leads  to  attacks  of 
indigestion.  It  can  be  prevented  only  by  the  use  of 
a  muzzle  or  throat-strap;  but  in  those  newly  acquired 
cases  resulting  from  gastric  derangement,  means  must 
further  be  taken  to  remove  the  acidity  or  other  such 
disorder.     See  Veleriiuiry  Art. 

CRIB-STRAP.— A  neckthrottler  for  crib-biting  and 
wind-sucking  horses. 

CRIME. — ^In  its  legal  as  opposed  to  its  moral  or 
ethical  sense  crime  is  an  act  done  in  eolation  of  those 
duties  for  the  breach  of  which  the  law  has  jirovided 
that  the  offender,  in  addition  to  repairing,  if  it  be 
possible,  the  injury  done  to  the  individual,  shall  make 
satisfaction  to  the  community.  A  private  wrong  or 
ci\-il  injury,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  infringement  on 
the  rights  of  an  individual  merely,  for  which  com- 
pensation to  him  is  held,  in  law,  to  be  a  complete 
atonement.  From  this  definition,  which  is  that  gen- 
erally adopted  by  lawyers,  it  is  obvious  that  legal 
criminality  is  not  a  permanent  characteristic  attach- 
ing to  an  action,  but  one  fixed  upon  it  arbitrarily, 
from  considerations  of  expediency.  Without  chang- 
ing its  moral  character,  the  sanie  action  may,  and 
verj'  often  is,  a  crime  in  one  country  or  in  one  gen- 
eration, and  no  crime  in  another  country  or  a  suc- 
ceeding generation.  Malice,  or  e\\\  intention,  how- 
ever, is  in  all  cases  essential  to  the  character  of  crime, 
for,  though  there  may  be  an  immoral  act  which  it  is 
inexpedient  to  punish  as  a  crime,  it  can  never  be  ex- 
pedient to  punish  as  a  crime  what  is  not  an  immoral 
act.  But  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  evil  intention 
shall  have  had  reference  to  the  party  injured.  If  the 
offender  acted  in  defiance  of  social  duty,  and  regard- 
less of  order,  a  crime  has  been  commitleil,  though  it 
may  not  have  been  the  particular  crime  which  he 
intended.  For  example,  it  is  murder  it  A  kill  B  by 
mistake  for  C,  unless  the  killing  of  C  would  have 
been  justifiable  or  excusable.  The  law  can  take  no 
cognizance  of  a  bare  intention  which  has  not  ripened 
into  any  sort  of  act.  How  far  attemptji  to  commit 
crime  are  punishable  is  always  a  question  of  tlitli- 
'  culty.  The  general  rule  seems  to  lie,  that  if  such 
acts  can  be  unequivocally  connected  with  the  crim- 
inal intention,  they  are  punishable,  though  not  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  completed  crime.  Pupils  under 
seven  years  of  age,  and  insane  persons,  as  being  in- 
capable of  design  or  intention,  are  regarded  in  the 
eye  of  the  law  as  incapable  of  crime;  but  questions 
as  to  the  responsibility  of  persons  hil)oring  under  par- 
!  tial  in.sanity  are  often  surrounded  with  praclicjil  difli- 
1  culties,  wliich  are  positively  insoluble.    The  defense 


CSIHFINO-H0USE8. 


432 


CBOUFIEKEB. 


of  compulsion,  or  n't  mnj"r,  as  it  is  called  by  lawj'ers, 
If  completely  cstablUhi'd  iu  fact,  is  generally  sulli- 
cient  iu  law."  The  subjection  of  a  servant  to  a  mas- 
ter, or  (if  a  wife  or  child  to  a  husband  or  parent,  will 
be  no  defensi'  for  the  commission  of  an  act  of  the 
criminality  t>f  which  the  offender  was  aware,  unless 
it  amount  to  compulsion.  Magistrates  acting  bona 
fide,  and  soliliers  acting  under  their  officers  in  the 
onlinary  line  of  duty,  are  not  liable  to  a  criminal 
cbarce."  Extreme  want  is  no  excuse  for  a  crime  in 
law, "though  it  furnishes  a  ground  for  an  application 
for  mercy. 

In  the"  tt>chnical  language  of  the  law  of  England, 
the  term  offdne  has  a  wider  signification  than  crime, 
the  latter  including  only  such  of  the  former  as  are 
punishable  by  indktment.  Crimes  are  divided  into 
mi»dtineanorg  and  felonks.  the  latter  being  a  higher 
species  of  offense  than  the  former.  For  the  specifi- 
cations of  crimes,  capital  and  military,  see  Articles  of 
W-ir. 

CRIMPING  HOUSES.  —  Houses  in  which  persons 
•were  entrnpped  into  the  army;  hence  the  name  of 
"Crimp  Seri.aant."  In  a  riot  in  London  some  of 
these  receptjtcles  were  destroyed  by  the  populace,  in 
consequence  of  a  young  man  who  had  been  enticed 
into  one  being  killed  in  endeavoring  to  escape,  Sep- 
tember Hi,  1794. 

CBINED. — A  tenn  in  Heraldry.  When  the  hair  of 
a  man  or  woman,  or  the  mane  of  a  horse,  differs  in 
tincture  from  the  rest  of  the  charge,  the  object  is  said 
to  be  ffiiieil.  of  such  a  metal  or  color.    See  Heraldry. 

CBINIERE.— Small  plates  of  armor  used  in  the 
Middle  Ages  to  defend  the  necks  of  war-hon-es.  Also 
written  Sfanifire.     Sometimes  written  Criiiet. 

CRIQUES. — Small  ditches  which  are  made  in  dif 
ferent  parts  of  a  ground  for  the  purpose  of  inunda- 
ting a  countrj-,  in  order  to  obstruct  the  approaches  of 
an  enemy. 

CBOATS. — In  military  history,  the  light,  irregular 
troops;  generally  people  of  Croatia.  They  were  or- 
dered upon  all  desperate  services,  and  their  method 
of  fighting  was  the  sjune  as  that  of  the  Pandours. 

CBOCHERT.— A  hagbut  or  hand-cannon  anciently 
in  use.     Now  obsolete. 

CROCUS. — A  polishing-powdcr  composed  of  pero.x- 
ide  of  iron.  It  is  prejiared  from  crystals  of  sulphate 
of  iron,  calcined  in  crucibles.  The  portion  at  the 
bottom,  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  greatest  heat, 
is  the  hardest,  is  purplish  in  color,  and  is  called  cro- 
cus. It  is  ased  for  polishing  bra.ss  or  steel.  The 
upper  portion  is  of  a  scarlet  color,  and  is  called  rouf/e. 
It  is  used  for  polishing  gold,  silver,  and  speculum 
metal.  Bomje,  the  cosmetic,  is  made  from  safflowcr, 
or  from  carmine,  which  is  a  preparation  of  cochineal. 

CROOK. — A  circular  tube  belonging  to  band-instru- 
ments, such  as  the  French  horn  or  trumpet,  which 
fits  into  the  end  of  the  instrument  next  the  moulh- 
pi'^cc,  for  tlie  purpose  of  making  the  pitch  of  the 
in.strument  suit  the  key  of  the  music;  the  notes  of  the 
parts  for  these  instruments  being  always  written  in 
the  natural  kev  of  C,  with  the  name  of  the  key  of  the 
piece  marked  in  letters. 

CROSS.— 1.  The  Order  of  the  Cross  was  originally 
a  spiritual  order  of  knighthood,  which  sprang  up  in 
Palestine  in  the  lime  of  the  Crusjides,  and  was  then 
called  the  BiOilihiwiti-  Order.  After  the  commence- 
ment of  the  thirleeiitli  century,  the  knights  of  this  Or- 
der adopted  the  monastic  life,  settling  chiefiy  in 
Austria,  Bohemia,  JloraWa,  Polan<l,  and  Silesia. 
Pope  Gregory  IX.  confirmeil  the  Order  in  1328.  Its 
principal  .seat  is  now  in  Boliemia,  and  its  members 
generally  hold  ecclesiastical  prefeniient.s  or  profes- 
sorships in  the  University  of  Prague.  They  are  dis- 
tinguLshed  by  a  cross  of  red  .satin,  with  a  si'x-jiointed 
star  under  it,  and  are  sometimes  called  SUUitri. 

2.  A  term  in  Ilemldrv.  If  we  a.ssume  the  art  of 
blazon  to  have  originated  in  connection  with  the  Cru 
Slides,  it  will  not  surprise  us  to  find  the  symljol  of  the 
Christian  faith  so  frequently  introduced  into  the 
escutcheons  of  ancient  and  noble  families  everywhere 


in  Europe.  It  is  one  of  the  honorable  ordinaries,  and 
indeed,  from  its  sacred  character,  is  esteemed  by 
heralds  as  the  most  honorable  charge.  Its  form  varies 
so  much  that  Mene.-itrier  counts  42  cros.ses;  LaColom- 
bicre,  72;  and  Guillim,  3U.  Most  of  the  architectural 
cro.sses  occur  in  Heraldry,  along  with  many  others. 
See  Victoriti  Cross. 

CROSS  BAR  SHOT.— A  shot  which  is  folded  into  a 
sphere  for  loading,  but  on  partinjj  from  the  muzzle 
is  exjianded  into  a  cross  with  sections  of  the  shot  at 
the  extremities  of  the  arms. 

CBOSSBELTS. — Belts  worn  over  both  shoulders 
and  crossing  the  breast,  usually  worn  by  Sergeant.s. 

CROSS- BOW.— An  ancient  weapon  of  "offense  of  the 
eleventh  century.  The  cro.s.s-bows  of  the  cavalry  were 
lighter  than  those  of  the  infantry,  and  the  string  was 
stretched  Ijy  means  of  a  simple  lever,  called  a  goat's- 
foot.  There  are  seven  different  sorts  of  this  wea- 
pon, viz.,  ihc  goaf'sfiM/t  cross-boir,  xlm  irindlasn  croiis- 
bow,  the  latch  cross-boir,  the  German  cross-boir,  the 
cn»s-bow  a  galet,  the  ramrod  cross  bote,  and  the 
Chinese  croim-binr.  The  wood  most  sought  after  in 
France  for  the  making  of  bows  was  the  yew;  and  in 
Charles  VII.  s  time  (1422-1463)  a  law  was  passed  for 
the  planting  of  yew-trees  in  all  the  Norman  church- 
yards, so  that  wood  might  never  fail  for  the  new 
weai)on,  which  was  then  in  great  favor.  The  bow 
was  used  until  the  introduction  of  fire-arms  and  guns; 
even  later  it  was  still  popular,  and  preferred  to  the 
cross-bow.  The  Scythians,  Cretans,  Parthiaas,  and 
Thracians  were  as  much  celebrated  in  ancient  times 
for  their  skill  in  the  handling  of  this  weapon  as  the 
English  archers  were  during  the  Christian  Middle 
Ages.     See  Archers. 

CROSS-BOW  A  GALET.— A  cross-bow  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  so  called  from  the  round  pebbles, 
leaden  bullets,  and  earthenware  balls  that  were  shot 
from  it  instead  of  bolts.  It  was  called  balestre  by  the 
Germans. 

CROSS  FIRE.— The  cros-sing  of  lines  of  fire  from  two 
or  more  [wiiuts  or  places.     See  J'Vre. 

CROSS-GUARD.— The  transverse  I)ar  that  forms  a 
cross  w  itli  the  blade  and  the  barrel  of  a  sword,  at 
their  ]ioint  of  junction. 

CROSS-LIFT.— To  cross-lift  a  piece  or  other  object 
is  to  cross  handspikes  under  it  from  opposite  sides; 
the  butt  end  of  the  handspike  is  on  the  ground,  and 
the  power  is  applied  b_r  lifting  at  the  other  end.  By 
cro.ss-lifiing,  the  piece  is  moved  in  a  direction  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  its  axis.   See  Mechanical  Maneuvers. 

CROTCHET.  1.  In  fortification,  an  indentation  in 
the  glacis  of  the  covered-way  at  a  point  where  a  tra- 
verse is  placed.  2.  The  arrangement  of  a  boily  of 
troops,  either  forward  or  reanvard,  so  as  to  form  a 
line  nearly  ijcrpendicular  to  the  general  line  of  bat- 
tle. 

CROUPER— CRUPPER.- A  strap  of  leather  which  is 
buckled  to  a  .saddle,  and,  passing  under  the  tail  of  a 
saddle-animal,  prevents  the  saddle  from  slipping  or 
being  thrown  forward  on  the  animal's  neck.  The, 
eroupcr  is  seldom  used  with  military  sadtUes,  but  it 
forms  a  most  iminirlanl  part  of  the  packing-gear.   The 


tendency  of  the  aparejo  to  work  forward  is  ovsrcome 
by  a  wide  c!-ouper  (the  dock-rest  being  of  soft  and 
round  leather  to  avoid  galling)  attached  to  its  outside 
and  iiassimr  b.iek  over  the  hips.  It  should  be  care- 
fully adjiistcii  and  always  kept  clean.  See  Packing. 
CROUPIEBES.— Armor  placed  on  the  buttocks  and 
haunches  of  war-horses  in  the  Jliddle  Ages,  to  protect 
them  against  the  arms  of  tlie  adversary. 


CBOWBAB. 


433 


CBVCIBLE-STEEL. 


CBOWBAR. — An  iron  bar  used  as  a  lever  to  move 
hea\y  weiglits  in  nieelianical  maneuvers,  drills,  etc. 

CBOWN. — xVs  the  emblem  of  sovereignty  in  modern 
Europe,  the  crown  was  l)orrowed  rather  from  the 
diadem  than  the  crowns  of  antiquity.  This  decora- 
tion was  originally  Oriental.  xVlexander  the  Great 
adopted  it  from  the  Kings  of  Persia;  and  Antony 
assumed  it  during  his  luxurioiLsintercours*'  with  Cleo- 
patra. According  to  some,  its  adoption  for  the  gods 
originated  in  the  tillct,  which  was  a.ssigned  to  Bacchus 
for  the  purpose  mentioned  as  that  which  led  to  the 
itse  of  the  con\nvial  crown.  In  modern  States, 
crowns  were  of  very  various  forms,  till  hendds  de- 
vised a  regular  series  of  them  to  mark  the  various 
gradations  of  sovereignty,  from  that  of  the  Emperor 
down  to  what  are  now  called  the  coronets  of  counts 
and  barons.  The  Pope  also  had  his  triple  crown. 
So  entirely  was  the  crown  regarded  as  the  .symbol  of 
sovereignty  that  the  word  came  often  to  be  used  as 
synonymous  with  the  Monarchy — a  sense  in  which  ' 
we  will  still  speak  of  the  Crown  of  England,  and  the 
domains  and  possessions  of  the  Crown. 

The  crowns  of  kings  and  emperors  are  closed 
above,  whilst  the  coronet  of  a  noble  is  merely  an 
open  circle  surrounding  the  heail;  hence  to  chue  the 
crown  has  been  the  ambition  of  princes  desirous  of 
shaking  off  the  authority  of  feudal  superiors  and  as- 
suming a  complete  soveieigntv. 

CROWNING  OF  THE  COVERED- WAY.— Having 
reached,  during  the  third  period  of  the  siege,  to  with- 
in some  si.\  yards  of  the  crest  of  the  covered-way  bor- 
dering the  ditches,  and  from  which  the  scarps  of  the 
works  to  be  breaclied  can  be  seen,  and  their  ditches 
commanded  and  enfiladed,  a  trench  is  pushed  forward 
from  each  of  the  direct  approaches  parallel  to  and 
within  tive  or  six  yards  of  the  crest.  As  this  trench 
nece&sarily  leads  towards  the  retired  parts,  it  will  be 
more  or  less  exposed  to  a  commanding  enfilading  fire 
from  points  nearly  in  its  line  of  direction,  and  to  a 
slant  and  more  or  less  reverse  fire,  from  each  of  which 
it  will  be  necessary  to  cover  it  by  ordinary  and  wing 
traverses;  besides  which  it  will  be  well  in  some  cases 
to  nm  out  to  the  rear  flanking  ends  of  trenches,  and 
■when  the  reentering  itself  is  deep  it  may  be  found 
necessarj'  to  connect  these  trenches,  making  a  con- 
tinuous line  or  secondary  parallel  within  the  salient 
points  gained.  This  trench,  when  Iwrdering  the  crest 
of  the  covered-way,  is  termed  the  croiniing  of  the 
mrered-iray ,  and,  as  has  l»en  shown,  it  may  be  effect-  j 
ed  either  uniler  an  open  ass;\ult  or  by  a  systematic  , 
approach  by  sap. 

When  the  crowning  of  the  covered-way  is  com-  \ 
pleted,  or  whilst  in  progress,  preparations  are  made  j 
for  constructing  batteries  to  open  breaches  in  the 
main  works,  and  for  counter  batteries  to  control  the 
fire  of  any  gims  which  the  besieged,  taking  advantage 
of  the  paralyzed  state  of  the  batteries  in  front  of  tlie 
first  and  second  parallels,  from  the  obstruction  offered 
b}'  the  approaches  in  advance  of  the  third  parallel, 
and  even  by  the  pandlel  itself,  may  now  put  in  posi- 
tion. The  positions  given  to  the  counter-batteries  are 
usually  such  as  to  fire  in  the  directions  of  the  ditches 
and  against  the  portions  of  the  main  work  by  which 
these  are  swept,  and  tho.se  of  the  breach-batteries  will 
be  as  nearly  opposite  as  practicable  to  the  points  where  j 
it  is  deemed  best  to  open  breaches.  The  counter-bat- 
teries are  thus  usuallj'  thrown  around  the  salients,  and 
the  breach-batteries  are  placed  further  in,  but  still 
near  the  counter-batteries,  as  the}'  are  less  exposed 
here  to  plunging  or  reverse  fire  than  if  placed  further 
in.  The  principal  point  to  be  observed  is  that  the 
breach  when  made  sliall  be  wide  enough  for  the  front 
of  the  a-ssaulting  colunm,  be  practicable  or  of  e^isy 
a-scent,  and  open  the  interior  of  the  work  throughout  , 
the  entire  width  of  the  breech.  The  wider  the  breach, 
of  course  the  better,  but  one  of  thirty  yards  width  is 
considered  a  formiclable  gap  for  the  besieged  to  at- 
tempt to  close,  with  troops  alone,  to  opjMse  an  as 
saulting  colunui.     See  )'iiege. 

CBOWN-WORK.— The  crown-work,  in  a  permanent 


fortfication,  consists  of  two  or  more  bastioned  fronts, 
with  their  outworks,  placed  in  front  of  some  portion 
of  the  enceinte,  to  give  it  additional  .strength.  It  is 
terminated  like  the  horn-work  by  two  wings,  which 
rest  either  upon  the  enceinte,  or  upon  two  demi-lunes. 
Its  covered-way,  like  that  of  the  horn-work,  forms  a 
continuous  communication  with  that  of  the  enceinte. 
Certain  arrangements  of  the  bastioned  lines  give  rise 
to  the  bridge-heads  known  as  hurn-irttrks  ancl  croirn- 
trorhx.  Let  a  point  be  taken  in  front  ot  the  bridge 
and  some  distance  from  it.  Through  this  point  let 
a  right  line  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  general 
direction  of  the  bridge.  On  this  line  thus  drawn  as 
an  exterior  side  let  a  bastioned  front  be  constructed, 
and  its  salients  be  joined  with  the  banks  of  the  river 
by  straight  lines,  which  are  so  directed  that  they  can 
be  swept  by  a  fire  from  the  opposite  bank.  The  re- 
sulting trace  is  known  as  a  horn-work.  It  is  plain 
that  this  work  will  only  be  used  when  the  main  ap- 
proach to  the  bridge  lies  in  the  prolongation  of  its 
length. 

If  through  a  point  assumed  in  front  of  the  bridge 
two  right  lines  were  drawn  making  an  angle  with  each 
other,  and  prolonged  until  they  reached  the  banks  of 
the  river,  and  on  these  two  lines,  as  exterior  sides, 
bastioned  fronts  were  constnicted,  the  resulting  trace 
would  he  that  of  a  crown-work.  It  is  plain  that  this 
trace  will  be  emploj-ed  when  the  approaches  to  the 
bridge  are  oblique  to  the  direction  of  the  bridge,  and 
that  the  enemy  would  use  one  as  quickly  as  the  other. 
If  there  are  several  approaches,  and  the  entire  front 
is  exposed  to  attack,  a  continued  bastioned  line  might 
be  used,  inclosing  the  space  in  front  of  the  bridge 
from  bank  to  bank.  In  this  case,  if  a  salient  occupies 
the  central  position,  the  line  is  known  as  a  crown- 
work.  In  the  latter  ca.se  it  is  called  a  compUjc  eroitn- 
irork,  to  distinguish  it  from  one  constructed  on  two 
sides  only,  which  is  called  »impU  crown-work.  See 
Uiirn  trnrk: 

CROW'S-FEET.— Obstacles  placed  en  the  ground 
over  which  cuvalry  may  be  expected  to  pass.  They 
are  formed  of  four  points  of  iron,  each  spike  abovlt 
two  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  so  arranged  that 
when  thrown  on  the  ground  one  of  the  points  will  be 
upwards.  Boards,  with  shaqi  nails  driven  through 
them,  may  supplv  the  place  of  crow's-feet.  The 
boards  arc  imbedded  in  the  groimd,  with  the  sharp 
points  projecting  a  little  above  it.  See  Acce*sory 
Meiiiiii  of  Defense  and  Caltliorp. 

CRTJC'lBLE-STEEL.— The  best  and  most  uniform 
quality  of  steel  can  only  be  obtained  by  fusion.  That 
obtained  by  cementation  is,  as  a  rule,  very  unequal 
in  quality;  and  uniformity  can  only  be  attained  by 
reix-ated  fagoting  and  welding,  steps  which  are  neces- 
sarily attended  with  a  loss  of  carbon  and  consequent 
reduction  of  hardness.  The  requisite  uniformity  of 
comjwsition  may,  however,  be  obtained  by  breaking 
up  the  crude  bars  pro- 
duced in  the  forge  or  ^otv.,,  g" 
by  cementation,  and  ex-  '1  \4(' 
posing  them  to  a  high  [J  f  i 
degree  of  heat  in  cnici 
bles  out  of  contact  witli 
tlie  air.  The  product, 
when  melted,  is  poured 
out  into  cast-iron  mold^ 
forming  ingots  of  er>i- 
cible-xlee! ,  which  are  ve- 
ry much  more  regular 
in  lx)th  composition  iuid 
texture  than  the  origi- 
nal material. 

Crucibles  of  very  re- 
,  fractory  fire-clay,  mix- 
ed with  plumbago,  varj-ing  in  capacity  from  thirty 
to  fifty  and  a  hundred  pounds,  or  more,  in  weight, 
are  charged  with  fragments  of  blister-  or  shear-steel, 
and  placed  in  furnaces.  The  furnaces,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing,  are  furnished  with  covers,  and  a 
^  chimney  which  increases  the  draught  of  air,  and  the 


CBUSASES. 


434 


CBUSHISG-FOECE. 


cruiililes  are  furuislicd  wiili  lids  of  c-liiy  to  exclude 
Ihf  air.  Till-  furiiacis  comaiiiiiig  Hit'  cnicibles  are 
tilk'il  wilb  fuel;  and  for  the  ix-rfect  fusion  of  tlie 
steel  tbe  most  intensi'  heat  is  kept  up  for  two  or  three 
hours.  Wheu  the  steel  is  thoroujrhly  iiielte<l  the  cru- 
cibles arc  removed  either  by  hand  of  machinery,  and 
their  contents  jioured.  in  the  liquid  slate,  into  ingol- 
molds  of  the  shajw  and  size  required.  When  the  cru- 
cibles are  emptied,  if  sound,  they  are  returned  to  the 
mixin^room  a.irain,  and  charged. 

Althoiijih  steel  may  be  cast  into  ingots,  it  is  too 
imperfi-cllv  tluid  to  be  cast  into  very  small  articles. 
The  ingot-s  of  steel  are  taken  to  the  forge  or  rolling- 
mill,  and  prepared  by  hammering  or  rolling  into 
shape  in  the  same  manner  as  other  sleel,  but  with 
less  heat  and  with  more  precaution.  The  great  secret 
of  the  manufacture  is  in  tlie  selection  and  mixture 
of  irons,  and  in  the  pouring  of  sound  ingots.  Large 
Citstings  arc  made  by  cmptj-ing  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  large  crucibles  into  an  immense  l;ulle  placed 
over  the  mold;  the  ladle  is  then  t.pped  from  the 
bottom.  Great  skill  in  melting  and  pouring  the 
metjil,  and  particularly  in  heating  and  forging  such 
great  masses,  without  burning  them  on  the  outside 
or  failing  to  condense  them  to  the  core,  is  of  ob\'ioas 
importance.  Steel,  like  iron,  is  improved  by  ham- 
mering and  rolling;  consequently  when  a  large  cast- 
steel  block  is  required  of  great  tenacity  for  a  par- 
ticular purpose,  the  metal  is  not  run  into  a  mold  of 
the  sha|)e  and  size  of  the  required  tinisheii  dimen- 
sions, but  it  is  east  into  a  short,  thick  ingot,  and  then 
hammered  and  drawn  to  the  required  tinished  dimen- 
sions, or  it  is  rolled  to  the  required  shape  between  the 
rollers. 

The  drawing  down  of  a  heavy  ingot  requires,  first 
a  uniform  heat  throughout  the  ma.ss;  and,  to  soften 
the  center  of  such  a  casting  without  burning  the 
outside,  a  moderate  and  steady  temperature  main- 
tained for  several  days;  secondly,  the  effect  of  the 
hammer  must  be  felt  at  the  center  of  the  mass,  in- 
stead of  being  confined  to  the  outside.  A  light  blow 
would  be  absorbed  in  changing  the  figure  of  the 
surface-metal,  and  in  breaking  and  distorting  the 
grain,  while  a  great  weight  falling  from  a  mode- 
rate height  would  be  resisted  by  the  whole  mass  of 
the  forging,  and  thus  felt  at  its  center.  See  CaM- 
steel  and  Sttd. 

CBUSADE8.— The  name  given  to  the  Religious 
Wars  carried  on  during  the  Middle  Ages  between 
the  Christian  Nations  of  the  West  and  the  Moham- 
medans. The  first  of  the.se  was  undertaken  simply  to 
vindicate  the  right  of  Christian  pilgrims  to  visit  the 
Holy  Sepulcher.  On  the  conquest  of  I'alestine,  how- 
ever, the  objeet  of  the  Crusades  changed,  or  at  least 
enlarged,  and  the  efforts  of  the  subsequent  Crusaders 
■were  directed  to  the  rescue  of  the  whole  land  from 
the  Saracens,  who  had  repossessed  themselves  of  it. 
From  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  the  Church,  it 
was  considered  a  pious  act  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  Holy  Sepulcher,  imd  to  visit  the  various  spots 
which  the  Saviour  had  consecrated  by  his  presence. 
When  Palestine  Wiis  conquered  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
seventh  century,  that  fierce  but  generous  people  re- 
spected the  religious  sjiirit  of  the  pilgrims,  and 
allowed  them  to  build  a  church  and  hospital  in  Jeru- 
salem. Under  the  Fatimides  of  Kgvpt,  who  con- 
quered SjTia  about  980  .\.d.,  the  position  l)Oth  of  the 
native  Christian  residents  and  of  the  pilgrims  lie- 
came  less  favorable;  but  the  subjugation  of  the  coun- 
trj-,  in  1065,  by  brutal  honles  of  Seljuk  Turks  from 
the  Caucasus  rendered  it  intolerable.  These  barba- 
rians, but  i^cently  converted  to  Mohammedanism, 
were  nearly  as  ignorant  of  the  Koran  as  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. They  hardly  knew  their  fellow-religionists, 
and  are  said  to  have  WTeaked  their  vengeance  on  the 
Mussulmans  of  Syria,  as  well  sus  on  the  Christians. 
The  news  of  their  atrocities  iiroduecd  a  deep  sensation 
over  the  whole  of  Christendom.  The  first  to  take 
alarm  were,  naturally  enough,  the  Bvzanlinc  Mou- 
archs.     In   1073,  the  Greek  Kmperor  "Manuel  VH., 


sent  to  supplicate  the  a.ssistance  of  the  great  Pope, 
Gregory  \\l.,  against  the  Turks,  accompanying  his 
jieiilion  with  many  expressionsof  ])rofound  respect  for 
His  Holiness  and  the  Latin  Church.  Gregory — who 
beheld  in  the  supiilicatioii  of  Manuel  a  grand  oppor- 
tuuily  for  realizing  the  Catholic  unity  of  Christendom 
— conlially  responded;  but  circiunstances  prevented 
him  from  ever  carrying  the  vast  designs  which  he 
entertained  into  execution,  and  the  idea  of  a  Crusade 
died  gradually  away.  It  was,  however,  revived  by 
his  successor.  Urban  II.,  an  able  and  humane  man, 
whose  sympathies  were  kindled  by  the  burning  zeal 
of  Peter  the  Hermit,  a  native  of  Amiens,  in  France, 
who  had  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  wit- 
nessed the  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the  Turks,  and 
was  now  traversing  Europe,  preaching  everywhere  to 
crowds  in  the  open  air,  and  producing  the  most  ex- 
traordinary enthusiasm  by  his  impassioned  descrip- 
tions of  how  Pilgrims  were  murdered,  robbed,  or 
beaten;  how  shrines  and  holy  places  were  desecrated; 
and  how  nothing  but  gieed  restrained  the  ruffian 
Turks  (who  made  the  Christians  pay  heavy  taxes  for 
their  Wsits  to  Jerasalem)  from  (le.s'trojing  the  Holy 
Sepulcher  and  extirpating  every  vestige  of  Christian- 
ity in  the  land.  As  soon  as  the  feelings  of  Europe 
had  been  sufficiently  heated.  Urban  openly  took  up 
the  question.  Two  Councils  were  held  in  1095.  At 
the  second,  held  at  Clermont,  in  France,  a  Crusade 
was  definitely  resolved  on.  The  Pope  himself  de- 
livered a  stirring  address  to  a  vast  multitude  of 
clerg3'  and  lajTiien,  and  as  he  proceeded  the  pent- 
up  emotions  of  the  crowd  burst  forth,  and  cries  of 
Veils  mill  (God  wills  it)  rose  simultiineously  from  the 
whole  audience.  These  words,  Deua  cull,  by  the  in- 
junction of  Urban,  were  made  the  war-cry  of  the 
enterprise,  and  everj'  one  that  embarked  in  it  wore, 
as  a  badge,  the  sign  of  the  cross;  hence  the  name 
Cnisdde. 

CRUSHER-GAUGE.— An  instrument  employed  for 
determining  the  pressure  of  the  powder  in  the  bore 
of  a  gun.  It  is  so  constructed  as  to  register  the  maxi- 
mum iiressure  of  the  powder-gas  at  the  particular 
point  in  the  bore  where  the  apparatus  is  placed.  As 
used  in  England,  it  consists  of  a  screw-plug  of  steel 
with  a  movable  base,  which  admits  a  copper  cylin. 
der;  one  enii  of  the  cylinder  rests  against 
an  anvil,  while  the  other  is  jircssed  by  a 
movable  piston,  kept  against  the  cylinder 
by  an  annular  spring ;  the  cylinder  is 
centered  in  the  chamber  by  a  small  watch- 
spring,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas  to 
the  chamber;  the  head  of  the  piston  and 
body  of  the  anvil  are  fluted;  four  small 
holes  communicate  with  the  main  vent 
through  the  upper  part  of  the  plug;  a 
gas-check  is  placed  against  the  lower  end 
of  the  piston.  The  action  of  the  gauge 
is  as  follows:  The  gas,  acting  on  the  piston,  crushes 
the  copper  cylinder  against  the  anvil;  the  amount 
of  compression  it  sustains  indicates  the  pressure. 
The  arta  of  the  copper  cylinder  for  8-inch  guns 
is  I'j  of  a  square  inch;  that  of  the  piston  being  J  of  a 
square  inch.  A  table  of  results  to  produce  definite 
amounts  of  pressure  by  the  testing-machine  affords 
a  means  of  comparison  of  the  results  produced 
in  the  gun  at  different  points  of  the  bore.  See  Pres- 
mirc-r/iDif//'. 

CRUSHING  FORCE.— The  samples  submitted  to  the 
test_of  conqiression  are  small  cylinders,  the  lengths  of 
which  are  generally  two  and  a" half  times  their  diam- 
eters. Bars  of  greater  length  than  tliese  diameters 
are  liable  to  bend  under  Uic  pre.s.sure  before  the  frac- 
ture occurs;  and  if  the  lengths  be  less  than  two  diam- 
eters, the  fracture  in  its  regular  form  may  not  be 
fullj'  develojx^d,  and  a  portion  of  the  sjimple  mav  be 
pulverized  or  reduced  to  small  grains.  The  ends  of 
each  sample  are  made  perfectly  jiarallel  and  iierjien- 
diculartotheaxis,  solhatall  par'isof  the samiile  will  be 
equally  pre.s,se(l.  The  dimensions  of  the  .sample  are  care- 
fully measured  before  placing  it.     The  depression  or 


CEU8T. 


435 


CEYPTOGRAPHT. 


permanent  set  at  every  5000  pounds,  for  insiance,  is 
then  carefully  noted.     Tbe  breaking-weight  is  record- 
ed, as  well  a-s  the  angle  of  fracture  of  the  specimen. 
The  strength  per  square  inch  will  be 
g  _  weight 
area 

See  Rndman  Tetting-mofhine. 

CRUST. — In  a  horse,  the  internal  part  of  his  foot 
which  covers  the  more  sensitive  parts,  and  to  which 
the  shoe  is  immediately  attached. 

CRYPTOGRAPHY.— ^.Secret  writing,  or  writing  to 
understanrl  which  the  recii)icnt  must  know  the  key. 
Such  modes  of  communication  have  been  in  use  from 
the  earliest  times.  The  Lacedsemonians,  according 
to  Plutarch,  had  a  method  which  has  been  called  the 
scytale,  from  the  staff  employed  in  constructing  and 
deciphering  the  message.  When  the  Spartan  Ephors 
wished  to  forward  their  orders  to  their  Commander 
abroad,  they  wound  slantwise  a  narrow  slip  of  parch- 
ment upon  the  staff  so  that  the  edges  met  close  toge- 
ther, and  the  message  was  then  added  in  such  a  waj' 
that  the  center  of  the  line  of  writing  was  on  the  edge 
of  parchment.  When  unwound,  the  scroll  consisted 
of  broken  letters;  and  in  thai  condition  it  was  dis- 
patched to  its  destination;  the  General  to  whose  hands 
it  came  deciphering  it  by  means  of  a  staff  exactly  cor- 
responding to  that  used  bj'  the  Ephors.  Polybius 
has  enumerated  other  methods  of  cryptography.  "  The 
art  wa.s  in  use  also  among  the  Romans.  L'pon  the 
revival  of  letters,  methods  of  secret  correspondence 
were  introduced  into  private  business,  diplomacy, 
plots,  etc. ;  and  as  the  study  of  this  art  has  always 
presented  attractions  to  the  ingenious,  a  curious  Iwdy 
of  literature  has  been  the  residt.  John  Trithemius, 
the  Abbot  of  Spanheim.  was  the  tirst  imjiortant  writer 
on  cryptography.  His  PiAigrnjiliui,  published  in  1-500, 
ha-s  pas.sed  through  many  editions,  and  has  supplied 
the  basis  upon  which  subsccjuent  writers  have  worketl. 
It  was  begun  at  the  desire  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria; 
but  Trithemius  did  not  at  tirst  intend  to  publish  it.  on 
the  ground  that  it  would  l)e  injurious  to  public  inter- 
ests. The  ne.\t  treatises  of  iniiiortance  were  those  of 
John  Baptist  Porta,  a  Neaiwlitan  mathematician,  who 
wrote  De  Furtirix  Literarum  Noti»,  1563  ;  and  of 
Blaise  de  Vigenere,  whose  Tiaitt^dett  Chiff res  appeared 
in  Paris  in  1587.  Lord  Verulam  proposed  an  ingen- 
ious .system  of  cryptography  on  the  |ilan  of  what  is 
called  the  double  cipher;  but  while  thus  lending  to 
the  art  the  influence  of  his  great  name,  he  gave  an  in- 
timation as  to  the  general  opinion  formed  of  it  and  as 
to  the  cla.sses  of  men  who  used  it ;  for  when  prosecut- 
ing the  Earl  of  Somerset  in  the  matter  of  the  poison- 
ing of  Overbury,  he  urged  it  as  an  aggravation  of  the 
crime  that  the  Earl  and  Overbury  "  had  ciphers  and 
jargons  for  the  King  and  Queen  and  all  the  great 
men — things  seldom  used  but  either  by  Princes  and 
their  Ambassadors  and  Ministers,  or  by  such  as  work 
or  practice  ag-ainst  or,  at  lea.st,  upon  Princes."  Other 
eminent  Englishmen  were  afterwards  connected  with 
the  art.  John  Wilkins,  subsequently  Bishop  of  Ches- 
ter, published  in  1641  an  anonjTnous  treatise  entitled 
Mercury,  nr  The  Secret  and  Swift  Me»ttenger,  a  small 
but  comprehensive  work  on  the  subject,  and  a  timely 
gift  to  the  diplomatists  and  leaders  of  the  Civil  War. 
The  deciphering  of  many  of  the  Koyalist  Papers  of 
that  period,  such  as  the  letters  that  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Parliament  at  the  battle  of  Na.seby,  has  by 
Henrj-  Stubbe  been  charged  on  the  celebrated  mathe- 
matician, \)r.  John  Wallis,  whose  connection  with 
the  subject  of  cipher- writing  is  referred  to  in  the  0.\- 
ford  edition  of  his  mathematical  works,  1689;  as  also 
by  John  Da\ys.  Dr.  Wallis  states  that  this  art.  for- 
merly sciirccly  known  to  any  but  the  Secretaries  of 
Princes,  etc. ,  had  grown  very  common  and  familiar 
during  the  civil  commotion,  "  so  that  now  there  is 
scarcely  a  person  of  quality  but  is  more  or  less  ac- 
quainted with  it,  and  doth,  as  thjere  is  occasion,  make 
use  of  it." 

Schemes  of  cryptography  are  endless  in  their  vari- 


ety. Bacon  lays  down  the  following  as  the  "  vir- 
tues" to  be  looked  for  in  them:  "that  they  be  not 
laborious  to  write  and  read;  that  they  be  imi)o.s.sible 
to  decipher;  and,  in  some  cases,  that  they  Ix;  without 
suspicion."  The  principles  are  more  or  less  disre- 
garded bj'  all  the  modes  that  have  been  advanced, 
mcluding  that  of  Bacon  himself,  which  has  been 
unduly  e.xtoUed  by  his  admirers  as  "  one  of  the  most 
ingenious  methods  of  writing  in  cipher,  and  the  most 
ditlictdt  to  lie  di'ciphered,  of  any  yet  contrived. "  The 
simplest  and  commonest  of  all  cijihers  is  that  in  which 
the  writer  selects  in  place  of  the  proixr  letters  certain 
other  letters  in  regular  advance.  This  method  of 
transposition  was  used  by  Julius  Csesar.  He,  "  per 
quartam  elementorum  literam,"  wrote  <?  fora,  e  for  J, 
and  so  on.  There  are  instances  of  this  arrangement  in 
the  Jewish  rabbis,  and  even  in  the  sacrwl  writers.  An 
illustration  of  it  occurs,  Jeremiah  .\xv.  26,  where  the 
Prophet,  to  conceal  the  meaning  of  his  jirediction 
from  all  but  the  initiated,  writes  Shuhaeh  instead  of 
Babel  (Babylon),  the  place  meant;  i.e.,  in  place  of 
using  the  .second  and  twelfth  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  (B,  ft,  T),  counting  from  the  l>egitming,  he 
wrote  the  second  and  twelfth  (/iA,AA,cA),coimting  from 
the  end.  Tothiskind  of  cipher- writing  iJuxtorf  gives 
the  niime  Athbash  (from  n,  the  tirst  letter  of  the  He- 
brew alphabet,  and  th,  the  la.st;  ft,  the  second  from  the 
beginning,  and  /(,  the  second  from  the  end).  Another 
Jewish  cabalism  of  like  nature  was  called  Albam;  of 
which  an  example  is  in  Isaiah  vii.  6,  where  Tabeal  is 
written  for  Remaliah.  In  its  adaptation  to  English 
this  method  of  transposition,  of  which  there  are  many 
modifications,  is  comparativelj'  easy  to  decipher.  A. 
rough  key  maj'  be  derived  from  an  examination  of 
the  respective  qviantities  of  letters  in  a  type-founder's 
bill  or  a  printer's  "  case."  The  decipherer's  first 
business  is  to  classify  the  letters  of  the  secret  message 
in  the  order  of  their  frequency.  The  letter  that  occurs 
oftencst  is  e;  and  the  next  in  order  of  frequency  is  t. 
The  following  groups  come  after  these,  separated 
from  each  other  by  degrees  of  decreasing  recurrence: 
(I,  0,  /(,  /,  /',  K,  h;  d,  I;  c,  it,  u,  m;  /,  >/,  g,  p.  b;  r,  k; 
J-,  g,  j,  z.  All  the  single  letters  must  be  </,  /,  or  0. 
Letters  occurring  together  are  ee,  oo,  ff,  II,  ««,  etc. 
The  commonest  words  of  two  letters  are  (roughly  ar- 
ranged in  the  ordeT  of  their  frequency)  of,  to,  in,  it, 
is,  be,  he,  by,  or,  as,  at,  an,  so,  etc.  The  commonest 
words  of  three  letters  are  the  and  and  (in  great  excess), 
for,  are,  but,  not,  etc. ;  and  of  four  letters,  that,  with, 
from,  hare,  this,  they,  etc.  Familiarity  with  the  com- 
position of  the  language  will  suggest  numerous  other 
points  of  value  to  the  decipherer. 

Bacon  remarks  that  though  ciphers  were  commonly 
in  letters  and  alphabets,  yet  they  might  be  in  words. 
Ujjon  this  basis  codes  have  been  constructed,  classi- 
lied  with  words  taken  from  dictionaries  being  made 
to  represent  complete  ideas.  In  recent  years  such 
codes  have  lieen  adapted  by  merchants  and  others  to 
communicjitions  by  telegraph,  and  have  served  th« 
purpose  not  only  o"f  keeping  liusiness  affairs  private, 
but  als')  of  reducing  the  excessive  cost  of  telegraphic 
messages  to  distant  markets.  Obviously  this  class  of 
ciphers  present  greater  difficulties  to  the  skill  of  the 
decipherer.  Figures  and  other  characters  have  been 
also  used  as  letters;  and  with  them  ranges  of  nume- 
rals have  been  combined  as  the  representatives  of  syl- 
lables, parts  of  words,  words  themselves,  and  com- 
jilete  phrases.  Under  this  head  must  be  placed  the 
dispatches  of  Giovanni  Michael,  the  Venetian  Amba.s- 
sador  to  England  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  do<u 
ments  which  have  only  of  late  years  l)een  deciphered. 
JIany  of  the  private  letters  and"  papers  from  the  jx-n 
of  Charles  I.  and  his  Queen,  who  were  adepts  in  the 
use  of  ciphers,  are  of  the  same  description.  One  of 
that  Monarch's  letters,  a  document  of  considerable  in- 
terest ,  consisting  entirely  of  numerals,  pur|>osely  com- 
plicated, was  in  1858  deciphered  by  Prof.  Wheatstone. 
the  inventor  of  the  ingenious  crypto-machine,  and 
printed  by  the  Philobiblon  Society. '  Shorthand  marks 
and  other  arbitrary  characters  have  also  been  largely 


CRYSTALLIZATION. 


436 


CUBICAL  FOWDEE. 


imported  into  crvptograpliic  systems  to  rpprcscnt  both 
letters  and  wonls— eominonly  the  latter.  This  iilan 
i.s  said  to  have  been  first  put  into  use  by  tlie  old 
Iloniun  poet  Euuius.  It  forms  the  basis  of  the 
metboil  of  Cicero's  frcwlmau,  Tiro,  who  seems  to 
have  syslemalized  the  labors  of  his  predecessors. 
A  large  quantity  of  these  characters  have  Ix.-en  ea- 
gravt-d  in  Gruter's  Iii»Tiptioiiei>.  A  corres|>ondence 
of  Charlemagne  was  in  part  made  upon  marks  of  this 
nature. 

A  favorite  system  of  Charles  I.,  useil  by  him  during 
the  year  1646,  wivs  made  up  of  an  ali>hal)et  of  twenty 
four  letters,  which  were  represented  by  four  simple 
strokes  varied  in  length,  slope,  and  position.  This 
alphabet  is  engraved  in  Clive's  Li/war  SysUiii  tfS/wrt- 
hitnd,  1830,  having  been  found  amongst  the  Koyal 
mauascripts  in  the  British  Museum.  An  interest  at- 
tiiched  to  this  cipher  from  the  fact  that  it  was  em- 
ployed in  the  well-known  letter  addressed  by  the 
kiiig  to  the  Earl  of  Glamorgan,  in  which  the  former 
made  concessions  to  the  Koman  Catholics  of  Ireland. 

Complications  have  been  introduced  into  ciphers 
by  the  employment  of  "  dummy"  letters — "  nulls  and 
irisignificants,"  as  Bacon  terms  them.  Other  devices 
have  been  introduced  to  periilex  the  decipherer,  such 
as  spelling  words  backwards,  making  false  divisions 
between  words,  etc.  The  greatest  security  against 
the  decipherer  hius  Ix-en  found  in  the  use  of  elaborate 
tables  of  letters  arranged  in  the  form  of  the  multipli- 
cation-table, the  me.ssage  being  Constructed  Iiy  the  aid 
of  preconcerted  key-words.  In  a  letter  dated  30th 
February,  16.'59-60,  Ilvde,  alluding  to  the  skill  of  his 
political  opponents  in  deciphering,  says  that  "  nobody 
needs  to  fear  them  if  they  write  ctircfully  in  good 
cii)hers."  In  his  next  he  allays  his  correspondent's 
apprehensions  as  to  the  deciphering  of  their  letter:  "  I 
confess  to  you,  as  I  am  sure  no  copy  coidd  be  gotten 
of  any  of  my  ciphers  from  hence,  so  I  did  not  think 
it  probable  that  they  could  be  got  on  your  side  of  the 
water.  But  I  was  as  confident,  till  you  tell  me  you 
believe  it,  that  the  devil  himself  cannot  decipher  a 
letter  that  is  well  written,  or  tind  that  100  stands  for 
Sit  H.  Vane.  I  have  heard  of  many  of  the  pretend- 
ers to  that  skill,  and  have  spoken  with  some  of  them, 
but  have  found  them  all  to  be  mountebanks;  nor  dicl 
I  ever  hear  that  more  of  the  King's  letters  that  were 
found  at  Naseby,  than  those  which  they  found  deci- 
phered, or  found  the  ciphers  in  which  they  were  writ 
were  deciphered.  And  1  very  well  reraeiiiber  that  in 
the  volume  they  published  there  was  much  left  in 
cipher  wliich  could  not  be  understood,  and  which  I 
believe  they  would  have  explained  if  it  had  been  in 
their  power."  An  excellent  moditieation  of  the  key- 
word principle  was  constructed  by  the  late  Admirid 
Sir  Francis  Beaufort;  it  has  been  recently  published 
in  view  of  its  adaptation  to  telegrams  and"  post-cards. 
Ciphers  liave  been  constructed  on  the  principle  of  al- 
tering the  places  of  the  letters  without  changing  their 
powers.  The  message  is  lirst  written  Chinese-wise 
upward  and  downward,  and  the  letters  are  then  com- 
bined in  given  rows  from  left  to  right.  In  the  cele- 
brated ci|)hcr  used  by  the  Earl  of  Argyle  when  plot- 
ting against  .lames  II.,  he  altered  the  position  of  the 
■words.  Sentences  of  an  indifferent  nature  were  con- 
structed, but  the  real  meaning  of  llie  messjiife  was  to 
be  gathered  from  words  placed  at  certain  intervals. 
This  method,  which  is  connected  with  the  name  of 
Cardan,  is  sometimes  called  the  trellis  or  card-board 
cipher.  The  wheel-cipher,  which  is  an  Italian  inven- 
tion, the  string-cipher,  the  circle-cipher,  and  many 
others,  are  fully  explained,  with  the  nece.ssjiry  dia- 
grams, in  the  authnrilies  named  above — more  particu- 
larly bv  Kluber  in  bis  Kri/iiUirjraphik. 

CKY8TALLIZATI0N.  —  Of  the  various  circum- 
stances which  affect  the  strength  of  cannon-melal, 
the  most  important  appear  to  be  those  which  connect 
themselves  with  ci^-slallizalion.  It  is  a  law  of  the 
molecular  aggregation  of  crystalline  solids,  that  when 
their  particles  consolidate  undir  the  intiuenee  of  heat 
in  motion,  their  crj'stals  arrange  and  group  them- 


selves with  their  principal  axes  in  lines  perpendicular 
to  the  cooling  or  healing  surfaces  of  the  solid;  that  is, 
in  the  lines  of  direction  of  the  heat-wave  in  motion, 
which  is  the  direction  of  least  pressure  within  the 
mass;  and  this  is  true,  whether  in  the  case  of  heat 
passing  from  a  previously  fused  .solid  in  the  act  of 
cooling  and  crystallizing  on  consolidation,  or  of  a 
solid  not  having  a  crystalline  structure,  but  capable 
of  assmning  one  upon  its  temi>eralure  being  suffi- 
ciently raised  by  heat  ajiplied  to  its  external  surfaces, 
and  so  pa.ssing  into  it. 

The  metals  used  in  gun-consti-uction  are  crystal- 
lizing bodies,  which  in  consolidating  obey  more  or 
less  perfectly,  according  to  their  conditions,  this  law; 
so  that  in  castings  of  llie.se  metals  the  planes  of  crj's- 
tallization  group  themselves  perpendicularly  to  the  sur- 
faces of  external  contour;  that  is,  in  the  directions 
in  which  the  heat  of  the  tluid  metal  has  jias-sed  out- 
wards from  the  body  in  cooling  and  .solidifying.  Be- 
cause the  crystals  of  these  metals  are  alwajs  small 
and  are  never  very  well  pronounced,  these  directions 
are  seldom  very  apparent  to  the  eye,  but  they  are  not 
the  less  reid.     Their  development  (.lepends  upon — 

First — The  character  of  the  metal  it.self ;  all  irons 
that  present  a  coarse,  large-grained,  dark,  or  spangled 
fracture  contain  a  large  proportion  of  uncorabined 
carbon  or  graphite,  and  form  in  castings  of  equal  size 
the  largest  crj'stals. 

Second — The  size  or  mass  of  the  castings;  the  larg- 
est castings  presenting  for  anj'  given  variety  of  metal 
the  largest  and  coarsest  aggregation  of  crystals,  but 
by  no  means  the  most  regular  arrangement  of  them, 
which  depends  chietty  upon — 

Third— The  rate  at  which  the  mass  of  the  casting 
has  cooled,  and  the  regularity  with  which  heal  has 
been  carried  off  by  conduction  from  its  surfaces  to 
that  of  the  mold  adjacent  to  them. 

Those  castings  in  which  the  fluid  iron  is  poured 
into  a  nearly  cold  aud  very  thick  mold  of  cast-iron, 
whose  high  conducting  power  rapidly  carries  off  the 
heat,  present  the  most  complete  aud  perfect  develop- 
ment of  the  crystiiUine  structure  perpendicular  to  the 
chilled  surfaces  of  the  casting.  In  such,  crystals  are 
often  found  penetrating  more  than  an  inch  into  the 
substance  of  the  metal,  clear  aud  well  defined.  These 
prevailing  directions  of  crystalline  arrangement  may 
be  made  more  clear  to  the  eye  by  the  accompanying 
drawings,  which  show  sections  of  a  round  and  a 
square  bar  of  cast-iron  where  the  crystallization  is 
well  developed.     In  the  round  bar  the  crystals  all 


radiate  from  the  center;  in  the  square  bar  they  are 
arranged  perpendicularly  to  the  four  sides,  and  lience 
have  four  lines  in  the  diagonals  of  the  square — in 
which  the  (enninal  planes  of  the  crystals  abut  or  in- 
terlock, and  alioul  which  the  crystallization  is  always 
confused  ami  iiTcgular.  The  result  of  this  arrange- 
ment is  to  create  planen  of  weaknesa  where  the  differ- 
ent systems  of  crystals  intersect. 

The  size  and  arrangement  of  the  crystals  of  a  metal 
have  an  imiiortant  intiuenee  on  its  ".strength.  This 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  adhesion  of  the  crystals 
by  the  conlaci  of  Iheir  faces  is  less  than  the  cohesion/ 
of  the  particles  of  the  crystals  themselves,  and  that 
consequently  rupture  takes  place  along  the  larger  or 
principal  crystalline  faces.     See  Ciintim/i  Oiins. 

CUBICAL  POWDER.— This  powder  is  of  a  regular 
cubical  grain.  Ijcim;  fdrnied  by  cutting  the  press- 
cake  in  two  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other  by 


CUBIC  EQUATIONS. 


43^ 


CUNETTE. 


means  of  saws.     A  sample  was  tested  in  1876  with  the 
following  results: 


"^ 

OJi 

^ 

t 

Na-htre  or 
Gun. 

Kind  of 

Powder. 

J5  -J 

i 



— 

r^ 

^1 

It 
> 

b 

iM 

Ww 

Feff.    Lb». 

8-inch  rifle. 

Cubical, 

D  = 

1.T65. 

G  = 

5«. 

35 

1711 

1.446  46,50n 

»-incli  rifle 

Cubical, 

U  = 

1.765. 

<i  = 

5«. 

4U 

:!;» 

1,43BOM,T50 

A.S  tested  in  the  11-inch  rifle,  this  powder  proved 
"  high,"  a  pre.s,sure  of  28,000  pounds  resulting  with  a 
charge  of  only  .50  pounds.  Each  grain  of  this  ])ow- 
der  is  about  ,75  inch  in  size,  and  the  granulation  is 
about  72  to  the  pound.     Sec  Oitnpoirdir. 

CUBIC  EQUATIONS.— A  cubic  c(|Ualion  containing 
but  ouc  unliuowu  quantity  is  one  iu  which  the  high- 
est exponent  of  the  quantity  in  any  tenn  i.s  3.  Every 
such  equation  can  be  reduced  to  the  general  form 
r'-\- px-\-q  =  0,  in  which  the  coetiicicnt  of  j-' is  1, 
and  that  of  ?'  is  zero.  Every  cubic  equation  of  this 
form  has  three  roots,  all  of  which  may  be  real,  or  one 
only  may  be  real  and  the  other  two  imaginary.  The 
roots  will  all  be  real  when  p  is  essentially  negative 

and  ^>  ^  numerically.     One  root  only  will  be  real 

when  p  is  essentially  positive,  or  when  it  is  negative 


and  |-«<j  numerically. 


and 


pi 


\i  pis  essentially  negative 
two  of  the  roots  are  equal.     When  one 


-?! 
27       4' 

of  the  roots  only  is  real,  the  equation  may  be  solved 
by  the  following  formula,  known  as  Cardan's  for- 
mula: 


x=Y- 


:+.(M)^./q^'+g). 


2       ^\^     '  27 

When  the  roots  are  all  real,  this  formula  fails  to 
give  their  values.  The  solving  of  cubic  equations  is 
of  frequent  necessity  in  the  investigation  of  the  i)rob- 
Icms  of  gunnerj*. 

CUBIT.— A  measure  employed  by  the  ancients, 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  armfroni  the  ellx)w  to  the 
tip  of  the  middle  finger.  The  cubit  of  the  Romans 
was  about  175  inches^  and  that  of  the  Hebrews  22 
inches,  but  its  length  is  now  generally  stated  at  18 
English  inches. 

CUGNOT  SYSTEM  OF  FOETIFICATION.— A  sy.stem 
having  a  circular  tracing  and  dispensing  with  out 
works.  The  revetment  of  the  escarp  contains  a 
loop-holed  gallery,  with  machicoulis  for 
the  defense  of  the  ditch  and  the  counter- 
scarp.    Sec  Fortification. 

CUIBASS. — The  cuirass,  as  its  name 
implies,  was  originally  a  jerkin,  or  gar- 
ment of  leather  for  soldiers,  so  thick  and 
strong  as  to  be  pistol-proof,  and  even 
musket-proof.  The  name  was  afterwards  applied  to 
a  portion  of  armor  made  of  metal,  consisting  of  a 
back-plate  and  breast-plate  hooked  or  buckled  to- 
gether: with  a  piece  jointed  t(j  the  back  called  aeulet 
or  gorde  de  reines.  The  French  cuirass,  represented 
in  the  drawing,  is  composed  of  a  breast-plate,  a, 
and  a  back-i)late,  b,  joined  to- 
gether by  straps.  The  thick- 
ness and  form  of  the  bre;ust- 
l)late  are  such  as  to  ward  off 
small-arm  projectiles  beyond  a 
distance  of  forty  yards;  this 
distance  is  a.ssumed  imder  the 
supposition  that  within  it  the 
infantry  soldier  will  he  too 
busily  eniTJiged  preparing  to 
defend  liimsclf  against  the  cav- 
alni-  soldier,  with  his  bayonet, 
to  tire  his  piece.  The  back- 
piece  is  only  made  of  sufficient  tliickness  to  resist  the 
stroke  of  a  sword;  it  is  presumed  this  will  induce  the 


wearer  to  present  his  front  rather  than  his  l)ack,  when 
he  arrives  within  a  short  distance  of  his  enemv.  The 
middle  of  the  breast-plate  is  formed  into  a  ridge,  and 
the  sides  slope  off  to  deflect  projectiles  coming  from 
the  front.  The  thickness  at  the  ridge  is  .23  inch; 
from  this  it  tapers  to  the  edges,  where  it  is  .078 
inch.  The  back-piece  is  .047  inch  thick  through- 
out^and  the  weight  of  the  entire  cuirass  is  about 
16.75  lbs.  The  edges  are  turned  up  to  prevent  the 
point  of  a  sword  from  slipping  off  against  the  Ixxly. 
The  cuirass  and  helmet  worn  Ijy  the  leading  sjipper 
in  digging  a  siege-trench  are  "thick  enough  in  all 
their  i)arts  to  resist  a  bullet  at  the  distance  of  40 
yards.     See  Armor. 

CUIRASSIERS.— Heavy  horsemen,  in  the  time  of 
(^uccn  Mary,  wearing  body-armor  over  bulT  coats. 
1  luy  carried  swords  and  pistols,  and  the  reins  were 
strengthened  with  iron  chains.  In  modern  armies 
the  name  is  often  given  to  the  hea\'icst  cavalry.  Na- 
poleon's twelve  regiments  of  cuira.ssicrs  attracted 
much  attention  during  his  wars.  The  tirst  rank  of 
Kus.sian  cuirassiers  are  armed  with  lances.  The  only 
cvnra.ssiers  in  the  British  army  (wearing  the  cuira.s.s) 
are  the  Life-guards  (red)  and  llorse-guards  (blue);  and 
in  these  the  cuirass  is  now  regarded  rather  as  a  mat- 
ter of  show  than  of  use.     See  Ciiiram. 

CUISSABT. — Among  ancient  armor,  cuis-sarts  were 
worn  by  troopers.  They  consisted  of  small  strips  of 
iron  plate  laid  horizontally  over  each  other  round  the 
thigh,  and  riveted  together.  Also  written  Cuish,  Cuts- 
mrd,  Cuisse,  and  Cuitisot. 

CUL-DE-SAC. — A  street  or  alley  with  an  opening  at 
only  one  end  easy  therefore  of  entrance,  but  not  for 
exit;  thence  any  verj'  close,  confined,  uncomfortable 
place.  The  expression  is  applied  to  a  position  in 
which  an  army  tinds  itself  with  no  way  of  exit  except 
to  the  front. 

CULLEN  BIFLE. —  A  magazine-gun  carrying  a 
great  number  of  cartridges,  as  many  as  40  or  50.  'This 
arm  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  the  United 
States,  but  has  not  met  with  any  coasiderable  success. 
See  Maflcizine-gun.  * 

CULOT. — An  iron  cup  inserted  in  the  conical  open- 
ing of  the  Minie  and  other  early  projectiles.  "This 
culot,  moving  before  the  inertia  of  the  lead  is  over- 
come, forces  the  ball  into  the  grooves.  It  has  since 
been  discovered  that  the  ball  is  forced  as  well  without 
as  with  the  culot,  and  it  has  accordingly  been  sup- 
pres.sed. 

CULVEEIN. — The  introduction  of  cast-iron  projec- 
tiles, which  are  much  stronger  and  denser  than  tho.se 
of  stone,  led  to  the  invention  of  a  new  species  of  can- 


^ASo^\^^^Sa   |j||  oi-^l 


Culverin— "Queen  Anne's  Pock<-t -piece. " 

non  called  ctdvcrins,  which  vcrv  nearly  correspond  in 
construction  and  ap])eiirancc  to  the  guns  of  the  prcs- 
ent  day.  The  great  strength  of  the.se  pieces  and  their 
projectiles  permitted  the  use  of  a  large  charge  of 
powder;  and  their  introduction  proved  an  important 
step  in  the  improvement  of  artilleiy.  The  idea 
was  entertained  by  ancient  artillerists — foimded  on 
the  relation  which  cannon  were  erroneouslj-  sup- 
posed to  bear  to  small-arms— that  the  range  in- 
creased with  the  length  of  the  piece;  and  in  conse- 
quence many  culverins  were  made  of  enonnous 
length.  A  remarkable  piece  of  this  description  still  ex- 
ists at  Dover,  England,  familiarly  known  as  "  Queen 
Anne's  iiocket-piece. "  While  it  carries  a  liall  weigh- 
ing only  18  pounds,  it  is  more  th,an  25  feet  long,  bee 
Cdnrirm. 

CUNETTE.— In  fortification,  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  when  drj',  usually  receives  a  slight  slope  from 
the  foot  of  the  scarp  and  countersrarp  to  its  center, 
where  a  small  drain,  termed  a  cunelte.  is  dug  to  re- 
ceive the  surface-water  and  keep  the  ditch  drj-.     In 


CUPOLA. 


438 


CUPOLA-FUBNACE. 


some  cases,  from  motives  of  economy,  the  difference 

of  level  l)etween  the  cunelte  iinil  llie  foot  of  the  conn- 

terscan>-«'i'll  '*  iiuriiuiitl,  thus  givins:  a  less  heiftbt  of 

wall.     This  pnutice,  however,  can  only  be  followed 

where  the  foundations  of   the 

wall  will  lie  secure,   from  the 

soil  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 

Ix'ing  of  such  a  natuiv  as  not  to 

jield   from  the  effects  of  the 

weiither  upon  it.     Also  written 

CiirttU.     See  I}itc/i. 

CUPOLA. — A  revohing  shot- 
proof  turret,  formed  of  strong 
tiuilH'rs,  luid  cjused  with  mas- 
.sive  iron  plates  of  Vi  and  14  in- 
ches thick.  In  some  .systems 
of  cupohus  the  tower  is  erected 
on  a  ba.<i'  which  is  made  to  turn 
on  its  center  by  means  of  steam- 
power.  Within  the  turret  heavj- 
ordnance  is  placed,  and  tired 
through  openings  made  in  the 
sides. — The  term  cupola  is  also 
applie«l  to  a  blast-furnace  in 
which  iron  is  melted.  See  Cit- 
polii-furiiact. 

CUPOLA  FURNACE.— Many 
costly  experiments  have  been 
triMl  of  late  years  in  order  to 
determine,  along  with  other  re- 
lated questions,  the  best  form 
of  blast-furnace  in  which  iron 
is  smelteil.  Which  is  the  most 
serxnceable  fonn  is  as  yet  a  very- 
much  disputed  point;  but,  ac- 
cording to  the  published  ac- 
counts, furnaces  of  the  unusual 
height  of  80  to  100  feet  give,  as 
a  rule,  the  best  results.  To  this 
end  it  is  indisj)en.sable  that  the 
following  conditions  are  ful- 
Sllcd  :  1.  Kapid  melting,  that 
tile  iron  may  be  gotten  under 
the  slag  as  soon  as  possible,  to 
prevent  e.v])osure  to  the  blast, 
which,  at  tlie  high  temperature 
in  the  cupola,  rapidly  decar- 
bonizes the  iron.  2.  t'niform 
combustion  in  the  melting  part 
of  the  eui>ola.  It  is  evident  that 
iron  melted  at  different  tempera- 
tures will  vary  both  in  quality 
and  in  temperature,  and  castings 
poured  from  such  iron  will  not 
be  uniform  in  quality  or  shrink- 
age. 3.  Such  an  arrangement 
of  the  cuiwla  and  method  of 
intHMlucing  the  blast  as  will 
maintain  the  tluidily  of  all  the 
slag  in  the  cupola,  so  that  it  may 
be  drawn  off  when  necessary. 
It  is  apparent  that  when  tlieslag 
has  chilled  around  and  above 
the  tuyeres,  drawing  off  the 
melle(lslagl)<l()w  does  no  good 
whatever.  In  most  cupolas  the 
blu-st  is  intrtHluced  at  two  op- 
posite points ;  in  some  cases 
four  and  six  tuyeres  arc  used, 
but  in  the  sjune  plane.  In  very 
large  cupolas  from  .'iO(M1  to 
lO.tHJO  cubic  feet  of  air  |Kr  min- 
ute are  re(|uired.  This  large 
amount  of  air  introduced  at 
these  few  points  cannot  in- 
stantly Ix;  elevated  to  the  high  temperature  in  the 
cui«)la  (over  3(KK)  Fahrenheit),  consequeiuly  com- 
bustion is  arrested  at  the  entrance,  and  the  slag  is 
chilled  by  the  cold  air  around  the  mouth  of  the 
tuyere.     These  obstructions  are  constantly  increased 


by  the  melting  slag,  which  cools  as  it  falls,  and  ad- 
heres to  those  already  formed  as  soon  lus  struck  by  the 
lilast.  If  the  melting  is  continued  sufficiently  long, 
the  entire  opening  above  the  tuyeres  is  bridged  over. 


The  Tnicsdale  Cupola. 

melting  ceases,  and  the  bottom  mu.=t  be  dropped. 
The  combustion,  inuler  these  circumstances,  has 
necessjirily  Ix'cn  very  imperfect.  In  some  parts  (as 
alx)ve  the  chilled  sliig  at  the  mouth  of  the  tuyeres) 
the  fuel  has  scarcely  been  ignited,  while  in  "other 


CUEARI. 


439 


CURB  BRIDLE. 


parts  the  heat  has  been  so  intense  that  when  Ihe  cur- 
rent is  forced  by  the  accumulalcd  nittss  of  chilled  slag 
against  the  liniuLTof  the  cupola,  it  is  often  melted  out 
nearly  to  the  shell.  The  result  is  bad  iron,  great  loss 
in  castings,  a  low  percentage  of  effect  for  fuel  used, 
iind  a  biid  condition  of  cupola.  Another  style  of 
cupola  is  made  with  continuous  tujeres,  in  which 
the  blast  enters  all  around  Ihe  cupola  in  a  sheet.  It 
is  well  known  that  neither  water  nor  air  can  be  pro- 
jected in  this  way  to  any  considerable  distance.  To 
attempt  to  throw"  water  "from  a  Hat  nozzle  would  be 
simply  ridicidous.  In  cupolas  constructed  on  this 
plan  the  blast  has  but  little  power  to  penetrate  Ihe 
stock,  l)ut  turns  upward  near  its  entrance,  leaving  the 
stock  in  the  center  unsupplied  with  air.  On  this  ac- 
coimt  cupolas  using  sheet-blast  are  constructed  of  an 
oval  or  oblong  shape,  bringing  their  opposite  walls 
closer  together,  in  order  that  thus  the  blast  may  reach 
the  center.  It  is  well  known  tliat  cupolas,  willi  walls 
straight  or  nearly  straight,  are  nuicli  weaker  and 
more  dillicidt  to  keep  in  repair  than  the  cylindrical 
form,  and  require  sjiecial  arrangements  to  keep  the 
brick  in  place.  If  the  difficulties  encountered  in  the 
old-slyle  cupola  -were  obviated  by  this  plan,  these 
evils  might  be  borne  ;  but  they  are  not :  the  walls 
being  brought  nearer  together,  the  liability  of  biidg- 
ing  over  is  increased  without  any  compensjiting  bene- 
fit. The  majority  of  foimdrymen  who  bixw  tried 
this  construction  have  gone  back  to  the  old  style,  or 
have  lined  them  in  cylindrical  form  and  substituted 
the  round  tuyeres  for  the  sheet-blast. 

The  drawing  shows  the  Truesdale  cupola,  in  sec- 
tion. In  this  furnace  we  find — 1.  A  very  considera- 
ble contraction  of  the  lower  part  of  the  cupola,  or 
that  jiart  containing  the  tuyeres.  The  blast  is  thus 
introduced  nearer  tbe  center,  lessening  Ihe  distance 
necessaiy  to  force  the  air,  and  also  the  amoiuit  of 
fuel  required  to  make  the  bed.  The  boshes  or  in- 
clines i)artially  support  the  descending  stock,  render- 
ing it  more  oi)en  below  than  above,  and  on  this  ac- 
count the  blast  is  more  easily  diffused  through  the 
entire  mass.  2.  An  important  feature  is  a  largely 
increased  number  of  tuyeres,  distributed  over  a  much 
larger  surface.  By  this  arrangement  the  blast  is  ena- 
bled to  penetrate  and  diffuse  itself  through  every  part 
of  the  .stock,  and  at  the  same  time  is  so  subdi\-ided 
that  the  amount  entering  at  any  one  place  is  not  so 
great  as  to  arrest  combustion  or  chill  the  slag  before 
lieing  elevated  to  the  temperature  necessary  to  enter 
into  combu.stion.  A  further  advantage  is  that  the  cold 
air  entering  through  the  tuyeres  protects  a  certain  area 
of  surface  about  each  tuyere,  aud  when  placeil  suffi- 
ciently contiguous  to  each  other,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing, the  whole  interior  melting  surface  is  protected. 
3.  Another  important  feature  in  this  cupola  is  the  ar- 
rangement of  graduated  tuyeres,  each  tuyere  ha\ing 
the  orifice  admitting  the  blast  diminished  as  they 
a.scend  in  the  series.  By  this  means  the  gas  generated 
by  the  heat  evolved  in  combustion  at  the  lowest  se- 
ries of  tuyeres  (a  considerable  portion  of  wliicl!  in  its  j 
rai)id  a.scent  woukl  pass  out  of  the  cupola  uncon- 
sumcd)  is  met  by  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  and  util- 
ized. The  siime  operation  is  repealed  by  each  tuyere 
in  the  series  for  the  one  below  it.  The  saving  Ihus 
effected  amounts  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  entire  aruount 
of  fuel  burned.  An  examination  of  the  drawing  will 
give,  perhaps,  a  clear  idea  of  the  interiorof  this  cupola 
during  the  process  of  melting.  The  lower  tuyeres  in 
the  series  having  larger  openings,  and  consequently 
more  volume  and  strength,  Ihe  blast  penetrates  fur- 
ther into  the  stock  before  iiscending  than  the  blast 
from  the  next  series,  which,  being  somewhat  dimin- 
ished and  having  less  force,  a-scends  before  reaching 
as  far  inward  as  Ihe  blast  from  the  tuyere  below  it, 
and  so  on  through  the  entire  series,  Ihe  upper  set 
supplyinir  the  blast  nearest  the  circumference.  It 
will  readily  be  seen  that  this  arrangement  s<'cures  Ihe 
perfect  dis'tribution  and  diffusion  of  the  blast  through- 
out the  entire  cupola,  effecting  uniform,  rapid,  and 
perfect  combustion,  with  the  complete  consumption 


of  all  the  gases  generated,  without  chilling  the  slag, 
which,  in  a  fluid  stale,  floats  on  the  melted  iron,  pro- 
tecting it  from  decarbonizalion.  The  effects  are 
rapid  melting  and  shaq),  with  hot  iron  of  a  mnform- 
ly  good  quality  throughout  Ihe  entire  heal.  See  Foun- 
dry, Iron,  and  Markmzu-  (JupoUi-farna<-e. 

CUEAHI.— A  celebrated  poison"  used  by  some  trilies 
of  South  American  Indians  for  ix»i.soning  their  arrows. 
It  is  by  means  of  this  poison  that  the  small  arrows  shot 
from  the  blow-pipe  become  so  deadly.  The  nature 
and  source  of  this  poison  remained  long  unknown, 
the  Indians  being  very  unwilling  to  reveal  the  secret, 
which  seems,  however,  to  have  Ix'cn  at  last  obtained 
from  them  by  Sir  RolxTl  Schomburgk,  and  it  is  now 
regarded  as  pretty  certain  that  the  principal  ingredi- 
ent is  the  juice  of  the  Stryrhnoii  toxifera,  a  tree  or 
shrub  of  the  same  genus  with  that  which  yields  nux 
vomica.  It  lias  a  climbing  stem,  thickly  covered 
with  long  sijreading  reddish  hairs;  rough,  ovate, 
IKiintcd  leaves,  and  targe,  round  fruit.  The  poison, 
when  introduced  into  the  blood,  acts  on  the  nervous 
system,  and  produces  paralysis,  with  convulsive 
movements,  and  death  ensues.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  most  powerful  sedative  in  nature.  Artificial  res- 
piration is  the  most  efficacious  means  of  preventing 
its  effects.  It  has  been  proposed  to  employ  it  in  the 
cure  of  lockjaw  and  hydrophobia,  and  it  has  recently 
been  asserted,  as  the  residt  of  experiment,  that  it  can 
be  \evy  beneficially  employeil  in  the  former  disease. 
Like  snake  poison,  it  is  comparatively  inert  when 
taken  into  the  stomach.  Also  written "0"/Y(n,  B'oor- 
ali,  and  Wtx/rnra.     See  Arroie-jx/iaoiiK. 

CURB. — ].  A  strain  of  the  straight  ligament  which 
runs  down  the  back  of  the  hock  of  a  horse.  It  is 
most  common  in  animals  with  straight  small  hocks 
and  that  conformation  known  as  skkle-h(iiiii<;  whilst 
like  other  strains  it  occurs  from  sudden  and  violent 
exertion,  often  proceeding  in  llie  lighter  breeds  from 
leaping  or  galloping  in  heavy  ground,  and  in  Ihe 
heavier  from  Ihe  effort  of  keeping  back  a  load  whilst 
going  down  a  steep  incline.  Swelling  appears  on  Ihe 
inner  and  back  part  of  the  joint,  generally  causing 
lameness,  which  is  most  apparent  in  trotting,  and,  in 
slight  cases,  usually  wears  off  after  the  aiiimal  has 
been  out  for  ten  niinutes.  Fomentations  must  first 
be  used  to  allay  the  irritation  and  inflammation;  when 
heat  and  tenderness  disappear,  cold  applications  will 
be  advisable;  when,  after  ten  days,  Ihe  enlargement 
still  continues,  a  blister  is  generally  neces.sarj-;  whilst, 
from  the  first,  all  work  must  be  forbidden. 

2.  A  fimnel-shaped  iron  border  standing  out  from 
the  incorijorating  bed  of  a  gunpowder-mill  at  an  an- 
gle of  45  degrees,  and  3  feel  high,  serving  to  keep  the 
charge  in  the  bed,  and  all  extraneous  matter  out  of  it. 

CURB-BIT. — A  stiff  bit  having  branches  by  which  a 
leverage  is  obtained  upon  the  jaws  of  a  horse.  The 
lower  end  has  rings  or  loops  for  the  reins,  and  the 
u|iper  end  has  loops  for  Ihe  curb-chain  and  the  rhick- 
Ktriijin  of  the  head-stall.  The  curb-chain  has  usually 
twisted  links,  and  is  fast  by  one  end  to  Ihe  loo|)of  the 
o^  branch,  and  is  hooked  to  the  loop  of  the  nidr 
branch.  It  forms  the  fulcrum  for  the  leverage  of  the 
branches. 

CURB-BRIDLE.— A  bridle  used  in  the  military  ser- 
vice, and  having  a  curb.  To  put  on  the  curb-bridle, 
take  the  reins  in  the  right,  the  crown-piece  in  the  left 
hand,  approach  Ihe  horse  on  the  near  side,  passing 
the  right  h.and  along  his  neck;  slip  the  U'ins  over  his 
head,  and  let  them  rest  on  his  neck;  take  the  crown- 
piece  in  the  right  hand,  the  left  side  of  the  bar  of 
the  bit  resting  on  the  first  two  fingers  of  the  left  hand; 
bring  the  crownpiece  in  front  of  and  slightly  below 
its  proper  position,  insert  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand 
into  the  side  of  the  mouth  alxsve  the  tushes;  press 
open  the  lower  jaw;  insert  the  bit  by  raising  the 
crown-piece,  pass  the  left  hand  under  Ihe  brow-band, 
draw  Ihe  ears  gently  under  the  crown-piece,  beginning 
with  Ihe  right  ear;  arrange  the  forelock,  secure  Ihe 
throat-lash,  and  then  the  curb-strap,  taking  care 
not  to  make  them  set  too  closely.   There  should  be  at 


CUBIET. 


440 


CURTALL. 


least  three  finjjcrs'  breadtli  bolween  the  Ibroat-Uush  and 
the  jaw,  and  one  liugir's  breadth  between  the  curb- 
stnip  and  jaw.  The  bit 
sbouUl  baii^  so  as  to 
toueh,  but  not  ilraw  up, 
the  corners  of  the  mouth. 
In  no  ca.se  sbouKi  the  toji 
of  the  niouth-i)iece  touch 
the  pahitc.  The  halter 
may  be  taken  off  before 
liridlin!;,  the  reins  beinj; 
lirsi  pas.sed  over  the  neck; 
if  the  bridle  be  put  on 
over  the  headstall,  the 
hitching-strap.  if  not  left 
at  the  inau{;er  or  picket- 
line,  shoukl  be  lied  round 
the  neck  or  attachctl  to 
the  left  saddle  ring.  The 
hitchinjr-strap  may  be  al- 
so arranged  as  follows: 
loop  it  two  or  three  times 
through  the  ring,  so  that 
the  loop  may  be  about 
eight  inches  long;  wind 
the  strap  several  times 
around  the  loop,  and 
draw  the  end  of  the  strap  tightly  through  it.  See 
Bridle  and  Unbridle. 

CUKIET.— A  breastjihite  made  of  leather.  The  mr- 
colli  or  jnptin,  which  usually  covcreil  the  former 
styles  of  armor,  wiis  laid  aside  about  the  time  the 
cuirass  was  adopted,  sjiy  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
The  early  cuini-ss  of  the  Greek.s  was  of  linen,  which 
was  afterwards  covered  with  plates  of  horn  or  scales 
of  horse-hoofs.  The  Ro.xalani  wore  leather  with  thin 
plates  of  iron.  The  Persians  wore  a  similar  cuirass. 
The  Romans  introduced  flexible  bands  of  steel,  fold- 
ing over  one  another  during  the  fle.xure  of  the  body. 
Tlie  Roman  hasUiti  wore  chain-mail  (hauberk-s).  The 
same  ujition,  as  well  as  the  Greeks,  used  the  back- 
and  l)re;i.st  plate.    See  Armor. 

CUEEACH.— The  name  given  in  the  British  Islands 
to  a  canoe  or  Ixiat  made  of  a  slender  frame  of  wood 
covered  with  skins.  Skiffs  of  this  sort,  ;is  well  as 
canoes  hollowed  out  of  the  trunks  of  oaks,  were  in 
use  among  the  Britons  in  the  earliest  times  of  which 
we  have  record.  Julius  C:csar,  who  built  some  of 
them  after  the  British  model,  tells  us  that  the  keel 
and  gunwales  were  of  light  wood,  and  the  sides  of 
wicker,  covered  with  bides.  Similar  descriptions  of 
the  currach  are  given  Ijy  Pliny,  Lucan,  Solinus, 
Festus  A\ienus,  Sidonius  Apollinaris,  and  others. 
The  first  occurrence  of  the  name  seems  to  be  in 
Gildas,  who  wrote  in  the  sixth  century;  he  speaks  of 
the  currach  as  in  use  among  the  Scots  and  the  Pict-s. 
A  long  voyage  in  the  North  Sea,  made  in  a  currach 
during  the  same  century,  by  one  of  the  companions 
of  St.  Columba,  is  comiiicmoratcd  by  Adamnan,  who 
died  in  704.  In  878  three  Irish  ra'issionuries  sailetl 
in  a  currach  from  Ireland  to  Cornwall;  the  vovage 
occupied  seven  days;  and  the  size  of  the  currachls 
indicated  by  the  remark  that  it  was  one  of  two  skins 
and  a  half.  An  old  Life  of  St.  Patrick  speaks  of  a 
currach  "of  one  skin,  with  neither  helm  nor  oar." 
Tlie  currach  of  a  larger  size  had  a  ma.st  and  sail. 
The  currach  still  continues  to  Ik-  used  on  the  Severn, 
and  on  many  i)arts  of  Ihe  Irish  coast,  especially  oil 
the  shores  of  Clare  and  Donegal.  The  last  currach 
known  to  have  been  use<l  in  Scotland  is  in  Ihe  Mu- 
seum at  Elgin.  It  was  employed  on  the  Spey,  to- 
wards the  end  of  last  century.  "A  boat  of  bison-skin, 
essentially  the  same  with  the"  British  coracle,  is  in  ase 
amornr  some  of  the  Indians  of  N'orih  .Vmerica. 

CUEEENT-HETES. — An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  velocity  of  currents.  One  form,  the  pil'il-liihe, 
act.M  by  the  ascension  of  water  in  a  vent-)>ipe  whose 
lower  orifice  is  presented  .s(juarely  to  the  current,  the 
inclieation  l>eing  read  by  a  float  "or  graduation  iii  or 
niK)n  the  vertical  i)art  "of  the  lul)e!     Another  form 


acts  as  a  dynamometer,  by  opposing  a  resisting  body 
to  the  action  of  the  current,  and  indicating  Ihe  force 
of  the  action  by  a  dial  or  graduated  bar.  The  dyna- 
mometer current-gauge  of  Woltmann  (1790)  is  a  light 
water-whwl  operated  by  the  current,  and  having  on 
its  axis  an  endless  screw,  which  operates  toothed 
wheels  and  a  register,  the  rate  or  force  being  deduced 
from  the  rotations  in  a  given  time.     The  drawing 


shows  this  instrument  adapted  for  use  in  small  rivers 
and  streams,  or  to  show  the  number  of  gallons  tiow- 
ing  from  any  reservoir  or  vessel.     The  mean  velocity 


of  water  in  rivers  equals 


(  Vb  -  1)'  +  D 


,  when  T  is  the 


surface  velocity  expressed  in  inches.  In  the  absence 
of  a  meter,  the  surface-velocity  may  be  determined 
by  carefully  noting  the  time  required  for  a  chip  or 
any  small  substance  to  float  a  measured  distance. 
Tlie  following  are  the  asual  expressions  applied  to 
river- velocities: 

Sluggish,  about  li  ft.  per  second,  or  1  mile  per  hour. 
Ordinary,     "     3'  "  3    " 

Rapid,  "5  "  3    " 

Very  rapid,  "8  "  5    "  " 

Torrent,        "     9  or  more  "  6    "  " 

CUEEENT  SEEIES.— In  military  administration, 
orders  issued  from  Established  Commands,  such  jis 
Divisions,  Departments,  etc.,  being  numbered  in 
regular  order  for  each  year.  This  expression  is  fre- 
quently used  when  referring  to  orders  issued  in  the 
year  passing  or  current. 

CUEBICLE  GUN.— A  verj'  small  piece  of  ordnance, 
mountcil  upon  a  carriage  of  two  wheels,  and  drawn 
b}'  two  horses.  The  artilleryman  is  seated  on  a  box, 
and  the  whole  can  Ijc  moved  foi-ward  into  action  with 
astonishing  rapidity  The  timibrils  belonging  to  cur- 
ricle-guns carry  60  rounds  of  ball-cartridges.  This 
gim  is  no  longer  in  general  use. 

CUEEIEE.— .V  very  small  musketoon  with  a  swivel 
mounting;  but  little  "used  at  present. 

CURRY-COMB.— A  kind  of  scrajier  used  for  dress- 
ing horses.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  iron  plates 
notched  on  one  edge  to  form  rough  teeth.  The.se 
Jilates  are  fastened  in  parallel  lines  to  an  iron  back, 
to  which  a  handle  is  attached,  and  the  hor.se  is  "cur- 
ried "  liv  scrubbing  witli  the  teeth. 

CUETAIN.— The  curtain,  in  a  fortification,  is  the 
liortion  of  rampart  or  wall  between  two  bji-stions  or 
two  gates.  In  a  regular  siege,  to  batter  down  the 
curtain  is  one  of  the  main  operations  depended  on, 
and  many  of  the  exlernal  works  constructed  by  the 
defenders  are  intended  to  frustrate,  or  at  least  em- 
barrass. Ibis  operation     See  Bastioned  ForU. 

CUETAIN-ANGLE.— The  angle  of  a  fortification 
between  the  Hank  and  curtain.  S(M  Sastioiied  Fi^rts 
and  Oiirliiiii. 

CUETAL  AXE.— A  short  sword  with  a  curved  blade. 
The  name  has  been  moditied  from  lime  to  time: 
couUtlliiii'hc,  eoiitiiUixf,  nirtk-axe,  curtal-axe,  coute- 
laee,  eti  rte-lauHe ,  and  oitlans. 

CUBTALL. — An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance,  peculiar 
for  its  shortness.     Sometimes  written  Ourtald. 


CUBVATUEE. 


441 


CUSHMAN  COMBINATIONCHUCK. 


CTJEVATURE. — The  curvature  of  a  plane  curve  at 
a  point  is  its  lenrieucy  to  depart  from  a  tangent  to  the 
curve  at  that  point.  In  tliu  circle  this  tendency  is 
the  same  throughout,  for  the  curve  is  perfectly  sym- 
metrical round  its  center;  in  otlier  words,  the  curva- 
ture of  a  circle  is  constant.  In  different  circles  the 
curvature  is  inversely  as  the  radius — i.e.,  it  diminishes 
as  the  railius  increases.  The  reciprocal  of  the  radius 
is  accordingly  assumed  as  the  measure  of  curvature  of 
a  circle.  A  straight  line  which  has  no  curvature  may 
be  consiilered  part  of  a  circle  whose  radius  eijuals  in- 
linit}'  as  the  reciprocal  of  infinity,  measures  the  cur- 
vature, and  is  =  0.  'I'he  constancy  of  curvature  in  the 
circle  suggests  an  absolute  measure  of  curvature  at 
any  point  in  any  other  curve;  for  whatever  be  the 
curvature  at  that  point,  we  Ciin  always  tind  a  circle 
of  the  same  curvature.  The  radius  of  the  circle 
which  has  the  stime  curvature  at  any  point  in  a  curve 
as  the  curve  itself  at  that  point  is  called  tlie  radius  of 
curvature  of  the  curve  for  that  point;  and  the  circle 
itself  is  called  the  onrulating  circle.  If  we  know  the 
radius  of  curvature  of  a  curve  al  different  point.s,  we 
can  compare  its  curvature  at  those  points.  We  have 
thus  the  means  also  of  comparing  degrees  of  curva- 
ture in  different  curves.  The  problem  of  measuring 
the  curvature  of  a  curve  at  any  point  is  the  same, 
then,  "with  that  of  finding  its  radius  of  curvatiire.  In 
some  simple  cases,  as  in  the  conic  sections,  this  may 
be  done  geometrically ;  it  is  usually  necessarj-,  however, 
to  employ  the  calcidus.  If  the  curve  be  referred  to 
rectangular  co-ordinates,  and  J',  y  be  a  point  in  it,  then 
it  Ciin  be  .shown  that  the  radius  of  curvature 


(•+£)' 


dx* 

If  the  curved  line,  instead  of  being  plane,  twists  in 
space,  it  is  called  a  curve  of  double  curvature. 

CUKVE. — In  common  language,  a  crooked  line  that 
departs  verj' gradually  from  the  straight  direction;  in 
mathematics,  however,  it  is  usually  restricted  to  lines 
that  follow  some  law  in  their  change  of  direction. 
Thus,  the  law  of  the  circle  is  that  all  points  of 
it  are  equally  distant  from  a  fi.xed  point,  called  the 
center.  The  law  of  a  plane  curve  is  generally  ex- 
pressed by  an  equation  between  the  co-ordinates  of 
any  point  in  it  referred  to 
a  tixcd  point.  When  the 
cqtiation  of  a  curve  con- 
tains only  powers  of  -r  an<l 
y,  the  curve  is  algebraic; 
when  the  equation  contains 
other  functions.logarithms 
for  instance,  of  .r  and  >/, 
the  ciu-ve  is  called  transcen- 
dental. The  cycloid,  e.g., 
is  a  transcendental  curve. 
There  are  alsf)  curves, 
like  the  sjiiral,  that  do  not 
continue  in  one  plane; 
these  are  called  curves  of 
double  curvature.  To  ex- 
press the  law  of  such  a 
curve  requires  three  co 
ordinates  and  two  equa- 
tions. Curves  are  said  to  be 
of  the  first,  second,  third, 
etc.,  order,  according  as 
their  equations  involve  the 
first,  second,  third  powers 
of  .>■  or  !/.  The  circle,  el- 
lipse, paraliola,  and  hyper- 
bola are  of  the  .second  or- 
der of  curves.  There  is 
only  one  line  of  the  first  order,  namely,  the  straight 
line,  which  is  also  reckoned  amond  the  curves.  The 
higher  geometry  investigates  the  amount  of  curvature 
of  curves,  their  length,  the  surface  they  inclose,  etc. 


The  number  of  curves  that  might  be  drawn  is,  of 
course,  infinite.  Quite  a  large  number  have  received 
names,  and  are  objects  of  great  interest  to  the  mathe- 
matician— in  some  ca.ses,  for  their  beauty;  in  others, 
for  their  remarkable  properties.  Among  the  most  in- 
teresting are  the  following:  1,  circle;  '2,  cllip.se;  3, 
hyperbola;  4,  parabola;  5,  ci.ssoid  of  Diocles;  6,  con- 
choid of  Nicomedes;  7,  lemniscata;  8,  cycloid;  9,  har- 
monic curve;  10,  trochoid;  11,  the  witch;  12,  cardiode, 

13,  curves  of  circular  functions — e.g.,  curve  of  sines; 

14,  the  logarithmic  curve;  15,  the  spiral  of  Archi- 
medes; 16,  thecatenary;  17,  the  tractory;  18,  Ihetrac- 
trix;  19,  the  ovalsof  t'a.s.sini;  20,  the  reciprocal  spiral. 

The  term  <■«;■(•*■  is  also  aiJjilied  to  a  draughtsman's  in- 
strument having  one  or  a  variety  of  curves  of  various 
characters  other  than  arcs,  which  may  be  struck  by  a 
conipa.ss.  Such  a  combination  of  curves  is  shown  in 
the  drawing.  They  are  frequently  constructed  for 
specific  purposes,  such  as  iihipirrinht's  eiirees,  radii- 
cin-ns,  etc. 

CURVED  FIRE.— When  a  projectile  is  fired  so  as 
just  to  clear  an  interposinjj  cover,  and  then  descend 
upon  the  object,  the  line  of  tire  being  peri)endicular 
or  nearly  so  to  the  front  of  troops  or  works  to  be  de- 
stroyed, such  practice  is  termed  enmd  fi-e  in  order 
to  distinguish  it  from  ricochet.  This  kind  of  fire  has 
been  long  employed  to  dislodge  troops  posted  bchiml 
cover  by  firing  common  shells  from  guns  or  how- 
itzers. Smaller  charges  and  higher  angles  would,  as 
in  ricochet,  be  required  than  for  ordinar}-  direct  fire. 
The  emplojTnent  of  curved  fire  at  the  siege  of  Stras- 
burg  by  tlie  Prussians,  during  the  Franco-Prussian 
AYar,  was  very  successful,  a  hidden  escarp  at  a  range 
of  910  yards  ha^•ing  Ix-en  breached  with  a  6-incli 
B.  L.  R.gun,  with  a  charge  of  powder  j\  the  weight 
of  the  projectile  fired,  which  was  60  lbs.  Under 
curved  fire  it  is  necessary  that  a  projectile  should 
strike  the  revetment  at  a  considerable  angle  of  de- 
scent, with  sufficient  energy  to  destroy  the  masonry. 
Xow,  in  order  that  a  considerable  angle  of  descent 
may  be  obtained  at  a  moderate  range  (from  1000  to 
loOO  yards)  it  is  necessary  that  the  remaining  velocity 
should  be  low;  and  this  may  be  obtained  in  two  ways 
— by  a  projectile  that  has  been  fireil  originally  with 
a  comparatively  high  velocity,  and  has  lost  it  rapidly; 
or  by  a  projectile  that  has  been  fired  originally  ^vilh 
a  lower  velocity  and  a  higher  elevation,  but  has  not 
lost  its  velocilyso  quickly.  If  the  projectile  has  the 
s:mie  weight  in  Imth  cases,  the  first  result  would  be 
obtained  by  a  short  shell  of  large  caliber,  the  second 
by  a  long  "shell  of  .smaller  caliber,  the  resistance  of 
the  air  ha\'ing  a  greater  effect  on  the  former  than  the 
latter.  The  "question  is,  which  of  the  two  systems 
wouki  be  preferable  ? 

CURVE  OF  RESISTANCE. — When  the  velocities  of  a 
projectile  at  two  points  in  the  trajectory  near  together 
are  known,  the  amount  of  resistance,  R.  offered  by  the 
air  at  the  mean  velocity  can  be  formed  from  the  for- 
mula R  -        OQO     ■  '■*  ^'liich  w  =  weight  of  the 

projectile;  r  and  c'  =  the  velocities  at  the  two  points; 
and  S  =  the  space  in  which  the  velocity  is  reduced 
from  »  to  0  .  If  several  resistances  are  determined  in 
this  maimer  from  velocities  obtained  in  practice,  a 
riirre  of  re«ixlinicf,  which  will  give  the  resistances  at 
all  intermediate  velocities,  niav  be  constructed. 

CUSHMAN  COMBINATION-CHUCK.— A  variety  of 
chuck  much  employed  in  the  annory  anil  ordnance- 
shops.  The  drawings  show  the  construction  and 
action  of  the  device.  That  portion  of  the  jaws 
which  enters  the  bodv  of  llie  chuck  is  cut  into  a  half 
nut  (A,  Fiff.  3)  that"  engages  with  a  screw  (B),  the 
square  head  of  which  projects  through  the  face  or 
rim  of  the  chuck  to  receive  a  wrench.  Below  this 
projecting  head  is  a  Ix-vel  pinion  inside  lhc*rim  that 
engages  with  a  circular  rack  or  toothed  ring  (C  C). 
Turuins  any  one  of  these  screws  will  actuate  the 
rack  an"d  everv  other  screw,  and  so  far  it  is  simply  a 
concentric- jawed  chuck.  The  toothed  ring  rests  upon 


CUSTOM  OF  WAK. 


442 


CUTS. 


a  plain  ring  (D  D),  the  periphery  of  which  is  a  screw- 
llireail  llmt  enj^ges  with  a  similar  thread  on  the  in- 
side of  the  shell,"  so  that  hy  turning  the  rin!!;  in  one 
direelion  it  is  moved  forward  towards  the  face  of  the 
chuck,  and  bv  turninir  it  the  other  way  it  is  carried 
towards  the  liaek  of  the  thiuk.     By  this  means  the 


circular  rack  may  be  meshed  in  gear  with  the  pinions 
on  the  screws,  or  disengaged  from  them  (Fijg.  1 
and  2).  AVheu  in  and  out  of  gear  the  ring  (1)  D)  is 
held  in  position  by  a  spring  catch.  Should  it  be  re- 
quired to  move  one  or  more  of  the  jaws  further  from 
the  center  than  the  others,  the  spring  catch  is  released 


pressed  either  to  their  intrenchmcnts  or  into  a  forti- 
fied town  from  which  they  had  marched  or  sallied. 

CUTS. — 1.  Movements  in  saber-exercise,  executed  a^ 
follows: 

Front  Cut. — Being  at  guard,  raise  the  saber,  the 
arm   half  extended,  the  iiand  in  front  of  the  right 


by  thumb-pressure,  the  supporting  ring  is  turned  out 
by  a  knob  at  the  back  of  the  cbuok,  and  the  circular 
rack  unmeshed.  In  this  condition  it  has  the  charac- 
teristics of  an  indejiendent  jaw-chuck.     Sec  Chuck. 

CUSTOM  OF  WAE.— The  custom  of  war  in  like 
cases  is  the  common  law  of  the  army  recognized  by 
Congress  in  the  Articles  of  War,  as  a  rule  for  the 
government  of  the  army  whenever  any  doubt  shall 
arise  not  explained  by  the  Rules  and  Articles  estab- 
lished by  Congress  for  the  government  and  regula- 
tion of  the  army.  To  render  a  custom  valid  the 
folliiwing  qualities  are  requisite:  1.  Antiquity;  3. 
Continuance  without  interruption;  3.  Have  been  ac- 
quiesced in  without  dispute:  4.  It  must  be  reasona- 
ble; 5.  Certain;  6.  ('ittiijiiihirrn — that  is,  not  left  to  tlie 
option  of  every  man  whether  he  v.'iW  use  it  or  not; 
7.  Customs  must  be  consistent  \\ith  each  other. 

CUT.— A  term  employed  in  mechanical  maneuvers 
signifying  to  move  the  object  horizontally,  without 
rolling,  by  moving  each  end  alternately  in  the  re- 
quired direction.    Sce'VAiand  ^f^rhnnil•al  ^faneurerll. 

CUT-AND  THRUST  SWORD.— An  ancient  offensive 
weapim  used  for  cutting  and  thrusting.  It  was 
stniight-bladed,  at  first  short  and  broad,  afterwards 
longer  and  ilouble-edged,  sharp  pointed,  with  a  rect- 
angular slie:itli,  .nnd  always  worn  on  the  right  side. 

CUTLASS. — A  short,  heavy.  cur\Mng  sword;  espi>c- 
ially  used  by  seamen  in  tioarding  or  repelling  board- 
ers. Tlie  term  is  abbreviated  from  curl/iUij-c.  Rosa- 
lind calls  it  ji  nirth-iij;'.  It  is  usually  about  3  feet 
long,  with  a  japanned  liilt. 

CUT  OFF. — In  a  military  sense,  this  phra.se  is  vari- 
ously applicable.  To  rut  off  an  enfmy'n  retreat  is  to 
maneuver  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  an  oppos- 
ing army  or  bo<ly  of  men  from  retiring  when  closely 


Fio.  •.'. 

shoulder,  and  a  little  higher  than  the  head,  \he  edge 
upward,  the  point  to  the  rear,  and  higher  than  the 
hand.  (Two.)  Cut,  extending  the  arm  to  its  full 
length.    (Thkee.)  Resume  the  guard.     The  first  posi- 

j  tion  of  front  cut  is  the  position  of  raise  saber. 

Left  Cut. — Being  at  guard,  turn  the  head  and 
shoulders  to  the  left,  raise  the  saber,  the  arm  extended 
to  the  right,  the  hand  in  quarte  and  as  high  as  the 
head,  the  point  higher  than  the  hand.     (Two.)  Cut 

!  diagonally  to  the  left.  (Three.)  Resume  the  guard. 
Big/d  ft//,— Being  at  guard,  turn  the  head  to  the 
right,  carry  the  hand  opposite  the  left  breast,  the  point 
of  the  saber  upward,  the  edge  to  the  left.  (Two.)  Ex- 
tend the  ami  quickly  to  its  full  length,  and  give  a 
backhanded  cut  horizontally.  (Thuee.)  Resume  the 
guard.  The  left  and  right  rutx  are  used  against  in- 
fantry, inclining  the  body  forward,  and  cutting  at 
the  neces,sary  angle. 

Rear  <'»?.— Being  at  guard,  throw  the  right  shoul- 
der well  back,  and  execute  the  first  motion  of  right 
rut.    (Two.)    Extend  the  arm   cjuickly   to  its  full 

J  length,  and  give  a  back-handed  cut  horizontally  to 

I  the  rear.     (Three.)    Resume  the  guard. 

Left  in  Quarte  and  Tierce  Cut. — Being  at  guard, 
execute  the  first  motion  of  left  cut.  (Two.)  E.xecute 
the  second  motion  of  hft  cut.     (TnuEE.)     Turn  the 

!  hand  in  tierce  and  cut  horizontally.  (Fotni.)  Re- 
sume the  guard. 

night  in  Tierce  and  Quarte  C«<.— Being  at  guanl, 
execiitc  the  first  motion  of  right  cut.  (Two,)  Exe- 
cute the  second  motion  of  right  cut.  (Three.)  Turn 
the  hand  in  quarte,  and  cut  horizontally.  (Four.) 
Resume  the  guard. 

lixir  in  Tierce  and  Quarts  Cm^— Being  at  guard, 
execute  the  first  motion  of  vcrtrcw*.  (Two.)  Execute 
the  second  motion  of  rear  cut.  (Three,)  Turn 
the  hand  in  quarte,  and  cut  horizontally.  CFo0R.) 
Resume  the  guard.     See  Siber-e.rerciKe. 

I      2.  When  breaching  walls,  it  is  necessary  to  separate 

I  that  part  of  the  masonry  or  revetment  to  he  over- 
thrown from  the  adjoining  portion,  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  may  soon  be  brought  down  by  its  own  weight 

j  and  by  the  tire  directed  upon  it.  The  iK-st  nietho<l 
of  effecting  this  is  to  cut  the  wall  first  in  a  horizontal 

!  direction,  and  then  vertically  at  such  distances  as  the 
strength  of  tiie  masonry  may  rctiuire.  In  general, 
the  height  of  the  horizontal  cut  should  be  alxiut  one 
third  the  total  height  of  the  scarp  wall  from  the  bot- 
tom, though   in   some  cases  it  may  be  preferable  to 

'  make  it  as  high  as  the  middle  line  of  this  wall.  This 
will  deixMiil  greatly  upon  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 
and   should    be   deterniiiie<l    in  each  case  at  such   a 

I  height  that  the  breach  may  be  practicable.     If  ton 


CUTTER-GEINDEH. 


443 


CYCLOID. 


high,  the  ramp  composed  of  the  debris  will  be  inter- 
cepted by  a  portion  of  the  wall;  if  too  low,  the  open- 
ing will  be  masked  by  the  debris  itself.  The  length 
of  the  cut  will  l)e  regulated  by  the  width  of  passage 
required  for  the  assjiultiag  party,  generall.y.  from  30 
to  30  yards.  Each  gun  ha.s  a  certain  space  allotted  to 
it,  and  commences  tiring  at  one  extremity,  spacing 
the  shots  at  regular  intervals  depending  upon  the  cali- 
ber of  the  gun.  Returning,  it  tires  at  points  exactly 
between  the  former,  and  finishes  by  destroying  any 
salient  parts  of  the  masonry  left  uninjured  through 
out  the  line.  The  completion  of  the  cut  will  be 
known  by  the  earth  falling  tlirough.  By  marking  on 
the  platform  the  direction  of  the  stock  and  wheels  at 
each  fire,  on  returning  the  projjcr  direction  Cim  eiisily 
be  given  to  the  piece.  The  elevation  will  remain  un- 
changed. The  number  of  vertical  cut.s  having  been 
determined  so  that  no  .section  of  the  wall  shall  be 
sustained  by  more  than  one  counterfort,  the  cuts  are 
formed  by  first  tiring  a  shot  at  a  certain  distance 
above  the  horizontal  line  and  then  another  in  the  cen- 
ter of  this  interval;  the  intermediate  .SiUient  points  ore 
destroyed  a.s  before.  A  .second  equal  length  of  cut- 
ting is  effected  in  the  same  manner,  and  so  on  until 
the  length  is  sufficient.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
extreme  vertical  cuts  progrcs.s  a.s  rapidly  as  the  others. 
These  vertical  cuttings  need  not,  in  general,  be  car- 
ried to  a  greater  height  than  one  half  the  distance  be- 
tween the  horizontal  line  and  the  cordon,  nor  is  it 
always  necessary  that  they  should  jx-netrate  quite 
through  the  revetment  a.s  in  the  case  of  the  hoiizontal 
cut.  If  the  wall  does  not  fall  on  the  completion  of 
the  cuts,  a  few  volleys  are  fired  at  the  middle  of  the 
spaces  thus  outlined.  After  the  wall  has  fallen,  the 
counterforts  are  battered  down,  and,  if  necessary,  the 
fire  continued  upon  the  backing  of  earth  in  order  to 
make  the  slope  easv  of  ascent.    See  Breoeht'ng. 

CUTTEE-GKINDEK.— A  grindstone  or  emery-wheel 
specially  constructed  for  grinding  the  .sections  of  cut- 
ter-bars. In  the  machine  commonly  employed  in  the 
United  States  arsenals,  the  platen  to  which  the  hold- 


er and  guide  are  attached  is  adjusted  in  height  to 
suit  the  diameter  of  the  cutter  to  be  operated  upon. 
The  guide  rests  against  Uie  tooth  that  is  being  ground, 
thus  g-au^ng  the  work  perfectly,  even  though  there 
may  be  irregularity  in  the  size  of  (he  teeth.  The 
machine  Ls  adapted  to  cutters  of  all  sizes  and  styles 
of  teeth,  whether  straight,  beveled,  or  spiral.  Either 
small  grindstones  or  emery-wheels  may  be  attached 
to  the  spindle. 

The  drawing  shows  a  verj'  efficient  machine  of  this 
class,  made  by  E.  E.  Garvin  and  Compaiiy.  The 
construction  lias  lx;en  simplified  by  substituting  a 
planed  knee  for  the  heavy  stud  in  former  use.  A 
sliding  platform,  made  to  move  more  freely  than  in 
the  old  style   machine,  is  fitted  to  this  knee  ami  is 


bound  in  any  desired  position  by  tightening  a  gib  by 
means  of  a  hand-screw  shown  beneath.  A  special 
attachment  is  also  provided  for  this  machine  when 
required  for  surface-grinding.  The  drawing  shows 
it  in  position  on  the  machine,  with  the  cutter  grind- 
ing-head  on  the  floor.  The  machine  can  be  changed 
from  »  cutter-grinder  to  a  surface-grinder  in  a  few- 
minutes.  Upon  the  sliding  platform  is  a  stand  capa- 
ble of  being  held  by  a  cam  binder  at  any  desired 
angle.  This  stand  is  used  for  the  manda-I-stud,  and 
has  a  graduated  arc  of  90  degrees  for  .'Siting  the  stud 
at  any  angle.  The  centers  .shown  in  the  drawing 
enable  the  operator  to  sharpen  reamers  and  taps  of 
almost  any  shape.  \Vilh  this  machine  all  sizes  and 
shapes  of  cutters  can  Ix?  handled  from  i  inch  to  &i 
inches  diameter,  and  face  mills,  by  using  platform 
shown  at  foot  of  machine,  up  to  12  inches  diameter. 
The  arrangement  is  such  that  lilenly  of  space  is  al- 
lowed for  the  hands  in  sliding  the  work  upon  the 
mandrel.  The  slide  and  spindle  bearings  are  sheathed 
and  covered  with  cap-nuts  for  the  exdusion  of  dust 
and  emery.  The  spindle-boxes  have  adjustment  for 
wear,  and  the  sliding  surfaces  are  substantially  gibbed. 
The  surface  grinder  will  grind  a  piece  io  inches 
long  and  H  inches  wide.  The  slide  is  operated  by  a 
rack  and  pinion  movement,  making  it  very  sensitive 
and  quickly  handled.  The  cross-feed  is  operated  by 
a  screw  attached  to  the  end  of  the  knee.  This  attacli- 
ment  is  very  usefid  in  grinding  small  hardened  work, 
'  such  as  straight  edges,  cutting  dies,  calipers,  gauges, 
etc!  Small  pieces  can  be  held  in  a  vise  made  fast  to 
the  slide  for  that  purpose.  The  countershaft-hangers 
are  adjustable  and  self-oiling.  The  following  are  the 
general  dimensions: 

Tight  and  loose  pulleys  on  coimtershaft  4J  by  2  in.  face 

j  Speed  of  countershaft  400  rev. 

Weight  of  machine,  complete 300  lbs. 

I  CUTTING-OFF  MACHINE.— This  most  useful  ma- 
chine is  essential  to   the   proper  equipment  of  the 

i  foundrj',  arsenal,  and  other  places  where  shafts,  rods, 
bars,  or  pii)es  are  to  be  cut  to  length.  Cutting  off 
constitutes  a  large  share  of  the  blacksmith-work  of  a 
machine-shop,  and  when  performed  in  the  usual  mau- 

'  ner  costs  three  times  as  much  as  if  done  bj"  a  ma- 
chine. The  ordinary  mode  of  cutting  off  consists  of 
three  operations — heating,  cutting  with  chisels,  and 
finishing  the  ends  afterwards;  either  of  these  opera- 
tions costs  as  much  as  to  cut  off  by  a  machine  which 
performs  all  at  once.  The  Belts  machine  can  be 
operated  by  unskilled  workmen,  and  can  be  set  in  an 
iron-room  to  save  space  in  the  machine-shop;  the 
tools  require  no  dressing,  and  can  be  ground  by  any 
one.  Such  a  machine  can  Ix;  profitably  employed 
where  five  or  more  machinists  are  at  work,  and  is 
found  to  be  a  very  imixirlaut  machine  tool.  The  an- 
gle and  movement  of  the  tools  are  wholly  different 
from  Uiose  of  a  lathe,  which  cannot  1k'  used"  to  advan- 
tage for  such  work;  the  tools  have  uniform  section, 
and  are  supported  to  the  end  at  their  bottom  edge  in 
a  special  tool-clump,  having  a  new  adjustment  toalter 
the  angle  of  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool,  in  operating 
on  soft  or  hard  material.  In  rolling  mills  and  iron- 
works, where  large  numbers  of  pieces  are  to  be  cut, 
one  attendant  can  operate  two  machines  if  both  are 
arranged  with  iiowcr-feed. 

CUTTING-SHOE. — A  horseshoe  with  nails  on  only 
one  side,  lor  honrcs  that  cut  or  interfere.  See  Hone- 
shoeing. 

CTANE. — An  ancient  metallic  composition  used  for 
the  ornamentation  of  cuirasses  and  for  the  cmbellish- 
menl  of  llie  bos.ses  of  shields. 

CyCLOID.  — If  a  circle 
roll  along  a  straight  line 
on  its  own  plane,  a  point 
on  the  circumference  de- 
scribes a  curve  which  is 
called  the  cycloid.  The 
curve  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  we  know  in  respect  both  of  its  geometri- 


CYLINDER. 


444 


CYLINDRICAL  CHAMBER. 


cal  properties  and  connection  with  dyunmics.  One 
of  its  most  inteix-stiiig  proix-rties  is  tliis:  The  time 
of  !i  iKxly's  descendinj;  from  rest  from  any  point 
in  tlie  lire  of  iin  inverted  cycloid  to  the  lowc.st  |X)int 
is  the  siime,  from  wlinlfver  point  of  tlie  cur\-c  the 
Iwdv  b«>irin'i  to  descend.  This  is  sometimes  expressed 
bv  s;»viii/  tliat  the  cycloid  is  the  inochrououii  ciirre. 
I'lie  "iHHly  liiivin;;  reached  tlie  lowest  point  will, 
throujth  the  imiX'tiis  received  in  the  fall,  ascend  the 
opix)site  branch  of  the  curve  to  a  heiirht  equal  to  that 
fn>m  which  it  fell,  losing  velocity  in  its  a.sceut  by  the 
same  degrees  as  thasc  by  which  it  acquired  it  in  its 
tiescent,  and  it  will  employ  precisely  the  s;inie  time 
in  ascerKling  as  it  did  in  descending.  It  is  clear  that 
if  a  surface  could  be  procured  that  would  be  perfectly 
smooth  and  hard,  the  cycloid  would  thus  present  a 
solution  of  the  problem  of  perpetual  motion.  The 
curve  was  discovereil  bv  Galileo  in  1615. 

CYLINDER.— 1.  The"  name  of  a  genus  of  geomet- 
rical solid  tigiux's,  of  which  there  may  be  an  endless 
species.  The  most  common  kind  ot  cylinder  is  that 
which  is  generated  by  the  revolution  of  a  rectangular 
parallelogram  about"  one  of  its  sides,  which  line  is 
called  the  a.xis  of  the  cylinder.  But  in  order  to  em- 
brace all  varieties  of  cylinders,  we  must  generalize 
the  mode  of  generation."   A  cyUnder,  then,  is  a  solid 


The  exhaust  valve-seat  is  removable  for  greater 
convenience  of  construction,  and  to  allow  for  re- 
facing.  Below  the  exhaust-valve  is  the  exhaust-pas- 
siigc.  The  steam  enters  the  cyliniler  through  a  three- 
ported  seat,  afterwards  uniting  to  form  but  one  open- 
ing into  the  cylinder,  and  is  exhausted  through  the 
lower  part  of  this  stime  port,  which  then  by  one  large 
oixjning  commimicates  with  tlie  chest  in  which  the 
exhaust-valve  is  liK-ated.  There  is  no  real  connection 
between  the  two,  however;  each  valve  within  its  own 
chest  controls  its  own  ]X)rts,  and  live  steam  cannot 
enter  the  e.vhaust.  The  valves  are  carefully  scrai>e*l 
to  an  accurate  Ixiaring,  and  being  tial  are  ciisily  fitted 
luid  remain  tight  for  a  long  time.  Both  steam-  and 
exhaust-valves  have  a  constant  travel  under  all  con- 
ditions, and  this  conduces  to  equal  wear,  while  from 
the  simple  construction,  whenever  repairs  are  needed, 
they  may  be  eiisUy  made  in  an  ordinary  shop  with 
ordinary" tools.  This  is  a  very  desirable  point.  The 
valve  and  valve-stems  as  well,  as  the  eccentrics,  are 
provided  with  means  of  adjustment  so  that  the  de- 
sired amount  of  lead  and  cut  off  may  be  given  the 
steiim-valves,  and  the  exhaust-valves  .set  for  the  de- 
sired release  and  degree  of  comiiression.  Each  valve 
can  be  adjusted  independently  of  the  others  so  as  to 
act  in  the  most  etflcient  manner.     See  Sleam-eiiffine. 


Cummer  Cylinder. 


generated  by  a  line  which  moves  parallel  to  itself 
while  one  end  traces  upon  a  plane  any  curve  what- 
ever. When  the  position  of  the  generatinir  line  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane,  the  cylinder  is  rig/i/;  when 
not,  it  is  iibli//iie.  If  the  curve"  traced  is  a  circle,  and 
the  line  perpendicular  to  the  plane,  the  cylinder  is  a 
rirjlit  i-iiriiUir  cylinder,  etc.  In  all  cases  "the  content 
of  the  cylinder  is  found  by  mviltiplvinir  the  number 
of  sipiare  units  in  the  hasi'  by  the  number  of  linear 
units  in  the  altitude,  which  is  the  perpendicidar  dis- 
tance iH'lween  the  two  enils.  The  area  of  ihc  convex 
surface  is  equal  to  a  rectangidar  parallelogram  whose 
base  is  the  circumference  of  the  end,  and  its  heisht 
the  length  of  the  generating  line.  To  this  must~be 
added  the  areas  of  the  two  ends,  to  get  the  entire 
surface  of  the  cylinder. 

2.  That  chai'nlier  of  a  steam-engine  in  which  the 
force  of  steam  is  utilized  upon  the  piston.  The 
oylinder  is  generally  designed  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  valve-construction.  The  drawing  shows 
an  elevation  of  the  Cummer  cylinder,  in  which  is 
seen,  in  part  s<'ction.  the  steam-passage  \\\\\\  a  short 
Ic^ngth  of  pijx',  and  below  it  the  exhaust-passage. 
On  either  side  are  the  steam-  and  exhaust-chests;  that 
on  the  riirht  has  the  cover  removed,  showing  steam- 
and  exhaust-valves.  The  valve-stems  are  also  shown; 
they  pass  through  the  steam-  and  exhaust-passages  and 
connect  the  valves  at  one  end  with  those  at  the  other. 


CYLINDER-GAUGE.— An  instrument  employed  in 
the  ins])ection  of  cannon.  It  is  a  hollow  cylinder  of 
iron,  turned  to  the  least  allowed  diameter  of  the  bore, 
and  one  caliber  in  length.  It 
has  a  cross-head  at  each  end . 
one  of  wliich  has  a  smooth  hole 
through  its  axis  to  tit  the  staff, 
and  the  other  is  tapped  to  re- 
ceive the  screw  in  the  end  of 
it.  The  cylinder-gauge  is  in- 
troduced into  the  bore  of  the 
gun,  and  must  pass  freely  to 
the  bottom  of  the  tore,  "fhe  instnuuent  shows  that 
the  l>ore  is  not  too  small.  See  Jnsjkctioii  of  Ord- 
nann . 

CYLINDER-MILL.— One  form  of  a  mill  for  pulver- 
izing the  ingredients  of  gunpowder,  baring  a  cvlin- 
drical  nuuier  traversing  on  a  bed-stone.  See  frwn- 
poirdir. 

CYLINDER-POWDER.— That  of  which  the  charcoal 
is  made  in  iron  evlinders.     See  Giinjioiedei: 

CYLINDER  STAFF.— An  instrument  used,  in  the 
inspection  of  ordnance,  to  measure  the  length  of  the 
bore.  It  is  supported  by  a  rest  of  a  T-form  at  the 
muzzle,  and  the  extremity  inserted  in  the  gun  is 
armed  with  a  mKiKin-iiKi-pnint  and  a  i/ttide-p/ale. 

CYLINDRICAL  CHAMBER.— In  tiic  S-inch  siege- 
mortar,  and  in  the  eprouvettc-mortar,  the  tottoin  of 


CYLINDBICAL  INCH. 


445 


DAM, 


the  bore  iit  the  mouth  of  the  chamber  is  formed  of  a 
portion  of  a  sphere,  so  that  the  projectile  closes  the 
month  of  the  chamber.  In  other  howitzers  the  cham- 
ber is  connected  by  means  of  a  conical  surface,  the 
junctions  being  rounded  off  to  i)revcnt  being  worn 
away  by  the  action  of  the  powder.  Cylindrical  cham- 
bers when  narrow  and  deep  give  greater  ranges  than 
shallow  wide  ones,  which  do  not  contiue  the  powder 
so  much;  but  as  in  the  former  the  g>i.s  acts  on  but  a 
smidl  segment  of  the  projectile  (usually  hollow),  it 
sometimes  breaks  it;  and  for  this  reason  too  great  a 
depth  in  cylindrical  chamber  must  be  avoided. 

CYLINDRICAL  INCH.— A  term  employed  in  ord- 
nance. It  is  a  cylinder  whose  base  is  one  inch  in 
diameter  and  whose  altitude  is  one  inch. 

CYMBALS. — Military  instruments  of  percassion, 
which,  when  struck  one  against  the  other,  produce  a 
loud  harsh  sound  of  no  fixed  pitch.  The  best  cym- 
bals are  those  made  in  Turkey  and  in  China.  At- 
tempts to  discover  and  imit^ite  the  composition  of  the 
metiil  have  all  failed.  The  notes  in  music  for  this 
instrument  are  all  placed  on  the  s;ime  line  or  space, 
in  rhythmical  succession.  Cymbals,  although  mili- 
tary instruments,  are  now  much  used  in  the  orchestra 


by  modern  composers.  Cymbals  are  among  the  most 
ancient  instruments,  bein^  represented  in  different 
forms  upon  the  sepulcliral  tnonunieuts.  They  were 
used  by  the  Levites  in  tlic  Temple  Ordinances,  and 
the  sons  of  Asaph  excelled  in  their  use.     They  are 


mentioned  among  other  instruments,  1043  B.C.,  when' 
David  brought  the  ark  home, — harps,  psalteries,  tim- 
brels, cornets,  cymbals  (2  Sam.  vi.  H).  The  It/ud- 
sonndiiig  and  high-sounding  cymbals  mentioned  in 
Ps;tlms  cl.  5  were  probably  the  clashing  cymbals  and 
rattling  castanets.    See  Band. 


D 


DAG.— A  thick  climisy  pistol  tised  in  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  In  the  Spanish  Tragedy, 
published  in  1603,  one  of  the  characters  shoots  the 
dag. 

DAGEN. — A  peculiar  kind  of  poniard  used  in  very 
ancient  limes.     Now  obsolete. 

DAGGER. — A  weapon  resembling  a  sword,  but  con- 
siderably smaller,  being  used  for  stab- 
bing at  close  quarters.  Daggers  are 
generally  two-edged,  and  very  sharp  to- 
wards the  point.  Originally  it  had  no 
guard  for  the  hand,  and  was  worn  at 
the  girdle  in  a  sheath.  It  is  now  re- 
garded as  a  general  military  weapon 
in  European  countries.  The  dagger 
was  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  the 
Frank  warrior,  who  probably  called  it 
a  C'»deJ,  or  somethin;:  like  that.  It  does  not  differ 
materially  from  the  dirk  of  the  Gadhelic  branches  of 
the  Celts,  or  the  poniard  of  the  nations  who  acknowl- 
edge Latin  as  the  base  of  their  mother-tongues.  In 
the  fourteenth  century  it  was  carried  by  citizens,  yeo- 
men, sailors,  and  ladies.  It  survives  in  England  in 
the  midshipman's  dirk,  and  in  other  places  as  a  *fi7«^^', 
a  bowie-knife,  etc.  Some  ingenuity  has  lieen  expende<l 
on  this  weapon  in  the  mode  of  attaching  it  to  the 
handle  and  pnniding  the  latter  with  a  pistol. 

DAGUE.— A  short  thick  poniard  which  was  for- 
merly much  used  when  individuals  engaged  in  single 
coin  bat. 

DAHLGKEN  BREECH-STRAP.— A  strap  connecting 
the  breech  with  a  separate  trunuion-ring,  in  order  to 
avoid  longitudinal  weakness  in  a  gun,  without  dis- 
turbing the  usual  and  convenient  preponderance. 
The  strap  is  made  of  bronze,  and  cast  in  two  pieces: 
one  piece  constituting  the  strap,  half  the  tniimion- 
ring,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  trunnions;  the  other 
constituting  the  opposite  half  of  the  trunnion-ring 
and  the  remainder  of  the  tnmnions.  The  l^vo  parts 
are  riveted  together  at  the  trunnions.  This  strap 
remedies  another  and  greater  defect  of  ca.st-iron  guns 
than  longitudinal  weakness — the  imsoimdness  of  the 
eastimr  around  the  trunnions. 

DAHLGREN  GUN.- The  Dahlgren  gims  of  large 
caliber  are  made  of  cast-iron,  solid,  and  cooled  from 
the  exterior.  To  produce  uniformity  in  the  cooling, 
the  piece  is  cast  nearly  cylindrical,  and  then  turned 


down  to  the  required  shape,  which  is  shown  in  the 
dramng.  The  thickness  of  metal  around  the  seat  of 
the  charge  is  a  little  more  than  the  diameter  of  the 
bore,  which  rule  holds  good  for  nearly  all  cast- 
iron  guns.  The  chase,  however,  tapers  more  rapidly 
than  in  other  cast-iron  guns,  which  gives  the  ap- 
pearance of  greater  thickness  of  metal  at  the  reiu- 


Dahlffren  Gun. 

force.  The  chamber  is  of  the  Gomer  form.  The 
principal  guns  of  this  system  are  of  9-  and  11 -inch 
caliber.  A  piece  of  10-inch  caliber  has,  however, 
been  introduced  into  the  Navy,  on  Admiral  Dahlgren 's 
plan,  for  firing  solid  shot  with  40  lbs.  of  powder. 
The  1.1-inch  and  20  inch  naval  guns  are  shaped  ex- 
teriorly after  the  Dahlgren  pattern,  but  are  cast  hollow 
and  liave  the  elliptical  chamber  of  the  Rodman  sys- 
tem. The  following  table  shows  the  principal  dimen- 
sions, etc.,  of  Dahlgren  guns: 


Leiitrtli 

Miucl- 

Weight. 

Service- 
ebar^. 

Mnxi- 
liiun) 

WelBhl 

Weight 

Bore. 

D    m. 

Chai-ge. 

Shot. 

ShelL 

Inch. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

SO-incli. 

163 

M 

100.000 

100 

1,080 

15-incli 

130 

48 

43,000 

35 

60 

400 

330 

13-inch 

130 

44.7 

36.1100 

40 

280 

224 

It-inch. 

1.33 

33 

16,000 

15 

30 

170 

180 

10  inch. 

1101 

29.1 

12,000 

ia< 

16 

125 

100 

107 

2S.3 

9,300 

10 

13 

a3 

70 

lS5-pdr.. 

117J 

33.85 

16,500 

40 

1* 

100 

See  Cast-iron  Oiins  and  Ordnance. 

DAM.— A  barrier  for  raising  the  level  of  water  in  a 
stream,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  reservoir,  inun- 
dating, or  for  turning  the  water  in  another  direction. 
Several  dams  are  sometimes  placed  upon  a  water- 
course for  the  purpose  of  preventing  too  rapid  an  es- 
cape of  water  where  it  is  needed  for  irripition  or  for 
moving  machinery.     There  is  also  a  variety  of  daia 


DAMAGES. 


446 


DANCETTE. 


called  a  cofft'r-<lum,  in  wliicli  an  inclosurc  is  bounded 
by  n  Imrricr  which  pri'Vcnts  exterior  water  from  en- 
terinjT,  used  f:enerally  for  the  purpose  of  excavation. 
Dams  eoiistrueled  for  raisiiii;  the  level  of  water  have 
an  im|)orlant  use  in  the  slack-water  navigation  of 
rivers.  The  materials  which  enter  into  the  construc- 
tion of  dams  differ  accordinj;  to  circiunstances.  If 
the  structure  be  required  to  bar  a  narrow  gorge  and 
a  considenihle  stream,  it  must  be  made  very  strong, 
not  only  to  withstand  the  hydrostatic  pressure,  but 
also  the  force  of  the  current,  which  often,  during 
freshets,  becomes  very  great.  The  materials  are  then 
generally  composed  of  a  combination  of  wood-work 
and  ma.sonry.  Masonry  may  l>e  i>rincipally  used 
when  the  gorge  is  so  narrow  as  to  allow  of  the  con- 
struction of  a  sufficiently  small  horizontal  arc  to  resist 
the  pressure.  When  the  dam  is  very  long  (across  a 
wide  stream),  unless  a  va-st  amount  of  stone  is  used, 
wooden  braces  must  be  employed.  When  the  body 
of  water  to  be  restrained  is  not  more  than  four  or  live 
feet  deep  and  the  bottom  is  tinn,  a  clay  or  stiff  loam 
embankment  nine  or  ten  feet  thick,  well  compacted, 
will  answer  the  purposi-  if  a  gate  be  provided  to  keep 
the  water  from  flowing  over  the  top  of  the  embank- 
ment, which  would  cause  it  to  wear  away.  It  is  not 
always  economy  to  build  the  dam  in  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  stream,  or  where  the  opposite  banks 
nearest  approach  each  other.  This  will  often  cause, 
during  a  freshet,  too  great  a  depth  of  running  water 
over  the  dam,  by  which  it  may  be  endangered.  A 
point  should  be  selected  where  the  dam  can  be  made 
of  sufticienf  width  to  allow  the  water  to  pour  over  it 
without  piling  up  too  much,  and  where  the  founda- 
tion is  good.  The  lini'  of  a  dam  may  be  transverse  or 
diagonal  to  the  How  of  water.  The  diagonal  is  some- 
times of  advantage  in  increasing  the  width  of  flow, 
but  is  liable  to  interfere  with  the  bed  of  the  stream 
below  more  than  the  transverse  line.  Where  practi- 
cable, the  form  of  an  arc,  the  convexity  fronting  up 
stream,  is  the  best;  but  a  broken  line  may  sometimes 
be  employed  to  advantage,  the  angles  "pointing  up 
stream  acting  as  braces,  while  the  angles  pointing 
down  stream  may  be  held  by  natural  rock-formation 
or  heavy  masonry  strengthened  by  bracing. 

DAMAGES. — The  costs  of  repairs  of  damage  done 
to  arms,  equipments,  or  implements,  in  the  use  of  the  : 
armies  of  the  Uniteil  States,  arc  to  be  deducted  from 
the  pay  of  any  officer  or  soldier  in  who.se  care  or  use  ! 
the  said  arms,  equipments,  or  implements  were  when  f 
the  said  damages  occurred:   provided,  the  damage 
was  occasioned  by  the  abuse  or  negligence  of  said 
officer  or  soldier.     Every  officer  commanding  a  regi- 
ment, corps,  garrison,  or  detachment  is  required  to 
make  once  every  three  months,  oroftener  if  reqvnred, 
a  written  report  to  the  Chief  of  Ordnance  stating  all 
damages  to  arms  so  lx;longing  to  his  command,  imd 
naming  the  officers  and  soldiers  by  whose  negligence 
or  abuse  the  damages  were  occasioned. 

Burinck  damagen,  in  the  British  armv,  is  the  term 
applied  to  injuries  done  to  barracks,  barrack-furni- 
ture, etc.,  by  soldiers,  when  the  actual  i>eri>etrator 
cannot  be  discovcriil. 

DAMASCENING  DAMASKEENING.— The  art  of 
producing  upon  ordhiury  steel  certain  r)rnamental 
appejirances  resembling  those  obser\-eil  on  the  famous 
Daniiuscus  blades.  Attention  was  first  drawn  to  this 
branch  of  industry  by  the  Crusjiders,  who  brought 
from  Damascus  to  Europe  many  articles  made  of 
suiKTior  steel,  such  as  sword-blades  and  daggers. 
These  v^-rc  found  to  possess  not  only  great  ela.slicity, 
united  with  considerable  hardness,  but  their  surfaces 
\yere  covire<l  with  beautiful  designs,  formed  by  a 
tissue  of  dark  lines  on  a  light  ground,  or  light  lines 
■upon  a  dark  ground,  and  occasionallv  by  the  inlaying 
of  gold  on  the  steel-blue  ground.  Yhese  Damascus 
blades  appear  to  have  been  constructed  of  steel  and 
iron  weldf'd  together;  and  the  elegant  designs  were 
brought  out  by  immersing  the  bhules  in  dilute  acids, 
which,  eating  away  unequally  the  surface,  gave  rise 
to  the  mottled  apiwirance.     In  genuine   Dama.scus 


blades  the  designs  run  through  the  substance  of  the 

blade,  and  the  watering,  or  regidar,  almost  symmet- 
rical figuring,  is  not  worn  oil  by  friction,  or  even 
grinding.  Imitations  of  the  watering  of  Damascus 
steel  are  produced  on  common  steel  l)y  etching  with 
acids;  and  in  this  way  landscapes,  in.seriptions,  ami 
ornaments,  and  decorations  in  genend,  are  imprinted 
on  the  steel-blue  ground.  Gold  and  silver  are  also 
inlaid  in  the  higher  da.ss  of  swonl-blailes  and  other 
articles.  Gun-barrels  are  occasionally  sid)jected  to 
the  process  of  tlamasccning.  Attempts  have  lieen 
lately  made  in  France  to  accomplish  damascening  by 
means  of  photography,  but  ;is  yet  with  verj'  imper- 
fect results. 

DAMASKIN.— A  certain  variety  of  saber;  so  called 
from  the  manufacture  of  Damascus. 

DAME. — Among  nnners,  any  portion  of  the  earth 
which  may  remain  after  the  explosion  of  a  mine  has 
taken  place.  It  likewise  means  a  piece  of  wood  with 
two  handles  ased  to  press  down  tiu-f  or  dirt  in  a 
mortar. 

DAMMER. — A  resinous  substance  found  in  many 
parts  of  India;  it  exudes  from  different  kinds  of 
trees.  That  used  in  Bengal  Ls  yielded  by  the  Shorea 
robustd,  or  the  .sill-tree.  There  are  three  kinds,  the 
white,  black,  and  coar-se  dammer,  which  appear  to 
resemble  the  resin  obtained  from  the  pine.  It  is  in 
very  general  use  throughout  Eastern  and  Southern 
Asia.  In  arsenals  it  is  u.sed  to  protect  packages,  etc., 
which  are  likely  to  be  exposed  to  damp  or  wet  in 
transit. 

DANAI, — An  ancient  name  of  the  Greeks,  derived 
from  Danaus,  King  of  Argos,  1474  B.C. 

DANAIDE.— An  hydraulic  machine  made  of  two 
cylinders,  one  within  the  other,  turning  easily  on  a 
vertical  axis,  and  having  a  small  space  between  them. 
The  smaller  one  is  closed  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
other  has  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  its  ba.se.  The  bot- 
toms of  the  two  are  separated  by  partitions  reaching 
from  the  circumference  to  the  center,  but  the  ring- 
like space  between  the  cylinders  is  open.  If  water 
be  turned  into  this  space  horizontally  to  the  surface 
of  the  cylinders,  they  begin  to  revolve  by  friction, 
which  motion  is  increased  by  the  water  in  revolution 
acting  on  the  radial  partitions  in  the  base.  It  is 
found  that  nearly  three  quarters  of  the  hydraulic 
power  can  thus  l)e  utilizeil. 

DANA  PROJECTILE. — This  projectile  consists  of  a 
cast-iron  body  having  a  conical  base,  to  which  is  at- 
tached a  cup-shaped  ring  of  brass,     tfpon  discharge. 


»lie  ring  is  driven  forward  upon  the  base,  and  by  this 
movement  the  .soft  metal  expanded  into  the  grooves 
and  rotation  communicated  to  the  projectile.  As  the 
front  end  of  the  sabot  jiasses  the  shoulder  it  is  crowded 
down  info  the  groove  cut  round  the  body  of  the  shot, 
and  thus  "clinched,"  as  it  were.  The  .same  end  is 
sought  in  the  arrangement  at  the  bottom  of  the  sabot, 
where  the  gas,  acting  in  the  cannelure,  presses  the  lip 
into  the  groove  cut  in  the  cast-iron.  Such  is  the  pro- 
vision designed  to  secure  the  .sjdiol  from  stripping. 
Turning  upon  the  projectile  is  pre- 
vented by  wedge  shaped  projections 
and  reces.ses  upon  the  ba.se  of  the 
projectile  and  the  mider  surface  of 
the  sabot.  See  Krimndiiiq  Prnjictilts. 
DANCETTE.— One  of  the  lines  of 
partition  in  Heraldry,  which  differs 
from  indented  only  in  the  greater 
size  of  the  notches.  The  indenta- 
tions where  the  division  \»perfess  dancctfc  never  ex- 
ceed three  in  number.     See  Heraldry. 


DaDcette. 


SANOEBOUS  SPACE. 


447 


DANIELL  BATTEBT. 


DANGEROUS  SPACE— That  7X)ne,  partly  boforc 
riiul  partly  Ix'vond  the  ohjcc-t  tired  at  (the  sights 
having  been  correctly  elevated),  which  is  covered  by 
the  trajectory.  The  object  may  he  ilisplaced  to  the 
front  or  rear  of  its  correct  ranse-point  a  dLstance 
ecjual,  in  the  aggregate,  to  the  depth  of  this  zone, 
and  still  Ix'  hit  by  the  projectile.  The  danyerous 
space  will,  of  course,  Ix'  in(ria.st-d  by  the  (irer  ly- 
ing down  and  aiming  at  his  adversary's  feet.  A 
part  of  the  dtiugiions  i>]iafe  is  near  the  muzzle  of  the 
gun  in  the  rising  Ijranch  of  the  trajectory  ;  the  rest  of 
it  is  in  the  falling  branch.  These  two  parts  are  con- 
tinuous up  to  iuid  including  the  battleraiige.  The 
dangerous  apace  varies  considerably  with  the  weapon 
used.     It  is  readily  seen  in  the  drawing  how,  with 


an  equal  divergence  of  the  bullets  in  both  cases, 
those  having  flat  trajectories  hit  the  target,  while 
those  having  highly-curved  trajectories  miss  it,  the 
one  striking  above  and  the  other  below  it.  It  also 
varies  with  the  object  fired  at,  and  for  the  same  arm 
diminishes  a.s  the  range  increases  beyond  battle-range; 
up  to  this  point  it  increases  with  the  range. 

The  dangerous  spaces  corresponding  to  difTerent 
distances  are  generally  for  a  height  of  63  inches  for  a 
foot-soldier  and  8  feet  2i  inches  for  a  mounted  man. 
The  following  table  shows  the  dangerous  spaces  for 
lx>th  a  foot-soldier  and  a  cavalryman,  corresponding 
to  the  different  graduations  of  the  rear  sights  of  the 
muskets  of  different  nations: 


DANIELL  BATTERY.— A  constant  battery,  much 
used  in  mining  operations.  The  containing  vessel  of 
the  DanicU  cell  is  of  copper,  which  serves  likewise  as 
the  negative  element  of  the  pair.  Inside  of  this  is 
another  ves.sel  of  porous  unglazcd  earthenware  con- 
taining a  rod  of  zinc.  The  space  between  the  copper 
and  the  iK)rous  cell  is  filled  with  a  solution  of  the  sul- 
phate of  copper,  which  is  kept  concentrated  by  crj-stals 
of  the  salt  lying  on  a  projecting  .shelf,  near  the  surface 
of  the  solution,  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  placed 
with  the  zinc  in  the  porous  cell.  When  a  tangent 
galvanometer  is  included  in  the  circuit,  the  needle 
keeps  steadily  at  the  same  point  for  hours.  The  ra- 
tionale of  its  action  is  given  as  follows:  The  jxjrous 
cell  which  keeps  the  fluids  from  mingling  does  not 
hinder  the  passage  of  the  current;  wh(-n  the  atoms  of 
hydrogen  that  would  ultimately  be  freed  at  the  copper 
reach  the  porous  cell,  they  displace  the  coi)]X'r  in  the 
sulphate  of  copper,  and  copper  instead  of  hydrogen  is 
thrown  on  the  copper  plate.  To  give  a  graphic  repre- 
sentation of  this  action,  it  is  necessarj'  to  suppose  that 
the  sulphate  of  copper  is  CuSOj,  the  direct  combina- 
tion of  the  metal  (Cu)  with  a  salt  radical  'SO,)  called 
sulphion,  and  that  the  di.s.solution  of  the  zinc  arises 
from  the  decomposition  of  sulphuric  acid,  regarded 
as  the  sulphionide  of  hydrogen  (H-jSO,),  the  SO,  di- 
rectly attacking  the  metal.  This  view  of  the  compo- 
sition of  oxygen  salts,  though  new  in  Daniel''s  time, 
is  now  universally  admitted.  Taking  these  letters  to 
represent  the  molecules,  and  beginning  with  the  cop- 
per (Cu)  of  the  outer  ve.s.sel,  and  ending  with  the  zinc 
(Zn)  of  the  rod,  we  have  the  arrangement  before  dis- 
charge, Cu.CuSO,,CuSO..  'H.SO";  HTSOI  Zn  ;  and 
after  it,  CuCu  SO.Cu  80,"'H  SO.,H  SO.Zn.  The 
discharge,  therefore,  effects  a  deposition  of  copper 
at  tlie  copper,  and  the  formation  of  suljihionide  of 
hydrogen  at  the  porous  cell,  and  of  sulphionide  of 
zinc  at  the  zmc  rod.  Instead  of  hydrogen  in  its 
na.scent  state  being  depo.sited  at  the  eopix>r,  we  have 
copper  in  the  same  condition;  but  the  galvanic  polari- 
zjition  eau,sed  by  the  latter  is  very  much  inferior  to 
that  resulting  from  the  fonner,  and  hence  the  .STiperior 
electro-motive  force  of  Daniell's  cell.  The  poroiLs  cell 
keeps  the  sulphate  of  zinc  from  reaching  the  copper, 
and  thus  obviates  another  source  of  diminished  force 
in  the  one-fluid  batterj'.  The  sulphate  of  zinc  once 
formed  is  itself  subjected  to  the  decomposing  action 
of  the  pile,  and  zinc  is  deposited  on  the  copper  plate, 
thus  tending  to  give  a  zinc-zinc  instead  of  a  coppcr- 


FOOT-SOLDIER  (63L>jche»). 


DiSTAKCES. 


220  yards. 

330  "  .. 

•J40  "  . . 

.^50  "  .. 

660  •'  .. 

770  "  .. 

880  "  .. 

990  "  .. 

1100  "  .. 


United 
States. 


France. 


Yds.  Tds.'Y(U.  Yilt.'TrU. 


Eng- 
land. 


Old    Cai^  New  Car- 
tridge,      tridge. 


•iJO  !  69  !2S0 

78  49 

4.3  36 

32  29 

24  21 

19  18 

16  IS 

12  12 

10  10 


101 

57 

S2 

,38 

34 

28 

2.'> 

22 

20 

17 

16 

14 

13 

12 

10 

10 

80  220 
87 
60 
Si 
26 
21 
17 
14 
11 


Austria. 


Yds.  Ydt.  Yds.  Yd». 
72  220  I  89  280 
46  102 
52 


53  71 
.38  43  I  34 
80  80  )  25 
24  I  22  !  20 
20  1  16 
16   18 
14   11 
11 


Spai». 


Yda. 

220 
89 
48 
.32 
23 
19 
15 
12 
10 


Hol- 
land. 


Italy. 


Prcssia. 


Yds. 

Yds. 

220 

re 

77 

4« 

47 

.36 

.31 

27 

22 

21 

17 

16 

14 

13 

11 

11 

9 

9 

Russia. 


Ida. 

78 
56 


r<j«. 

220 
94 
51 
34 
26 
21 
16 
13 
11 


Swrr- 

ZSR- 

LAKD. 


Yds. 
71 
46 
35 
27 
21 
16 
13 
II 
9 


CAVALRYMAN  (98J^  Inchesi. 


220  yards 

220 
3.30 
70 
54 
38 
30 
85 
80 
16 

11-^ 

.lOfl 

n3 

oon 

103 

<VM 

98 
68 
50 
38 
SO 
23 
19 
IS 
13 

220 
330 
94 
57 
43 
3-3 
36 
82 

'4 

114 
81 
59 
46 
36 
90 
84 
20 
16 

220 
3.30 
84 
50 
88 
30 
83 
19 
15 

56 
43 
33 
26 
81 
18 
14 

230 
330 
80 
48 
36 
28 
83 
19 
14 

101 
78 
54 
42 
32 
25 
21 
17 
14 

220 
330 
82 
50 
37 
28 
23 
19 
14 

108 
72 
55 
48 
32 
25 
21 

li 

220 
330 
91 
SI 
40 
31 
S» 
20 
15 

108 
80 
58 
43 
34 
27 
23 
17 
15 

220 

380 

89 

54 

42 
83 
26 
81 
16 

107 
77 
67 
45 
36 
30 
84 
20 
IS 

220 
330 
77 
47 
35 
27 
22 
17 
14 

97 

■m  "  ::::: 

76 
57 
43 
34 
28 
84 
18 
15 

3.30 
93 
55 
42 
32 
25 
20 
15 

81  xv\  1  ■7^   .330 

70 

440   "   

59 
44 
35 
28 
23 
19 
15 

84   57  1  ^' 

ta 

■MO   "   

55  1  45 
43   .31'. 

46 
34 
26 
21 

in 

40 

6tiO   "   

88 

770   "   

83 
26 
81 
16 

30 
24 
20 

85 

880   »   

990   "   

81 
16 

1100   "   

16   13 

18 

See  Battle-range. 


DANK  BOTABY  FUBNACE. 


448 


DAUPHINS. 


zinc  pair.  The  consUincy  of  DiinicH's  batttrv  is  not 
imlimiti'd,  for  the  sulphate  of  zinc  which  results  from 
the  action,  biini;  a  liad  loiuluctor  of  electricity,  cn- 
fei'bles  the  current.  In  the  Dauiell  cell  used  for  tele- 
graphs, the  conudnmg  vessel  is  of  glass,  and  no  sul- 
phuric acid  is  added  to  the  water  round  the  zinc,  as, 
in  the  course  of  the  attion,  sufficient  acid  comes 
Ihrough  from  the  s\ilphate  cell.     See  Galrani»m. 

DANK  ROTAKY  FUBNACE.— In  order  to  lessen  the 
•rnal  aniDunl  of  labor  involved  in  working  the  charge, 
various  mechanical  appliances  have  been  proposed 
in  substitution  for  manuiU  i>uddling.  They  may  lie 
generally  elu-ssitied  luider  two  heaiU;  namely,  those 
imitating  the  motions  of  hand-stirring,  and  those  using 
rotating  or  o.scillating  hearths.  The  drawing  shows 
Dank's  rotary  furnace,  which  has  a  lire  grate,  a, 
like  an  oniiiiary  puddling-furnacc,  with  a  bla.st,  b, 
under  the  gnite,  and  also,  k,  over  the  tire.  The  ash- 
pit and  tire^hole  are  closi'd.  The  tire-bridge,  il,  is  of 
iron,  and  hits  a  water-pipe  cast  into  it  to  cool  il,  and 
a  lining  of  tire  brick  next  to  the  tire,  and  on  top,  and 
a  covering oifitUing  next  to  the  charge.  A  ring  of 
hard  metal  is  placed  on  the  bridge-plate  for  the  bearing 
of  the  chaml)er,  and  forms  a  butt-joint.  The  revolving 
chamber,  e,  is  an  open-ended  cylinder,  one  end  of 
which  bulls  agiiinsi  Ibe  ring  on  the  bridge,  where  the 
ga.si's  are  admitted  from  the  fire  at  c;  and  the  other 
end  serves  as  a  door  for  the  reception  antl  removal  of 
the  charges,  and  also  for  the  escape  of  the  products  of 
combustion.     The  chamber  rests  on  rollers,  hh,  and 


has  a  circumfeR'nlial  toollied  wheel,  /,  which  is  geared 
to  an  engine.  The  chamber  is  lined  with  a  mortar  of 
pulverized  ore  and  lime,  which  is  laid  on  the  inside 
(juile  thick  ami  dried.  The  lining  is  completed  by 
"  fettling,"  which  consists  in  charging  a  small  quan- 
tity of  fine  ore  and  melting  it  while  the  chamber  is 
revolving.  \Vlicii  il  is  melted  the  revolution  is 
stopped,  and  the  molten  melal  settles  in  a  pool  at  the 
bottom.  Small  and  large  lumps  of  ore  arc  thrown 
into  the  pool,  which  is  allowed  to  solidify.  A  fresh 
quantity  of  tine  ore  is  again  charged,  and'the  process 
repeated,  the  ehamlxT  being  stopped  at  a  different 
place  each  lime.  This  is  continued  until  the  whole 
chamber  is  lined  wilh  Ihe  ore.  or  "  fettled,"  when  it  is 
rcjidy  for  charging.  At  the  opposite  end  or  front  of 
the  furnace  is  a  movalile  piece,  fgd,  which  nnsv.ers 
the  purpose  both  of  door  and  flue.  It  can  be  moved 
by  means  of  suitable  apparatus  overhead,  and  when 
in  its  jilace  the  escaping  ga.scs  pa.ss  through  at  /  into 
the  Hue  and  chimney.  When  it  is  removed  for  Ihe 
introdiiclion  or  removal  of  Ihe  charge,  Ihe  end  of  the 
chamber  is  open.  The  operation  of  the  furnace  is  as 
follows:  A  quantity  of  mill-cinder  is  lirst  charged, 
and  on  this  ibe  iron  in  a  inollen  or  heated  condition.' 
A  partial  rotation  is  given  lo  the  furnace  from  time 
to  lime  lo  exi>ose  all  portions  of  the  charge  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  ga.ses.  ^Vhen  the  whole  of  the  charge  is 
melted,  the  chamber  is  revolved  once  or  twice  a  min- 
ute lo  obtain  Ihe  most  perfect  action  of  Ihe  cinder  on 
the  iron.  After  five  or  ten  nnnutes  the  iron  begins 
lo  thicken,  and  the  rotation  is  stopped.  The  heal  is 
niised,  and  the  cinder  liquefies,  and  floats  over  the 
iron,  contjiining  all  the  impurities  of  the  iron.  The 
cinder  is  tjippcd  off  by  the  tap-hole,  m,  and  the  tap- 
hole  clascfl.  The  heat  is  again  raised,  and  the  cham- 
ber revolved  six  or  eight  times  a  minute,  by  whiclj 
means  the  charge  Is  da-shed  uboni  violently  in  the 
furnace.     A  high  lemperalure  being  kept  \i\\  and  the 


charge  conlimially  liirned  over,  the  particles  begin  lo 
adhere  when  Ihe  rolalious  are  reduced  to  Iwo  or  tliree 
in  a  minute,  and  Ihe  ball  speedily  forms.  The  props, 
H  II,  of  the  movable  piece  are  removed,  and  Ihe  flue 
and  front  of  Ibe  furnace  are  moved  away,  and  Ihe  ball 
withdrawn  and  carried  to  the  hanmier  or  squeezer, 
where  il  is  formed  into  a  lilnoni.     See  Funmn. 

DANNEBKOG.— An  ancient  baltle-slandard  of  the 
Danes,  bearing  the  figures  of  a  cross  and  crown,  and 
alleged  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  at  the  battle  of 
Volmar,  1219  -V.d.  Like  the  palladium,  it  was  sup- 
posed to  insure  victory,  but  it  was  twice  captured  and 
twice  relak<n.  The  Order  of  the  Danuebrog  ranks 
second  in  Ihe  Danish  orders  of  knighthood. 

DANNEVIBKE.— A  wall  of  defense  again.st  Ihe 
Franks  built  by  Ihe  Danes  in  808  .\,n.,  reaching  from 
Ihe  Norlh  Sea  to  Ihe  Baltic.  During  Ihe  troubles  of 
18-t><  Ihe  line  of  the  old  wall  was  strongly  fortified, 
but  Ihe  works  were  destroyed  in  1864. 

DARA  BOOKA.— A  fomi  of  kettle-drum  of  ancient 
and  modern  Egypt,  and  the  coimecting-link  between 
Ihe  driiiit  jirojicr  and  the  UiiKhimriin-.  It  is  more 
generally  called  tnm-tain.     See  Ti'in'tmii. 

DART. — A  missile  spear  or  ja\elin  much  in  use 
among  the  ancients,  and  yet  seen  among  many  of  the 
more  barbarous  nations.  The  Catlres  of  South 
Africa  and  the  original  inhabitants  of  Australia  are 
very  expert  in  the  use  of  the  (imeyai.  The  darts  in 
use  among  the  ancients  were  of  two  kinds,  namely, 
spear-headed  (that  is,  without  barbs)  and  bearded. 
The  former  were  often  attached  to  a  long  cord,  ena- 
bling the  thrower  to  recover  his  weapon  after  having 
tlu-own  it.  Dart-heads  are  usually  made  of  iron,  but 
among  .savage  nations  flints,  sea  shells,  fish-bones, 
and  other  hard  substances  have  been  employed;  and 
among  some  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Africa 
and  America  the  dart  was  merely  a  shari)-pointed 
stick,  the  end  of  which  was  carbonized  by  fire.  The 
weapon  is  always  very  simple  in  its  construction,  and 
is  usually  from  3  to  5  feet  long. 

DATERAU  — The  Bornu  na'me  for  a  most  excellent 
African  contrivance,  used  in  some  parts  of  the  Sahara 
Desert,  by  means  of  which  tcni-ropes  may  be  secured 
or  horses  picketed  in  sand  of  the  driest  description, 
as  in  that  of  a  simd-duue,  whence  a  tent-peg  would 
be  drawn  out  by  a  strain  so  slight  as  to  be  almost  im- 
perceplible.  The  plan  is  to  tie  to  the  end  of  the  tent- 
rope  or  tether  a  small  object  of  any  descrplion  by 
its  middle,  as  a  short  stick,  a  stone,  aI)undleof  twigs, 
or  a  bag  of  sand,  and  to  bury  it  from  1  to  3  feet  in 
the  loose  sand.  It  will  be  found,  if  it  has  been 
buried  1  foot  deep,  that  a  strain  equal  to  about  50 
pounds  weight  is  necessary  to  draw  it  up;  if  lA  feet 
deep,  thai  a.much  more  considerable  strain  is  ncces- 
sarj';  and  that  if  2  feet  deep,  it  is  (luitc  impossible 
for  a  single  man  lo  pull  il  up.  Theoretically  this  is 
obvious ;  for,  supposing  Ihe  earth  lo  consist  of 
smooth,  spherical  grains  of  one  .size,  and  granting 
that  these  grains  cannot  move  horizontally  at  Ihe 
moincnl  of  drawing,  and  Ihat  they  i/i  iikI  mow  verti- 
cally ujiwards,  it  is  plain  Ihat  the  substance  attached 
to  the  rope  when  moved  upwards  nuisl  start  before  it 
an  inverled  jiyramidal  pile  of  grains.  Take  the  most 
unfavorable  ca.se,  supposing  il  to  be  a  triangular  pile; 
then  the  number  of  grains  to  be  started  (and  conse- 
quently their  weight)  varies  as         "T-y— ,,     ~  ,    or 

1  ,  «  .  o 

in  a  ratio  greater  than  n^  (n  being  thelnmiber  of  lay- 
ers of  grains  alK)ve).  In  practice  Ihe  gnuns  of  sjind 
are  capable  of  a  small  but  variable  amotmt  of  lateral 
displacement,  which  gives  relief  lo  the  movement  of 
sand  cau.sefl  by  the  (hitinim.  On  Ihe  other  hand,  the 
friction  of  the  grains  of  sand  tends  lo  increase  the 
difflculty  of  movemenl.  Of  course  the  resistance 
varies  under  dilTerenl  circinnstances;  but  it  is  no  ex- 
aggeration lo  estimate  its  increase  as  seldom  less  than 
as  Ihe  .square  of  Ihe  deplh. 

DAUPHINS. — Ornamental  handles  on  bra.ss  gims 
over  Ihe  trunnions,  .so  called  from  their  resemblance 
to  the  fish  of  that  name. 


BATJPHUI'S  CROWN. 


449 


BEAN  FIELD-GUN. 


DAUPHINS  CROWN.— A  circle  of  gold  .sel  round 
•with  eight  tieurs-du-lis,  closed  at  tlie  top  with  four 
dolphins,  their  tails  conjoined  in  a  Heur<le-lis. 

DAWK. — A  method  of  traveling  in  India  which 
•consists  in  posting  hy  palanquin  from  stjitiou  to 
station,  or  for  any  distance.  The  traveler  must  lirst 
pureha.-*  a  strong  palanquin,  which  he  can  have  for 
from  40  to  lOU  rupees  (£4  to  £10),  but  which  he  can 
always  dLsiiose  of  when  his  journey  has  been  com- 
pleted, and  generally  at  a  profit,  "llis  ch)thes,  to- 
gether with  whatever  articles  he  may  not  uumediatcly 
need,  are  carried  in  tin  boxes  or  wicker  baskets  called 
pettarahs,  by  sep;u~.ite  Ix-arers,  who  pa'Cedeor  accom- 
pany the  palanquin;  whatever  he  con.siders uecessaiy, 
however,  he  keeps  besiilc  himself  inside.  At  all  the 
stage.s,  which  arc  from  9  to  11  miles  apart,  there  are 
relays  of  bearers,  pre\iously  i)ro\ided  by  the  Post- 
ma.ster,  the  usual  number  for  one  palanquin  being 
eleven.  All  arrangements  as  to  cost  are  made  with 
the  Postmaster  of  each  presidency  before  starting,  but 
the  traveler  is  also  expected  to  give  some  small  sum 
to  his  bearers  at  the  end  of  each  stage:  eight  annas 
(one  shilling)  among  the  entire  set  of  bearers  is  as 
much  as  is  expected  in  the  way  of  gratuity.  The 
horse-dawk,  a  kind  of  carriage  with  seats  for  four, 
and  capable  of  being  used  as  a  bed  in  which  two  can 
sleep,  the  baggage  being  conveyed  on  the  top,  set  on 
wheels,  and  drawn  by  horses,  is  in  use  on  the  great 
trunk  road  from  Calcutta  to  the  upper  pro\inces,  but 
has  not  been  established  throughout  the  countrj'  gen- 
erally     Frequently  written  Diik. 

DAY. — Originally  the  space  of  time  during  which 
it  is  light,  in  opposition  to  the  space  of  darkness  or 
night;  it  now  more  usually  denotes  a  complete  alter- 
nation of  light  and  darkness.  It  is  the  earth's  rota- 
tion that  causes  the  vicissitude  of  day  and  night. 
The  earth  being  a  globe,  only  one  half  of  it  can  be  in 
the  sun's  light  at  once;  to  that  half  it  is  day,  while 
the  other  half  is  in  its  own  shadow,  or  in  night.  But 
by  the  earth's  rotation  the  several  portions  of  the 
surface  have  each  their  turn  of  light  and  of  darkness. 
This  happens  because  the  position  of  the  earth  is 
such  that  the  equator  is  on  the  whole  presented  to- 
wards the  sun;  had  either  pole  lieen  towards  the  sim, 
that  hemisphere  would  have  revolved  in  continual 
light,  the  other  in  continual  darkness.  One  complete 
rotation  of  the  earth  does  not  make  a  day,  in  the 
usual  sense.  If  the  rime  is  noted  when  a  particular 
fixed  star  is  exactly  south  or  on  the  mciidian,  when 
the  same  star  comes  again  to  the  meridian  the  next 
day,  the  earth  has  made  exactly  one  rotation,  and  the 
time  that  has  elapsed  is  called  a  sidereal  day.  This 
portion  of  time  is  always  of  the  same  length;  for 
the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  is  strictlj-  \ini- 
form,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  only  strictly  uniform  mo- 
tion that  nature  presents  us  with.  Sidereal  time, 
or  star-time,  from  its  unvarying  vinifonnity,  is  much 
ased  by  astronomers.  But  the  passage  of  a  star  across 
the  meridian  is  not  a  conspicuous  enough  event  for 
regulating  the  movements  of  men  in  general.  It  is 
not  a  complete  rotation  of  the  earth,  l)ut  a  complete 
alternation  of  light  and  darkness  that  constitutes  their 
day.  This,  which  is  called  the  civil  or  the  solar  Aay, 
is  ineasured  I)etween  two  mei  idian  passages  of  the 
sun,  and  is  about  four  minutes  longer  than  the  side- 
real day.  The  cause  of  the  greater  length  is  this: 
When  tiie  earth  has  made  one  complete  turn,  so  asto 
bring  the  meridian  of  the  place  to  the  simie  position 
among  the  tixed  stars  as  when  it  was  noon  the  day 
before,  the  sun  has  in  the  mean  time  (al)parenlly) 
moved  eastward  nearly  one  degree  among  the  stars, 
and  it  takes  the  earth  about  four'minutes  more  to  move 
round  so  as  to  overtake  him.  If  this  eastward  motion 
of  the  sun  were  imiform,  the  leiisth  of  the  solar  day 
would  be  as  simple  and  as  easily  determined  as  that  of 
the  sidereal.  But  the  ecliiilic  or  sun's  path  crosses 
the  earth's  equator,  and  is  therefore  more  oblique  to 
the  direction  of  the  earth's  rotation  at  one  time  than 
another;  and  besides,  as  the  earth  moves  in  her  orbit 
-Nvith  varying  speed,  the  rate  of  the  sun's  ajjparenl 


motion  in  the  ecliptic,  which  is  caused  by  that  of  the 
earth,  must  also  varj-.  The  consequence  is  that  the 
length  of  the  solar  day  is  constantly  fluctuating;  and 
to  get  a  fixed  measure  of  solar  time,  astronomers  have 
to  imagine  a  sun  moving  uniformly  in  the  celestial 
equator,  and  completing  its  circuit  in  the  same  time 
as  the  real  sun.  'fhe  time  marked  bj-  this  imaginarj- 
sun  is  called  mean  solar  time ;  when  the  imaginary' 
sun  is  on  the  meridian,  it  is  mean  noon;  when  the 
real  sim  is  on  the  meridian,  it  is  appartnt  noon.  It  is 
obvious  that  a  sun-di.d  must  show  apparent  time, 
while  clocks  and  watches  keep  mean  time.  Only  in 
four  days  of  the  yetir  do  lhe.se  two  kinds  of  time  coin- 
cide. In  the  intervals  the  sim  is  always  either  too 
fast  or  too  slow;  and  the  difference  is  called  the  cgna- 
tidu  of  time,  because,  when  added  to  or  subtracted 
from  apparent  time,  it  makes  it  equal  to  mean  time. 
The  mean  solar  day  is  divided  into  twentj -four  hours, 
the  hours  into  minutes  and  seconds.  A  sidereal  day, 
we  have  seen,  is  shorter;  its  exact  length  is  23  hours, 
Ti%  minutes,  4  seconds  of  mean  solar  or  common  time. 
Astronomers  divide  the  sidereal  day  also  into  twenty- 
four  hours,  which  are  of  course  shorter  than  common 
hours.  In  the  course  of  a  civil  year  of  'itSTt  days,  the 
earth  turns  on  its  axis  366  times,  or  there  are  366  side- 
real dajs.  Astronomers  reckon  the  day  as  beginning 
at  noon,  ami  count  the  hours  from  1  to  24.  The  civil 
day  begins  at  midnight,  and  the  hours  are  cotmted  in 
two  divisions  of  twelve  each.  The  ecclesiastical  ilay 
was  reckoned  from  sunset  to  sunset.  See  Intema- 
tinned  Date-line. 

DAT-BOOK. — In  the  British  service,  a  sort  of  pri- 
vate memorandum-book  in  which  the  Pay-.sergeant 
enters  all  details  of  exjieuditure  other  than  pay  under 
each  man's  head.  These  entries  are  made  at  the 
moment,  and  afterwards  transfened  to  the  ledger. 

DAY'S  MARCH.— The  length  of  a  day's  march  for 
troops  of  any  army  dejiends,  to  a  great  extent,  uix)n 
the  condition  of  the  roads,  the  supply  of  water,  for- 
age, etc.;  also  upon  the  advantages  to  be  gained  over 
the  enemy.  Under  ordinarj-  circumstances  infantrj' 
should  march  from  15  to  20  miles  a  day,  halting 
about  10  minutes  every  hour.  Cavalry  should  march 
about  20  miles  a  day,  and  be  kept  at  a  walk,  halting 
several  times  during  the  day.  The  march  of  artillery 
should  be  governed  by  the  movements  of  the  arms  of 
the  service  to  which  it  is  assigned  for  duty. 

DEAD  -  ANGLE. — Any  ground  over  which  the  de- 
fenders' fire  may  pass,  but  so  high  aliove  the  as.s!iil- 
ant  that  he  cannot  be  injured  hy  it,  is  called  a  diad- 
space,  or  a  dead-eivgle.  Thus,  in  a  redan  or  a  lunette, 
if  the  enemy  gets  into  the  ditch,  he  is  safe  from  any 
fire  coming  over  the  parapet.  The  ditch  in  each  of 
these  cases  has  the  defect  known  as  a  dead-space.  It 
was  to  remed)'  these  defects,  which  exist  in  all  works 
where  the  angles  are  all  salients,  that  parts  of  a  work 
were  drawn  back,  or  made  to  form  re-entering  angles, 
for  the  puipose  of  arranging  lines  from  which  direct 
fires  could  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  groimd  not 
defended  by  the  lines  adjacent  to  it. 

DEAD  HEAD.— 1.  An  extra  length  of  metal  cast  on 
the  muzzle-end  of  a  gim  in  order  to  contain  the  dross 
and  porous  metal  which  floats  on  the  sounder  metal 
beneath.  AVhen  cooled  and  solid  the  dead/iead  is  cut 
off.  It  is  called  also  the  sprue.  2.  The  tail-stock 
of  a  laihe  containing  both  the  dead-spindle  and  back- 
center.     See  Lathe. 

DEAD-MARCH. — A  piece  of  solemn  music  intend- 
ed to  be  playeil  as  an  accompaniment  to  a  funeral  pro- 
cession. 

DEAD-PAT. — Pay  drawn  for  dead  .soldiers,  whose 
names  are  kept  on  the  rolls,  and  which  is  appropri- 
ated l)y  dishonest  ofticers. 

DEAD-SHOT. — An  unerring  marksman:  one  whose 
scores  are  always  high.  The  term  is  frequently  ap- 
plied to  the  bi-^t  shot  in  a  companv  or  regiment. 

DEAD-SPINDLE.— The  non-rota"ting  spindle  in  the 
t/iil-sl'ic/c  or  (letidheiid  of  a  lathe.     Sec  Leithe. 

DEAN  FIELD-GUN.  — A  3i-inch  bronze  muzzle- 
loading  field-piece,  constructed  on  the  plan  of  the  3^- 


DEAN  MAGAZINE-OUN. 


450 


DECAOOir. 


inch  Kodmnn  muzzle-loading  rifle,  model  1870.  It 
is  without  preiwmlenince.  Its  length  and  weiirht  are 
very  niiirly  the  sune  as  those  of  the  liirhl  12-j)ounder, 
ami  it  is  adapted  to  the  siune  ouriage.  The  main 
jHi'uliarity  in  its  coustruetion  eonsists  in  the  applica- 
tion of  Mr.  Dean's  patent  process  for  condensinj:  and 
lianlenin-r  the  metal  of  the  bore.  The  ritlin;;  consists 
of  st'ven  lands  and  -rrooves  each.  The  lands  air  .50 
inch  in  width.  The  grooves  are  1.07  inch  in  width 
and  .07")  inch  in  dei)th.  The  twist  is  uniform,  mak- 
ing one  turn  in  Vi  fwt.  The  vent  is  in  the  normal 
position,  or.  the  top  of  the  gun.  The  gun  was  cast 
solid  ui  a  cast-iron  flask  or  "  chill  "  about  3*  inches 
thick,  the  interior  surface  being  covered  with  a  slight 
coating  of  clay  and  sjuul.  The  metal  used  consisted 
of  three  old  bronze  (i-pounders  furnished  by  the  Ord- 
nance I)ei)artment  and  a  part  of  a  bronze  12-poundcr 
on  hand  at  the  foundry.  At  the  second  casting  the 
metal  of  the  rejected  piece  was  returned  to  the  fur- 
nace, with  the  excejition  of  a  section  reserved  for 
tests,  and  another  part  of  the  12-pounder  was  adiled 
to  suiiply  the  deficiency.  The  weight  of  the  charge 
of  melalWas  3364  pounds,  the  time  of  melting  1  hour 
50  minutes,  and  time  of  fusion  1  hour  10  nunvilts. 
The  gun  was  removed  from  the  tlask  18  hours  after 
casting,  and  when  thoroughly  cooled  was  placed  in  a 
lathe  and  the  sinking-head  cut  off.  It  was  ne.xt 
bored  oul  in  a  boring-machine  to  a  diameter  of  3.37 
inches. 

To  condense  the  metal  of  the  bore  the  gun  was 
then  inclosed  in  the  iron  tlask  in  which  it  was  cast, 
and  was  placed  in  the  condensing-machine  and  firmly 
secured  by  lieavy  iron  rods.  Six  mandrels,  varying 
in  diameter  from  3.42  inches  to  3.50  inches,  were  used 
in  the  operation.  These,  by  means  of  a  hydraulic 
press  of  10-inch  bore,  were  in  the  order  of  their  size 
successively  forced  down  the  bore  of  the  piece  and 
^\ithdrawn,  and  the  operation  was  repeated  until  the 
most  of  the  resilience  of  the  metal  had  been  overcome 
and  the  bore  enlarged  to  very  nearly  3.50  iiiclies  in 
diameter.  The  ])ressures  used  varied  from  500  to 
2400  poimds  per  square  inch — making  a  total  pres- 
sure of  from  19i  to  94  tons.  After  condensing  the 
bore  the  gun  was  removed  to  the  rifling-machine  and 
rifled,  the  grooves  being  planed  out  to  a  little  less  than 
the  required  depth.  It  was  then  put  back  in  the  con- 
densing-machine and  tlic  bore  still  further  enlarged 
by  means  of  an  expanding  mandrel  so  constnicted  as 
to  follow  the  opposite  lands  and  grooves.  On  account 
of  a  slight  error  in  the  width  of  the  rifling-tool,  tlie 
grooves  were  left  too  narrow  for  the  ribs  of  the  man- 
drel, and  consequently  the  edges  of  the  lands  were 
slightly  abraded  in  the  operation.  A  little  grinding 
with  tine  emery  removed  much  of  the  rough  edge 
left  upon  the  lands,  but  did  not  wholly  restore  the 
smoothness  desired.  In  this  connection  it  should  be 
stated  that  the  condensing  process  was  only  ajiplied 
to  the  cylindrical  portion  of  the  bore,  and  consecjucnt- 
ly  the  metid  at  the  bottom  was  left  in  its  ordinary 
condition.  The  gim  was  next  turned  down  in  lathes 
to  its  prescribed  exterior  dimensions  and  a  copper 
vent-piece  inserted.  The  following  are  the  principal 
dimensions  of  the  gun: 

_       .     ,,  Indies. 

Exterior  diameter  at  t)ie  muzzle 6.70 

Exterior  diunieter  Hi  iiiolies  tiom  muzzle  (maximutn).  11.32 

Exterior  dinmeter  6.5  inelies  from  muzzle. 11.05 

Diameter  of  knot*  of  ca6cal>el 8.75 

I)iameter  of  iruiiiiioiis ',    4^2 

Diameter  of  rimboses  .'!!!!."!!!    sieS 

Length  of  trunnions,  {  ril**' '.....'..'.'.'.  siss 

( leib 3.34 

Distance  between  rimbajM^ 11.0.50 

Width  of  pro()ve8 "*.'.'.  1*07 

Depth  of  (grooves ""  '075 

Width  cif  lands "     '  '5 

Twist  of  rilliiiK '.'.!!l44' 

Leii(f 111  of  bore \"\  65  0.3 

Length  of  rlHing ,',',,',  6o!3"8 

Axis  of  vent  frr)m  bottom  of  bore 1..I6 

Total  lenfrth  of  piece ,.  73^86 

Weitriit.  I'.Vi'i  pounds. 

See  liriiiin'  (liiiin  and  Ordnanre. 

DEAN  MAGAZINE-OUN.— The  breech-block  of  this 


gun  is  operated  by  a  small  lever,  through  the  interven- 
tion of  two  links,  the  latter  of  whicli  catises  the  re- 
coil-block to  descend  while  the  former  forces  the 
breech  block  to  the  rear,  when  the  lever  is  thrown  to 
the  front.  The  lock  is  of  the  usual  outside  pattern 
and  needs  no  extended  description.  Two  magazines 
are  provided,  one  in  the  butt  and  one  in  the  tip- 
stock,  either  of  which  may  be  used  by  locking  olY,  by 
means  of  a  cut-otT,  the  other.  The  carrici',  which  is 
open  at  Ixith  ends  to  receive  cartridges  from  either 
magazine,  has  a  vertical  motion  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  piece.  It  is  operated  by  the  lever  in  the 
sjune  general  manner  as  the  ^Vinchester  repeater,  so 
well  known  in  this  country.  This  gun  carries  ten 
cartridges  in  the  tip-stock  magazine,  six  in  the  butl- 
.stock,  and  one  in  the  chamber.     See  Mmjiiziiu  yuii. 

DE  BANGE  FERMETURE.— This  fernicture  is  no- 
ticed at  length  in  the  ailicle  Scufi.TZ  WiUE  GCN, 
and  only  a  general  description  of  the  mode  ot  check- 
ing the  escape  of  gas  is  intended  to  be  given  in  this 
connection.  Its  general  features  are  shown  iu  the 
drawing.  It  recommends  it.self  prominently  by  ef- 
fectiveness, its  extreme  simplicity, 
and  its  not  rcipiiring  the  surface 
of  the  bore  to  be  rcces.sed.  Its  suc- 
cess has  warranted  its  adoption  in 
the  land-service  of  France,  and  it 
is  applied  to  all  calibei's.  The 
gas-check  is  composed  of  a  fillet 
or  collar  made  of  a  linen-cloth 
disk  with  a  proiier-sized  circular 
hole,  central  with  the  circumfer- 
ence, set  ujj  into  the  form  of  a 
collar  to  receive  its  filling.  This 
latter  consists  of  a  mixture  of  two 
thirds  of  shredded  asbestos  and 
one  third  of  mutton-suet,  packed 
into  the  collar,  which  is  then 
closed  and  completed  by  a  seam 
formed  on  the  inside  surface  of 
the  body.  Any  seams  outside 
woidd  be  fatal  to  the  construction.  Considerable  in- 
senuity  has  to  be  exercised  iu  so  forming  the  linen 
disk;  and  the  present  arrangement  has  been  the  re- 
sult of  considerable  experiment  before  successful 
results  were  secured.  Two  zinc  or  shaet -brass  col- 
lars cover  at  top  and  bottom  this  colkir,  and  it  i» 
placed,  in  addition  with  two  copper  rings,  between 
the  rondelle  and  the  face  of  the  feriueture,  a  tail  or 
rod  to  the  rondelle  p.assing  through  the  fernicture  and 
being  keyed  to  keep  the  system  in  position  in  the 
block.  The  vent,  lined  with  copper,  finds  place  in 
the  axis  of  the  breech-block,  thus  affording  central 
fire.     See  Brora! mil  Ring  and  Sehnltz  Wire  l}un. 

DEBLAI. — In  fortification,  any  hollow  space  or  ex- 
cavation in  the  ground  made  during  the  construction 
of  fortifications  or  siege-works.  The  canty  itself  is 
the  (h'blai,  while  the  earth  taken  from  it  is  called  the 
rembliii. 

DEBOUCHING.— In  military  tactics  or  evolutions, 
the  marching  out  of  a  body  of  troops 
from  a  wood,  defile,  or  other  con- 
fined s]iot  into  open  ground. 

DEBRIS.— Ruins  of  a  building  or 
town  which  has  been  sackcil ;  the 
broken  remains  of  an  army  after  a 
defeat, 

DEBRUISED.— A  term  peculiar 
to  English  Heraldry,  used  to  indi- 
cate the  grievous  restraint  of  an 
animal,  and  its  being  debaiTed  of 
its  natural  freedom  by  having  any  of  the  ordinaiies 
laid  over  it.     See  Hiraldn/. 

DECAGON. — In  fortification  and  plane  geometry,  a 
figure  of  ten  sides.  When  tlie  siiles  are  equal,  the 
figiu'e  is  called  a  regular  decagon.  A  decagon  may 
be  formed  from  a  pentagon  by  forming  any  irregular 
triangles  on  its  sides  in  such  a  way  that  no  two  of 
them  sliall  have  their  .sides  in  the  same  straight  line. 
A  regular  decagon  is  got  from  a  regular  pentagon  liy 


Debniised. 


DECAMP. 


451 


SECHABOEITBS. 


describing  a  circle  round  the  latter,  bisecting  the  arcs 
between  its  angular  points,  and  drawing  lines  joining 
the  angular  points  to  the  points  of  section. 

DECAMP. — To  quit  any  place  or  position  in  an  un- 
expected manner.  It  likewise  signifies  to  march  an 
army  or  body  of  men  from  the  ground  where  it  be- 
fore lay  encamped. 

DECANUS.— In  Roman  military  history,  a  petty  of- 
ficer who  presided  over  the  ten  soldiers  of  his  "con- 
tubernium,  or  those  living  in  the  same  tent. 

DECARBONIZED  STEEL.— Since  1873  all  small-arm 
barrels  turned  out  at  the  National  Armory  have  been 
made  of  decarbonized  steel  (Bessemer),  and  about  one 
in  si.\  h\mdred  only  have  been  found  to  burst  in  proof. 
The  principal  defects  of  decarbonized  steel  as  a  ma- 
terial for  gun-barrels  are  fine  -scams  running  in  the 
direction  of  the  length  of  the  barrel.  These  seams 
arc  sometimes  so  fine  as  to  escape  the  numerous  iii- 
sj)CCtions  to  which  the  barrels  are  subjected  in  the 
course  of  manufacture,  and  are  only  delected  by  the 
browning  process.  Though  such  barrels ha\e strength 
to  resist  the  proof-firing,  they  are  rejected  for  service. 
A  good  decarbonized  steel  for  rifle  or  carbine  barrels 
has  sufficient  strength  to  resist  a  charge  composed  of 
one  proof-bullet  and  suilicient  musket -powd(;r  to  fill 
the  bore  to  the  muzzle.  A  wrought-iron  rifle  or  car- 
bine barrel  will  only  endure  about  one  half  of  this 
charge.  The  breech-loading  system  after  it  is  finished 
and  assembled  to  the  barrel  is  subjected  to  a  "  finished- 
proof  "  charge  of  a  single  service-bullet  and  a  charge 
of  85  grains  of  nmsket-powder,  which  is  all  that  can 
be  crowded  into  the  cartridge-shell.  Numerous  trials 
have  .shown  that  the  Siiringfield  system  will  stand  at 
least  120  grains  of  powder  and  three  service-bullets, 
weighing  altogether  1265  gi'ains.  The  fact  that  a 
small-arm  barrel  seldom  or  never  bursts  or  swells  at 
the  muzzle  in  proof  shows  conclusively  that  when  such 
defects  are  found  in  service  the  cause  is  some  obstruc- 
tion in  the  bore.  Obstructions  arise  generally  from 
the  improper  stopping  up  of  the  muzzle  to  keep  out 
moisture.  It  maj'  arise  from  dirt  introduced  by  rest- 
ing the  muzzle  of  the  piece  on  the  ground.  Instances 
have  occurred  of  the  bursting  of  ser\ice-l)arrels  by  a 
bullet  in  the  bore— the  result  of  a  charge  insufficient 
to  e.xpel  it.  Very  accurate  and  delicate  machines  are 
now  used  to  weigh  each  finished  cartridge  and  reject 
any  that  may  be  deficient  in  powder.  The  barrel  of 
a  rifle  will  endure  at  least  10,000  service-fires  before 
its  accuracy  is  sensibly  impaired;  and  its  exterior  di- 
mensions may  be  very  much  reduced  by  wear  with- 
out impairing  its  strength  for  service.  See  Small- 
anna  and  A'freL 

DECEASED  OFFICERS  AND  SOLDIERS.— In  the 
United  States  service,  the  death  of  an  officer,  \vith 
cause,  date,  and  place,  is  reported  without  delay  by 
his  immediate  Commander  direct  to  the  Adjutant 
General.  When  the  death  occurs  away  from  the 
officer's  station,  in  hospital  or  on  leave,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  Army  Medical  Officer,  if  there  be  one  in  <liarge, 
or  of  any  officer  having  cognizance  of  the  fact,  to 
make  the  report.  A  duplicate  of  the  report  is  sent  to 
Department  Headquarters.  Inventories  of  the  effects 
of  deceased  officers,  as  required  by  the  125th  Article 
of  War,  are  transmitted  to  the  Adjutant  General  of 
the  Army.  If  legal  representatives  take  pos.scssion 
of  the  effects,  it  is  so  staled  on  the  inventory  and  the 
report  of  death.  If  there  be  no  legal  representative 
present  to  receive  the  effects,  a  list  of  them  is  sent  to 
the  nearest  relative  of  the  deceased  officer.  At  the 
end  of  two  months,  if  not  called  for,  they  are  sold  at 
auction  and  accounted  for  as  in  the  case  of  deceased 
soldiers;  except  that  swords,  watches,  trinkets,  and 
such  articles  are  labeled  with  the  name,  rank,  regi- 
ment, and  date  of  death  of  the  owner,  and  sent 
through  the  Adjutant  General  to  the  Second  Auditor 
of  theTreasury  for  the  heirs.  On  the  death  of  any 
officer  in  charge  of  public  property  or  money,  the 
Commanding  Officer  appoints  a  Board  of  Survey  to 
take  an  inventory  of  the  same,  which  he  forwards  to 
the  proper  Bureau  of  the  War  Department;  and  he 


designates  an  officer  to  take  charge  of  the  .said  prop- 
erty or  money  till  orders  in  the  ca.se  are  received  from 
the  proper  authority.  Funeral  expenses  of  officers 
who  die  at  a  military  post  or  station  are  ordinarily 
not  a  proper  charge  against  the  Appropriations  for 
the  Array.  E.\pcn.ses  "of  the  interment  of  ofiicers 
killed  in  action,  or  who  die  when  on  duly  in  the 
field,  or  at  po.sts  on  the  fronliers,  or  when  traveling 
on  orders,"  may,  imder  certain  circmnstiuices,  lie  or- 
dered paid  by  the  Secretary  of  War.  But,  except 
when  emergency  rcciuires  that  the  Commanding  Offi- 
cer of  the  Department  or  District  shall  order  the  Ixjdy 
to  be  transported  from  the  battle-field  to  a  suitable 
place  of  interment  at  the  nearest  town,  post,  or  sta- 
tion, before  the  approval  of  llie  Secrclary  can  be  ob- 
tained, such  ap|)roval  must  be  had  in  advance.  No 
accounts  are  paid  for  any  .such  expenditure  until  the 
approval  of  the  Secretary  of  War  in  writing  is  ob- 
tained. The  unclaimed  remains  of  officers  or  soldiers 
who  may  die  :it  temporarj-  camps,  or  on  detached 
.service,  are  decently  inclosed  in  coflins  and  trans- 
ported by  the  Quartcnnaster's  Department  for  buri- 
al at  the  nearest  military  post  or  national  cemetery, 
imless  the  Commanding  Officer  deem  burial  at  the 
place  of  death  to  be  proper. 

Inventories  of  the  effects  of  deceased  soldiers  re- 
ciuired  by  the  126th  Article  of  War  are  prepared  in 
triplicate,  two  copies  to  be  foi-warded  to  lint  Adju- 
tant General  by  the  Commanilitig  Officer  of  the  com- 
I)any  to  which  the  deceased  belonged,  together  with 
final  statements  of  pay,  clothing,  etc.;  the  other  copy 
to  be  retained  with  the  company  records.  Each  in- 
ventorj'  is  indorsed,    "Inventory  of   the  effects  of 

,  late  of  company  ( — ), regiment 

of ,  who  died  at ,  tlie day  of , 

18 — ."  When  a  soldier,  absent  from  his  company, 
dies  at  any  post  or  station,  it  is  the  duty  of  his  imme- 
diate Commander  to  furnish  direct  to  the  Adjutant 
General  the  required  inventories  and  final  statements, 
and  at  the  same  lime  to  forward  to  the  Commanding 
Officer  of  the  company  to  which  decea.sed  helonged  a 
report  of  his  death,  specifying  the  date,  place,  and 
cause;  to  what  time  he  was  last  paid,  and  the  money 
or  other  effects  in  his  po-ssession  at  the  time  of  his  de- 
cease; and  if  a  legal  representative  receive  the  effects, 
it  is  so  stated  in  the  report.  If  the  soldier  leave  no 
effects,  that  fact  is  rejjorted.  This  report  is  noted  on 
the  next  muster-roll  of  his  company.  Should  the  ef- 
fects of  a  deceased  soldier  not  be  administered  upon 
within  a  short  period  after  his  decease,  they  are  dis- 
posed of  by  a  Council  of  Administration,  under  the 
authoritj-  of  the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  po.st,  and 
the  proceeds  deposited  with  a  Paymaster  to  the  credit 
of  the  United  States  until  they  are  claimed  by  the 
legal  representatives  of  the  decea.sed.  In  all  such 
cases  of  sales  by  the  Coimcil  of  AdiTiinistration  a  state- 
ment in  detail  or  account  of  the  proceeds,  duly  certi- 
fied liv  the  Council  and  Commanilins  Officer,  accom- 
jianietl  by  the  Paymaster's  receipt  for  the  proceeds, 
arc  forwarded  b)'  the  Conmianding  Officer  to  the 
A<ljutant  General.  The  slatenwnl  is  indorsed,  "  Re- 
port of  the  proceeds  of  the  effects  of , 

late  of  eompanv  ( — ), resiment  of  ,  who 

died  at ,"the day  of  ,  18—."    The 

effects  in  all  cases  are  turned  over,  when  called  for, 
to  the  legal  representatives  without  further  authority 
from  the  Adjutant  General.  When  the  effects  are 
turned  over  to  the  relatives  of  the  deceased,  before 
these  inventories  are  .sent  to  the  Adjutant  General, 
their  receipts  therefor  are  attached  to  the  inventories. 
In  all  other  cases  one  copy  of  the  reeeij^t  is  sent  with 
a  letter  of  transmittal  to  the  Adjutant  General,  and  a 
duplicate  retained  with  the  company.  Receipts  in 
duplicate  are  taken  from  the  Paymaster  for  funds 
turned  over  to  him — one  copy  to  be  sent  direct  to  the 
Adjutant  General,  and  one  retained  with  the  eom- 
panv. 

DECHARGEURS.— Hen  appointed  to  attend  the  park 
of  artillery,  and  to  assist  the  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers, etc.,  who  are  employed  on  that  serrice.    It  is 


SECIUATION. 


452 


DECOY. 


the  duty  of  the  former  to  keep  a  specific  account  of 
articles  rccfivi'il  ami  coa-iunictl,  in  onier  to  enable  the 
latter  to  furnish  their  oHieers  with  accurate  state- 
ments. 

DECIMATION. — A  military  punishment,  rarely  in- 
flicliil  iu  the  present  day.  A^Tien  a  considerable  botly 
of  trixips  eoniiuitled  some  irrave  niililarv  olTensi-, 
which  would  be  punished  with  death  if  committed 
by  an  individual,  the  pimishnient  was  awarded  to  one 
tenth  of  them  by  lot,  iit-itead  of  to  the  whole  number, 
in  order  that  the  army  might  not  be  too  much  weak- 
encii. 

DECISIONS.— In'Courts-Martial,  the  majority  of  the 
votes  decides  all  questions  as  to  the  admission  or  rejec- 
tion of  e\idenee,  and  on  other  points  invoh-ine  law  or 
custom.  If  equally  di\ided,  the  doubt  is  in  favor  of 
the  prisoner  or  accused. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE.— The  Ameri- 
can Ueclaration  of  Independence  was  agreed  upon 
July  4,  1776,  by  the  thirteen  American  Colonies  then 
in  revolt  against  England.  Its  historj'  is  brief  but 
important.  Early  in  1776  the  Delegates  in  Congress 
from  Massachusetts  were  directed  to  vote  for  mde- 
pendenceof  England.  Soon  afterwards  several  other 
Coloniessent  similar  instructions.  Washington  wrote: 
"  A  reconciliation  with  Great  Britain  is  impos.sil)le. 
"When  I  took  command  of  the  army  I  abhorred  the 
idea  of  independence;  but  I  am  now  fully  sjilislied 
that  nothing  else  will  sjive  us."  Pennsylvania  and 
Xew  York  were  the  la.st  to  acquiesce  in  the  demand 
for  a  declaration.  The  tenor  of  these  instructions  to 
the  Delegiites  from  their  constituents  was  in  favor  of 
cutting  loose  from  GtcaI  Britain  entirely  and  forming 
an  in(iependent  government.  June  7,  1776,  Richard 
Henry  Lee  moved  in  Congress  that  "  These  United 
Colonies  are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  free  and  inde- 
pendent States."  Four  days  later  the  motion  was 
adopted,  and  two  Committees  were  raised  to  present 
a  Declaration  and  the  Plan  of  a  Confederation.  On 
the  Declaration  Committee  were  Jefferson,  Franklin, 
John  Adams,  and  Roger  Sherman.  They  reported 
June  2.S,  but  action  was  delayed,  as  the  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  Delegates,  having  received  no 
special  instruction,  thought  they  had  no  authority  to 
vote  for  the  Declaration.  The  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence was  draftetl  by  Tliomas  Jefferson,  and  but 
very  slightly  changed  from  his  copy.  When  it  came 
up  for  tinal  action  it  received  the  vote  of  every  Dele- 
gate. The  vote  was  taken  by  Colonies,  and  every 
Colony  gave  unanimous  approval.  It  was  immedi- 
ately signed  by  the  names  of  -56  members  present,  and 
as  soon  as  the  slow  means  of  printing  and  circulating 
in  those  days  could  spread  it,  it  went  forth  not  only 
as  the  defiant  answer  of  the  Colonies  to  the  demands 
of  the  mother-country,  but  as  a  claim  for  the  )M)litical 
emancipation  of  mankind.  It  ought  to  be  known  by 
hciirt  by  every  lx>y  and  girl  in  America.  Xot  many 
j'cars  ago  the  reading  in  full  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence was  considered  as  nece.ssary  in  any  social 
celebration  of  the  4th  of  July  as  a  prayer  in  religious 
services;  but  in  these  days,  partly  froin  careles.sncss, 
but  more  from  the  large  infusion  of  foreigners  whose 
habits  and  ideas  have  greatly  modifietl  the  primitive 
notions  of  our  own  people,  the  custom  has  fallen  into 
disuse. 

DECLAEATION  OF  WAK.— The  formal  announce- 
ment by  a  goveriunent  of  its  intention  to  wage  war 
against  another  is  a  proceeding  which  is  observed 
among  all  civilized  nation.s.  In  the  United  States  the 
declaration  of  war  is  a  power  exercised  by  Congress 
alone.  During  the  Age  of  Chivalry,  a  Herald  made 
declaration  of  war  at  the  enemy's  Court,  his  tabard 
on  bis  arm. 

DECLINATION  ■  NEEDLE.  —  When  a  magnetic 
nee<lle  is  suspended  or  made  to  rest  on  a  ])oint  .so  as 
to  be  free  to  nK>ve  in  a  horizontal  plane,  it  finds  its 
jio.sition  of  rest  in  a  line  joining  two  fixed  ]X)ints  on 
the  horizon;  and  when  made  io  leave  that  jxisition, 
after  several  oscillations,  it  returns  to  it  again.  At 
ccrttiin  places  on  the  earth's  surface  these  two  points 


are  the  north  and  south  pomts  of  the  horizon;  but 
generally,  though  near,  they  do  not  coincide  with 
these.  A  vertical  plane  passing  through  the  points  on 
the  horizon  indicated  by  the  needle  is  called  the 
magnetic  meridian,  in  the  same  way  that  a  similar 
I^lane,  passing  through  the  north  aiid  south  points, 
is  known  a.s  the  astronomical  meridian  of  the  place. 
The  angle  between  the  magnetic  and  astronomical 
meridian  is  termed  the  declination  or  variation  of  the 
needle.  The  declination  is  east  or  west  according  as 
the  magnetic  north  lies  ea.st  or  we.st  of  the  true  north. 
Instruments  for  determining  magnetic  declination  are 
called  ileelinaliou  needles,  or  declinometers.  In  this 
instrument  there  are  two  things  e.s.sential — the  means 
of  a.seertaining  the  astronomical  meridian,  and  a  nee- 
dle for  showing  the  magnetic  meridian.  The  com- 
mon form  of  declinometer  consists  of  a  tripod  pro- 
viiled  with  Icveling-screws,  and  sujiporting  a  pillar, 
to  which  is  fixed  a  graduated  azinmthal  circle.  A 
compa.ss.box,  with  vernier  attached,  moves  on  the 
azinmthal  circle  by  means  of  a  pivot  at  the  top  of  the 
pillar.  Two  uprights  are  fi.xed  to  the  side  of  the 
compass-box,  on  which  rests  the  axis  of  a  telescope. 
A  graduated  arc  is  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  one  of  the 
uprights,  and  the  angle  of  elevation  of  the  telescope 
is  marked  by  a  vernier  on  the  arm  attached  to  the 
axis  of  the  telescope.  A  level  is  also  hung  on  the 
axis  of  the  telescope  for  adjusting  the  instrument. 
Inside  the  compass-box  is  another  graduated  circle, 
the  line  joining  the  zero-pouits  of  which  is  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  telescope.  All  the  fittings  are  in 
brass  or  copper,  iron,  of  course,  being  unsuitable. 
The  compass-box  and  telescope  move  round  as  one 
piece  on  an  axis  pa.ssing  through  the  center  of  the 
azinmthal  circle.  AVhen  an  oljservation  is  made, 
the  telescope  is  pointed  to  a  star  whose  position  with 
regard  to  the  astronomical  meridian  is  known  at 
the  time  of  observation.  The  telescope  with  the  com- 
pas,s-box  is  then  brought  the  proper  number  of  de- 
grees on  the  azimuthal  circle,  imtil  its  axis  is  iu  the 
meridian  of  the  place.  If,  when  the  telescope  is  in 
this  position,  the  north  end  of  the  needle  stand  at  the 
zero-point  of  the  inner  circle,  the  declination  would 
be  0';  but  if  it  lie  east  or  west  of  this  i>oint,  the  de- 
clination is  shown  liy  the  degree  at  \vbieh  the  needle 
stands.  It  is  difficult  to  construct  a  needle  so  that 
the  line  joining  its  poles  exactly  coincides  with  the 
line  joining  its  \-isible  extremities.  If  this  coinci- 
dence be  not  perfect,  the  geometrical  axis  of  the 
needle  according  to  which  the  reading  is  made  lies  to 
the  right  or  left  of  the  magnetic  axis,  and  conse- 
quently of  the  true  reading.  To  remetly  this,  the 
needle  is  so  made  that  it  can  rest  cither  on  its  lower 
or  upper  surface.  In  finding  the  true  reading,  the 
position  of  the  needle  is  marked,  and  then  it  is  tiinied 
upside  down  and  again  marked,  the  mean  of  the  two 
readings  giving  the  true  one.  The  declination  of  the 
needle  may  be  also  ascertained  by  the  dipping-needle. 
The  ordinary  compa.ss  which  must  be  used  by  mak- 
ing allowance  for  declination  is  a  declination-com- 
pass.    .See  I)ip)iiii;i-na'(Uf  and  Miuinctism. 

DECOMPTE.— A  liquidation  or  balance  which  from 
time  to  time  was  made,  in  tlie  old  French  ser\ice,  be- 
tween the  Cajitain  of  a  company  and  each  private  sol- 
dier for  money  advanced  or  in  hand. 

DECORATION-DAY.— The  anniversary,  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  on  which  Howers  are  placed  on  soldiers' 
graves,  and  which  is  observed  on  Slay  liOth.  This 
day  wits  set  apart  for  the  purpose  mentioned  soon 
after  the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 

DECORATIONS.— In  pyroteehny,  the  compositions 
which  are  pl.iccd  iu  the"  lieads  of  rockets,  in  paper 
shells,  etc.,  to  make  a  brilliant  display  when  the  re- 
ceptacle is  burst.     See  Pi/roUrhni/. 

DECOUPLE.— In  Heralilry,  a  term  signifying  sev- 
ered or  disjoined,  so  that  the  ends  stand  at  a  distance 
from  one  another;  as,  a  clurron  (hroiipW. 

DECOY.— To  lead  or  to  entice  into  a  snare;  to  lead 
into  danger  by  artifice;  to  entrap.  An  enemy  is  said 
to  be  decoyed  when  a  small  body  of  trooiJS  draws 


SECBEHERT. 


DEFENCE. 


thfni  into  action,  while  tlie  main  body  lies  in  ambush 
ready  to  act  with  the  greatest  effect. 

DECBEMENT.— An  heialdic  term  by  which  the 
wane  of  the  moon  is  indicated.  A  rnuun  tkcreacent 
is  a  half-moon  with  her  horns  turned  to  the  sinister. 
The  terms  (Itrnitrtnl  and  dtcours  are  likewise  used. 

DECUBIO— DECUBION.— A  Roman  cavalry  otlicer, 
commanding  ten  men.  Decuriones  Muniei|iales  were 
Roman  pro\-incial  magistrates  who  had  the  same 
power  in  free  and  corporate  towns  as  the  Senate  had  in 
Rome.  At  tirst  numbering  10,  as  their  name  implies, 
they  frequently  numbered  100  in  later  times.  Their 
duly  was  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  their  fellow- 
citizens,  and  increase  the  revenues  of  the  common- 
wealth. They  were  required  to  be  25  years  of  age, 
and  to  possess  a  certain  income.  The  legion  was 
ofticered  by  six  Trihunes,  sixty  Centurions,  with  an 
equal  niuuber  of  officers  who  served  as  tile-closers  for 
the  infautrj-;  and  twenty  Decuriims  of  cavalry; 
besides  these  there  were  the  officers  of  the  velites,  who 
fought  out  of  the  ranks. 

DEEP.— A  term  used  in  the  disposition  or  the  ar- 
rangement of  soldiers  placed  in  ranks  Ijcfore  each 
other;  hence  two  deep,  three  deep,  etc.  Deep  line  of 
operations,  a  long  line. 

DEFAULT.— The  common  expression  for  a  military 
offensi-  in  the  British  ser\ice. 

DEFAULTER  BOOK.— A  book  in  which  the  record 
of  Climes  committed  by  soldiers  is  entered.  There 
are  two  ilefauller-books  in  a  regiment,  the  conijiany 
and  the  rtyinuutdl.  In  the  former  all  offenses  of 
whatever  description  committed  by  non-conmiissioned 
officers  and  soldiers,  whether  ptmishment  may  have 
been  awarded  or  not,  and  every  act  of  drunkenness 
committeil  by  a  soldier,  are  inserted.  Cases  of  ab- 
sence, which  may  be  considered  equivalent  to  drunk- 
enness, are  not  to  be  so  ninnbered,  but  in  lieu  thereof 
the  letter  D  is  to  be  inserted  in  nd  ink  opposite  cveiy 
such  ciise,  b}-  the  officer  commanding  the  company. 
All  offenses  are  to  be  inserted  in  the  officer's  own 
handwriting.  In  the  latter,  or  regimental  defaulter- 
book,  all  punishments  awarded  by  the  Commanding 
Officer  of  the  regiment,  or  by  Courts-Martial,  are  in- 
serted. In  this  book  also  all  offenses  are  to  be  en 
tered  for  which  a  punishmi  nt  excelling  seven  days' 
continement  to  l)arracks  has  been  awarded. 

DEFAULTERS.— 1.  Soldiers  who  have  been  guilty 
of  military  offenses.  The  term  is  generally  applied 
to  men  sentenced  to  contiuemenl  to  barracks,  and  j 
attaches  to  them  until  the  completion  of  their  punish- 
ment. 2.  If  any  officer  employed  or  who  has  hereto-  ^ 
fore  been  employed  in  the  Civil,  Jlilitary,  or  Kaval 
Departmentsof  the  Government  to  disburse  the  public  I 
money  appropriated  for  the  service  of  those  Depart 
ments",  respectively,  shall  fail  to  render  his  account  or 
pay  over,  in  the  manner  and  in  the  times  required  by 
law,  or  the  regulations  of  the  Department  to  which  he 
is  accountable,  any  sum  of  money  remaining  in  the 
hands  of  such  officer,  the  First  or  Second  Comptroller 
of  the  Treasury,  as  the  case  may  be,  shall  cause  to  be 
slated  and  certify  the  account  of  such  delinquent 
otlicer  to  the  Soli<?itor  of  the  Treasury,  who  shall  im- 
mediately proceed  to  issue  a  warrant  of  distress  against 
such  delitiquent  officer  and  his  sureties,  directed  to 
the  Marshal  or  Marshals  of  the  district  or  districts 
where  they  reside;  and  the  Marshal  shall  proceed  to 
lew  and  "collect  the  sum  remaining  due  by  distress 
am)  sale  of  goods  and  chattels  of  such  delinciuentoffi-  j 
cer;  and.  if  tlie  goods  are  not  sufficient,  the  sjune  may 
be  leWed  upon  the  person  of  such  officer,  who  may 
be  committed  to  piison,  there  to  remain  until  dis- 
charged by  due  course  of  law.  But  the  Solicitor  of 
the  Treasiirv,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  may  postpone  for  a  reasonable  tiine 
such  proceedings  where,  in  his  opinion,  the  public 
interest  will  sustain  no  injuiT  by  such  postponement. 
If  any  person  shall  consider  himself  aggrieve<I  by  any 
warrant  issued  as  above,  he  may  prefer  a  bill  of  com- 
plaint to  any  District  Judge  of  the  United  States,  and 
thereupon  the  Judge  may,  if  in  his  opinion  the  case  : 


requires  it,  grant  an  injunction  to  stay  proceedings. 
If  any  person  shall  consider  himself  aggrieved  by  the 
decision  of  such  Judge  either  in  refusing  to  issue  the 
injimction,  or,  if  granted,  on  its  dissolution,  such  per- 
son may  lay  a  copy  of  the  jiroceedings  had  before  the 
District  Judge,  before  a  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
who  may  either  grant  the  injunction  or  permit  an  ap- 
peal, as  the  case  may  be  if,  in  his  opinion,  the  equity 
of  the  case  requires'it.  The  judgment  on  a  warrant 
of  distress  under  this  Act,  and  the  proceedings  un<ler 
the  judgment,  are  a  bar  to  any  sub.sequcnt  action  for 
the  same  cause.  No  money" appropriated  shall  be 
paid  to  any  person  for  his  conipen.salion  who  is  in 
arrears  to  the  United  States,  until  such  person  shall 
have  accounted  for  and  paid  into  the  Treasurv'  all 
sums  for  which  he  may  be  liable:  provided,  that  no- 
thing herein  contained  shall  be  construed  to  extend  to 
balances  arising  solely  from  depreciation  of  treasury 
notes  received  by  such  person  to  be  expended  in  the 
public  service;  but  in  all  cases  where  the  pay  or  sidary 
of  any  person  is  withheld,  in  pursviance  of  this  Act,  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Accounting  Officers,  if  de- 
manded by  the  party,  his  agent  or  attorney,  to  report 
forthwith  to  the  agent  of  the  Treasury  Department 
the  balance  due;  and  it  shall  be  the  dutv  of  the  said 
agent,  within  si.xty  days  thereafter,  to  order  suit  to  be 
commenced  against  such  delinquent  and  his  sureties. 

DEFEAT.— 'The  rout  or  destruction  of  an  army  by 
an  enemy.  Strictly  the  word  expresses  the  complete 
want  of  success  of  an  army;  a  repulse  signifving  less, 
and  a  rout  more,  than  defeat.  It  is  also  used  to  mean 
re.sistance  with  success;  as,  to  defeat  an  a.ss;mlt. 

DEFECTION.— The  act  of  aliandoning  a  person  or 
cause  to  which  one  is  bound  by  allegiance  or  duly,  or 
to  which  one  has  attached  himself.     See  Abandon. 

DEFENCE— DEFENSE.— 1.  In  military  law,  the  de- 
fendant's answer  to  the  plea,  or  the  method  of  proceed- 
ing adopted  by  the  defendant  to  protect  himself  against 
the  plaintiff's  action. 

In  point  both  of  law  and  reason,  a  Court -Jlartial  has  as 
much  power  over  the  evidence  introduced  by  the  pris- 
oner as  over  that  of  the  prosecutor,  and  can  reject  the 
witnesses  of  the  one  as  well  as  the  other,  or  any  ])art 
of  such  v\-itne.s.ses'  testimony.  Courts-Martial  are  par- 
ticularly guarded  in  adhering  to  the  custom  which 
obtains  of  resisting  ever^-  attempt  on  the  part  of 
counsel  to  address  them;  but  eases  have  occurred  in 
which  profes.sioual  gentlemen  in  attendance  have  been 
permitted  to  read  the  defense  prepared  for  the  pris- 
oner. A  Court  will  prevent  a  prisoner  from  adverting 
to  parties  not  before  the  Court,  or  only  alluded  to  in 
e\-idence,  further  than  may  be  acluallv  necess;iry. 
X\\  coarse  and  insulting  language  should  he  avoided 
in  anv  part  of  the  defense. 

2.  "in  fortitication,  all  sorts  of  works  that  cover  and 
defend  the  opjiosite  posts.  The  parapets  of  all  coast 
and  harbor  defenses  should  be  constructed  of  earth, 
where  favorable  sites  can  be  found;  but  for  low  sites 
that  can  be  approached  within  grape-shot  range  such 
ba'teries  must  give  place  to  masonry  defenses;  and 
where  masonry -casemated  castles  with  three  tiers  of 
guns  in  casi'inatcs,  and  w  ith  guns  and  mortars  on  the 
roofs,  are  resorted  to,  embrasiires  of  wrought-iron  will 
be  found  applicable.  With  such  batteries  well  con- 
structed, the  direct  fire  of  ships  has  little  effect.  JIov- 
able  columns  of  troops  in  numbers,  dejiending  on  the 
])robable  object  of  the  enemy,  must  be  held  in  some 
central  position.  If  railroads  are  toconvey  the  troops, 
a  central  ix)int  within  a  radius  of  sixty  miles  will  he 
within  good  supporting  distance.  If  railroads  are  not 
relied  on,  the  distance  "should  not  be  greater  than  fif- 
teen miles.  The  columns  should  be  at  le;isl  seven 
tenths  infantr>-.  one  tenth  cavalry,  and  two  tenths  field- 
artillery;  the  "latter  being  useful  to  opiiosc  the  debar- 
kation "of  troops.  The  French  charge  l)Oth  the  fleet 
and  the  armv  with  the  movable  defense  of  coasts. 
Steamers  and"  llolillas,  armed  with  howitzers,  are  parti- 
cularly suited  to  that  object.  Corps  of  troops  assembled 
at  sonic  central  position  are  held  ready  to  be  thrown 
upon  a  threatened  point.     Batteries  of  howitzers  give 


DEFENSIVE  BATTLE. 


454 


DEFENSIVE  WAB. 


their  aid  to  these  corps.  Concerted  sigtuls  are  care- 
fully nrnuige<l. 

Tlie  iliftiise  of  works  attacked  by  resrular  ap- 
proiicbts  culls  for  the  most  active  and  vijrilant  exer- 
tions on  the  part  of  the  besieged,  espt-cially  so  from 
the  artillery.  So  soon  as  the  operations  of  the  be- 
sieger indicate  what  work  of  a  line,  or  the  particular  part 
of  a  work,  is  his  objei-tiye,  cycn,-  effort  must  be  made 
to  restrict  the  extent  of  his  lines  of  envelopment.  To 
this  end,  adjacent  and  collateral  works  must  be  armed 
with  pieces  of  the  heaviest  caliber,  so  situated  as  to 
take  the  lines  of  aiiproaches  as  much  as  possible  in 
flank.  These  batteries  \yill  give  special  attention  to 
the  lonir-nuige  batteries  of  the  iK'sicgers.  Every  avail- 
able piece  of  artillery  must  be  brought  forward  and 
placed  in  battery  so  iis  to  strike  the  besiegers  at  stune 
jKiint  or  other. "  Unrcmitted  tire  must  be  mainlained 
ag-.iinst  the  heads  of  the  approaches;  these,  from  their 
ojK-n  chanicter,  are  pec\diarly  vulnerable  to  morlar- 
fire.  As  many  mortars  as  possible  shouhl  be  placed 
in  batteries  cs'tablished  for  this  special  puri)ose.  It 
is  not  ad\-i.sable  to  crowd  artillery  into  tlie  objective 
point  of  the  enemy,  but  rather  to  the  right  and  left  of 
it;  this  secures  a  cross-tire,  and  at  the  siime  time  with- 
draws the  pieces  from  the  points  upon  which  the  be- 
siecer  concentrates  his  fire.  If  an  assault  is  to  be 
apprcliended,  batteries,  especially  of  machine-":uus, 
should  lie  established  so  as  to  sweep  the  ditch  and  pre- 
vent the  enemy  from  making  a  lodgment  by  digging 
into  the  scarp  and  parapet.  These  batteries  nuist  be 
■well  secured  by  means  of  bomb-proof  covers  and  gun- 
shields.  Traverses  must  be  thrown  up  to  protect  the 
guns,  and  bomb  and  splinter-proofs  constructed  to 
shelter  the  cannoneers.  An  interior  line  of  iutrench- 
ments  should  Ix;  constructed  in  rear  of  that  part  of 
the  main  work  attacked.  This  should  be  well  sup- 
plied with  light  pieces  of  artillery,  which  may  be 
kept  under  cover  until  the  proper  moment  and  then 
run  up  to  drive  the  enemy  from  his  lodgment  on  the 
main  work.  The  supply  of  ammmiition  must  be 
closely  attended  to,  and  uilder  no  circumstances,  where 
it  is  possible  to  avoid  it,  should  it  be  allowed  to  fall 
below  the  probable  neeils.  All  of  the  operations  of 
the  artillery  in  the  defense,  as  well  as  in  the  attack, 
should Ije  directed  bv  one  held.     See  Ilarhor  Difenius. 

DEFENSIVE  BATTLE.— In  a  purely  defensive  bat- 
tle, an  anuy  chooses  a  jwsition  in  which  to  await  the 
enemy  and  there  to  give  battle  with  no  other  end 
in  view  than  to  holcl  this  position  and  re]iulse  the 
enemy.  The  fact  that  a  party  acts  on  the  defensive 
supposes  something  wanting  either  in  the  mniibers  or 
elBciency  of  his  tn)ops;  either  of  which  defecl.s  can 
only  be  remedied  by  resorting  to  aids,  offered  either 
by  "nature  or  art,  "for  restoring  the  efiuilibrium  be- 
tween the  opposing  forces.  There  is  oue  point  that 
needs  to  be  strongly  incidcated,  which  is  that  a  posi- 
tion should  not  only  lie  strong  tactically,  but  good 
strategically.  It  should  not  oiily  lend  itself  to  the 
maneuvers  of  our  troops  and  to  tlie  efficacy  of  their 
fire;  but,  if  forced,  shoidd  favor  a  safe  retreat.  The 
advantages  offered  by  heights  for  the  defensive  may 
induce  mto  serious  disaster  a  General  who  takes  a 
position  of  this  kind  from  purely  tactical  considera- 
tions, without  regard  to  their  strategical  bearing;  or, 
when  this  latter  consideration  does  not  come  up,  who 
looks  simply  at  the  defensive  properties  without  ex- 
amining also  the  advantages  that  a  skillful  enemy, 
operating  offensively,  migiit  derive  from  them. 

Suppose  an  army  to  occupy  a  ridge  of  heights, 
cro.ssing  obli(iuely  its  line  of  retreat;  its  right  resting 
on  an  inaccessible  obstacle.  Now,  an  army  advanc- 
ing to  the  as.sjiult  of  this  position  might  look  upon  it 
in  two  aspects.  First,  strategically,  .seeing  that  by 
making  the  attack  on  the  right,  although  the  ground 
there  is  the  most  ditlictdl,  it  will  force  the  assailed 
back,  so  as  to  expose  bis  line  of  retreat,  and  may 
therefore  be  well  worth  the  effort  and  cost.  Second, 
tactically,  to  assjiil  vigorously  the  more  exposed  left 
wing,  and,  throwing  it  back  on  the  right,  necessarily 
produce  u  disa.ster;  as  the  character  of  the  ground,  a 


narrow  plateau,  is  supposed  to  be  such  that  it  will 
not  adnut  of  a  change  of  position  of  the  assailed  to 
meet  this  attack  in  front.  However  otherwise  ad- 
vantageous, it  would  evidently  be  imprudent  then 
for  a  General  to  take  up  a  position  of  this  kind, 
unless  so  superior  to  the  enemy  thiit  he  will  be  able 
to  foil  an  attack  on  either  wiiig.  There  remains, 
however,  one  more  rcsource  to  the  General,  in  a  simi- 
lar case,  when  he  has  ample  time  to  employ  it,  and 
that  is  fortiticatiou.  This  is  oue  that  everj-  great 
General  has,  at  one  time  or  another,  availed  himself 
of,  and,  in  everj-  case,  with  advantage,  ililitary  his- 
tory is  full  of  examples  where  the  scale  of  great  and 
decisive  battles  has  turned  on  the  taking  or  holding  a 
mere  lield-work  that  had  occupied  but  a  few  hours' 
time  to  throw  u)i.  This,  however,  belongs  to  the 
domain  of  fortification,  one  of  the  most  difficult  as 
most  imix)rtant  branches  of  the  military  art,  and 
which  demands  for  its  proper  exercise  military  quali-  , 
tications  of  a  high  order.  There  probably  has  ex- 
isted no  great  engineer  who,  when  called  upon,  has 
not  shown  himself  a  superior  Gener.il;  nor  a  great 
Genend  who  did  not  fidly  acknowledge  and  ajipre- 
ciate  the  art  of  fortification. 

Where  an  army  is  forced  to  accept  a  defensive  bat- 
tle in  an  open  position,  which  affords  no  points  on 
which  its  tianks  can  rest  with  security,  there  is  but 
one  disposition  of  combat  open  to  it,  and  that  is  to 
secure  the  wings  by  such  an  accumulation  and  dis- 
tribution of  troops  upon  them  that  the  assailant  will 
rim  a  greater  risk  in  an  attack  on  one  of  them  than 
on  the  front.  The  center  in  this  case  will  be  deployed 
in  the  first  line,  so  as  to  bring  all  its  fire  to  bear,  iMith 
direct  and  cross,  over  the  approaches  to  it.  The 
troops  to  support  the  wings  will  be  massed,  so  as  to 
be  ready  to  act  promptly,  as  the  phases  of  the  action 
may  demand;  and  the  reserve  will  occujiy  a  central 
position  in  the  rear,  from  which  it  can  promptly  be 
thrown  upon  any  point  pre.s,sed  by  the  assailant. 

It  is  in  such  "positions  that  the  formation  of  the 
order  of  battle  by  squares  is  resorted  to  when  the 
iis-sailant  is  very  superior  in  cavalry.  This  is  done 
either  liy  a  forriiatiou  of  small  squares  by  single  bat- 
talions, or  by  resorting  to  larger  ones,  as  to  those 
formed  of  four  or  more  battalions.  The  first  have 
the  advantage  of  being  very  promptly  formed,  but 
they  afford  hardly  more  interior  space  than  is  ^vanted 
for  their  own  staff.  lea\ing  whatever  cavalry  and 
artillery  we  have  to  find  shelter  between  the  stjuares. 
The  large  squares  demand  more  complication  of  ma- 
neuver, and  more  time  in  their  formation,  but  afford 
a  large  interior  space,  where  the  caissons  of  the  artil- 
lery, and  even  the  ca\  airy,  if  in  small  numbers,  may 
fiiiil  shelter.  In  this  last  disposition  some  of  the  artil- 
lery would  V)e  in  battery  in  front  of  those  angles  of 
the  squares  where  its  fires  can  best  sweep  the  ap- 
IJroaches  on  the  two  adjacetit  sides  of  the  square; 
other  portions  will  be  in  the  intervals  of  the  squares, 
so  as  to  throw  a  fiank  and  cross  fire  over  the  ap 
proaches  to  them.  The  sharp-shooters  may  be  ad- 
vanced a  little  on  those  angles  which  are  not  occupied 
by  the  artillery  so  as  to  strengthen  these  weak  points. 
I'he  cavalrj-,  if  in  sufiicient  force  to  charge  oppor- 
tunely, will"  take  post  between  the  squares,  where  it 
will  be  least  expo.sed  to  the  enemy's  artillery,  and  be 
ready  to  seize  the  projier  moment  for  entering  into 
actifJn.  See  Batties,  MUed  Battle,  and  Offemive  Bat- 
(h: 

DEFENSIVE  PATROLS. —That  class  of  patrols 
made  with  a  view  of  insuring  greater  security  from 
the  enemy's  attempts  to  pass  or  force  the  line  of  out- 
]X)sts.  They  consist  usually  of  three  or  four  men, 
who  go  the  rounds,  along  the  chain  of  sentinels  and 
between  the  posts;  .seldom  venturing  farther  than  a 
few  hundred  paces  beyond  the  sentinel's  chain;  the 
object  being  to  search  points  which  might  present  a 
cover  to  the  enemy's  .scouts,  and  to  keep  the  sentinels 
on  the  alert. 

DEFENSIVE  WAR.- A  war  undertaken  to  repel 
invasion  or  the  attacks  of  an  enemy.     Defensive  war 


DEPEBEED  PAT. 


455 


SEFILEHEKT. 


may  be  divided  into  three  kinds.  It  is  either  a  war 
su-staincd  l)y  a  nation  which  is  suddenly  attacked  by 
another  who  is  superior  in  troops  and  in  means;  or  a 
nation  makes  this  sort  of  war  by  choice  on  one  side 
of  its  frontiers;  or  it  is  a  war  become  defensive  by  the 
]oss  of  a  battle.     See  War. 

DEFERRED  PAY.— An  increa.se  of  2d.  per  diem 
granted  by  Parliament  to  the  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers aiid  soldici-s  of  the  British  army  and  Reserve, 
uniler  the  following  comlitions:  The  'Zd.  per  diem  for 
the  Army  with  the  Colors  to  be  payable  on  the  dis- 
charge or  death  of  every  non-commissioned  officer  or 
msm,  in  respect  of  all  senice  (pre\iously  to  the  com- 
pletion of  12  years'  service)  from  April  1,  1876.  The 
2d.  per  diem  for  the  xVrmy  Reserve  to  be  paid  annu- 
ally in  arrear  to  all  men  iii  it.  Any  simi  earned  by  a 
man  dying  during  the  year  to  be"  paid,  to  his  repre- 
sentatives. £1  per  man,  now  paid  for  necessaries, 
not  to  be  pavable  to  men  acceiitiug  the  new  tenus. 

DEFILADING.— Thai  part  of  the  art  of  fortifica- 
tion which  consists  in  determining  the  directions  and 
heights  of  the  lines  of  rampart,  so  that  the  interior 
may  not  be  commanded  by  the  tire  of  any  works 
-which  the  enemy  may  raise.  Defilading  is  divided 
into  horizontal  and  vertical.  The  object  of  the  first 
is  to  prevent  the  lines  being  commanded  in  the  direc- 
tion of  their  length,  or  enfiladed;  the  prolongations 
of  the  lines,  therefore,  must  avoid  all  points  where 
hostile  works  could  be  erected.  Vertical  defilading 
determines  the  height  of  rampart  necessarj'  to  protect 
the  interior  from  direct  fire.     Sec  Defilement. 

DEFILE.-rIn  a  military  sense,  any  narrow  place 
the  passage  of  which  can  be  made  by  troops  only 
when  undeployed.  Jloimtain-pa.sses,  river-crossings, 
narrow  isthmuses,  and  roads  through  close  forests 
represent  the  usual  forms  of  defiles.  They  necessari- 
ly imply  obstacles  in  the  way  to  the  free" movement 
of  armies,  and  are  therefore  important  features  in 
a  theater  of  war,  and  cousc(jueiitlv  points  demand- 
ing special  attention  by  way  of  dcfensi\e  arrange- 
ments. For  these  no  precise" rules  can  be  laid  down; 
nevertheless  some  general  principles  may  be  stated. 
The  chief  advantage  offered  by  a  defile  is,  that  with 
but  comparatively  slight  intrenchmenls  a  small  force 
is  able  to  hold  a  position  against  a  much  greater;  this 
lor  the  reason  that,  owing  to  the  essential  nature  of  a 
defile,  the  attacking  force  must  operate  in  a  .con- 
strained position,  not  admitting  of  much  development 
of  fire.  The  main  object,  therefore,  is  to  secure  such 
a  column  of  fire  over  the  defile  a-s  to  make  it  impos- 
sible for  the  enemy  to  stem  it;  this  is  best  accom- 
plished by  selecting  such  points  as  will  give  an  en- 
filade fire.  They  should  be  selected  with  a  ^^ew  to 
mutual  support,  and  intrenched  in  such  manner  as 
to  be  secure  against  capture  hy  roup  de  mni'ti.  The 
enemy  must  be  compelled  to  make  his  attacks  with 
divided  forces  and  inferior  numbers.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  occupying  several  positions  within 
flanking  distance  of  each  other.  He  will,  probablv, 
not  be  able  to  attack  all  simultaneously,  and  it  will 
be  a  costly  operation  for  him  to  attack  them  in  de- 
tail. 

The  positions  shotdd  be  so  chosen  as  to  allow  them 
to  concentrate  their  artillery-fire  upon  any  point 
where  it  might  be  advantageous  for  the  enemy  to 
establish  batteries,  and  the  artillery  of  the  defense 
should  be  of  such  power  as  to  prechide  all  pos.«ibility 
of  his  doing  so.  All  hollow  approaches,  such  as 
would  he  formed  by  ravines  in  a  mountain-pass, 
must  he  searched  by  the  fire  of  artillery.  This,  as  a 
rule,  will  require  pieces  to  be  placed  in  ojien  batteries 
exterior  to  the  inclosed  works.  Such  batteries  must 
be  well  supported  by  infantrv  sheltered  in  rifie- 
trcnches.  The  whole  system  shotild  be  so  connected 
as  to  leave  no  part  isolated  or  without  the  support  of 
other  parts,  and  the  defense  of  each  point  must  be 
stubborn  in  the  extreme  to  prevent  the  enemy  from 
gaining  possession  of  advantageous  positions.  All 
parts  of  the  line  or  group  of  works  must  be  in  com- 
■munication  by  telegraph,  telephone,  or  signaling,  or 


by  all  three.  This  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  mo- 
ment in  securing  not  only  the  physical  but  also  the 
moral  support  of  the  parts.  In  every  ca.se  artillery 
should  form  a  chief  feature  in  the  means  of  defense; 
the  kind  of  pieces  tor  the  dilTerenl  parts  of  the  .system 
will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  ground  and  of 
the  nature  of  the  attacks  that  may  Ijc  expected.  As 
a  nde,  all  approaches  must  be  covered  by  fire;  where- 
cver  horizontal  fire  caimot  be  made  to  r"each,  mortars 
must  be  used.  However  nmch  the  pieces  may  be 
scattered,  they  must  be  capable  of  concentrathig  "their 
fire  upon  any  position  the  enemy  may  assume. 

If  a  defile  is  to  be  held  for  the  purposes  of  an  army 
either  advancing  or  retiring  in  front  of  an  enemy,  the 
head  of  it  towards  the  enemy  nmst  be  secured"  bv  a 
line  .similar  to  a  W te-de-] mi t ;' this  for  the  puri>ose",  if 
advancing,  of  giving  room  for  the  army  to  deploy 
after  passing  the  defile,  and  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  striking  it  while  defenseless  in  column;  if  re- 
treating, the  same  disposition  is  necessary  to  hold  the 
pursuing  army  in  check  while  the  trcxips  are  defiling 
to  the  rear.  In  both  ca.ses,  as  tlu:  oliject  is  to  keep 
the  enemy  from  closing  in  for  a  iiitehed  battle,  artil- 
lery must  be  freely  used.  In  the  attack  upon  a  de- 
file, intrenched,  armed,  and  defended  as  it  should  be, 
artillerj-  will  be  the  most  imjiortant  weapon;  this  for 
the  reason  tliat,  from  the  very  nature  of  defiles,  other 
arms  can  act  but  feebly,  while  artillery  posses.ses  the 
power  of  reaching  its  object  beyond  intermediate  ol> 
stacles.  As  much  artillery  should  be  brought  to  act 
as  pos-sible,  and,  although  it  may  be  widely  dispersed, 
its  tire  mast  be  concentrated  ujion  some  partictdar 
work  in  the  system  of  defenses.  The  work  must  be 
attacked  with  such  vigor  and  jiersistencv  as  to  insure 
its  destruction  and  easy  capture.  Other  works  are 
succcssivelj'  attacked  in  the  siuiie  manner.  The  op- 
erations upon  both  sides  thus  jiartake  of  the  nature 
of  a  siege,  and  are  governed  by  the  s.-ime  iirinciples. 

DEFILEMENT.— Where  the  site  of  a  field-work  is 
sentibl.v  horizontal  and  there  are  no  commanding 
points  V  ithin  cannon-range  from  which  an  assailant 
can  .sret  such  a  view  into  it  as  to  regulate  his  file  with 
some  certainty,  there  is  no  controlling  motive  for 
making  the  relief  otlier  than  muform;  though  it  les.s- 
ens,  (o  some  extent,  the  effects  of  an  enfiladin.s  fire, 
by  making  a  face  higher  at  the  salient,  giving  it  a 
uniform  slojie  back,  as  the  higher  the  covering  mass 
over  which  the  fire  of  the  assailant  nuist  pa.ss  to  reach 
the  interior  of  a  work,  the  greater  will  be  the  portion 
of  the  work  screened.  The  extent  of  the  cover  thus 
gained  will  dcjiend  upon  the  an,i;le  of  ele\ation  and 
the  charges  with  which  the  assjiilant's  fire  is  main- 
tained. SVith  great  angles  and  heavy  charges  from 
eonsidendile  distances,  and  great  angles  and  light 
charges  when  near  to  the  work,  the  projectile  may 
receive  a  great  plimge  in  the  descending  branch  of  its 
trajectorj',  so  as  to  fall  quite  clo.se  behind  the  cover- 
ing object;  but  these  great  plunges  arc  unfavorable  to 
ricochet,  so  that  if  the  a.s.sailant  wishes  to  i)reser%-e 
this  fire,  which  is  generally  regarded  as  the  most 
etTective  in  enfilading  the  interior  of  a  parapet,  he 
must  sacrifice  the  effect  of  great  plunges,  and  submit 
to  the  advantage  of  better  cover  which  the  a.s.sailcd 
gains  by  raising  his  .salients,  or  using  traverses  for  the 
same  end.  When  the  site  is  not  horizontal  and  there 
are  commanding  hei.shts  from  which  the  inteiior  of 
the  work  can  be  plunged  into,  by  firing  under  small 
angles  of  depression,  or  ground  lower  than  the  work 
from  which  a  reverse  fire  can  be  obUuned,  on  the 
more  elevated  portions,  over  the  iiarajiet  of  tlie  lower 
portions,  the  parts  thus  exposed  must  be  s<Teencd 
either  by  raising  the  panipet  to  a  siutable  height,  or 
by  interposing  a  covering  mass  within  the  work  for 
the  same  object.  The  operation  by  which,  this  is 
effected  is  termed  defilement,  and  when  a  work  is  thus 
screened  it  is  sjud  to  be  defiled. 

Defilement  is  seldom  practicable,  nor  in  fact  is  it 
necessary  for  lines  of  any  considerable  extent.  The 
most  that  can  be  attempted  is  so  to  vary  the  plan, 
when  it  can  he  done  and  not  impair  the  etficiency  of 


DEFILEMENT. 


450 


DEFILEMENT. 


the  tire  of  the  different  purls  on  the  approaches,  as  to 
jirevent  the  proloiipitiou  of  any  imporlaut  face  or 
tluuk  frv>ni  falliiiir  ou  any  point  where  the  assjiiU'il 
wtuilil  have  a  coniinaniiln;;  position  to  enlilaile; 
nillier  !rivins:  those  (larts  a  direction  such  that  their 
prolonjnition  ovilwards  sliall  fall  on  low  frrouud.oron 
ix>inls  inaccessihle  to  the  artillery  of  the  assjuled. 
No  spi-eitic  rules  can  Ik'  laid  dowii  further  than  of  a 
gcnend  character.  Taking',  for  e.\anii)le,  a  line  of 
works  to  he  thrown  up  within  cannon-shot  of  a  range 
of  heij-'hts  the  crests  of  which  lie  in  the  siime  direc- 
tion and  are  sensibly  horizontal,  the  best  cover  that 
could  be  obtained  in  thisca.se  would  be  a  simple  rijrlit 
line  of  uniform  relief,  the  direction  of  which  should 
be  parallel  to  that  of  the  crests.  If  the  site  on  which 
the  line  is  placed  is  horizontal,  by  giving  a  good 
height  to  the  parapet  a  sheltered  zone  for  the  troops 
and  iiKili'ri)!  of  more  or  less  extent  will  in  this  way  be 
obtained.  If  the  site  slopes  much  from  the  RUige  of 
heights,  then  the  same  height  of  parapet  will  mask 
a  broader  zone  of  shelter,  and  the  more  so  as  the  de- 
clivity of  the  surface  is  the  more  decided.  But  if  the 
site  slopes  towards  the  crests,  then  the  dilticulty  of 
obtaining  slu-ller  will  be  the  greater  as  this  counler- 
slojx'  is  the  grejiter.  If  instead  of  a  ri^ht  line  a 
broken  line  is  used,  as  a  redan  or  a  serrated  line,  then 
it  will  be  will  to  make  the  face  of  each  redan  or 
tenaille  as  short  as  practicable,  and  to  make  the  sidi- 
ent  angles  very  obtuse.  In  this  manner  but  short 
lini'S  will  be  presented  to  an  entilailing  tire,  and  the 
prolongations  of  these  lines  be  brought  to  intersect 
the  crest  of  the  range  at  more  distant  points,  thus 
forcing  the  assjiilant  to  use  higher  angles  of  elevation 
to  reach  them  from  his  entilailing  position.  When 
the  line  of  the  crests  descends  in  a  right  line  towards 
the  site,  then  supi>osing  the  general  direction  of  the 
parapet  to  Ik-  a  right  line,  the  most  favorable  position 
for  the  defilement,  by  a  vuiiform  relief  given  to  the 
line',  will  be  to  give  the  line  of  the  parapet  a  direction 
upon  the  jioint  where  the  line  of  the  crests  prolonged 
would  meet  the  site.  The  zone  of  shelter  co\'i-red  by 
the  iianipti  in  this  case  will  l>e  .so  nuich  the  greater, 
anil  the  delilenient  the  better,  as  the  general  direction 
of  the  panipet  makes  a  greater  angle  with  that  of  the 
crest.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  a  sloping  or 
counter-sloping  site.  As  the  position  of  the  works 
become  the  less  restricted,  there  will  be  freer  play  for 
the  skill  and  eje  of  the  engineer  to  olitain  a  good  so- 
lution of  theipiestion.  For  works  open  at  the  gorge 
and  inclosed  works  defilement  becomes  more  im- 
portant, as,  the  force  being  small,  every  means  should 
be  employed  for  its  safety.  In  such  works  there  is 
also  much  less  freeilom  to  vary  the  plans.  The  most 
that  can  be  done  is  to  avoid  entilading  or  reverse 
views,  by  opening  more  or  less  the  salient  angles  so 
ns  to  bring  the  more  prominent  dangerous  points 
within  the  angle  of  the  adjacent  faces  prolonged,  or 
to  bring  those  prolongations  upon  dangerous  points  as 
distant  as  practicable.  In  the  lirst  ca.si-  a  reverse  fire 
on  either  face  will  be  avoided,  and  in  the  second  the 
enfilading  position  of  the  a-ss;ulanl  will  be  thrown  to 
a  further  distance.  The  ilifikment  of  field-works  is 
not  indis|X'ns!ible  to  a  good  defense;  nor  is  it  always 
pnieticable.  It  is,  however,  not  only  a  conservative 
means,  but  it  also  Inspires  the  assailed  with  confi- 
dence; for  the  soldier  regards  with  much  distrust  the 
strength  of  his  position  when  he  tinds  himself  ex- 
posed to  the  plain  view  of  the  enemy  from  an  elevated 
ix>int. 

For  the  solution  of  all  problems  of  the  defilement 
of  permanent  works  the  engineer  requires:  1.  The 
limit  exterior  to  the  defenses  beyond  which  tlie  effect 
of  the  enemy's  fire  may  be  regsirded  as  so  uncertain 
us  to  be  neirlected.  2.  The  presumed  positions 
within  this  limit  that  the  enemy  may  take  up  to 
brini;  his  artillery  to  bear  upon  the  works.  'A.  An 
accurate  topoj;rapliical  niaj)  of  all  the  ground  within 
the  above  limits,  as  given  by  its  horizontal  curves  re- 
ferred to  u  plane  of  comparison.  4.  The  magistnds 
and  interior  crests  of  the  works,  as  either  detinitely 


or  proximately  arranged,  referred  to  the  sinie  plane. 
The  limits  beyond  which  the  enemy's  lire,  from  the 
usmd  nmtxith-bore  sUyenuiif,  may  be  disregardeil, 
owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  long  ranges,  are  1500 
yards,  where  the  work  is  exposed  only  to  a  direct  or 
"front  fire,  and  2(X)0  yards  when  open  to  a  reverse  fire. 
For  rijitd  ijun»,  which  will  hereafter  Ik-  used  in  all 
siege-operations,  these  limits  should  cmbRice  all  the 
exterior  ground  within  the  accurate  range  of  the 
hea\icst  gims  of  thus  class.  When  the  terre-pleins, 
therefore,  are  covered,  either  by  their  parai>ets  or 
other  means,  from  batteries  at  these  distances,  they 
may  be  considered  as  offering  shelters  sufficiently 
secure  for  the  troops,  etc.,  upon  them.  It  may  hap- 
pen that  there  are  points  beyond  these  liiiuts,  but 
within  the  extreme  range  of  .siege-guns,  which,  from 
their  ]X)sitioiis,  it  would  not  be  sjife  to  disregard;  but 
these  will  form  exceptional  cases,  and,  when  they 
occur,  will  be  treated  in  the  sjime  manner  as  those 
within  the  limit.s.  The  surface  of  the  site  embraced 
within  the  exterior  liinit.s  and  the  line  of  defenses 
may  be  ilivided  into  iliree  zones;  »«<■  Ijing  betweea 
the  limits  and  the  position  of  the  first  parallel  of  the 
attack;  the  second  between  the  positions  of  the  first 
and  second  parallels;  the  third  between  the  positions 
of  the  second  and  third  parallels.  In  any  position 
tliat  the  as.sailant  can  take  up  for  his  batteries,  with- 
in the  first  zone,  it  is  usually  estimated  that  he  will 
not  throw  u])  any  parapet  with  a  greater  command 
than  10  feet  over  the  ground  on  which  it  is  placed.  . 
Granting  this,  the  muzzles  of  his  gims,  behind  the 
parapets,  will  not  be  raised  higher  than  6  feet  above 
the  natural  surface;  so  that  assuming  the  sm-face  of 
this  tir^t  zone  to  be  raised  6  feet  above  its  true  posi- 
tion, this  may  be  regarded  as  the  limit,  vertically, 
within  which  the  assailant's  lines  of  fire  will  be  re- 
stricted; and  therefore  if  the  interior  of  the  defenses 
is  covered  from  the  fire  within  this  limit,  the  troops, 
etc.,  will  be  secure.  That  the  as.sailant  will  not  in  all 
likelihood  elevate  his  guns  above  this  limit  will  seem 
probable,  when  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  any 
advantage  he  might  derive  from  doing  so  would  not 
be  commensurate  with  the  labor  it  would  cost  him. 
For  suppose  the  enemy  to  have  taken  up  a  positioa 
for  an  entilading  battery  at  1000  yards  frimi  any  " 
salient,  to  enfilade  one  of  its  faces  of  the  length  of 
100  yards,  and  that  he  should  decide  upon  raising  his 
guns  'A  feet,  or  1  yard,  above  the  limit  just  laid  down; 
a  simple  ]iroportion  will  show  that  by  this  increase  in 
the  height  of  his  battery  he  will  be  able  to  attain  a 
point  at  llie  farther  end  of  the  face  oidy  8.6  inches 
lower  than  he  would  have  done  in  the  ])osition  of  the 
a.ssigned  limit — an  advantage  which,  considering  the 
uncertainty  of  the  fire  at  the  assumed  ranges,  would 
hardly  coiiipensate  fhe  additional  labor  of  giving  to 
his  works  the  additional  command.  In  the  zone  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  parallels  the  limit  may  be 
reduced  to4(  feet;  for  at  this  distance  from  the  de- 
fenses their  tire  is  so  tiestructive  and  certain  that  the 
enemy  cannot,  without  great  loss  of  life  and  time, 
raise  the  parapet  of  his  batteries  higher  than  8  feet 
at)0ve  the  natural  surface.  From  the  third  zone  the 
musketry  of  the  enemy  may  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  defenses;  and  from  this  position,  during  sorties 
from  the  defenses,  or  at  any  other  opportune  moment 
when  their  fire  is  not  active,  the  enemy  might  mount 
on  the  parapet  of  his  trenihes,  and  from  there  deliver 
his  fire.  This  would  bring  his  line  of  fire  about  10 
feet  above  the  natm-al  .surface.  The  limit,  vertically, 
of  this  zone  may  therefore  be  safely  assimied  at  10 
feet  al)ove  the  natural  surface. 

In  fhe  defilement  of  each  ijart  separately  of  the  line 
of  defenses,  those  portions  alone  of  these  zones  should 
be  regarded  as  dangerous  which  are  embraced  within 
arcs,  or  other  lines  drawn  at  the  foregoinu:  distances 
from  the  sjtlients,  or  the  faces  of  the  part  to  be  de- 
filed. It  may  also  hapiien  that,  within  the  limits  of 
dangerous  ground  for  one  portion  of  the  line  of  de- 
fenses, there  may  be  other  portions  which,  from  their 
position,  may  mask  the  portion  to  be  defiled  from  all 


SEFLAOSAIION. 


457 


DELVIGNE  LIFE  SAVING  GUN. 


the  dangerous  points  beyond  them;  in  which  case  the 
points  thus  shut  off  need  not  bereirarded,  in  effecting 
the  operations  of  defilement.  Within  tlic  limits  of 
the  zones  of  danger,  positions  may  be  determined  for 
front,  for  reverse,  and  for  enfilading  fire.  If  the  two 
faces,  for  example,  of  a  work  be  prolonged  to  inter- 
sect the  extreme  limit  of  dangerous  ground,  the  sector 
which  they  embrace  may  be  termed  the  limits  of  di- 
rect or  front  fire ;  since,  from  every  position  that  can 
be  taken  up  within  this  sector,  a  direct  tire  alone  can 
be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  two  faces.  The  two 
sectors  which  lie  adjacent  to  this  may  be  termed  the 
limits  of  lateral  or  reverse  fire,  since  they  afford  posi- 
tions from  which  a  reverse  fire  can  be  obtained 
against  one  of  the  faces,  and  a  front  fire  upon  the 
other.  It  is  also  only  within  these  last  limits  that 
positions  for  enfilading  the  tcrre-pleins  of  the  faces 
can  be  obtained.  The  problems  of  defilement  which 
present  themselves  for  solution  may  embrace  one  or 
more  of  these  cases  in  any  example;  depending  upon 
the  relative  positions  of  the  interior  crest  of  the  work 
to  be  defiled,  and  of  the  dangerous  ground  embraced 
within  the  foregoing  limits.  In  the  case  of  direct  tire 
alone,  the  terre-pleins  can  be  screened  by  their  para- 
pets. In  that  of  a  reverse  tire  on  one  face  alone,  its 
terre-plein,  in  some  cases,  may  be  screened  by  a  suit- 
able position  assigned  to  the  parapet  of  the  other. 
Where  both  are  ex"posed  to  this  fire,  one  or  more 
traverses  must  be  resorted  to  as  a  screen.  Against  an 
cntihuling  tire  on  one  face  alone,  a  portion  of  the 
parapet  of  the  other,  near  the  salient,  may  be  a 
surticient  protection  in  some  cases;  but,  for  the  most 
part,  traverses,  placed  across  the  terre-plein,  will  be 
the  (inlv  remedy.  See  Direct  Defilemeiil  anil  Jiererge 
Difihiiiciit. 

DEFLAGRATION.— A  term  applied  to  the  rapid 
coml)ustion  of  ignited  charcoal  when  a  nitrate  (such 
as  nitrate  of  potash)  or  a  chlorate  (such  as  chloi-ate  of 
potash)  is  thrown  thereon.  As  chlorates  do  not  occur 
naturally,  it  follows  that  deflagration  with  a  natural 
salt  indicates  a  nitrate:  and  if  the  deflagration  be  ac- 
companied by  a  violet  flame,  it  is  characteristic  of 
nitrate  of  potash  (ordinary  niter  or  saltpeter);  and  if 
by  a  strong  yellow  flame,  it  is  indicative  of  nitrate  of 
soda  (euliical  niter). 

BEFORMES. — In  a  military  sense,  this  word  signi- 
fies to  break;  as,  cUforiimr  une  colonne,  to  break  a  col- 
umn. 

DEGAT. — The  laying  waste  an  enemy's  country, 
particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  town  which  an 
arm_\  attempts  to  reduce  by  famine,  or  which  refuses 
to  |)av  military  exactions. 

DEGORGEOIR.— A  sort  of  steel  pricker  used  in  ex- 
amining- the  vent  of  a  cannon;  a  priming-wire. 

DEGRADATION.— In  military  life,  the  act  of  de- 
priving an  officer  forever  of  his  commission,  rank, 
dignity,  or  degree  of  honor,  and  taking  away  at  the 
same  time  every  title,  badge,  or  privilege  he  may  pos- 
sess. 

DEGRADED.— A  term  in  Heraldry  signifying  placed 
upiii!  steps  or  degrees,  as  in  a  cross  Calcary. 

DEGREE  OF  LATITUDE.— A  space  along  the  me- 
ridian through  which  an  observer  must  pass  to  alter 
his  latitude  bj' one  degree — i.e.,  in  order  to  .sec  the 
same  star  one  degree  nearer  to  or  further  from  the 
zenith.  The  space  must  be  found  by  actual  meas- 
urement ;  and  owing  to  the  earth  being  an  oblate 
spheroid,  and  not  a  sphere,  it  varies  with  the  place 
of  observation — the  degrees  being  generally  longer 
towards  the  poles,  where  the  earth  is  flatter,  and 
shorter  at  the  wpiator,  where  the  earth  is  more  curved. 
If  the  earth  were  a  sphere,  a  degree  woidd  be  exactly 
a  litiOth  jiart  of  the  meridian.  As  it  is,  the  length  of 
a  degree  of  latitude  depends  on  the  latitude  of  the 
place.  From  a  variety  of  observations  conducted  at 
various  times  and  i>laces,  from  as  far  hack  as  the  time 
of  Eratosthenes  (250  B.C.).  tables  have  been  con- 
structed showing  the  length  of  degrees  at  different 
latitudes.  The  Jength  of  "the  middle  degree,"  as  it 
is  called,  or  that  of  places  in  latitude  45°,  may  be 


taken  appro.ximately  at  eo^'o  Enclish  miles.  The  as- 
certained differences  between  dicgrees  of  latitude  is 
one  of  the  proofs  of  the  earth's  spheroidicity. 

DEGREE  OF  LONGITUDE.— The  space  between  two 
meridians  that  make  an  angle  of  1  at  the  poles, 
raeasm-ed  by  the  arc  of  a  circle  parallel  to  the  equator 
passing  between  them.  It  is  clear  that  this  space  is 
greatest  at  the  equator,  and  vanishes  at  the  poles;  and 
it  can  be  shown  that  it  varies  with  the  cosine  of  the 
angle  of  latitude.  The  annexed  table  shows  the 
lengths  of  a  degi-ce  of  longitude  for  places  at  every 
degree  of  latitude  from  0°  to  90  .  It  is  computed  on 
the  supposition  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere. 


Deg. 

English 

Deg. 

English 

Deg. 

English 

Deg. 

English 

lat. 

miles. 

lat. 

miles. 

lat. 

miles. 

lat. 

miles. 

0 

69.07 

23 

63.51 

46 

47.98 

69 

24.73 

1 

69.06 

24 

63.03 

47 

47.06 

70 

23.60 

a 

69.03 

85 

62.53 

48 

46.16 

71 

22.47 

3 

68.97 

26 

62.02 

49 

45.26 

78 

21.32 

4 

68  90 

27 

61.48 

50 

44.35 

73 

20.17 

5 

68.81 

28 

60.93 

51 

43.42 

74 

1908 

6 

68.62 

29 

60.35 

52 

42  48 

75 

17.86 

7 

68.48 

30 

59.75 

63 

41  53 

76 

16.70 

8 

6831 

31 

59.13 

54 

40.56 

77 

15.52 

0 

68.1.5 

32 

58.51 

55 

39  58 

78 

14.35 

10 

67.95 

Xi 

57.87 

56 

88.58 

79 

13.17 

11 

67.73 

34 

57.20 

57 

37.58 

80 

11.98 

18 

67.48 

35 

56  .51 

58 

36  57 

81 

10.79 

13 

67.81 

36 

55.81 

59 

85  54 

82 

9  .59 

14 

66.95 

37 

55.10 

60 

84.50 

83 

8.41 

15 

66.65 

38 

54.37 

61 

83.45 

84 

7.21 

16 

66.31 

39 

53.62 

62 

82  40 

a5 

6.00 

17 

65.98 

40 

52.85 

63 

31.33 

86 

4.81 

18 

65,62 

41 

52.07 

64 

30.24 

87 

3.61 

19 

65.24 

42 

51.27 

65 

89.15 

88 

2.41 

20 

64.81 

43 

50.46 

68 

88  06 

89 

1.21 

21 

64.42 

44 

49.63 

67 

86.96 

90 

0.00 

IH 

63.97 

45 

48.78 

68 

85.85 

DEHORS. — In  the  military  art,  all  sorts  of  outworks 
in  general,  placed  at  some  distance  from  the  walls  of 
a  fortification,  the  better  to  secure  the  main  places, 
and  to  protect  the  siege,  etc. 

DELF. — An  heraldic  charge,  representing  a  square 
sod  or  turf,  the  term  bein^  derived,  it  is  supposed, 
from  the  verb  to  delee  or  dig.  A  (Mftenro'  is  tlie  ap- 
propriate abatement  for  him  who  revokes  his  chal- 
lenge, or  otherwise  goes  from  his  word.  See  Abate- 
ment. 

DELINEATOR. — A  perambulator,  or  geodeticjd  in- 
strument on  wheels,  with  registering  devices  for  re- 
cording distances  between  points;  a  pendulum  ar- 
rangement by  which  a  profile  line  is  inscrilx-d  on  a 
traveling  strip;  and  certain  other  data,  according  to 
construction. 

DELIQUESCENCE.— The  power  that  certain  salts 
have  of  attracting  moisture  and  dis.solving  into  water. 
Saltpeter  has  generally  many  deliquescent  and  im- 
]iiirc  salts  in  it,"which  in  the  process  of  refining  it  is 
freed  from  before  beuig  u.sed  for  gunpowder  pur- 
poses. 

DELIVER  BATTLE.— A  term  taken  from  the 
French  lirrer  hat^lilU■,  meaning  to  enter  practically 
upon  a  contest;  the  opposing  armies  being  in  sight 
of  each  other. 

DELIVERY. — The  draught  or  allowance  by  which 
a  pattern  is  made  to  free  it.self  from  close  lateral  con- 
tact with  the  Siind  of  the  mold  as  it  is  lifted.  Also 
calletl  (Irair-taptr. 

DELLIS. — The  Bosnian  and  Albanian  horsemen, 
who  served  without  pay  in  the  Turkish  armies. 

DELVIGNE  LIFE-SAVING  GUN.— This  piece  of 
ordnance  weighs  20  kilos,  is  made  of  gun-metal, 
about  18  inches  long,  and  has  an  iron  tail-iiiece 
screwed  into  the  breech  and  jointed,  so  that  in  firing 
it  is  simply  thrust  into  the  soil  until  the  square  breech 
l)rinirs  up."  The  elevation  is  regulated  by  a  quadrant 
and  plummet  put  Into  the  muzzle.  The  bore  is  alwut 
\i  inch,  and  the  piece  carries  wooden  arrows,  fitted 
with  iron  tails  to  reach  the  charge;  and  at  the  muz- 
zle these  arc  much  larger  than  the  tail-piece,  so  that 
the  shock  of  explosion  operates  on  the  stjuare  bases 
of  the  arrows,  which  are  protected  by  rings  of  metal. 


SELVIONE  KIFLE. 


458 


DEHI-LVNE  BED01TBT. 


In  loiidin;;  this  jiitcc,  a  vacant  space  is  left  and  the 
cartridge  is  tired  near  its  outer  end;  the  piece  beini; 
very  short,  this  brings  the  vent  about  in  tlie  center  of 
the"  length.  The  iron  arrows  are  about  one  third 
longi'r  ihau  the  gun,  and  about  half  the  length  of  the 
arrow  is  in  the  gun  when  ready  to  lire.  The  ad\au- 
Uiws  claimed  by  Delvigne  in  this  little  piece  are  its 
cheapness  and  [wrtabilily ,  while  with  suflicieut  charge 
it  gives  an  eipial  or  better  range;  besides  the  wooilen 
and  irt>n  arrows  he  tires  a  wooden  arrow  out  of  the 
)vrri<r  or  almost  any  gun,  which  has  crass-bars  of 
round  iron  made  malleable  to  resist  the  shock.  These 
cross-pieces  are  fixed  at  right  angles  to  the  arrow, 
near  the  outer  end,  and  arc  alx)ut  as  long  as  three  di-» 
ameters  of  the  arrow.  It  is  found  that  in  tiring  this 
the  cross-pieces  are  bent  to  an  angle  of  about  forly- 
tive  degrees  with  the  plane  of  the  arrow,  and  thus 
form  an  anchor  or  grapnel,  useful  for  many  purpo.ses. 
Arrows  of  wood  have  the  advantage  of  floating  if 
they  droji  near  the  wreck,  and  of  being  readily  re- 
covered when  they  go  beyond  or  fall  short.  The  iron 
tliehe  is  intended  for  long  ranges  or  strong  contrary 
winds.  The  distance  depends  much  on  weather,  on 
the  amount  of  charge,  elevation,  and  the  line  running 
clear. 

In  1872  Delvigne's  new  gun,  weighing  20  kilos 
(44.09  pounds),  gave  a  range  of  300'  meters  (328.09 
yards),  with  a  wooden  tli^che  weighing  8  kilos  (17.63  i 
pounds),  and  a  shot-line  8  millimeters  (.315  inch)  in 
diameter.     See  Lifc-mnncj  Rnrlets. 

DELVIGNE  KIFLE.— A  rifle  having  a  chamber 
.screwed  into  the  breech  at  the  bottom  of  the  bore, 
wltich  supplies  an  apartment  for  the  powder.  The 
shoulder  of  the  chamber  provides  a  place  on  which 
the  ball  rests,  and  thus  preserves  the  powder.  The 
ball  enters  freely,  and  is  rammed  and  made  to  take 
tlie  grooves.  A  sabot  was  subsequently  attached  to 
the  under  side  of  the  ball,  and  attached  to  it  was  a 
patch  of  greased  serge,  which  served  to  prevent  foul- 
ing in  the  bore. 

DEMEMBRE.— An  heraldic  term  signifying  that  the 
members  of  an  animal  are  cut  from  its  body.  ALso 
writ  ten  DiKineinhfred. 

DEMI— DEMY.— In  Heraldry,  an  animal  Ls  said  to 
be  (h ml  wlicn  only  the  ui)|icr  or  fore  half  of  it  is 
represented.  In  inanimate  objects  the  dexter  half 
per  jiale  is  usually  intended,  when  it  is  said  to  be 
demi,  though  a  demi-Jleur-de-Us,  fcr  example,  may  be 
a  1i)iir-(U-U»  divided  ])er  fess.     See  HeniMry. 

"demi-bastion.— In  fortification,  a  kind  of  half- 
bastion  which  frequently  terminates  the  branches  of 
a  crown-work  or  horn-work,  ainl  which  Ls  also  occa- 
sionally used  in  other  places.     Sve  Batilion. 

DEMI  CANNON.— A  variety  of  ordnance,  anciently 
vised,  carrying  a  ball  ranging  from  30  to  36  pounds 
in  weight. 

DEMI-CULVEEIN. — An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance, 
carrving  a  ball  weighing  9  or  10  pounds. 

DEMI-FILE.  — That  rank  in  a  French  battalion 
which  immediately  succeeds  to  llic  iien-e-ch'iin-ftU,  and 
is  at  the  head  of  the  reniniiiiiii;  half  of  its  depth. 

DEMI-GORGE.- In  fortiflcation,  half  the  gorge  or 
entrance  into  the  bastion,  not  taken  directly  from 
angle  to  angle,  where  the  bastion  joins  the  curt.nin,  but 
from  the  angle  of  the  flank  to  the  center  of  the  bas- 
tion, or  the  angle  which  the  two  curtains  would  make 
by  their  ])r()longation. 

DEMIHAG. — A  very  small  arquebuse,  of  which  the 
slock  was  bent  or  lifHiked,  in  order  that  it  might  be 
held  more  readily.  It  was  much  used  in  the  .sixteenth 
century. 

DEMI  LANCE.— A  light  lance  or  half-pike;  also  the 
term  for  a  light  horseman  who  carried  a  lance.  I 

DEMI-LUNE. — The  object  of  this  work  is  to  secure 
the  gates  of  the  place  from  a  surprise;  to  mask  from  1 
the  enemy's  liattcries  the  flanks  and  curtain  of  the 
enceinte;  to  give  cross-tires  on  the  salients  of  the  ba.s- 
lions;  and  to  favor  sf)rties.  The  fire  from  the  demi- 
lune is  very  effective  on  the  enemy's  works  along  the 
bastion  capitals.     Finally,  it  is  a  work  of  which  the 


enemy  can  only  obtain  pos.sc.ssion  after  great  labor 
and  loss  of  time;  and  when  carried,  it  is  with  great 
ditliculty  that  he  can  render  it  tenable,  as  it  is  e.xiM)sed 
to  the  flre  of  the  enceinte,  within  a  short  range.  En- 
gineers since  t'onnontaigne,  tiiiding  that  the  demi- 
lune still  admilteil  of  being  enlarged  with  advantage, 
have  accordingly  so  determined  its  dimensions  tliat 
it  may  be  thrown  so  far  to  the  fr<mt  as  will  still  place 
the  breach  which  an  enemy  may  make  in  its  face 
within  the  range  of  the  musketry  of  tlie  bastion-face. 
In  large  fronts,  like  Noizet's,  tlie  demi-luue  may  be 
thus  made  to  cover  about  30  yards  of  the  ba.siion- 
faces  from  the  .shoulder-angle,  and  thus  secure  re- 
trenchments resting  against  this  part  from  Ix-ing 
turneil  by  a  breach  made  near  the  shoulder-angle. 
These  considerations  limit  the  salient  angle  of  the 
demi-lune  to  60  ,  and  place  the  salient  at  not  more 
than  210  yards  from  the  bastion-face,  as  this  dis- 
tance will  i)ring  the  breach  at  almut  180  yards  from 
this  face,  or  within  the  efl'ective  range  of  musketry. 
The  demi-lune  thus  arranged  places  the  bastions,  in 
all  cases,  in  strong  re-enterings;  l}ut  when  the  angles 
of  the  polygon  are  very  obtu.se,  the  faces  of  the  bas- 
tions prolonged  also  fall  within  the  salients  of  the 
demilunes,  and  are  therefore  not  easily  enfiladed. 
The  demi-lune,  with  numerous  advantages,  is  not 
without  defects.  Its  faces,  from  their  position,  are 
exposed  to  an  enfilading  flre;  it  deprives  the  curtain 
of  all  action  ou  the  exterior  ground;  and  it  is  only 
when  the  angles  of  the  bastion  are  very  oi)en  that  the 
re-enterings  formed  by  the  demi-lunes  become  of  a 
formidable  character.  The  glacis  of  the  demilune 
covered-way  forms  a  ridge,  which  is  .serviceable  to 
the  enemy  by  masking  his  works  on  one  side  of  the 
ridge  from  the  fire  of  the  collateral  works  on  the 
other.  Various  de\-ices  have  been  proposed  by  engi- 
neers to  remedy  this  defect  of  exposure  to  entilading 
fire.  Some  have  proposed  raising  a  very  high  \xm- 
net  at  the  .salient,  to  act  as  a  traverse  and  limit  the 
effect  of  a  plunging  enfilade.  Others  have  ]>ro- 
posed  a  curved  pan-coupe  in  the  salient,  of  suflicieut 
size  to  mount  several  guns  to  flre  in  the  direction 
of  the  capital.  Others  suggest  breaking  the  faces 
into  several  crochets,  like  the  covered-way,  and  with 
like  purpose.  Others  propose  to  draw  tlie  salient  of 
the  parajiet  so  far  inwards  that  the  faces  jirolonged 
will  fall  without  the  limits  of  the  as.snilant's  enfllading 
positions.  Others  propose  to  occupv  the  salient  with 
a  high  casemated  traverse,  to  cover  from  enfilade  and 
to  give  a  strong  fire  from  the  casemates  on  the  assjiil- 
ant's  apjiroaches  in  advance  of  the  salients  of  the  ad- 
jacent works.     See  Ovfiri>rks  a\u\  Ran  I  in. 

DEMI  LUNE  CUT.— This  cut  isolates  the  part  of  the 
dcnii-Ume  near  the  extremity  of  the  face  from  the 
salient  ])orliiin;  this  part,  being  arranged  with  a  para- 
pet behind  the  cut,  can  be  defentlcd  after  the  enemy 
has  efTected  a  lodgment  on  the  demilune  salient.  The 
cut  thus  prevents  the  enemy  from  driving  the  be- 
sieged from  the  redoubt  of  the  re-entering  plaee-of- 
arms:  which  he  might  do  were  the  whole  demi-lune 
to  fall  at  once  into  his  possession.  By  jilacing  the 
interior  line  of  the  bottom  of  the  cut  sufficiently  above 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  the  scarp  of  the  demilune 
redoubt  may  be  partly  covered,  and  at  the  same  time 
an  obstacle  may  be  placed  in  the  way  of  an  enemy 
who  might  attempt  to  cirry  the  work  behind  the  cut 
by  first  getting  into  the  cut.  The  slope  given  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cut  still  leaves  a  height  between  the  ex- 
terior line  and  the  bottom  of  the  demilune  ditch 
which  will  secure  the  cut  from  an  assault  on  that 
side.  The  object  of  this  slojie  is  chiefly  so  to  dimin- 
ish the  height  of  the  demi  lunc  scarp  that  it  may  not  Ix' 
exjioscd  to  a  battery,  which  can  be  jilaced  on  the  glacis 
of  the  re-enterinir  lil.ice-of-arms.  As  to  the  interior 
crest,  it  is  placed  as  low  as  possible,  and  is  arranged 
to  cover  the  interior  from  the  plungimr  fire  of  the 
enemy  when  estiiblished  on  the  demilune  salient.  See 
llilxtiiiii-fnfr  Cut. 

DEMI-LUNE  REDOUBT.— The  essential  object  of 
this  redoul)t  is  to  sweej)  at  close  range  the  terre-plein 


OEHI-FABALLELS. 


459 


OEMOLITIOV. 


■of  the  demilune  and  to  render  its  defense  more  obsti- 
nate by  the  support  it  receives  from  tbe  redoubt.  The 
enemy  lia\ing  possession  of  the  demi-lune  will  be 
obliged  to  earry  its  redoubt  Iwfore  he  can  assault  the 
breach  he  may  have  made  in  the  bastion-face,  as  this 
breach  is  seen  in  reverse  by  the  tire  of  the  Hanks  of 
this  work.  The  redoubt  should  be  as  advanceii  as 
possible,  to  sec  in  reverse  the  lodgments  of  the  enemy 
on  the  glacis  of  the  collateral  works.  The  face  of  the 
redoubt  is  directed  on  the  interior  .shoulder-angle  of  the 
bastion  to  have  its  ditch  flanked  by  the  bastion-face. 
In  placing  the  salient  of  the  magistral  below  the  salient 
of  the  demilune,  the  top  of  the  scarp- wall  will  be  near- 
ly on  the  level  ^\-ith  the  demi-lune  terre-plein.  This 
.arrangement  will  force  an  enemy,  lodged  on  the  demi- 
lune terre  plcin,  either  to  lower  his  battery  to  effect  a 
breach  in  the  redoubt,  or  else  to  enijiloy  a  mine  for 
this  purpose;  either  of  which  operations  will  cost  him 
much  labor  tmd  loss  of  time.  The  least  command 
should  be  given  to  the  redoubt  over  the  demi-lune,  to 
enable  the  tire  of  the  redoubt  to  sweep  the  demilune 
tcrre  plein.  The  flanks  of  the  redoubt  arc  principally 
to  procure  a  reverse  tire  on  the  breach  in  the  bastion- 
faces;  their  length  is  estimated  for  three  guns.  The 
piece  nearest  the  extremity  of  one  flank  should  be 
covered  I)y  the  extremity  of  the  opposite  flank  from 
the  reverse  tire  which  might  come  through  the  re- 
doubt-gorge from  the  enemy's  lodgment  on  the  bas- 
tion covered-way.  The  terre  plein  of  the  flank  is 
made  11  yards,  "as  it  is  habitually  armed  with  can- 
non. The  scarp-wall  of  the  redoubt  may  be  reduced 
to  the  minimum  dimensions  of  12  feet.  But  on 
nceount  of  its  importance,  and  also  not  to  diminish 
too  much  the  interior  space,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  dimensions  adopted,  16.50  feet,  best  satisfy  the 
requisite  conditions.  Tbe  top  of  the  wall  slopes 
towards  the  gorge,  so  that  at  tbe  shoidder-angle  it 
may  be  about  4  feet  lower  than  at  the  salient;  the 
object  of  this  is  to  expose  as  small  a  portion  of  the 
wall  as  pos-sible  to  the  enemy's  tire  through  the  demi- 
lune cut;  which  from  its  width  might  admit  of  a 
breach  l)eing  made  in  tbe  rcduulit,  through  it,  from 
the  enemy's  lodgment  on  the  re-entering  place-of-arms. 
The  dimensions  named  are  employed  in  the  Noizet 
system  of  fortification.     See  Demi-hine. 

DEMI  PARALLELS. — In  siege  operations  it  is  usual 
to  place  the  third  parallel  so  near  to  the  defenses  as 
to  t)ring  the  covered-ways,  or  other  most  advanced 
defcn.ses  which  may  be  assaulted  openly,  within  range 
of  stone  mortars,  placed  in  batteries  either  within  or 
in  front  of  this  parallel;  its  position,  for  this  ob.iect, 
should  be  some  60  yards  from  the  salient  points  of 
the  most  advanced  portions  of  the  defenses,  so  as  to 
bring  their  interior  within  the  range  of  the  stone.s  and 
other  missiles  thrown  from  the  mortars.  In  giving 
the  third  parallel  this  position,  there  will  be  a  wide 
zone  of  ground  between  it  and  the  second  parallel, 
over  which  the  approaches  connecting  these  two 
parallels  nuist  be  rvm,  which  would  be  very  Tnuch 
ex]iosed  to  the  sorties  of  the  besieged,  as  well  as  the 
third  parallel,  were  its  protection  left  to  troops  sta- 
tioned as  a  guard  in  the  second  parallel.  To  provide 
protection  for  these  approaches  and  for  the  third 
pamllel  whilst  in  process  of  construction,  ends  of 
treiKucs,  termed  demi-pnmlleh,  arc  nm  out  on  the 
right  and  left  of  the  lines  of  the  approaches,  far 
«noiii;h  to  contain  sufficient  bodies  of  troops  to  pro- 
tect the  men  working  on  the  trenches  in  advance  of 
them  from  sorties,  the  positions  of  the  demi-paral- 
lels  will  be  regulated  by  the  same  tactical  considera- 
tions as  those  which  fegidate  the  positions  of  the 
parallels.  The  length  to  which  they  should  be  ex 
tended  on  the  flanks  of  the  approach  will  be  regu- 
lated bv  the  ntnnber  of  troops  that  it  may  be  deemed 
necessary  to  post  within  them,  and  also  from  the  con- 
sideration that  they  shall  not  obstruct  or  be  endan- 
gered by  the  fire  of  anv  batteries  to  their  rear. 

DEMI  PIKE.— A  kiiid  of  spontoon,  seven  feet  long, 
used  l)v  the  infantn'  or  for  boarding. 

DEMI  PLACE  D'ARMES.— In  fortification,  a  circu- 


lar trench  constructed  upon  the  prolongation  of 
the  lines  of  the  covered-way,  to  the  right  and  left  of 
the  zigzags,  to  cover  the  troops  employed  in  their  de- 
fense. 

DEMI  REVETMENT.— A  revetment  of  the  scarf  on- 
ly to  the  height  protected  by  the  glacis. 
"  DEMOLITION. — In  militarj-  operations  it  sometimes 
Ix-comes  necessarj-  to  destroy  buildings,  bridges,  etc. 
Wooden  structures  are  very  readily  and  effectually  de- 
stroyed by  burning.  Ordinary  dwelling-houses  of 
stone  or  brick  may  be  blown  do\\ii  by  pljicing  against 
the  walls  charges  of  from  2.")  to  .50  pounds  of  powder, 
each  contained  in  a  bag,  box,  or  any  convenient  ves.sel, 
and  exploded  by  means  of  an  electric  primer,  a  slow- 
burning  time-fuse,  or  a  piece  of  slow-match.  The 
cft'ect  of  the  explosion  is  to  blow  away  a  portiim  of  the 
foot  of  the  wall,  that  above  .set lluig  down  without,  as  a 
nde,  toppling  over.  An  inside  angle  or  corner  of  the 
Iniilding  is  the  most  advantageous  place  for  the 
charge,  for  the  reason  that,  being  confined  on  two 
sides,  the  exjilosive  force  acts  more  powerfnllv  than 
when  against  a  plain  surface,  and  also  because  the 
angle  or  comer  of  the  building,  being  :i  point  of  great- 
est .s-upport,  when  blown  away  leaves  the  remaining 
jiarts  greatly  weakened.  Against  strong  and  massive 
walls,  such  as  are  generally  found  in  large  public 
cditices,  charges  of  po%\der,  unless  verj-  heavy,  have 
but  little  effect  when  simply  exploded  against  the 
wall  without  tamping.  Inside  angles  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  taken,  or  when  the  building  has  buttres.ses, 
the  angles  formed  by  them  are  advantageous  for  con- 
fining the  explosive  force  anil  causing  it  to  take  effect 
on  the  wall.  The  powder  is  placed  in  a  box  or  kc^ 
and  covered  with  earth  and  stones.  'When  placed 
five  or  six  feet  above  the  foot  of  the  wall  the  effect  is 
greatly  increased.  In  all  cases  where  demolition  is 
to  be  produced,  dynamite  may  well  Ik?  used  instead  of 
gtmpowder.  Its  destructive  cifect  is  more  than  thirty 
times  that  of  powder,  weight  for  weight. 

To  destroy  the  arches  of  a  niasoniy  bridge,  exca- 
vate a  hole  down  to  tbe  crown  or  haunch  of  the  arch, 
place  in  it  a  charge  of  one  or  \\\o  hundred  jxiunds  of 
jiowder,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  arch,  tamp 
it  wtjl  with  earth  and  stones,  and  explode  it.  The 
amount  of  powder  is  determined  from  the  formula 
X  =  a  A'-'  X  B:  in  which  X  is  the  charge  in  pounds, 
A  the  line  of  least  resistance  thixjugh  the  arch,  and  B 
the  breadth  of  the  bridge,  both  in  feet.  AA"hcn  the 
width  of  the  arch  is  over  25  feet,  two  charges  should 
be  placed,  to  prevent  the  chance  of  blowing  a  hole 
through  the  middle  without  bringing  down  the  sides. 
Tlie.st" should  be  exploded  simultaneously,  if  pos,sible. 
\Vhen  the  side  walls  are  lightly  built,  it  is  better  to 
pull  enough  of  the  stone  away  to  allow  a  timnel  being 
run  on  top  of  tbe  arch  to  the"middle  of  the  roadway. 
This  does  not  interfere  with  the  use  of  the  bridge 
during  the  oiieration,  and  if  it  is  not  desired  to  destroy 
tbe  bridge  immediately,  the  charge  may  be  kept  in 
its  jilace  ready  for  use  at  any  moment.  In  this  case 
the  charge  should  Ix"  in  a  tight  box  or  barrel,  well 
pitched  to  jirotect  it  against  moisture.  The  charge 
may  be  exi/loded  by  means  of  an  electric  primer,  the 
ordinarj'  fus'e  used  in  blasting,  or  with  a  powder-hose. 
This  latter  is  made  of  canvas  or  any  stuff  that  will 
held  thie-grained  powder,  and  is  in<losed  in  a  trough 
to  protect  it  from  the  moisture  of  the  eai1h. 

Wooden  bridges  are  ca.sily  burnt;  but  if  great  se- 
crecy is  necessarj-,  a  hole  may  lie  Ixired  with  an  auger 
in  a"  main-brace  and  a  charge  of  powder  or  dyna- 
mite exploded  therein,  blowing  it  to  pieces.  C'harses 
should  bejilaced  in  several  of  the  braces  and  cxploefcd 
as  near  simultaneously  as  pos.sible.  During  the  ^\  ar 
of  the  Rebellion  a  small  torpedo  was  de^•ised  for  this 
purpose.  It  consisted  of  a  tin  cylinder  1.75  inch  in 
diameter  and  about  7  inches  long.  Both  ends  of  the 
cvlinder  were  open,  anil  through  it  pa.s.sed  a  bolt  of 
.to-inch  iron,  with  a  stout  head  at  one  end  and  a  nut 
at  the  other,  each  having  a  diameter  of  2  inches.  A 
I  washer  of  the  same  size  as  the  head  was  placed  under 
the  nut;  through  a  hole  in  the  washer  passed  a  strand 


SXKOLITION  OF  ABTILLEBT. 


460 


dinsimeteb;. 


of  slowmiitch  to  coiiimunicate  tire  to  the  powder  with 
which  the  ey  liiuler  was  lillecl.  A  coat  of  varnish  pro- 
tectwl  the  jjowilir  from  moisture.  To  use  it,  a  hole 
2  inches  iu  diameter  was  bored  ia  the  timber;  into 
this  the  tor]K<lo  was  tiriveu,  head  downwards,  and 
the  fuse  iirniled.  The  most  effectual  way  of  destroy- 
init  au  iron  bridge  is  to  attack  the  abutments  by  null- 
ing down  so  as  to  gi't  liehind  tlie  masonry  a  large 
charge  of  powder  or  dynamite,  which  l>eing  exploded 
di-stroys  the  supports"  of  the  suiH-rstructure.  When 
time  and  means  iHTmit,  remove  as  many  bolts  as  jios- 
sible,  st>  as  to  weaken  the  parts,  after  which  Ijuild  a 
strong  tire  and  heat  the  main-braces  to  make  the 
bridge  sjig  and  warp  out  of  shape,  or  to  come  down 
entirely. 

Canals  may  be  temporarily  disabled  by  cutting  em- 
bankments. "The  most  elleclual  way,  however,  is  to 
blow  up  a  lock,  which  may  be  done  by  digging  down 
Ix'hind  a  facing  wall  and  placing  agauist  it  a  charge 
of  two  or  three  hundred  pounds  of  powder  or  a  few- 
pounds  of  dynamite,  tamping  well  and  exploding  it. 
A  lock  destroyed  in  this  manner  requires  a  long  time 
to  rejiair.  The  arches  of  an  aqueduct  may  be  broken 
by  drillinii  holes  and  blasting.  An  army  depending 
U|X)n  a  railroad  for  its  supplies  should  be  provided 
with  an  organized  Construction  Corps,  fully  equipped 
with  every  means  for  making  speedy  repairs.  Dam- 
ages done  to  railroads  arc  easily  repaired,  in  compari- 
son with  those  lione  to  canals. 

DEMOLITION  OF  AETILLEKY.— The  destruction 
of  ordnance  by  artificial  or  other  means.  This  is  per- 
formed, if  the  gun  is  an  iron  one,  by  half  tilling  the 
piece  with  powder,  and  jamming  in  one  or  two  shot 
with  stones,  bits  of  iron,  etc.;  over  this  a  complete 
tamping  with  stones  and  earth  till  the  bore  is  tilled. 
To  break  oft  the  trunnions  is  not  always  an  infallible 
mode  of  destroying  ordnance,  as  they  can  still  be 
tired  from  the  ground.  When  time  admits  of  only 
partially  crippling  guns  by  remo\ing  one  of  the 
trunnions,  it  is  be.st  done  by  laying  the  end  of  the 
trunnion  on  a  block  of  wood,  the  blow  being  given 
by  a  sledge-hammer,  or  (if  that  be  not  at  hand)  by 
heavy  shot.  A  gun  maj'  be  destroyed  by  tiring  a 
shot  at  it  behind  one  of  the  trunnions,  which,  if  it 
shouUl  not  bre-.ik  it,  would  render  it  unsafe.  The 
lirst  method,  however,  particularly  if  the  muzzle  is 
])artly  buriiil  in  the  groiuiil,  will  be  found  certain  to 
liursl  the  gun.  To  render  bronze  guns  imscr\icealilc, 
tire  a  shot  into  them  from  some  other  piece,  behind 
the  trunnions,  which  will  prevent  the  possibility  of 
their  being  used  airain.     See  Demolition. 

DEMONSTRATION.— In  military  operations,  an 
a]iparent  movement  or  maneuver  the  chief  object  of 
which  is  to  deceive  the  enemy  and  induce  him  to 
divide  his  force,  as  if  to  meet  dangers  from  various 
quarters.  AVhen  thus  divided  and  weakened,  he  may 
be  attacked  with  greater  chance  of  success. 

DENONCIATEUE.— In  a  general  sense,  a  person  not 
impii  jxrly  calliil  a  military  informer.  So  rigid  in- 
deed were  the  regulations  (even  in  the  most  corrupt 
state  of  the  French  Government)  against  every  species 
of  misiippHcation  and  embezzlement,  that  if  a  private 
dragoon  gave  information  to  the  Comrai.ssjuy  of 
Musters  of  a  troop-horse  that  had  passed  muster," hav- 
ing been  used  in  the  jirivate  .seniec  of  an  ofticer,  he 
was  not  only  entitled  to  his  discharge,  but  received, 
moreover,  100  livres  in  ea.sh,  and  became  ma.ster  of 
the  horse  and  ecjuipage,  with  which  he  retired  unmo- 
lested.    The  olticer  was  sunnnarilv  dealt  with. 

DENSIMETER.— This  instrument,  employed  in  the 
determination  of  the  specilic  gravities  of  metals  for 
cannon,  is  simply  a  fonn  of  the  hydrostatic  balance, 
and  was  adopted  in  placeof  the  hydrometer,  fonnerly 
in  use,  in  order  to  substitute  a  more  expeditious  |iro- 
eess  for  the  slow  and  tedious  operation  by  the  latter. 
The  instrument  consists  of  a  delicate  beam-scale.  A, 
having  suspended  from  one  extremity  of  the  beam  a 
brass  bucket,  B,  the  l)ottom  ui  which  is  perforateil 
with  holis.  Underneath  the  Ijucket,  and  resting  on  a 
lri|)od,  D — which  stands  over  the  scale-pan  in  such  a 


manner  as  not  to  interfere  with  either  the  movement 
of  the  balance  or  working  with  the  ]ian — is  a  glass 
jar,  C,  to  contain  w.ater  for  the  immersion  of  the 
bucket  and  specimen.  A  mark  is  scratched  upon  the 
jar  near  the  top.  and  this  mark  indicates  the  height  at 
which  the  water  should,  after  the  immersion  of  the 
bucket,  always  stand  jirevious  to  an  experiment.  The 
immersion  of  the  specimen  caiLses  the  water  to  rise 
above  this  mark,  immersing  an  additional  portion  of 
the  stem  of  the  bucket,  anil  the  latter  loses,  in  conse- 
quence, a  slight  portion  of  its  weight  in  reference  to 
the  beam.  A  correction,  therefoiv,  becomes  neces- 
Siiry  to  comiiensjite  for  this  apparent  loss  in  weight. 
To  determine  this  correction,  the  bucket-stem  is 
graduated  in  the  following  maimer:  The  beam  having 
been  thrown  into  action,  and  the  immersed  bucket 
balanced  by  weights  in  the  pan  attached  to  the  oppo- 
site arm,  a  mark  is  made  upon  the  stem  of  the  bucket 
where  it  is  intersected  by  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  height  of  the  water  in  the  jar  is  then  raised  till 
as  much  more  of  the  stem  is  immersed  as  is  likely 
ever  to  be  the  case  iu  practice.  Another  mark  is  then 
made  where  the  stem  is  now  intersected  by  the  water, 
anil  the  loss  of  weight  in  the  bucket  a.sccrtaiiied.  The 
loss  in  weight,  for  the  maximum  immersion  of  the 
stem,  amounts  to  only  one  tenth  of  a  grain,  while  the 
coriesponding  length  of  stem  is  nearly  one  inch;  the 
space  between  the  marks,  therefore,  may  be  readily 
subdivided  into  tenths,  and  the  neces.s;iry  coiTections 
can  thus  be  read  off  the  stem  in  actual  weight  to  the 
nearest  tenth  of  a  grain.  By  using  simply  a  thread 
in  place  of  the  bucket,  the  above  correction  might  be 
neglected;  but  the  greater  convenience  offered  by  the 
latter  has  led  to  its  final  adoption.  A  thermometer  is 
suspended  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  jar,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing. 


The  process,  with  this  instrument,  of  taking  the 
specific  gia\nty  of  a  specimen  of  metal  naturally  sug- 
gests itself.  The  jar  being  filled  witli  water  to  the 
fixed  mark,  and  the  bucket  suspended  therein,  the 
beam  is  thrown  into  action,  and  the  weight  of  the 
immersed  l)ueket  ascertained  by  means  of  weights 
placed  in  the  o)iposite  scale-pan.  This  weight  being 
noted  for  dilT(>renl  temperatures  can  be  tabulateci, 
and  thus  become  a  known  element  for  all  calculations 
of  the  specific  gravity  with  this  instrument.  The 
specimen  of  meial  is  then  placed  in  the  pan  under- 
neath the  jar.  and  weights  added  to  the  other  pan  till 
the  balance  of  the  beam  is  restored.  The  sum  of  these 
weights  is  the  weight  of  the  specimen  in  air  ])lus  the 
weight  of  the  bucket  iu  water.  The  specimen  is  now 
transferred  from  the  ])an  to  the  bucket,  and  replaced 
by  weights  in  the  pan  underneath  the  jar,  till  the 
equilibrium  is  again  established.  The  sum  of  these 
latter  weights  is  the  weight  of  the  volume  of  water 
displaced  by  the  specimen  ])lus  the  weiirht  lost  in  the 
bucket  due  to  the  immersion  of  an  additional  portion 
of  its  stem.  The  loss  in  weight  is  read  olT  the  biickct- 
.stem  in  tenths  of  a  grain,  and  is  to  be  subtracted  from 
the  weights  in  the  pan  underneath.    Denote  the  weight 


t 


DENSITY. 


461 


DEPAETMENT  OF  WAS. 


of  the  bucket  in  water,  as  first  determined,  by  a;  the 
same  weijjbt  of  bucket  and  the  weight  of  the  sjjecimen 
in  air  by  li;  the  weight  requisite  to  restore  the  equi- 
poise after  immersion  of  the  specimen  by  c;  the  loss 
of  weiglit  in  the  bucket  by  rf,  and  the  correction  for 
temperature  by  t.  Then  designating  by  D  the  specitic 
gravity  of  the  metal  tested, 


D: 


(b-a) 


The  following  is  the  form  of  the  record  of  computa- 
tion: 


DEPARTMENT  OF  ARTULEHY  STUDIES.— A  De- 
partment at  AVoolwich,  for  advanced  scientitic  instruc- 
tion, and  for  the  instruction  of  officers  generally,  in 
iniif/rul  and  kindred  subjects. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  DIRECTOR  OF  ARTIL- 
LERY STORES.— In  Ihe  British  service,  a  Departuieut 
charged  with  the  regulation  of  armaments  and  the  in- 
troduction of  new  mait'riel;  also  the  superintendence 
of  tlie  manufacture  of  warlike  stores. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR.— "There  shall  be  an  Ex- 
ecutive l)e|)artment,  to  Ix'  denominated  the  Depart- 
ment of  War;  and  there  shall  be  a  principal  officer 
therein,  to  be  called  the  Secretary  for  the  Department 


■Weights. 

1 

Logarithms  corresponding  to- 

a 

%h 

u 

+ 

6} 

t 

Il 

Specimen. 

1 

a 

a 

g+ 

1 

2 

ft -0. 

c-d. 

e  +  h-/. 

O) 

S 

s 

a 

i 

a 

^ 

u 

o 

3 

bcs  £ 

-a 

K 

s 

2 

S 

^0- 

& 

a 

b 

c 

d 

770 

e 

f 

h 

.8951309 

Steel 

877 

&428 

817.25 

0.25 

3.8080759 

2.9122325 

1.9992771 

7.8548 

See  Dupont  de  Nemours  Dendmeter  and  Mercury  Den- 
siiiiffer. 

DENSITY.— When  of  two  bodies  of  equal  bulk  or 
volume  the  one  contains  more  matter  than  the  other, 
it  is  said  to  have  greater  density  tlian  that  other.  The 
quantity  of  matter  is  measured  by  the  weight,  and 
tliiis  density  and  specific  gravity  come  to  be  propor- 
tional to  one  another.  Platina,  which  is  about  21 
times  tlie  weight  of  water,  long  passed  for  the  densest 
body;  but  Breithaupt  of  Freiburg,  in  1833,  made  out 
iriiliiiiii  to  be  twice  as  ilense.  Rare  is  opposed  to 
dense,  and  the  rarest  body  known  is  /ii/drnr/in,  ^^•llich 
is  about  14^  times  rarer  tlian  atmospheric  air.  The 
densitj'  of  bodies  is  diminished  by  heat  and  increased 
by  cold.  In  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  it  is 
very  necessary  to  attend  to  the  density,  as  so  much 
dejiends  >ipon  this  all-important  point  in  regidating 
the  unifonnity,  time  of  burning,  and  strength  of  the 
powder.  Experience  has  shown  the  density  most 
likely,  under  certain  circumstances,  to  produce  a  good 
result  in  thedUTerent  natures  of  powder  manufactured, 
Iioth  as  regards  their  action  upon  the  velocity  of  the 
shot  and  the  pressure  upon  the  gtm.  A  large-grained 
dense  powder  burns  slower  than  a  small-grauicd  pow- 
der of  low  density,  and  tends  to  preserve  the  gun 
better,  as  it  docs  "not  throw  such  a  strain  upon  it; 
heme  the  reason  that  large-gTained  and  dense  powder 
is  used  with  all  larire  ordnance.     See  Unnpmoder. 

DEPARTMENT  COMMANDER.— An  officer  a.ssimi- 
lattd  to  the  Commander  of  a  separate  army,  with  the 
same  powers  and  duties  in  similar  cases  over  all  the 
troops  within  tlic  limits  of  the  Department.  He  de- 
rives his  authority  to  command  from  the  highest  power 
of  the  Government.  In  the  United  States|^ certain  du- 
ties of  the  Deiiartment  Commander  are  defined  by 
statute.  He  can  convene  Courts-Martial,  and  his  ac- 
tion is  final  on  all  cases  fried  by  such  Courts,  except 
in  the  cjise  of  a  General  Officer, "or  where  the  sentence 
of  the  Court  extends  to  the  loss  of  life  or  the  dismissal 
of  a  Commissioned  Officer.  In  time  of  war  he  is 
authorized  to  execute  the  death-penalty  in  cases  of 
jwrsons  con\icted  as  spies,  mutineers,  deserters,  or 
murderers,  and  in  cases  of  guerrilla  marauders  con- 
victed- in  time  of  war  of  robbery,  iiurglary,  arson, 
rape,  assault  with  intent  to  commit  rape,  or  violation 
of  the  laws  of  war.  See  Geographical  Departments 
■and  Divimm  and  Military  Department. 


of  War.  He  is  to  perform  and  execute  such  duties 
as  shall,  from  time  to  time,  l)e  enjoined  on  or  in- 
tnisted  to  him  by  the  President  of  the  I'nited  States, 
agreeably  to  the  Constitution,  relative  to  military 
ccmmissions,  or  to  the  land  forces  or  warlike  stores 
of  the  United  States,  or  such  other  matters  respecting 
military  affairs  as  the  President  of  the  United  States 
Shall  assign  to  said  Department.  And  furthcnnore, 
that  the  said  princijial  officer  shall  conduct  the  busi- 
ness of  the  sind  Department  in  such  manner  as  the 
President  of  the  United  States  shall,  from  time  to 
time,  order  or  instruct.  That  there  shall  l)e  in  said 
Department  an  inferior  officer,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
said  principal  officer,  to  be  employed  therein  as  he 
shall  deem  proper,  and  to  be  called  the  Chief  Clerk  in 
the  Department  of  War,  and  who,  whenever  the  said 
principal  officer  shall  be  removed  from  office  by  the 
Presitlent  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  other  ease 
of  vacancv,  shall,  during  such  vacancy,  have  the 
charge  and  custody  of  all  records,  books,  and  papers 
appertaining  to  said  Department.  The  Siud  iiriuciiial 
officer,  and  every  other  person  to  l)e  aitiiointed  or  em- 
ployed in  said  Department,  shall,  before  he  enters  on 
the  execution  of  ins  office  or  employment,  take  an 
oath  or  alfinnation  well  and  faithfully  to  execute 
the  trust  committed  to  him."  (Act  Aug.  T,  1789.)  It 
seems  impossible  to  read  this  Act  of  Congre.ss,  and 
contend  tliat  oflicers  of  the  army  are  a  portion  of  the 
War  Department.  And  the  statute-book  will  be 
.searched  in  vain  to  find  authority  given  to  the  Sec- 
retar)'  over  any  officers  other  than  officers  of  Staff 
Departments,  or  over  subjects  disconnected  with  the 
custody  of  public  records,  the  support  and  supply  of 
troojis,  the  manufacture  and  care  of  warlike  stores, 
the  keeping  of  exact  and  regular  returns  of  all  the 
forces  of  the  United  States,  or  other  kindred  admin- 
istrative matters,  such  as  receiving  the  proceedings 
of  Courts-JIartial  anil  laying  them  before  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  for  his  apjiroval  or  disap- 
proval, and  orders  in  the  case.  There  is  no  Act  of 
Congre.ss  which  authorizes  the  Secretary  of  War  to 
command  the  troo])s,  and  lie  l)cing  no  part  of  the 
army,  the  President,  of  course,  cannot  authorize  him 
to  do  so.  But  the  Secretarv  of  War  is  the  regular 
constitutional  orpui  of  the  President  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  military  establishment  of  the  nation; 
and  rules  and  orders  publicly  promulgated  through 


D£P£NS£S. 


462 


DEPRESSINO-CASRIAGES. 


him  must  Ik-  rwcivHl  iis  the  nets  of  the  Exeoutivc, 
and  OS  such  arc  biutliiii;  uiwn  all  within  the  sphere  of 
his  Icpil  anil  conslilutioniil  authority. 

Bv  an  Act  i>f  t'ongrress  iipprovcii  March  3,  1818, 
it  is"provi(lwl:  That  it  shall  be  the  duly  ot  the  Sec- 
retary of  War,  and  he  is  hereby  authorized,  to  jire- 
paregenend  reirulations,  better  detiuinir  and  pre- 
scribing the  re>peelivc  duties  and  powers  of  the 
sevend  olVuers  in  the  Adjutant  General,  Inspector 
Geiiend,  Ciuarterinaslcr  General,  and  Coinnussarv  of 
.Ordniuice  Depart  nienls,  of  the  Topographical  Lngi- 
nirrs,  of  the  Aids  of  Generals,  and  generally  of  the  Gen- 
eral and  Heginiental  Staff:  which  reguiation,  when 
api)roveil  by  the  President  of  the  I'niteil  Slates,  shall 
be  rcspe'cted  and  ol)eycd,  imtil  altered  or  revoked  by 
the  Siune  authority. "  Here  was  a  partial  delegation 
,  of  legislative  [wwer;  and  under  this  power  of  legis- 
lation  so  contined  to  the  sevend  Staff  Departments, 
the  Secretary  of  War,  with  the  approval  of  the  Presi- 
dent, established  Bureaus  of  the  War  Department, 
making  the  head  of  each  Staff  Department  Chief  of 
a  Bureau,  in  all  fiscal  and  administrative  matters  con- 
nected with  hi^  particular  Deiiartmcnt  under  the  Gen- 
eral direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  The  War 
Department  thus  centralized  all  army  administration, 
ami  efforts  have  since  been  made  to  centralize  in  the 
same  way  the  command  and  government  and  refla- 
tion of  tiie  army.  But  as  the  old  62d  Articl(>  of  War 
declares  that  when  different  corps  come  together  the 
oflictr  highest  in  rank  shall  command  the  whcjle  and 
give  ortlers  for  what  is  needful  to  the  .service,  unless 
otherwise  specially  directed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  Stiites,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case, 
while  the  61st  Article  gives  the  command  to  the  .sen- 
ior regimental  officer  within  his  regiment ,  when  other 
troops  arc  not  present,  such  centralization,  if  not  a 
violatiim  of  law,  would  be  a  \iolation  of  all  inililary 
principles,  destructive  alike  to  discipline  and  military 
spirit.  For  commands  given  immediately  by  the 
highest  authority  cause  agitaiion  rather  than  action. 
The  superior  authority  becomes  weakened  in  propor- 
tion as  the  eye  becomes  accustomed  to  it.  Fear  of 
it  ceases,  and  when  the  highest  authority  habituates 
it.self  to  doing  everjMhing,  as  soon  as  it  ceases  to  be 
sufficient  to  do  all  there  is  nothing  done.  All  de- 
grees of  rank  and  command  have  their  degree  of  im- 
portance. Authority  must  regularly  ascend  and  de- 
scend. Ever\'  inferior  grade  is  the  lieutenant  of  its 
superior  graile,  even  to  the  oldest  soldier,  who  re- 
places the  corporal.  Obedience  is  reciprocal  to  au- 
thority. Rules  established  by  Congress,  defining  the 
rights,  powers,  and  duties  of  all  ofiicers  and  soldiers, 
are  niucB  needed.  See  Secnkiry  of  War  and  War 
Driiiiiti/iint. 

DEFENSES. — A  term  used  in  a  military  sense  to  im- 
ply secret  service  money. 

DEPLOYMENTS.— A"  general  term  for  tactical  ma- 
neuvers by  which  the  front  is  extended.  The  follow- 
hig  ])<iitits  are  general:  On  Jii-st  or  laM  roii>/'<i»i/ — all 
companies  except  the  desigiiated  company  go  t()  right 
or  left,  as  the  Major  may  command.  If  "to  the  ri'//it, 
the  point  of  rest  is  the  l^ft  of  the  line;  if  to  the  Iffl. 
the  jjoint  of  rest  is  the  rig/it  of  the  line.  //'  on  an  iii- 
leru/r  omiuini/,  and  the  Major  commands,  "Fours 
right  and  lift."  the  front  compaines  go  to  riaht,  and 
rmr  companies  go  u,  l.ft,  and  point  of  rest  is  the  Uft 
of  designated  company,  if  Ibe  command  be,  "  Fou'rit 
Uft  anil  riijlil,"  the  fnmt  companies  go  to /(//,  and  rair 
companies  go  to  right,  and  ]>oint  of  rest  is  "the  rii/ht  of 
the  design.Hlcd  company.  In  all  cu.ses  companies  are 
drcssid  lowiird  \\\f  jmini  of  rixt. 

DEPORTATION.— The  forcible  removal  of  a  people 
from  their  country:  in  former  times  employed  as  a 
means  of  sc'curing  the  fruits  of  conipiesl.'  In  the 
Scriptures  it  is  recordeil  that  not  only  the  .Jews  but 
other  peoples  were  carried  away  captives.  Bani.sh- 
menl  is  stdl  a  mellnxlof  punishirig  political  offenders 
in  France  and  some  other  ccMmtries. 

DEPOSITION— The  testimony  of  a  witness  set  down 
in  writing.    Depositions  arc  taken  either  by  a  Judge  ; 


or  by  a  Commissioner  specially  appointed  by  him  for 
that"  purpose.  The  questions  to  which  the  deix)si- 
tions  are  answers  are  usually  put  by  the  legal  repiv- 
sentatives  of  the  parties  to  the  suit,  \mder  the  control 
of  the  Court  or  Commissioner,  and  the  answers  arc 
taken  down  by  the  Clerk  of  Court,  or  by  a  Clerk 
sijecially  appointed  for  the  purpose.  If  the  compe- 
tency of  the  questions  or  the  admissibility  of  the  wit- 
nesses he  objected  to,  the  objection  must  be  stated  to 
the  Court  or  Commissioner.  The  latter  may  either 
dispose  of  the  objection  at  the  time,  or  reserve  it  for 
the  opinion  of  the  Court  by  which  he  was  appointed. 
It  is  a  rule  in  the  laws  of  e\  idence  of  all  countries 
that  the  deposition  cannot  be  read  where  the  witness 
might  be  himself  produced,  because  his  oral  testi- 
mony is  the  best  endence,  and  secondary  evidence 
is  never  admissible.  Where  he  is  dead,  however,  or 
insane,  or  lieyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court,  his 
deposition  then  becomes  the  best  e\idence  and  may 
be  read  in  Court. 

DEPOSITS.— Soldiers  may  deposit  with  the  Pay- 
master any  portion  of  their  savings,  in  sums  not  less 
than  tive  dollars,  the  same  to  remain  so  deposited  un- 
til final  |)aynicnt  on  discharge.  The  Paymaster  fur- 
nishes each  depositor  with  a  deposit-book,  in  which 
each  deposit  maile  is  entered  in  the  form  of  a  ccrtiti- 
catc,  signed  by  the  Paymaster  and  the  Company  Com- 
mander, setting  forth  the  date,  place,  and  amount  (in 
words  and  ligures)  of  deposit,  and  the  name  of  sol- 
dier making  same.  The  attention  of  enlisted  men 
should  be  calletl  to  the  imixirtancc  of  jireserving  de- 
posit-books as  the  only  certain  means  of  insuring  ab- 
solutely correct  repayment  without  delay.  On  the 
death  of  a  soldier,  account  should  be  made  of  each 
deposit  in  the  inventory  of  his  effects,  and  on  the  ac- 
companying final  statements  with  which  his  deposit- 
book  will  be  tiled.  The  separate  and  accurate  state- 
ment, by  date  and  amoimt,  of  each  deposit  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  the  correct  calculation  of  interest. 
For  any  sums  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  deposited  for 
the  period  of  si.\  months  or  longer,  the  soldier,  on  his 
final  discharge,  is  paid  interest  at  the  rate  of  4  per 
cent  per  annum.  Deposits  and  interest  thereon  are 
forfeileii  by  ilesertion,  but  arc  wholly  exempt  from 
forfeiture  by  sentence  of  Court-Martial  and  from  lia- 
bility for  the  soldier's  debts. 

DEPOT. — In  military  matters,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  a  place  where  army  stores  arc  deposited  dur- 
ing war.  In  the  English  Regimental  System,  how- 
ever, a  depot  used  to  be  the  town  or  barrack  where 
certain  stores  belonging  to  the  regiment  were  kept, 
as  well  as  the  regimental  books  and  some  of  the  men, 
when  the  regiment  was  ortlercd  on  foreign  service. 
It  was  rarely  that  a  whole  regiment  was  engaged  in 
active  service  at  once;  either  one  or  two  companies 
were  generally  kept  at  home,  under  the  command  of 
one  of  the  officers,  and  were  called  Depot  Companies. 
They  formed  a  nucleus  where  recnut.s  were  received 
and  drilled,  and  where  the  cor]K)rale  existence  of  the 
regiment  might  be  kept  tip.  By  the  Military  Forces 
Localization  Act  of  1872,  under  which  the  United 
Kingdom  is  divided  into  seventy  sub-districts,  every 
battalion,  whether  at  home  or  aliroad,  has  a  depot  of 
two  conijianies.  The  depots  of  two  battalions  consti- 
tute the  deiK)t-ccnter.  or  sub  district  l)rigade,  to  which 
the  volunteers  and  militia  of  the  .sub-district  are  atlil- 
iatcd.  In  time  of  war  the  depot  wouUl  expand  into 
a  third  batinlion. 

DEPRESSED  GUN.— Any  piece  of  ordnance  having 
its  nioiilli  (le|ir(sM  d  below  the  horizontal  line. 

DEPRESSING-CARRIAGES.— These  carriages  per- 
mit Ibe  Lcun  to  lire  over  a  panqiet  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, and  upon  recoil  allow  the  piece  to  descend  liehind 
the  jiarapel,  where  it  can  be  reloaded  in  safely.  Va- 
rious i)lans  for  effecting  this  have  been  proposed,  but 
none  aelually  adopted,  in  the  United  Stales  service. 
The  King  carriage,  mounting  a  1.")  inch  guB,  ha.s, 
however,  lx;cn  tested  and  found  to  work  etVicicntly. 
This  consists  in  lowering  the  rear  end  of  the  chassis 
until  it  nearly  touches  the  ground,  thus  forming  an 


DEPRESSION. 


463 


DEBBICE. 


inclined  plane  at  an  angle  of  about  30'  to  the  horizon. 
The  topcarriase  is  attached  to  a  counterpoise  by  a 
band  composed  of  wire  ropes.  This  counterpoise  is 
a  hcavj-  ma-ss  of  metal  descending  into  a  well  in  front 
of  tlie  pintle.  The  carriage  that  has  been  adopted, 
and  hereafter  to  be  furnished  for  the  barbette  ser\ice, 
has  an  increase  of  lo  inches  in  height  over  those  of 
old  pattern.  This  moditication  is  effected  by  insert- 
ing sections,  similar  in  construction  to  the  chassis-rail, 
between  the  rails  and  feet,  props,  and  fork  of  the  low 
chassis.  The  increase  of  height  thus  gained  admits 
of  a  corresponding  depression  of  the  terre-plein,  and 
consequently  greater  protection  behind  the  parapet 
for  the  cannoneers.  The  gun,  nevertheless,  is  ex- 
posed as  before.  Depressing-carriages  are  intended 
to  protect  the  piece  and  carriage  as  well  as  the  can- 
noneers. The  accuracy  of  modern  artillery-tire  in- 
crea.ses  the  danger  to  the  guns  with  which  a  work  is 
armed;  and  the  disabling  of  a  piece  by  the  enemy's 
lire  is  of  greater  moment  now  tlian  formerly,  when 
works  were  garnished  with  a  greater  number,  and  of 
such  small  size  as  to  Ije  readily  replaced  when  in- 
jured. 

DEPRESSION.— 1.  The  pointing  of  any  piece  of 
ordnance  so  that  its  shot  may  be  projected  short  of 
the  point-blank.  2.  The  dtp  of  the  horizon,  or  the 
angle  through  which  the  horizon  appears  depressed 
in  consequence  of  the  elevation  of  the  spectator.  Let 
A  be  a  point  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  B  a  point 
situated  in  a  vertical  line 
from  i*_  Let  BH  lie  a  tan- 
gent to  the  earth's  surface 
drawn  from  B,  BA  a  line 
in  the  same  vertical  plane 
perpendicular  to  AB.  The 
angle  ABII  is  the  true  dip 
of  the  horizon  to  a  specta- 
tor at  B.  The  true  dip 
measured  in  minutes  is 
equal  to  the  distance  in 
nautical  miles  of  the  visi- 
ble horizon.  Let  C  be  the 
center  of  curvature  of  the 
surface;  then,  since  C'HB 
is  a  right  angle,  the  angle  ABH  =  HCA,  and  the 
minutes  in  this  angle  arc  the  nautical  miles  in  the  arc 
AH.  To  find  this  angle  in  minutes  or  nautical  miles, 
the  rule  is:  Multiplj-  the  square  root  of  the  height  in 
feet  by  1.063.  The  true  dip  of  the  horizon,  however, 
is  not  exactly  the  sjime  as  its  apparent  depression. 
The  apparent  sea-horizon  is  raised  above  its  true  place 
by  refrtiftion  through  an  angle,  which  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  state  of  the  atuiosphere  and  the  relative 
temperatures  of  the  air  and  water,  the  variation  rang- 
ing from  one  third  to  one  tnenly-third  of  the  amount 
of  the  true  dip.  The  nde  commonly  employed  is  to 
diminish  the  true  dip  by  about  one  fourteenth  of  its 
amount,  to  find  the  apparent  dip.  If  S  be  a  star  or 
the  sun  in  the  same  vertical  plane  with  ABH.  and  an 
observation  of  the  altituile  above  the  sea-horizon  be 
made  by  means  of  a  sextant  from  the  point  B,  the 
apparent  dip  of  the  horizon  must  be  subtracted  from 
the  observed  angle,  in  order  to  find  the  altitude  of  the 
sun.  Owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  amount  of  re- 
fraction, the  nearest  minute  to  the  dip  given  in  the 
tables  is  usually  taken.  The  following  table  gives  a 
Jsample  of  the  amount  of  the  apparent  dip  under  or- 
dinary state  of  the  atmosphere  and  equal  temperature 
of  air  and  water: 


Height. 

Dip. 

Height. 

Dip. 

Feet. 

m.  s. 

Feet. 

m.  s. 

0 

0    0 

8 

2  50 

1 

1    0 

9 

3    0 

2 

1  20 

10 

20 

3  10 

3 

1  40 

4  20 

4 

2    0 

30 

5  20 

5. 

2  10 

40 

6  10 

6 

2  20 

50 

7    0 

7 

240 

100 

9  .50 

I  DEPTH. —  A  technical  word  peculiarly  applicable 
to  bodies  of  men  drawn  up  in  line  or  column.  The 
depth  of  a  battalion  or  a  squadron  is  the  number  of 
men  in  rank  and  tile  from  front  to  rear. 

!  DEPUTY  ADJUTANT  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT. 
— In  the  British  service,  a  Department  charged  (uuiler 
the  Commander-in-Chief)  with  the  discipline,  promo- 
tion, and  distribution  of  bri:rades. 

DEPUTY  ASSISTANT  ADJUTANT  GENERAL.— 
In  the  British  service,  a  sul)oriliuate  olticer  of  the 
Adjutant  Generals  Department,  who  performs  simi- 
lar duties  to  those  of  an  Assistant  Adjutant  General. 
In  the  field,  a  Deputy  A.ssislant  Adjutimt  Genei-al  is 
attached  to  each  division. 

DEPUTY  MARSHAL.— In  the  Britieh  service,  the 
senior  Sergeant  Major  of  each  regiment  of  Foot- 
guards,  who  sees  afier  and  makes  out  the  routes  of 
deserters,  and  receives  an  allowance  for  so  doing. 

DERASER. — A  tenn  meaning  to  cut  off  the  super- 
fluous clay  from  a  gun-mold  jirevious  to  its  being 
placed  in  ihe  (lit.     See  ('iintiiiij  and  Mold. 

DERIVATION.— Derivation,  or  drift,  is  the  de%-ia- 

1  tion  peculiar  to  ritle-projcctiles,  the  divergence  being 
on  the  side  towards  which  the  grooves  tmiit.  It  is  a 
constantly  increasing  divergence  from  the  plane  of 
fire,  and  is  allowed  for,  in  ;dming,  by  means  of  a 
lateral  motion  given  to  the  rear  sight.     See  Drift. 

DERRICK. — The  derrick  is  a  machine  used  for 
hoisting  or  lowering  hea\-j-  bodies  to  or  from  the  top 
of  vertical  walls  or  similar  places.  It  usually  con- 
sists of  one  spar  or  leg;  but  the  one  employed  for 
raising  15-inch  guns  consists  of  two  legs  made  of 
round  spars  of  jellow  pine,  29  feet  long,  11  inches 
diameter  at  the  "foot  and  9  inches  at  Ihe  toj);  one  sill, 
half  round,  16  feet  long  and  11  inches  in  diameter; 
one  cap,  half  round,  8  feet  long  and  9  inches  in  diam- 
eter; two  u-on  straps,  with  keys  and  wedges  for 
securing  cap  to  legs.  ><ear  eaeli  end  of  the  sill,  on 
the  square  side,  is  a  mortise,  into  which  fits  the  tenon 
on  the  foot  of  the  leg.  The  cap  is  similarly  mor- 
tised to  receive  the  top  of  the  legs,  and  is  held  fast  in 
this  position  by  the  straps  fitting  over  it  and  keyed 
through  the  legs. 

The  derrick  %vill  be  readily  understood  by  notic- 
ing its  action  when  raising  a  15-inch  gun.  To  per- 
fomt  this  work,  it  is  put  together  on  top  of  the 
rampart  (or  other  place  to  which  the  gun  is  to  be 
raised);  the  sill  is  about  five  feet  from  the  edge  of  the 
wall;  the  main-tackle  upper  block  is  lashed  to  the 

:  cap  near  one  leg,  and  the  muzzle-tackle  upper  block 
near  the  other  leg.  The  ends  (jf  the  giiys  are  hitched 
to  the  ends  of  Uic  cap;  the  middle  laid  across  the 
legs,  and  a  half-hitch  taken  over  each  end,  thus 
doubling  them;  a  stout  thimble  is  placed  in  the  bight 
of  each,  into  which  the  guy-tackles  are  hooked. 
Secure  holdfasts  must  be  obtained  for  the  guys;  to 
these  the  guy-straps  are  attached,  and  in  the  bight  of 
each  a  stout  thimble  is  placed,  into  which  the  guy- 
tackle  is  hooked.  One  end  of  the  fore  guy  is  attached 
to  the  middle  of  the  cap  by  a  round  tiim  and  two 
half-hitches,  the  end  being  securely  stoppered  to  the 
gu}-.  A  luff-tackle  purchase  is  applied  to  the  fore 
guy  and   its  holdfast,   and    by   means  of  this  the 

'  derrick  is  raised  to  a  vertical  po.sition.  The  sill  is 
firmly  secured,  with  stakes  or  by  bracing  with  skids, 
against  s<jme  fixed  object.  The  girlline  is  attached 
to  the  cap  by  a  strap,  and  ^laving  been  raised  with  the 
derrick,  a  man  is  sent  up  by  it,  who,  by  the  sjmie 
means,  receives  the  leading  blocks,  which  he  secures 

I  to  the  cap  by  means  of  straps.  The  main-tackle  fall 
is  next  rove  "through  the  blocks,  and  the  lower  block 
lashed  to  the  gun  2  feet  6  inches  in  rear  of  the  axis 
of  the  trunnions.  The  muzzle- tackle  fall  is  rove,  and 
the  lower  block  lashed  3  feet  in  front  of  the  axis  of 
the  trunnions.  These  blocks  are  each  la.shed  to  the 
gun  by  seven  turns  with  the  lower-block  lashing,  the 
lashing  being  frapped  on  each  side  of  the  blocks 
with  its  ends.  Two  snatch-blocks  are  attached  to  the 
sill,  one  near  the  foot  of  each  leg,  by  strong  straps. 
These  straps  should  be  laid  on  the  ground  under  the 


SEBRICX-CRANE. 


464 


DESERTION. 


eill  previous  to  raising  tlic  tlerricli,  and  if  Uie  (jround 
Is  ^nivfllv  thev  slioulil  Ix-  proteclt-d  from  chnting  t)y 
a  canvas" laid 'iiiuliT  Ihfiu.  Tliroujrh  these  snatdi- 
l(liK-ks  the  main  and  nuiz/.le  tackle  falls  are  severally 
led,  each  to  one  of  the  capstans.  The  capstans  are 
manned  hy  sixteen  men  each.  A  strain  is  brought 
\i\MU  the  falls,  and  the  giiytackles  hauled  upon  until 
the  heail  of  the  ilerrick  is  almost  vertically  over  the 
cilgf  of  the  wall.  The  capstans  are  worked  and  the 
gim  is  hoisted,  care  being  observed  to  work  the  cap- 
stans so  as  to  keep  the  jiicce  in  a  horizontal  position. 
One  or  more  shifting-i)lanks  are  let  down  by  ropes 
aipiinst  the  side  of  the  wall  to  prevent  the  gun  from 
ciiatinu'  against  it  and  to  ease  it  over  the  coping. 
AVhen  the  gun  reaches  the  top  of  the  coping,  preven- 
ter-tackles are  hooketl  to  straps  aroinid  the  breech 
and  muzzle.  When  the  piece  is  suthciently  high,  the 
guy  lulT-tackles  are  hauled  upon  jind  the  piece  landed 
on"  cribs  or  blocks.  The  prcvcntcr-tacklcs  are  like- 
■n-ise  used  to  assist  in  bringing  in  the  piece  and  land- 
ing it  in  a  proper  position.  If  it  is  desired  to  place 
the  gun  on  the  cradle,  the  falls  are  slacked  off  and 
the  sill  of  the  derrick  moved  far  enough  back  to 
admit  the  cradle.  The  gun  is  again  raised  and 
landed  in  its  bed  on  the  cradle.  The  derrick  .should 
not  be  allowed  to  assume  an  inclination  of  less  than 
four  on  one. 

To  lower  the  gun,  the  piece  is  brought  to  the  edge 
of  the  wall  on  the  cradle;  the  derrick  is  erected  over 


it;  the  gun-sling  and  the  tackling  are  attached,  all  in 
the  manner  explained  for  hoisting;  the  capstans  are 
worked;  the  piece  lifted  and  ea.sed  to  near  the  edge 
of  the  wall  l)y  the  preventer-tackles.  The  cap  of  the 
derrick  having  been  placed  directly  over  the  piece, 
the  strain  will  increase  its  inclination  sufficiently  to 
allow  the  gun  to  be  eased  to  the  edge  of  the  wall. 
In  this  position  the  piece  is  allowed  to  rest  on  blocks 
or  skids,  tlie  cradle  is  removed,  and  the  sill  of  the 
derrick  moved  up  close  to  the  gun.  The  gun  is  then 
hoistetl,  easetl  over  the  edge,  and  lowered  to  the  foot 
of  the  wall.  The  derrick  is  dismantled  in  the  inverse 
order  in  which  it  was  put  up.  One  capstan,  if 
powerful  enough,  is  sufficient  for  lowering  or  hoist- 
ing the  jjun,  in  which  case  the  lower  block  is  lashed 
to  the  piece  at  the  center  of  gravitv.  The  lashing  is 
c.veculed  as  U>fore  cxjilained.  The  capstan  usually 
Issued  to  artillery  post«  is,  however,  not  sufficiently 
powerful,  and  it  will  invariably  require  two  of  theni. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  keejt  llt'e  guys  hauled  upon  so 
that  the  cap  and  sill  remain  always  parallel  to  each 
other;  the  derrick  is  thus  prevented  from  twisting. 
By  omitting  the  cap  and  then  lashing  the  heads  of 
the  .spars  together  with  shear  lashing,  the  derrick 
may  be  iLScd  as  shears.  In  this  ca.se, "only  the  main 
tackle  can  be  u.sed.  When  spars  can  be  procured  of 
siilllcient  length  to  construct  shears  high  enough,  it  is 
iK-st  to  place  the  shears  at  the  fool  of  the  wall  instead 


of  on  the  top.  The  shears  should  be  not  less  than  20 
feet  higher  than  the  wall.  This  method  permits  the 
])icce  to  be  raised  and  eased  over  to  the  teiTc-plein 
with  less  inclination,  anil  consequently  less  st.-aln 
upon  the  legs  of  the  shears  a'ld  on  the  guys.  See 
CapKtfin,  Gill,  and  Mtrhiiniral  Mdinnim. 

DERRICK-CRANE.— A  heavy  crane  for  out-door 
usi'.  Its  construction  is  subst"anlially  identical  with 
that  of  the  jib-crane  except  that  the  head  of  the  mast 
is  miiiported  by  guy-rods,  instead  of  by  attachment  to 
a  roof  or  ccilitig.  This  style  of  crane  "is  built  of  capa- 
cities from  5  to  20  tons,  and  of  any  desired  dimensions 
of  mast  and  jib.  The  description  of  the  jib-crane  will 
apply  to  this  crane  also,  all  of  their  several  parts  bein^ 
identical,  except  that  in  this  case  the  mast  is  extended 
somewhat  above  the  jib,  and  the  upper  bearing,  in 
which  the  mast  revolves,  is  sup)iorted  laterally  by  guy- 
ropes,  or  rods,  attached  at  their  lower  ends  to  suitable 
anchors  in  the  ground,  or  to  adjacent  buildings.  The 
motions  of  hoisting  and  lowering,  and  travel  of  the 
trolley  on  the  jib,  are  all  efTeeted  by  means  of  the 
mechanism  at  the  foot  of  the  mast.  By  pushing  or 
pulling  the  suspended  load  rotation  of  the  crane  is 
effected  as  easily  as  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  jil)- 
crane.  This  crane  is  adapted  for  u.se  in  foiuKlry- 
yards,  quarries,  and  on  wharves,  and  can  be  substitu- 
ted for  the  pillar-crane,  where  the  guy-rods  are  not 
objectionable,  orwhere  there  is  difficulty  in  ol)taining 
the  foundation  neetled  to  sujijiort  a  pillar-crane.  It 
can  also  be  arranged  for  operation  by  power,  or  by 
direct  steam.     See  Cranes  and  Jib-crane. 

DESCEND.— A  term,  in  a  military  sense,  signifj-ing 
to  make  an  attack  or  incursion  as  if  from  a  vantage- 
groiuid. 

DESCENTS. — In  fortification,  the  holes,  vault.s,  and 
hollow  places  made  by  undermining  the  ground.  The 
(kscentu  into  (he  ditch  arc  cuts  and  excavations  made 
by  means  of  saps  in  the  counterscarp,  beneath  the 
covered-way.  They  are  covered  with  thick  boards 
and  hurdles;  and  a  certain  quantity  of  earth  is  thrown 
u]K)n  the  top  in  order  to  ob\iate  tlie  bad  effects  which 
might  arise  from  shells,  etc. 

DESCRIPTIVE  BOOK. — A  company  book  in  which 
dcirrijitiir  lixta  of  the  soldiers  are  kept. 

DESCRIPTIVE  LIST.— A  paper  giving  a  brief  his- 
tory of  the  soldier,  a  description  of  his  person,  and 
the"  statement  of  his  account.  It  accompanies  him 
wherever  he  goes,  being  intrusted  to  his  Detachment 
or  t'onipany  Commander. 

DESCRIPTIVE  MEMOIR.  — This  memoir,  which 
should  always  accompany  a  sketch  of  a  topographical 
reconnoissjmce,  is  intended  to  convey  that  information 
relating  to  the  natural  features  of  the  ground  not  ex- 
pressed upon  the  sketch;  to  express  that  information 
for  which  there  arc  no  conventional  signs;  and  to  pre- 
sent those  facts  relative  to  the  ground  which  become 
important  l)y  being  considered  in  connection  with  the 
prol)ablc  niililary  operations  to  be  underlaken. 

DESERTER.— A  soldier  who  forsakes  his  flag.  In 
time  of  war  such  an  act  is  punishalile  with  death  or 
otherwise  as  a  Court-Martial  may  decide.  In  time  of 
pwice  the  pimi.shment  is  com])aratively  light.  De- 
serters from  the  American  army,  having  entered  the 
service  of  the  enemy,  suffer  death  if  they  fall  again 
into  the  hands  of  "the  United  Stales,  whether  by 
capture  or  being  delivered  u))  to  the  American  army; 
and  if  a  deserter  from  the  enemy,  having  taken  ser- 
vice in  the  army  of  the  United  States,  is  cajitured  by 
the  cneiuy  and  pimished  by  them  with  death  or  other- 
wise, it  is  not  a  breach  afeainst  the  law  and  usages  of 
war,  rc(|uiriMg  redress  or  retaliation. 

DESERTION.— The  crime  of  a  man  ab.sconding,  dur- 
ing the  jieriod  for  which  he  is  enlisted,  from  the  ser- 
\icc.  In  England  Ibis  crime  was,  by  certain  old 
statutes,  made  punishable  with  death;  but  now  the 
punishment  for  desertion  is  prescribed  by  the  annual 
Mutiny  Acts.  By  these  any  t'ourl-Martial  inay  inflict 
a  sentence  of  eori>ora!  pmiishmeiit,  not  exceeding  fifty 
lashes,  for  desertion,  and  may  in  addition  award  im- 
prisoimicnl  for  the  period  prescribed  by  the  Articles 


BESICCAnOH. 


465 


DETACHED  WOBES, 


of  War.  By  20  Vict.  c.  13,  s.  35,  and  22  Vict.  c.  4, 
8.  35,  it  is  provided  that  deserters  may  Ije  marked  on 
the  brea.st  in  guiii)Owder  or  ink  with  the  letter  D. 
This  provision  is  omitted  in  tlie  Mutiny  Act,  1860. 
Recruits  deserting  before  thej'  have  joined  their  regi- 
ments are  to  be  taken  to  tlie  rejrimenl  nearest  to  the 
place  where  tliey  were  found,  Init  to  sulTer  no  punish- 
ment except  loss  of  bounty.  Inducing  to  desert  was 
formerly  punishable  by  death;  the  jiunishinent  has, 
by  modem  stiitutes.  beeii  commuted  to  ]>enal  .servitude. 
If  simply  "  absent  without  leave,"  a  British  soldier, 
besides  undergoing  some  kind  of  punishmeni,  forfeits 
his  regular  pay  for  the  days  of  absence;  but  if  his 
non-appearance  involves  actual  desertion,  he  loses  all 
claim  to  additional  pay,  good  conduct  money,  and 
pension.  The  number  of  deserters  from  the  liritish 
army  is  very  great.  In  one  jjarticular  period  of  eight 
months  it  was  found  that  no  less  than  8822  men 
deserted  from  the  regular  army,  and  6614  men  from 
the  militia  ;  in  1874,  793!}  men  deserted  from  the 
army;  and  in  1875,  5629.  Many  ex]ierienced  officers 
attril)ute  the  evil  to  the  temptations  of  l)oimly,  rather 
than  to  any  other  cause;  and  adxisc  that  the  same 
amount  of  money  should  be  applied  to  the  soldier's 
benefit  in  some  other  form. 

In  the  United  States,  the  President  is  authorized  to 
drop  from  tlie  rolls  of  the  army  for  desertion  any  of- 
ficer who  is  absent  from  duty  three  months  without 
leave;  and  no  officer  so  dropped  shall  be  eligible  for 
reappointment.  And  no  officer  in  the  militarj'  or 
naval  service  is  in  time  of  peace  dismissed  from  ser- 
vice except  upon  and  in  pursuance  of  the  sentence  of 
a  Courl-JIartial  to  that  effect,  or  in  commutation 
thereof.  A  reward  of  $30  is  paid  for  the  apprehen- 
sion and  delivery  of  a  deserter  to  an  officer  of  the 
anny  at  the  most  convenient  post  or  recruiting  station. 
This  reward  includes  the  remuneration  for  all  ex- 
penses incurred  in  apprehending,  securing,  and  deliv- 
ering the  deserter.  Rewards  and  expenses  paid  for 
apprehending  a  deserter  are  set  against  his  pay  on 
conviction  by  a  Court-Martial  of  desertion,  or  upon  his 
restoration  to  duty  without  trial  on  such  condition. 
Where  a  soldier,  for  whose  apprehension  as  a  sup- 
posed deserter  the  reward  of  ^30  has  been  paid,  is 
brought  to  trial  under  a  charge  of  desertion  and  ac- 
quitted, or  convicted  of  absence  without  leave  only, 
the  amount  of  the  reward  is  not  stopped  against  his 
pa.v.  Deserters  make  good  the  time  lost  by  desertion, 
unless  discharged  by  competent  authority.  They  are 
considered  as  again  in  service  upon  return  as  deserters 
to  military  control.  Deserters  are  brought  to  trial 
wth  the  lea.st  practicable  delay.  While  awaiting  trial 
they  receive  only  the  clothing  absolutely  necessary,  j 
and  no  pay.  Every  deserter  forfeits  all  pay  and  al- 
lowances due  at  the  time  of  desertion.  The  author-  [ 
ized  stoppages  and  fines  due  at  the  time  of  desertion  ] 
are  deducted  from  the  arrears  of  pa}'.  If  the  stop-  ^ 
pages  and  tines  are  greater  than  the  arrears  of  pay, 
the  balance  is  deducted  from  pay  due  after  apprehen- 
sion. 

Deserters  from  the  enemy,  after  being  examined, 
are  secured  for  some  days,  as  they  nnty  be  spies  in 
disguise;  as  opjiortTmities  offer  they  are  sent  to  the 
rear;  after  which,  if  they  are  found  lurking  al>oul  the 
armj',  or  attempting  to  return  to  the  enemy,  they  are 
treated  with  severity.  The  arms  and  accouterments 
of  deserters  are  turned  over  to  the  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment, and  their  horses  to  the  corjis  in  want  of  them, 
after  Ix-ing  branded  with  the  letters  "  U.  S."  The 
compensation  to  be  accorded  to  deserters  for  such  ob- 
jects is  according  to  appraisement  made  under  the 
direction  of  the  Quarterma-ster's  Department.  The 
enlistment  of  deserters  from  the  enemy,  without  ex- 
press permis.sion  from  General  Headtjuarters,  is  pro- 
hibited. Soldiers  who  may  be  discovered  to  be  de- 
serters from  the  Na^-y  or  JIarine  Corps  arc  immedi- 
ately dropped  from  the  rolls  of  the  army.  In  all  such 
cases  reports  arc  fonvarded  with  descriptive  rolls  to 
the  Adjutant  General's  Office,  and  the  men  held  with- 
out pay,  awaiting  instructions.     This  b  not  reg.arded 


as  requiring  the  discharge  of  any  man  who  mav  have 
been  enlisted  in  the  army  after  ha\'ing  received  a  dis- 
charge from  the  Xa\y  or  Marine  Corps,  the  recruiting 
officer  being  in  ignoi-ance  of  the  fact  that  he  had  de- 
serted from  either  of  those  branches  of  the  ser\iee; 
but  whenever  such  fact  of  desertion  becomes  known, 
it  will  be  regarded  as  a  bar  to  enlistment  in  the  army. 
In  ca.se,  however,  of  such  enlistments,  no  benefit  can 
accrue  to  the  soldier  for  previous  time  served  in  the 
army.  Every  pers<jn  who  entices  or  procures,  or  at- 
tempts or  endeavors  to  entice  or  procure,  any  soldier 
in  the  military  .service  of  the  United  States,  or  who 
has  been  recruited  for  such  service,  to  desert  there- 
from, or  who  aids  any  such  soldier  in  deserting  or  at- 
tempting to  ilesert  from  such  serWee,  or  who  harbors, 
conceals,  protects,  or  as-sists  any  such  soldier  who  may 
have  deserted  from  such  ser\-ice,  knowing  him  to 
have  deserted  therefrom,  or  who  refuses  to  give  up 
and  deliver  such  soldier  on  the  demand  of  any  officer 
authorized  to  receive  him,  is  punished  by  imjirison- 
ment  for  not  less  than  six  months  nor  more  than  two 
j'ciirs,  and  by  a  tine  not  exceeding  $500. 

DESICCATION.— The  expulsion  of  moisture  from 
solid  substances.  This  is  effected  at  various  tempera- 
tures, according  to  the  nature  of  the  substance,  and 
by  different  means,  such  as  the  water-oven,  air-bath, 
etc.     Tlie  wood  of  fuses  is  thus  treated. 

DESPATCH.— An  otlicial  document  or  letter  penned 
by  a  Commander  in  the  field  to  other  authorities. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  letters  received  from  Gov- 
ernors of  Colonies.  All  correspondence  from  Mili- 
tarj- Commanders  to  superior  authority  in  the  field, 
detailing  their  acts  before  the  enemy,  come  imder  the 
head  of  despatches. 

DETACH. — To  separate  for  a  special  object  or  use; 
as  to  send  out  a  body  of  men  on  .some  particular  ser- 
vice, separate  from  that  of  the  main  bodv. 

DETACHED  BASTION.— In  fortification,  a  bastion 
which  is  sejiarated  fnjin  the  enceinte  liv  a  ditch. 

DETACHED  'WOEKS.— In  fortification,  the  works 
that  arc  situated  beyond  the  range  of  fire  of  any  other 
works,  and  which,  for  their  security,  have  "to  rely 
upon  their  own  strength  and  resources.  The  object 
of  such  works  is  to  defend  and  hold  isolated  points 
that  are  of  importance,  such  as  railroad  or  other 
bridges,  mountain-pas.ses,  naiTow  defiles,  fords,  points 
upon  rivers,  to  close  them  against  the  passage  of  hos- 
tile vessels,  etc.  The  character  and  extent  of  a  work 
of  this  class  will  depend  upon  the  degree  of  impor- 
tance attached  to  the  object  for  which  it  is  construct- 
ed, the  amount  of  force  available  for  its  occupancy, 
and   the  nature  of  the  localilv.     In  ever\-  instance 


#^^: -fm 


Fig.  I. 

artillery-  would  fortn  an  important  element  in  its 
means  of  defense,  and  the  position  of  the  work  should 
be  selected  so  as  to  allow  free  u.se  of  it.  ^^'orks  of 
this  kind  may  be  cla.ssified  under  three  heads:  1. 
Those  which,  being  secure  on  the  flanks  and  in  the 
rear,  are  assjiilalile  only  in  front.  Under  this  class 
may  be  placed  open  batteries  located  on  the  banks  of 
rivers,  or  at  the  entrance  of  harbors,  to  prevent  the 
pas.sage  of  an  enemy's  vessels.  2.  Those  which  are 
assailable  in  front  and  on  the  flanks,  but  not  in  rear. 
3.  Those  which  arc  as.sailablc  on  all  sides. 

FiTit  C/«*«.— This  is  applicable  to  narrow  defiles 
where  the  flanks  are  secure  against  being  turned. 
When  the  width  of  the  defile  is  not  greater  than  1800 
yards,  the  line  may  lie  a  straight  one  (A  B)  for  infan- 
trj',  with  short  advanced  lines'on  the  flanks,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  drawing  (Fig.  1),  for  artillery.     Should 


DETACHMENT. 


466 


DETACHMENT. 


the  conformation  of  the  around  be  not  suitable  for 
placing  urtilK-rv  precUly  as  representetl  in  the  draw- 
inff.  then  the  'most  coinmanding  position  on  some 
othir  part  of  the  line  will  ix-  selwted  for  it,  bearins: 
iu  mind  always  to  si^cure  as  far  as  possible  cross  tire 
over  the  ground  in  front.  When  the  delilc  exceeds 
IW^Kt  yanis  in  width,  a  i-n  »»((■«<>(•  or  ivrniUd  line  is 
adopteil.  ami  on  it  the  artillery  is  disposed  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  2.  ,  .  ■, 
Seoiid  f7</«i.— The  plan  of  works  of  the  second 
class  admits  of  great  variety,  deiX'nding  on  the  extent 
of  the  position.  The  inosl"siniple  is  that  of  a  work  of 
onlv  two  faces,  the  sjilient  being  towards  the  assiiil- 
aut's  line  of  approach.  This  work  Is  termed  a  ruiax. 
The  faces  should  receive  such  direction  as  to  sweep 
the  approaches  to  the  flanks  of  the  position.    As 


Fig.  S. 


many  pieces  as  possible  are  placed  in  the  salient,  and 
others  disposed  along  the  faces  in  the  most  command- 
ing positions  for  sweeping  the  ground  in  their  front. 
The  angle  formed  at  the  sjdient  Viy  the  faces  should 
never  be  less  than  60  .  When  the  tiank  approaches 
extend  somewtat  to  the  rear,  a  flank  is  added  to  each 
face  of  the  redan;  it  then  becomes  a  biiutu.  The 
flanks  receive  such  directions  as  will  sweep  by  their 
fire  that  iX)rtion  of  the  flank  approaches  which  can- 
not be  reached  from  the  faces  except  by  a  very 
obliijue  tire.  The  artillery  is  placed  in  position  at  the 
salients,  in  each  of  which  is  a  pan-coupee. 

Third  Clam. — The  works  comprised  in  this  class  are 
termed  inclosed  works;  as,  being  as.sailable  on  all 
sides,  they  must,  for  security,  present  a  complete  line 
throughoiit  to  atiy  assault.  These  works  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  "orders:  1.  Polycpmd  ii-orks,  or  re- 
doubtx ;  2.  TtiiailUd  irorks,  or  star-forts ;  'A.  Bas- 
tioneil  irtirks.     See  Field-fortification. 

DETACHMENT.  —  Detachments  consist  of  small 
bodies  of  troops,  composed  of  one  or  several  arms, 
to  which  are  intrusted  some  mission  connected  with 
the  operations  of  the  main  body,  but,  for  the  most 
part,  performed  beyond  the  sphere  of  its  support; 
such,  for  example,  as  the  occupation  of  some  post,  or 
defile,  which  is  to  be  held  temporarily,  as  necessary 
to  the  movements  of  the  main  body;  the  surprise  of  a 
post  held  by  the  enemy;  the  seizure  of  a  convoy,  etc. 
The  composition  of  a  detachment  will  depend  upon 
the  nature  of  the  duty  to  be  performed;  the  character 
of  the  countr)'  in  which  it  is  to  operate;  the  distance 
of  the  point  to  be  reached;  and  the  more  or  less  celer- 
ity required  in  the  operation.  As  a  general  rule,  de- 
tachments should  be  formed  only  of  light  troops, 
well  acquainted  with  their  duties;  and,  in  every 
ca.se  where  it  can  be  done,  they  should  consist  of  a 
proper  proportion  of  each  arm  of  the  service,  if  the 
duty  upon  which  they  arc  sent  is  at  all  of  an  Im- 
portant character.  By  this  combination  each  arm  is 
enabled  to  act  with  more  boldness  and  vigor,  from 
the  support  with  which  it  will  meet  in  the  others,  and 
can  better  select  it.s  moment  for  action,  according  to 
the  character  of  the  ground  on  which  it  finds  it.sclf. 
The  combats  of  detachments  will  be  mostly  restricted 
to  firing  and  the  skillful  emploj-ment  of  skirmishers. 
The  troops  must  be  kept  perfectly  in  hand  for  mutual 
support,  the  artilUrj'  keei>iug  near  the  infantry-,  and 
the  cavair}-,  whenever  the  opportunity  is  presented, 
haziu-ding  only  short  but  vigorous  charges  against 
the  enemy.  The  officer  placed  in  command  of  a  de- 
tachment should  he  thoroughly  conversjint  with  the 
handling  of  troops,  so  as  to  insure  constant  reciprocity 
of  sui)i)()rt,  and  to  be  able  to  seize  upon  those  oppor- 


tunities of  bringing  the  proper  arm  into  ik  linn.  and 
for  i)a.ssing  from  the  defensive  to  the  offensive,  whicb 
combats  between  small  bodies  of  troops  so  frequently 
present. 

As  a  detachment  must  rely  mainly  on  its  own  re- 
sources, the  fursound  and  miit'rirl  of  the  troops 
should  be  rigidly  insiH'Cteil  iK'fore  marching,  to  sec 
that  the  men' anil  horses  are  in  a  sound  .state;  that 
nothing  is  wanting  iu  their  equipments;  that  the  gun 
and  other  carriages  are  in  good  traveling  order;  and 
that  the  necessary  amount  of  ammunition,  provisions, 
and  fonige  have  lieen  provided  for  the  expedition. 
Every  source  of  infomiiition  should  be  consulted  with 
resitect  to  the  nature  of  the  roads  and  the  country 
over  which  the  column  is  to  march;  luid  good  maps, 
telescopes,  and  guides  should  be  provided.  If  a  re- 
connais-sance  of  the  line  of  march  hits  been  directed, 
it  should  Ix-  jilaced  in  charge  of  ii  well-informed  staff 
or  other  oflicer  conversant  with  the  duties  required 
of  him,  so  that  the  Commander  of  the  detachment 
may  be  accurately  informed  of  the  state  of  the  roads, 
as  "to  their  practicability  for  men,  horses,  and  car- 
riages; particularly  the" number  of  hours  of  march 
froin  station  to  station;  and  the  character  of  the  ob- 
stacles with  which  he  may  be  liable  to  meet,  from  the 
state  of  the  bridges,  the  "nature  of  the  watercoui-scs, 
and  the  defiles  along  the  route.  In  order  to  avoid 
being  anticipated  in  our  object  by  the  enemy,  every 
attention  should  be  paid  to  preserve  strict  order  among 
the  troops,  and  to  advance  with  celerity,  so  that 
secrecy  may  be  kept  until  the  detachment  reaches  its 
destination!  The  troops  for  this  purpose  should  be 
kept  as  closely  together  as  the  character  of  the 
ground  will  permit;  and  when  guides  are  employed 
thev  nuist  be  strictly  watched,  and  not  be  dismissed 
until  the  march  is'  completed.  The  distribution  of 
troops,  or  the  <>;•(/<;•  nf  march,  will  mainly  deix-nd 
upon  the  character  of  the  country;  the  geuei-al  rule  to 
be  followed  is  so  to  place  each  arm  in  the  column 
that  the  troops  may  be  formed  for  action  by  the 
most  prompt  and  simple  movements.  In  a  very  open 
country  the  greater  part  of  the  cavalry  will  be  at  the 
head  o"f  the  column;  where  it  is  somewhat  broken, 
half  of  the  cavalry  may  be  in  front,  and  the  remain- 
der in  the  rear;  and  in  a  very  difficult  country  the 
infantry  will  lead.  The  artillery  may  be  placed  iiv 
tlie  intervals  of  the  column  where  the  country  is  not 
difficult;  in  the  contrary  case  it  will  be  in  the  rear, 
but  covered  by  a  small  detachment  which  it  pre- 
cedes. 

The  colunui  must  be  secured  from  a  sudden  attack 
of  the  enemy  by  an  advanced-guard,  fiankers,  and  a 
rear-guard.  "  The  advanced-guard  will  be  composed 
of  cavalry  or  infantry,  or  of  the  two  combined,  accord- 
ing to  the  character  "of  the  country.  In  some  cases  it 
may  be  well  to  have  two  or  three  light  jiieces  with 
tlie"advanced  guard.  The  strength  of  the  advanced- 
guard,  for  detachments  not  over  two  thousiuid  men, 
need  not  be  greater  than  one  fifth  of  the  whole;  for 
larger  bodies  it  may  be  between  a  fourth  and  a  third, 
according  to  the  degree  of  resistance  it  may  be  re- 
quired to  offer.  The^tdvanced-^uard  of  a  detachment 
shoidd  .seldom  leave  a  wider  uitcrval  than  about  a 
thousand  paces  between  it  and  the  main  body.  In  a 
broken  country,  when  this  force  consists  of  infantry 
alone  the  distance  slioulil  be  less,  to  avoid  an  ambush. 
The  nuiin  body  of  the  advanced-guard  slwndd  always 
be  preceded  a  few  hundred  paces  by  a  strong  patrol 
of  cavalry  or  infantry,  to  search  the  ground  and  se- 
cure the  advanced-guard  from  falling  into  an  ambush, 
or  from  a  sudden  attack.  The  fiankers  will  consist 
mainly  of  a  few  detachments,  which  march  parallel 
to  the  column  and  a  few  hundred  jiaees  from  it,  ac- 
cording to  the  character  of  the  gnanul;  these  will 
throw  out  a  few  men,  from  a  hundred  to  a  hundred 
and  fifty  jiaces,  on  their  exjiosed  flank,  to  keep  a  vigi- 
lant lookout,  in  that  direction,  for  the  enemy.  Oc- 
casional patrols  may  also  be  sent  out  on  the  flanks 
when  it  is  deemed  necessar)'  to  push  an  examination 
to  some  distant  point,  or  to"  gain  a  height  offering  a 


DETAIL  FOB  DUTY. 


467 


DETONATION. 


commanding  view  of  the  country.  As  the  object  of 
the  flankers  is  rather  to  ^ve  timely  notice  to  the 
m.ain  body  of  au  enemy's  approach  than  to  offer  any 
serious  resistance,  the  detachments  of  which  they  are 
composed  need  only  consist  of  a  few  men.  "The 
rear-jruard.  excejJt  in  a  very  broken  or  mountainous 
coumrj-,  which  would  offer  facilities  to  the  enemy  for 
slipping  to  the  rear,  need  only  be  a  small  detachment, 
placed  more  to  prevent  stragglers  from  falling  to  the 
rear  thiin  for  any  other  object.  Kight-marches  should 
not  be  made,  except  in  case  of  necessity.  When  their 
object  is  to  surprise  an  enemy,  if  there  be  an  ad- 
vanced-guard, it  should  be  kept  near  the  head  of  the 
column.  Patrols  should  be  sent  forward,  with  orders 
to  advance  with  great  caution  and  not  push  on  too 
far.  Flying  patrols  maj',  if  leiiuisite,  be  kept  up  on 
the  fianks.  The  most  exact  order  and  silence  should 
be  maintained,  and  extreme  vigilance  be  exercised  to 
avoid  placing  the  enemv  on  the  alert. 

DETAIL  FOR  DUTY."— A  roster,  or  table,  for  the 
regular  performance  of  duty  either  in  camp  or  g;trri- 
son.  The  general  detail  is  regulated  by  the  Adjutant 
General,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  several 
coqis.  The  Adjutant  of  each  regiment  superintends 
the  detail  of  the  officers  and  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers for  duty,  and  the  Orderly  Sergeants  detail  the 
privates. 

DETONATING-FUSE.— By  a  detonating-fuse,  or  det- 
onator, is  meant  one  that  causes  a  detonating  ex-plo- 
sion. The  ordinary  method  of  jiroducing  explosion 
is  by  the  direct  application  of  flame.  By  the  detonat- 
ing method,  explosioti  of  the  main  charge  is  caused 
by  the  concussion  exerted  by  a  small  charge  of  ex- 
plosive material  in  the  fuse.  Fulminatiug-mercury 
seems  to  possess  peculiar  properties  as  a  detonator, 
and  practicall}'  is  the  only  body  so  used.  Detonat- 
ing-fuses are  used  when  violent  shattering  explosions 
are  desired.  Thus  nitroglycerine,  gtm-cotton,  and 
their  preparations  are  always  fired  by  means  of  a 
fulminate  exploder.  The  ignition  of  the  fulminate 
may  be  accomplished  in  the  ordinary  manner,  or  by 
the  use  of  electricity. 

The  simplest  fulminate  exploder  is  made  by  at- 
taching a  copper  case  or  large  cap  containing  the  ful- 
minate to  the  end  of  a  Jiiece  of  common  running-fuse. 
If  the  fuse  fits  the  cap  closely  it  may  be  retained  in 
place,  and  the  cap  protected  against  moisture  by  press- 
ing round  it  wax,  hard  soap,  or  other  similar  sub- 
stance. If  the  fuse  is  too  small,  it  must  be  passed 
through  a  plug  of  wood  or  small  cork  fitting  the  cap, 
and  the  whole  fastened  on  as  above.  Before  it  is 
fastened  into  the  cap  the  end  of  the  fuse  must  be 
spread  out  so  as  to  insure  contact  with  the  fulminate. 
Fifteen  grains  is  the  usual  amount  of  fulminate  placed 
in  the  cap;  it  should  be  put  in  when  wet,  with  some 
gtimmy  solution  or  varnish,  so  that  it  will  dry  to  a 
solid  lump  which  will  not  shake  loose.  Even  in  ex- 
ploding powder  there  is  often  great  advantage  in 
using  detonating-fuses.  It  is  difticult  to  prove  that 
actual  detonation  of  the  powder  is  brought  about, 
but  experiment  has  shown  that  a  much  more  \iolent 
action  can  be  obtained  by  using  this  mode  of  firing. 
See  Delinuiti'iri  and  Fhki. 

DETONATING  POWDEK.— One  which  explodes  by 
a  blow.  The  compound  used  in  the  ('riming  of  per- 
cussion-caps and  fuses  is  tlie  fulminate  of  mercurj'  or 
of  silver,  collected  as  a  precipitate  when  the  metal, 
dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  is  poured  into  warm  alcohol. 
The  jirecipitate  is  collected,  washed,  and  dried. 

DETONATING  PRIMEE.— A  primer  exi)loded  by  a 
fu.se,  and  used  in  blasting-operations  to  violently  ex- 
plode gun-cotton,  instead  of  the  former  plan  by 
which  the  cliarirc  of  gun-cotton  was  simply  ignited. 

DETONATION.— The  instantaneous  explosion  of 
the  whole  mass  of  a  body.  ThiLs,  when  gtmpowder 
is  fired  in  the  usual  manner,  true  combustion  takes 
place,  which  goes  on  with  comparative  slowness  from 
the  surfaces  of  the  grains  toward  their  interioi-s.  On 
the  other  h.and,  when  nitroglycerine  is  fired  by  means 
of  f  ulminating-mercury,  the  whole  mass  explodes  si- 


multaneously, or  very  nearly  so.  Doubtless  a  certain 
time  is  always  necessary;  but  with  the  so<-alled  deto- 
nating explosives  it  can  be  practically  neglected,  and 
the  explosion  called  instantaneous. 

Some  explosives  seem  to  always  detonate,  no  mat- 
ter how  fired  (chloride  of  nitrogen,  the  fulminates, 
etc.),  while  others  are  detonated  or  not  according  to 
the  method  of  firing  (gun-cotton,  gunpowder,  etc.). 
Probably  all  explosives  can  be  detonated  if  the  right 
methods  of  doing  so  are  known.  Gun-cotton  seems 
to  have  a  greater  range  of  susceptibilitj-  to  different 
modes  of  firing  than  any  other  explosive  agent.  It 
can  be  made  to  burn  slowly  without  explosion,  and 
the  rapidity  of  its  action  can  be  increa.sed  up  to  the 
detonating  point.  Nitro-glycerine  always  explodes 
powerfully,  but  its  effect  is  much  lessened  when  fired 
^ith  gunpowder.  Gunpowder,  as  ordinarily  used, 
is,  of  course,  not  detonated,  as  the  violent,  sudden  ef- 
fects of  detonation  would  be  undesirable.  For  other 
puriioscs  (e.g.,  torpedoes,  etc.)  it  would  be  a  great 
advantage  if  it  could  be  made  to  give  more  violent 
explosive  effects  by  a  peculiar  mode  of  firing.  It  has 
been  demonstrated  that  this  can  be  done,  although 
the  best  mode  of  doing  it,  or  whether  detonation  is 
actually  accomplished,  is  not  known.  Probably  a 
mechanical  mixture  like  gunpowder  can  never  be 
brought  by  any  mode  of  firing  to  ajiproach  as  near 
to  a  perfect  detonation  as  the  chemical  substance 
nitro-glycerine  or  gun-cotton;  but,  even  if  not  det- 
onated, better  effects  for  certain  u.ses  may  be  obtained 
from  it  if  the  proper  means  are  used. 

Detonation  is  produced  l\y  the  application  of  the 
requisite  concussive  force  by  means  of  a  detonating- 
fuse.  A  detonating-fuse  is  one  which  causes  explo- 
sion by  the  blow  or  shock  it  gives,  while  the  ordinary 
fiLse  usually  ignites  by  simple  inflammation.  Det- 
onating-fuses are  generally  charged  with  fulminating- 
mercury,  a  substance  which  seems  to  be  specially 
arlapled  for  this  use.  With  such  fuses  are  fired  nitro- 
cljxerine  anil  its  preparations  and  dry  gim  cotton, 
^iiere  seems  to  be  for  each  explosive  about  a  certain 
amount  and  kind  of  force  required  to  effect  detona- 
tion, which  must  not  be  materially  dei)arted  from. 
If  the  fuse  is  too  weak,  inflammation  or  a  feel  le  ex- 
[ilosion  only  will  result;  if  too  heavily  charged,  it  is 
more  likely  to  scatter  or  disintegrate  the  nuilerial 
acted  tipoii  than  to  explode  it.  There  is  also  a  rela- 
tion between  the  mass  of  the  explosive  and  the  charge 
of  the  detonating-fuse  which  must  be  observed.  This 
relation  is  more"  marked  with  some  explosives  than 
with  others.  Thus,  nitro-glycerine  is  a  body  easily 
detonated,  and  the  siune  amount  of  fulminate  seems 
to  fire  equally  well  all  usual  quantities.  If  a  single 
particle  is  "detonated,  the  action  quickly  extends 
through  the  whole  mass.  Other  substances,  less  easily- 
detonated,  require  that  as  the  mass  is  increased  the 
force  applied  shall  be  increa-sed,  so  that  all  the  parti- 
cles shall  receive  a  sufficient  blow,  otherwise  only  a 
part  will  be  detonated. 

In  a  detonation  we  have  the  fullest  explosive  effect. 
The  suddenness  of  the  explosion  concentrates  the 
blow,  making  it  sharp  and  violent.  For  certain  pur- 
poses this  is  much  more  effective  than  woidd  be  the 
siime  total  amount  of  force  more  slowly  exerted. 
For  instance,  in  blasting  hard  rock  the  violent  explo- 
sion will  throw  out  and  shatter  much  more  rock  pro- 
portionally than  the  slower  explosion,  which  intends 
to  escape'  in  the  ilirection  of  the  least  resistance. 
Therefore,  in  lilasting  with  nitroglycerine,  for  exam- 
ple, hard  tamping  is  unneces.sarj-.  The  explosion  is 
too  sudden  to  allow  the  gases  to  "blow  out  the  tamping 
and  so  escape.  The  effect  is  consequently  equal  in 
all  directions.  The  advantages  gained  in  blasting 
with  nitro-glvcerine  and  its  preparations  are  so  great 
that  their  u.se  is  constantly  increasing,  in  spite  of  their 
high  cost  and  the  iM-ejudice  against  them  on  account 
of  the  manv  accidents  that  have  occurred  with  them. 
When  a  scattering,  tearing  effect  is  desired,  the  det- 
onating explosive  must  be  used.  See  Deionating-fiua, 
Erplogum,  and  Gunpoitder. 


DEVA8TATI05. 


468 


DEVIATION  OF  PK0JECTILE8. 


DEVASTATION.— In  warfare,  the  act  of  clcstroy- 
injr.  layiiii;  waste,  demolishing,  or  unpeopling  towns, 
forlitiiil  plaofs,  etc. 

DEVELOPMENT.  —  That  process  in  photography 
which  iiiiincilialily  follows  c.vposurc,  and  which  rcii- 
diT^  the  piituiv  visible  in  nil  its  details.  It  consists 
in  the  pn'cipitation  or  deposition  of  luir  mattrinl  on 
that  portion  of  the  sensitive  surface  which  has  been 
acted  on  by  light;  the  same  principle  therefore  pre- 
vails in  all  proc-esscs.  This  may  be  made  clearer  by 
reference  to  a  few  examples,  "in  the  daguerreotype 
process,  an  io«lized  silver  plate,  after  exposure  in  the 
camera,  is  e.vjiosed  to  the  vapor  of  mercury;  the 
vajxir  adheres  to  those  ixirlious  of  the  iilate  which 
have  undergone  a  peculiar  molecular  change  from  the 
action  of  light,  but  not  to  those  part.s  unacted  on. 
The  light.s  of  the  picture  are  therefore  "developed," 
or  "  brought  out,"  by  the  acquisition  of  nnc  vutteriid, 
i.e.,  mercury.  A  collodion  ue.^itive  is  similarly 
"  brought  out"  by  the  precipitation,  by  means  of  a 
<ieoxidi/.iug  ageni,  such  as  pyrogallic  acid,  or  proto- 
sulphate  of  iron,  on  the  actinutd  portion  of  the  plate, 
of  iteir  iiKiUria/,  comimsed  of  metallic  silver  and  or- 
ganic matter.  A  similar  change  takes  place  in  the 
chrvsotype  process,  where  the  metallic  salt  with 
which  the  paper  is  impregnated  is  reduced  to  a  state 
of  protosah,  which  reacts  through  the  decomi)Ositiou 
of  water,  and  causes  the  precipitation  of  neir  materiiil, 
in  the  form  of  tinely  diWded  metallic  gold,  on  the 
parts  where  light  has  acted.  Other  processes  might 
b<'  cited,  but  these  are  deemed  sufficient  to  Ulustrate 
the  principle  slated  above. 

DEVIATION  OF  PROJECTILES.— The  term  devia- 
tion must  be  understood  to  mean  not  only  the  deflec- 
tions, right  or  left,  of  the  line  of  lire,  but  also  the  dif- 
ferences l)etween  the  ranges  of  similar  projectiles  tired 
under  like  condition  from  the  s;mie  guns.  Very  great 
irregularities  occur  in  the  patlis  of  spheiical  projec- 


niay  lie  blowing  with  or  against  ilie  projectile.  The 
lower  the  velocity  of  a  projectile,  the  greater  will  l)c 
its  detlection  caiised  by  the  wind,  as,  for  instance, 
upon  mortjtr-shclls,  on  which,  having  low  velocities 
and  long  times  of  liight,  the  wind  e.xercises  a  very 
disturbiiig  influence.  The  greater  the  density  of  the 
projectile,  the  less  will  its  motion,  during  flight,  be 
afTccted  by  the  wind;  and  thus  shells  are  more  in- 
tiuenced  by  wind  than  shot.  The  wind  exercises  a 
very  great  deflecting  influence  upon  an  elongated  pro- 
jectile during  its  flight,  rendering  it  dillicult  to  obtain 
accuracy  of  tire  at  long  ranges,  even  from  ritie<l  guns, 
excepting  in  very  calm  weather.  If  the  center  of 
gravity  t)e  placed  verj-  near  the  center  of  the  long 
axis,  the  force  of  the  "wind  will  be  pretty  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  length  of  the  project  ile. 
Should,  however,  the  center  of  gravity  be  placed  far 
in  advance  of  or  behind  the  center  of  tigure,  the  force 
of  the  wind  will  press  unequally  upon  the  shot,  and 
uncertain  deflections  will  most  probably  occur. 

It  is  imi)ossible  with  our  present  facilities  to  manu- 
facture large  (piuntities  of  powder  of  a  perfectly  uni- 
form quality;  but  supix)sing  it  could  be  accomplished, 
the  force  from  a  given  charge  would  be  liable  to  va- 
riation according  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
the  condition  of  the  powder  as  affected  by  the  time  it 
has  Ix'cn  in  store;  it  will  also  be  frequently  found  in 
practice  that  the  charges  have  not  been  weighed  out 
with  perfect  accuracy,  nor  the  gun  loaded  so  that  the 
projectile  is  always  in  the  same  position  with  refer- 
ence to  the  charge.  The  consequence  is  that  verj' 
few  projectiles  tired  from  the  siime  gun  with  wh:it, 
are  called  equal  charges  leave  the  bore  with  exactly 
the  same  initial  velocity. 

The  deviation  of  a  projectile  caused  by  the  rotation 
of  the  earth  is  a  complicated  problem.  The  principle 
that  this  rotation  will  impress  upon  the  projectile  a 
tendency,  upon  lca\'iug  the  bore,  to  move  with  the 


/mmmmmmwwmmmmmmmmmm:^ 


\iimmimsmsis;isim!smism&^iism$sim!k^ .. 


e- — Q^ 


ii 


Flo.  1. 


tiles.  If  a  number  of  projectiles  be  fired  from  the 
same  gun,  with  equal  charges  and  elevations,  and 
with  gunpowder  of  the  s;ime  quality,  the  gun-carriage 
renting  ui)on  a  platform,  and  the  piece  being  pointed 
with  the  greatest  care  before  each  roimd,  veiy  few  of 
the  projectiles  will  range  to  the  same  distance;  and, 
moreover,  the  greater  part  will  be  found  to  deflect 
considerably,  unless  the  range  be  very  short,  to  the 
right  or  left  of  the  line  in  which  the  gim  is  pointed. 
AVith  elongated  projectiles  the  tire  is  far  more  accu- 
rate, but  still  the  ranges  and  deflections  are  subject  to 
varialit)ns  of  greater  or  less  amount.  The  causes  of 
the  deviations  of  projectiles,  whether  tired  from 
smf)oth-lx)re  or  rifled  guns,  and  independent  of  inaccu- 
racy in  pointing,  and  variable  position  of  the  gun- 
carriage,  are  wind,  variable  projectile  force,  and  rota- 
tion of  the  earth. 

Should  the  wind  bo  Iilowing  in  gu.sts  and  be  changc- 
nble  in  direction,  it  is  ditlUult  to  allow  for  it  in  point- 
ing the  gun;  but  with  a  steady  breeze  in  a  pretty 
constant  direction,  a  few  roimds  will  generally  be 
sullieient  to  show  the  allowance  nece.s,siiry.  The 
velocity  of  the  wind  is  very  low  compared  with  that 
of  the  projectiles,  but  it  remains  usually  nearly  the 
same  throughout  its  flight,  whereas  the"  velocity  of 
the  projectile  decreases  rapidly;  it  therefore  fre- 
quc'Ully  happens  that  the  wind  appears  to  have 
greater  effect  towards  the  end  of  the  range,  and  it 
may  lie  often  noticed  in  iiraetice  thai  projectiles  de- 
^•iate  in  a  rapidly  increasing  curved  line.  The  wind, 
if  strong,  will  ereatly  affect  the  ranges  of  projectiles; 
decreasing  or  increasing  the  range  according  as  it 


same  velocity  in  the  same  direction  as  the  point  upon 
the  surface  from  which  the  gun  is  fired  is  readily 
comprehended,  but  not  its  apjilication  to  some  par- 
ticular cases.  The  deviation  due  to  this  cause  is  too 
slight  to  be  regarded  in  practice. 

The  line  of  sight  may  be  improperly  placed  and 
situated  out  of  the  veriical  plane,  either  in  conse- 
quence of  the  construction  of  the  gun  or  its  carriage, 
or  by  the  effect  of  the  inclination  of  the  plane  ujiou 
which  it  is  placed.  In  these  two  cases  the  line  of  fire 
maintaining  a  fixed  and  determined  position,  in  re- 
.spect  to  the  axis  of  the  gun  and  the  vertical  jilane  of 
fire,  the  deviations  are  constant  for  equal  distimces 
and  e<|ual  inclinations,  and  it  becomes  easy  to  correct 
them  after  a  few  trials. 

The  barometric  state  of  the  atmosphere  may  also 
produce  an  effect  upon  the  ranges;  for  the  greater 
the  density  and  elasticity  of  the  displaced  fluid,  the 
greater  will  be  the  refanlaticra  of  the  ]irojectile. 

Sjtfnririil  I'nijirtilfs. — The  princi]ial  causes  of  the 
deviations  of  jirojectiles  fired  from  smooth-bore  guns 
are:  1st.  Windage.  2d.  The  imperfect  form  and 
roughness  of  the  .surface  of  the  projectile.  3d.  Ec- 
centricity of  projectiles  arising  from  their  not  being 
homogeneous. 

Windage  causes  iiTegularity  in  the  flight  of  a  pro- 
jectile, from  the  fact  of  the  "elastic  gas  acting  in  the 
first  insl!uu'e  on  the  uitper  portion  of  the  projectile 
and  driving  it  against  the  bottom  of  the  bore.  The 
projectile  reacts  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  impelled 
forward  by  the  charge,  and  strikes  the  upper  surface 
of  the  bore  some  distance  in  advance,  and  so  on,  by  a 


OETIAIION  OF  FBOJECTUES. 


469 


DEVIATION  OF  FBOJECIILE& 


succession  of  rebounds  until  it  leaves  the  bore  in  an 
accidental  direction  and  with  a  rotatory  motion,  de- 
pendins  chiefly  upon  the  position  of  the  last  impact 
ag'.iiust  the  bore.  Thus,  shouM  the  last  impact  of  a 
concentric  projectile,  when  tired  from  a  irun,  be  on 
the  right-hand  side  of  the  bore,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  1,  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  detiect  to  the  left  in 
the  direction  b,  while  at  the  same  time  a  rotation  will 
be  given  to  it  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrows, 
or  to  the  right;  the  effect  of  this  rotation  being  to 
cause  the  projectile  itself  to  de\iate  to  the  right  dur- 
ing its  flight,  so  that  the  deflection  will  not  be  to  the 
left,  but  to  the  right,  unless  the  range  is  vcrj'  short. 
If  the  projectile  leave  the  gun,  rotating  on  a  vertical 
axis,  with  it.s  forward  part  moving  from  left  to  right 
— supposing  the  observer  to  be  behind  the  piece — 
there  will  be  a  diminished  pressure  on  the  right  side, 
and  an  increased  one  on  the  left  side,  which  will 
therefore  cause  it  to  deviate  to  the  right.  If  a  pro- 
jectile strike  the  bottom  of  the  liore,  the  rotation  of 
the  fore-part  would  be  from  up  downwards,  and  in- 
stead of  deflecting  to  the  right,  the  range  would  he 
decreased.  Supjiose  Ihe  projectile  to  rotate  in  an 
opposite  direction,  the  results  would  be  reversed. 
Should  it,  on  leaving,  strike  any  intermediate  part  of 
the  tK)re,  a  comjMund  effect  would  be  produced,  ac- 
cording to  the  position  of  the  point  of  impact.  It 
appears  from  these  explanations  that  a  projectile 
lca\ing  the  gun,  rotating  on  any  axis  except  one 
parallel  to  that  of  the  bore,  will  deviate  according  to 
the  tlirection  of  the  rotation. 

Sho\ild  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  projectile  not 
coincide  with  the  center  of  figure,  it  is  termed  efcen- 
Irk,  and  Ls  found  to  de\iate  according  to  the  position 
of  the  center  of  graxity  when  the  ball  is  placed  in  the 
bore  of  the  gun;  should  the  line  joining  the  center  of 
gravity  and  the  center  of  figure  of  a  projectile  be  not 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore,  the  charge  of  powder 
will  act  on  a  larger  surface  on  one  side  of  the  center  I 
of  gravity  than  on  the  other,  so  that  there  will  be  a  | 
rotation  from  the  lighter  towards  the  heavier  side. 

It  is  found  in  practice  that  projectiles  denate  in  a 
curved  line,  cither  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  the  curve 
rapidly  increasing  towards  the   end   of   the   range. 
This  probably  occurs  from  the  velocity  of  rotation 
decreasing  but  slightly  compared  to  the  velocity  of 
tran.slation;  or  if  a  very  strong  wind  is  blowing  stead-  i 
ily  across  the  range  daring  the 
whole  time  of  its  flight,  this  de- 
flecting   cause  being  constant,  flif?^"' 
while  the  velocity  of  the  projec-                        ^d  ^^t^C--" 
tile  diminishes,  the  curve  will               -ot^^^X^^ — ' 
manifestly    increase    with    the                J^  '' 
range;  the  trajectory  is,   there- 
fore, a  curre  of  dmihle  curva- 
ture, its  projection  on  either  a 


on  the  upi)er,  and  effects  will  be  produced  depend- 
ing on  the  resultant  direction  of  the  resistance  of  the 
air  in  relation  to  the  center  of  gravity.  Practically, 
the  path  of  the  projectile  is  found  to  result  in  a  (le- 
viation  increasing  uniformly  with  the  distance  from 
the  gim,  and  depending,  as  to  its  direction,  on  the 
direction  of  the  deflecting  force  at  the  moment  of  its 
first  application.  It  the  deflecting  force  act  on  the 
projectile  in  a  vertical  direction  upwards,  the  horizon- 
tal projection  of  the  line  of  flight  will  be  a  line  deviat- 
ing to  'he  right  or  left  of  the  plane  of  fire,  according 
as  the  twist  is  right-  or  left-handed.  If  the  deflecting 
force  act  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  projectile  will 
he  deflected  to  the  left  or  right,  according  as  the  twist 
is  right  or  left;  and  whatever  be  the  direction  of  the 
deflecting  force,  the  deviation  will  be  a  unifonnlj'  in- 
creasing one  at  right  angles  to  it. 

These  effects  may  be  illustrated  experimentally  by 
means  of  a  gyroscoi)e  provided  with  a  small  elongated 
projectile  instead  of  the  disk  used  for  ordinary  ex- 
periments. The  projectile  must  lie  made  with  the 
greatest  care,  so  that  its  center  of  gravity  coincides 
exactlv  with  that  of  the  two  rings  within  which  it  is 
placed;  the  rings  are  so  arranged  that  one  can  turn 
round  a  vertical  axis,  and  Ihe  other  round  a  horizon- 
tal axis,  the  projectile  being  therefore  free  to  turn  in 
any  direction.  A  cylindrical  portion  of  metal  ex- 
tends beyond  the  ba.se  of  the  j^rojectile,  in  prolonga- 
tion of  its  longer  axis,  round  which  the  string  is 
wound  to  give  the  required  rotatory  motion.  As  the 
projectile  in  the  gjroscope  has  no  motion  of  transla- 
tion, a  strong  cunent  of  air  must  be  directed  upon  it, 
so  as  to  represent  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere 
to  a  projectile  moving  with  a  high  velocity.  The 
diameter  of  the  nozzle  of  the  blower  should  l)e  equal 
to,  or  rather  larger  than,  that  of  the  projectile,  and 
the  center  of  the  blast  should  be  directed  below  the 
point  of  the  projectile. 

The  line  of  flight  is  not  absolutely  a  straight  line, 
but  becomes  a  curve  of  double  cunature;  and  if  pro- 
jected on  a  vertical  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  plane 
of  fire,  would  consist  of  a  series  of  eycloidal  curves, 
were  the  time  of  flight  sufficiently  great,  increasing 
the  distance  of  the  projectile  from  the  plane  of  fire  by 
the  length  of  one  of  them  at  each  revolution.  The 
length  of  these  curves  de])ends  upon  the  amount  of 
the  deflecting  force,  and  their  number  is  equal  to  the 


horizontal  or  vertical  ]ilane  being  a  curved  line. 

From  the  foregomg  considerations  it  follows  that 
the  smoother  the  surface  of  the  projectiles  and  the 
less  their  windage  and  eccentricity,  other  things  being 
equal,  the  greater  will  be  their  accuracy.  Ex|ieri- 
ments  show  that  the  preponderating  side  should  be 
put  next  the  charge,  and  the  line  joinins  the  center  of 
gravity  and  the  center  of  figure  should  he  parallel  to 
the  a.xis  of  the  Ixire.  The  iW)sition  of  the  preponder- 
ating side  is  found  liy  floating  the  projectile  in  a  bath 
of  mercury,  and  the  degree  of  promptness  with  which 
an  eccentric  shot,  floated  as  aI)ove.  assumes  the  posi- 
tion due  to  its  preponderance  is  regarded  as  the  mea- 
sure of  that  preponderance. 

Ehugatad  Piojediles. — If  the  projectile  come  out  of 
the  gun  perfectly  centered,  that  is.  rotating  round  its 
longest  axis,  and  ha\-ing  that  a.xis  coincident  with  the 
line  of  flight,  there  will  be  no  tendency,  either  of  the 
axis  of  rotation  or  of  the  projectile  itself,  to  deflect, 
so  long  as  the  motion  is  in  a  straight  line,  because  the 
resistance  of  the  air  will  act  uniformlv  all  around. 


Fio.  i. 
number  of  revolutions  made  by  the  projectile  in  its 
flidit. 

When  an  elongated  projectile  is  fired  from  a  rifled 
gun,  it  leaves  the  bore  rotating  rapidly  round  its 
Fonger  axis;  and  if  the  initial  velocity  were  very  low, 
the  projectile  experiencing  but  slight  resistance  from 
the  atmosphere,  Ihe  larger  axis  would  remain  (as  in 
vacuo)  during  Ihe  whole  time  of  flight  parallel  or 
nearly  so  to  its  primary  direction,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
2.  AVhile  explaining  "the  effect  pro<luced  by  the 
resistance  of  the  air  upon  an  elongated  projectile 
moving  with  a  high  velocity,  the  projectile  will  be 
suppased  to  have  what  is  terined  a  right-handed  rota- 
tion; that  is,  the  upper  part  turns  from  left  to  right, 
with  reference  to  an  observer  placed  behind  Ihe  gun: 
for  the  direction  of  the  grooves  of  rifled  pieces  is 
almost  invariablv  so  as  to  give  such  rotation.  After 
the  projectile  has  left  the  bore,  the  n'sultant  of  the 
i-esistanee  of  the  air  will,  unless  the  center  of  gravity 
be  very  far  forward,  net  upon  a  point  in  front  of  the 
center  of  gravilv  and  below  Ihe  longer  axis,  at  all 


As  soon,  however,  as  the  lrajcctor\-  has  begun  to  angles  of  elevation  given  in  practicsd  giinnerv.  The 
curve  downwards  under  the  influence  of  gravitv,  the  effect  produced  by  this  pressure  will  depend  chiefly 
resistance  of  the  air  acts  more  on  the  imder  side  than    upon  the  form  of  the  head  Ox  the  projectile;  there- 


DEVICE. 


470 


DIADEM. 


fore  let  iLf  Id  the  first  place  consider  the  effect  upon 
a  ciinoid'il  head. 

Of  it)urse  lUe  longer  a.xis  of  an  elongated  projectile 
does  not  n-niain,  during  tlight,  conlinuidly  a  liuigent 
to  the  tmjeclory,  unless  the  center  of  gniviiy,  iis  in  au 
arrow  or  rocket,  is  very  near  the  facen'Md:  yet,  jtrac- 
tieally,  on  aceounl  of  the  driHiping  of  the  iK)int,  the 
longer  axis  may  throughout  a  eonsiileralile  portion  of 
the  time  of  tli'ght  api)ro.\iniate  very  nearly  to  a  tan 
gent  to  the  trajectory.  The  elTi-ct-s  on  targets  funiish 
most  satisfactory  eyidence  of  this;  it  is  almost  inyari- 
ably  found  that  the  holes  made  in  targets  are  circular, 
even  wlu'U  elongated  jirojectiles  descend  at  consider- 
able angles.  The  most  probable  explanation  of  this 
fact  must  evidently  be  that  the  point  of  the  projec- 
tile has  dro4>peil  during  Ilight,  so  that,  on  striking, 
the  longiT  axis  is  nearly  ix-rpeuilicular  to  the  plane  of 
the  targt't. 

This  drooping  of  the  point  is  of  importance;  for 
did  the  a.xis  remain  pandlel  during  flight  to  its  pri- 
mary direction,  the  projectile  would  most  jiroljably, 
■when  tired  at  auv  but  a  very  low  angle,  on  striking 
an  object  of  hard  material  and  solid  structure,  turn 
up  against  ii  lennthways,  and  therefore  produce  but 
trifling  etfect.  iThis  has  not,  however,  been  found  to 
take  place  in  pnictice;  but  on  the  contrary  the  pene- 
tration of  elongiited  projectiles  at  considerable  ranges 
Ls  always  remarkably  great.  There  is  little  fear  of 
the  projectile  turning  up  agiunst  an  object  unless  the 
velocity  of  translation  and  rotation  be  very  low,  and 
the  angle  of  tire  very  high. 

It  is  found  in  practice  that  conoidal  headed  projec- 
tiles tired  from  rifled  gims  giving  a  riirhl-handed  rota- 
tion always  deviate  to  the  right;  and  In  the  few  cases 
tried  with  guns  giving  a  left-handed  rotation  the 
deviation  is  to  the  left;  with  flat-headed  projectiles 
tlii-se  deviations  are  reversed.  This  peculiar  devia- 
tion is  called  drift,  and  is  generally  constant  for  the 
same  ranges;  so  that  it  can  be  allowed  for  in  pointing 
the  gun,  by  using  a  horizontal  slide  graduated  and  at- 
tached to  the  tangent  scale,  or  by  inclining  the  tan- 
gent scide  to  the  left.     See  Projectihs  and  Trnjectnry. 

DEVICE. — A  motto  exi)res.sed  by  means  of  a  pic- 
torial emblem.  The  motto  proper  originated  in  the 
emblem,  a  written  inscription  coming  to  be  added  to 
the  pictorial  design,  with  the  \iew  of  rendering  the 
meaning  more  explicit.  Devices  thus  consist  of  two 
part.s — a  pictorial  figure  called  the  "body,"  and  a 
motto  in  words  called  the  "soul  "  of  the  ileWce.  As 
early  its  the  times  of  .Eschylus,  the  "  Seven  Heroes 
before  ThelK's"  all  appear  with  dences  on  their 
shields:  and  the  same  is  related  by  Xenojihon  of  the 
Lace(hemonians  and  Sieyonians.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  devices  on  coat-armor  came  into  regidar  and 
formal  use,  and  Chivalry  employed  them  in  its  courtly 
cx-pressions  of  de%-otion  to  the  'fair  sex.  They  were 
usi-d  iMjth  as  charges  on  the  shield  and  as  crests.  The 
only  resjiect  in  which  the  device  differs  from  other 
heraldic  end)leins  is  that  it  has  always  some  specific 
reference  to  the  history,  or  circumstances,  or  position 
of  the  Ix-arer.  As  an  e.xample:  Louis  XIII.  of  France 
had  a  falcon  as  a  device,  with  these  words;  "  Aquila 
generoKinr  alts"  (A  more  generous  bird  than  the 
eat'Ii),  by  which  he  meant  to  denote  his  own  supe- 
riority to  the  Emperor,  whose  device  was  an  eagle. 
])evi(<'s,  moreover,  were  generally  borne  only  by  "the 
individual  who  assumed  them,  and  not  by  the  other 
memlnTs  of  his  family  or  his  descendants,  like  the 
crest  or  cognizjmcc.  ^They  were  often  contrived  to 
typify  n  s]Kcial  enterprise",  the  general  character  of 
tlie  wearer,  or  even  to  designate  his  name— as  the 
iiiulberri/  tn.rs  in  the  embroidered  trappings  of  the 
hors<'  of  Thomas  Mowbray,  Duke  of  Norfolk.  On 
all  festal  (Kcasiotis  Ihey  figured  on  trimnphal  arches, 
on  banners  and  hangings.  At  a  later  (jeriod  it 
IxKMme  cusloman-  to  work  devices  iulo  laiildings: 
friezes  and  stained  windows  were  often  coveri-d  witli 
them.  This  practice  has  recently  nuieh  gone  out,  at 
least  in  its  <irii.nnal  form.     .Sir  I'lirnUiry. 

DEXTER  RIFLE.— A  breech-loading  smallann  pos- 


sessing a  fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  breech- 
block, which  rotates  al>out  a  horizontal  axis  at  90°.  to 
the  axis  of  the  barri'l,  lying  Klow  the  axis  of  the 

'  barrel  and  in  front — l)eiug  moved  from  above  by  a 
thumb-piece. 

The  arm  is  opened  by  half-  or  fuU-cockiug  the 
hammer,  and  then  swinging  down  the  breech-block 
by  depressing  the  thumb-piece  on  the  right  side  of 
tfie  frame.  This  pushes  back  the  tiring-pin  and  the 
locking-brace,  by  the  earn  acting  on  the  tiring-pin 
retractor  and  locking-brace  retractor  respectively.  It 
is  clo.sed  by  raising  the  thumb-piece,  .so  as  to  swing 
the  breech-block   up  into  place.     In  so  doing,  the 

[  locking-brace  is  thrown  forwaril  by  its  spring  into 
place  vindcr  the  breech-block,  as  soon  as  the  latter  is 

I  closed. 

!      The  piece'is  locked  by  the  position  of  the  locking- 

'  brace,  the  lower  end  of  which  abuts  ujxtn  the  guard, 
and  is  tired  by  a  center  lock  of  the  usual  i)attern. 
Both  extraction  and  ejection  are  accomplished  by  a 
revolving  extractor,  i)ivotetl  near  the  breech-block 
pin,  and  struck  by  the  block  in  its  descent.  In  open- 
ing the  block  the  locking-brace  is  forced  againSt  the 
trigger,  and  is  held  there  by  the  block;  the  hammer, 
therefore,  caimot  be  made  to  fall  while  the  piece  is 
opened. 

DHALL-BUSH.  — The  wood  used  in  India  in  the 
l^reparation  of  charcoal  for  gunpowder.  It  grows  iu 
most  parts  of  India,  and  has  been  found  to  inake  the 
best  cliarcoal  of  the  several  woods  at  i)resent  known 
in  that  country.  Dhallbush  has  a  growth  of  a  few 
months:  the  seed  is  planted  in  April,  and  the  grain 
riiiens  about  the  1st  of  .lanuary  the  next  year,  \vhen 
the  bushes  are  cut  down.  The  stalks  are  brousrht 
in  and  stacked  for  use  at  the  iiowdcr-works.  "f he 
wood  is  white  and  soft,  and  contains  much  sjiccha- 
rine  matter.  Hence  insects  breed  internally,  while 
externally  it  is  attncketl  by  various  moths,  which 
deposit  their  larvse.  The  charcoal  is  good,  it.':'  fibrous 
texture  distinct,  and  it  rings  with  a  clear,  metallic 
soimd,  being  at  the  same  time  soft  and  friable.  A 
bi'cgah  of  iirhiir,  another  word  for  the  dhall-bush, 
is  calculated  to  give  about  2110  maunds  of  wooil  in  its 
yearly  crop,  or  the  charcoal  for  l(i()  barrels;  hence 
10,000  barrels  would  require  a  yearly  cultivation  of 
60  bcegahs.  As  a  general  ride,  the  wood  should  be 
stripped  of  its  bark  |)revious  to  charring;  this  prac- 
tice \vas  not  innforudv  p\irsucd  in  the  Indian  ])owder- 
m:inufactories  iu  former  years,  owing,  it  is  sup])osed, 
to  the  expense,  and,  perhaps,  the  importance  of  ))eel- 
ing  the  wood  not  having  been  realized.  The  peeling 
process  is  now  strictly  carrieil  out.     See  Cliiirrmil. 

DHAO. — A  Burman  tool  or  weapon  (half  chopper, 
half  sword)  used  in  clearing  jungle  and  in  cutting 
<lown  trees  of  all  kinds.  The  Burmese  make  great 
use  of  this  cuttimr  instrument. 

DHARSCH  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In  this 
system  the  enceinte  en  tenaille  consists  of  a  mere 
wall,  forming  a  parajiet,  and  covered  by  counter- 
guards,  ravelins,  and  lunettes.  Defensive  liarracks 
are  constructed  on  tlu'  terre-])lein  of  the  ravelins. 

DHURREE. — An  Indian  term  for  a  coarse  kind  of 
cotton  carpet,  called  also  a  »itri/ifffe;  it  is  used  for 
the  tiixiring  of  tents,  and  very  generally  for  car|X!ts 
in  most  houses  in  the  Xorthwest  Provinces  of  India. 
This  kind  of  cloth  is  made  in  diiTereiit  parts  of  the 
country,  and  very  often  by  prisoners  in  jails.  A 
small  .s.'itringee  is  i.s.sued  by  the  Coniniissjirial  Depart- 
ment to  every  Kurojuan  soldier,  whiclr  is  placed  on 
his  sleeping  cot  in  baiTacks,  and  in  which  his  bedding 
is  folded  up  on  the  march. 

DIABLE. — A  truck-carriage  on  four  trucks,  used 
for  moving  heavy  ordnance  short  distances;  it  is  pro- 
vided w  ilh  draught-hooks  at  each  end,  so  as  to  be  eas- 
ily drawn  to  Inint  or  rear. 

"DIADEM.— The  Uiime  given  to  the  fillet  of  silk, 
woolen,  or  linen  whi<'h  served  as  the  distinguishing 
ornament  of  kings.  It  was  generally  narrow,  being 
only  a  little  broader  on  the  foreheail.  The  diadem 
of  the  Egyptian  goddesses  and  kings  bore  the  symbol 


DIAGOMETES. 


471 


DIAMAGNETISH. 


of  the  sacred  serpent.  The  diadem  of  Bacchus,  as  it 
apix-nrs  in  ancient  sculptures,  was  a  plaited  band 
going  round  the  forehead  and  temples,  and  tied  be- 
iind,  with  the  ends  hanjnnp  down.  Among  the  Per- 
■sians  the  diatlem  wa.s  boimd  round  the  liara  or  turban, 
and  was  of  a  blue  color,  worked  with  white.  The 
early  Roman  Emiierors  refrained  from  using  this  orna- 
ment, in  order  not  to  call  up  recollections  of  the  hated 
.kingly  office.  Diocletian  was  the  first  to  introduce  it 
again,  and  Couslautine  the  Great  added  new  orna- 
ments to  it.  After  his  time  it  was  adorned  with  a 
single  or  double  row  of  pearls  and  precious  stones. 
Queens  are  also  seen  on  coins  ornamented  with  the 
diadem,  with  the  addition  of  a  veil.  It  was  tinally 
superseded  by  the  crown.     See  Crown. 

DIAGOMETEE.— A  kmd  of  electroscope,  in  which 
a  drj'  pile  is  employed  to  measure  the  amount  of 
■electricity  transmitted  by  different  bodies  or  determine 
their  conducting  power.  Used  to  detect  foreign  mix- 
ture in  olive -oil. 

DIAGONAL.  —  In  plane  geometry,  a  straight  line 
joining  any  two  angles,  not  adjacent,  of  a  rectilineal 
figure.  A  line  drawn  between  two  adjacent  angles 
■would  coincide  with  the  boimdan-line.  A  triangle 
has  no  diagonal,  because  any  two  of  its  angles  are 
adjacent;  a  four  sided  figure  has  two  diagonals  ;  a 
five-sided,  tive  ;  a  six-sided,  nine  ;  etc.  The  number 
of  po.ssible  diagonals  in  any  figure  is  found  by  taking 
three  from  the  nimiber  of  sides,  multiplying  the  re- 
mainder by  the  number  of  sides,  and  taking  half  the 
product     Thus,  in  the  six-sided  figure,  the  process  is 

3x6 

—5 —  =  9.    If  the  diagonals  must  be  so  drawn  as  not 

to  intersect,  their  number  is  always  three  less  than 
the  number  of  sides.  It  makes  no  difference  whether 
they  all  proceed  from  one  angle  or  not.  A  diagonal 
in  a  solid  bounded  by  planes  is  a  line  joining  any 
two  .solid  angles  so  situated  that  the  line  does  not  co 
incidc  with  any  line  on  the  surface.  To  find  the  num- 
ber of  such  diagonals  in  a  given  solid;  JIultiply  the 
number  of  solid  angles  by  the  same  number  dimin- 
ished by  one.  and  from  half  this  product  sidJtract  the 
innnlior  of  edges  on  the  figure,  and  also  the  sum  of 
the  number  of  diagonals  in  all  the  faces.     Thus,  the 

8x7 
cube  gives  -^5 12  —  6x2  =  4  diagonals. 

DIAGONAL  SCALE. — A  system  of  lines  bj  means 
of  which  hundredths  of  units  may  be  laid  down 
or  measured  v.ith  compasses.  "When  the  numbers 
representing  the  lengths  of  the  sides  of  any  figure 
would  give  lines  of  an  inconvenient  size  taken  from 
the  scale,  the  numbers  may  be  all  multiplied  or  all 
<ii\'ided  by  such  a  number  as  will  adapt  the  lengths 
of  the  lines  to  the  required  dimensions  of  the  figure. 
See  Sfale. 

DIAL  -  COMPASS.  —  This  little  instrument  has  a 
needle  three  iuchcs  long,  and  ■nitli  its  compass-circle 
is  inclosed  in  a  circular  box  set  upon  a  brass  liase  four 
inches  square,  three  edges  of  which  are  chamfered 
and  divided;  one  on  the  W  side  of  the  compass  into 
inches  and  tenths,  the  two  others  into  degrees  and 
lialf-dcgrees,  and  figured  from  a  center  on  the  south- 
west comer  of  the  base.  The  compa.ss-circle  is  mova- 
ble in  order  to  set  off  the  variation  of  the  needle,  and 
has  a  vernier  attached  to  it  on  the  inside,  reading  a 
divided  arc  on  the  face  of  the  compass  to  tbri'e  min- 
utes of  a  degree.  There  is  also  on  the  south  side  of 
the  face  an  are  of  180  ,  figured  from  0  to  90  on  each 
side  of  the  south  or  zero  line  of  the  face.  A  little 
pendulum  with  index-point  hung  from  the  center-pin 
reads  this  arc,  when  the  compass  is  set  up,  vertical, 
on  the  raised  south  edge,  thus  making  it  a  clinometer 
or  slope-measurer.  The  sight  is  hinged  so  as  to  fold 
in  packing,  but  when  erect  makes  laut  a  fine  silk 
thread  attached  at  one  end  to  the  sight  and  at  the 
other  to  a  bra.ss  hour  circle  above  the  compass-glass, 
at  an  angle  with  the  plane  of  the  hour-circle  equal  to 
that  of  the  latitude  of  the  place  where  the  compass  is 


u.sed.  The  hour-circle  Is  divided  for  any  required 
latitude  like  that  of  a  sun-ilial,  the  hair  serving  as  a 
gnomon  to  give  apiiarent  time  with  the  sun.  When 
It  is  desiretl  to  use  the  instrument  at  a  latitude  a  de- 
gree or  two  either  higher  or  lower  than  that  for  which 
the  hour-circle  is  divided,  the  end  of  the  thread  at- 
tached to  the  sight  may  Ije  made  adjustable,  so  as  to 
be  either  raised  or  lowered  on  the  sight  until  the 
angle  of  the  thread  witli  the  plane  of  the  hour-circle 


is  made  equal  to  that  of  the  latitude  required.  In 
using  the  dial-compa.ss  it  is  first  leveled  carefidly,  the 
equation  of  time  for  the  given  day  allowed  for,  and 
then  by  oliservation  on  the  sim  at  midday  the  true 
meridian  approximately  obtained.  The  needle  may 
then  be  set  to  the  meridian  by  laying  off  the  variation, 
and  any  deflection  of  the  needle  from  the  true  meri- 
dian will  indicate  the  presence  of  veins  of  magnetic 
iron-ore.     See  ('liru>iiiet<r  and  Solar  Oimpass. 

DIAMAGNETISM.— The  fact  that  iron  is  attracted 
by  the  magnet  has  liocn  known  from  verj'  remote 
times;  that  bismuth  exhibits  a  rcpidsive  action  towards 
the  maguetic  needle  has  been  now  known  for  nearly 
a  hundred  years.  Dr.  Faraday  was  the  first  ( 184.5)  to 
show  that  all  bodies  are  more  or  less  affected  by  mag- 
netic influence,  and  his  beautiful  researches  on  the 
subject  have  ojiened  up  a  new  field  in  the  domain  of 
science.  He  found  that  the  magnetism  of  bodies  was 
manifested  in  two  ways — either  in  being  attracted  by 
the  magnet,  as  iron,  or  in  being  reiiellcd,  like  lasmuth. 
When  a  needle  or  slender  rod  of  iron  is  suspended 
between  the  poles  of  a  magnet,  as  in  Fig.  1,  being 


Fig.  1. 

attracted  by  them,  it  takes  up  a  position  of  rest  on 
the  line,  a  b,  joining  the  two  poles.  When  a  substance 
iK-haves  itself  in  this  manner,  it  is  sjtiii  by  Faraday  to 
be  paramagnetic,  and  to  place  it.self  a.riai!.i/,  a  h  Ixring 
the  axis.  A  rod  of  bismuth,  on  the  other  baud,  being 
repelled  bv  the  poles  of  the  magnet,  comes  to  rest  in 
the  line,  r'd,  at  right  angles  to  ah.  Bismuth,  and  the 
like  substances,  lie  calls  diamagndir,  and  they  are 
sjud  to  place  themselves  eqtiatoriaUy,  cd  Iieing  the 
equator.  These  terms,  being  both  definite  andgniphic, 
have  been  univcrsiUy  adopted.  Magnetic  is  the  term 
used  bv  Faraday  to  indicate  magnetism  of  either  sort, 
although  in  general  language  it  is  understood  to  refer 
to  paramagnetic  bodies,  such  as  iron,  etc.     Paramag- 


DIAHETEB. 


472 


DICTATOR. 


nctic  Ivxlies,  then,  nro  those  which  manifest  the  siuiie 
pro|H'iiii-s  with  resiird  to  the  magnet  that  iron  dws; 
nnil  (liiiniairnelic  biKlies  arc  tliosc  which,  like  bismuth, 
show  oi)iK)site  l)ul  corresponiiing  proiXTties;  so  that  in 
circunLstances  where  imranMgncticlioilies  phicc  them- 
selves axiallv,  diamairnelic  iKniics  place  themsi'lves 
cquatorially;'  and  where  the  former  are  attracted,  the 
latter  are  ix-iKlled,  and  rice  rerm.  A  paramagnetic, 
therefore,  not  in  the  elongalc<l  form,  but  in  a  compact 
shaiK',  such  as  a  ball  or  cube,  is  attracted  by  either 
IK)le  of  the  masrnct  when  suspended  nam  it;  a  ball  or 
eulv  of  a  dianiagnetic,  on  the  other  hand,  experiences, 
when  so  placed,  n'pulsion.  The  paramagnetism  of 
iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt  iK-comes  manifest  in  the  pres- 
ence of  magnets  of  ordinary  power;  but  the  magnetism 
of  most  other  substjuices  is' so  feeble  as  to  Ix-  developed 
oidy  under  the  inlluence  of  the  strongest  magnets.  As 
electro-magnets  far  exceed  jx-rmanent  steel  magnets 
in  stri'ngth,  they  are  selected  for  investigations  on  the 
magnetism  of  "bodies.  To  observe  the  effect  of  the 
magnet  on  liquids,  Faraday  placed  them  in  long  tubes 
of  verv  thin  glass,  and  suspended  them  as  in  the  Ciise 
of  solid  needles.  It  was  found  tliat  some  arranged 
themselves  axially,  and  others  equatorially.  The  at- 
traction and  repulsion  that  liquids  experience  in  the 
presence  of  the  magnet  has  been  prettily  shown  by 
Plucker.  A  large  drop  of  liquid  is  placed  in  a  watch- 
glass.  Figs.  2  and  3,  and  laid  uix)n  two  poles  of  the 
magnet. "  If  the  liquid  be  paramagnetic,  the  surface 
becomes  depressi-d  at  the  interval  between  the  poles, 
and  Iii'!ipe<l  up  over  the  extreme  edges  of  them.  Fig.  2. 
A  diamaguetic  liquid,  on  the  other  Hand,  shows  a  de- 


Fio. : 


Fig.  8. 


prcssion  at  each  edge  of  the  poles,  and  a  heaping  up 
at  the  center.  Fig.  3.  The  magnetic  nature  of  Hames 
and  gases  has  lx;enalso  studied.  When  the  flame  of  a 
candle  is  brought  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet,  it  is 
repelled  by  them,  and  thrown  out  horizontally  into 
an  ecjuatorial  position.  To  ascertain  the  magnetism 
of  gases.  Faraday  inflated  soap-bubbles  with  them, 
and  their  para-  or  diamagnetism  wsw  exhibited  liy 
their  being  attracted  or  repelled  l)y  the  poles.  He 
ft.scertained  the  same  by  causing  the  gases  to  flow  out 
from  glass  tulx?s  in  the  presence  of  the  poles,  when 
the  peculiar  magnetism  of  the  gj»s  was  shown  by  its 
choosing  an  axial  or  ccjuatorial  means  of  egress.  The 
following  list  gives  the  kind  of  magnetism  displayed 
by  the  more  common  substances:  Paramtir/titlic — 
Iron,  nickel,  cobalt,  manganese,  chromium,  titanium, 
palladiiun,  paper,  sealing-wax,  peroxide  of  lead,  plum- 
bago, red-lead,  sulphate  of  zinc,  shellac,  vermilion, 
charcoal,  proto  and  per  salts  of  iron,  sjilts  of  manga- 
nese, oxygen,  air.  Biiiiiinf/wlk — Bismuth,  antimony, 
zinc,  tin,  cadmium,  sodium,  mercury,  lead,  silver, 
copper,  gold,  arsenic,  uranium,  tungsten,  rock-crvstal, 
mineral  acids,  alum,  glass,  lilharge,  niter,  phospliorus, 
sulphur,  resin,  water,  alcohol,  ether,  sugar,  starch, 
wo<k1,  l)read,  leather,  caoutchouc,  hydrogen,  carbonic 
acid,  coal-gas,  nitrogen.  The  nature  of  the  medium 
in  which  the  IkxIv  under  examination  moves  exerts  a 
powerful  influence  on  the  nature  and  amount  of  the 
maaiietism  it  exliiliits;  thus,  if  a  glass  lube  be  filled 
with  a  .solution  of  the  jirotosulphatc  of  iron,  and  sus- 
pended tx-tween  the  poles,  it  will  place  itself  axiallv. 
It  will  do  the  same  if  made  to  move  in  water,  or" a 
solution  more  dilute  of  the  protosulphate  of  iron.  It 
will  lx>  indifferent  in  a  solution  of  the  same  strength; 
but  it  will  place  itself  equatorially  in  a  stronger  solu- 
tion. Thus,  the  same  sutisiance  may  appear  para- 
magnetic. indilTerent,  or  di.imagnetic  according  to 
the  natvire  of  the  me<lium  in  which  it  moves.  As  a 
general  rule,  a  body  shows  itself  paramagnetic  to- 
war<ls  one  less  paramagnetic  than  it.self,  indifferent  to- 
wards one  equally  magDctic,  and  diamagnctic  towards 


one  more  paramagnetic  than  it.self.  The  same  takes 
iilace,  miiltiliH  iiiiiUtitdiK,  with  diamagnelic  substances 
I'his  has  given  rise  to  the  theory  thai  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  diamagnetism  /«  r  « ,  aiul  that  Ixidies  are  dia- 
magnelic only  in  media  of  greater  paramagnetic  power 
than  their  own.  This  view  of  the  ca.se  is,  however, 
rendered  highly  improbable  from  the  fact  that  dia- 
magnetism is  exhibited  as  ilecidedly  in  a  vacuum  as- 
in  any  medi\ini,  and  a  vacuum  cannot  be  supposed  to 
possess  magnetic  j)roperties  of  any  kind. 

DIAMETER. — A  line  passing  through  the  center  of 
a  circle,  bmmded  at  each  end  by  the  circumfereuce. 
When  great  accuracy  is  not  recpiired,  the  iiroixirtion 
of  the  diameter  of  a  circle  to  the  circumference  may 
be  taken  as  1  to  3.1416.  To  And  the  diameter  of  a 
spherical  shot,  its  weight  being  given,  multiply  the 
cube  root  of  the  shot's  height  by  1.923  for  the  diam- 
eter. In  taking  the  diameter  or  calilx'r  of  the  bore  of 
a  rifli'd  gun.  it  is  measured  across  the  hinds. 

DIAMOND-POINT.— A  stylus  armed  with  a  dia- 
mond, either  ground,  conical,  or  made  of  a  .selected 
fragment  of  the  desired  shape.  Wilson  Lowry  intro- 
duced the  diamond-point  into  engravers'  ruling-ma- 
chines. Etching-tools  have  been  pointed  with  dia- 
monds. Uiaraond-points  are  used  in  ruling  the  gradua- 
tion of  the  finer  kinds  of  instruments;  also  by  Nobert, 
it  is  supposed,  in  ruling  the  wonderful  scries  of  lines 
that  form  the  tests  of  the  micro.scopes  of  higher 
powers. 

DIAMOND-TOOL.— A  metal-turning  tool  whoso  cut- 
ting edge  is  formed  by  facets.  Much  used  In  the  ar- 
senal. 

DIAPHRAGM  -  SHELL.— A  shrapnel  shell  used  in 
the  English  ser\ice.  It  is  used  with  smooth-bore 
ordnance,  and  is  an  Improvement  on  the  original 
shrapnel  shell;  it  is  the  invention  of  General  Boxer, 
R.A.  It  has  a  wrought-iron  partiti.m  or  diajibragiu 
which  separates  the  bursting-charge  from  the  bullets. 
The  channel  of  communication,  termed  the  loading- 
hole,  from  the  exterior  of  the  shell  to  the  powder- 
chamber,  into  which  the  Ijursting-charge  is  poured, 
is  closed  and  opened  by  a  small  screw.  The  bursting- 
charge  in  this  shell  is  considerably  reduced,  and  the 
interior  of  the  shell  is  coated  with  marine  glue,  in 
order  to  insure  complete  separation  between  the  ])ow- 
der  of  the  bursting-charge  and  the  coal-dust  thrown 
between  the  l>ullets.  The  bursting  of  the  shell  is 
facilitated  by  four  grooves  formed  in  its  interior  sur 
face  which  act  as  so  many  lines  of  "  least  resistance." 
See  Shrll. 

DIAPRE.— A  term  applied  in  Heraldry  to  fields  and 
charges  relieved  Ijy  arabesque  and  geometrical  pat- 
terns. These  [lattcrns  were  generally  of  a  darker 
shade  of  the  sjime  tincture.  This  being  merely  an 
ornamental  device,  not  affecting  the  heraldic  value 
of  the  objects  to  which  it  was  applied,  was  generally" 
left  to  the  fiiicy  of  the  painter.     See  Heraldry. 

DICTATOR. —In  the  earliest  times,  the  name  of  the 
highest  Magistrate  of  the  Latin  Confederation,  and  in 
some  of  the  Latin  towns  the  title  was  continued  long 
after  these  towns  were  subjected  to  the  dominion  of 
liome.  In  the  Himinn  Republic  the  Dictator  was  an 
extraordinary  JIagistrate,  irresponsible  and  endowed 
with  absolute  authoritv,  whose  original  name  was 
M(i;iiKttr  Po)i)i!i.  The  frequency  of  crisca,  or  critical 
periods,  in  the  <{uick,  aggressive  growth  of  the  Roman 
State  necessitateil  such  an  oflice.  The  first  Dictator 
(T.  Larcius  or  M.  Valerius)  w.as  appointed  501  B.C., 
nine  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins.  Ac- 
cording to  Livy.  the  immediate  cause  of  this  dictator- 
ship was  a  formiilablc  war  with  the  Latins.  In  general 
no  one  could  be  ai)|K)inted  Dictator  who  had  not  been 
previously  Consul,  and  this  condition  was  very  rarely 
dispensed"  with.  Niebuhr  is  of  opinion  that  ihe  Dic- 
tator was  originally  created  or  elected  by  the  Curiic, 
like  the  Kings,  but  it  is  more  probable  that  the  Senate 
])a.ssed  a  decree  ordering  one  of  the  Consuls  to  name 
or  proclaim  {dircn)  a  Dictator.  Originally,  of  course, 
the  Dictator  was  a  Patrician;  the  first  Plebeian  who 
filled  the  ofHce  being  C.  Marcius  Rutilus,  356  B.C., 


DIDIONS  FORMULAS. 


473 


DIDION'S  FOSHULAS. 


who  was  nominated  liy  the  Plebeian  Consul  JI.  Popil- 
lius  Lienas.  The  Dictatorship  coukl  not  iHirftiUy  be 
held  longer  than  six  months,  nor  was  it  ever  so,  ex- 
cept in  the  c;ises  of  Sulla  and  Ca?sar,  which  were 
altogether  pecidiar.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that 
during  a  Dictatorship  the  functions  of  the  other  Magis- 
trates were  positively  suspended.  The  Consuls  and 
other  regular  authorities  continued  to  discharge  their 
proi)er  duties,  but  in  subordination  to  the  direction 
and  command  of  the  Dictator;  being  for  the  time 
simply  his  officers.  The  superiority  of  his  power, 
when  compared  with  that  of  the  Consuls,  a|)pears 
chietly  in  these  three  points:  he  was  far  more  in- 
dependent of  the  Senate;  he  had  a  more  extensive 
power  of  punishment,  without  any  appeal;  and  he 
could  not  be  called  to  account  after  his  abdication  of 
the  Dictatorship  for  anything  he  had  done  during  the 
jierioil  of  his  office.  The  liiiiits  of  his  power  were  as 
follows:  he  could  not  touch  the  Treasury;  hecould  not 
lea\'e  Il;dy;  and  he  could  not  ride  through  Home  on 
borsel)ack  without  previously  obtaining  the  permis- 
sion of  the  people.  While  the  Consuls  hatl  only  12 
Lictors,  the  Dictator  was  preceded  by  24,  bearing  the 
securer  and  fasces.  To  him  also  belonged  the  Killa 
cunilix  and  the  t^ffii  pratexUi.  The  last  legally  elected 
Dictator  was  M.  Junius  Pera,  who  entered  on  his 
office  216  B.C.  From  this  time  iioiiiimd  Dictators 
were  frequently  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  holding 
the  electiofLS,  but  even  these  finally  disiippeared,  202 
B>c.  Henceforth,  in  critical  times,  a  sort  of  dictato- 
rial power  was  conferred  on  the  Consuls  by  the  Sen- 
ate by  the  well-known  formula,  "That  the  Consuls 
should  .see  to  it  that  the  State  should  receive  no 
damage."  This  practice  rendered  the  appointment 
of  l)ii-tiitfirs  no  longer  necessary. 

DIDIONS  FORMULAS.  —  In  consequence  of  the 
variable  nature  of  the  resistance  of  the  air,  it  has 
been  foinid  impossible  to  integrate  the  differential 
ecpiations  of  the  real  trajectorj',  even  under  the  su]i- 
jiosition  that  this  resistance  varies  in  as  simple  a  ratio 
as  the  square  of  the  velocitj'.  Several  distinguished 
mathematicians  have  obtained  exjjressions  which  ap- 
proximate to  the  true  results,  but  the  expressions  are 
generally  too  complicated  to  be  of  much  practical 
value. 

Captain  Didion^Professor  of  Gunnery  in  the  Ar- 
tillery School  at  Metz,  however,  furnishes  an  ap- 
proximate solution  to  this  difficult  question,  which 
may  be  used  in  practice.  To  do  this,  he  considers 
the"  resistance  of  the  air  equal  to 

and  by  assuming  a  mean  value  for  the  different  incli- 
nations of  the  elements  of  the  trajectory  to  their 

ds 
horizontal  projections,  which  makes  y-  constant,  he 

is  able  to  integrate  the  differential  equations,  and 
place  them  under  the  following  forms: 


y  =  X  tan  .1 


9 


tan  9  =  tan  ^  —  jr 


2   F'^cos-'.^ 

X 


t  = 


Fcos  .1 


-D; 


F*  cos*  j^' 
Fcos  A  1 
cos  0     XJ 


The  same  notation  being  preserved  as  in  the  equa- 
tions in  the  article  Eqcvtioxs  op  Motion  op  Pro 
JECTILES,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  ccpiations  in 
air  differ  from  those  in  vacuo  by  the  midtipliers  B, 
I,  D.  and  V  respectively.  The  multiplier  B  relates 
to  the  fall  of  the  projectile;  /,  to  the  inclination;  D, 
to  the  duration;  and  C,  to  the  velocity;  they  are  each 

( x.v         ix  F 
functions  of  —  and  — '■■,  in  which  a  is  the  constant 
c  r 

relation  of  the  arc  to  its  projection,  F,  =  Fcos  A, 
and  c  and  r  are  coefficients  of  the  formula  for  the 


resistance  of  the  air.     The  general  expression  for  a 

—  •  — ^')* 
llie  values  B,  1,  I),  and  U,  for  such  values  of  c  and 
r  as  are  likely  to  arise  in  service,  have  been  computed, 
and  arranged  in  tabular  form. 

So  long  as  the  inclination  of  the  trajectory  is  slight, 
(1  iliifers  but  slightly  from  unity  ;  for  aii  angle  of 
15  it  does  not  exceed  .01  ;  anil  as  it  only  enters 
iiito  the  tenn  which  relates  to  the  resistance  of  the 
air,  the  error  does  not  exceed  a  pressure  correspond- 
ing to  .25  inch  in  the  height  of  the  barometer ;  it 

may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  unity,  and  —   reduces 

c 

to  -.     The  same  with  regard  to  -^.  or  "^<=°^4. 

c  "  r  r 

as  a  cos  A,  when  A  =  10°,  differs  only  about  .01 
from  unity;  and  this  expression  may  be  reduced  to 

— .     When  the  angle  of  projection  does  not  exceed 

3°,  cos  ..1  differs  only  .001  from  unity,  and  we  can 
everywhere  replace  Fcos  A  by  V.    Under  this  angle, 

-.-  differs  but  slightly  from  unity,  and  we  have 

F 
V  =  J.,  which  IS  the  same  as  if  motion  took  place  in 

a  horizontal  plane. 

All  cases  of  the  movement  of  projectiles  which  oc- 
cur in  practice  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct 
classes:  1st.  When  the  angle  of  projection  is  slight 
or  does  not  exceed  3  ,  as  in  the  ordinary  lire  of  guns, 
howitzers,  and  small-iirms ;  2d.  When  the  angle  of 
projection  is  greater  than  this,  but  does  not  exceed 
10  or  15  ,  as  in  ricochet-tire,  etc.;  3d.  When  the  angle 
of  projection  exceeds  15  ,  as  in  the  fire  of  mortars. 

1st  Class.  Fcrr  nmull  imgles  of  projection,  as  in 
r/iiDS,  hmritzers,  and  mniiH-arnis. — For  slight  varia- 
tions of  the  angle  of  projection  above  or  below  the 
horizon,  the  form  of  the  trajectory  maj'  be  considered 
constant;  and  when  the  object  is  but"  slightly  raised 
above  or  depressed  below  the  horizontal  piimci  it  may 
be  considered  as  in  this  plane.  In  consequence  of 
the  windage,  and  the  balloting  of  the  projectile  which 
results  from  it,  the  projectile  does  not  always  leave 
the  bore  in  the  direction  of  the  axis.  The  angle 
formed  by  the  line  of  departure  and  the  axis  of  the 
piece  is  called  the  angle  of  departure.  For  guns  in 
good  condition  the  vertical  deviations  do  not  exceed 
5  ,  and  for  howitzers  10  ;  the  side  deviations  never 
exceed  4  30 '.  To  obtain  exact  results,  therefore,  it 
is  necessary  to  correct  the  an"^le  of  projection  for  the 
angle  of  departure,  when  the  latter  is  known.     Under 

the  supposition  that  a,  cos  A,  and ;-  are  each 

cos  0 
equal  to  unity,  the  equations  of  the  trajectory  in  air 
may  be  reduced  to 


y  =  xtaBA-  2^5; 


tan  0  =  tan  J. 


^  I- 


V 


(1) 


(2) 


(3) 


(4) 


Knowing  the  weight  and  diameter  of  the  projectile, 

c  can  be  calculated  by  the  formula  c  =  = — r-  if  it  be 

•'  SgA 

not  found  in  the  table  which  accompanies  it.    We 

r  V 

know  —  and  — ,  and  bv  means  of  the  tables  can  de- 

c  r 

tcmiine  the  desired  values  of  B,  I,  D,  and  JJ. 

Of  the  three  things,  the  initial  velocit.v,  F,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  object,  X,  and  the  angle  of  projection,. 
.1,  two  being  known,  to  tletermiuc  the  third. 


DIDION'8  rOBMULAS. 


474 


DIDION'S  F0BH1TLA8. 


1  To  determine  the  angle  of  projtelion,  ^.— Make 
y  =  0  in  ctiuation  (1),  aiid  solve  it  with  reference  to 
tan  A;  we  have 

tan^  =  |^a 

2  To  determine  the  initial  reJocili/.  T'.— Make  y  =  0 
in  equation  (1),  solve  it  with  reference  to  1',  ami  mul- 
tiply both  members  by  -;  we  have 


in  equation  (5)  the  co-ordinates  a  and  ft,  and  V,;  solve 
it  with  reference  to  ¥■,  substitute  tan  «  for  -,  and 
dinde  both  members  by  r.     We  have 


i/o      r '    2 


X    _ 

rT   2  tan  -i  ~  ' 
X 


and  g,  seek  in  the  Tables  of 


Having  the  values  of 

X  V 

Multipliers  for  the  value  of  -  the  value  of  -,  which 

gives  that  of  g ;  multiply  -  by  1427  and  wc  shall 

have  V.  ,  ,  « . 

3.  To  determine  the  range,  X— JIake  y  =  0  m  equa- 
tion (1),  obtain  the  value  of  X,  and  divide  both  mem- 
bers of  the  equation  by  c  ;  we  have 


X„       tan  AV- 

— 2f    ^    ; 

c  cig 


-p. 


Havinsr  the  initial  velocitv,  V,  and  angle  of  projec- 

'     V 
tion,  A,  we  can  determine  —  and  p;  seek  in   the 

V  X 

tables  for  the  value  of  -  that  of  -,  which  gives  p ; 
r  c 

having  — ,  multiply  it  by  e,  and  we  have  X. 

In  tiring  spherical  case-shot  it  is  important  not 
onlv  to  know  the  time  of  flight,  in  order  to  regulate 
the" fuse,  but  it  is  important  to  know  tliat  the  projec- 
tile will  have  sutlicieiit  reniainiiig  velocity  to  render 
the  impact  of  the  contained  projectiles  effective. 

4.  The  time  of  flight  can  lie  obtained  from  equation 


(3),  or  t  =  yD. 


X  V 

Knowing  —  and  — ,  we  can  obtain 


the  corresponding  value  of  D  from  the  tables. 

5.   The  remaining  Telocity  can  be  obtained  from 
V  XV 

equation  (4),  or  ^  =  jf-    Knowing  —  and  — ,  obtain 

from  the  tables  the  corresponding  value  of  U. 

2d  Class.  Fornnxiles  of  projection  not  exceeding  W 
or  1.5  ,  rw  in  the  ricochet-fire  of  guns,  howitzer),  and 
mortars. — The  formulas  are: 


y  =  X  tan  A 


tan  0  =  tan  A  — 


'  cos 


CTcosO 


.  (5) 

.  (6) 

.  (7) 

.  (8) 


If  the  object  he  on  ti  lewl  with  the  piece,  the  solution 
of  lliis  cliL-iS  of  problems  is  the  siine  as  those  of  class 
1st,  when  the  angle  is  very  small;  if  not,  it  will  be 
neeessarj' to  substitute  for  V,  V  =  F cos  .4,  and  after 
having  obtained  V,  divide  it  bv  cos  A,  which 
gives  V.  The  object  Ix-ing  situated  at  the  distance  a 
from  the  piece,  and  at  the  distance  b  alwve  the  hori- 
zontal plane  passing  through  the  center  of  the  muz- 
zle, is  seen  under  an  angU'  of  deration  t,  for  which 

tan  t  =  — .     One  of  the  two  things,  the  initial  velocity 

or  angle  of  projection,  being  known,  to  detennine  the 
other.' 
1.   To  determine  the  initial  telocily,  V. — Substitute 


tan  ^  —  tan  «  ~  "' 

Having  the  value  of  g,  seek  in  the  tables  for  the 

known  value  of  —  the  value  of  — -  corresponding  to 
c  r 

it,  and  multipljing  bv ,  we  shall  have  V. 

2.  To  delermtne  the  angle  of  projection. — The  re- 
sult will  Ix'  sufficiently  near  the  truth  if  we  substitute, 
in  equation  (.5),  I'for  I',  or  I'cos.;!;  and  soling  it 
with  reference  to  tan  A,  we  have 

tan  ^  =:  tan  «  +  -^B, 

in  which  we  substitute  for  B  its  value  corresponding 

a  V 

to  —  and  — ,  obtained  from  the  tables. 

<•  r 

3d  Class.  Properties  of  trajectories  under  high 
angles  of  projection. — As  a  projectile  rises  in  the  as- 
cending branch  of  its  trajectory,  its  nUicHy  is  dimin- 
ished ijy  the  retarding  effect  of  the  air  and  the  force 
of  gravity:  in  consequence  of  the  resistance  of  the  air 
alone,  the  velocity  continues  to  diminish  to  a  point  a 
little  beyond  the  summit  of  the  trajectory,  where  it  is 
a  minimum;  and  from  this  point  it  increases,  as  it  de- 
scends, under  the  intlueuce  of  the  force  of  gravity, 
until  it  becomes  uniform,  which  event  depends  on 
the  diameter  and  weight  of  the  projectile  and  the 
density  of  the  air,  or,  in  other  words,  upon  the  value 
of  c.  '  The  inclination  of  the  trajectory  decreases 
from  the  origin  to  the  summit,  where  it  is  nothing; 
it  increases  in  the  descending  branch  from  the  sum- 
mit to  its  termination,  and  if  the  grounil  did  not  in- 
terpose an  obstacle,  it  would  become  vertical  at  an  in- 
finite distance.  An  clement  of  the  trajectory  in  the 
descending  branch  has  a  greater  inclination  than  the 
corresponding  element  of  the  ascending  branch. 
Strictly  speaking,  the  trajectory  jji  air  is  au  expo- 
nential" curve  with  two  asyiii])totes;  the  first  is  the  axis 
of  the  piece,  which  is  tangent  to  the  ti-ajeetory  when 
the  initial  velocity  is  intinitc;  the  .«■/-«)/?  is  the  vertical 
line  toward  which  the  trajectory  approaches  as  the 
horizontal  component  of  the  velocity  diminishes  and 
the  effect  of  the  force  of  gravity  increases.  The  oi  rra- 
tiirc  of  the  trajectory  increases  in  the  ascending 
branch  to  a  point  a  little  beyond  the  summit.  The 
point  of  greatest  curvature  is" situated  nearer  the  sum- 
mit than  the  point  of  minimum  velocity.  In  the  tire 
of  mortar  shells  uniler  great  angles  of  projection,  and 
at  customary  distances,  the  trajcdorv  mav  be  con- 
sidered as  an  arc,  in  which  the  angle  of  fall  "is  slightly 
^eatcr  than  the  angle  of  projection.  In  the  ascend- 
ing branch  the  arc  commences  under  an  angle  of  .1, 
and  terminates  under  an  angle  of  0;  the  ratio  of  the 
length  of  this  arc  to  its  projection,  or  a,  is  calculated 
for  all  ai-cs  from  .5'  to  7o\  and  arranged  in  groups  of 
fives.  Tlie  value  of  a  is  considered  the  sjmie  in  the 
descending  as  in  the  ascendiug  branch.  The  multi- 
pliers, B,  I,  D,  and  the  divisor,  U,  are  calculated  for 

the  values  '--  and"^ -',  and   they   are   employed   in 

equations  (5),  (6),  (7),  (8),  as  in  the  preceding  class  of 
cases. 
1.  Find  the  initial  velocity  of  a  mortar-shell,  knovoing 

th£  range  and  angle  of  jn'ojection.—We  know  — ,  and 

by  solving  equation  (5)  as  before  we  have 


*/  w     rV  tan  ^       ^' 


VS 


DIE. 


475 


DI£-8INKIN0. 


HaWng    determined    the    value  of    q,  seek    in  the 

tables  the  value  of  — -  corresponding  to  it  for      - ; 
r  c 

y 

then  multiply  it  by  r,  and  we  have  V. 

2.  To  determine  the  angle  and  rrlnritii  of  fall,  and 
the  time  of  flight,  knotting  tlie  inilinl  rdority  ,nid  range. 

3.  2'o  determine  the  range,  knowing  the  initial  veloe- 

aV 
ity  and  angle  of  projection. — We  have  a  and^— ^; 

make  y  =  0  in  equation  (5);  solve  it  with  reference 

to  X,  and  multiply  lK)th  members  by  — ,  and  we 

iiave 


— B  — sm  2  A  =  p. 

e  gc 


Having   found    the   value 


,    aX 


which  for — '■ 
r 


gives  p,    multiply  it  by  — ,  and  we  have  X 

In  consequence  of  considering  the  inclination  of 
the  trajectory  as  constant  in  the  preceding  equations, 
the  resistance  of  the  air  is  slightly  undcrestiinaled  in 
the  more  inclined  portions  of  the  trajectory,  or  at  tlie 
beginning  and  end,  and  slightly  overestimated  in  the 
less  inclined  portions,  or  about  the  summit.  It  fol- 
lows that  the  calculated  trajectory  will  at  first  rise 
above  the  true  one,  then  pass  below  it,  and  again  pass 
above  it;  the  calculated  ranges  will  therefore  be  found 
slightly  in  excess.  From  the  law  of  inertia,  a  ritle- 
projectile  moves  through'the  air  with  its  axis  of  rota- 
tion parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  bore.  Hence  it  fol- 
lows that  an  oblong  projectile,  fired  under  a  low 
angle  of  projection,  presents  a  greater  surface  to- 
ward the  earth,  and  less  parallel  to  it,  than  a  round 
projectile  of  the  same  weight;  consequently  the  ver- 
tical component  of  the  resistance  of  the  air  is  greater, 
and  the  horizontal  component  less,  in  the  first  case 
than  in  the  second.  The  effect  of  this  will  be  to  give 
an  oblong  projectile  a  flatter  trajectory  and  longer 
range  than  a  round  one.  See  Equations  of  Motion  of 
Pmjectili-s,  Multipliers,  Projectiles,  and  Rem«tanee  of 
the  Air. 

DIE. — 1.  In  punching-machines,  a  bed -piece  which 
has  an  opening  the  size  of  the  jiunch,  and  through 
which  the  i)iece  is  driven.  This  piece  may  be  a 
planchet  or  blank,  or  it  may  be  merely  a  plug  driven 
out  of  the  object  to  form  a  bolt-  or  rivet-hole.  In  nut- 
machines  the  nut-blanks  may  be  made  by  one  die  and 
punched  by  another. — '2.  A  deWce  consisting  of  two 
parts  which  coact  to  give  to  the  piece  swaged  between 
them  the  desired  form. — 3.  A  former  and  punch,  or  a 


tap- wrench  and  at  the  same  time  saving  the  necessity 
of  an  extra  wrench,  as  it  combines  the  two. 

DIEGO. — A  very  strong  and  heavy  sword  common' 
Iv  used  in  combat. 

"  DIE-SINKING.— The  art  of  engraN-ing  the  die  or 
stamp  used  for  striking  the  impression  on  coins,  etc., 
and  for  stamping  thin  plates  of  metal  into  various 
devices.  The  importance  of  die-sinking  has  much  in- 
creased of  late  on  account  of  llie  great  extension  of  the 
process  of  stamping  tliin  metal.  Many  kinds  of  work 
formerly  bent  into  shape  by  the  hammer  and  punch 
are  now  struck  by  a  few  blows  l)elwcen  suitable  dies. 
As  examples  of  these  we  maj'  mention  the  oniainental 
work  of  giis-tittings,  window-curtain  cornices,  common 
jewelry,  ornamental  trays,  dishes,  boxes,  etc.  For 
such  purjioses  a  pair  of  (lies  is  required,  one  in  relief, 
the  other  in  intaglio,  and  the  metal  is  pressed  between 
them.  Xot  only  are  ornamental  articles  stamped  in 
this  manner,  tint  useful  articles,  coiniwsed  of  many 
parts,  are  made  entirelv  by  cutlers  and  dies,  each  part 
being  cut  and  stamped  by  a  pair  of  dies,  and  then  the 
part.s  united  by  another  pair,  the  junction  beingeffected 
by  overlaps,  which  the  uniting  dies  press  into  their 
places.  The  astonishing  cheapness  of  many  of  the 
Birmingham  products  is  mainly  due  to  the  use  of  dies 
for  doing  by  a  single  lilow  the  work  that  fonnerly  re- 
quired long  and  tedioa<  manipulation.  The  most  an- 
cient and  familiar  application  of  dies  is  in  the  striking 
of  coins  and  medals;  the  method  of  sinking  the  dies 
used  for  this  purpose  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  general 
method  of  die-sinking.  Suppose  the  coin  to  be  of  the 
size  of  a  shilling:  a  cylindrical  piece  of  steel,  about 
three  or  four  inches  in  length,  and  two  in  diameter, 
is  prepared  by  slightly  rounding  one  end  of  the  cylin- 
der, then  tuining  and  sm(X)thing  upon  the  middle  of 
this  a  flat  face  efjual  to  the  size  of  the  coin.  This 
blank  die,  which  is  carefully  softened,  is  then  en- 
graved with  the  de\ice  of  the  coin  in  intaglio.  This  is 
a  very  delicate  and  arti.'itic  process,  and  is  effected  by 
a  great  number  of  careful  touches  with  small  and 
very  hard  steel  tools.  The  face  of  the  die  is  now 
hardened  by  placing  it  face  downwards  in  a  crucible 
upon  a  laver  of  bone-dust,  or  a  mixture  of  charcoal 
and  oil.  "In  this  ijosition  it  is  raised  to  a  cherry -red 
heat,  then  taken  out  and  plunged  in  water.  When 
properly  tempered,  it  is  in  a  state  to  be  used  for 
stamping  the  coin;  but  dies  of  superior  workmanship, 
from  which  many  impressions  are  required,  are  not 
thus  directly  used,  as  the  expense  of  engraving  is 
very  great,  "and  the  risk  of  lireakage  considerable. 
This  first  ensrraved  <lie,  called  the  matrix,  is  therefore 
reserved  only  for  making  other  dies.  An  impression 
in  relief  is  made  from  tliis  matrix  on  a  small  block  of 
steel,  which  is  called  the  puncheon:  this  is  retouched 
and  hardened,  and  from  it  the  dies  directly  used  for 


m  s 


8D 


Billings  Stock  and  Dies. 


cameo  and  intaglio  die,  between  which  a  piece  of  sheet- 
metal  is  pres,sed  into  shape  by  a  blow  or  simple  pres- 
sure.— t.  One  of  the  pieces  which  combine  to  form  a 
hollow  screw  for  cutting  threads  on  bolts  and  such 
like.  •  The  two  portions  arc  fitted  in  a  »t'>ck.  In 
some  the  dies  are  set  up  by  screws,  in  others  by 
scrolls.  The  drawing  represents  the  Billings  stock 
and  dies.  The  arrangement  for  holding  in  the  dies 
is  novel.  Two  feathers  hold  the  dies  in  position,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  Turning  the  screw  from  the 
top  die  and  pressing  on  the  pin  at  the  lower  edge  of 
the  plate  leaves  the  ilies  free  to  fall  out.  A  pair  of 
dies  for  holding  taps  may  be  used  in  the  plate  in 
place  of  the  thread-dies,  making  a  very  convenient 


I  strikins  the  coins  or  medals  are  impressed.  When 
the  enSraving  is  not  very  costly,  a  small  number  of 

:  impressions  required,  or  a  soft  metal  is  to  be  stamped, 
the  work  is  stamped  ilirectlv  from  the  engraved  die 

!  or  matrix.  When  the  device  is  in  high  relief,  and 
the  metal  is  hard,  manv  heavv  blows  arc  required. 
Some  of  the  finest  large  "bronze  medals  require  -JOO  or 
300  blows  for  each  impres,sion,  and  tlie  metal  has  to  be 
annealed  bv  heatins  between  everv  two  or  three  lilows. 
It  is  on  this  account  that  the  difTcrence  between  the 
price  of  pewter  and  bronze  medals  of  the  same  subject 
is  so  great,  tlie  pewter  being  so  much  softer.  Copper, 
althoush  harder  than  pewter,  is  much  softer  than 
bronze;  and  hence  the  reader  will  easily  understand 


DIXTART. 


476 


dietary; 


whv  the  device  on  the  bronze  eoiniige.  manufacturol 
at  tbe  new  mint  of  Birniin^ham,  is  in  mueh  lower 
relief  than  tlie  ohl  copix'r  coinage,  as  it  would  not  pay 
to  use  re|>eateil  blows  and  annealini:  in  slrikinjr  com- 
mon coins.  An  impression  in  high  relief  or  in  deep 
intaglio  may  be  obtained  by  one  single  blow  by  the 
clieh>  method.  For  this  a  fusible  alloy  is  used,  such 
as  type-metal,  or,  still  better,  an  alloy  of  two  parts  bis- 
muth, one  lead,  and  one  tin,  which  fuses  at  about  212 ', 
and  becomes  ixtsty  before  solidifying.  The  metal  is 
poured  into  a  Ikix  or  tray  a  little  larger  than  the  die, 
and  when  in  a  pasty  condition  the  die  is  placed  over 
it  and  struck  smartly  with  a  hea\'y  mallet  or  a  coining- 
press.  A. steel  die  is  by  no  means  necessary  for  this; 
sharp  impressions  may  be  obtained  from  bronze 
medals  themselves,  or  even  from  wood  and  plaster 
casts.  A  cliche  mold  may  be  made  in  the  first  in- 
stance from  the  medal,  anil  then  a  cliche  relief  from 


Die-slnklnR  Machine. 
this  mold,  if  the  process  is  skillfully  conducted.  The 
skill  required  consists  mainlv  in  strikinir  the  blow 
with  a  ff)ree  proportionate  to  the  depth  of  the  impres- 
sion and  the  softness  of  the  metal,  and  in  selecting  the 
riirht  moment  for  doing  sf),  jitst  as  the  fus<^'d  mctjd  is 
on  the  point  of  solidifying;  for,  if  too  tluid,  it  will 
merely  Ik'  driven  aside;  and  if  at  all  .set,  an  imperfect 
impression  results.  The  metal  should  be  of  about  the 
consi.stence  of  melted  sealing- wa.v,  and  then  the  sur- 
face is  set  by  contact  with'  the  cool  die  or  medal, 
whileihe  Ixxly  of  the  metal  still  yields  to  the  pressure. 
Cliche  molds  are  admirably  adapted  for  electro-  I 
depositing.     The  dniwing  represents  the  Pratt  and  i 


Whitney  die-sinking  machine,  which  is  much  used 
in  tbe  arsenal  for  work  on  small-amis,  reces.sing  dies, 
and  finishing  recesses  of  all  varieties  of  curved  or 
irregular  shapes.  The  work  to  be  oiH'rated  upon  is 
held  in  the  vise,  which  mav  be  moved  in  all  directions 
horizontally  by  compountf  slides  on  the  tjible  of  the 
machine,  and  may  be  elevated  or  depressed  by  the 
vertical  movement  of  the  iilateu.  The  cutter,  which 
may  be  of  any  suitable  size  or  form,  revolves  whh  the 
spindle  which  is  dri%'en  by  a  belt,  giving  much 
smoother  action  than  is  possible  with  gears.  The 
work  may  be  gviidid  either  by  a  pattern  or  forming- 
piece,  or  controlled  wholly  by  the  operator.  These 
machines  are  very  strongly  built,  insuring  smooth 
work,  free  from  chatter-marks,  and  are  ailapted  par- 
ticularly to  forming  and  finishing  reces,ses  of  circular 
or  irregular  shape,  and  for  recessing  dies  for  the  drop- 
press,     .Sire  Stdtiijiiiig. 

DIETARY. — Rule  of  diet,  or  an  allowance  of  food. 
On  the  ojiposite  page  is  the  diet-table  for  hospitals  in 
the  Unitecl  States  army. 

The  following  are  "the  recipes  for  full  diet  for  tea 
men: 

1.  Coffee. — Coffee,  roasted,  5  oz.;  sugar,  6A  oz.; 
milk,  }  pt. 

Directions. — Put  the  coffee  in  44  quarts  of  Ixjiling- 
water.  Stir  well  until  boiling  lias  recommenced. 
Cover  the  boiler  and  continue  the  boiling  two  min- 
utes. Take  the  boiler  off  the  lire,  pour  into  it  one 
pint  of  cold  water,  and  replace  the  cover.  In  ten 
minutes  the  coffee  may  be  carefully  |K)ured  into 
coffee-pots,  and  the  sugar  and  milk  added. 

2.  Tea. — Tea,  i  oz. ;  sugar,  i)  oz.;  milk,  A  pt. 
Dinctions. — Put  the  tea,"closely  tied  up  in  a  bag  of 

netting,  into  five  quarts  of  boiling  water.  Let  it  boil 
one  or  two  minutes.  Take  it  off  the  tire  and  let  it 
stand,  covered,  on  the  I'ange  fifteen  minutes  to  draw. 
Add  the  milk  and  sugar. 

Z.  HojnNT. — Hominy,  15  oz.;  salt,  I  oz. 

DinHioiis. — Wash  the  hominy  thoroughly  in  warin 
water.  Put  the  salt  into  the  boiler  with  one  quart  of 
water.  When  boiling  stir  in  the  hominy.  Let  it 
boil,  very  gently,  twelve  hours,  tilling  \\\t  with  boil- 
ing water  as  the  water  in  the  boiler  wastes,  but  with- 
out stirring.  Drain  off  all  the  water  that  remains 
after  it  is  sufficiently  cooked.  Add  any  beans  that 
may  lie  left  from  Wednesday's  dinner  to  Thursday's 
breakfast. 

4.  HicE. — Rice,  1  lb.;  salt,  J  oz. ;  water,  1  gill. 
Diicrtioxs. — Put  the  salt  and  water  into  a  boiler, 

and  when  boiling  add  the  rice,  previously  well 
washed .  Boil  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  or  until  the 
grains  are  soft.  Drain  off  the  water;  let  it  stand  a 
few  minutes  beside  the  fire. 

5.  Succotash. — Beans,  i  lb. ;  hominy,  1  lb. ;  gravy,. 
i  pt.;  salt,  I  oz. ;  pepper,  ^n  oz. 

Directions. — Wash  the  beans  and  hominy  thorough- 
ly in  three  waters  to  cleanse  them.  Then  put  them 
to  soak  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  cover 
them  for  live  hours,  after 'which  pour  off  the  water, 
being  careful  to  drain  them  quite  dry.  Then  put 
them  in  a  boiler  or  vessel  prc\iously  prepared  with  i 
pint  of  boiling  water  ami  boil  over  a  slow  tire  six 
hours;  then  add  J  pint  of  gravy,  j  ounce  of  salt,  ^ 
oimce  of  |)epi)er,  and  simmer  over  the  tire  one  hour, 
after  which  it  is  ready  for  use.  Frequent  stirring  is 
nece.s.sary  to  keep  it  from  scorching. 

0.  GuAVY. — Beef -drippings,  j  pt.;  water,  |  pt.; 
flour,  'il  oz. 

Directitms. —  Heat  the  beef-drippings.  Mi.x  the 
flour  into  a  smooth  paste  with  ?  pint  of  cold  water. 
Slir  the  paste  into  ;'  pint  of  boiling  water  and  let  it 
boil  8  minutes.  Adil  to  it  the  hot  beef-drippings 
and  let  the  whole  heat  together  for  a  few  minutes. 
The  graNy  will  require  neither  pepper  nor  salt  if  the 
beef  from  which  the  drippings  arc  taken  has  been 
sufliciently  sea.soned  while  roasting. 

7.  JIe.\t-IIash.— Meat,  2*  lbs.;  bread,  10  oz. ; 
potatoes,  l.j  oz.;  pepper,  ,'j  oz.;  salt,  }  oz. 

Directions. — Chop  the  meat  (previously  boiled  witli 


BIETAET. 


477 


I>I£TABT. 


the  bones)  fine;  boil  and  mash  the  potatoes;  mix  both 
together  with  the  bread,  crumliled  line,  and  the  pep- 
per and  stilt,  moistening  with  the  broth  in  which  the 
meat  and  bones  were  boiled,  without  adding  water. 
Simmer  for  half  an  hour,  stirring  constantly. 


Co 

g 

'^ 

1 

1 

5 

tu 

&! 

^ 

CO 

1 

-^ 

-^ 

z 

0 

>• 

o  cd  ^    1 

P3  O  '^  a  a 

a     CO  o 

1 

3 

otatoes 
tber  ve] 
ice-pud 
savorv 

O     rt     ffi 

111 

O 

1 

, 

g-as 

(t 

.    :    S" 

s 

p? 

i   !   1 

3  1 

4 

a 

o 

N 

s 

N 

g  g   ' 

a 

«-*         ea  <—     1 

•U    O    >£>>    to 

»-»  o>        -^ 

^ 

5     £1 

P-^  o 

a  »  9 

1 

a 

5 

f 

i 

c* 

> 

o 

K 

B 

O    b  TS 
N     N     5* 

.ss 

b  b  -b 

N-      C>     ■-» 

•t^  io 

00  c»   — 

o  ta  "3   1 

•tJ  a  2        D3 

M  03  O 

_ 

1 

1 

s 

O    2 

-     £'0 

read,  wli 
ice,  or  su 
with  gra 

o 
1 

H 

Q 

:    a> 

<   2    <t 

,^ 

"» 

:   •"  =^ 

"r"  8  g 

CO 

o 

0 

O   1 

3 

S  g 

b  • 

3 

Ls-L. 

a 

N             N     CI- 

i-»       ?*  f* 

—          Ci  ^ 

S   J^   M    — . 

8      °"- 

^  w  :;?   i 

O  "^  CB  C3     ':3 

goo 

cr  T   *     1       --. 

O    O    -1    O       o 

f-    "^    o 

ft 
I 

mo- 

^  ;  : 

»  i 

-    Cfi 

•  1 

■     (5 

i 

' 

1 

1 

o* :    : 

■    a 

-i 

0 

o  ■ 

3             b 

S"  b  < 

3     — = 

3 

b 

o  • 

f5 

N    s    r*             fa 

N     N     r-x  N 

N     N     CT- 

M    ffi    M                    iCk 

*    **    g5   O!" 

00    OS    "— 

o  ca  h3 

O  g3  CO         C3 

a     03  o 

m      1      "1      '^ 

:  ;<  :    ^  : 

a  5-  s  ? 

i^p  £  fi. 

1 

^ 

5  " 

P-g  o 

1^ 

g"g 

:    i    1 

:    1-    §■  = 

:       r,    *      P    . 

i 

O  1 

3 

i  i  1 

g  g 

•    cr  :    S- 
;    3  ■    °  • 

s 

N            N     ?♦ 

^           <=*   ^ 

rf*         o  *.  *o 

l-»                  C&                  H- 

O  CO  03  H     1      W 

-3      a  a  'V  "^ 

g  W  O 

read, 
moke 

ir  che 

9               P 

^       1 

"^  £  S-  s  » 

3' 

3* 

Ml 

» 

o* 

1- 

S  1 

■=5 

(B  cr 

-J 

3 

1 

s  s 

■fl 

3 

> 

s 

:    5 

<< 

w 

.     n 

a 

0   o        o  o   o 

O    O    O   "d               N 

4     N            N     N     N 

b  b  •a 

N     N     N     ei 

S     N     ^ 

"—»»■-* 

.^   A.          ^   O   0» 

00  o  « 

o  w  ►^ 

C3         03 

W  n  o 

1 

O     1    * 

-  ?r  2  0 

Eg  ? 

p  5"  ^ 

S-»  1? 

3  ?■ 

9-^  o 

So  '^^ 

00 

'     ^ 

: 

B 

li    ■ 

1 

c 

4!? 

V3 

1 

■     O 

b  1 

b  b  -s 

O 
N 

0 

!-^°' 

N    N    «■ 

*.  c>  — 

•^  e^ 

i    =.- 

8.  Codfish-hash.— Codfish,  4J  lbs.;  potatoes,  8 
lbs.;  pork-drippings,  ?  lb. 

lUrections.— Put  tlie  codfish  to  soak  overnight, 
fleshy  side  downward;  drain  ofif,  and  renew  the 
water  twice,  if  possible.  In  the  morning  put  it  into 
a  boiler  and  simmer  it  until  it  is  tender.  Chop  it 
fine.  Have  the  potatoes  toiled  and  mashed;  mix 
them  well  with  the  codfish.  Put  the  whole  over  the 
fire;  stir  in  the  pork-drippings,  and  let  it  heat  thor- 
oughly. 

9    Codfish,  Boiled. — Codfish,  4J  lbs. 

Dircclhnt. — Soak  the  codfish  overnight,  as  for 
codfish-hash;  put  it  into  a  boiler  with  water  enough, 
to  cover  it  entirely.  Let  it  simmer  gently  half  an 
hour,  or  until  tender. 

Mnclcerel, Boiled. — Proceed  as  with  codfish,  except 
that  it  is  to  be  boiled  only  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

10.  Potatoes.— Potatoes,  6J^  lbs.;  salt,  J  oz. 
Directwim. — Wash    the    potatoes  thoroughly;   put 

them  into  boiling  water,  enough  to  cover  tiieni.  Let 
them  boil  twentj-  minutes  or  half  an  hour,  and  drain 
off  the  water.  Let  them  remain  at  the  tire  a  few 
minutes. 

11.  Beef-soup. — Beef,  7i lbs.;  flour,  i lb. ;  turnips, 
13  oz. ;  onions,  1  lb.;  cabbage,  10  oz. ;  pepper,  ^  oz. ; 
salt,  2i  oz.;  water,  6i  qts. ;  rice,  21  oz. 

Directions. — Cut  the  meat  in  pieces  of  3  pounds 
each;  crack  the  bones,  so  as  to  expose  the  marrow, 
without  splintering  them  in  fine  pieces.  Put  all  the 
ingredients,  except  the  rice  and  pepper,  into  a  boiler 
with  6A  quarts  of  cold  water  and  heat  till  it  boils. 
Boil  very  gentlj'  for  two  and  a  half  hours.  Take  out 
all  the  meat;  cut  it  from  the  large  tiones,  and  return 
the  bones  to  the  boiler.  When  boiling  recommences, 
put  in  the  rice  and  continue  to  boil  l)riskly  one  and  a 
quarter  hours.  Add  the  pcp])er.  Have  the  flour 
mixed  into  a  smooth  paste  with  cold  water;  stir  it  in 
carefully.  Let  it  boil  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  stirring 
all  the  time. 

12.  Beef  (or  Mutton)  Stew.— Beef  or  mutton,  3* 
lbs. ;  flour,  +  lb. ;  rice,  6i  oz. ;  potatoes,  1  lb. ;  pepper, 
Yii  oz. ;  mixed  vegetables,  2  oz. ;  salt,  -^  lb. ;  water, 
1  gal.  and  1  \iX. 

Direeti/>m. — Cut  the  meat  in  pieces  of  6  ounces 
each.  Put  it  into  boiling  water  with  the  salt.  Let  it 
boil  one  and  a  half  hours.  Add  the  rice,  which  must 
first  be  thoroughly  wa.shed.  Boil  three  quarters  of 
an  hour.  Cut  the  potatoes  and  mixed  vei'etables  into 
small  slices  and  add  them  to  the  meat  and  rice.  Let 
the  whole  boil  half  an  hour  longer.  Put  in  the  pep- 
per. Mix  the  flour  into  a  smooth  paste  with  cold 
water  and  stir  it  in  the  stew.  Let  the  whole  boil  ten 
minutes,  stirring  constantly. 

13.  Roast  Beef  or  Mutton. — Roast  beef  or  mut- 
ton. Si  lbs.;  pepper,  \  oz.;  salt,  I  lb.;  water,  *  ^1. 

Directions. — Cut  the  meat  from  the  bones  m  as 
large  pieces  as  practicable;  roll  and  tic  them.  Bake 
the  meat  in  pans  with  the  salt  and  water.  Put  into 
the  oven  and  bake  three  hours,  or  longer  if  necessary. 
Add  the  pepper  ten  minutes  l)efore  it  is  done.  The 
quantity  of  meat  above  named  is  three  quarters  of 
that  is.sued  for  dinner  and  the  next  day's  breakfast; 
the  other  quarter  is  to  be  thrown  with  the  bones, 
which  must  be  cracked,  into  a  boiler,  with  water 
enough  to  cover  them,  the  whole  to  simmer  until  the 
meat  can  be  easil.y  separated  from  the  bones.  The 
meat  with  the  broth  is  to  be  set  aside  for  ha.sh. 

14.  Pork  and  Beans. — Pork,  4J  lbs.;  beans,  1  qt.; 
pepper,  A  oz. 

Directions.  — Soak  the  beans  overnight  in  plenty  of 
water.  Boil  the  pork  and  Iwans  separately  lor  two 
hours.  Put  alx)Ut  one  .seventh  of  the  whole  quantity 
of  the  pork  in  pans,  surrounded  and  covered  with  the 
beans.  Add  the  pepper.  Bake  one  hour  over  a 
moderate  tire.  Bake  the  remainder  of  the  pork  for 
the  same  length  of  time.  Any  beans  left  from  dinner 
will  be  mixed  with  hominy  for  Thursday's  breakfast. 

1.5.  CABii.\GE. — Cabbage,  2 J  lbs.;  salt,  j  oz. 

Directions.— Fnt  the  cabbage  and  salt  in  boiling 
water.    Boil  half  an  hour.    Drain  off  the  water. 


DIED  £T  HON  OBOIT. 


478 


DIFFERENTIAL  PULLET-BLOCK. 


16.  Turnips.— Turnips,  2Jlbs. ;  salt,  |  oz. 
Virtctioiit. — SVnsh  ihi;  turnips  thorouijhlv  and  pare 

them.     Put  iheiii  with  the  salt  into  boilinj;;  water. 
Let  them  boil  one  hour. 

17.  CoiJJ-SL.\w. — Cabbage,  2Mbs.;  \inegar,  I'o  pt. 
DirtfUoitK. — Slice  the  cabbage  fine.     Pour  over  the 

vinegitr  anil  nii.x  well. 

IS.  Pickled  Beets. — Beets,  2J  lbs.;  vincsrar,  I'oPt. 

Directions. — Boil  the  beets  two  houn-.  Pare  and 
slice  them.     Pour  the  vinegar  over  them. 

19.  KicE-PuDDrso. — Rice,  10  oz. ;  sugar,  3^  oz. ; 
flour,  li'o  oz. ;  salt,  J  oz.;  cinnamon,  J  oz.;  water,  3 J 
qts. 

IXrectioM. — Wash  the  rice  carefully.  Put  it  into 
the  water  when  Iniiliiig,  with  the  suair  and  sjdt. 
Boil  gently  three  (luarters  of  an  hour.  Add  the  flour, 
previously  mixed  into  a  smooth  paste  with  cold  water, 
and  the  cinnamon.  Stir  it  on  the  tire  cai-cfuUy  for 
five  or  ten  minutes.  Put  it  into  pans  and  bake  for 
two  hours. 

20.  Stewed  Fnrrr. — Dried  fruit,  15  oz.;  sugar,  2 
oz.;  water,  2J  qts. 

iHnetioM. — Soak  the  dried  fruit  for  three  hours  in 
three  gallons  of  water.  Drain  and  add  the  sugar. 
Boil  gently  two  hours,  or  until  quite  soft. 

21.  Savouy  Bue.\d.— Bread,  2+  lbs. ;  onions,  -^t^  lb. ; 
bcefKlrippings,  \  lb. :  pepper,  ,'5  oz. ;  salt,  f  oz. 

Directi'iim. — C'runil)le  the  bread  fine.  Chop  the 
onions.  Mi-K  together  with  the  beef-drippings,  salt, 
and  pepper.  Bake  until  nicely  brown.  See  Food 
and  liiitioii. 

DIEU  ET  HON  DROIT.— The  motto  of  the  Royal 
Arms  (if  England,  first  as-sumed  by  Richard  I,,  to  in- 
timate that  he  did  not  hold  his  empire  in  vas.salage 
of  any  mortal.  It  was  afterwards  assumed  by  Ed- 
ward III.,  and  was  continued  without  interruption 
to  the  time  of  William,  who  used  the  motto  Je  imiiii- 
titndray,  though  the  fonncr  was  still  retained  upon 
the  great  seal.  After  him  Anne  used  the  motto 
Sem/ier  eadem ;  but  ever  since  her  time  Dit:u  et  mon 
droit  has  continued  to  be  the  Royal  motto. 

DIFFERENCES.— Differences,"  in  Heraldr^y,  though 
often,  or  indeed  generally,  confounded  with  marks 
of  cadency,  have,  in  strict  usage,  a  totally  different 
function — the  former  being  employed  to  distinguish 
brothers  and  their  descendants  after  the  death  of  the 
father,  the  latter  whilst  he  is  still  alive.  Differences 
in  this  limited  sense  may  consist  cither  of  a  chief 
added  to  or  a  l)ordure  placed  round  the  plain  shield 
borne  by  the  head  of  the  house;  or  should  the  shield 
exhibit  anv  of  the  ordinaries,  as  the  bend,  fess,  pale, 
etc.,  the  difference  may  be  indicated  by  an  alteration 
on  the  lines.  The  proximity  of  the  bearer  to  the  head 
of  the  house  is  indicated  by  the  character  of  the  line 
by  which  the  differencing  chief  or  bordure  or  ordi- 
narj-  is  marked  off  from  the  field,  the  following  being 
the  order  usually  observed;  the  first  or  eldest  bnjther, 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  inherits  the  i)ure  arms  of 
the  house;  the  second  brother,  if  the  ditference  is  to 
consist  of  a  Imrdure,  carries  it  plain;  the  third,  in- 
grailed;  the  fourth,  invected;  the  fifth,  embattled; 
etc.  Other  modes  of  differencing  have  been  inventecl 
by  heralds,  and  are  not  unknown  to  practice;  such,  for 
example,  as  changing  Ihe  tinctures  either  of  the  field 
or  of  the  principal  tigures,  of  which  Nislxl  gives  many 
famous  examples— altering  the  posiiion  or  number  of 
the  figures  on  the  shield,  adding  different  figures  from 
the  mother's  coat  or  from  lamls,  and  the  like.  Where 
the  cadet  is  far  removed  from  the  principal  familv,  if 
the  field  be  of  one  tincture,  it  is  sometimes  divided 
into  two,  the  charge  or  charges  being  counter-charged, 
so  that  metal  may  not  lie  on  metal,  or  color  on  color. 
The  confusion  iK'twecen  iliffereilces  and  marks  of 
cndenev,  al)ove  referred  to,  is  l)y  no  means  peculiar 
to  the  heraldic  usjige  of  England,  tbnngh  there  it  is 
more  prevalent  than  in  Scotland.  In~  France  the 
cadets  of  the  House  of  Bourlxjn  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  continuing  these  marks,  and  at  the  present 
day,  as  in  Mackenzie's  time,  the  lalx;l  or  lambel  is  to 
be  seen  on  the  arms  of  all  the  members  of  the  Orleans 


family.  That  no  distinction  between  what  we  call 
marks  of  cadency  and  differences  was  there  observed 
is  further  apparent  from  the  fact  that  whilst  such 
was  the  practice  of  the  House  of  Orleans,  the  House 
of  .:Viijou  carried  a  bordure  gules,  and  that  of  Alen- 
(jon  a  bordure  gules  charged  with  eight  bezants.  In 
Germany,  Sir  George  JIackenzie  says  that  the  several 
branches  of  great  families  distinguish  themselves  only 
by  different  crests,  and  he  gives  as  the  reason  that 
all  the  sons  succeed  equally  to  the  honors  of  the  fam- 
ily. In  Britain  and  in  trance  some  change  is  al- 
ways made  on  the  shield  as  airried  by  the  head  of 
the' house;  but  the  practice  even  of  gooil  heralds  has 
been  so  irregular  as  to  bring  the  rule  very  nearly  to 
what  Mackenzie  holds  to  be  the  correct  one — \'iz., 
that  every  private  person  should  be  allowed,  with  the 
sjiuctiou  of  the  proiXT  authorities,  "to  make  what 
marks  of  distinction  can  suit  best  wiUi  the  coat  which 
his  chief  bears.''     See  Cadtitci/  and  Ihraldry. 

DIFFERENTIAL  PULLEY  BLOCK.  —  The  portable 
hoisting-device  generally  known  by  this  name  was  in- 
ventedsome  twenty  years  ago.  It  secured  immedi- 
ately great  popularity,  and  its  use  extended  rapidly 
throughout  the  civilized  world,  wherever  modern 
machinery  was  known  and  appliances  for  lifting 
heav}'  weights  were  needed.  No  previous  device  had 
ever  embodied  the  .sjmie  conveniences,  namely,  great 
lifting  power  and  the  ability  to  hold  the  load  suspend- 
ed at  any  point,  and  the  accomplishment  of  these  ends 
by  a  machine  of  great  simplicity,  compactness,  and  of 
light  weight.  The  univers;il  adoption,  throughout 
the  world,  of  the  Weston  differential  puUej'-block  as 
the  standard  type  of  portable  hoists  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  perfectly  meets  all  of  the.se  requirements  and 
in  the  simplest  possible  way.  Since  its  introduction 
other  machines  have  been  invented  for  similar  uses, 
but  no  one  of  them  combines  in  itself  the  important 


Fio.  1. 

characteristics  of  power,  safety,  simplicity,  and  por- 
tability to  a  degree  which  equals  that  of  the  Weston 
block.  The  latter  is  demonstrably  a  reduction  of  the 
problem  to  its  simplest  possible  form,  and  therefore 
can  never  be  superseded.  In  recent  text-books  it  is 
given  a  place  among  the  other  mechanical  powers  or 
elements,  thus  recognizing  the  fundamental  character 
of  its  design  and  usefulness. 

The  principle  of  the  de\ice  is  very  ancient,  but  it  Is 
only  recently  that  it  has  been  embodied  in  a  machine 
of  practical  utility.  In  designing  any  mechanical 
power  the  object  to  be  aimed  at  is  this,  that  while  the 
power  moves  over  a  considerable  distance,  the  load 
shall  only  be  raised  a  short  distance.  When  this  ob- 
ject is  attained  we  then  know  by  the  principle  of  en- 
ergy that  we  have  gjiined  an  increase  of  power.  The 
principal  points  of  this  machine  will  be  understood 
from  Fig.  1  and  Fig.  2.  It  consists  of  three  parts — 
an  upper  pulley-block,  a  movable  pulley,  and  an  end- 


SITFEBENTIAL  PULLEY-BLOCK. 


479 


DIFFEBENTIAL  PULLET  BLOCK. 


less  chain.  We  shall  briefly  describe  them.  The 
upper  block,  P,  is  furnished  With  a  hook  for  attach- 
ment to  a  support.  The  sheave  it  contains  resembles 
two  sheaves,  one  a  little  smaller  than  the  other,  fas- 
tened together  ;  they  are  in  fact  one  piece.  The 
grooves  are  furnished  with  ridges  which  prevent  the 
chain  from  slipping  around  them.  The  lower  pul- 
ley, Q,  consists  of  one  sheave  which  is  also  furnished 
with  a  groove.  It  carries  a  hook  to  which  the  load  is 
attached.  The  endless  chain  performs  a  part  that 
will  be  understood  by  the  arrow-heads  attached  to  it 
in  the  figure.  The  chain  passes  from  the  hand  at  A 
up  to  L,  over  the  larger  groove  in  the  upper  pulley, 
then  do^\Tiwards  at  B,  under  the  lower  pulley,  up 
again  at  C,  over  the  smaller  groove  in  the  upper  pul- 
ley at  M,  and  then  back  again  by  D  to  the  hand  at  A. 
When  the  hand  pulls  t  he  chain  downwards,  the  grooves 
of  the  upper  pulley  begin  to  turn  together  in  the 
direction  shown  by  the  arrows  on  the  chain.  The 
large  groove  is  therefore  winding  up  the  chain  while 
the  smaller  is  lowering. 

In  the  pulley  which  has  been  employed  in  the  ex- 
periments to  be  described  the  effective  circumference 
of  the  large  groove  is  found  to  be  11.84  inches,  while 
that  of  the  small  gioove  is  10.36  inches.  When  the 
upper  pulley  has  made  one  revolution  the  large  groove 
must  have  drawn  up  11.84  inches  of  chain,  since 
the  chain  cannot  slip  on  account  of  the  ridges;  but  in 
the  same  time  the  small  groove  has  lowered  10.36  in- 
ches of  chain  ;  hence,  when  the  upper  i)ulley  has 
revolved  once,  the  chain  between  the  two  must  have 
been  shortened  by  the  difference  between  11.84  and 
10.36  inches,  that  is,  b\-  1.48  inch;  but  this  can  only 
have  taken  place  by  raising  the  movable  pulley  through 
half  of  1.48  inch,  that  is,  through  a  space  of  .74  inch. 
The  power  ha-s  then  acted  through 
11.84  inches  and  has  raised  the  re- 
sistance .74  inch.  The  power  has 
therefore  gone  through  a  space  16 
times  greater  than  that  through 
which  the  load  moves.  In  fact  it  is 
very  easy  to  verify  by  actual  trial 
thai  the  power  must  be  moved 
through  16  feet  in  order  that  the 
load  may  be  raised  1  foot.  We  ex- 
press this  by  saying  that  the  velocity 
ratio  is  16. "  By  applying  power  to 
the  chain,  D,  "proceeiling  from  the 
smaller  groove,  the  chain  is  lowered 
by  the  large  groove  faster  than  it  is 
raised  by  the  small  one,  and  the 
lower  pulley  descends.  The  load  is 
thus  raised  or  lowered  \\-ith  great 
facility  by  simply  pulling  one  chain, 
A,  or  the  other,  D. 

We  shall  next  consider  the  me- 
chanical efficiency  of  the  differ- 
ential pulley  -  block.  The  block 
which  we  shall  use  is  intended  to 
be  worked  by  one  man  and  will 
raise  any  weight  not  exceeding  a 
quarter  of  a  ton.  We  have  already 
learned  that  for  the  load  to  be 
raised  1  foot  the  power  must  act 
through  16  feet.  Hence  were  it 
not  for  friction  we  should  infer  that 
the  power  need  only  be  the  sixteenth 
part  of  the  load.  "A  few  trials  \\-ill 
show  us  that  the  real  efficiency  is 
not  so  large,  and  that  in  fact  more 
Fig.  2.  ,jj.^„    ],.^]f    ,|,p    power   exerted   is 

merely  expended  upon  overcoming  friction.  This 
will  lead  afterwards  to  a  result  of  considerable  prac- 
tical importance.  Placing  upon  the  load-hook  a 
■weight  of  200  pounds,  we  lind  that  38  pounds  attached 
to  a"hook  fastened  on  the  power-chain  is  sufficient  to 
raise  the  load;  that  is  to  siiv,  the  power  is  about  i  of 
the  load.  If  we  make  the  "load  400  pounds  we  find 
the  requisite  power  to  be  64  pounds,  which  is  only 
about  3  pounds  less  than  i  of  400  pounds.    We  may 


safely  adopt  the  practical  rule  that  with  a  differential 
pulley-block  of  this  class  a  man  will  be  able  to  raise 
a  w  eight  six  times  greater  than  he  could  raise  without 
such  assistance. 

A  series  of  experiments  carefully  tried  with  different 
loads  have  given  the  results  shown  in  the  followinj: 
table: 

Circumference  of  large  groove,  11.84  inches;  of 
small  groove,  10.36  inches;  velocity  ratio,  16;  mechani- 
cal efficiency,  6.07;  useful  effect,  38  per  cent;  formu- 
la P  =  3.87  +  .1508R. 


P. 

Calculated 

Difference 

Number 

R. 

Obsen-ed 

of  tbe  ob- 

of  Ejtperi- 

Load  in 

power  in 

senred  and 

meut. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

calculated 
Talues. 

1 

56 

10 

12.3 

+  2.3 

2 

113 

20 

20.8 

+    -8 

3 

168 

31 

89.2 

-  1.8 

4 

Hi 

38 

37.7 

—    .3 

5 

280 

48 

46.1 

—  1.9 

0 

.■W6 

54 

54.6 

+     -6 

7 

392 

64 

68.1 

-     .» 

8 

448 

72 

71.5 

—     .5 

9 

604 

80 

80.0 

.0 

10 

660 

86 

88.4 

+  2.4 

The  first  column  contains  the  numbers  of  the  ex- 
periments; the  second,  the  weights  raised;  the  third, 
the  values  of  the  corresponding  powers.  The  calcu- 
lated values  of  the  powers  are  given  in  the  fourth  col- 
umn, and  the  differences  between  the  observed  and 
calculated  values  in  the  last  column.  The  differences 
do  not  in  any  case  amount  to  2..t  pounds,  and  consid- 
ering the  size  of  the  loads  raised  (up  to  a  quarter  of  a 
ton),  the  formula  represents  the  ex-periments  with  sat- 
isfactory- precision. 

Suppose,  for  example,  280  pounds  is  to  lie  raised; 
the  product  of  280  and  .1508  is  42.22,  to  which  when 
3.87  is  added  we  find  46.09  to  be  the  requisite  power. 
The  mechanical  efficiency  found  by  dividing  46.09 
into  280  is  6.07.  To  raise" 280  pounds  1  foot,  280  foot- 
pounds of  energy  would  be  necessarj-;  but  in  the  dif- 
ferential pulley -block  46.09  pounds  must  be  exerted 
for  a  distance  of  16  feet  in  order  to  accomplish  this 
object.  The  product  of  46.09  and  16  is  737.4.  Hence 
the  differential  pulley -block  requires  737.4  foot-pounds 
of  energy  to  Ix-  applied  to  it  in  order  to  produce  280 
foot-pounds;  but  280  is  only  38  per  cent  of  737.4,  and 
therefore  with  a  load  of  280  pounds  only  38  per  cent 
of  the  energy  applied  to  a  differential  pulley -block  is 
utilized.  In  general  we  may  state  that  not  more  than 
about  40  per  cent  is  profitably  used,  and  that  the  re- 
mainder is  employed  in  overcoming  friction. 

It  is  a  very  rernarkable  and  useful  property  of  the 
differential  "pulley  that  a  weight  which  has  been 
hoisted  by  it  will  remain  suspended,  without  any 
tendencyto  run  down;  this  is  a  point  of  great  prac- 
tical convenience.  The  rea.son  «  hy  the  load  does  not 
run  down  in  the  differential  pulley  may  be  thus  ex- 
plained. Let  us  suppose  that  a  weight  of  400  pounds 
is  to  be  raised  1  foot  by  the  differential  pulley-block; 
400  imits  of  work  are"  neces.sar}-,  and  therefore  1000 
imits  of  work  must  be  applied  to  the  power-chain  to 
produce  the  400  units  (since  only  40  per  cent  is  util- 
ized). The  friction  will  thus  "have  consumed  600 
units  of  work  when  the  load  has  been  raised  1  foot. 
If  the  power- weight  be  removed,  the  pressure  support- 
ed by  the  upper  pullev-block  is  diminished.  In  fact, 
since  the  power- weieht  is  alwut  {  of  the  load,  the  pres- 
.sure  on  the  axle  when  the  power-weight  has  been  re- 
moved is  only  i  of  its  pre^^ous  value.  The  friction 
is  produced  by' the  pressure  of  the  pulleys  on  their 
axles  and  is  nearly  proportional  to  that  nre-ssure; 
hence  when  the  power  has  iK'cn  removed  the  friction 
on  the  upper  axle  is  i  of  its  previous  value,  while  the 
friction  on  the  lower' pulley  remains  unaltered.  >\e 
may  therefore  a.ssume  that  the  total  friction  is  at 
least  i  of  what  it  was  before  the  power  weieht  was 
removed.    Will  friction  allow  the  load  to  descend? 


DIFFERENTIAL  WINDLASS. 


480 


DIOPTRICS. 


600  foot-pounds  of  work  were  requinnl  to  overcome 
till'  friction  ill  the  iisceut:  iit  least  5  X  600  =  514  foot- 
pounds would  l)e  necessary  lo  overcome  friction  in 
the  iles<-enl.  But  where  is  this  enerjiy  to  come  from? 
The  load  in  its  descent  could  only  yield  400  units, 
and  thus  ileseeni  l>y  the  mere  weii:hl  of  the  load  Is 
imiKissihle.  To  enable  the  load  to  descend,  we  have 
actuallv  to  aid  the  movement  liy  pulling  the  chain  D 
(Fiipi.  1  and  2),  which  proceeds  through  the  small 
groove  in  the  uppi-r  pulley. 

The  princii>le  which  we  have  hero  established  ex- 
tends to  other  mechanical  innvers  and  may  I'c  stated 
generally.  AN'henever  rather  more  than  lialf  of  the 
applied  "energy  is  iLselessly  consumed  by  friction,  the 
load  will  remain  susi>chded  without  overhauling. 
Sif  CniiuK.  I/'ii>(tiii!/-ni'i'-/iiiiis,  and  Trainrail. 

DIFFERENTIAL  WINDLASS.— A  windlass  whose 
biirivl  consists  of  two  portions  of  varying  diameters. 
The  roiH."  winds  on  to  one  iis  it  winds  otT  the  other, 
the  elTect  of  a  revolution  being  governed  by  the  differ- 
ence between  the  circumferences  of  the  two  portions. 
If  it  w  ind  on  to  the  larger  and  off  of  the  smaller  the 
load  is  elevated,  and  conversely.  Sec  Chinese  ^S^ind■ 
Ian*. 

DIKES. — Dikes  and  bridges,  used  in  fortification, 
ill  no  way  diller  in  princiiile  from  similar  construc- 
tions used  elsewhere.  The  communication  across  the 
enciinle-tlitch  leading  from  the  gateway  is  usually  an 
ordinary  wooden  bridge.  The  bay  of  this  bridge  at 
the  piteway  is  spanned  by  a  drawbridge  of  timber, 
■which  when  drawn  up  closes  and  secures  the  gate- 
way. This  drawbridge  is  manuevered  by  some  of  the 
usual  mechanisms  emi^loyed  for  this  jiurpose;  and 
for  convenience  of  maneuvering  should  not  be  longer 
than  12  feet.  Care  should  be  taken  that  it  should  tit 
the  recess  in  the  face  of  the  wall  so  clo.sely  that  there 
will  not  be  room  enough  between  it  and  the  jambs  of 
the  gateway  to  insert  a  crowbar  to  force  back  the 
1)riilge.     See  liridqti)  and  f'ommunkatioiiii. 

DILLICH  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In  this 
system  the  ravelins  before  the  ba.stion  iire  replaced  by 
counterguards  and  the  counterscarp  of  llie  main  ditch 
Ls  directeil  on  the  shoulder-angles.  The  low  Hanks 
are  ca.semated  on  the  Italian  meThod.  In  another  sys- 
tem Dillich  adopt-s  the  tenaille-tracing. 

DIMACHJE. — In  ancient  times  a  kind  of  horse- 
nien,  answerinsr  to  the  dragoons  of  the  modems. 

DIMIDIATION.— In  Heraldry  a  mode  of  marshal- 
inir  arms,  adopted  chietly  before  quartering  and  im- 
paling according  to  the  iiKKlern  practice  came  into 
u.se,  and  subsequently  retained  to  some  extent  in  Con- 
tinental though  not  in  English  Heraldry.  It  con- 
sists in  cutting  two  coats  of  arms  in  half  by  a  vertical 
line,  and  uniting  the  dexter  half  of  the  one  to  the 
sinister  half  of  the  other.  Coats  of  husband  and  wife 
Were  often  so  marshaled  in  England  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fiairteenth  centuries.  Mr.  Plaiiche  traces  the  dou- 
ble-heailed  eagle  of  the  German  Empire  to  a  dimid- 
ialiil  coat,  with  half  an  eagle  for  the  Eastern  and 
anntlicr  half  for  the  Western  Empire.    Sw  Heraldry. 

DIMINISH. — In  a  military  sense,  to  decrease  the 
front  of  a  battalion;  to  adopt  the  columns  of  march, 
or  maneuver  according  to  tlie  obstructions  and  dith- 
culties  which  il  meets  in  advancing. 

DIMINISHED  ANGLE.— In  fortiticalion,  the  angle 
foriniil  by  Ibc  exterior  side  and  the  line  of  defense. 

DIMINUTIONS.— A  word  sometimes  usi'd  in  Her- 
aldry for  difTerences,  marks  of  ciidency,  and  brisures, 
iuclilTinrillv. 

DIOPHANTINE  ANALYSIS. -That  seclion  of  the 
theory  of  unlimit<-d  or  indelenninate  j^roblems  which 
allempis  lo  tind  rational  and  commensurable  values 
answering  to  cerliun  equati(ais  between  .scjuares  and 
culies.  This  cla.ss  of  problems  was  lirst  and  chiefly 
treated  of  by  Diophantus,  who  has  given  his  name  to 
the  theory  of  their  solution.  We  shall  not  here  at- 
tempt lo  explain  the  nature  of  the  analysis,  which  is 
verv  subtle  and  guided  liy  few  gerural  ruli's.  The 
dilllcullies  of  the  solution  of  diophanline  problems  in 
most  cases  foil  to  be  overcome  by  the  skill  and  in- 


genuity of  the  analyst.  We  contine  ourselves  to 
stating  the  following  examples  of  the  problems  solved 
by  the  diophiintinc  analysis;  1.  To  tind  two  whole 

I  numbers  the  sum  of  whose  scpiares  is  a  square.  2.  To 
tinil  three  .square  numbers  in  arithmetical  progression. 

1  3.  To  liud  a  number  from  which  two  given  squares 
being  severally  subtracted,  each  of  the  remainders 
may  be  a  .square.  Solutions  of  problems  in  gunnery 
are"frei|uenlly  accomplished  by  this  analy.sis. 

j  DIOPTRICS. — That  branch  of  geometrical  optics 
which  treats  of  the  transmission  of  rays  of  light  from 
one  medium  into  another,  differing  in  kind.  It  con- 
sists of  the  residt-s  of  the  application  of  geometry  to 

[  ascertain  in  particuliir  cases  the  action  of  what  are 
called  the  laws  of  refraction.     When  a  ray  of  homo- 

]  geneous  light  is  incident  iqion  a  surface,  the  angle 
which  its  direction  makes  with  the  normal  or  perpen- 
dicular to  the  surface  at  the  point  of  incidence  is  in 
dioptrics,  as  in  catoptrics,  called  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence. The  angle  which  the  refracted  ray  makes 
w  ith  the  same  line  is  called  the  angle  of  refraction. 
This  being  premised,  we  may  state  the  laws  of  refrac- 
tion. 1.  The  incident  and  refracted  ray  lie  in  the 
same  plane  with  the  normal,  at  the  jKjiut  of  incidence, 
and  on  op])osite  sides  of  it.  2.  The  slue  of  the  angle 
of  inci<lence,  whatever  that  angle  ma}'  be,  bears  to 
the  sine  of  the  angle  of  refraction  a  constant  ratio 
dependent  only  on  the  nature  of  the  media  between 
which  the  refraction  takes  place,  and  on  the  nature 
of  the  light.  According  to  the  second  law,  if  we 
call  the  angle  of  incidence  i,  and  that  of  refraction  /•, 
we  shall  h:ive  sin  i  =  //  sin  r,  where  //  is  a  cjuantity 
depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  media  and  of  the 
light.  It  will  have,  for  iust;incc,  a  certain  value  for 
refraction  from  vacuum  into  glass,  another  from  glass 
into  water,  and  so  on;  also,  it  will  have  one  value  for 
red  light,  another  for  green,  and  so  on.  The  quantity 
//  is  called  the  refractive  index,  and  is  greater  than 
1  when  refraction  takes  place  from  vacuum  into  a 
medium,  and  in  general  is  greater  than  1  when  the 
refraction  is  from  a  rarer  into  a  denser  medium,  and 
less  than  1  when  the  opposite  is  the  ca.se.  In  dio])- 
trics  the  laws  of  refraction  may  be  considered  as 
depending  for  their  truth  upon  experiment;  In  physi- 
cal optics  thej'  are  deductions  from  an  hypothesis 
respecting  the  constitution  of  light.  They  are  not 
nierelj'  approximately  true;  they  are  absolute  physical 
laws. 

Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  simpler  leading 
cases  of  refraction,  one  or  two  interesting  proposi- 
tions in  dioptrics  require  to  be  explained.  1.  If  the 
refractive  inde.x  for  a  medium,  when  light  is  incident 
upon  it  from  vacuum,  be  /(,  and  the  index  for  another 
medium,  under  the  same  circumstances,  be  ;/  ,  then, 
when  light  proceeds  from  the  second  medium  into 

the  first,  the  refractive  index  is  —•    The  proof  of  this 

proposition  depends  upon  the  two  following  experi- 
mental laws:  (1)  If  a  ray  of  light  proceed  from  a 
point  to  a  second,  suffering  any  retlections  or  refrac- 
tions in  its  course,  then,  if  it  be  incident  in  the 
reverse  direction,  i.e.,  from  the  second  point,  it  will 
follow  the  exactly  reverse  course  to  the  first  point. 
This  is  jiroved  by  experiment,  but  may  be  accepted 
as  axiomatic.  (2)  If  a  ray  pa.ss  from  vacuum 
through  any  number  of  media,  hanng  their  faces 
plane  and  jiarallel,  when  the  ray  emerges  into  vacuiun 
its  direction  will  be  iiarallel  "to  that  which  it  had 
before  incidence.  To  deduce  the  jiroposiliou  from 
these  laws,  let  i  be  the  angle  of  incidence  from 
vacuum  upon  the  first  medium,  r  the  angle  of  refrac- 
tion, which  will  also  be  the  angle  of  incidence  upon 
the  second  medium.  Also  let  r'  be  the  angle  of 
refraction  into  the  si'cond  medium,  which  will  also 
lie  the  angle  of  incidence  upon  the  second  bounding 
surface.  By  the  second  of  the  preceding  experimen- 
tal laws,  the  angle  of  emergence  into  vacuum  will  bo 
«.  Hence  we  shall  have,  by  the  first  of  these  laws, 
sin  i  =  fi'  sin  r  at  the  first  .surface,  and  sin  i  —  ft  sin 
r'  at  the  second.    From  these  cquutioiis  we  have  sin 


OIF. 


481 


DIPLOPIA. 


r  =  — ,  sin  r ,  which  proves  tlie  proposition. 


It  fol- 


lows that  if  //  be  the  refractive  index  from  vacuum 
into  a  medium,  that  from  the  medium  into  vacuum 

will  be  — .     2.  Our  .second  proposition  relates  to  what 

is  called  the  eritkal  angle.  If  i  be  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence of  a  ray  within  a  medium,  the  refractive  index 
of  which  is  //,  and  r  the  angle  of  refraction  into 
vacuum,  then  we  have  from  the  former  proposition 

sin  t  =r  —  sin  r.     From  this  formula,  if  i  be  given,  r 

may  be  found,  and  a  real  value  will  be  given  to  r  so 

long  as  sin  t  is  <  —  ;  but  when  i  has  a  value  greater 

than  that  determined  by  the  equation  sin  i  =  —,  the 

H 

formula  fails  to  give  us  a  value  of  ;■,  for  the  sine  of 
an  angle  cannot  be  greater  than  1 .  And  experiment 
shows  that,  in  fact,  there  is  no  refracted  ray  when 
the  angle  of  incidence  is  greater  than  that  above 
assigned,  the  ray  being  wholly  reflected  within  the 

medium.     The  angle  of  which  the  sine  is  —  is  called 

u 
the  eritical  angle.  For  glass  it  is  about  41'  45';  for 
water,  about  48°  30'.  This  angle  is  sometimes  called 
the  angle  of  total  reflection.  In  internal  rctiection  at 
the  surfaces  of  media,  the  reflected  light  is  more 
nearly  equal  in  intensity  to  the  incident  than  in  any 
other  case  of  reflection.  While  it  thus  appears  that 
refraction  from  a  denser  into  a  rarer  medium  is  not 
always  possible,  it  may  be  added  that  it  is  always 
possible  from  a  rarer  into  a  denser. 

We  shall  now  investigate  some  simple  cases  of 
refraction.  1.  In  case  of  refraction  at  a  plane  sur- 
surface.  Let  DIMN  (Fig.  1)  be 
any  medium  bounded  by  a  plan, 
DI,  and  let  R  be  a  radiant  point 
and  RD  and  RI  two  incident 
rays  of  a  divergent  pencO  pro- 
ceeding from  R  to  the  surface  of 
the  medium;  then  RD  being  per- 
pendicular to  the  surface  sutlers 
no  refraction,  but  proceeds  along 
DM  within  tlie  medium ;  but 
RI  is  refracted  in  the  direction 
IX,  which,  produced  outwards, 
meets    the    normal    DF    in    F.  Fig.  i. 

Therefore  a  small  pencil  of  rays  proceeding  from  R, 
and  having  RD,  perpendicular  to  the  surface,  for 
axis,  will  be  refracted  into  another  pencil  diverging 
from  the  imaginary  focus  F;  for  all  the  rays  inter- 
mediate between  RD  and  RI  will  converge  very  near 
F  when  the  pencil  is  small.  An  eye  within  the 
medium,  and  between  N  and  M,  would  thus,  the 
pencil  being  small,  see  the  luminous  point  R  as  if  it 
were  at  F,  or  further  off  than  it  really  is.  In  the 
opposite  case,  in  which  the  luminous  point  is  within 
the  refracting  medium,  similar  reasoning  shows  that 
after  the  rays  emerge  from  the  plane  surface  into  the 
air  they  will,  if  the  pencil  be  small,  appear  to  pro- 
ceed from  an  imaginarj'  focus  nearer  to  the  surface 
than  the  luminous  point.  2.  The  case  of  refraction 
through  a  prism,  which  we  are  next  to  consider,  is, 
in  fact,  but  the  case  of  refraction  through  a  medi- 
um bounded  by  plane  surfa- 
ces which  are  not  parallel. 
Conceive  anj'  two  planes  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane 
of  the  paper,  and  making 
on  that  plane  the  figure  BAG 
(Fig.  2).  The  question  is 
as  to  the  laws  of  transmis- 
sion of  a  ray.  SPQR,  of 
homogeneous  light  through 
the  prism.  Draw  mil'  and 
n'n  perpendicular  to  the  sides.  Then  nPQ  and  n  QP 
are  respectively  the  angles  of  refraction  at  the  first, and 


i" 

'\ 

R 

A 

D 

11 

of  incidence  at  the  second  surface.  Now,  a.s  n  QA  and 
nPA  are  each  of  them  ri^ht  angles,  and  as  all  the 
angles  in  the  figure  n  QAP  are  equal  to  four  right 
angles,  it  follows  that  the  angles  at  n  and  at  A  together 
are  equal  to  two  right  angles.  But  the  angle  at  n  , 
together  with  the  angles  »  PQ  and  n  QP,  are  equal  to 
two  right  angles;  therefore  must  the  angles  n  PQ 
and  ft  QP  together  l>e  equal  to  the  angle  at  A.  In 
other  words,  in  refraction  through  a  pnsm:  7"/ie  sum 
of  the  angles  of  refrmtiem  at  the  first  suiface,  and  of 
incidence  at  the  second,  is  equal  to  the  angle  contained 
between  the  plane  sides  of  the  prism.  From  this  it 
might  be  shown  that  the  deviation  of  a  ray  caused 
by  pa.ssing  through  a  prism  is  always  towards  the 
thicker  part  of  the  prism,  if  the  medium  be  denser 
than  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  It  is  a  geomet- 
rical proi)08ition  which  the  student  may  solve  for 
himself,  that  if  /  be  the  angle  of  incidence  at  the  first 
surface,  and  e  that  of  emergence  at  the  second,  and 
if  <f  be  the  angle  of  the  prism,  then  6,  or  the  change 
of  direction  of  the  ray  in  its  pa.ssage,  is  obtained  from 
the  formula  (5  =  i  +"<;  —  a.  3.  Wc  now  take  up  the 
ca.se  of  refraction  at  a  single  spherical  surface  of  a 
medium  denser  than  the  surrounding  air.  And  first, 
of  parallel  rays  refracted  at  a  convex  spherical  sur- 
face. Let  ABQP  (Fig.  3)  be  the  refracting  medium, 
whose  terminating  convex  surface  is  spherical,  C  be- 


Fio.  3. 

ing  the  center  of  the  surface,  while  V  is  its  vertex. 
Let  XV  be  the  axis  of  a  pencil  of  parallel  rays,  of 
which  any  ray,  RI,  is  incident  at  I.  Then,  if  CTX 
be  a  normal,  the  angle  of  refraction.  CIF,  will  Ix!  less 
than  the  angle  of  incidence,  RIN,  and  the  refracted 
ray  will  thus  turn  towards  the  axis,  and  meet  it  at 
some  point,  F.  When  the  pencil  is  small,  or  the 
aperture,  AVB,  of  only  a  few  degrees,  the  rays  will 
clearly  nearly  all  converge  to  the  siime  point,  F. 
To  find  the  position  of  F,  we  have,  in  the  triangle 
ICF,  the  anele  CIF  =  r,  the  angle  of  refraction,  and 
ICF,  the  supplement  of  10 V  or  NIR  (by  parallel 
lines),  i.e.,  of  (',  or  the  angle  of  incidence.  There- 
fore IF  :  CF  :  :  sin  i  :  sin  r.  And  as  for  a  very 
small  pencil  IF  may  be  taken  =  VF,  we  have  FV  : 
FC  :  :  sin  i  :  sin  r,  or  :  :  h  :  1.  And  putting  FV  =  F, 
the  principal  focal  distance,  and  VO  =  R,  we  have 

F  =  — ^R.    If  the  medium  be  crown-glass,  for 
It  —  1 

I 
which  the  value  of  ft  is  f ,  we  have  F  =      _     R,  or 

F  =  3  R;  i.e.,  the  principal  focal  distance  is  equal  to 
three  times  the  radius  of  the  sphere.  The  student 
may,  by  similar  reasoning,  ascertain  for  himself  the 
focus  of  parallel  rays  incident  on  a  concave  .spherical 
refracting  surface,  as  also  the  focus  in  the  case  of  a 
pencil  of  parallel  raj-s  within  the  medium  and  emerg- 
ing from  it.  The  case  of  a  divergent  pencil  is  incapa- 
ble of  such  elementary  treatment  as  to  justify  its 
insertion  here.  For  branches  of  the  subject  treated 
under  separate  heads  the  reader  should  refer  to  the 
articles  C.\rsTic,  Lens,  and  Refu.^ction.  Under 
Refr.'^ction  he  wiU  find  a  table  of  the  values  of  « — 
the  refractive  index — for  various  media  and  kinds  of 
light.     See  Catoptrics  and  Chromatics. 

""DIP. — 1.  A  name  sometimes  given  to  the  superior 
slope  of  a  parapet.  2.  The  inclination  of  the  sole  of 
an  embrasure.  3.  The  slight  downward  inclination 
of  the  anns  of  an  axle. 

DIPLOPIA. —  To  insure  correct  and  comfortable 
vision  the  two  eves  must  work  in  unison  ;  for  if  the 
rays  of  light  do"  not  fall  on  a  corresponding  spot  of 


DIPFINO-NEEDLE. 


482 


DIBECT  DEFILEMENT. 


the  retina  of  each  eye,  two  objects  instead  of  one  will 
1m;  seen,  us  represented  in  ibe  dniwiug.  Dii)lopia,  or 
double-sight,  is  caused  by  weakness  of  the  muscles 
which  move  the  eye  from  side  to  side.  They  are  no 
longer  able  to  hold  the  two  eyes  stciuiily  fixed  toward 
the  object,  and  the  eye  moving  out  or  in  causes  the 
individual  to  see  the  object  double.  This  can  often 
be  very  much  relieved  l)y  prismatic  lenses.  Paresis 
of  the  ciliary  muscle  Ls  the  inability  to  maintain  the 
adjustment  of  the  eyes  for  near  objects  any  length  of 
time  without  fatigue;  for  instance,  in  reading  or  sew- 
ing, especially  by  insuflicient  light,  the  fatigued  ciliary 
muscle  relaxes  and  the  accommodative  power  of  the 


eyes  is  suddenly  lost,  causing  the  print  or  work  to 
become  confused  and  unintelligible,  together  with  a 
feeling  of  fatigue  and  pain  about  the  eyeballs.  In 
such  cjises,  after  a  few  minutes'  rest  and  closing  the 
eyes,  work  can  be  resumed  but  for  a  short  time  only, 
as  the  muscle  will  again  lose  its  strength  and  relax. 
This  disagreeable  trouble  arises  from  a  debilitated 
condition  of  the  whole  system,  which,  though  not  felt 
in  other  part.s  of  the  body,  is  apparent  in  the  muscle 
of  accommodation,  on  account  of  its  position  and  the 
character  of  the  work  it  is  called  upon  to  perform. 
After  a  fit  of  illness,  or  a  jjreat  shock  causing  nervous 
prostration,  this  ditliculty  is  often  apparent.  Persons 
whose  eyesight  had  Ix-en  previously  perfect  should 
not  resort  to  glas.ses  of  any  kind  when  affected  with 
these  spasms  of  the  sight,  but  wait  patiently  until 
nature  does  the  work  by  restoring  the  tone  of  the 
whole  system.  This  advice  does  not  apply  to  tho,se 
who  have  this  same  trouble  that  arises  from  a  hyiier- 
metropic  form  of  the  eye,  and  not  from  the  Ciiuse 
mentioned  above.  A  skilled  oculist,  on  examination, 
would  at  once  detect  the  cause  and  prescribe  the 
remedy.     See  Miiapiix. 

DIPiPING-NEEDLE.— If  a  magnetic  needle  be  sup- 
ported so  as  to  be  free  to  move  vertically,  it  does  not 
at  most  places  on  the  earth's  surface  rest  in  a  horizon- 
tal po.silion,  but  inclines  more  or  le.ss  from  it.  If  the 
vertical  plane  in  which  the  needle  moves  is  the  mag- 
netic meriilian  of  the  place,  the  angle  between  the 
needle  and  the  horizontal  line  is  called  the  dip  or 
inclination  of  the  needle.  The  dip  of  the  magnetic 
needle  at  any  place  can  be  ascertained  with  very 
great  exactness  by  means  of  the  dipping-needle,  ft 
consists  of  a  graduated  oirele  fixed  vertically  in  a 
frame,  and  moving  with  it  and  a  vernier  on  a.  hori- 
zontal graduated  circle.  This  last  is  supported  by  a 
stand  funn'slied  with  leveling-screws.  At  the  center 
of  the  vertical  circle  there'  are  two  knife-edges  of 
agate,  .suiiported  by  the  frame,  and  parallel  to  the 
plane  of  the  circle.  The  needle  rests  on  tliesp  knife- 
edges  by  means  of  two  tine  polished  cylinders  of 
steel,  which  are  placed  accurately  at  thecri-nter  of  the 
needle,  and  project  at  right  angles  from  it:  so  adjust- 
ed, the  needle  moves  with  little  or  no  friction.  It  is 
so  made,  moreover,  that  before  l)eing  magnetized  it 
remains  indiJBfercntly  in  any  position  ;  after  magneti- 


zation, therefore,  the  dip  which  it  shows  is  wholly 
ilue  to  the  magnetic  influence  of  the  earth.  In  order 
to  understand  how  an  obsiTvation  is  made  with  the 
dipping-needle,  we  must  regard  the  directing  force  of 
the  earth's  magnetism  exerted  upon  the  poles  of  the 
needle  in  any  vertical  plane  in  which  it  may  hapiK'ii 
to  be,  as  resolved  into  two  forces,  one  acting  at  right 
angles  to  the  plane,  and  the  other  acting  in  the  plane. 
There  being  a  corresponding  but  opposite  force  at 
each  pole,  we  have  thus  two  statical  couples  acting 
on  the  needle — one  tending  to  turn  it  at  right  angles 
to  the  plane  in  which  it  moves,  and  the  other  tending 
to  bring  it  roimd  to  a  position  in  the  plane  such  that 
the  needle  and  the  forces  of  the  couple  may  be  in  a 
line.  In  the  dipping-needle  the  mode  of  support 
completely  neutralizes  the  first  of  the  couples  ;  and 
the  position  that  the  needle  takes  in  any  plane  is  due 
wholly  to  the  seconil.  When  the  l)lane  of  the  needle 
is  at  right  angles  to  the  magnetic  meridian,  the  forces 
of  this  latter  couple  act  vertically,  and  bring  the 
needle  to  the  same  position.  This,  then,  gives  us  the 
means  of  determining  the  magnetic  m,criilian,  for  we 
have  only  to  bring  the  vertical  circle  round  till  the 
needle  stands  at  90  to  put  it  in  a  plane  at  right  angles 
to  that  meridian  ;  and  then  by  moving  the  vernier  on 
the  horizontal  circle  over  90'  we  place  the  upper  cir- 
cle and  needle  in  the  plane  of  the  magnetic  meridian. 
The  dipping-needle  thus  serves  the  purpose  of  a  dec- 
lination-needle. In  bringing  the  needle  round  from 
the  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  magnetic  meridian, 
the  dip  is  less  and  less,  till  it  becomes  least  in  the 
plane  of  that  meridian.  We  might  thus  also  find  the 
magnetic  meridian,  for  it  is  that  plane  in  which  the 
dip  of  the  needle  is  least.  When  the  needle  is  in  the 
plane  of  the  magnetic  meridian,  the  couple  which  acts 
in  other  vertical  planes  at  right  angles  to  them  disap- 
pears, and  the  whole  force  of  the  terrestrial  magnet- 
ism acts  at  each  pole  of  the  needle,  forming  a  couple 
which  swings  the  needle  round  till  it  stands  in  a  line 
with  itself.  The  degree  on  the  circle  then  pointed  to 
by  the  needle  is  the  dip  at  the  place  of  observation . 
Two  readings  are  necessary,  for  the  reason  stated 
under  Declination-needle.    One  reading  is  taken. 


the  needle  is  then  reversed  so  as  to  change  its  sup- 
ports, and  then  a  .second  reading  is  noted,  and  the 
mean  of  the  two  gives  the  correct  reading.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  needle  when  the  dip  is  read  off  is  mani- 
festly the  same  that  a  needle  suspended  in  air,  if  that 
were  possible,  and  free  to  move  in  any  way,  would 
finally  assume.  In  resolving,  therefore,  the  total  di- 
rective force  of  the  earth  as  we  have  done  above,  we 
must  keep  in  mind  that  it  always  acts  parallel  to  the 
direction  of   the  dipping-ueedie.      See    Incliualhii- 

DIPPING  OF  THE  MUZZLE.— When  a  piece  of  ar- 
tillery is  tired,  the  action  at  the  vent  brings  increased 
pressure  on  the  elevating-screw  or  (|Uoin.  The  reac- 
tion from  this  naturally  throws  down  the  muzzle. 

DIRECT  DEFILEMENT.— The  direct  defilement  of 


DIRECT  EMBBASUBE. 


483 


DIRECTORY. 


a  work  may  be  practically  performed  on  the  ground 
as  follows :  Let  A  B  C  D  F  be  the  plan  of  a  work, 
a  lunette  for  example  ;  and  the  points  ( ),  (),  etc. ,  lyinjr 
within  the  angle  formed  by  the  prolonged  direction  of 
the  two  faces  B  C,  I)  C,  the  most  elevated  ixjints  of 
a  commanding  position  in  front  of  the  work.  At  the 
points  A,  B,  etc. ,  let  straight  poles  be  planted  verti- 
cally, and  on  the  poles  along  the  gorge-line  let  a  point 
be  marked,  at  three  feet  above  the  ground.  Let  two 
pickets  be  driven  in  the  ground  along  the  gorge-line, 
and  a  cord,  A  B,  or  a  straightedge  of  pine,  be  fast- 
ened to  them  on  the  same  level  as  the  two  points 
marked  on  (he  poles  at  A  and  B.  Let  an  observer 
now  place  himself  in  the  rear  of  A  B,  so  as  to  bring 
the  poles  at  B,  C,  and  D,  and  the  points  O,  O,  etc., 
within  the  siune  field  of  vision.  Let  observers  be 
placed  at  B,  C,  and  D.  The  lirst  observer  now  sights 
along  A  B  until  he  brings  his  eye  in  the  position  that 
A  B  will  appear  tangent  to  the  most  elevated  of  the 
points  O.  Having  accurately  determined  this  posi- 
tion, he  next  directs  the  other  observers  to  slide  their 
hands  along  the  poles  until  they  are  brought  into  the 
.same  plane  of  vision  with  the  point  O  and  the  line 
A  B,  and  to  mark  those  points  on  the  poles.  These 
points,  together  with  the  two  first  marked,  will  evi- 


Plan  of  Work,  A  B  C  D  F,  showing  the  manner  of  Defiling 
it  from  the  Heiglats,  O,  O,  lying  in  front  of  its  faces. 

dently  be  in  the  same  plane,  and  this  plane,  pro- 
duced, will  be  tangent  to  the  highest  point  ().  It  is 
denominated  the  nimpanl  plane.  Now  if  a  point  l)e 
marked  on  each  pole  at  five  feet  above  the  points  thus 
determined,  these  points  will  be  contained  in  a  second 
ideal  plane,  parallel  to  the  first,  and  five  feet  above  it. 
This  plane  is  denominated  the  plane  of  defikinent, 
and  the  interior  crests  of  the  work  are  contained  in 
this  plane,  being  the  lines  joining  the  highest  points 
marked  on  the  poles.  As  the  gorge-line  is  farthest 
from  the  heights,  and  the  rampant  plane  ascends  to- 
wards them,  it  will  necessarily  pa-ss  at  more  than  three 
feet  above  every  other  point  of  the  parade  of  the 
work  ;  and  the  plane  of  defilement,  in  like  manner, 
will  pa.ss  at  eight  feet  above  the  parade  at  the  gorge, 
and  at  five  feet  above  the  highest  point  O.  A  plane 
of  front  defilement  is  therefore  defined  to  be  that 
plane  which,  containing  the  interior  crests  of  a  work, 
passes  at  least  eight  feet  above  every  point  of  the  pa- 
rade, and  at  least  five  feet  above  everj'  point  that  the 
enemy  can  occupy  within  the  range  of  cannon.  See 
DefiUnitnt  and  Pfune  nf  Defilement. 

DIBECT  EMBBASUBE.— When  the  directrix  of  an 
embrasure  is  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the 
parapet,  the  embrasure  is  termed  direct.  The  form, 
dimensions,  and  construction  of  the  embra.sure  in 
mask-walls  present  a  problem  which  has  otTenil  no 
little  difiicullj-,  in  a  satisfactory  solution,  to  engineers, 
by  which  the  best  cover  could  be  given  to  the  guns 
and  men  by  exposing  the  lea.st  surface  to  embrasure- 
shots,  whilst  thq  guns  should  receive  a  suitable  tra- 


verse to  command  a  wide  field  of  fire.  In  the  embra- 
sures of  our  works  the  general  form  Is  the  same  as 
those  usually  found  in  Europe,  but  they  present  a 
verj'  considerably  less  amount  of  exterior  and  throat 
opening  than  European  embrasures.  In  some  of  our 
cjirlier  works  the  sole,  cheeks,  and  top  of  the  embra- 
sures are  constructed  of  brick,  as  being  a  material 
that  would  ha  le.ss  destructive  from  the  splinters 
driven  in  by  embrasure-shots.  This  view,  however, 
has  been  abandoned  in  our  more  recent  works,  the 
embrasures  biing  onstnutitl,  on  the  contrar)',  of 
heavy  stone  blocks  carefully  and  strongly  bonded  ;  a 
brick  arch  being  thrown  above  the  embrasure  within 
the  ma.ss  of  the  mask-wall  to  seoue  the  upper  portion 
from  yielding,  should  the  l)lock  forming  the  ceiling 
of  the  embrasure  be  damaged.     See  KriAramire. 

DIBECT  YY&Y..— Direct  or  hirizoiital fire  is  where 
the  piece  is  discharged  having  but  a  small  angle  of 
elevation,  and  the  projectile  strikes  the  object  without 
touching  the  intermediate  ground.  A  fire  is  said  to 
Ix;  direct,  slant,  or  enfiladintj  according  as  its  direc- 
tion is  perpendicular  to,  makes  an  angle  of  30  with, 
or  is  on  the  prolongation  of  the  line  at  which  it  is 
aimed;  when  the  line  is  taken  in  the  rear  the  fire  is 
denominated  a  re  terse  fire  ;  and  when  a  given  space 
is  defended  by  the  fire  from  several  points  ero.ssing 
over  it,  the  defense  is  denominated  a  crossfire. 

DIBECTING-CIBCLE.— To  form  a  gabion,  a  direet- 
ing-circle  is  made  of  two  hoops,  the  difference  be- 
tween their  radii  being  such  that,  when  placed  con- 
centrically, there  shall  be  about  IJ  inch  between 
them.  They  are  kept  in  this  position  by  placing 
small  blocks  of  wood  between  them,  to  which  they 
are  tied  with  pack-thread.  The  directing-circle  is 
placed  on  the  ground,  and  seven  or  nine  stakes, 
about  1  inch  in  diameter  and  3  feet  long,  arc  driven 
slightly  into  the  ground  between  the  hoops,  at 
equal  "distances  apart;  the  directing-circle  is  then 
slipped  up  midway  from  the  bottom,  and  tied  in  that 
position.  Twigs  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
as  long  as  they  can  be  procured,  are  wattled  between 
the  stakes  like  ordinary  basket-work.  When  finished 
to  within  about  2  inches  of  the  top,  the  gabion  is 
placed  with  the  other  end  up,  the  directing-circle 
taken  off,  and  the  gabion  completed  to  within  2 
inches  of  the  other  extremities  of  the  slakes.  The 
wicker-work  at  the  two  ends  is  secured  by  several 
withes,  and  the  ends  of  the  pickets  are  sharpened. 
The  gabion  is  then  ready  for  use.     See  Gabion. 

DIEECTING  -  SERGEANT. — When  a  company  is 
being  drilled  in  marching,  a  Sergeant  distinguished 
for  precision  in  marching  is  selected,  who  is  called  a 
Direcling-serseant,  and  placed  in  front  of  the  guide 
on  the  line  established.  This  Sergeant  is  charged 
with  the  direction  and  step,  and  marches  on  points 
selected  by  himself  directly  in  front  of  him.  The 
right  guide  of  the  company  marches  straight  in  the 
trace  of  the  DirectinL'-sergeant. 

DIRECTION. — 1.  In  gminery,  the  path  or  course  a 
lirojcetile  takes  when  fired  from  a  gvm.  The  path 
pursued  may  be  either  a  good  or  bad  direction,  with 
reference  to  the  points  aimed  at.  2  That  element  of 
pointing  which  relates  to  the  movement  of  the  piece 
around'an  imaginarj'  vertical  axis.  The  direction  is 
given  when  the  plane  of  sight  pa.s.si'S  through  the  ob- 
ject. Elevation  is  a  movement  about  a  horizontal 
a.xis.     See  Pointinq. 

DIRECTOR  OF  ARTILLERY  AND  STORES.—  An 
officer  in  the  English  service  appointed  by  the  Seere- 
tarv-  of  State  for  War  to  assist  the  Controller-in-Chief. 
His  duties  are  confined  to  all  questions  relating  to  the 
manufacture,  provision,  supply,  and  maintenance  of 
mimitions  of  war. 

DIRECTOR  OF  SUPPLIES  AND  TRANSPORT.— An 
officer  in  the  Endish  service  appointed  by  the  Secre- 
tarj'  of  Slate  for  War  toas.sist  the  Controller  in-Chief. 
This  officer  has  to  deal  with  all  questions  relating  to 
the  i)rovision  and  supply  of  food,  forage,  fuel  and 
light,  lo<lgin!r  and  trans|iort. 

DIRECTORY.— Upon  the  death  of  Robespierre,  m 


DiaSCTKIX. 


484 


DISABLING  CANNOK. 


1794.  a  n-action  commenced  In  the  Convention  itself, 
as  well  lis  tliTOU^hout  all  Knince.  airiiiiist  lUe  simirui 
nary  cxcessi's  of  llie  Terrorists.  I'ltimatclv  ii  new 
t'orislilution— that  of  the  year  3  (1795)— jpive  birth  to  a 
new  govermneni .  coiniwsetl  of  a  legislati  ve  iKuiy  (livid- 
«i  into  two  Councils;  the  Council  of  Five  llundreil, 
whose  fimetion  was  to  propose  laws;  and  the  Council 
of  the  Ancients,  whose  function  was  to  pass  them.  The 
actual  executive  power  wils  intrusted  to  live  inenilters 
cho.s«'n  from  both  sections,  and  who  .siit  at  the  Luxein- 
iKiurir.  Their  names  were  Lt'lH-aux,  Letoumeur, 
KewlK'l,  Barnis,  and  Carnol.  These  live  constituted 
the  famous  Directory.  They  assumed  authority  in  a 
moment  of  immense  peril.  France  was  environed 
with  jripintic  adversaries,  while  distrust,  discontent, 
and  the  maliceof  rival  factions  made  her  internal  ad- 
ministration almost  hopeless.  The  frantic  heroism  of 
her  soldiers  sjived  her  from  spoliation  by  the  for 
eigner;  and  had  all  the  members  of  the  Directory 
been  patriotic  and  honest,  she  might  liii\e  been  saved 
also  from  spoliation  by  her  own  chililren.  But,  on 
the  contrary,  the  home  policy  of  the  Directory  was 
deplorable."  The  demoralization  which  hiul  begun  to 
characterize  officials  even  in  Danton's  time  now 
.seized  almost  every  class.  Barras,  a  representative  of 
all  the  turpitude  of  the  hour,  set  the  exami)le.  The 
nniiorily  of  the  two  Councils  were  equally  corrupt; 
and  although  there  were  some  both  in  the  Councils 
and  Directory  whose  virtues  and  talents  were  unim- 
peachable, yet  they  were  too  weak  to  coimteract  the 
knavery  of  their  associates.  It  soon  became  clear 
that  France  could  not  be  reconsolidated  by  the  fag- 
ends  of  the  licvolution.  The  power  and  skill  requi- 
site for  such  a  herculean  work  must  be  sought  for 
elsewhere,  among  men  who  had  received  a  nobler 
discipline  than  could  be  obtained  in  the  political 
sijuabbles  of  the  metropolis.  Such  was  the  thought 
of  the  Abbe  Sieyes.  He  turned  his  eyes  to  the  army, 
where  a  host  of  new  and  brilliant  names  had  ap- 
peare<i  —  Hochc,  Joubert,  Brune,  Kleber,  De.s;iix, 
Ma.ss<'na,  Moreau,  Bernadotte,  Augercau,  Bonaparte. 
Sieyes  pro|)ounded  his  plan  for  the  overthrow  of  the 
Directory,  and  the  establishment  of  a  Consulate,  that 
should  be,  in  reality,  a  Monarchy  umler  republican 
forms,  first  of  all  to  Moreau,  who  was  fright<'ned  by 
its  audacity;  then  to  Beniadottc,  whose  excessive 
caution  hindered  him  from  approving  of  it;  then  to 
Augercau,  who  could  not  iniderstanil  it;  and  finally 
to  Bonaparte,  on  his  return  from  Egypt.  The  la.st 
admired  the  project;  a  conspiracy  was  rapidly  formed; 
all  those  fimctionaries  who  had  been  jiromised  places 
by  the  Directory,  but  had  not  received  them,  offered 
their  aid;  and  by  the  coup  d'lUit  of  the  18lh  Brumaire 
an  end  was  put  to  a  government  of  weakness,  immoral- 
it  v,  and  intrigue.  It  was  succeeded  bv  the  Consulate. 
DIRECTRIX.— 1.  The  center  line  in  the  plane  of 
lire  of  an  embrasure  or  platfonn.  See  Emhrnsiire. 
2.  A  right  line  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  a  conic 
section  in  reference  to  which  its  nature  may  Ix?  de- 
fined. Assuming  the  indefinite  line  AH  in  the  figure 
as  the  directrix,  and  F  a  point  without  it  as  a  focus, 
then  if  the  line  FI)  revolves 
about  F  as  a  center,  while  a 
IKjint  D  moves  in  it  in  such 
a  manner  that  its  distance 
from  F  shall  idways  be  to 
CD,  its  pcrpendicillar  dis- 
tance from  the  line  AB,  in 
a  constant  ratio,  then  the 
ctirve  VD,  described  by  the 
point  D,  is  a  conic  .section,  hikI  is  an  ellipse,  a  parab- 
ola, or  an  hypcrlxiln  according  as  FD  is  less  than, 
ef^ual  to,  or  greater  than  CD,  or  FV  than  VA.  The 
constant  ratio  referred  to  is  called  the  determining 
ratio  of  the  conic. 

DIRK.— A  variety  of  dagger  or  poniard  worn  by 
Highland  regiments.  It  is  at  present  worn  by  officers 
rather  for  ornament  than  for  use,  lliough  in  former 
days  it  was  a  valuable  weapon.  The  dirk-knife  is  a 
clasp-knife  having  a  large,  dirk-likc  blade. 


'  DISABILITY.—!.  State  of  being  disabled;  want  of 
compelent  physical  or  intellectual  iwwcr.  When  a 
soldier  l>ecomes  disabled  from  cx|K)sure,  accidents, 
or  other  causes,  he  is  discharged  from  the  service  on 
a  Surgeon's  Certificate  of  Disability,  which  enables 
him  to  draw  a  pension.  2.  Legal  disjdiility  is  either 
absolute,  which  wholly  disables  the  person  from  do- 
ing anv  legal  act — e.g.,  outlawry,  excommunication, 
attainder,  alienage — or  partial,  such  as  infancy,  cov- 
I  erture,  lunacy,  ilrunkcnness,  and  the  like,  ft  may 
j  arise  from  the  act  of  God,  of  the  law,  of  the  indiWa- 
ual  himself,  or  of  his  ancestor,  or  the  ]>erson  from 
whom  he  inherits. 

DISABLING  CANNON.— If  necessjtry  to  abandon 
nuil<  rit'l,  it  must  be  disabled  or  destroyed,  so  as  to  be 
useless  to  the  enemy.  Guns  are  permanently  dis- 
abled by  bursting,  bending  the  chase,  breaking  off 
the  trunnions,  or  by  scoring  the  surface  of  the  bore; 
they  are  temporarily  disabled  by  spiking,  breaking 
off  the  sights  and  the  scat  for  the  hausse,  or  in  breech- 
loaders by  carrying  off  or  permanently  destroying  the 
breech-blocks,  etc. 

To  burst  a  cast-iron  gun,  load  with  a  heavy  charge, 
till  the  )>ore  with  sand  or  shot,  and  fire  at  a  high  cle- 
\ation.  To  bend  the  cha.se  of  a  bronze  gun.  fire  » 
shotted  piece  against  another,  muzzle  to  muzzle  or 
muzzle  to  chijsc;  or  kindle  a  fire  under  the  chase  and 
strike  on  it  with  a  sledge  hammer.  To  break  off  a 
trunnion  of  a  cast-iron  cannon,  strike  on  it  with  a 
heavy  hammer  or  fire  a  shotted  gun  ag-ainst  it.  To 
score  the  surface  of  the  bore  and  injure  the  rifling, 
cause  shells  to  burst  in  the  gun  or  tire  broken  shot 
from  it  with  high  charges. 

To  spike  a  gun,  drive  into  the  vont  a  jagged  and 
hardened  steel  spike  with  a  soft  point,  break  it  off 
fiush  with  the  vent-field,  and  clinch  it  in  the  bore  with 
the  rammer;  a  nail  without  a  head,  a  jncce  of  ram- 
rod, or  even  a  plug  of  hard  wooil  may  be  used  in  the 
absence  of  a  sjiikc.  To  prevent  the  spike  from  being 
blown  out,  make  a  projectile  fast  in  the  bottom  of  the 
bore  by  wrapi)ing  it  with  cloth  or  felt,  or  by  means 
of  iron  wedges  driven  in  with  a  rammer  or  with  an 
iron  bar;  if  the  wedges  were  of  wood  they  could  be 
easily  burnt  out  by  a  charcoal-tire  lighted  with  a  pair 
of  bellows. 

When  it  is  expected  to  retake  a  gun,  use  a  spring 
spike  with  a  shoulder  to  prevent  its  coming  out  too 
readily.  Mitrailleurs  are  permanently  dis;ibleel  by 
bending  the  barrels,  etc.;  they  are  made  temporarily 
useless  by  removing  the  crankhainlles,  locks,  etc. 
Carriages  are  destroyed  by  piling  them  up  and  burn- 
ing them;  to  prevent  them  from  moving,  the  spokea 
and  poles  may  be  cut  or  siiwed  off.  Ammunition- 
chests  are  blown  up  or  water  is  poured  over  their  con- 
tents.    Implements  are  carried  off  or  destroyed. 

To  unspike  a  gun,  try  to  drive  the  spike  into  the 
bore  with  a  punch;  if  there  be  a  shot  wedged  in  the 
bore,  expel  it  by  powder  inserted  through  the  vent. 
When  it  is  impossible  to  drive  down  the  spike,  if  the 
bore  be  unobstructed,  insert  a  charge  of  one  third  the 
weight  of  the  projectile,  and  ram  down  jurUc  wads 
with  a  handspike,  first  placing  on  the  bottom  of  the 
bore  a  strip  of  wood  with  a  groove  on  the  lower  side 
containing  a  strand  of  (luick-match  by  which  the 
charge  is  ignited;  this  plan  will  not  answer  when  the 
spike  is  screwed  or  riveteil  into  the  vent.  In  a  bronze 
gun,  remove  some  of  the  metal  at  the  upjicr  orifice  of 
the  vent,  and  pour  sulphuric  acid  into  the  cavity  be- 
fore firing.  Shoidd  the  preceding  methods  fail,  after 
several  trials,  drill  out  the  spike,  or  drill  a  new  vent 
if  the  gun  be  iron;  if  it  be  bronze,  un.screw  the  vent- 
piece. 

To  drive  out  a  shot  wedged  in  the  l)ore,  unscrew  (he 
vent-piece,  if  there  be  one,  and  drive  in  wedges  so  as 
to  start  the  shot  forward,  then  ram  it  back  again, 
and  with  a  hook  withdraw  the  wedges  that  may  have 
held  it;  or  pour  in  powder  and  fire  it  after  replacing 
the  vent-piece.  As  a  last  resort,  bore  a  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  breech,  drive  out  the  shot,  and  stop  the 
hole  with  a  screw.     See  Spiki  and  Unxpike. 


SISASK. 


485 


DISCHABOE. 


DISARM. — The  act  of  depriWng  a  Ixxly  of  troops 
of  arms  for  sf)me  ^ross  misconduct  or  crime  which 
renders  dismissal  from  the  ser\'ice  necessarj-.  The 
Indian  Mutiny  in  1857-58  affords  instances  of  whole 
regiments  l)eing  disarmed  and  disbanded.  Other 
regiments,  at  the  sjime  time,  apparently  loyal,  were 
simply  disarmed,  to  prevent  the  chance  of  the  men 
fallinir  upnn  their  officers. 

DISAKRAT. — Want  of  array  or  regular  order;  like- 
wisi-  to  throw  into  disorder  or  to  break  the  array  of. 

DISBANDING.— In  military  matters,  the  brejiking 
up  of  a  regiment  or  corp.s.  When  peace  is  proclaimed 
after  a  war,  and  a  retluction  of  the  arm)-  becomes 
neces,sary,  this  is  effected  by  disbanding  or  dlsem- 
boilying;  the  men  are  discharged  and  the  officers  are 
mustered  out  or  placed  on  half-pay. 

DISBURSING  OFFICERS.— Officers  whose  special 
functions  are  to  make  disbursements  of  public  mon 
eys.  The  regulations  governing  this  class  of  officers 
are  verj-  properly  and  neces.sarily  rigid.  The  follow- 
ing are  duly  enforced  in  the  United  States  service: 

If  any  Disbursing  Officer  bets  at  cards  or  any  game 
of  hazard,  his  Commanding  Officer  suspends  his  func 
tions,  reiiuircs  him  to  turn  over  all  the  public  funds 
in  his  keeping,  and  immediately  reports  the  case  to 
the  proper  Bureau  of  the  War  Department.  In  every 
case  where  an  officer  intrusted  with  the  care  or  dis- 
bursement of  public  funds  violates  this  regulation, 
he  is  brought  to  trial  before  a  General  Court-Martial 
by  the  Department  Commander,  and  is  not  assigned 
to  duty,  or  again  put  in  possession  of  public  funds 
subsequent  to  his  trial,  without  the  approval  of  the 
Secretarj-  of  War. 

Every  officer  charged  with  the  payment  of  any  of 
the  appropriatioas  made  by  any  Act  of  Congress,  who 
pays  to  an}'  clerk,  or  other  employe  of  the  United 
States,  a  sum  less  than  that  pro\-ided  by  law,  and  re- 
quires such  employe  to  receipt  or  give  a  voucher  for 
an  amount  greater  than  that  actuaUy  paitl  to  and  re- 
ceived 1)V  him,  is  guilty  of  embezzlement,  and  is  lined 
in  double  the  amount  so  withheld  from  any  employe 
of  the  Government,  and  is  imprisoned  at  hard  labor 
for  the  term  of  two  years. 

Every  person  who,  ha\'ing  charge,  possession,  cus- 
tody, or  control  of  any  money  or  other  public  prop- 
erty used  or  to  be  used  in  the  military  sernce,  who, 
with  intent  to  defraud  the  United  States  or  willfully 
to  conceal  such  money  or  other  property,  delivers  or 
causes  to  be  delivered"  to  any  other  person  having  au- 
thority to  receive  the  same,  any  amount  of  such 
money  or  other  property  less  than  that  for  which  he 
received  a  certificate  or'took  a  receipt,  is  imprisoned 
at  hard  labor  for  not  less  than  one  nor  more  than  live 
years,  or  fined  not  less  than  one  thousand  nor  more 
than  five  thousand  dollars. 

If  any  officer  charged  with  the  disbursement  of  the 
public  moneys  accepts,  receives,  or  transmits  to  the 
Treasury  Department,  to  be  allowed  in  his  favor,  any 
receipt  or  voucher  from  a  creditor  of  the  United 
States,  without  having  paid  to  such  creditor  in  such 
funds  as  the  officer  received  for  disbursement,  or  in 
such  funds  as  he  ma^'  be  authorized  by  law  to  take 
in  exchange,  the  full  amount  specified  in  such  receipt 
or  voucher,  every  such  act  is  an  act  of  conversion,  by 
such  officer,  to  his  own  use,  of  the  amount  specified 
in  such  receipt  or  voucher. 

Every  officer  of  the  United  States,  and  every  per- 
son acting  for  or  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  in 
any  official  capacity  under  or  by  virtue  of  the  authori 
ty  of  any  department  or  office  of  the  Government 
thereof,  who  asks,  accepts,  or  receives  any  money,  or 
any  contract,  promise,  undertaking,  oblig!ition,gr!itu 
ity,  or  security  for  the  paj-ment  of  money,  or  for  the 
delivery  or  conveyance  of  anj-thing  of  value,  with 
intent  to  have  his  decision  or  action  on  any  question, 
matter,  cause,  or  proceeding  which  may,  at  any  time, 
be  pending,  or  which  may  be  by  law  brought  before 
him  in  his  official  capacity,  or  in  his  place  of  trust  or 
profit,  influenced  thereby,  is  punished  by  a  fine  not 
more  than  three  times  the  .amount  asked,  accepted,  or 


received,  and  by  imprisonment  not  more  than  three 
years.  And  if  he  hold  any  place  of  profit  or  trust, 
forfeits  his  office  or  place;  and  is  thereafter  forever 
dis(iualified  from  holding  any  office  of  honor,  trust, 
or  profit  under  the  United  States. 

The  sureties  to  the  bonds  to  be  given  by  Disbursing 
Officers  are  bound  jointly  and  .severally  for  the  whole 

[  amo\int  of  the  bond,  and  must  sjitisfythe  Sccretarj'  of 
AVar  that  they  are  worth  jointly  double  the  amount  of 

I  the  iKind,  by  the  affidavit  of  each  surety,  stating  that 
he  is  worth,  over  and  above  his  debts  and  liabilities,  the 
amount  of  the  Iwnd  or  such  other  sum  as  he  may 
specify;  and  each  surety  states  his  place  of  residence. 
See  PiibUf  Moiici/s. 

DISCHARGE.— 1.  The  action  of  firing  off  a  charge 
from  a  piece  of  ordnance  or  small-arm7  Guns  were 
I'ormerly  discharged  by  primingiiowdcr  po\ircd  into 
the  vent,  or  by  quick-nuitch,  which  was  ignited  by 
means  of  slow-match  or  ])ort-fire.  Friction-tubes  have 
for  some  years  past  been  introduced  into  the  .service, 
and  have  been  found  to  be  vastly  superior  in  ]>ower 
and  certainty  of  ignition  to  either  of  the  above  modes, 
and  are  now  universally  used.  Breech-loading  .small- 
arms  arc  discharged  by  means  of  a  needle  or  piston 
coming  in  contact  witli  detonating  composition  at  the 
base  of  the  cartridge. 

2.  A  release  from  military  service  either  under 
compidsion  or  authority.  There  are  several  classes 
of  discharge.  First,  on  a  soldier  ha\ing  completed 
the  tcnu  of  .ser^nce  for  which  he  engaged,  and  not 
wishing  to  renew  his  services.  This  is  either  com- 
pletion of  limited  engagement  or  ser\icc  for  pension. 
Second,  when  permitted  to  purchase  bis  discharge. 
Third,  when  disabled  from  wounds  or  sickness  to 
serve  anj'  longer.  Fourth,  when  discharged  by  .sen- 
tence of  Court-Marlial  to  penal  servitude.  Fifth, 
when  discharged  with  ignominy  for  some  offense  that 
brings  dishonor  on  the  corps.  Si.\tli,  when  summa- 
rily discharged  as  a  worthless  and  incorrigible  char- 
acter. In  England,  a  discharge  from  the  military 
service  is  by  right  at  the  expiration  of  the  iieriod  for 
which  attested;  or  earlier,  by  indulgence.  In  the 
latter  case  the  grant  may  be  gratuitous,  as  on  reduc- 
tion of  numbers,  or  when  the  man  is  not  worih  i-etain- 
ing,  or  paid  for  by  the  man  dischargetl.  In  the  last 
case  the  soldier  pays  a  sum  of  money  computed 
w  ith  reference  to  the  unexpired  period  of  service.  If 
a  soldier  has  many  years  still  to  ser\-e,  the  discharge- 
purchase  may  amount  to  as  much  as  £20.  In  the 
Sappers  and  Miners,  where  the  men  are  all  artisans,  it 
may  amoimt  to  £35;  and  among  this  Corps  such  dis- 
charges are  very  frequent,  on  account  of  the  value 
placed  on  the  services  of  the.se  intelligent  men  by  pri- 
vate enqiloyei's.  Soldiers  are,  under  the  Act  of  1870, 
frequently  discharged  from  service  in  the  regtdar 
forces,  after  three  or  six  years  therein,  on  condition 
of  serving  the  remainder  of  their  original  term  in  the 
Reserve.  Earl  Grey,  when  Colonial  Secretary,  intro- 
duced the  plan  of  enabling  discharged  soldiers  to  set- 
tle on  a  piece  of  land  in  the  Colonies  instead  of  return- 
ing home.  Soldiers  are  occasionally  ' '  discharged  with 
ignominy,"  for  some  offense  that  brings  dishonor  on 
the  corps.  In  such  case  the  regiment  is  assembled, 
the  crime  recapitulated,  and  the  sentence  read.  The 
buttons,  facings,  chevrons,  medals,  and  all  decora- 
tions are  cut  from  the  man's  uniform,  and  he  is 
"drummed  out  "  of  the  regiment,  if  a  foot-.soldier,  or 

'  by  s<iund  of  tnmipet,  if  it  l)e  a  cavalry  regiment. 
Jsotice  of  his  degradation  is  afterwards  sent  in  writing 
from  the  War  Office  to  his  parents  or  relations. 

In  the  United  States  .service  no  enlisted  man  is  dis- 
chargefl  liefore  the  ex]iiration  of  his  tcnti,  except — 
1.  By  order  of  the  President,  or  Secretar}-  of  War,  or 
the  Commanding  Officer  of  a  Dejiartment.  2.  By 
sentence  of  a  General  Court-Martial.  3.  On  certifi- 
cate of  disability  by  the  Commander  of  a  Geographi- 
cal Department  or  an  army  in  the  field.  4.  By  order 
of  one  of  the  United  States  Courts,  or  Justices  or 
.ludges  thereof,  on  writ  of  ftabean  corpus.  The  au- 
thority of  State  Courts  to  issue  writs  of  habeas  corpm 


DISCIPLINE. 


486 


DISEMBAKKATION. 


in  this  matter  is  not  recognized.  5.  General-service 
clerks  may  be  discliiir^-ti  by  their  Commanders. 
■\VIien  an  enlisted  num  is  to  l>e  discharged,  his  Com- 
pany Commander  furnishes  him  certificates  of  his  ac- 
count or  final  statemeni*.  And  to  iii*iirf  his  being  at 
the  post  to  gi't  these,  no  leave  of  absence,  terminating 
with  his  serWce,  is  given  to  him.  The  cause  of  dis- 
clwrge,  and  the  soldier's  age  at  its  tlaU,  are  stated  in 
the  wxly  of  the  discharge-certiticate.  The  soldier's 
character  is  carefully  described  according  to  the  facts. 
Whenever  the  man  is  unfit  for  re-enlistment  because 
of  bud  conduct,  the  space  in  the  discharge-certificate 
left  for  description  of  character  is  cut  off.  The  offi- 
cer signing  the  character  on  the  discharge-certificate 
of  an  enlisteil  man  stjxtes  thereon  whether  or  not  the 
soldier  is  raarrieil.  Insane  soldiers  are  not  discharged 
at  the  posts  where  they  may  he  serving,  but  are  dis- 
charged by  the  Secretary  of  War  after  their  arrival  at 
the  Grovernment  Hospital  for  the  Insane.  The  Com- 
pany Commanders  forward  with  their  descrii)live  lists, 
and  accounts  of  pay  and  clothing,  certificates  of  disa- 
bility in  the  usual  form,  and  a  medical  history  of  the 
Cjise-s  ft>r  the  information  of  the  Superintendent  of  the 
Hospital.  An  honest  and  faitliful  service  of  twenty 
j'ears  in  the  army  entitles  a  soldier  to  admission  to 
the  Soldiers'  Home;  but  applications  for  discharge  by 
reason  of  twenty  years'  service  are  not  entertained  un- 
less the  soldier  is  a  fit  subject  for  discharge  on  certifi- 
Ciitc  of  disjibility,  or  upon  condition  thai  he  shall  en- 
ter the  Soldiere'  Home. 

DISCIPLINE. — Under  a  perfect  discipline,  troops  in 
peace  and  in  war,  in  garrison  or  In  campaign,  would 
be  fitted  for  all  the  duties  of  war.  To  attain  this  per- 
fection, it  is  neccssiiry  that  discipline  should  rest  en- 
tirely upon  law;  it  ought  to  have  its  roots  in  patriot- 
ism; to  Ix;  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  people;  to 
the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  the  nature  of  the  government. 
It  is  essential  to  make  rights  and  duties  inseparable. 
This  absolute  necessity,  and  the  importance  of  regu- 
larity of  pa^y,  are  ti-uths  dwelt  upon  by  the  French 
writers.  Di'.scipline  may  be  distinguLsiied  a-s  active 
and  passive.  "The  first  <ierives  its  power  from  a  mil- 
itiiry  hierarchy  or  range  of  sulwrdinalion,  skillfully 
established  and  regulated;  it  is  secured  by  calmness, 
impartiality,  promptness,  firmness,  and  the  prestige 
of  character  in  officers.  These  qualities  are  mani 
festetl  by  preventing  wrongs  rather  than  by  punishing 
faults,  and  by  abstaining  from  arbitrary  corrections 
when  obliged  to  chastise.  Discipline,  intrusted  to  such 
authorities  enlightened  by  military  e.\i)erience,  will 
partake  of  the  character  of  paternal  government,  and 
will  not  be  enforced  with  an  unsparing  harshness 
suited  only  to  governments  essentially  despotic. 

The  dogma  that  militarj*  tliscipline  can  only  be 
sustained  by  the  aid  of  .severe  and  unjiitying  punish- 
ment is  far  removed  from  the  idea  here  suggested. 
That  unpitying  military  discipline  seems  to  have 
pronii>led  Peter  the  threat  when  he  sacrificed  a  young 
officer  wIkj  triumphantly  fought  the  Swedes  wlUiout 
orders.  Thus  also  thought  Frederick  the  Great  when 
he  executed  the  unfortunate  Zictten,  who  violated  an 
order  by  keeping  a  light  a  little  too  long  in  his  tent. 
But  such  harsh  principles  are  no  longer  in(-ulcateil  in 
the  best  governed  armies  of  Europe!  Passive  disci- 
pline is  the  fusion  of  individual  interest  in  national  in- 
terest. The  first  military  virtue  is mpritde corpii,  with 
fidelity  U)  the  oath  taken  u|)on  assuming  the  military 
character.  These  duties  e.\act  obedience  to  the  laws, 
and  to  the  lawful  orders  of  the  President  of  the  United 
Stales,  and  officers  set  over  us  according  lo  law. 
These  laws  should  command  oiK-dienec  from  all  in- 
feriors, anil  distinctly  define  the  extent  of  all  author- 
ity. They  ought  to  bind  the  President  or  Com- 
mander-in-Chief as  well  as  thv  simple  soldier.  Rights 
and  duties  must  lie  reciprocal,  and  be  alike  established 
by  law,  which  should,  lo  maintain  discipline,  "pre- 
cisely determine  Ihe  functions,  duties,  aiul  rights  of 
all  military  men— Soldiers,  Officers,  Chiefs  of  Corps, 
Generals."  Discipline  that  has  attained  this  jH-rfec- 
tion  .sui>plies  the  deficiency  of  numbers,  and  gives 


new  solidity  to  valor;  since,  although  surrounded  by 
dangers,  the  brave  man  feels  that  his  leaders  and 
comrades  are  not  less  devoted,  less  vigorous,  or  less 
ex|)erienced  than  himself. 

Discipline  is  sometimes  used  as  meaning  "system 
of  instruction,"  but  its  signification  is  much  broader. 
Its  technical  military  sense  includes  not  only  the 
means  pro%ided  for  exercise  and  instruction,  but  sub- 
jection lo  all  laws  framed  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  army.  The  good  or  bad  discipline 
of  an  army  depends  primarily  upon  the  laws  estab- 
lished for  its  creation,  as  well  as  its  government  and 
regulation. 

DISCEETION.— This  term  includes  prudence,  wis- 
dom, the  liberty  of  acting  at  pleasure,  uncontrolled 
and  with  unconditional  power;  all  which  qualities, 
if  wisely  directed,  will  contribute  much,  in  military 
affairs,  to  the  successful  termination  of  all  undertak- 
ings. The  military  i)hrase,  to  snrrfnder  at  discntimi, 
implies  surrenderiug  without  stipulation,  throwing 
one's  self  on  the  mercy  of  a  Wctorious  enemy. 

DISEMBARKATION.— The  act  of  landing  troops, 
arms,  and  supplies  from  a  boat  or  ship.  M^hen  this 
can  be  done  at  a  wharf,  it  is  simply  the  reverse  opera- 
tion of  embarking.  "When  wharf-accommodations 
are  not  available,  arrangements  will  have  to  be  made 
for  transferring  the  men,  horses,  and  materiel  from 
the  vessel  to  the  shore.  An  army  or  other  consider- 
able body  of  troops  embarked  for  an  expedition,  to 
be  landed  under  such  circumstances,  will  be  pro- 
vided with  general  means  for  disembarking,  and  the 
artillery,  which  usually  constitutes  an  important  feat- 
ure of  the  outfit,  shares  with  the  rest  in  these  general 
arrangements;  but,  owing  to  its  nature,  much  of  a 
special  character  is  required  for  it,  demanding  the 
most  ciireful  consideration  and  attention  from  Artil- 
lery Officers.  Such  exi)editions  usually  embark  at 
seaports  where  there  are  acconmiodations  that  make 
the  operation  comparatively  simple  and  easy,  and  for 
this  reason  the  many  ):)rcparations  necessary  for  land- 
ing on  an  open  shore  are  apt  to  be  overlooked,  or  to 
be  inadequately  pronded  for.  It  becomes  the  espe- 
cial province  of  the  Artillery  Commander  to  look  out 
for  this,  and  to  give  his  ad\ice  and  make  his  wants 
known  to  the  Army  Commander,  so  that  the  latter 
may  cause  proper  provision  to  be  made.  The  fol- 
lowing method  for  the  disembarkation  of  an  army 
corps  proved  successful  during  the  War  of  the  Rebel- 
lion, and  the  same,  or  some  modification  of  it,  will 
apply  in  every  case. 

The  essential  articles  for  forming  a  landing-place 
were,  several  canal-barges;  a  number  of  ponton- 
boats,  with  balks,  chess,  oars,  anchors,  etc.,  com- 
plete; a  numl)er  of  gangplanks;  a  plentiful  .supply 
of  lumber,  and  the  necessary  amount  of  ground- 
tackle,  cordage,  and  tools,  "fhe  canal-barges  were 
about  14  feet  wide  and  70  to  80  feet  long  (drawing, 
when  loaded,  5  feet  of  water;  when  light,  2  feet), 
and  of  about  .SO  tons  burden.  The  gang  ])lanks 
were  from  12  to  30  feet  long  and  10  feet  \vi(le,  and 
very  strong;  ropes  were  attached  to  their  corners, 
and  the  larger  ones  furnished  with  rollers.  By  lash- 
ing two  of  the  canal-barges  togetlier,  placing  the 
boats  some  V2  feet  apart,  imd  thr()\ving  a  false  or  ad- 
ditional deck  over  the  whole,  a  i)latform  was  formed 
about  -to  feet  wide  and  4.5  feet  long,  capable  of  hold- 
ing all  the  pieces  and  caissons  of  a  six-gun  field-bat 
tery.  or  from  forty  to  fifty  horses.  This  boat  or  raft, 
when  thus  loaded,  drew  about  4  feet  of  water. 
Several  of  these  rafts  were  prejiarcd  for  the  puriwse 
of  forming  a  ir/mrf-fiffid,  alongside  of  which  vessels 
could  lie  and  discharge.  From  this  wharf-head  to 
the  shore  a  pimton-liridge  was  conslnicted.  The 
operation  of  disembarking  consisted  in  bringing  the 
transports  alongside  of  the  wharf-head,  placing  a 
gangplank  from  the  deck  to  the  gunwale,  and  an- 
other from  the  gunwale  to  the  wharf-head.  Over 
these  gang-planks  the  horses  were  led  and  taken 
ashore.  The  guns,  caissons,  and  other  carriages 
were  run  down  the  gang-plank  and  over  the  bridge 


SISEUBABEATIOir. 


487 


SISEHBABKATIOIT. 


by  baod.     In  tbis  way  but  two  or  three  bours  were 
consumed  in  disembarking  an  entire  batteiy. 

For  disembarking  artillery  by  tbis  method  or  indeed 
by  anj'  metbwl,  smooth  or  comparatively  smooth 
water  is  a  gine  qua  non.  Infantry  and  even  artillery 
mnUriel,  may  be  landed  with  small  boats  or  lighters 
tbrougb  a  heavy  surf,  but  a  smooth  sea  is  required 
for  horses.  When  it  is  not  considered  exi>edient  to 
construct  a  wharf -head  and  bridce,  and  the  water 
near  shore  is  of  sufficient  depth,  (louble  canal  boats 
may  be  used  for  rafts  to  disembark  both  horses  and 
malrrid.  The  rafts  must  have  railing  around  them; 
this  should  be  strong,  the  stanchions  extending  into 
the  boats  and  secured  throughout  with  bolts  and  nuts, 
The  horses  are  loaded  from  the  vessel  onto  the  raft 
either  by  means  of  gang-planks  or  by  slinging  Ihein. 
The  raft  is  towed  to  the  shore  by  small  boats  or,  bet 
ter,  by  a  small  steam-tug;  a  gang-plank  is  run  out 
and  the  horses  led  ashore.  The  guns  and  caissons 
are  brought  a-shore  in  the  s;une  manner.  When 
canal -barge.s  are  not  to  be  bad,  small  cosisting-schoon- 
ers  may,  by  removing  their  deck-hampers,  be  used  in- 
stead. Large  decked-over  scows,  such  as  are  to  be 
found  in  seaport  towns,  make  excellent  rafts.  When 
the  distance  from  the  vessel  to  the  shore  does  not  ex- 
ceed 1000  yards  or  thereabouts,  a  warp-line  may  he 
vised  for  bringing  back  and  forth  the  raft.  Every 
exertion  should  be  made  to  erect  a  wharf,  rough  and 
temporary  though  it  be,  using  for  the  purpose  any 
kind  of  boats  or  scows  that  can  be  obtained.  It  may 
sometimes  Ik"  ad\isable  to  s<icrifice  a  ship  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  a  wharf-head,  by  scuttling  anil  sink- 
ing her  in  such  depth  of  water  as  to  leave  her  spar- 
deck  three  or  four  feet  above  high  water.  With  a 
sandy  or  muddy  bottom,  a  ship  might  be  sunk  by 
loading  her  down  until  she  rests  firmly  on  the  bottom. 
If  the  weather  is  calm  she  will  suffcr'no  great  injury, 
and  can  be  floated  off  when  no  longer  required.  The 
business  of  constructing  rafts  and  wharfs  as  described 
belongs,  as  a  general  rule,  to  the  Engineers;  but 
should  the  Artillcr}'  Commander  of  an  expedition 
anticipate,  even  in  the  remotest  degree,  a  failure  to 
provide  the  requisite  means  for  disembarking,  it  be- 
comes his  duty  to  look  after  it,  and  he  cannot  be  too 
zejilous  in  doing  .so.  The  best  plan  under  .such  cir- 
cumstances is  for  each  transport  to  carry  along  with 
it  an  outfit  capable  of  discharging  its  cargo.  The 
most  useful  boat  for  lightering  that  can  be  e.irricd 
is  the  wooden  ponton,  such  as  is  used  for  militarj- 
bridges.  It  is  31  feet  long,  5..5  feet  wide  at  top,  4..5 
feet  wide  at  lx)ttom,  and  2.5  feet  deep.  Besides  the 
three  men  required  for  managing  it,  it  is  capable  of 
cjtrrying  40  infantrymen  with  their  arms  and  knap- 
sacks, and  it  will  ver\-  readily  carry  six  horses. 

Each  transport  sbo"uld  can'v  four  ponton-boats  and 
all  the  equipment  for  two  rafts.  If  there  is  not  .sutfi- 
cient  room  on  deck  for  the  boats,  they  may  be  can-ied 
stowed  fiat  to  the  sides  of  the  ship,  bottom  outwards, 
resting  on  strong  .solid  chocks  bolted  to  the  wales. 
A  strong  parbuckle-sling  passes  around  each,  with 
which  it  is  hoisted  into  place  by  the  yard  and  stay 
purchases,  and  secured  by  la.siiings;  by  the  same 
means  it  is  lowered  into  the  water.  With  several 
transports,  each  carr\-ing  the  above-described  out- 
fit, it  is  generally  practicable,  by  combining  all,  to 
form  a  bridge.  "Suitable  vessels  can  nearly  always 
be  obtained  for  forming  the  wharf-head. 

When  there  arc  several  transport.s  unloading  at  the 
same  time,  conspicuous  and  well-understood  signal- 
marks  must  be  placed  opposite  each,  on  the  beach,  so 
that  it  may  be  known  to  what  points  to  direct  the 
boats  and  rafts  without  confusion.  A  strong  party 
for  each  shoidd  be  on  shore  to  secure  the  rafts  vipon 
touching,  to  haul  up  the  gvms  and  cais,sons,  and  to 
take  care  of  the  horses.  Unless  there  is  some  special 
reason  to  the  contrary,  horses  \s\\\  always  Ix'  landed 
first.  This  gives  them  an  opportunity  of  resting  and 
recovering  from  the  trip  wbUe  the  maUrkl  is  being 
landed. 

As  a  last  resort,  the  horses  maybe  swum  ashore, 


and  the  maUriel  landed  in  the  ship's  boats — a  very 
tedious  operation.  The  horse  is  lowered  over  the 
side  by  slinging;  a  boat  must  be  in  attendance  below 
to  unhook  the  fall  and  clear  the  sling.  A  man  in  the 
small  boat  takes  him  by  the  halter  and,  conducting 
him  a  short  ilistance,  gives  him  the  proiKT  direction 
to  the  shore;  without  tbis  jirecaution,  horses  some- 
times become  bewildered  and  swim  around  the  vessel 
until  exhausted.  When  the  deck  of  the  ves.sel  is  low, 
.say  not  over  ten  feet,  and  there  is  a  gangway,  the 
hor.se.s  may  be  backed  off  into  the  water  without 
slinging.  This  method  should  not,  however,  be  re- 
sorted to  if  it  can  possitily  be  avoided;  it  is  liable  to 
strain  and  injure  the  animal,  and  will  everafter  make 
him  timid  and  shy  about  taking  the  water  when  it  is 
necessjiry  to  cro.ss  streams  on  the  march. 

Siege-guns  are  eniharkid  and  tlisembarked  in  the 
same  general  manner  as  light  field  pieces.  When 
gang-planks  are  used,  they  are  hauled  up  or  let  down 
l)y  means  of  tackle.  When  embarking  from  a  wharf 
or  raft  without  gang  planks,  the  piece  is  run  with  its 
carriaire  under  the  ship's  tackle;  the  gun  is  slung  and 
hoiste(l  aboard  and  lowered  onto  the  deck  or  into  the 
hold.  In  disembarking,  the  carriage  is  first  \i\\\  upon 
the  wharf  or  raft, under  the  ship's  tackle,  and  the 
piece  then  lowered  onto  it. 

When  it  is  necessarj*  to  land  heavy  guns  by  means 
of  lighters,  or  from  small  ves.sels,  the  latter  may  be 
beached  at  high  tide;  the  pieces  are  raised  by  block- 
ing and  skids  until  they  can  lie  rolled  down  two  in- 
clined skids  from  the  vessi'l  to  the  beach,  where  they 
are  received  upon  skids  or  blocks  of  sufficient  size  to 
jirevent  them  from  burjing  themselves  in  the  sand. 
At  low  tide  they  are  ren'ioved  fiom  the  beach. 

Sieges,  and  similar  operations  calling  for  the  use  of 
the  heavier  classes  of  ordnance,  are  usually  of  such  a 
protracted  nature  as  to  allow  of  substantial  wharves 
being  constructed,  and  cranes,  derricks,  and  shears 
provided  for  unloading  weighty  iiKih'ritl.-  It  is  but 
loss  of  time  and  labor,  often  ending  in  failure,  to  pro- 
ceed with  imperfect  arrangements  of  this  kind. 

The  disembarkation  of  an  army  must  be  considered 
under  two  heads:  1st.  When  made  without  any 
chance  of  inteiTuptiou  from  any  enemy;  2d.  When 
made  in  presence  of  an  enemy,  or  where  an  attack  is 
possible.  So  far  as  artillery  is  concerned,  the  first 
of  (hese-  conditions  has  been  discussed  in  the  fore- 
going paragraphs,  and  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  enter 
into  "further  details  here. 

AVith  regard  to  the  latter,  all  questions,  political, 
strategical, "or  otherwise,  entering  into  the  object  of 
the  expedition,  having  been  .settled  by  the  proper 
authorities,  and  the  army  for  carrying  it  out  having 
been  orgjinized,  embarked,  and  the  transports  arrived 
within  the  general  limits  of  the  field  of  operations, 
the  first  thing  to  be  decided  upon  is  the  exact  place  or 
places  where  the  various  parts  of  the  command  are  to 
be  init  ashore.  Many  local  circumstances  will  in- 
fiuenee  this  decision;  among  the  most  important  of 
which  will  be  to  secure  good  anchorage  and  depth 
of  water  near  the  shore,  a  general  configuration  of 
ground  in  front  which  will  admit  of  its  being  swept 
iiy  the  fire  of  the  fleet,  a  finnand  commodious  beach, 
and  freedom  from  prevailing  winds  or  currents  which 
may  interrupt  the  disembarkation.  The  fire  of  the 
fleet  must  clear  the  country  in  front.  The  infantry  is 
first  landed  and  immediately  pushed  t)Ut  sufficiently 
far  to  keep  the  enemy  beyond  cannon-range  of  the 
landing-place:  here  it  intrenches  itself,  forming  a 
tiU-de-}iont  around  the  landing. 

Meanwhile  preparations  will  be  made  for  landing 
the  batteries.  All  the  iHiat-rafts  will  be  put  together, 
and  if  a  wharf-head  and  fioating  bridge  is  to  be  con- 
structed it  will  Ix-  commenced  at  once.  Steam-tugs 
must  be  in  attendance  for  towing  the  rafts,  carrying 
orders,  and  other  miscellaneous  duties.  The  Artil- 
Icrj-  Commander  designates  the  order  in  which  the 
batteries  are  to  disembark,  and  will  sec  that  the  trans- 
ports take  proper  positions  for  effecting  this  without 
causing  intervals  of  imneccssury  delay. 


DISEKBOOT. 


488 


DISK. 


If  ilu'  attocks  of  the  enemy  arc  formidaMe  and  per- 
si'itfiil  iliiuaiKliii!:  till-  imnudiatc  service  of  artillery, 
the  iruus  of  sivenil  or  of  all  the  batteries  may  be 
laiulwl  without  their  horses,  and  taken  to  positions  ou 
the  line  1>V  hand,  or  by  the  horses  of  one  of  the  bat- 
teries landed  for  that  spitial  puriX)se. 

When  the  expedition  is  larpe  anil  the  nunilwr  of 
inin>iiK)rls.  store-ships,  etc.,  great,  the  worst  of  con- 
fu-ion  will  aris«'  iiid<ss  some  system  of  marking  and 
ilistiuiiiishin':  them  is  adopted.  The  Ix'st  method  is 
for  eaeh  t>ne  to  carry,  instead,  of  her  own  burgee, 
the  liistiniruishiug  flag  of  the  corps  to  which  the 
trimps  on  tx.ard  belong.  This  will  show  at  a  glance 
whether  thev  are  infantrj-,  artillery,  or  cavalry,  and 
In  what  corps,  di\ision,"and  brigade  they  belong.- 
Besides  tliis,  each  ves,sel  should  have  a  ntiinber 
painled.  as  large  as  possible,  on  each  quarter.  AVhcn 
embarking,  a  memorandum  is  kept  and  furnished  to 
Commandins:  and  Staff  Otticers  .showing  what  troops 
are  on  board" of  each  transport.  The  Chief  of  Trans- 
jiorts.  who  .should  be  a  Quartermaster  selected  for  his 
])ractieal  capacitv  in  such  business,  designat<s  thi> 
aiichorau'e-ground  for  each  part  of  the  command,  and 
sees  that  thev  move  up  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the 
required  order  to  the  place  of  debarkation.  It  is 
with  him  that  the  Artillery  Commander  communi- 
cates in  reference  to  the  movements  of  the  artillery 
transports.     See  Tramiiorls. 

DISEMBODY. — To  disarm  a  military  body,  and  to 
cli^lHiist-  with  its  siTviees  for  any  stated  period.  The 
«li-Minbudvini:  of  the  militia  is  an  instance  in  point. 

DISENGAGE.— 1.  To  separate  the  wings  of  a  bat- 
talion or  regiment,  which  is  neces.sary  when  the  bat- 
talion counter-marches  from  its  center  and  on  its 
center  by  tiles.  2.  To  clear  a  column  or  line  which 
luav  have  lost  its  proper  front  by  the  overhqiping  of 
anv  i>articular  division.  3.  To  extricate  one's  self  and 
the  troops  commanded  from  a  critical  situation.  4. 
To  break  suddenly  from  any  particular  order  in  line 
or  column,  and  to  repair  to  ".some  rallying-poiiil.  5. 
In  bayonet  exercise  or  fencing,  to  quit  that  side  of  an 
enemy's  blade  on  which  one  is  opposed  by  his  guard, 
in  order  to  eflect  a  cut  or  thrusi  where  an  oiiportunity 
may  present.  The  movement  is  executed  as  follows; 
Being  engaffed  in  lUra,  number  two  covered,  the  In- 
structor commands:  1.  l^umber  one,  2.  DisENG.\(iK. 
dumber  one  passes  his  bayonet  quickly  under  the 
bayonet  of  number  two,  to  the  left  side,  and  lunges 
as'explained  for  the  lunye  in  qmirte.  Number  two, 
as  soon  as  he  loses  the  touch  of  his  adversarj-,  executes 
the  quarte,  prime,  or  butt-parry,  and  then  thrusts  or 
lunges  at  command.  Being  engaged  in  (piarte,  num- 
l)er"two  covered,  immber  one  disengages  from  the 
left  to  the  right  side,  and  lunges  as  explained  for  the 
liiniji'  ill  titrr)'.  Number  two,  as  soon  as  he  loses  the 
touch  of  his  adversary,  parries  in  tierce  or  seconde  and 
then  thrusts  or  lunges  at  command.  See  Baytmet- 
eierrime  and  Enf/arje. 

DISGRACEFUL  CONDUCT.— In  the  army  this  term 
implies  cnnduct  inildcoming  an  officer  or  soldier,  and 
includes  the  following  crimes:  fraudulently  misap- 
plying public  money  or  stores;  malingering  and  feign- 
ing disease;  willfully  maiming  or  mutilating;  maiming 
or  injuring  another  soldier;  tampering  with  eyes; 
stealing  or  feloniously  receiving:  offense  of  a  felonious 
or  fraudulent  nature  upon  a  civilian;  indecent  assault; 
jiroducing  false  or  fraudulent  accounts  or  return.s.  For 
each  iif  which  crimes  an  otliceror  soldier  can  be  tried 
by  a  (Jencral  CoiirlMarlial. 

■  DISH  OF  A  WHEEL.— The  inclination  or  angle  with 
the  nave  given  to  the  spokes  of  a  gun-wheel.  The 
most  severe  sire.ss  to  which  spokes  are  subject  is  from 
the  lateral  thnist  brought  to  l)ear  upon  the  nave  w lien 
one  wheel  becomes  lower  than  the  other  by  slipping 
into  a  nit,  etc.  In  order,  therefore,  to  place  them  in 
a  iK'lter  position  to  resist  this  thrusi,  the  wheel  is 
"dished,"  or  formed  into  a  kind  of  dome;  and  just  a.s 
the  dome  or  arch  is  strong,  from  its  form,  to  resist 
pr<-xsure  upfin  the  crown  tending  to  crush  it  in,  so  is 
the  wbcvl  made  strong  by  the  dish  to  resist  the  lateral 


thrust  tending  to  force  the  nave  outwards.  In  fact, 
not  only  do  the  spokes,  sustained  by  the  tire,  yield 
mutual'support  to  each  other,  but  the  lateral  thrust 
upon  each  becomes  partly  converted  into  a  compress- 
ing strain,  w  hich  the  wood  has  lietter  power  to  resist. 
The  irreater  the  dish,  the  stronger  the  wheel  will  be  to 
resist"  the  lateral  strain ;  but  no  more  dish  .should  be 
given  than  necessiiry  for  the  safety  of  the  spokes. 
See  Arrhihdld  WlwJ axuX  Wheel. 

DISJUNCTOB.— This  important  apparatus,  as  ap- 
plied to  the  chronoscope  and  shown  in  the  drawing  in 
section,  is  composed  of  a  mainspring,  t,  carrying  a 


cro&s-pieco  covered  with  insulating  material,  and  pass- 
ing under  the  two  steel  plates,  q.  By  pressing  the 
milled-headed  screw,  s,  the  spring  is  compressed  and 
held  by  the  catch,  .r,  allowing  the  plates  to  come  into 
conlac't  with  the  metid  pins,  r,  and  thus  complete  the 
circuits  by  bringing  the  two  screws  into  connection 
with  one  another.  "When  the  catch,  r,  is  pressed,  the 
mainspring  being  released,  its  cross-piece  strikes  the 
two  iilates  exactly  at  the  same  instant,  raises  them 
from  the  screws,  and  thus  breaks  both  currents  iden- 
tically at  the  same  time.  The  arrangement  of  the 
.screws  and  electric  current  is  precisely  the  same  as 
when  using  the  Navez-Leurs  instrument,  except  that 
the  chronometer-battery  must  be  increased  in  strength 
(because  its  electro-magnet  is  required  to  support  a 
greater  weigbt  than  in  the  Navez-Leurs  instrument), 
and  a  different  method  adopted  for  introducing  the 
disjunctor  into  the  circuit.  With  the  Le  BouJenge 
chronograph,  the  two  wires  from  the  positive  poles  of 
the  batteries  are  not  joined  as  \\-ith  the  Navez-Leurs, 
but  are  taken  to  the  two  connecting  screws  of  the  dis- 
junctor; antl  thus  the  two  currents,  though  passing 
through  the  disjunctor,  are  kept  entirely  separate. 
See  Le  Boulenr/i-  Chroitograph. 

DISK. — An  instrument  for  circular  measurements 
employed,  in  the  insjx'Ction  of  cannon,  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  tjvke  the  diameter  of  the  bore  at  many  points 


of  the  circle.  There  is  a  brass  tompion,  V,  to  fit  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun,  with  a  hole  through  its  center  to 
receive  the  staff  of  the  star-gatige.  It  is  turned  to  fit 
snugly  the  bore  of  the  piece,  into  which  it  enters  two 
or  three  inches,  to  hold  it  firmly  in  place;  and  has  a 
projecting  flange  or  face  to  prevent  it  going  in  too  far. 


SISLODOE. 


489 


DISPOSITION  DE  GTIEBEE. 


The  face  is  a  plane  surface  with  its  circumference  di- 
vided into  as  many  equal  parts  as  may  be  thouirht  de- 
sirable, and  numljcred  in  reirular  order.  On  the  staff 
of  the  star-gauge  a  brass  slitlo,  X,  is  fitted,  haring  a 
thumb-screw  to  hold  it  in  any  position;  from  its  inner 
end  an  arm,  Z,  extends  at  right  angles  to  the  staff,  of 
sufficient  length  to  meet  the  points  on  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  disk  and  having  a  center-line  marked 
upon  it  This  slide  is  secured  at  any  distance  on  the 
staff  at  which  a  circular  measurement  is  desired,  and 
with  the  center-line  of  the  arm  coinciding  with  the 
center-line  of  the  stjiff;  when  the  arm  will  indicate  the 
direction  of  the  pair  of  measuring-points;  being  in  the 
same  plane  with  them. 

The  disk  is  secured  in  the  muzzle,  with  its  zero- 
mark  coinciding  with  a  light  punch-mark  on  the  muz- 
zle-face directly  below  the  liiw  of  sight,  so  that  it  is  in  a 
plane  passing  through  the  axis  of  the  piece  and  per- 
pendicular to  the  axis  of  the  tnnmions.  To  take  the 
measurements,  press  the  staff  home  until  the  arm  of 
the  slide  comes  in  contact  with  the  face  of  the  disk, 
and  turn  it  to  coincide  with  the  various  di\isions  of 
the  disk  at  which  measurements  are  desired.  The 
disk  is  divided  into  halves,  and  the  center  hole  is  re- 
inforced on  the  inside  by  a  projection,  which  is  turned 
to  receive  a  collar  that  tits  closely  around  it,  and  holds 
the  two  halves  together  when  they  are  placed  on  the 
staff.     See  Inspection  of  Ordnance  and  Star-gauge. 

DISLODGE. — In  a  military  sense,  to  drive  an  enemj' 
from  thi-  position  he  has  taken  up. 

DISMANTLE. — To  render  fortitications  incapable  of 
defense  bv  razing  them  to  the  ground. 

DISMISSION.— Xo  sentence  of  a  Court-Martial  in 
time  of  peace  dismissing  a  Commissioned  Ofiicer,  or 
which,  in  war  or  peace,  affects  a  General  Officer,  can 
be  carried  into  execution  without  the  approval  of  the 
President  of  the  United  States.  Disbursing  Officers 
may  be  dismis.sed  by  the  President  alone,  without  the 
intervention  of  a  Court -Martial,  on  failure  to  accoiuit 
properly  for  monevs  ])laced  in  their  hands.  A  Gene- 
ral Court-Martial  in  time  of  peace  may  dismiss,  with 
the  approval  of  the  President,  in  all  cases  in  which 
they  are  authorized  to  sentence  to  "death  or  such 
other  punishment  as  may  be  inflicted  by  a  General 
Court  Martial. "  Such  Court  may  also  sentence  a  Com- 
missioned Officer  to  be  ca.shiered  or  dismissed  the  ser- 
vice. In  the  English  service,  dismissiil  is  the  sentence 
p!i.s.sed  upon  an  officer  by  a  Court  Martial  for  conduct 
which  renders  him  unfit  to  remain  in  the  army.  From 
the  date  of  publishing  the  order  the  dismis.sed  officer's 
connection  with  the  army  ceases.  It  is  in  the  {X)wer 
of  Her  Majesty  to  dismiss  any  officer  from  the  service 
witlidut  bringing  him  to  trial. 

DISMOUNT.— 1.  A  word  of  command,  in  the  School 
of  the  Soldier  mounted,  for  mounted  men  to  leave  the 
saddle.  To  execute  the  conmiand.  rise  u])on  the  left 
stirrup;  p.a.ss  the  right  leg  extended  over  the  croup  of 
the  horse  without  touching  him;  l)ring  the  right  heel 
to  the  side  of  the  left;  descend  lightly  to  the  ground; 
remove  the  left  foot  from  the  stirrup,  and  place  it  by 
the  side  of  the  right,  keeping  the  body  erect;  let  go 
the  mane;  jiass  the  end  of  the  reins  over  the  |)ommcl 
of  the  siiddle  with  the  right  hand,  which  then  seizes 
the  left  rein.  (Two.)  Face  to  the  left,  take  two  short 
steps,  left  foot  first;  slip  the  right  hand  along  the  left 
rein,  and  take  the  position  of  stand  to  horse.  See 
Mount. 

2.  In  artillery,  to  take  a  piece  of  ordnance  off  its 
carriage.  With  light  gims  it  is  performed  by  the 
gim's  crew  with  the  aid  of  drag-ropes.  With  heavy 
guns,  gins  and  jacks  have  to  be  resorted  to;  but  guns 
of  moderate  weight  can  be  dismounted  by  means  of 
tackles,  rollers,  and  handspikes. 

3.  Guards,  when  relieved,  are  Siiid  to  dismount. 
They  are  marched  with  the  utmost  regularity  to  the 
parade-ground  where  they  are  paraded,  anil  from 
thence  to  their  regimental  or  company  parades,  pre- 
viou.slv  to  beini  dismi.ssed  to  their  quarters. 

DISOBEDIENCE  OF  OEDEKS.  — A  crime  severely 
punished  in  all  armies.     In  the   Uuitetl   Stales  the 


Articles  of  War  proride  that  any  officer  or  soldier 
who,  on  any  preten.se  \vhat.soever,  strikes  his  Superior 
Officer,  or  draws  or  lifts  uj)  any  weaixjn,  or  offers  any 
violence  against  him,  beiug  in  the  execution  of  his 
office,  or  di.sobeys  any  lawful  command  of  his  Su- 
perior Officer,  shall  suffer  death  or  such  other  punish- 
ment as  a  Court-Martial  may  direct. 

DISPAET.— In  gunnery,  the  dispart  is  generally  de- 
fined a."  a  patch  of  metal  placed  on  the  highest  point 
of  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  or  howitzer,  and  which  is  half 
the  difference  between  the  diameter  of  the  ba.se-ring 
and  that  of  the  swell  of  the  nuizzle.  This  definition 
will  only  strictly  apply  to  cast-iron  and  bronze  ord- 
nance. Most  of  the  dispart-sights  or  pntc/ics  are  not 
placed  near  the  muzzle,  but  on  the  top  of  the  gun, 
a  little  in  advance  of  the  trunnions;  or,  as  with  rifled 
guns,  jast  above  the  trunnions.  A  better  definition 
for  dispart  would  then  be,  half  the  difference  between 
the  diameter  of  those  parts  of  tlie  gun  upon  which  the 
sights  are  placed.  The  term  is  derived  from  the  mode 
of  ascertiiining  the  dispart,  as  shown  above,  and  dis- 
parting (diWding  in  two)  the  difference  Ix.'tween  the 
two  diameters,  which  /«/?/ difference  shows  the  taper- 
ing or  coning  of  the  metal  between  the  base  ring  and 
swell  of  the  muzzle.  This  patch  of  metal  is  intended, 
in  lajnng  the  piece,  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  arising 
from"  the  line  of  sights  or  metid  not  being  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  gun.  Disparts  are  either  fixed  or  mov- 
able.   See  Sight. 

DISPAKT-SIGHT.— A  gun-sight,  made  to  allow  for 
the  dispart,  and  bring  the  line  of  sight  and  the  axis 
of  the  piece  into  parallelism.     See  Dispart. 

DISPATCHES.— Official  mess;iges.  In  war,  impor- 
tant dispatches  which  have  to  pass  through  the  ene- 
my's country,  or  in  the  \-icinity  of  his  forces,  are  only 
intrusted  to  officers  to  whom  their  contents  can  be 
confided.  Dispatches  are  frequently  in  cipher,  espe- 
cially when  telegraphed  or  signaleil  with  a  liability  to 
intercc]ition.     See  Cryptography. 

DISPERSE. — In  a  military  sense,  the  power  which 
an  armeil  liody,  cither  better  handled  or  in  larger 
numbers,  has  of  scattering  a  hostile  force  drawn  up 
to  oppose  it.  Cavalr_v,  under  these  circumstances, 
forms  a  prominent  part  in  pursuing  or  di-six-rsing  the 
enemy. 

DISPLACED. — A  term,  in  the  British  service,  ap- 
plied to  fifficers  who  are  sometimes  removed  from  a 
particular  regiment  in  consequence  of  misconduct, 
but  who  are  at  lilierty  to  serve  in  any  other  corps. 

DISPLAY. — A  military  tenn  meaning  to  extend  the 
front  of  a  cohnnn,  and  thereby  bring  it  info  line. 

DISPLAYED. — In  Heraldry,  a  term  meaning  erpaJM?- 
ed;  as,  an  eagle  displayed,  or'whaf  is  commonly  known 
!us  a  spread  eagle.    See  Heraldry. 

DISPLUME. — In  a  military  .sense,  to  deprive  of  dec- 
oration or  ornament;  to  degra<ie. 

DISPOSITION.— In  military  language,  as  applied  to 
the  strategic  position  of  troops,  is  of  infinite  consider- 
ation both  in  war  and  time  of  peace.  In  the  former 
ca.se.  a  knowledge  of  the  counlri,'  in  which  the  cam- 
paign is  to  be  fought,  and  the  various  combinations 
which  should  be  carried  out,  formed  on  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  troops,  is  very  necessary  on  the  part  of  the 
General  in  command,  to  bring  matters  to  a  successful 
termination,  or  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  taking  ad- 
vantage of  a  bad  disposition  of  his  opponent's  forces 
to  hara.ss  or  break  them  up.  The  following  maxims 
from  the  memoirs  of  General  Montecuculi  arc  worth 
remembering: 

'•  Deliberate  leisurely,  execute  promptly. 

"  Let  the  sjifety  of  your  anny  be  ever  hrst. 

"  Leave  nothing  to  chance. 

"  Take  advantage  of  circumstances. 

"  Use  all  the  means  in  your  power  to  secure  a  good 
reputation." 

DISPOSITION  DE  GDEBSE.— Warlike  arrangement 
or  dis|>osition.  Under  this  bead  may  be  considered 
the  mode  of  establishing,  combining,  conducting,  and 
finally  terminating  a  war,  so  as  to  produce  success 
and  victor}'. 


DISRESPECT. 


490 


DITCH. 


DI8KE8PECT.— In  a  well-disciplined  annj"  disrespect 
is  not  toliTuted.  The  Articles  of  War  provide  that 
any  officer  or  Mjldier  in  the  I'niteii  Stales  amiy  who 
uses  contemptuous  or  disresiHTtful  words  against  the 
Prt-sident.  the  Vice  Prt-sideiit.  the  Congress  of  the 
United  S^tati-s,  or  tlie  Chief  .Magislnite  of  Legislature 
of  any  of  the  United  Stales  iu  which  he  is  quartered, 
or  wiio  behaves  hiuiself  with  disrespect  towards  his 
Coninianding  Officer,  slmll  Ije  punished  as  a  Courl- 
)Iarlial  may  din-ct. 

DISTANCE.— 1.  The  space  between  the  observer 
and  any  objtrt.  In  gunnery,  to  judge  distance  accu- 
rati  ly  is  a  high  qualitication  in  artillerymen,  as  well 
as  in  soldiers  of  the  line,  and  is  only  to  be  attained  by 
a  clear  sight,  constant  observation,  and  pnuiice  in  the 
drill  laid  down  on  Ihis  subject,  termed  •'judging 
distiuice  drill,"  the  iiitro<luction  of  which  into  the 
army  has  been  attended  with  such  excellent  results. 
Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  however, 
judging  distances  by  the  eye  is  not  to  be  depended 
upon,  and  this  is  so  much  felt  in  the  artillery  service 
that  to  each  gun  a  nuigefinder  will  doubtless  be  at- 
tached, iriving  the  distance  of  objects  very  accuratel.v, 
and  rendering  it  unuecesssiry  to  depend  on  the  eye. 

2.  A  tenn'in  tactics,  e.\pressing  the  relative  space 
left  between  troops  in  the  ranks,  after  a  formation  or 
movement.  Dutiinee  is  estimated  perpendicularly  to 
the  front,  while  interml  is  estimated  parallel  to  llie 
front.  When  mountitl,  the  following  distances  are 
approved:  distance  between  companies  in  column  of 
fours  is  9  yards  (front  of  four  troopers,  plus  .5  yards); 
distance  between  companies  in  column  of  platoons  is 
platoon  front,  plus  5  yards;  distance  between  com- 
panies in  column  of  companies  is  company  front, 
plus  5  yards;  in  echelon  of  companies,  distance  be- 
tween companies  is  company  front,  plus  .5  yards;  in 
echelon  formed  from  line  of  platoon  column,  distance 
between  companies  is  platoon  front,  plus  5  yards;  in 
echelon  of  double  columns,  distance  between  com- 
panies is  9  yards;  dist;ince  between  companies  in 
close  colunm  is  12  yards;  full  distance  between  com- 
panies in  double  column  of  fours  is  i  company  front, 
plus  9  yards;  dosed  distance  between  companies  iu 
double  column  of  fours  is  9  yards;  full  distance  be- 
tween companies  in  column,  double  rank,  is  front  of 
company  in  single  rank,  plus  1  yard;  closed  distance 
between  companies  in  column,  double  rank,  is  front 
of  comiiany  in  double  rank,  i)lus  1  yard;  interval  be- 
tween c<'mpanies  in  line,  single  or  double  rank,  is  8 
yards;  full  interval  between  companies  in  line  of 
platoon  columns  is  companj'  front,  plus  M  yards,  less 
the  front  of  one  platoon;  closed  interval  between  com- 
panies in  line  of  platoon  columns  is  12  yards;  full 
interval  between  companies  in  line  of  double  columns 
is  front  of  company  in  line;  closed  interval  between 
companies  in  line  of  double  columns  is  \  front  of 
company  in  line;  full  interval  between  companies  in 
line  of  companies  in  columns  of  fours  is  front  of 
company  in  line,  plus  4  yards;  half  interval  between 
companies  in  line  of  conijianies  in  columns  of  fours 
is  (  front  of  companv  in  line.  pliu>  4  vards 

DISTANCE  OF  THE  BASTION.— In  forlilication,  a 
general  tenn  al>plle(i  to  tin-  exlerior  polygon. 

DISTANT  DEFENSE.— A  defense  consisting  in  be- 
ing able  to  inlernipl  the  enemy's  movements" liy  cir- 
cuilou-i  inundations;  lo  inundate,  for  instance,  a 
hridge  when  a  convoy  is  passing,  or  to  insulate  bat 
teries,  the  heads  of  siips,  or  hxlgments  w  hich  have 
been  made  in  the  covered-way.  By  this  species  of 
defense  an  enemy's  communications' may  be  ])erpetu- 
ally  intercepted,  and  his  approaches  so  ob.structcd  as 
lo  force-  him  lo  leave  danirerous  inler\als. 

DISTLLATION.— The  se-paralion  of  a  body  from 
cxirancous  sulishinces  by  its  conversion  into" vapor, 
its  removal  in  that  state,  and  ils  subseepienl  conden- 
sation. The  operation  is  lerme<l  (linlUUitinu  if  the 
va|>or  assumes  the  form  of  liepiid  upon  condensiition, 
even  if  lliat  liquid  should  solidify  upon  further  cool- 
ing. The  vessels  used  for  distilling  are  few  and  sim- 
ple; those  for  raising  the  temperature  of  the  water  are 


!  generally  of  metal,  and  termed  stilU.  A  still  consists 
of  a  lK)iler  to  contain  the  liquid,  to  which  is  adapted 
a  head  terminating  in  a  beak,  which  tits  into  the  con- 
densing apparatus.  There  are  scvend  forms  of  con- 
densers in  general  use — among  them  the  Wuriu  and 
the  Luhiq. 

DISTORTED  SECTION.— The  name  applied  to  a 
method  of  apiini.viiuately  determining  the  center  of 
gravity  of  a  gun  by  experiment.  A  figure  dillering 
from  ii  longitudinal  half-section  of  the  gun  by  the 
substitution  in  the  place  of  the  ordinates  representing 
semi-iliametersof  those  proportionate  to  the  squares  of 
the  diameters  is  cut  from  cardboard  or  other  material 
of  uniform  weight  for  a  given  area.  In  this  a  point 
of  suspension  from  which  the  axis  a.ssumes  a  horizon- 
tal position  is  readily  foimd  by  trial,  and  its  ]x>sition 
relative  to  the  length  of  the  figure  is  the  .same  as  that 
of  the  center  of  ghnnty  in  the  gun.  In  the  applica- 
tion of  the  method  a  convenient  scale  for  the  length 
of  the  gun  and  for  abscis.sas  in  the  line  of  its  axis  is 
one  tenth.  For  the  ordinates  it  w  ill  asually  be  con- 
venient to  take  one  hundredth  of  the  square  of  semi- 
diamelers.  The  principles  involved  will  hardly  need 
explanation.  Ana»  are  made  to  correspond  to  vol- 
umes, imd  occupy  the  same  relation  to  the  center  of 
gnjvity.  An  extension  of  the  plan  gives  a  means  of 
ascertaining  approximately  the  ireiijUt  of  a  gun.  It 
will  be  found  that  the  area  of  the  figure  drawn  on  the 
scale  proposed  presents  one  square  inch  for  everj- 
3141.6  cubic  inches  of  volinne  of  the  giui.  The  area 
may  conveniently  be  found  by  comparing  the  weight 
of  the  irregular  piece  of  cardboard  with  that  of  a  care- 
fully measured  rectangular  piece  cut  from  the  same 
sheet.  The  volume  of  the  gun  being  found  in  cubic 
inches,  the  only  remaining  step  to  find  its  weight  is, 
of  course,  to  multiply  by  the  weight  per  cubic  inch. 
Cardboard  of  the  better  sort  is  commonly  very  uni- 
form in  weight  iu  parts  of  the  same  sheet.  See  Center 
of  G  I'd  vita,  and  Cciitrobnrk  Method. 

DISTORTION. — The  rules  of  perspective  impose 
certain  conditions  in  the  delineation  of  natural  ob- 
jects, and  when  the  image  formed  by  a  lens  on  the 
focusing-screen  of  a  camera  obscura  does  not  fulfill 
those  conditions,  it  is  said  to  Ije  distorted.  The  effect 
of  distortion  is  to  render  all  straight  lines  which  do 
not  pass  through  the  center  of  the  lens  curvilinear,  and 
also  .so  to  alter  the  relative  proportionsof  objects  in  the 
picture  as  to  be  opposed  to  the  principles  of  true  per- 
sjieetive.  Distortion,  in  the  camera  obscura,  is  gener- 
ally produced  by  the  eccentrical  incidence  of  the 
oblique  pencils. 

DISTRIBUTION. — In  a  general  military  sense,  any 
division  or  allotment  made  for  the  purposes  of  war: 
also  minor  arrangements  made  for  the  supply  of 
corps. 

DISTRICT. — The  term  Military  District  is  applied 
to  one  of  those  portions  into  which  a  country  is  di- 
vided for  the  convenience  of  command  and  to  insure 
a  co-o])eration  between  distant  bodies  of  troops.  Be- 
fore >Ir.  CardweU's  Act  of  1872  England  was  ilivided 
into  four  Districts,  and  Ireland  into  five,  while  Scot- 
land formed  one.  Xow  there  are  nine  general  Dis- 
tricts in  England — namely,  the  Northern,  with  Man- 
chester as  its  headquarters;  the  Eastern,  w  ith  Colches- 
ter; the  Southern,  Portsmouth;  the  Southeastern, 
Dover;  the  Home  District,  London;  the  Chatham; 
the  Woolwich;  the  Aldersholt.  In  Ireland  there  are 
four— Belfast,  Dublin,  Cork,  and  the  Curragh.  Scot- 
land is  still  one  District,  with  Edinburgh  as  head- 
quarters. Jei-sey  is  a  Military  District;  and  Guernsey 
and  Aldernev  form  another. 

DISVELOFED.  —  A  term  in  Heraldry  applied  to 
the  colors  of  a  regiment  or  army,  which  are  said, 
heraldically,  to  be  disveloped  when  flying.  Also 
written  Deielnped. 

DITCH. — The  ditch,  sometimes  called /«««<■,  is  the 
excavation  made  round  the  works,  from  which  the 
earth  required  for  the  construction  of  the  rampart, 
parapet,  and  banquette  is  obtained.  In  besieging 
a  fortification,  when  the  ditch  is  dry,  and  a  descenu- 


DITCH-DEFENSES. 


491 


DIVEESIOir. 


ing  gallerj-  has  been  constructed,  the  passiigc  of  the 
ditch  consists  of  an  ordinary  sap  pushed  from  the 
opening  in  the  countcrsmrp-wall  to  the  slope  of  the 
breach,  and,  when  necessary,  it  is  carried  on  to  crown 
the  summit  of  the  breach.  If  the  ditch  be  full  of 
water,  and  the  locality  favors  its  being  drained,  every 
means  must  be  used  to  break  the  batardeaiix,  to  cause 
the  water  to  How  away  entirely  or  in  part.  If  none 
of  the  batteries  win  see  the  batardeaux,  the  sluices 
must  be  sought  and  destroyed  by  shells,  or  by  min- 
ing. Should  the  a.ss:ulants  be  unable  to  breach  the 
batardeaux  or  to  destroy  the  sluices,  a  bridge  or 
causeway  must  be  thrown  across.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  operations  in  a  siege.  The  bridge  or 
causeway,  with  its  epauleraent,  is  constructed  with 
pontons  or  casks,  or,  if  without  them,  with  fa,scines, 
hurdles,  gabions,  and  Siind-bags,  openings  being  left 
in  the  causeway  to  allow  the  free  flowing  of  the 
water,  if  it  be  a  ruiming  stream,  or  can  be  made  so  by 
the  defenders.  A  wet  ditch  may  sometimes  be 
crossed  by  a  nuft  of  sufficient  length,  which  should  be 
constructed  along  the  counterscarp,  and  attached  by 
one  end  to  the  bottom  of  the  descent.  The  raft  is 
then  allowed  to  swing  round  with  the  current,  if 
there  be  one,  or  is  rowed  or  pulled  round,  if  there  is 
not  one,  so  as  to  form  a  connection  across  the  ditch 
with  the  breach. 

The  ditch  should  be  regulated  to  furnish  the  earth 
for  the  parapet.  To  determine  its  dimensions  the 
following  points  require  attention:  its  depth  should 
not  be  less  tfuin  su-  fett,  nor  its  width  Uss  than  twiire 
feet,  to  present  a  respectable  obstacle  to  the  enemy. 
It  cannot,  with  convenience,  be  made  deeper  than 
titehe  feet ;  and  its  greatest  width  is  regulated  by  the 
inclination  of  the  superior  slope,  which,  produced, 
should  not  pass  below  the  crest  of  the  a/iinterscarp. 
If  we  assume  the  height  and  thickness  of  the  parapet, 
we  can  calculate  the  dimensions  of  the  ditch  as  fol- 
lows: Denote  by  U  the  volume  of  the  iiarajiet,  .S  the 
area  of  the  protile  of  the  parapet,  and  /  the  right  line 
generated  by  the  centerof  gra\ity  of  the  protile  of  the 
parapet,  supposing  this  protile  moving  parallel  to 
itself,  and  generating  the  volume  of  the  parapet 
under  consideration.  Denote  by  M  .  S',  and  l  similar 
quantities  for  the  ditch.  The  volumes  for  the  parapet 
and  the  ditch,  for  any  part  of  the  work  imder  consid- 
eration, will  be  expressed  as  follows: 


and  solving  with  respect  to  y,  and  taking  the  minus 
sign  of  the  radical,  it  gives 


y  =  i  tan  ^  la;  —  V«»  —  JS'  cot  tp  j. 


(6) 


R=Sxl     and      R  =  Sxl. 


(1) 


Earth  when  made  into  an  embankment  occupies  a 
greater  space  than  it  did  in  the  natural  state.    Denote 

this  increase  of  volume  by  — .     Since  the  volume  of 

ni 

the  earth  in  embankment  is  furnished  by  the  volume 
excavated  from  the  ditch,  there  results 


Substituting  in  equation  (3)  the  values  taken  from 
equations  (1),  there  results 

M^ (^) 


S'=S 


It  will  be  sufficiently  exact  to  take  I'  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  middle  line  of  the  ditch;  which  being 
substituted  gives  S'  in  known  terms.  Assume  the 
slope  of  the  scarp  i  and  the  counterscarp  A  greater 
than  the  natural  slope.  Represent  the  width  of  the 
ditch  at  top  by  -f,  and  its  depth  at  the  middle  by 
?/.  Denote  the  angle  of  the  natural  slope  by  (p.  Using 
this  notation,  the  area  of  the  protile  of  the  ditch  is 
given  as  follows: 

.     .     (4) 


S  =ff{jr-  j^y  cot  <f>y 


Solving  equation  (4)  with  respect  to  x,  there  results 

7  S 

« =  Jgy  cot  <p  +  - ;      .     .     .     .     (n) 


From  these  equations  (5  and  6)  y  can  be  assumed  and 
T  deduced,  or  x  assumed  and  i/  deduced.  Making 
tfi  =  45%  these  bust  equations  reduce  to 

«  =  /o  y  +  y     and     y  =  ^(.r  -  V^^Tj^  j. 

It  should  be  rememlx-red,  in  a-ssuming  values  for  x 
and  //,  that  x  must  not  l)e  less  than  twelve  feet,  and  y 
not  less  than  six  nor  greater  than  twelve  feet.  In 
practice  it  will  be  sufriciently  accurate  to  calculate 
the  area  of  the  assumed  protile,  assume  a  depth  for 
the  ditch,  and,  without  making  an  allowance  for  the 
increase  of  volume  of  the  eartli  in  the  embankment, 
divide  the  area  of  the  protile  by  the  assmned  depth  of 
the  ditch.  The  result  will  give  the  width  of  the 
ditch  at  the  top. 

DITCH-DEFENSES.— There  are  two  kinds  of  ar- 
rangements employed  on  the  exterior  of  a  parapet 
to  add  to  the  strength  of  a  work;  viz.,  the  arrange- 
ments made  to  defend  the  ditch,  and  those  made  to 
obstruct  an  enemy's  approach.  The  term  clitth- 
defense  is  used  to  designate  the  aiTangement  made 
exterior  to  the  parapet  by  which  a  fire  is  made  to 
sweep  the  ditch.  The  term  nbsiurle  is  applied  to 
any  construction  or  arrangement,  whatever  may  be 
its  nature,  wiiich,  by  its  passive  resistance,  obstructs 
the  approach  of  an  enemy  advancing  to  assault  the 
work.  Hence  anything  is  an  obstacle  which  diverts 
the  attention  of  the  enemy  from  the  assault  to  the 
immediate  suiToundings  of  himself.  The  surest 
defense  for  a  ditch  is  a  good  Hanking  arrangement 
of  the  work  itself:  but  as  this  is,  in  many  cases,  im- 
practicable, owing  cither  to  the  relief  or  to  the  plan, 
tiank-defenses  must  be  procured  by  a  construction 
made  in  the  ditch.  Several  methods  may  !«•  resorted 
to  for  this  jiurpose,  the  structures  being  termed 
ctipiiiiieres,  .mirji  ami  roiintersoirp  galleries. 

DIVERGENT  RETREAT.— In  marches  in  retreat, 
like  those  in  advance,  the  same  general  rule  holds  of 
keeping  to  a  single  line,  so  as  to  have  our  fractions 
well  in  hand  to  oppose  the  greatest  force  possible  to 
the  enemy.  Those  retreats  that  are  termed  divergent, 
or  errentrie,  and  which  are  made  at  the  siime  time  on 
divergent  routes  to  deceive  the  enemy  and  render  bis 
pursuit  uncertain,  are  extremely  dangerous.  In 
separating,  to  follow  the.sc  divergent  lines,  we  weaken 
ourselves  on  every  point;  the  corps,  being  isolated, 
offer  no  mutual  support;  they  are  easily  beaten,  and, 
being  forced  upon  any  imiwssjible  obstacle,  or  sur- 
rotiiided,  must  be  either  annihilated  or  forced  to  sur- 
render. The  enemy,  without  allowing  his  attention 
to  be  drawn  off  froiii  his  object,  will  stick  to  one  of 
these  fractions  until  he  has  destroyed  it,  knowing 
that  the  others  must  fall  an  easy  prey  wherever  they 
may  be  found,  as  from  their  ilispersed  condition  they 
can  offer  no  effectual  resistance.  Jlerely  to  keep 
them  from  reuniting  will  be  enough  for  present 
purposes.  There  is  but  one  case  in  w  liicli  our  forces 
can  be  dispersed  with  siifety,  and  that  is  when  we 
have  ,iust  gained  a  decisive  victory  and  are  in  the 
presence  of  an  enemy  who,  having  lost  his  communi- 
cations, is  entirely  disorg.mi/.ed  and  demoralized.  la 
this  position  of  affairs  we  have  only  to  throw  our 
force  into  the  midst  of  thesi-  broken-up  fractions  to 
determine  them  to  tly.  We  may  here  attempt  any 
blow;  no  movements  can  fail  to  turn  out  well  except 
those  whicli  are  too  slow  and  methodical.  This 
exception  onlv  becomes  legitimate  tmderthe  supposi- 
tion that  the"  disorgjiuization  and  demoralization  of 
the  defeated  armv  are  complete. 

DIVERSION.— In  connection  with  marches  as  stra- 
tegical movements,  thosi-  operations  ]ierfomied  by 
det;ichments.  made  to  favor  some  design  of  the  main 
IkxIv,  and  termed  dirfrsions.  find  a  place.  Diver- 
sions, and  detachments  made  to  aid  the  operations  of 


DITISE. 


492 


DIVIDING-ENGINE. 


the  main  body,  when  they  have  a  lonp  circuit  to 
iiccomplish,  are  contrary  to  sound  strateginil  prin- 
cipk-s. 

In  war,  a«  in  every  other  art  base<l  upon  settled 
princi|)les,  iherv  are  exceptions  to  all  jjiMienil  rules. 
II  is  in  disifrninsr  these  cast's  that  the  talent  of  the 
Genend  is  slunvn.  Diversions  Ixlong  to  this  class  of 
exceptions.  There  are  cases  where  they  are  not  only 
called  for,  lull  are  iniix-rjitive  upon  the  General.  As, 
for  example,  when  there  is  some  position  held  by  the  • 
enemy  that  must  be  carried  before  any  other  step  can 
be  taken,  a  diversion  mav  l)e  made  either  to  threaten 
his  line  of  communications,  or  to  seize  some  C(>m- 
mandinjr  jxiint  near  his  position  which,  by  forcinsr 
him  to  detach  to  meet  the  dan.ser  to  him,  will  s<5 
weaken  him  as  to  allow  us  to  make  our  main  attack 
with  g(X)d  pnxspccts  of  success.  Cases  of  this  kind 
are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  mountainous  positions, 
where,  in  order  to  force  the  enemy  from  some  van- 
tai^'-ground,  a  diversion  on  his  flank  or  rear  has  to 
be  made  liy  a  long  circuit.  Here  the  exception  be- 
comes the  rule.  Still,  even  in  such  cases  care  should 
be  taken  to  call  in  the  detachment  as  soon  as  the 
risult  is  obt.'iined,  and  fall  back  upon  the  nde  of 
concentration  and  unity  of  operations.  Besides, 
diversions  are  less  dangerous  in  countries  broken  by 
fori'sls  and  mountains,  as  the  enemy  finds  it  more 
dirticult  to  throw  himself  between  the  main  Iiody  and 
the  detachment  than  in  a  country  which  has  but  f('W 
such  obstructions  and  masks.  In  a  mountainous  ; 
region  a  small  corps  may  find  it.self  in  a  narrow 
valley,  where  il  can  neither  be  turned  by  its  rear  nor 
by  it.s  flanks,  and  where  a  large  lx)dy  would  not  find 
room  to  fight.  In  such  ca.ses  the  isolated  corps  need 
only  Ix-  strong  enough  to  defend  themselves  in  front 
along  the  valleys  they  occupy.  Here  dissemination 
of  our  forces  is  only  an  apparent  violation  of  the 
general  principle;  as,  by  falling  back,  each  cor])s  has 
.still  its  line  of  retreat  st'cure,  and  all  can  concentrate 
on  some  cenlnil  i)oint  in  rear  of  the  mountaiu-pas.ses. 
Another  exception  is  found  where  our  force  is  very 
superior  to  that  of  the  enemy,  and  that  we  can  belter 
subsist  our  troops  by  separating  them.  Here  we 
but  follow  a  rule  of  Xaix>leoii  which  he  invariably 
put  in  practice;  which  is,  to  disperse  our  foree  to 
fiilm'M  itiid  to  miicfntratf  for  battle.  However  simple 
this  rule  may  ap|X'ar,  none  but  an  able  General  can 
carry  it  out  successfully  in  ])ractice;  for  it  supposes  a 
talent  for  military  combinations  possessed  alone  by 
Generals  of  this  class.  When  our  superiority  in 
strength  and  morale  is  decidedly  su])erior  to  that  of 
our  adversary,  we  may  then  resort  to  diversions  to 
threaten  his  communications,  to  force  him  to  abandon 
his  fortified  positions,  to  tnake  raids  into  his  territory, 
placing  them  under  contribution,  etc.  All  operations 
of  this  character,  undertaken  even  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  nnist  tw  carried  out  with 
promptitude,  vigor,  and  even  audacity,  to  insure 
success.  If  made  against  a  timid,  irresolute  C'om- 
miuider,  the  chances  of  their  success  are  still  further 
increa.sed.  But  unless  such  favorable  circumstances 
co-<iperate,  it  will  !«•  .safer  not  to  lisk  them. 

DIVIDE.— In  order  to  successfully  travel  the  moun- 
tains il  is  neeessiiry  to  understand  their  complete 
make-up  and  to  know  how  to  skillfully  follow  the 
rfi'n'rfc*.  When  a  divide  separates  the  waters  of  two 
streams  not  unriiiig  with  each  other  it  is  known  as  a 
principeil  diriite,  and  always  affords  the  best  route  of 
travel.  The  .sides  of  eaiions  and  ravines  are  fre- 
quenllv  so  precipitous  that  it  is  neither  advisable  nor 
]>ossible  to  cross  them;  and  although  it  is  sometimes 
ca-sy  traveling  along  the  bottoms  (the  level  land  in- 
clos<'d  between  the  sides),  when  not  too  narrow  and 
rcK-ky,  the  t«'sl  route  will,  considering  all  things,  be 
found  along  the  divides.  .Such  a  route  is  frequently 
long  and  <T<X)ked,  but  it  is  a  good  one.  Su|iiX)se  it  lie 
refjuired  to  piuss  from  one  stream  to  another  parallel 
to  It,  but  separated  from  it  by  very  high  and  broken 
mountains.  To  accomplish  this  most  exjx'flitiouslv, 
follow  up  the  first  stream  to  a  point  where  we  will 


sujiposc  a  tributary  of  the  stream  puts  in.  Now  if 
there  l)e  a  good  route,  apparently,  over  the  diWdo 
alx>ve  this  tributary,  turn  and  follow  it  until  the  prin- 
cipal (iivide  is  reached.  The  route,  if  i>racti(able, 
may  lie  taken  along  the  bottom,  shoulil  water  be 
desinible.  as  far  as  necessary.  Having  reached  the 
principal  divide,  pa.ss  o\er  it  and  descend  by  any 
suitable  and  practical  divide  leading  from  the  princi- 
pal divide  to  the  other  stream.  It  will  be  found  that 
all  the  divides  lead  to  the  prinei|ial  divide,  and  hence 
there  will  be  no  doubt  as  to  finding  the  principal  di- 
vide; but  it  will  often  require  giMid  ju<lgment  in 
selecting  the  most  practicable  divide  leading  to  it. 
It  will  be  still  more  ditflcult  to  select  the  practicable 
divide  in  descending,  as  all  apix?ar  more  or  Ie.ss  prac- 
ticable from  the  summit.  The  innumerable  cul-de- 
goes  met  with  in  descending  can  only  be  avoided  by 
exercising  great  caution.  In  every  case  the  diWde 
selected  should  separate  tributary  ravines  of  two  im- 
jx>rlaiit  tributaries  of  the  stream.  It  is  ea-sily  un- 
derstood how  these  ravines  frequently  overlap  each 
other  and  render  the  route  very  sinuous.  It  is  rec- 
ommended to  follow  game-trails,  when  discovered,  in 
passing  from  one  stream  to  another.  They  usually 
follow  the  most  direct  and  practicable  route  over  a 
fair  divide.  When  arriving  at  the  steep  edge  of  a 
ridge,  and  where  difficulty  in  finding  a  good  trail  is 
anticip.ited,  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  descend  first  on  foot 
and  seek  a  trail  for  the  command  or  train  as  you 
climb  back  again.  It  is  much  easier  to  make  this 
selection  while  ascending  tlian  while  descending;  for 
when  at  the  bottom  of  a  hill  its  bluffs  and  preci- 
pices face  you,  so  that  they  may  be  readily  avoided, 
but  when  at  the  top  of  the  hill  these  parts  are  over- 
looked and  not  seen  until  closely  approached.  The 
investigation  of  ra\ines  is  the  exact  reverse  of  that  of 
the  divides;  but  localities  are  much  more  readily  lost 
when  the  ravines  proceed  thence  in  various  directions. 
On  crossing  a  divide  and  coming  upon  a  system  of 
ravines  leading  to  a  different  priiirlpal  ravine,  the 
traveler  should  make  very  sure  of  his  course  and  fre- 
((uentlytake  the  bearings  of  the  most  prominent  land- 
marks. 

DIVIDING-ENGINE.— A  machine  for  diWding  a 
circle  into  a  number  of  parts  of  equal  pro|)ortions, 
either  for  the  purpose  of  graduation,  as  the  circles  and 
arcs  of  astronomical,  surveying,  and  jilotting  instru- 
ments, or  for  spacing  off  and  cutting  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  wheel  into  teeth.  The  dividing-engine  was 
early  apiilicd  to  a  mode  of  originating  screws  by 
Pa])pus  Ale.xandriiius,  a  Greek  mathematician  of  the 
fourth  century.  The  methods  of  graduating  instru- 
ments received  much  attention  from  Tompion  (1660), 
Shan>  (1689),  and  Bird  (IT-l.'i),  the  latter  receiving  500 
pounds  from  the  Board  of  Longitude  for  his  method 
of  dividing.  Numerous  inventions  and  improve- 
ments in  tliis  line  followed.  The  methods  of  original 
ijraduation  are  not  practically  adojited  except  for  the 
largest  and  most  important  astronomical  or  geodeti- 
cal  instruments.  •Ordinary  instruments  are  graduated 
by  dividing-jilates  or  engines  which  copy  and  adapt 
a  set  of  already  existing  divisions.  The  dividing- 
plate  which  is  used  for  common  puqioses,  such  as  di- 
viding compass-rings,  etc.,  is  a  divided  circle  with  a 
steel  straight-edge  made  movable  on  the  axis  or  arbor 
of  the  plate  in  such  a  manner  that  its  edge  during 
every  i).irt  of  its  revolution  shall  fall  in  the  exact  line 
from  centiT  to  circumference.  The  ring,  protractor, 
or  other  instrument  to  be  di\ided  is  clamped  upon  the 
plate  with  its  center  exactly  coinciding  with  that  of 
the  jilate,  and  the  straight-edge  is  moved  round  and 
made  to  halt  at  the  required  divisions  on  the  circum- 
ference of  the  di\idingplate.  and  by  using  the  steel 
straight  edge  as  a  guide  corresponding  divisions  are 
marked  off  upon  the  concentric  arc  of  the  instrument 
to  lie  divided.  The  dividinij-encfine  is  a  very  complex 
machine  requiring  the  greatest  accuracy  and  care  in 
its  construction;  so  much  so  that  the  possession  of  a 
p<x>d  one  affords  the  means  of  obtaining  a  very  good 
income  with  a  moderate  amount  of  labor  in  iLsiiig  it. 


DIVINE  SEBVICE. 


493 


DIVISION. 


Such  was  tlie  case  with  the  instrument  of  Mr,  Par- 
sons of  London,  who  for  many  years  di\i(ied  a  large 
proportion  of  the  best  theodolites,  sextants,  etc.,  that 
were  made  in  Great  Britain.  Among  the  most  cele- 
brated dividing-engines  may  be  mentioned  tho.se  of 
Itiimsden,  Troughton,  Siinms,  and  Ross.  A  detailed 
account  of  the  construction  of  these  would  far  exceed 
our  limits.  Their  principal  parts  consist  of  a  large 
circle  divided  with  extreme  care  by  original  gradua- 
tion. This  wheel  is  racked  on  its  edge  with  teeth  as 
equal  and  accurate  as  the  divisions;  a  very  carefully 
constructed  endless  screw  works  in  these  teeth,  and 
is  moved  through  any  given  number  of  revolutions, 
or  any  measured  fraction  of  a  revolution,  by  means  of 
a  trejidle  or  other  suitable  power,  thus  making  the 
requisite  steps  for  each  division;  another  part  of  the 
machine  cutting  a  fine  line  at  the  moment  of  the  halt 
of  each  step.  These  divisions  are  cut  upon  an  arc  of 
silver,  gold,  or  platinum,  which  is  soldered  or  inlaid 
upon  the  limb  of  the  instnmient.  the  precious  met;ds 
being  used  on  account  of  the  oxidation  to  which  com- 
mon metals  are  liable.  In  1843  Jlr.  Simms  applied 
a  self-acting  apparatus  to  Troughton  s  circular  di\'id- 
ing-engine,  ami  an  instrument  of  this  manufacture 
maj-  lie  seen  at  the  Coast  Survey  Building,  Capitol 
Hill,  Washington.  It  has  been  somewhat  modified, 
and  is  now  driven  by  a  small  turbine  in  the  stand. 
See  Gradual  inn. 

DIVINE  SERVICE.— In  the  United  States  army  it 
is  earnestly  recommended  to  all  officers  and  soldiers 
diligently  to  attend  divine  .service.  The  Articles  of 
War  provide  that  any  officer  who  behaves  indecently 
or  irreverently  at  any  place  of  divine  worship  shall 
l)e  brought  before  a  General  Court  Martial,  there  to 
l)e  publicly  and  severely  reprimanded  by  the  Presi- 
dent thereof.  Any  soldier  who  so  offends  shall ,  for 
his  first  offense,  forfeit  one  si.xth  of  a  dollar;  for  each 
further  offense  he  shall  forfeit  a  like  sura,  and  shall 
be  confined  twenty-four  hours.  The  money  so  for- 
feited shall  be  deducted  from  his  next  pay,  and  shall 
be  applied  by  the  Captain  or  Senior  Officer  of  his 
troop,  battery,  or  company  to  the  use  of  the  sick  sol- 
diers of  the  same. 


from  difficulty  of  breathing  was  completely  cured  by 
'■  belling,"  and  that  deafness  is  not  produced  by  it, 
but.  on  the  contrarv,  is  in  some  cases  relieved. 

DIVING-DKESS.  — In  Schott's  Techniea  Ciiriosa, 
published  in  1(5(54,  is  described  a  lon'ra  ayiiatkn,  or 
aquatic  armor,  which  consisted  of  a  leathern  dress,  to 
protect  the  diver  from  the  water,  and  a  helmet.  In 
1721,  Ilalley  describes  a  contrivance  of  his  own  of 
nearly  the  same  kind;  its  object  was  to  enable  the 
diver  to  go  out  from  the  bell  and  walk  about;  he  was 
to  be  provided  with  a  water  proof  dress,  and  a  small 
di\'ing-bell,  with  glass  front,  as  a  helmet  over  his 
head,  which  was  to  be  supplied  witli  air  by  means  of 
a  lube  from  the  di\ing-bell.  The  modern  diving- 
dress  is  made  of  India-rublier  cloth;  a  strong  metal 
helmet,  with  rotmd  pieces  of  plate-glass  in  front,  rests 
upon  a  pad  on  the  shoulders;  the  air  is  supplied  to 
this  helmet  from  above,  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
the  diving  bell,  but  instead  of  the  waste  air  pas.sing 
out  below,  a  second  tube  carries  it  up.  Leaden 
weights  are  attached  to  the  side  of  the  diver,  and  thus 
he  may  descend  a  ladder  and  walk  about  below. 
He  carries  with  him  one  end  of  a  cord  communicating 
with  the  a.ssistants  above,  and  by  pulling  this,  as 
agreed  upon,  makes  a  scries  of  signals. 

DIVISION. — 1.  A  section  of  an  army,  indefinite  in 
point  of  nuinl)ers.  but  established  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience. It  often  comprises  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
artillery,  and  is  in  effect  a  small  army  in  itself,  com- 
manded by  a  General  Officer.  In  the  Crimean  War, 
for  instance,  a  di\ision  comprised  two  brigades,  each 
of  three  or  four  battalions. 

The  manner  in  which  a  division  is  posted  varies 
with  circumstances:  it  may  be  deplo}'ed  in  single 
line,  with  an  interval  of  KX)  yards  between  brigades 
for  batteries,  Fig.  1 ;  two  brigades  may  be  deployed 
in  the  first  line,  the  third  in  a  second.  Fig.  2;  the 
three  brigades  may  be  deployed  in  two  lines  each, 
Fig.  3;  or  two  brigades  may  be  deployed  in  two  lines, 
the  third  l)eing  held  in  reserve  in  line  of  masses.  Fig. 
4.  The  batteries  are  specially  assigned  by  the  Gen- 
eral of  Division  to  the  most  advantageous  positions, 
an    interval  of  100  yards  being  allowed  for  each. 


Fig.  1. 


+  t+ttt 


tttttt 


Fig.  2. 
.  tttttt  ■ 


Fig.  3. 

-  tt+tn tt+t*+  ■ 


Fig.  4. 

.  t+tt+t . 


DIVING-BELL.— A  vessel  inverted  in  water  and  let 
down  to  anv  depth  bv  means  of  a  rope,  air  occupy- 
ing the  upper  part  of  the  vessel.  By  means  of  the 
diving  bell  men  are  able  to  descend  to  great  depths, 
and  to  carrj-  on  such  submarine  openitions  a-s  niay  l>e 
necessar>'  in  masonry,  laying  stones,  and  the  like,  and 
of  keeping  under  water  for  some  hours  by  the  aid  ol 
fresh  air  supplied  by  pipes  or  barrels  attached  to  the 
bell.  The  workmen  accustomed  to  suba'iueous  exist- 
ence do  not  suffer  inconveniences;  novices  feel  pains 
in  the  head  and  cars,  but  these  pass  away  after  a  short 
initiation.    It  is  stated  that  one  man  who  had  suHerea 


The  commands  of  the  General  of  Division  are  com- 
municated through  Staff-officers;  they  should  l>e  ex- 
plicit should  be  couched  as  far  as  possible  in  tactical 
language,  and  should  be  thoroughly  comprehended 
bv  the  officers  delivering  them.  The  batlenes  re- 
ceive their  orders  throuirh  a  Chief  of  .cVrtillery.  and 
conform  in  their  movements  to  the  tactics  of  the 
!artiller\-arm.  , ,  ^    i-    •.  j  . 

The  field-exercises  of  a  dinsion  should  be  limited  to 
those  movements  most  practiced  in  active  campaign, 
such  as  deploying  into  line  from  column  of  fours; 
advancing  and  retirinir  in  line  of  battle;  changes  of 


SIVISIONAX  ASTU.LSBT. 


494 


DOMICILE. 


froDt;  change  of  front  of  one  brigade;  deployment  of 
the  reserve  brisnulc  on  its  right  or  left,  and  wilh- 
dravral  of  the  tliini  bripule  into  rescn'e;  change  of 
direction  to  the  right  or  left  by  echelon  from  the  left 
or  risrht,  and  such  other  movements  !»s  occasion  may 
require.  Brigadis  in  line  are  designated  right,  center, 
and  Uft :  or,  if  one  be  in  rear,  right,  {eft,  and  rear; 
in  column  they  arc  designated  hading,  center,  and 
n<tr.  In  order  that  no  mistjikes  may  occur  in  traas- 
mittiug  ortiers.  the  luunes  of  the  Brigade  Command- 
ers are  always  to  be  mentioned.  In  all  successive 
formations,  «ich  brigade  after  completing  the  move- 
ment -stacks  arms  and  breaks  ranks.  The  brigtide 
is  calUii  to  attention  upon  the  receipt  of  the  next 
command  from  the  General. 

2.  A  Military-  Dinsion  is  one  of  those  larger  por- 
tions into  which  a  country  is  divide<l  for  convenience 
and  to  ti.x  responsibility.  The  Unite<i  States  are  at 
present  dividtti  into  the  following  Military  Di\Tsions, 
viz.:  1.  DiWsion  of  the  Missouri,  comprehend- 
ing the  Departments  of  Missouri,  Dakota,  Te.xas, 
and  the  Platte;  headquarters  Chioago.  2.  Division 
of  the  Pacilic,  including  the  Departments  of  Cali- 
fornia, Columbia,  and  Arizona;  headquarters  San 
Francisco.  3.  Di\Tsion  of  the  Atlantic,  including 
the  Departments  of  the  East  and  the  South;  head- 
quarters Xmv  York. 

DIVISIONAL  AKTILLERY.— A  portion  of  the  fleld- 
anilkry  left  to  co-operate  with  the  division  of  in- 
fantrv  or  cjivalrv  to  which  it  is  attached. 

DIVISION  COMMANDEE.— The  Conmiander  of  a 
Division,  or  of  a  geographical  division  of  a  country. 
He  is  assimilated  to  the  Coramivnder  of  a  separate 
army,  with  the  same  powers  and  duties  in  similar 
cas<s  over  all  the  troops  within  the  limits  of  his  De- 
partment.    See  Gcgraphical  Departments  and  Diri- 

DIVISION-PLATE.— The  disk  or  wheel  in  the  gear- 
cutting  lathe,  which  is  pierced  with  various  circular 
systems  of  holes;  each  circle  represents  the  division 
of  a  circumference  into  a  given  number  of  parts. 

DOANE  LITTEE.— A  litter  of  poles  and  raw-hide, 
proposetl  by  Lieutetumt  G.  C.  Dosme,  United  States 
Army.  The  poles  are  16  feet  long,  and  the  frame  is 
so  constructed  as  to  give  a  bed  T  feet  long,  3  feet  2 
inches  wide  at  one  end  and  3i  feet  at  the  other.  A 
lariat  or  raw-hide  thong  is  used  to  cord  the  bed-space 
in  the  following  manner:  Tie  one  end  at  a  comer 


yards.  It  was  in  1847  that  an  item  first  appeared  in 
the  estimates  of  £20,000  for  training  and  exercising 
al)Out  9000  men  in  these  battalions.  Clerks,  artisans, 
imd  laborers  formed  the  body.  The  Colonel  was  a 
naval  officer,  and  commissions  were  given  to  the 
otlier  officers.  The  men  received  remunenition  for 
time  lost  in  drilling.  A  few  hours  per  week  in  sum- 
mer were  set  apart  for  drilling  under  the  management 
of  Sergeants  and  Corporals  of  Marines.  At  first  tlie 
enlistment  was  voluntarj',  afterwards  compulsory. 
The.se  battalions  were  aliollshed  in  1861. 

DOG. — A  clamp  fastened  to  a  piece  suspended  on 
the  centers  of  a  lathe,  and  by  which  the  rotation  of 
the  chuck  or  face-plate  is  imparted  to  the  piece  to  Ix; 
turned.  The  chuck,  known  as  the  dog  and  driver, 
has  two  pans.  The  dog  slips  upon  and  is  fastened 
by  a  set-screw  to  the  object  to  be  turned.  The  driver 
is  attached  to  the  lathe-mandrel,  and  has  a  projecting 
arm  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  dog,  and  causes 
it  and  the  work  to  revolve  with  the  mandrel. 

DOG-BOLT.— The  liolt  of  the  cap-square  placed  over 
the  trunnion  of  a  gun. 

DOLABBA. — A  rude  ancient  hatchet.  Dolabras  are 
represented  on  the  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antoninus, 
and  alx)imd  in  all  museums.  When  made  of  ffint, 
which  was  their  earliest  and  rudest  form,  they  were 
usually  c-alled  celt^. 

DOLPHINS.  —  Two  handles  formerly  placed  upon 
a  piece  of  ordnance,  with  their  centers  "over  the  center 
of  gravity,  by  which  it  was  mounted  or  dismounted. 

DOMICILE. — By  law  every  man's  domicile  is  in  the 
countn,"  where  he  has  his  permanent  residence,  or  to 
which  he  ordinarily  retm-ns  for  the  ptirpose  of  resi- 
dence after  occasional  absence;  and  in  case  of  his 
death,  the  right  of  succession  to  his  goods  and  chat- 
tels and  personal  property  of  all  sorts  is  regulated  by 
the  law  of  the  country  of  his  domicile,  afthough  he 
may  happen  to  die  beyond  its  limits.  As  regards 
military  men,  their  employment  on  duty  involving 
only  temporary  absence  iii  intention  would  not,  on 
common  principles,  cause  a  change  of  domicile;  and 
as  the  laws  of  different  States  of  the  Union  vary  on 
the  subject  of  the  right  of  succession  to  property,  the 
subject  is  of  great  interest  to  military  men.  An  offi- 
cer who  was  a  native  of  South  Carolina  died  intestate 
in  the  citv  of  New  York,  and  no  heirs  being  forth- 
coming, his  estate  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Pub- 
lic Administrator,  although  tie  Rules  and  Articles  of 


Doane  Litter. 


over  a  lashing  of  a  cross-bar  notch,  pa-ss  the  rope  over 
the  opposite  psirallel  t«ir  9  inches  advanced  from 
whore  it  is  lashed  to  the  cross-bar.  The  roj-ve  comes 
under  the  Iwr  behind  the  first  cord  and  Iwck  over  it, 
makiu!.'  a  similar  turn  over  and  under  the  other 
parallel  t«r  18  inches  from  the  point  of  stjirtinc;;  then 
liack.  gaining  18  inches  each  time,  until  it  reaches 
and  pa.vM's  over  an  interscilion  of  the  cross-tar  at  the 
other  end  of  the  heil;  then  jiass  the  rojie  under  both 
parallels  and  tack  over  the  opposite  end  of  the  bar, 
and  corrl  tack  to  the  front  end  its  l>efore.  dividinsr 
each  space  of  18  inches,  so  that  when  finisbeil  the 
spaces  will  he  9  inchi-s  between  Iveariiiirs.  The  ob- 
ji'<-t  of  a  .st-cond  conling  is  to  coiintcrtalance  the 
strain  of  the  first,  which  would  tend  to  throw  one 
parallil  forwanl  and  the  niher  to  the  n?ar 

DOCK-TABD  BATTALIONS— Prior  to  the  establish- 
ment 'if  Voluntet>r Corps. Dix'k-vard  Battalions  formed 
a  special  element  in  the  Britisli  militarv  sernce,  in- 
tended chiefly  for  the  defense  of  the  Itoval  Dock- 


VTar  enacted  by  Congress  provide  that,  in  such  cases, 
an  officer  of  the  army  at  the  station  shall  take  posses- 
sion of  the  effects  "for  purposes  of  administration. 
"  Pci^nal  property,  in  point  of  law,  has  no  locality, 
and  in  case  of  the  decease  of  the  owner  must  go 
wherever  in  ix)int  of  fact  situate,  according  to  the  law 
of  the  country  where  he  had  hisilomicilc.''  The  four- 
teenth Lord  Somer\ille  enten>d  the  armv  in  174o,  and 
continued  in  the  service  till  the  peaw  of  1763.  during 
which^  period  he  accomp,anied  his  regiment  to  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  and  Germany,  both  iii^  quarters  aiid 
on  active  duty.  At  his  death,  in  1796,  a  question 
arose  whether,  under  the  circumstances,  his  domicile 
w-as  English  or  Scotch;  and  the  Ma.stcr  of  the  Rolls 
(Sir  R.  P.  Arden\  in  siving  judjrment.  said:  "I  am 
clearly  of  opinion  Ixirii  Sotiienille  w.ss  a  Scotchman 
upon  his  birth,  and  continueil  so  to  the  end  of  his 
days.  He /i/-(vrr<v7*(/ to  l>e  so,  never  ha\-ins  abim- 
doned  his  Scotch  domicile,  or  established  another. 
The  decree,  therefore,  must  be  that  the  succession  to 


DOMUAGE. 


495    SONATO  ROSETTI  SYSTEM  OF  FOETIFICATION. 


his  personal  estate  ought  to  be  regulated  according  to 
the  law  of  Scotland."  His  Honor  must  consequently 
have  been  of  opinion  that,  a  Scotchman  entering  the 
British  army  does  not  thereby  lose  his  original  Scotch 
domicile;  and  since  the  union  of  England  and  Scot- 
land, the  army  is  certainly  as  much  that  of  Scotland 
as  of  England.  Sir  Charles  Douglas,  a  Scotchman 
by  birth  and  original  domicile,  left  his  native  country 
at  the  age  of  twelve,  to  enter  the  navy.  From  tha"t 
time  to  his  death  he  was  in  Scotland  only  four  times: 
lirst,  as  Captain  of  a  frigate;  secondly,  to  introduce 
his  wife  to  his  friends,  on  which  occasion  he  staid 
about  a  year;  thirdly,  upon  a  \-isil;  and  fourthly, 
when,  upon  his  appointment  to  a  command  upon  tie 
Halifax  Station,  he  went  in  the  mail-coach  to  Scot- 
land, and  died  there  in  1789.  He  was  not  for  a  ilay 
resident  there  in  anj-  house  of  his  own;  nor  was  he 
ever  there  except  for  temporary  occasions.  He  also 
commanded  the  Russian  navy  "for  about  a  year,  and 
was  afterwards  in  the  Dutch  ser\ice.  He  had  no 
fixed  residence  in  England  till  1776,  in  which  year 
he  took  a  house  at  Gosport,  where  he  lived  as  his 
home  when  on  shore.  This  was  his  only  residence 
in  the  British  dominions;  and  when  he  went  on  ser- 
vice he  left  his  wife  and  family  at  Gosport.  At  his 
death  it  became  necessarv  to  decide  whether  his  domi- 
cile was  Scotch  or  English,  because  he  had  made  a 
will,  bequeathing  a  legacy  to  his  daughter,  with  cer- 
tain conditions,  which  were  void  by  the  law  of  Scot- 
land, but  valid  by  the  law  of  England.  The  House 
of  Lords  decided  that  his  original  domicile  was 
Scotch,  jmd  that  though  he  did  not  lose  it  in  this  fii-st 
instance,  by  becoming  an  officer  in  the  British  navy, 
he  abandoned  it  bj'  entering  a  foreign  service,  arid 
acquired  a  Russian  domicile;  that  on  returning  to 
England,  and  resuming  his  position  as  a  British  offi- 
cer, he  acquired  an  English  domicile,  but  did  not  re- 
cover his  Scotch  domicile;  that  his  subsequent  visits 
to  Scotland,  not  being  made  (iniimi  uiiineiiiii,  did  not 
revive  his  Scotch  domicile,  and  that  the  succession  to 
his  property,  as  that  of  an  Englishman,  was  therefore 
to  be  governed  by  the  law  of  England,  in  which 
country  he  last  acquired  a  domicile.  In  connection 
with  this  subject,  it  may  be  proper  to  notice  an  opin- 
ion expressed  by  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  during  the 
argument  of  Lord  Somerville's  case — that  an  officer 
entering  the  military  or  naval  service  of  a  foreign 
power,  with  consentof  the  British  Government,  and 
taking  a  qualified  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  foreign 
State,  does  not  thereby  abandon  or  lose  his  native 
domicile.  In  Forrest  v.  Funston,  the  defeiulant  was 
a  Lieutenant  in  the  King's  army,  and  held  a  situation 
of  Master  Gunner  at  Blackness  Castle  in  Scotland, 
where  he  had  the  charge  of  considerable  military 
stores,  with  an  apartment  for  his  residence.  He  was 
a  native  of  Strabane  in  Ireland;  and  it  was  held  by 
the  Court  of  Session  that,  though  it  was  his  duty  to 
re-side  at  Blackness,  he  did  not  by  the  possession  of 
his  office  acquire  a  Scotch  domicile.  With  respect  to 
the  East  India  Company's  Service,  the  question  of 
domicile  does  not  turn  upon  the  simple  fact  of  the 
party  being  under  an  obligation,  by  his  commission, 
to  serve  in  India ;  but  when  an  officer  accepts  a  com- 
mission or  emplojTnent  the  d\ities  of  which  necessa- 
rily require  residence  in  India,  and  there  is  no  stipu- 
lated period  of  ser\'ice,  and  he  jiroceeds  to  India  ac- 
cordingly, the  law  from  such  circumstances  presumes 
an  intention  consistent  with  his  duty,  and  holds  his 
residence  to  hcanimo  ft  fdetu  in  India.  In  the  case  of 
General  Forbes,  in  the  Court  of  Chancerj-,  the  subject 
of  domicile  in  its  relation  to  military  men  wa.s  exten- 
sively discussed  before  the  Vice-Chancellor  Wood. 
Nathaniel  Forbes,  afterwards  General  Forbes,  was 
born  in  Scotland  of  Scotch  parents;  his  father  being 
possessed  of  an  ancestral  estate  called  Auchernach, 
on  which  there  was  then  no  house.  In  1786,  Xnthan- 
iel  Forbes,  being  then  a  minor,  and  a  Lieutenant  on 
half-pay  in  the  102d  Foot,  a  disbanded  regiment,  con- 
tracted" a  marriage  with  a  Scotch  lady.  He  shortly 
afterwards  obtiiined  an  appointment  in"  the  service  of 


the  East  India  Company;  and  in  December,  1787,  he 
sailed  for  India,  where  "he  continued  until  1808.  He 
then  obtained  a  furlounrh.  and  returned  with  his  wife 
to  Scotland.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1794  he 
had  succeeded  to  the  family  estate  in  Scotland;  and 
during  his  furlough  he  built"  a  house  there,  and  fur- 
nished it,  and  made  some  imi>rovemenls  in  the 
grounds.  In  1812  he  returned  with  his  wife  to  India, 
and  remained  there  for  se\eral  years.  The  wife  left 
India  in  1818;  and  in  1822  her  hu.sband.  who  had 
then  attained  the  rank  of  a  General  Officer  and  was 
Colonel  of  a  regiment,  also  quitted  Indiji,  according 
to  the  rules  of  the  service,  with  the  intention  of  never 
returning  to  that  country;  and  he  never  did  return 
thither.  During  the  whole  of  his  service  under  the 
East  India  Company  General  Forbes  retained  his 
commission  and  rank  of  a  Lieutenant  in  the  King's 
army.  His  domicile  was  without  doubt  originally 
Scottish.  After  his  fina>  return  from  India  he  had 
an  establishment  at  a  hired  house  in  Sloane  Street, 
London  He  also  kept  his  hou.sc  at  Auchernach  fur- 
nished; and  had  some  servants  there  also.  He  like- 
wise became  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  and  a  Commis- 
sioner of  Taxes  in  Scotland;  and  kept  his  pedigree 
and  papers  (including  his  will)  at  Auchernach,  where 
he  was  in  the  habit"  of  residing  half  the  year,  and 
where  he  had  constructed  a  mausoleum  in  which  he 
wished  to  be  buried.  But  his  health  did  not  permit 
him  to  reside  constantly  at  Avichernach,  where  his 
establishment  was  also  not  suitable  for  his  wife;  and 
his  house  in  Sloane  Street  was  manifestly  his  chief 
establishment,  and  his  wife  resideil  there."  He  died 
in  1851.  His  wife  thereupon  laid  claim  to  a  share  of 
his  property  according  to  the  Scotch  law  of  succes- 
sion, and  contended  that,  in  the  events  which  had 
happened,  he  must  be  considered  to  have  died  pos- 
sessed of  his  original  Scottish  domicile.  The  sub- 
stantial question  in  the  case  was  whether  his  domicile 
was  in  England  or  in  Scotland.  If  he  had  been  a 
single  man,  his  final  domicile  would  probably  have 
been  considered  Scottish.  But  the  Court  held  that 
Sloane  Street,  having  been  his  chief  establishment, 
and  the  abode  of  his  w'ife,  must  be  taken  to  have 
been  the  seat  of  his  domicile.  In  pronouncing  judg- 
ment upon  the  case,  the  learned  Vice-Chancellor 
ruled  the  following  [wints:  1.  That  the  Scottish 
domicile  of  General  Forbes,  notwithstanding  his  hav- 
ing  gone  to  India  during  his  minority,  in  the  service 
of  the  East  India  Company,  continued  until  he  at- 
tained tlie  age  of  twenty -one:  on  the  principle  that  a 
minor  cannot  change  his  domicile  by  his  own  act. 

2.  That  on  attaining  twenty-one  he  acquired  an  An- 
glo-Indian domicile;  and  thereupon  his  Scottish  domi- 
cile ceased:  on  the  principle  that  a  service  in  India,  un- 
der a  commission  in  the  Indian  army,  of  a  person 
having  no  other  residence,  creates  an  Itidiim  domicile. 

3.  That  the  circumstance  of  his  being  a  Lieutenant 
on  half-pay  in  a  disbanded  King's  regiment  did  not 
affect  the  question.  4.  That  the  Anglo-Indian  domi- 
cile of  General  Forbes  continued  michanged  imtil  his 
departure  from  India  in  1822:  the  furlough,  or  lim- 
ited leave  of  ab.sence.  imjilying  by  its  nature  that  it 
was  his  duty  to  return  to  India  on  its  expiration.  5. 
That  in  1822  the  Auj'lo-Indian  domicile  of  General 
Forbes  was  abandoned  and  lost:  the  possibility  of  his 
being  called  upon,  as  Colonel  of  a  regiment,  to  return 
at  some  indefinite  time  to  active  service  in  India  be- 
ing too  remote  to  have  anv  material  bearing  upon  the 
question,  fi.  That  he  hacl  ac(|uircd  by  choice  a  new 
domicile  in  England  on  his  return  from  India. 

DOMMAGE. — In  a  general  acceptation  of  the  term, 
(Jommage  signified,  in  the  old  French  serrice,  the 
compensation  which  every  Captain  of  a  troop  or  com- 
pany was  obliged  to  make  in  con.sequcnce  of  any 
damage  that  his  men  might  have  done  in  a  town  or 
on  a  march. 

DONATO  EOSETTI  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 
— This  .system  has  a  large  ravelin  with  fianks.  Its 
double  flanks  are  not  retired.  The  shoulder-angle  of 
each  ravelin  is  connected  by  a   fausse-braye.     The 


DONJON. 


49g     DOUBLE  BORING  AND  MORTISING  MACHINE. 


.shouldcr-iuigU-s  of  the  biislions  sind  the  flanks  of  Uie 
nivi'Iin  urv  joiiicil  bv  a  wall  destiniil  to  prevent  deser- 
tion, and  lo  eualile  llie  ollu  ers  to  fro  tlie  rounds.  This 
wall  is  ili-stroyeil  towanls  the  latter  part  of  Ibe  siege, 
lo  eniililc  llietlaiiks  to  defend  the  ditch. 

DONJON.— The  priueipal  tower  or  keep  of  a  cas- 
tle or  fortress.  It  was  so  called  either  from  beinj; 
placed  on  a  dun  or  elevation,  natural  or  artitieial,  or 
because,  from  its  ]X)sitiou,  it  doniinate<l  or  coninianded 
Ibe  other  (larts  of  the  fortress.  From  the  circumstance 
that  the  lower  or  untierground  storj-  of  the  donjon 


it  secures  evenness  in  the  stroke  of  the  pen.  See  Sou- 
UtU: 

DOUBLE. — In  tactics,  to  unite,  as  the  ranks  or  iiles, 
so  as  Id  form  one.  To  dotihlt  upon  is  an  expression 
mcuninfj  lo  inclose  between  two  (ires. 

DOUBLE  BARRELED  GUN.— A  pvm  having  a  pair 
of  parallel  barrels  on  the  siiine  stock  ;  sometimes  one 
is  a  rifle-barrel  and  the  other  a  smootb-l)ore  for  shot. 
This  combination  breech-loading;  rifie  and  shot-gun  is 
c.vcelleut  for  hunling  purposes,  and  a  single  one  judi- 
ciously handled  will  furnish  a  large  command  a  good 


Double-barreled  Gun. 


was  u.sed  as  a  prison  has  come  the  modern  meaning 
of  the  word.     Also  written  Dungeon. 

DOOLIE. — An  Indian  term:  a  stretcher  for  carrying 
the  siek  and  wounded  in  India.  It  is  composed  of  a 
framework  of  wood,  and  the  seat  or  flooring  of  cane 
or  nawar  (a  coarse  cotton  tape).  At  each  end  of  the 
doolie  a  triangular  piece  of  wood  is  fastened  to  the 
fniine,  on  the  top  of  which  there  is  an  iron  ring  at- 
tached through  which  Ibe  bamboo  for  lifting  the 
doolie  is  placed.  The  lop  of  the  doolie  has  a  light 
fnimework  of  wood,  over  which  a  coarse  red  cloth 
curtain  is  hung  lo  screen  the  sun  and  wind  from  the 
paliciil.     Sometimes  written  Doolee. 

DORMANT. — In  heraldic  repre.sentation,  an  animal 
doniiiiiit  has  its  head  resting  on  its  forepaws,  whereas 
an  animal  eandinnt  has  its  head  erect.     See  Hmildrii. 

DOSSER. — A  son  of  ba.skel  carried  on  the  shoulders 
of  men,  anil  us<>d  in  carrying  the  earth  from  one  part 
of  a  fortification  to  another  where  it  is  required. 

DOSSIERE. — The  common  French  expression  for 
the  back-piece  of  a  cuira.ss.     Sec  Cuirass. 

DOTTING-PEN.— A  pen  having  a  roulette  which 
makes  dots  or  detached  marks  on  the  paper  over 
which  it  is  drawn.  The  drawing  represents  the  in- 
strument as  made  by  Messrs.  Queen  &  Co.,  Philadel- 
phia.    It  consists  of  a   small,  conveniently-shaped 


Oerman-silver  plate,  upon  which  is  fa.stcncd  a  pen 
connected  by  a  .small  bar  and  a  ratchet  movement 
with  a  rolling  wheel.  The  bar  is  kept  in  its  place  by 
a  small  spring.  Kxira  wheels  of  difTerent  patterns 
accompany  the  instrument,  which,  being  readily 
ihanL'ed,  allow  the  making  of  various  forms  of  lines. 
In  using  the  insirumeni,  care  should  be  taken  that 
tile  small  |K)inl  behind  the  pen  rests  on  the  paper,  as 


daily  allowance  of  game  in  great  variety.  A  few 
shot-guns  should  accompany  eveiy  command  in  the 
field.  The  hunters  should  be  selected  with  a  \iew  to 
the  particular  game  sought  after,  as  they  seldom  have 
the  siune  success  with  all  game.  The  barrels  are  usu- 
ally placed  side  by  side,  as  in  the  drawing  ;  but  some 
sportsmen  prefer  that  one  barrel  be  placed  under  the 
other. 

DOUBLE-BITTED  AXE.— An  ancient  form  of  bat- 
tle-axe, having  two  opposite  bits  or  blades.  It  was  a 
favorite  Heaiion  with  the  Franks  in  the  lime  of  Clo- 
taire,  seveiitli  cenlur.y,  and  with  the  Danes  in  the  time 
of  Alfred  the  Great,"ninlh  century.  It  is  also  shown 
in  the  sculptures  of  Kamak,  in  Egypt.  The  battle- 
axe  of  the  Scythians  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  was 
double-bitted."  It  is  the  Sacan  mgarix.  The  double- 
bitted  axe  is  found  in  the  tumuli  and  barrows  of 
North  America.  It  is  in  three  forms:  1,  with  a  cir- 
cumferential groove  for  the  occupation  of  the  withe 
or  split  handle  to  which  it  is  lashed ;  2,  with  an  eye 
traversing  Ihc  head  :  8,  with  a  socket  for  the  handle. 

DOUBLE  BORING  AND  MORTISING  MACHINE.— 
A  machine  designed  for  Ihal  class  of  work  in  which 
two  holes  are  to  be  bored  at  a  given  distance  and 
angle,  as  in  doweling,  and  in  frame,  cariiage,  and  cab- 
inet work.  The  I  wo  sjiindles  are  mounted  on  an  ad- 
ju.stable  head  which  enables  them  to  be  set  loan  angle 
from  the  horizontal,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  to  the 
vertical,  where  one  would  be  over  the  other ;  and 
to  any  distance  from  one  to  live  inches  between  cen- 
ters. The  table  has  a  vertical  movement  of  twelve 
inches  from  the  spindle  down,  slides  forward  and 
back,  and  when  i)repared  for  mortising,  sideways 
also.  Adjustable  slops  delernnne  the  extent  of  these 
motions,  ilorlising  is  done  with  a  revolving  cutter 
cutting  on  IxHh  end  and  side,  producing,  when  the 
work  is  moved  sideways,  a  morti.se  willi  half-round 
ends.  When  only  one  spindle  is  to  be  used,  it  may 
1)e  di.scomiected  from  the  large  gear-wheel  by  loosen- 
ing and  drawing  back  the  liracket  which  supports  the 
latter.  This  sjiould  1m'  done  whenever  the  machine 
is  to  be  used  for  mortising,  for  then  the  bell  may  be 
run  upon  the  small  pulley  and  the  spindle  be  dnven 
at  the  high  speed  recpiired,  with(mt  injury  to  the  gears. 
For  boring,  Ibe  belt  should  be  run  tipon  Ihc  large  pul- 
ley, as  so  high  a  speed  is  not  necessary  for  boring  as 
for  inorlising.  The  spindles  and  their  pinions  are  of 
steel,  and  the  bearings  are  adjustable.  The  weight  of 
the    machine  ;is  used   in   the  arsenal   is  about  500 


SOITBLE  BEIDGE-HEAS. 


497 


BOTTSLE  BANE. 


pounds,  and  the  speed  of  the  countershaft,  950  to  1000 
revolutions  per  minute.  See  Boring-machine  and 
MortiKiiKj-nmchiiie . 

DOUBLE  BHIDGE-HEAD.— When  the  hridge  crosses 
the  river  at  a  jwint  where  there  is  no  bend,  it  is  fre- 
quently the  case  that  works  are  constructed  at  both 
extremities  of  the  bridge.  When  this  is  the  case,  the 
works  form  what  is  known  as  a  double  bridge-lmad, 
to  distinguish  it  from  those  usually  termed  single 
bridgeheuils.     See  Bridge-liead. 

DOUBLE  CAPONIEKE.  — A  structure,  in  perma- 
nent fortitication,  which  serves  both  as  a  communica- 
tion and  as  a  defensive  work  for  the  ditch.  As  the 
former,  the  passage  should  admit  of  a  convenient  cir- 


be  swept  Ijy  the  fire  of  the  curtain,  and  of  a  part  of 
the  tiank.  The  portion  of  the  first  glacis  near  the 
extremity  is  made  into  a  ijlaciD-coupi ,  lea\Tng  a  suffi- 
cient thicknes-s  of  parjipet  to  cover  the  passage.  See 
Isuizit  Si/xUiii  ijf  Ftjrtifieation. 

DOUBLE  HAMMER.— A  forging  device  for  opcrat- 
ini;  upon  a  liliioni  or  |Hiddler's  ball,  striking  it  upon 
op|H)SJIc  sides  simultaneously. 

DOUBLE  HARftUEBUSE.— A  tirearm  with  a  double 
catch  or  match-holder.  It  was  mostlj*  used  for  de- 
fending ramparts ;  tlic  length  being  from  three  to 
seven  leet.  The  lock  is  distinguished  from  that  of 
the  simple  harquebuse  in  having  two  match-holders 
working   in  opposite  directions.     It  was  often  sup 


Double  Boring  and  Hortising-macbine. 


culation,  without  being  too  wide,  which  has  deter- 
mined it.s  width  at  3.. SO  yards.  The  interior  crests 
should  cover  the  troops  within  the  caponiere  from 
the  enemy's  establishments  on  the  crest  of  the  bastion 
covered-way;  a  relief  of  nine  feet  has  been  found 
sufficient  for  this  purpose.  As  a  defensive  work,  it.s 
fire  should  sweep  the  ditch.  It  is  for  this  purpose 
that  its  embankments  are  arranged  on  the  interior  as 
an  ordinary  parapet,  and  on  the  exterior  in  the  form 
of  a  glacis.  Its  banquette  tread  is  made  2  yards 
wide,  as  it  should  be  pali.saded.  In  order  that  the 
embankment  of  the  caponiere  may  not,  by  its  re- 
lief, form  dead  spaces  in  the  ditch,  the  plane  of  the 
first  glacis  is  arranged  so  as  to  be  swept  by  the  artil- 
lery-fire of  the  opposite  flank.  The  plane  of  the  sec- 
ond glacis,  and  the  return-wall,  are  so  arranged  as  to 


I  ported  by  a  stand  resting  on  iron  spikes  or  wheels 

I  that  was  "called  foi/r^uinf. 

1  DOUBLE-HEADED  SHOT.— A  projectile  formerly  in 
use.  consjstinir  of  two  shot  united  at  their  bases. 

I  DOUBLE  -  QUICK.— Performed  in  the  time  called 
doulih-tiiiici; ;  a  double  quick  step  or  march  as  pre- 
.scrilied  in  Tactics.     See  ■'*'/). 

DOUBLE  BANK.— A  line  formed  of  double  files. 
In  the  United  States  army,  the  distance  between 
ranks,  from  back  to  breast,  \s  facing  distance:  but  on 
rough  ground,  and  when  marching  in  double  time,  it 
is  increased  to  thirty-two  inches;  upon  halting,  the 
rear  rank  closes  to  facing  distance.  When  the  knap- 
sack is  worn,  the  distance  between  the  ranks  is  in- 
creased by  the  depth  of  the  knapsack.  In  alignments 
in  double"  nuik,  the  rear-rank  men  cast  their  eyes  to 


DOUBLE  K£DAN. 


498 


SKAO. 


the  side  of  the  guide  vniiIi  ttie  front-rank  men,  and 
nminliiin  the  proin-r  (iislaiice  l>etweeii  tlie  riinks,  Tlio 
iIoul)k'  milk,  fallal  l)y  the  Hank,  is  calltil  u  citluiiin  of 
file*,  the  sjiuie  iis  a  singlr  niiik.  In  marching  in  col- 
umn of  tiles,  uuli  rear  rank  man  ilre.vses  on  his  front- 
rank  man,  who  is  the  guiile  of  the  tile.  In  otiliquiuj; 
in  line  in  double  nink,  eaeh  rear-rank  man  follows 
the  man  next  on  tlie  right  or  left,  or  the  sec-ond  man 
on  the  riirht  or  left,  of  his  front-rank  man,  according 
as  the  rear-nmk  is  at  facing  distance,  or  at  thirty-two 
inches  from  the  front  rank.  In  obliquing  in  column 
of  tiles,  the  guide  of  each  tile  is  the  num  of  tlie  iwik 
toward  w  hich  the  obliiiue  is  made,  the  guide  of  the 
column  Uing  the  guide  of  the  leading  tile. 

DOUBLE  KEDAN. — Two  redans  are  sometimes 
placed  side  liy  side  and  joined  to  each  other,  making 
a  work  known  as  the  doiiblf  redan;  sometimes  the 
outer  faces  of  the  double  redan  are  made  much  longer 
than  the  faces  which  are  connected,  in  which  case  tin- 
work  receives  the  name  of  jiriiKt-rap  or  siealloirlail. 

DOUBLE  SAP.— This  sap  consists  of  two  heads  of 
s!ip  pushes!  forwaixi  by  two  brigades  working  abreast. 
Its  object  is  to  form  a  trench  in  a  position  ex|X)sed  to 
tire  in  front  and  on  Iwlh  sides.  The  head  of  the  .sap 
is  coveretl  by  two  sap-rollers  placed  end  to  end;  a  bag 
of  wool,  or  a  short  sap-roller,  being  placed  at  their 
junction,  for  a  screen.  The  distance  between  the  two 
rows  of  gabions  is  13  feet.  The  earth  between  the 
two  lines  of  sap  is  removed  by  the  usual  working 
parties,  as  in  the  case  of  full  s;ip. 

In  the  case  of  an  eulilading  fire  and  a  fire  on  both 
flanks,  the  trench.  A,  is  carried  forward  by  the  double 


Flan  of  a  Doul)Ie  Sap  expos***!  t«  a  Are  in  front  and  on  lK)th 
flanks.  A,  D.  Double  iJirect  .Sap;  B.  I'arallel;  C.  Fall  Sap 
at  rigtil  angles  to  gain  ttie  direction  D;  E,  Full  Sap  con- 
Dectine  the  two  branches  of  double  direct  sap  on  the  right 
and  left. 

sap,  until  the  point  of  departure,  B,  is  about  being 
exposed  to  the  tire  coming  in  over  the  Siip-rollers;  a 
change  of  direction,  C,  at  light  angles  is  then  made 
by  the  full  sjip,  to  the  right  Or  left,  and  pushed  for- 
ward the  length  of  about  fifteen  gabions,  or  .so  far  as 
to  intercept  any  slant  fire  on  either  side  of  the  trench 
in  rear,  when  the  original  direction,  I),  is  resumed  by 
the  double  sap.  A  change  of  direction  is  sfjmetimes 
made  by  the  full  stip  both  to  the  right  and  left  at  right 
angles  to  the  original  line,  and  pushed  to  the  length 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  gal)i(ms  e;ich  way.  Then,  from 
the  extremities  of  these  branches,  a  direction  parallel 
to  the  original  is  taken  tip  by  the  doul)le  sjip,  luid 
piLshed  on  until  the  point  of  de])arture  to  the  rear  is 
aliout  iK'ing  exposed,  when  a  change  of  direction  to- 
wards each  other  is  made  at  right  angles,  by  the  full 
sa|),  and  two  branches  are  united  on  Uie  original 
direction,  E,  which  is  resumed  by  the  double  sap. 
See  Slip. 

DOUBLE  SHELL.— This  nature  of  projectile  has 
lieen  introduced  into  the  English  service  for  the  use 
of  eertjiin  U.M.L.  guns,  such  as  the  7-inch  and  7-ixlr. 
M.T.  gun,  but  for  no  other,  though  verj-  good  jirac- 
tice  has  Iwen  made  with  tlie.s<>  shells  froii'i  ihe  lO-iwlr. 
field-l)ailery  gun.  The  7-incli  double  shell  is  nearly 
four  calibers  long,  strengthened  by  three  ribs  inter- 


nally, otherwise  resembling  the  common  shell.  A 
l)ag"is  u.sed  1o  contain  the  bursting-charge  as  given 
for  comini.n  shell.     Sec  Ih'ulAtxIiniUng. 

DOUBLE-SHOTTING.— A  term  apiilied  to  the  doub- 
ling of  Ihe  shot  in  the  gun,  w  hereby  increased  effect 
is  expected.  This  was  formerly  a  practice  more 
often  adopted  in  the  navy  tlian  in  land-artillery.  In 
the  latter,  double-shotting  wa.s  only  re-sorted  to  when, 
the  enemy  being  close  on  the  guns,  a  double  charge 
of  case-sliot  was  likely  to  render  good  service.  The 
introduction  of  rifled  guns  has  done  away  with  this 
mode  of  tire.  What  is  now  known  as  a  "double 
shell'  is  nothing  more  than  a  shell  of  increased  length 
imd  capacity. 

DOUBLET.— An  under-garment  of  linen,  slightly 
quilted,  and  having  rings  of  mail  imiler  the  breast- 
I)latc  and  under  the  knees  and  arms,  so  as  to  protect 
the  body  where  the  armor  was  weakest,  and  where- 
ever  an  opening  might  occur  for  the  sw  ord  or  poniard. 
It  was  almost  fdenrical  with  the  jerkin.  The  sleeves 
were  sometimes  s<'parate,  and  tied  on  at  the  arm. 

DOUBLE  TIME.— The  fastest  time  or  step  in  march- 
ing, next  to  the  run,  requiring  165  steps,  each  33 
inches  in  length,  to  be  taken  in  one  minute.  The 
degree  of  swiftness  may  vary  in  tirgent  ca-ses,  and 
the  number  of  steps  be  thus  increased  up  to  180  per 
minute.     See  Double-quirk:' 

DOUBLINGS.— The  heraldic  temi  for  the  linings  of 
rolKs  or  miinlles,  or  of  the  mantlings  of  achievements. 
See  Mnntliiig. 

DOVER  IRON. — Previous  to  casting  the  gun-casing 
of  the  12.25-inch  muzzle-loading  rifle  of  the  South 
Boston  Foundry,  a  mmiber  of  experimental  castings 
were  made  and  tested  with  a  view  to  determine  the 
proper  quality  of  iron  to  be  emiiloyed.  This  course 
was  neces.s;tiy  in  order  to  provide  a  substitute  for  the 
Richmond  pig-iron,  which  can  no  longer  be  procured 
of  suitable  qtiiility  for  gun  construction.  The  most 
satisfactory  results  in  these  ex|)eriraents  were  obtained 
from  a  mixture  of  equal  quantities  of  Dover  and 
Muirkirk  pig  iron.  A  trial-cylinder,  of  the  same  form 
and  dimensions  as  those  described  in  Captain  Rod- 
man's L'tjh- rim  tilts  on  Mitals  fbr  Cannon,  was  then 
cast  from  the  mixture.  This  cylinder  was  cut  up  in  the 
same  manner  as  those  above  referred  to,  and  was  sub- 
jected to  a  similar  series  of  tests  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  physicid  properties  of  the  metal. 
The  results  obtsiincd  from  these  tests  were  satisfactory, 
and  it  was  decided  to  use  a  similar  mixture  for  the 
gun-casing.  The  Do\er  is  made  at  Chatham,  Colum- 
l)ia  County,  New  York,  being  smelted  with  charcoal 
from  a  brown  hematite  ore  found  a  few  miles  south 
of  Dover  Plains,  Dutchess  County,  New  York.  This 
ore  is  mined  in  a  wide  vein,  and  is  of  two  kinds,  there 
being  two  lines  of  deposit  in  the  stratum.  One  is  a 
rich,  solid  ore,  yielding  from  48  to  55  per  cent  of  iron; 
the  other  yields  from  38  to  42  per  cent.  In  smelting 
the  iron  the  two  kinds  of  ore  are  used  in  nearly  equal 
proportions,  it  having  been  found  that  such  a  liiixture 
gave  the  Ijcst  results.     See  Iron  and  Minrkirk  Iron. 

DO'WLAS. — A  coarse  kind  of  linen;  it  is  usetl  in  a 
siiltpcler-refinery  for  filtering  the  saltpeter  liquid  as  it 
is  drawn  off  from  the  boilers. 

DRABANTS.— A  choice  company  of  200  picked 
men.  ol  which  Charles  IX.  of  Sweden  was  Captain. 

DRAFT. — A  selecting  or  detaching  of  soldiers  from 
an  anny,  or  any  part  of  it.  or  from  a  military  post; 
also  from  any  company  or  collection  of  jxjrsons,  or 
from  the  people  at  large  for  military  service.  Also 
written  Driuiijlit. 

DRAG. — A  mechanism  for  slackening  the  speed  of 
carriages,  by  ojieratingon  one  or  more  of  Ihe  wheels. 
The  form  of  drag  best  known  is  that  of  the  "  shoe," 
a  hollow  piece  (if  iron  attached  by  a  chain  to  the 
carriage,  which  being  pul  Ix'low  one  of  the  hind 
wheels  partially  reduces  the  vehicle  to  the  quality  of 
a  sledge:  by  which  dragging  process  the  carriage  is 
suitably  retarded  on  going  down-hill.  As  the  shoe- 
drag  required  to  be  .-ipplied  imd  removed  with  some 
inconvenient  detention  of    the  vehicle,  a  step  was 


DSAGOK. 


499 


SBAUGHT-ANIHAtS. 


made  in  advance  when  a  method  of  retarding  a  wheel 
without  detention  was  discovered.  This  new  process, 
which  is  known  as  tlie  patent  drag,  consists  of  a  con- 
nected piece  of  mechanism,  altojrether  operated  upon 
by  the  driver  without  mo\ing  from  bis  scjit.  A  han- 
dle affects  a  series  of  rods  and  levers  by  which  a  spe- 
cies of  shoe  is  pressed  against  one  of  the  wheels,  so 
as  to  slacken  its  motion.  Such  is  the  kind  of  drag 
now  very  generally  attached  to  gentlemen's  traveling- 
camages,  omniliuses,  and  other  vehicles  for  passen- 
gers on  the  roads  nuieli  traveled.  It  is  of  French 
origin.  Applied  in  either  form,  the  use  of  the  drag, 
indl-pendenlly  of  its  safety,  is  to  allow  horses  to  con- 
tinue running  at  ordinary  speed  down-hill  without 
being  unduly  pressed  on  by  the  carriage  behind  them. 
A  similar  contrivance,  but  of  a  more  powerful  kind, 
called  a  break  or  hnike,  is  applied  to  arrest  the  motion 
of  railway-trains.     See  Brake. 

DSAGON. — A  small  kind  of  blunderbuss;  a  short 
hand-gun  of  great  bore  to  carry  several  pistol  or  car- 
bine balls  or  small  slugs,  and  so  called  from  the  fact 
of  its  havinir  a  dragon's  head  at  the  muzzle. 

DRAGONET  DRAGON  VOLANT.— The  ancient  title 
for  two  old  pieces  of  anillery.  The  dragon  was  a 
40-pounder  ;  the  clragou  volant,  a  32-poimder.  But 
neither  the  name  nor"  the  size  of  the  caliber  of  either 
piece  is  now  in  use. 

DRAGONNER.— According  to  the  French  accepta- 
tion of  the  ttrm.  to  attack  any  person  in  a  nide  and 
violent  manner:  to  lake  anything  by  force;  to  adopt 
prompt  and  vigorous  means;  and  to  bring  those  jjco- 
ple  to  reason  l)y  hard  blows  who  could  not  be  per- 
suaded by  fair  "words. 


thrown  on  his  own  resources,  display  all  the  intelli- 
gence, activity,  and  circumspectif)n  of  the  best  light 
infantr\-.     See  Cn idlrii  ixwA  /forM-yuards. 

DRAGOON  GUARDS.— A  title  borne  by  seven  regi- 
ments ot  heavy  cavalry  in  the  British  ser\ice. 

DRAG-ROPE.— A  rope  having  a  .small  chain  and 
hook  attached  to  one  end  of  it:  it  is  used  in  the  artil- 
lery sers'ice  for  pulling  or  drawing.  Drag-ropes  are 
attached  to  all  ordnance  carriages,  to  assist  in  extri 
eating  them  when  in  difhculty,  in  sandy  soil,  steep 
ascents,  or  in  descents  when  there  is  no  shoe  attached 
to  the  carriage,  or  locking-chain  for  holding  upon  the 
caiTiage.  They  are  of  two  sizes  in  the  English  ser- 
vice, hear]/  and  lir//il;  the  former  are  issued  to  the 
20-pdr.,4()-pdr.  B.L.U.,  and  16-pdr.  M.L.R.  batteries; 
the  latter  to  the  i>-]x\r..  12-pdr.  B.L.R.,  and  9-pdr. 
M.L.R.  batteries.  The  chain  end  is  intended  to  pre- 
vent the  rope  being  cut  by  the  tire  of  the  wheel. 

DRAG-ROPE  KNOT.— A  knot  the  same  as  the  men's 
/uirtusx/iilr/i;  ii  is  used  for  fixing  handspikes  to  the 
roix's  attached  to  heavy  carriages  which  are  to  be 
moved  by  men;  three  men  are  attached  to  each  hand- 
spike.    Sonu-linies  called  lerer-hileJi. 

DRAG-ROPE  MEN.— The  men  attached  to  light  or 
heavy  ordnance,  fur  the  purpose  of  expediting  move- 
ments in  action.  The  French  Serrans  a  la  prolonge 
are  of  this  des<  ription. 

DRAG-WASHER. — A  flat  iron  ring  on  the  axle  arm 
of  a  carri;ige,  having  an  iron  loop  attached  for  the 
purpose  of  fastening  file  drag-rope  when  nece.ssary; 
hence  the  term  drag  min/ier.  It  is  placed  on  the  axle- 
arm  to  prevent  the  wheel  or  nave  from  pressing  upon 
the  linch-pin. 


DRAGON'S-BIiOOD. — A  deep  red  resinous  substance 
found  in  the  East  Indies,  Cochin-Chinn,  and  the  East- 
ern islands.  It  occurs  in  masses  of  various  degrees 
of  purilv.  and  in  sticks,  enveloix-d  in  palm-leaves. 
Dragon 's-l)lood  is  employed  as  a  coloring  matter,  and 
as  an  incredient  in  varnishes.  Formerly  it  was  used 
in  the  browning  liquid  for  gun-barrels,  but  has  been 
discontinued  for  .some  vears  past. 

DRAGOON.— From  the  old  fable  that  the  dragon 
spouts  fire,  the  head  of  the  monster  was  worked  upon 
the  muzzles  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  short  muskets  which 
were  first  carried  bv  the  horsemen  raised  by  Marshal 
Bri.ssac  in  the  veaf  1600.  This  circumstance  led  to 
their  being  called  dra coons;  and  from  the  general 
adoption  of  the  same  weapon,  though  without  the 
emblem  in  (juestion,  the  term  gradually  extended  it- 
self till  it  became  almost  synonymous  with  horse- 
soldier.  Dragoons  were  at  one  time  a  kind  of  mounted 
infantrv.  drilled  to  perform  the  services  lx)th  of  horse 
and  foot.  At  present,  rfraff'Wft  is  simply  one  among 
many  desisnations  for  cavah  v.  not  very  precise  in  its 
application.  In  the  British  armv.  the  lieari/  dragoons 
and  the  /(>/''' dragoons  are  carefully  distinguished  m 
resard  to  ihc  weisiht  of  the  men,  horses,  anil  appoint- 
ments. The  first  dragoons  in  the  army  were  the  Scots 
Grevs,  established  in  1683.  The  dragoon,  when  first 
instituted  tr>  combine  the  functions  both  of  the  foot  sol- 
dier and  cavalic-r,  was  found,  like  most  mongrels,  to 
have  the  qualities  of  neither  in  a  very  ser\-iceable  de- 
gree. He  still  retains  his  musquetoon,  and  on  out- 
post dutv,  and  skirmishing  in  broken  ground,  docs  a 
soldiers"  dutv  with  this  weapon.  Apt  for  altacks 
whether  in  close  order  or  dispersed,  he  should  lend 
himself  to  the  charse  kindlv;  and  in  cases  where 


Plate-washers  of  the  pattern  represented  in  the 
drawing  are  usually  made  in  large  quantities  at  the 
arsenals.  The  following  table  exhibits  their  particu- 
lars: 


Diameter. 


Size  of 
Hole. 


Thickness 

Wire 

Gauge. 


No. 


Size  of 
Bolt. 


Number 

in  100 
Pounds. 


^.OOO 

21,000 

13,900 

11.290 

6,800 

S.450 

4.S00 

2,600 

2.000 

2,250 

1.310 

1.010 

SCO 

625 

520 

400 

280 

»<0 

220 

175 


DRAIN.— In  the  mililarv  art,  a  trench  provided  to 
draw  water  out  of  a  ditch",  which  is  afler\vards  filled 
with  hurdles  and  earth,  or  with  fascines  or  bundles 
of  rushes,  and  planks  to  facilitate  the  passage  over 
the  mud.     Also  written  Drein. 

DRAKE.— A  small  piece  of  artillcrj-  used  m  ancient 
times,  but  now  obsolete.  _ 

DRAUGHT-ANIMALS.— The  subject  of  draught  is 
of  the  greatest  imiwrlance  in  the  artillerj-  arm  of  the 


DRAUGHT  HOOK. 


500 


DEAWING. 


service.  In  which  the  greater  portion  of  the  traa>iix>rt 
of  artilliTV  iiutU'rid  is  ilepeiulent  on  draugbt-uiiiiniils. 
Horst-s  arx'  usually  employed  for  this  purpose,  though 
ill  India  the  hea\-y  arlilkTy,  with  the  rest  of  the  ma- 
Uritl  of  the  unny,"  is  drawn  or  carried  by  elephants 
and  bullocks. 

In  a  four  f (Kited  animal,  the  hinder  feet  are  the  ful 
cruni  of  the  lever  bv  which  its  weight  acts  against 
the  load;  and  when  tlie  animal  pulls  hard  it  depresses 
its  chest,  anil  thus  increases  the  lever;  hence  we  see 
the  benefit  that  may  be  derived  from  large  horses, 
for  their  levers  neces-sarily  increase  with  their  sizes. 
Large  horses  will  draw  more  than  small  ones,  even 
though  they  have  less  muscular  force  and  are  unable 
to  carrv  such  a  heavy  burden. 

The  "force  exerted  by  a  dnmghtanimal  may  be  di- 
vidiil  into  two  parts,  \-iz.,  that 
which  overcomes  the  inertia  and 
friction  of  the  carriage  and  sets  it 
in  motion,  and  that  which  is  ne- 
ces.siiry  to  overcome  the  re.sistances 
which  recur  along  its  path.  The 
first,  iK'iiig  of  momentary  duration, 
aitpro.xiniates  the  utmost  strength 
of  the  animal;  its  intensity  should 
be  known  in  order  to  give  the  neces- 
sary strength  to  the  harness. 

Tf  0  represents  the  mean  force  (in 
poimils)  exerted  by  an  animal,  in  a 
unit  of  time,  in  drawing  a  load 
over  a  road,  the  length  of  which 
is  I,  Ql  represents  the  quantity  of 
work  ))erformed.  The  direction 
of  the  force  is  taken  parallel  to 
the  plane  along  which  the  load 
moves.  If  it  make  an  angle,  a,  with  this  plane, 
the  work  will  lie  decomposed  into  two  components, 
Ql  cos  ft,  which  is  iianillel  to  the  plane,  and  Ql  sin  a, 
which  is  pcriK'ndiculur  to  it  :  the  latter  transfers  a 
portion  of  the  load  from  the  ground  to  the  animal's 
shoulilers,  thereby  increasing  his  friction,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  the  |)ower  of  traction. 

Careful  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine 
the  proportion  of  those  two  component.s  most  favor- 
able to  the  exercise  of  the  animal's  power.  It  was 
found  that  the  mo.st  suitable  angle  for  the  traces  of 
an  unloaded  animal,  with  the  ground,  wa.s  from  10 
to  12';  and  for  one  that  carried  his  driver,  from  6  to 
7';  or,  in  other  words,  a  draught-animal  should  airry 
i  of  his  load  on  his  back. 

The  relation  between  the  weight  of  a  loaded  car- 
riage and  the  force  to  be  exjiended  by  the  animal  to 
kei'p  it  in  motion  fh.'pends  upon  so  many  circum- 
stances that  it  is  impo.ssible  to  give  a  general  expres- 
sion for  its  determination.  It  can  only  be  determined 
by  direct  experiment  in  each  particular  case.  See 
Artill'  n/-/wnii)i,  Hnlhck,  Ehpluint,  and  Mule. 

DEAUGHT-HOOK.— Either  of  four  large  hooks  of 
iron  fixed  on  the  cheeks  of  a  gim-carriage,  two  on 
each  side,  used  in  drawing  the  gun  backward  and 
•forward. 

DRAW-BORING.— The  operation  of  polishing  a  mus- 
ket barrel  after  it  has  been  rifled. 

DRAW-BRIDGE.— For  the  usually  narrow  ditches 
of  lield  works  either  a  light  rolling  bridge  may  be 
used  for  a  eonimuiiication,  from  the  outlet,  across  the 
ditch,  or  else'  an  ordinary  wooden  draw-dridge.  A 
very  simple  one.  ami  of  easy  const ru<.-t ion,  was  pro- 
poserl  by  Colonel  Bergere  of  the  French  Engineers. 
The  bridge  is  a  light  platfonn,  «,  of  joists  and  boards, 
long  enough  to  span  the  ditch,  D,  and  so  arranged  as 
to  turn  around  an  axle  at  A,  the  crest  of  the  scarp. 
At  the  |K)int  B  on  each  side  of  the  platform  an  iron 
gudgeon  is  firmly  attached  to  it,  an<i  turns  in  the  eye 
of  a  s<M'ket  at  tlie  end  of  the  lever,  C  B.  This  lever  is 
formcfl  of  two  pieces  of  scantling  of  some  touiih  flex- 
ible wood,  each  about  four  inches  s<juare.  The  lever 
has  an  eye  at  the  middle  point,  O,  which  receives  a 
strong  iron  txilt  that  connects  two  ordinarj'  gun-car- 
riage wheels.    The  two  pieces  which  form  lie  lever 


are  firmly  fastened  together,  as  shown  in  the  figure;  a 
weight,  consisting  of  shells  filled  with  sand  or  shot, 
being  fastened  at'the  end  C  and  serving  sis  a  counter- 
poise to  the  bridge.  Two  rails.  A,  of  heavy  scant- 
ling are  laid  for  the  wheels  to  run  upon  in  maneuver- 
ing the  bridge,  which  is  done  simply  by  one  or  two 
men  taking  hold  of  the  spokes  of  the  wheels,  and  so, 
by  turning  them,  causing  them  to  run  backwards  or 
forwards,  luid  thus  raise  or  lower  the  bridge.  The 
outlet  should  be  covered  by  a  mask  thrown  up  either 
on  the  interior  or  on  the  exterior,  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  firing  through  it  into  the  work.  A  traverse  is 
thrown  across  it  if  placed  on  the  interior.  When 
placed  on  the  exterior  a  small  redan  is  constructed, 
just  in  advance  of  the  counterscarp,  of  sutticieut  size 
to  cover  the  outlet  and  the  bridge  over  the  ditch.    The 


Bergere  Draw-bridge. 

passage  to  the  exterior  may  be  either  through  the  face 
of  the  redan  or  between  one  of  the  faces  and  the  tlilch. 
Sufticieut  space  should  be  left  between  the  traverse 
and  the  parapet  for  the  passage  of  a  gun.  The  length 
of  the  traverse  is  arranged  to  prevent  the  enemy  from 
firing  into  the  work,  by  an  oblique  tire  through  the 
outlet.  The  traverse  may  be  of  earth  or  of  wood;  in 
either  case  it  shoidd  be  arranged  for  defense  to  enti- 
lailc  the  outlet.  In  some  cases  the  traverse  at  one  end 
is  l)roken  forward  at  right  angles,  and  connected 
with  the  jiarapet  of  the  work;  the  space  Ijetween  the 
traverse  and  parapet  at  the  other  end  being  left  open 
for  a  passage-way.  A  defensive  stockade  with  a  bar- 
rier secures  this  opening  from  surprise.  It  should  be 
thrown  far  enough  back  to  be  out  of  reach  of  fire. 

DRAWING. — i.  The  operation  of  hammering,  roll- 
ing, or  drawing  through  a  die,  by  which  a  bar  or  rod 
of  metal  or  a  wire  is  extended  in  length  to  form  a  rod , 
tube,  or  plate.  2.  The  art  of  representing  the  appear- 
ances of  all  kinds  of  objects  liy  imitation  or  copying, 
both  with  and  without  the  assistance  of  mathematical 
rules.  The  following  instruments,  necessary  for  draw- 
ing and  plotting  in  the  field,  should  be  carefully 
packed  in  ]x)rtable  boxes  or  pocliet-cascs,  and  supplied 
to  all  Sliiff  and  Reconnoitcring  Oflicers:  one  pair  of 
6-inch  needle-point  dividers,  with  pen  and  pencil 
points  and  lengthening-bar;  one  pair  of  4l-ineh  plain 
dividers;  one  pair  of  Jil-iuch  needle-point  dividers, 
with  pen  and  p<'ncil  points;  one  spring  bow-i)en,  with 
needle-point;  one  drawing-pen;  one  German-silver 
protractor;  one  horn  protractor;  one  irregular  curve; 
two  wooden  triangles;  and  one  pair  of  proportional 
dividers. 

The  first  requisite  in  all  drawings  is  minute  accu- 
racy, both  in  the  geometrical  constructions  and  in 
writing  down  all  letters  and  numl)ers  which  serve 
either  as  references  or  to  give  dimensions.  To  attain 
this,  so  far  as  regards  the  geometriad  part,  judjrment 
is  to  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  means  for  es- 
tablishing on  the  drawing  the  positions  of  the  various 
points  which  are  either  given  or  to  be  found;  as  one 
method,  although  in  theory  as  correct  as  some  other, 
may  not,  in  practice,  be  found  to  yield  as  satisfactory 
results.  The  following  remarks  will  serve  to  illustrate 
thispoint:   1st.  In  setting  off frwn  a  aeak  of  equal  parU 


DRAWING. 


501 


DSAWINO. 


sateral  distances,  nhmg  a  line,  wbethpr  equal  or  un- 
equal, the  most  accurate  method  is  to  commence  by 
first  setting  off  the  entire  distance,  and  then  the  several 
parts,  taking  care  to  verify,  from  the  scale,  the  aggre- 
gate of  the  several  partial  distances.  2d.  W/ien  a  dis- 
tance to  be  set  off  is  so  small  that  it  cannot  l)e  laid  down 
with  accuracy  by  the  jioints  of  the  dividers,  the  fol- 
lowinir  method  may  be  employed:  Set  back,  from  the 
point  from  which  the  required  distance  is  to  be  set  off, 
any  arbitrary  distance,  then  set  forward,  from  this 
last  point,  a  distance  equal  to  the  sum  of  this  arbitrary 
distance  and  the  one  required.  3.  To  set  off'  a  point  <tt 
a  fficen  jxrpendieular  distance  from  a  line,  it  will 
mostly  be  found  more  speedy,  and  more  accurate,  to 
take  off  from  the  scale  the  given  distance,  in  the 
dividers,  and,  .setting  one  point  on  the  paper,  bring 
the  other  so  that  the  arc  described  by  it,  with  the  given 
distance  as  a  radius,  shall  be  tangent  to  the  line,  than 
to  employ  the  usual  method  of  tirst  erecting  a  perpen- 
dicular to  the  line  and  then  setting  off  the  required 
point  along  the  perpendicular.  This  method  will  be 
found  convenient  in  drawing  a  parallel  to  a  line  at  a 
given  distance  from  it  by  .setting  off  another  point  in 
the  .same  way,  and  drawing  through  the  two  the  re- 
quired parallel.  4th.  In  setting  off'  .several  points  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  several  parallels  to  a  given  line, 


Drawing  Instruments. 

as,  for  example,  the  parallel  lines  which  lx)und  the 
planes  of  a  parapet,  it  will  be  found  most  speedy  and 
accurate  to  draw  first  \ipon  a  slip  of  smooth  thin  paper 
two  lines  perpendicular  to  each  other,  then  marking 
on  one  of  the  lines  the  respective  given  distances  of 
the  parallels  from  the  other,  and  cutting  the  paper 
close  to  the  line  along  which  the  given  points  are  mark- 
ed off,  .so  that  when  the  strip  is  laid  upon  the  draw- 
ing so  as  to  have  one  of  its  lines  to  coincide  with  that 
to  which  the  parallels  are  to  be  drawn,  their  distances 
from  it  can  be  pricked  off  by  a  sharp  pointed  pencil, 
or  in  any  other  way.  Hth.  Vihen  a  point  is  to  be  con- 
structed bji  means  of  the  intersection  of  tiro  lines  nrhi- 
irarilji  chosen,  such  a  position  sho\ild  be  assumed  for 
the  arbitrary  lines  that  they  shall  not  form  a  very 
acute  angle"  at  their  point  of  intersection,  as  in  that 
case  this  point  might  not  be  so  distinct  to  the  eye  as 
to  be  marked  with  accuracy.  For  example,  in  erect- 
ing a  perpendicular  to  a  line  at  a  given  point,  and  in 
like  problems,  in  which  points  are  found  by  the  inter- 
sections of  arcs  of  circles,  it  will  Ije  best  and  most 
convenient  to  take  for  the  radii  of  the  arcs  the  distance 
between  their  centers,  as  the  angle  between  the  tan- 
gents to  the  arcs  at  their  point  of  intersection  will 
then  be  60',  which  is  a  suflicient  angle  to  give  accu- 
rately the  point  where  the  lines  cross.  In  all  such 
cases  of  determining  points,  and  where  a  point  is 
pricked  into  the  paper,  it  will  be  found  advisable  to 
designate  the  jx>int  thus  O.  by  a  small  circle  drawn 


around  it  with  the  lead-pencil,  in  order  that  the  eye 
may  see  it  with  more  distinctness.  6th.  In  determining 
a  portion  of  n  line  by  the  cotistruction  of  tiro  arbitrari/ 
points,  the  points  should  be  so  chosen  "that  the  portion 
required  may  fall  Ix-'tween  them  and  not  beyond  them. 
7th.  No  means  of  verifying  the  accuracy  "of  the  con- 
struction of  points  or  lines  .should  be'omitfed.  A 
general  and  minute  verification  of  all  the  parts  of  the 
drawing  should  be  made  tx-fore  any  portion  of  it  is 
put  in  ink.  Neatness  is  a  not  unim]>ortant  element  in 
the  attainment  of  accuracv  in  drawing.  A  few  minu- 
tisB,  when  attended  to,  will  subserve  tliis  end.  That 
part  of  the  paper  on  which  the  draughtsman  is  not 
working  .should  be  kept  covered  with  clean  paper, 
pasted  on  the  edge  of  the  board,  so  as  to  fold  over  the 
drawing,  and  the  i^arts  wliieh  are  Imished  should  Ije 
similarly  protected.  Before  comnieneing  the  daily 
work  the  paper  should  Ix-  carefully  dusted,  and  the 
scales,  rules,  and  triangles  be  carefully  wiped  with  a 
clean  dry  rag.  As  few  lines  of  construction  as  pos- 
sible should  be  drown  in  pencil,  and  only  that  part  of 
each  which  may  be  strictly  neccs.sary  "to  determine 
the  point  sought.  As,  for  example,  where  a  ix)int  is 
to  be  found  by  the  intersection  of  two  arcs  of  circles; 
when  the  position  of  the  point  can  be  approximately 
judged  of  by  the  eye,  only  a  portion  of  one  are,  which 
will  embrace  the  point,  mav  be  drawn,  and 
the  i>oint  where  the  second  arc  would  in- 
tersect the  first  be  marked  without  describing 
the  arc.  No  more  of  any  line  of  the  drawing 
should  be  made  in  pencil  than  is  to  remain 
permanently  in  ink.  The  object  of  these  pre- 
cautions is  to  keep  the  paper  from  becoming 
covered  with  dirt  and  the  lines  from  being 
defaced  by  the  wear  of  the  paper.  In  inking 
the  lines  the  following  directions  will  be 
found  useful:  Efface  carefully  all  pencil- 
lines  that  are  not  to  be  inked,  and  those  parts 
of  the  permanent  lines  which  are  not  to  re- 
main, before  commencing  to  ink.  When 
right  lines  are  tangent  to  curves,  put  in  ink 
the  curve  before  the  right  line;  draw  all  arcs 
of  equal  radii  at  once,  one  after  the  other; 
if  several  arcs  are  to  be  described  from  the 
same  center,  it  will  he  well  to  put  a  thin  bit 
of  quill  over  the  point  for  the  end  of  the 
dividers  to  rest  on,  to  avoid  making  a  large 
hole  in  the  drawing.  If  the  drawing  is  not 
to  be  colored  with  the  brush,  all  the  lines 
of  one  color  should  be  put  in  before  com- 
mencing on  those  of  another.  If  one  of 
the  boimding  lines  of  a  surface  is  to  be  made 
hearler  than  the  others,  its  breadth  should  be  taken 
from  the  surface  they  limit  and  not  be  added  to 
it ;  and  when  the  heavy  line  forms  the  boundary  of 
two  surfaces,  its  breadth  must  be  taken  from  the  one 
of  greatest  declivity.  When  the  drawing  is  to  lie 
colored,  all  lines  that  are  not  to  be  black  may  tx;  put 
in  first  with  black,  making  them  very  faint,  so  that 
they  may  receive  their  ajipropriate  colors  after  the 
drawing  is  otherwise  completed.  No  heavy  lines 
should  be  put  in  until  the  work  with  the  brush  is  com- 
pleted. AATien  all  the  lines  are  in,  the  drawing  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  stale  bread-crumbs,  and 
then  have  several  pitchers  of  water  dashed  over  it, 
the  board  being  i>laced  in  an  inclined  position  to  allow 
the  water,  colored  by  the  ink  lines,  to  escajie  rapidly 
and  not  to  discolor  "the  paper.  In  using  the  briLsh. 
whether  for  flat  tints  or  graded,  the  requisite  depth  of 
tint  should  be  reacheti  by  a  number  of  faint  tints  laid 
over  each  other:  this  is  especially  necc.s.sary  in  laying 
tints  of  blacks,  browns,  and  reds.  To  obtain  an  even 
Hat  or  graded  tint  on  dry  pajx^r  requires  considerable 
skill.  The  best  plan  for  this  is  tirst  to  wtt  with  a 
large  bnish  or  clean  rag  the  surface  on  which  the 
tint  is  to  be  laid,  then  with  a  slightly  moist  rag  clear 
the  surface  of  water,  and  before  the  paper  has  time 
to  dn,-  to  lay  on  the  'int.  With  this  precaution,  the 
heaviest  tints  of  Chinese  ink,  the  most  difficult  of  all 
to  manage  on  dry  paper,  can  be  neatly  laid  down. 


DBAWINO  AND  ftUAETEKING. 


502 


DREDGING-MACHINE. 


The  Uttfring  and  numbering  of  a  drawing  should  Ix' 
in  ordimiry  printed  cliaractcr;  this  is  particularly 
requisite  in  the  niunlxTinjr,  to  avoid  misapprehen-  , 
sions  which  often  arise  from  individual  peculiarities 
in  writiiii;  numbers.  As  hius  Ix-eii  already  remarkeil, 
referenivs  art'  written  in  Mack,  within  brackets  which,  j 
when  practicable,  embrace  the  point  referred  to.  j 
When  not  practicable,  a  small  dotted  line  may  lead 
from  the  jwint  to  the  reference:  thus,  O...(25.50);  , 
but  to  distinguish  references  from  other  numbers  the 
designation  of  the  unit  is  omitted.  All  horizoiual 
distjuices  between  points  are  written  upon  a  dotted 
line  drawn  l>etween  the  points,  with  an  arrow-head  at 
each  end;  where  several  partial  distances  in  a  right 
line  are  marked,  it  will  be  also  well  to  mark  the  total 
distance:  the  latter  may  be  written  above  or  beneath 
the  former.  In  writing  horizontal  distiinces,  the 
usual  designation  of  the  unit  is  always  WTitten  thus: 
y  for  yards,  '  for  feet,  etc.  All  the  numbers  must  be 
exi)ressc(l  in  the  .same  unit,  the  fractional  parts  being 
in  decimals.  References  and  hoiizontal  distances 
Ciinnot  be  too  much  multiplied,  in  order  to  avoid  mis- 
apprehensions, and  the  results  of  errors  of  construction, 
as  well  as  to  save  the  time  that  would  be  taken  in  ap- 
plying dividers  to  the  drawing  to  find  from  the  scale 
atii.\eil  to  it  the  dimensions  of  any  part.  A  senlf  very 
accuritcly  constructed  should  l)e  affl.xed  to  the  draw- 
ing before  it  is  cut  from  the  board,  so  that  the  shrink- 
age of  the  paper,  which  Ls  about  j^,  may  affect  all 
the  parts  eciually,  and  the  scale  thus  be  made  to  cor- 
respond to  the  real  lengths  of  the  lines  on  the  drawing. 
The  scale  should  be  divided  according  to  the  decimal 
sj'stcm,  as  being  most  convenient  for  counting  off. 
The  first  division  of  the  .scale  should  furni.sh  the  units, 
and  also  their  decimal  parts  if  the  scale  bears  that 
proportion  to  the  true  dimensions  of  the  object  repre- 
sented which  will  admit  of  these  divisions.  This 
first  division  is  numbered  from  right  to  left,  the  zero- 
point  being  on  the  right,  the  10-point  on  the  left;  the 
succeeding  divisions,  to  50  inclusive,  should  each  be 
equal  to  the  first  division,  containing  ten  units  each. 
The  remaining  divisions  may  contiiin  fifty  units  each. 
It  will  l)c  seen  that  any  lumiber  of  tens,  units,  or  frac- 
tion:d  ])arts  of  a  unit  can  thus  be  readily  taken  off 
from  the  scale  by  the  dividers.  The  scale  should  lie 
long  enough  to  give  the  dimensions  of  the  longest 
line  on  the  dmwing.  The  proportion  which  the  scale 
hears  to  the  true  dimensions  of  the  object  should  be 
written  above  the  scale;  thus,  scale  one  inch  to  ten 
yards,  or  ,),„.  And  the  designation  of  the  unit  of  the 
drawing  should  Ik-  aimexed  to  the  last  division  on  the 
scale,  as  t/dx.  for  yards,  ft.  for  feet,  etc. 

DRAWING  AND  ftUARTEEING.— In  Great  Britain 
the  i)unislimcnl  for  treason  still  is  that  theotfender  be 
drairn  to  the  place  of  execution  on  a  hurdle;  that  he 
be  hanged  by  the  neck  till  he  be  dead;  that  his  head  be 
severed  from  his  body,  and  that  his  body  be  divided 
into  four  parts,  or  quartered.  The  Sovereign  may,  and 
now  certainly  would,  by  a  warrant  under  the  Sign- 
manual,  count<'rsigned  by  a  principal  Secretary  of 
State,  change  the  sentence  into  beheading.  Iii  the 
case  of  females  llie  (|uarlering  is  dispensed  with. 

DRAWING-BOARD.— A  board  on  which  drawing- 
paper  is  strained  for  jiainting  on  in  water-colors.  The 
paper  is  wetted  for  the  jiurpose  of  being  strained,  and 
when  attached  :it  the  edges  it  is  permitted  to  dry  and 
contract.  Formerly  the  drawing-board  was  fitted 
into  a  frame,  the  edges  of  the  wet  paper  being  made 
fast  by  the  pressure  of  the  frame  on  the  Imard.  Hut 
the  much  simpler  drawing-board  which  is  now  in  use 
is  made  of  a  Hat  piece  or  pieces  of  wfwd,  held  together 
and  prevented  from  warping  by  an  edging  of  other 
pieces,  the  grain  of  which  runs  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. The  wet  paper  is  attached  to  the  edges  of  the 
lM)ard  with  paste  or  thin  glue,  and  when  dry  l)ccomes 
perfectly  finn  and  Hat.  SV'hcn  the  work  is  finished, 
the  paper  is  cut  bevond  the  drawing  with  a  knife. 

DRAWN  BATTLE.— A  fight  from  which  the  com- 
batmls  withdraw  without  either  side  claiming  the 
victory. 


DRAW  PLATE. — A  steel  plate  with  a  graduated 
scries  of  holes,  through  which  metals  are  drawn  in 
making  them  into  wires  or  bars.  Also  a  name  given 
to  a  plate  of  metal  placed  before  a  fire  or  before  the 
lateral  opening  between  the  top  of  the  fireplace  and 
the  throat  of  the  chimney.  Its  use  is  to  force  the  air 
to  pa,ss  through  the  fire  on  its  way  into  the  chimney, 
instead  of  allowing  it  to  pass  over  the  fire. 

DREDGING  BOX.— To  render  the  fuses  of  mortar- 
shells  more  certain  of  tjiking  fire,  meal-powder  is 
sprinkled  over  them,  after  the  shell  is  jilaced  in  the 
mortjir,  from  a  dredgiiiy-box.  It  is  made  of  sheet- 
copper.  The  to])  fits  over  the  box,  and  is  pierced  with 
holes  for  the  escaiie  of  the  powder. 

DREDGING-MACHINE.- A  machine  designed  for 
clearing  out  or  ileepening  the  channels  of  rivers,  har- 
bors, etc.  The  bucket  diedging-machine  is  very 
eflScient  and  is  much  used  for  the  lighter  grades  of 
work.  It  consists  of  a  long  stage  or  framework  over- 
hanging the  side  of  the  barge.  This  frame  has  a 
wheel  at  each  end,  upon  which  works  a  powerful 
endless  chain,  to  which  is  attached  a  series  of  per- 
forated iron  buckets,  each  with  a  shovel-shaped  steel 
mouth  projecting  considerably  on  one  side.  The 
overhanging  framework  forms  an  inclined  plane 
along  which  the  buckets  run,  descending  on  one  side 
and  ascending  on  the  other.  They  are  so  arranged 
that  they  descend  empty,  and  on  reaching  the  Ijottom 
the  projecting  shovel  or  scoop-mouth  digs  into  the 
bottom  and  partially  fills  the  bucket  with  the  silt;  it 
then  turns  round  on  "the  wheel  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
incline,  and  runs  up  it  till  near  the  top,  when  it  turns 
over  the  upper  end,  and  in  doing  so  its  contents  are 
emptied  into  a  second  attendant  barge.  This  action 
is  continued  by  every  succeeding  bucket  of  the  end- 
less chain.  The  perforations  are  for  the  pas,sage  of  the 
water.  By  varying  the  inclination  of  the  framework, 
the  working  depth  may  be  increased  or  diminished. 
Some  dreilges  are  fitted  with  two  complete  sets  of 
buckets,  one  on  each  side  of  the  vessel.  A  steam- 
engine  and  boiler,  suitably  placed  in  the  dredge,  are 
provided  for  ,gi\ing  motion  to  the  machinery,  and 
sometimes  also  to  a  screw-propeller  jihiccd  at  the  stern. 
The  Frisbie  engine,  shown  on  page  MVi,  is  much 
used  for  dredging  purposes  in  the  United  States. 
The  manner  of  connecting  the  spur-gearing  to  the 
drums  by  Ix)ltiiig  directly  to  the  rim  of  the  dnim 
does  away  with  all  torsion"  of  the  shaft  and  wear  upon 
all  keys  and  feathers,  which  is  a  serious  defect  in 
most  hoisting-engines,  causing  shafts  to  split  at  the 
key-way.  A  friction-dutch  is  set  so  as  to  do  the  work 
at  "which  the  cables  are  safe,  and  then  slip,  and  sjive 
the  engine  and  gearing  from  1)reaking.  The  ino- 
tion  to  operate  the  clutch  is  easy  and  natural;  and  with 
a  very  powerful  strap-lirake,  the  engineer  can  hold 
or  lower  carefully  any  load  he  can  hoist. 

Perhaps  nowhere  has  river-dredging  been  carried 
such  a  length  as  in  the  caseof  the Ciydc.  which  by  this 
process  of  scoo]iing  has  at  and  below  Glasgow  lieen 
converted  froiua  river  navigable  only  for  small  vessels 
into  an  estuary  capable  of  bearing  the  largest  ships. 
The  dredges  employed  for  this  pun)ose  arc  moved  by 
steam,  the  materials  scooped  out  being  carrie<l  out  to 
sea  by  lightei-s.  These  have  a  large  open  tank  amid- 
ships, while  the  two  ends  are  decked  over,  and  afford 
such  accommodation  f(jr  cit>w  or  machimry  as  may 
be  nece.s.sary.  The  sides  of  the  hold  are  hinged  from 
the  top,  and  open  outwards,  and  thus  its  contents  can 
easily  be  emptied  into  the  sea. 

The  engraving  on  Iheopposite  page  repre.sents  a  new- 
description  of  dredging-machine,  known  as  the  Ixx/m- . 
dredg, ,  of  which  the  Osgood  Dredge  Company,  Alba- 
ny, N.  Y.,  are  the  patentees  and  builders.  In  view  of 
its  valuable  peculiarities  and  the  marked  success  which 
hasattended  its  use,  both  as  to  efficiency  and  economy, 
we  give  this  illustration  and  a  brief  statement  of  its 
construction  and  operation,  as  matters  of  interest  to 
readers  practically  acquainted  with  this  cla-ssof  ma- 
chines. The  main  hull  is  80  feet  long,  17i  feet  wide, 
and  5  J  feet  deep.    On  either  side  of  the  hull  is  attached 


DRESS. 


503 


DKESS-COAT. 


a  ponton  5  feet  in  width  and  with  other  dimensions 
the  same  as  those  of  the  hull  proper.  These  pontons 
can  be  moved  when  necessary,  to  permit  the  dredge 
to  go  through  lo<ks.  When  attached  to  Ihe  hull  they 
give  a  total  widtli  of  27i  feet.  The  hoisting-engines 
have  two  cylindei-s,  each  11  inches  bore  and  18  inches 
stroke.  The  boiler  is  of  locomotive  pattern,  with  a 
donkey-pump  to  feed  it.  The  supply-  and  exhaust- 
pipes  are  made  wit li  expansion-joints.  The  sides  of 
the  hull  have  wooden  trasses  of  the  IIowc  pattern  to 
give  strength  and  stiffness.  The  dipper  is  made  of 
steel  and  has  a  capacity  of  46  cubic  leet.  It  is  made 
with  a  patent  double  door.  The  outer  door,  instead 
of  being  hung  at  the  lower  edge  of  the  dipper,  is  hung 
about  the  middle,  .so  that  in  opening  it  hangs  down 
about  half  the  distance  it  would  if  hung  in  the  usual 
way.  This  diminishes  by  so  much  the  height  to 
which  it  is  ncccssjiry  to  raise  the  dipper  in  order  to 
dump  it.     The  other  and  smaller  door  opens  inward 


"  trailing"  one.  This  keeps  the  machine  in  line  when 
the  forward  spuds  are  raised  and  the  machine  is 
moved  ahead.  The  main  hoisting-<Irums  are  worked 
by  a  novel  hydraulic  from  which  satisfactorv  results 
have  been  obtained.  The  friction  can  be  iiLstantly 
applied  and  laUcn  olT.  Tlie  power  for  this  is  Ihe  com- 
bined force  <jf  steam  and  water  pressure.  This  fric- 
tion is  easily  applied,  and  is  one  of  the  Ijest  feaUires 
of  the  machine.  By  means  of  it  much  of  the  fatigue 
to  the  operator  incident  to  the  style  of  "  V'and  other 
frictions  is  avoided.  This  is  no  inconsiderable  item 
in  the  working  of  a  machine  during  ten  consecutive 
hours.  It  is  an  admirable  laborsjiving  appliance. 
See  JiiMiin-drcdgr,  Cmiu-dnilt/e,  and  Excaviitor. 

DKESS. — 1.  A  word  of  command  for  alignment  of 
troops  ;  also  a  term  expressing  the  alignment  itself. 
2.  The  clothing  termed  regimentals  issued  to  .soldiers. 
The  dress  should  be  light  and  easv,  not  encumljering 
the  arms  or  legs  in  any  way,  but  "leaving  the  soldier 


Frisbie  Hoisting-engine. 


and  allows  the  dipper,  as  it  strikes  the  water,  to  fill 
from  the  bottom,  thus  taking  away  much  of  the  shock 
ordinarily  experienced  with  the  old  style  of  dipper 
when  striking  the  water.  The  old  style'of  dipper  fills 
from  the  top.  The  dipiXT-liandle  has  neither  rack 
nor  pinion,  but  is  worked  by  friction  applied  throuu'h 
a  hand-wheel  on  the  turn-table.  The  capacity  of  this 
machine  is  two  dippers  per  minute.  The  hoisting 
chain  is  a  single  one  and  is  made  of  li-inch  .steel. 
The  "  A"  frame  and  the  boom  are  made  of  angle-iron, 
riveted  together,  and  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be 
raised  or  lowered  by  steam-power,  .so  as  to  permit  the 
dreilge  to  go  imder  bridges  without  being  taken  apart. 
The  raising  and  lowering  are  performed  by  chains 
attached  to  independent  drums,  which  are  operated 
by  the  main  engines.  The  spuds  are  raised  by 
.steam-power,  by  means  of  chains  attached  to  friction - 
drums.  These  drums  are  also  operated  by  the  main 
engines.  The  spuds  are  kept  in  place  after  being 
lowered  bj-  patent  eccentric  binders,  which  hold 
the  spuds  firmly  and  without  any  .slipping.  The 
spuds  go  down  in  wells  through  the  boat,  the  wells 
being  absolutely  watertight.     The  after-spud    is  a 


free  to  shoot  and  walk.  The  dress,  moreover,  should 
be  adapted  to  the  climate  of  Ihe  country  in  which  the 
soldier  serves.  The  driHs  iinifimit  is  Ihe  dress  pre- 
scrilu'd  for  occasions  of  ceremony.     See  I'liifunn. 

DRESS-COAT. — A  part  of  the"  full-dress  uniform. 
In  tlie  I'niled  Stales  army  all  otTiccrs  wear  a  double- 
breasted  fmrk  coal  of  liaik  blue  cloth,  llie  skirt  ex- 
lending  from  one  half  to  three  fourths  the  distance 
from  the  hip- joint  to  the  bend  of  the  knee.  For  a 
GeniraL—Two  rows  of  l)Ultons  on  the  breast,  twelve 
in  each  row  ;  placed  by  fours ;  the  distance  I>etween 
each  row  live  and  one  half  inches  at  top  and  three 
and  one  half  inches  at  bottom;  stand-up  collar,  not  less 
than  one  nor  more  than  two  inches  in  lieight,  to  hook 
in  front  at  Ihe  bottom  and  slojie  thence  u])  and  back- 
ward at  an  angle  of  tliirly  degrees  on  each  side,  cor- 
ners rounded  ;  cuffs  three  inches  deep,  to  go  around 
the  sleeves  parallel  with  the  lower  edge,  and  with 
three  small  buttons  at  the  under  seam;  pockets  in  the 
folds  of  the  skirts,  with  two  buttons  at  the  hip  and 
one  at  the  lower  end  of  each  side  edge,  making  four 
buttons  on  the  l)ack  and  skirt  of  the  coat ;  collar  and 
cuffs  to  lie  of  dark  blue  velvet ;  lining  of  the  coat 


I)££S6-FAIIAI>£. 


504 


SBEBS-FABASE. 


bliick.  For  a  Lieutenant  General. — The  same  as  for 
a  GfOfral,  except  that  there  are  teu  buttons  in  each 
row  on  the  breast,  the  upper  and  lower  grouiis  t>y 
threes,  and  the  middle  groups  by  fours.  Fur  a  Major 
(it  lit  rat. — The  same  as  for  a  General,  except  that 
there  are  nine  buttons  in  each  row  on  the  breast, 
placed  bv  threes.  Fur  a  Brigadur  General. — The 
sjime  as  for  a  Genend,  except  thai  thcR'  are  ei^ht  but- 
tons in  each  row  on  the  breast,  jilaced  by  ])airs.  Fur  a 
Columl,  Luiitenant  Culoiul,  and  Miyor. — The  same  as 
for  a  General,  except  that  there  are  nine  buttons  in  eaeli 
row  on  the  breast,  placed  at  equal  distances ;  collar 
and  culls  of  the  same  color  and  material  as  the  coat. 
For  a  Caplain,  First  Lieutenant,  Second  Lieutenant, 
and  Additional  lyrond  Lieutenant. — The  same  as  for 
a  Colonel,  except  that  there  are  seven  buttons  in  each 
row  on  the  breast.  For  all  Storekeepers. — The  simie 
as  prescrilx'd  for  officers  of  the  s;ime  rank  in  the 
Quartermaster's,  Medical,  and  Ordnance  Departments. 
This  coat  is  worn  on  all  dress  occasions,  such  xs  re- 
news, inspections,  dress-parades,  guards,  and  courts- 
martial.  It  is  habitually  worn  at  battalion  drills, 
except  in  hot  weather,  or  when  otherwise  directed  by 
the  Commanding  Officer.  It  may  also  be  worn  with 
shoulder-straps  when  not  on  armed  duty. 

/'"/•  Enlisted  Men  of  Inj)inlri/.  — The  dress-coat  is 
sin  de-breasted,  dark  blue  bastiue,  according  to  pat- 
tern deposited  in  the  Quartermaster  General's  Office, 
piped  with  sky-blue ;  collar  sime  height  a.s  for  offi- 
cers' coat,  faced  with  sky-blue  cloth  four  inches  back 
on  each  side,  cut  square  to  hook  up  close  in  front  ; 
numlRT  of  regiment  or  badge  of  corjis  in  yellow  metal 
in  middle  of  sky-blue  facing  of  collar  on  each  side  : 
skirt  of  coat  on  each  side  of  opening  behind  to  be 
faced  with  sky-blue  cloth,  ornamented  with  four  but- 
tons, as  per  pattern.  Two  straps  of  dark  blue  cloth, 
piped  with  the  same  color  as  the  facings,  let  into  the 
waist-seam  on  each  side  the  coat  and  buttoning  above 
the  hip  to  sustain  the  waist-belt ;  shoulder-straps  of 
cloth  the  color  of  the  facings  let  into  the  shoulder- 
seam  and  to  button  over  the  shoulder-belts  at  the  col- 
lar-scam with  one  button;  shoulder-straps  for  Engi- 
neer .soldiers  to  be  sciirlet,  piped  with  white.  For 
Enlinted  Men  of  Artilltry,  Engineers,  and  Ordnance. — 
Same  as  for  Infantry,  except  that  the  facings  shall  be 
scarlet  for  Artillery,  scarlet  and  white  for  Engineers, 
and  crimson  for  Ordnance.  For  Enlisted  Men  of 
Cariilrji  anil  Light  Artilleri/. — Same  as  for  Infantry, 
excepting  that  it  is  shorter  in  the  skirt,  and  the  facing 
upon  the  skirt  put  on  ditT(-rently,  according  to  pattern 
in  the  Quartermaster  General's  Ollicc ;  facings  for 
Cavalry  yellow,  and  for  Light  Artillery  red.  For 
Musicians. —  Ornamented  on  the  breast  with  braid 
.same  color  as  the  facings,  running  from  the  button  as 
now  worn,  the  outer  extremities  terminating  in  "her- 
ring-bones" and  the  braid  returning  back  to  the  but- 
tons. For  Hospital  Steirards. — Same  as  for  Infantry, 
except  the  facings  to  be  of  emerald  green.  For  Ord- 
nance Sergeants. — Same  as  for  enlisted  men  of  Ord- 
nance. For  Comuiissary  Sergeants. — The  same  as  for 
Infantry,  except  that  the  facings  will  be  cadet  gray. 
For  Enlisted  Men  of  the  Signal  Serrice. — Same  as  for 
Cavalry,  except  that  the  trimmings  and  facings  will 
be  orange.  Whenever  the  dress-coat  is  worn  by  en- 
listed men,  it  is  invariably  buttoned  up  and  hooked 
at  the  collar.     See  Bl^/u-ie  and  Uniform. 

DEE88  PARADE.— A  daily  parade  of  troops  in  the 
Vnited  States  army  at  tnxip  or  retreat,  as  the  Com- 
manding Officer  niay  direct,  and  which  is  never  dis- 
pensed with  excei)t  on  urgent  occasions.  All  Field 
Officers  and  men  are  present,  unless  specially  excuse(l, 
or  on  duly  incompatible  with  such  aitendaiice.  The 
ceremonies  of  dress-parade  are  conducted  as  preseril)ed 
in  the  authorized  Tactics,  and  are  as  follows  for  a  regi- 
ment*: 

At  the  second  fdgnal  for  dres,s-parade,  the  compa- 
nies as.semble  under  anus  on  their  respective  parade- 
LTonnds,  and  arc  inspcclcd  by  their  Captains;  the  in- 
spection being  completed,  adjutants'  call  is  sounded, 
at  which  the  line  is  formed  on  the  battalion  parade- 


.ground,  bayonets  fixed.  The  Commanding  Officer 
takes  his  post  at  a  ccaivenient  distance  in  front  of  the 
center,  facing  the  line.  The  Adjutant,  having  com- 
manded guides  jxtats,  directs  the  lirst  Captain  to  brii.g 
his  company  to  jiarade  rest.  The  Captains,  commenc- 
ing on  the"  right,  successiveh'  face  about  and  com- 
mand: 1.  (Su('h)coin]sin!/,2.  (furry, 'i.  Aii.MS,  4.  Order, 
5.  Arms,  (5.  Parade,  7.  Rest,  resume  their  front, 
and  take  position  of  parade  rest;  the  Adjutant  then 
takes  his  post,  commands,  Sound  off,  and  takes  the 
position  of  parade  rest.  The  band,  commencing 
on  the  right,  plays  in  quick  time,  passing  in  front  of 
the  Field  OIBccrs,  or  Company  Officers  if  there  l)e  no 
Field  Officers,  to  the  left  of  the  line,  and  back  to  its 
post  on  the  right;  at  evening  parade,  after  the  strain 
is  linished,  retreat  is  sounded  by  the  trumpeters  or 
field  music.  The  Adjutant  then  steps  two  yards  to 
the  front,  faces  to  the  left,  and  commands:  1.  Battal- 
ion, 2.  Attention,  :i.  Curri/,  4.  Aums,  .5.  liearojien 
order.  Having  aligned  the  guides  for  the  rear  rank, 
the  Adjutant  steps  three  yarils  to  the  frout  of  the  front 
rank,  faces  to  the  left,  and  commands:  6.  M.\i{ch. 
At  which  the  ranks  are  opened.  The  Adjutant,  hav- 
ing verified  the  alignment  of  the  officers,  the  ranks, 
and  the  file-closers,  returns  to  the  right  of  the  front 
rank,  faces  to  the  left,  commauiis,  Fkont,  and  then 
l)a.s.ses  in  rear  of  the  line  of  Company  Officers  to  the 
center  of  the  battalion,  turns  to  the  right,  and  marches 
to  a  point  nudway  between  the  line  of  Field  Officers 
and  the  Commanding  Officer,  when  he  halts,  faces 
about,  and  commands:  1,  Present,  2.  Aums.  At  the 
second  command,  the  officers  and  men  present  arms. 
The  Adjutant  then  faces  about,  salutes  the  Command- 
ing Officer,  and  reports:  "  Sir.'  the  parade  informed." 
The  Commanding  Officer  returns  the  .sdute  with  the 
right  hand,  and  directs  the  Adjutant:  "  Take  t/ou  r  post, 
Sir."  The  Adjutant  takes  his  post  three  yards  to  the 
left  and  one  to  the  rear  of  the  Commaniliug  Officer, 
passing  by  his  right  and  rear.  The  Commanding 
Officer,  while  the  "band  is  playing,  stands  at  parade 
rest,  with  his  arms  folded,  in  which  i)osition  he  con- 
tinues till  arms  are  about  to  be  presented,  when 
he  comes  to  attention.  The  Adjutant  having  taken 
his  post,  the  Commanding  Officer  <lraws  his  sword, 
commands:  1.  Carry,  3.  An>ts;  and  adds  such  exer- 
cises in  the  Maimal  of  Arms  as  he  may  desire,  con- 
cluding with  order  arms.  He  then  directs  the  Adju- 
tant to  receive  the  reports,  and  returns  his  sword. 
The  Adjutant  iiasses  by  the  right  of  the  Commanding 
Officer,  advances  toward  the  line,  halts  midway  be- 
tween him  and  the  line  of  Field  Officers,  and  com- 
mands: 1.  First  Sergeants,  3.  To  tlu;  front  and  center, 
3.  M.\RCH  (or,  double  time,  M.\rch).  At  the  first  com- 
mand, the  First  Sergeants  carry  arms;  at  the  second 
command,  they  step  two  yards"  to  the  front  and  face 
toward  the  center:  the  Drum  Major  at  the  same  time 
faces  to  the  left;  at  the  third  command,  the  First  Ser- 
geants and  the  Dnun  Major  march  to  the  center,  and 
successively  face  to  the  front;  the  Adjutant  then  com- 
mands, Beixirt.  At  this  command,  the  Drum  Major 
and  the  First  Sergeants,  commencing  on  the  right, 
successively  salute  and  report:  the  Drum  Major,  Band 
and  trumpeters,  or  field-music,  present,  or  accounted 
for,  or  (so  many)  musicians,  or  trumpeters,  absent;  the 
Sergeants,  Company  (A,  etc.)  present,  or  accounted  for, 
or  (so  many)  sergeants,  corj>itrals,  or  prirates  absent. 
The  reports  being  made,  the  Adjutant  commands: 
1.  First  Sergeants.  2.  To  your  jwks,  'A.  IMarch  (or, 
dmible  time,  March).  At  the  command  march,  the 
First  Sergeants  and  Drum  Major  face  outward,  and 
resume  their  places;  the  First  Sergeants  pass  through 
their  intervals  a  yard  to  the  rear,  face  about,  .step 
into  the  front  rank,  and  then  order  arms.  The  Adju- 
tant now  faces  about,  sjdutes  the  Commanding  Officer, 
and  reports:  Sir!  All  are  present  or  accounted  for; 
or  Sir:  (so  n\a.ny)  officers  or  enlisted  men  are  absent. 
The  Commanding  Officer  acknowledges  his  salute, 
and  directs:  Publish  the  orders.  Sir,  when  the  Adju- 
tant faces  about  and  commands:  Attention  to  orders. 
He  then  reads  tlie  orders,  after  which  he  faces  about. 


DBEYSE  NEEDLE  GUN. 


505 


DBILLINO-KACHINE. 


salutes  the  Commanding  Officer,  and  reports:  Sit  f 
The  orders  are  jmblished.  The  Commander  acknow- 
ledges the  salute,  and  then  directs :  Distititu  (he 
parade,  Sir!  at  which  the  Adjutant  faces  about 
and  commands  :  Parade  is  dimidmed.  At  this  com- 
mand, all  the  officers  return  their  swords,  and  face 
toward  the  center;  the  officers  then  step  off  at  the  same 
time  with  the  Adjutant,  close  upon  the  center,  and 
successively  face  to  the  front,  the  Field  Officers  on 
the  flanlis;  the  two  officers  nearest  the  center  preserve 
an  interval  for  the  Adjutant,  who  passes  through  the 
interval  a  yard  to  the  rear,  when  he  halts,  and  faces 
about;  all  the  officers  having  faced  to  the  front,  the 
Adjutant  steps  into  his  place  and  commands:  1.  For- 
ward, 3.  Guide  center,  3.  JL\Rcn.  At  the  tliird  com- 
mand, they  march  to  the  front,  dressing  on  the  center, 
the  band  playing;  on  approaching  tlie  Commanding 
Officer,  the  AtljuTant  commands:  1.  Officers,  2.  Halt. 
At  the  command  halt,  given  at  six  yards  from  tlie  Cora- 
mandins  Officer,  tlie  music  ceases,  and  the  officers 
halt,  and  sahite  with  the  right  hand.  The  hands  re- 
main at  the  visiir  till  the  salute  is  acknowledged,  and 
drop  at  the  same  time  with  the  hand  of  the  Command- 
ing Officer.  The  Commanding  Officer  then  gives 
such  instructions  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  which 
concludes  the  ceremony.  As  the  officers  disperse,  the 
music  is  resumed;  the  First  Sergeants  step  to  the  front 
and  close  the  ranlvs  of  their  respective  companies;  the 
Third  Sergeant  of  each  company  places  himself  on 
the  right  of  the  front  rank,  the  First  Sergeants  then 
march  their  companies  to  the  companj-  parade-grounds, 
where  they  are  dismissed,  the  band  continuing  to  play 
till  the  conipanies  clear  the  battalion  parade-ground. 
When  the  line  at  parade  is  verj-  short,  tlie  band  may 
play  in  common  time;  or  it  maj'  play  to  the  left  in 
common  time,  ceasing  during  the  countermarch,  upon 
the  completion  of  which,  without  halting,  it  strikes 
up  in  quick  time.  See  Erening  Parade,  Morning 
Paradf,  and  Undress  Parnde. 

DKEYSE  NEEDLE  GUN.— A  brecch-loadlng  small- 
arm  having  a  fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable 
breech-block  which  slides  in  the  line  of  the  barrel  by 
direct  action.  It  is  opened  by  raising  the  handle  of 
the  breech-tK)lt  to  a  vertical  position,  and  then  with- 
drawing it  to  the  extent  pennitted  by  the  form  of  a 
slot  in  the  receiver  in  which  it  slides.  In  turning  up 
the  handle,  the  needle-lx)lt  is  forced  back  against  the 
pressure  of  the  mainspring  which  surrounds  its  stem, 
by  means  of  a  spiral  shoulder  near  its  head,  which 
rides  over  a  corresponding  helical  surface  on  tlie  stem 
of  the  recoil-block.  The  needle-bolt  is  compelled  to 
turn  with  the  breech-bolt  by  means  of  a  projection  on 
its  head  which  slides  to  and  fro  in  a  longitudinal 
groove  in  the  bore  of  the  breech-lwlt;  and  the  recoil- 
block  is  prevented  from  turning  with  the  brecch-liolt 
by  a  similar  projection  sliding  in  a  corresponding 
groove  in  the  receiver.  When  fully  forced  back  and 
the  pressure  of  the  hand  removed,  the  needle-boll  is 
kept  from  being  thrown  forward  by  the  main  spring 
by  means  of  a  square  portion  of  its  face  coming 
against  a  corresponding  part  of  the  back  surface  of 
the  recoil-block.  Supported  in  this  way,  the  needle- 
bolt  moves  back^ntli  the  other  parts  duriug  the  open- 
ing of  the  piece.  When  the  breech  is  closed  by  the 
usual  means  the  needle-bolt  catches  against  the  nose 
of  the  sear,  and  is  retained  by  it. 

By  the  act  of  turning  down  the  handle  into  place, 
the  "square  end  of  the  needle-bolt  is  rotated  off  its 
bearing  on  the  stem  of  the  recoil-block,  leaving  the 
needle'bolt  and  the  needle  free  to  Ije  driven  fonvard 
by  the  mainspring,  when  the  sear  is  pulled  out  of  its 
■way  by  the  trigger,  as  in  the  Pruanitni  needle-mn. 
It  is  also  locked' m  the  same  manner  as  this  gun.  The 
arm  may  be  cocked  without  opening  it,  if  so  desired, 
by  drawmg  back  the  needle-bolt  by  means  of  a  thumb- 
piece,  until  the  nose  of  the  scar  catches  against  a  tillet 
on  the  needle-lx)lt  as  before  described.  By  then  press 
ing  forward  the  thumb-piece  till  a  stud  on  its  upper 
surface  engages  in  the  transverse  arm  of  an  L-shaped 
slot  in  the  breech-bolt,  the  mainspring  is  compressed, 


and  may  be  released  as  above  described.  The  thumb- 
piece  and  necdle-liolt  are  connected  together  by  the 
neeille,  which  passes  through  a  small  hole  in  the  base 
of  the  thumb-iiiece,  and  is  screwed  into  the  rear  end 
of  the  needle-bolt. 

DRIFT. — 1.  A  round  piece  of  steel,  made  slightly 
tapering,  and  used  for  enlarging  a  hole  in  a  metallic 
plate  liy  being  driven  through  it.  The  drift  may  have 
a  cutting  edge  merely  uixin  its  advance-face,  or  it 
may  have  spirally-cut  grooves  which  give  the  sides  of 
the  drift  a  capacity  for  cutting. 

2.  A  pas.sage  iu  a  mine,  horizontal  or  very  nearly  so. 
forming  a  drain  for  carrying  off  the  water.  The  name 
is  derived  from  its  being  driren  in.  Driring  is  hori- 
zontal work;  sinking  and  rising  refer  to  the  direction 
of  work  either  in  shafts  or  in  following  the  course  of 
a  vein. 

3.  A  gun-implcnicnt  made  of  steel;  it  is  used  for 
clearing  the  vent  when  choked.  In  using  it.  a  ham 
mcr  must  be  applied  to  the  head  of  the  drift  to  drive 
it  through  the  vent.  There  arc  also  wooden  drifts, 
which  are  used  in  inserting  the  jwpier-irtdchi-  wad  in 
common  shells  for  riUcd  guns. 

4.  A  deviation  peculiar  to  all  oblong  rifle-projectiles. 
See  Projectilis. 

DRILLING  -  MACHINE.  —  A  machine  carrying  a 
rotating  tool  and  a  means  for  chucking  the  object  to 


Three-spiiKlI.'  Drillinp-machine. 

be  bored.  These  machines  differ  greatly  in  size  and 
appearance,  in  the  moile  of  presenting  the  tool  and 
chucking  the  work.  The  larsrer  machines  are  known 
as  boring-machines.  The  drawing  represents  a  three- 
spindle  drill,  handv  for  work  on  a  vanety  of  small 
parts  of  fire-arms.  "The  sjiindles  of  all  the  gjing-dnlls 
run  in  gun-metol  boxes,  split,  anil  furnished  with  a 
nut  to  compensate  for  wear.     They  may  Ix-  run  at  the 


DRILL-FRES&ES. 


506 


DBILLS. 


bigbect  speed  of  wbieh  the  machine  is  capable,  wilh- 
oul  ilangiT  of  bindiug  in  the  boxes,  the  longitvulinnl 
expansion  not  lieing  checki-d  by  a  tixed  collet,  but 
being  allowLtl  frit-doin  without  impairing  the  accu- 
raev  of  the  machine.  The  machine  has  an  adjustable 
haiiil-lever,  a  foot-lever,  a  counterbalanced  table,  ad- 
justable stop,  and  f.niUire  for  determinine  the  depth  of 
the  hole  to  be  drilleil."  The  spindles  are  of  steel— in 
the  smaller  machine  |S  inch  diameter,  and  in  the 
laririT  machine  1,V  inch  diameter.  The  first  drills 
holes  up  to  I'i  inch  diameter,  and  the  latter  up  to  A 
inch  diameter.  For  heavier  work  the  spindles  may 
lie  geared.  Both  sizes  are  made  with  two,  four,  and 
six  spindles.  Distance  between  table  and  end  of  spin- 
dle in  the  machines,  5  to  18  inches  and  6  to  20  inches 
re.-.ipectively.  Weight,  with  countershaft,  625  pounds 
and  1)75  po'\mds.  Speed  of  coimtershaft,  with  8  by  4 
inch  tight  and  loose  pulleys,  310  revolutions  per  niin- 
iite.  Sec  Boriitfi-nutrhinf',  C/iiiekiiig-macfiine,  Flejcihk 
Shaft.  MitltipU  Dnll,  Purtable  Drill,  Radial  Drill, 
and  \'ertioi>  Drill. 

DBILL-FBESSES. — Under  this  head  are  clas-sed  all 
machines  used  for  boring  in  which  the  cutters  revolve 


and  the  work  remains  stationarj-.  Some  of  the 
machines  classed  under  the  head  of  drill-presses  are 
known  as  boring-machines,  the  word  "bore"  being 
commonly  a|>plie(i  to  holes  of  a  size  requiring  the  vise 
of  indi-ixndent  cutters  inserted  in  a  "  boring-bar." 
A  |w)wer-feed  is  e.ssential  to  all  machines  for  cutting 
metal.  The  drill-press  is  no  exception  to  this;  yet 
it  is  almost  the  only  machine-tool  which  has  com- 
monly iK-en  built  with  a  hand-feed  only.  The  con- 
ditions of  cut  and  variations  in  the  size  and  strength 
of  the  cutting  tool  make  the  application  of  an  auto- 
matic feed  to  a  drill-pre-is  a  niore  difficult  matter 
than  to  a  lathe  or  a  planing-machine,  in  which  a 
given-sized  cutting  tool  of  snificlent  strengtli  to  do  the 
work  is  pos.sible.  In  a  <lrill-press,  the  smaller  and 
more  delicate  the  drill  the  finer  and  more  exact  or 
uniform  must  Ix;  the  feed.  The  requirements  of  n 
good  feed-motion  for  a  drill-press  are,  that  it  may 


he  quickly  adjusted  to  the  required  amount;  that  it 
shall  l>e  positive  in  its  action  when  at  work;  that  its 
range  .shall  be  so  great,  and  so  fine  a  fee<l  possible,  as 
not  to  endanger  the  smallest  drill,  while  at  the  .same 
time  it  shall  be  capable  of  giving  the  utmost  amount 
of  feed  a  large  drill  or  a  boring-bar  will  stand;  that 
it  shall  l)e  so  quickly  and  readily  applied  as  to  make 
its  usi-  mori'  convenient  than  the  hand-feed;  and  that 
it  shall  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  quick  opera- 

.  tion  of  the  machine  by  hand.  William  Sellers  <&  Co. 
have  recently  introduced  an  improved  feed-motion, 
which  fully  satisfies  all  the  reipiirementa  of  a  feed 
for  drilling-machines.  In  their  drill-presses,  disks 
of  metal  are  employed  to  transmit  motion  by  friction, 
which,  being  adjustable  as  to  diameter  of  drivuig  and 
driven  wheels,  admits  of  an  Infinite  variation  of  feeds 
between  its  extreme  limits  of  greatest  and  least  mo- 
tion. This  peculiar  feetl-motiou  is  applied  to  those 
drill-presses  in  which  nmge  is  desirable;  but  in 
machines  for  special  work,  such  as  for  drilling  steel 
plates,  the  feed  is  constant  at  what  has  been  found 
to  work  the  best,  as  the  size  of  the  drill  used  in  siich 
machines  is  in  a  measure  constant  also.  In  vertical 
drill-presses  the  spindle  should  be  counterbalanced. 

I  This  is  of  great  value,  as  the  drill  held  up  by  the 
balance-weight  will  not  drop  into  holes  or  caWties  in 
the  metal,  and  is  much  less  liable  to  break. 

The  drawing  shows  a  four-spindle  drill-press,  as 
made  by  Garvin  &  Co.,  for  use  in  government  armo- 
ries. The  machine  is  verj-  heavj-,  and  designed  for 
drilling  holes  ranging  frotn  i  to  |  inch  diameter,  also 
for  counterboring,  reaming,  face-milling,  or  auj'  work 
that  is  convenient  to  be  done  on  an  upright  drilling- 
machine.  The  spindles  are  made  of  steel,  1  (\  inch 
diameter  and  20  inches  long,  iuul  are  held  down  by 
adjustable  hardened  steel  steps  at  top  of  frame.  The 
lower  end  has  a  taper  hole  to  receive  the  shanks  of 
tools,  -J  inch  diameter  and  4  inches  deep,  with  mortise 
for  drift-key  to  remove  the  tools  from  the  spindle. 
The  spindles  run  in  composition-metal  boxes  fitted 
up  in  a  vcrj'  substantial  manner,  with  ample  means 
of  adjustment  for  wear.  The  head  which  holds  the 
spindles,  drum,  and  cone-pulley  is  lucaled  centrally 
over  the  u;>riglit  column,  giving  a  well-balanced 
apiX'arancc  ami  sufficient  distance  between  the  drum 
and  spindles  to  insA-e  long  belts  of  great  power  and 
durability.  The  table  on  which  the  work  is  placed 
has  hand  and  foot  levers  connected  by  a  milled  rack 
and  gear  to  elevate  and  lower  the  table,  in  connec- 
tion with  adjustable  stops  to  limit  the  exact  motion 
required.  The  hand-lever  can  be  placed  in  any  posi 
tion  recpiired  by  loosenino;  the  nut  outside  the  friction 
binder  on  the  pinion-shaft,  and  should  be  screwed  up 
firmly  ag-aiii  when  adjusted.  The  table  guide-frame 
i  planed  to  fit  the  front  of  the  column  by  tongue-and- 
_  n  lovc  guides,  so  that  the  whole  table  ana  frame, 
with  all  the  attachments,  can  be  raised  or  lowered 
up  or  down  the  column  by  means  of  a  wire  cable 
with  a  worm  and  gear,  and  can  be  held  in  a  true 
position  at  all  points.  The  advantage  of  this  arrange 
meni  is  that  we  may  have  a  press  with  a  very  long 
distance  from  the  sp"indle  to  the  table,  or  a  very  short 
one,  simply  by  loosening  fovir  nuts  and  locating  the 
table-frame  where  it  is  most  convenient,  and  tighten- 
ing the  nuts  again.  The  countershaft  has  ailjustable 
self-oiling  bangers.  The  weight  of  the  press,  with 
co\mtershaft,  is  about  1200  pounds.  See  Drilling- 
nuirhiiii  and  Virtical  Drill. 

DRILLS.— A  general  name  for  the  exercises  through 
which  soldiers  are  passed,  to  qualify  them  for  their 
duties.  It  is  subject  to  numerous  varieties,  according 
to  the  number  and  organization  of  the  men  drilled  at 
one  time,  and  the  kind  of  weapon  to  which  the  exer- 
cises relate.  The  infantry,  the  cjivalry,  and  the  artil- 
lery, all  have  different  kinds  of  drill.  The  militia 
and  the  volunlcirs  ditlcr  from  the  regulars,  if  not  in 
the  kind  of  drill,  at  least  in  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  is  carried  on;  the  squad-drill,  company-drill, 
and  battalion-drill  vary  both  in  the  numbers  con- 
cerned and  in  the  routine  of  exercises.    And  so  like- 


DBILL-SEBOEANT. 


507 


DROP CHBONOGBAFH. 


wise  in  the  navy,  the  drilling  of  seamen  varies  in  kind, 
according  to  the  duties  likely  to  be  required.  It  is 
generally  considered  that  four  months'  drill  is  re- 
quired to  tit  an  infantry  recruit  for  service.  The  pro- 
fress  depends  greatly  on  the  intelligence  of  the  men. 
t  is  on  this  ground  that  the  Rifle  Volunteers,  enrolled 
in  England  in  such  large  numbers  in  IHtiO,  have  been 
so  advantageously  placed;  composed  almost  entirely 
of  young  men,  whose  intelligence  has  been  developed 
by  a  moderately  good  education,  the  Corps  have  ad- 
vanced to  a  degree  of  proticiency  which  has  attracted 
the  marked  attention  of  military  officers. 

DBILL-SERGEANT. — A  non-commissioned  officer 
whose  olHce  is  to  instruct  soldiers  as  to  their  duties, 
and  to  train  them  to  military  evolutions.  In  the 
English  service  the  name  is  given  to  a  non-com- 
missioned officer  whose  duty  it  is,  under  the  orders 
of  the  Adjutant,  to  attend  to  the  drill-instruction  of 
young  otlicers  and  soldiers 

DBIVER  CORPS.— A  Corps  formerly  consisting  of 
a  few  subaltern  officers,  with  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers, artiticers,  drivers,  and  horses.  It  was  divided 
into  troops,  and  provided  the  means  of  converting  a 
company  of  foot-artillery  into  a  field-brigade,  besides 
affording  small  detachments  to  troops  of  horse-artil- 
lery. 

DRIVERS.— Men  attached  to  a  battery  of  artillery 
to  drive  the  horses.  They  do  not  work 
the  guns,  but,  when  they  can  be  spared , 
are  taught  the  gun-diill.  The  men  en- 
listed as  drivers  are  of  shorter  stature 
than  gunners,  as  height  and  weight  are 
not  required.  When  men  are  enlisted 
as  gunners,  if  they  do  not  fulfill  the  con- 
ditions as  to  age  and  standard ,  they  may 
be  entertained  as  drivers,  if  likely  to  be- 
come good  drivers,  but  special  applica- 
tion must  be  made  to  the  Adjutant  General.  In  the 
early  djiys  of  artillery,  both  in  the  English  and  tJonli- 
nent;vl  armies, regularly  enlisted  drivers  were  unknown 
The  horses  attached  tognns  were  driven  by  civilian  dri- 
vers, who  were  in  the  habit  of  running  away  on  the  first 
available  opportunity,  and  in  doing  so  at  the  battle  of 
Falkirk,  lost  the  guns.  But  notwithstanding  this 
catastrophe,  it  took  half  a  century  aud  upwards 
before  matters  in  any  way  righted  themselves,  and 
even  then,  though  a  vast  improvement  had  taken 
place  upon  the  old  system  of  disnumntcd  civilians, 
great  confusion  in  the  organization  existed.  The 
drivers  were  enlisted  in  a  corps  totally  distinct  from 
the  regiment,  and  commanded  by  their  own  officers; 
the  drivers  were  thus  separated  by  a  wide  gulf  from 
the  gunners;  this  want  of  connection  between  the 
field  artillery  and  its  means  of  draught  led  to  discord, 
confusion,  and  waste  of  time.  In  1817  the  drivers 
were  first  placed  under  the  command  of  the  artillery 
officers,  and  in  1833  men  were  enlisted  into  the  regi- 
ment as  gunners  and  drivers. 

DRIVING.— In  its  usual  sense,  driving  is  the  act  of 
impelling  or  directing  draught-cattle;  it  is  seen  in  the 
act  of  a  driver  urging  or  impelling  his  horses  on. 
The  term  is  also  commonly  used  in  the  management 
of  an  engine  attached  to"  a  railway  train.  In  the 
laboratory  the  word  is  applied  to  the  mode  formerly, 
;uid  to  some  extent  at  the  present  day.  of  tilling  fuses, 
port-fires,  and  rockets  with  composition.  The  term 
is  also  used  in  mining,  when  constructing  a  gallery. 
And,  frequently,  the  word  is  used  to  express  the  rfrtc- 
iitfjguh'  of  the  grooves  of  a  rifled  gun,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  loadinrj-akle. 

DROMEDARY.— A  name  sometimes  given,  probably 
at  first  throuirh  mistake,  to  the  Arabian  or  one- 
humped  camel  (Camehu  ilrnmedoriuii),  but  properlv 
belonu:ing  to  a  varietv  of  that  sjiecies,  distinguished 
by  slendernes,s  of  lim'bs  and  symmctrj-  of  form,  and 
by  extraordinarj-  fleetness.  It  has  been  well  descrilicd 
as  "  bearing  much  the  same  relation  to  the  ordinary 
camel  as  a  race-horse  or  hunter  does  t«  a  cart-horse.  " 
The  jwce  of  the  dromedary  is  a  trot,  which  it  can  main- 
tain witliout  intermission"  for  a  prodigious  length  of 


time,  often  at  the  rate  of  nine  miles  an  hour  for  many 
hours  together;  whilst  a  journey  of  upwards  of  six  hun- 
dred miles  is  performed  at  a  somewhat  slower  rate  in 
five  days.  Even  its  more  rapid  pace  can  be  main- 
tained for  twenty-four  hours  at  a  stretch,  without 
sign  of  weariness  and  without  stopping  to  bait;  and  if 
then  it  is  allowed  a  little  refreshment,  of  a  ball  of 
paste  made  of  barley  and  powdered  dates  and  a  little 
water  or  camel's  milk,  it  will  resume  its  journey,  and 
go  on  with  undiminished  speed  for  twenty-four  hours 
more.  The  jolting  to  the  rider  is  terrible.  The  gal- 
lop is  a  pace  very  unsuitable  to  the  dromedary,  and  at 
which  it  very  soon  fails.  Dromedaries  are  sometimes 
trained  to  run  races.  While  dromedaries  are  par- 
ticularly prizeil  in  some  portions  of  the  East.  See 
Cdiiiil  and  Draiifjhl-uiiiiiiala. 

,  DROOPING.— In  artillery,  a  term  applied  to  the 
wearing  away  of  the  muzzle  of  smooth-bore  guns, 
especially  bronze  guns,  after  long  firing.  Drooping 
occurs  from  the  gim  having  nuich  windage,  tuid  not 
alone  from  the  cause  hitherto  given,  viz.,  quick  firing 
and  consequent  heating  of  the  piece.  This  defect  is 
not  likely  to  happen  to  ritied  guns,  as  they  have  little 
or  no  windage;  moreover,  the  barrel  of  rifled  gims, 
being  of  steel,  is  not  so  liable  to  wear  awaj'  its  gun- 
metal.  There  is  a  method  now  of  condensing  the 
bores  of  bronze  ordnance. 


Drop  of  a  Gun. 

DROP.— 1.  The  distance  of  the  butt  of  a  gun  below 
the  prolongation  of  the  rib.  It  varies  from  two  to 
three  inches.  To  measure  the  droji,  get  a  straight- 
edire  narrow  enough  to  lay  along  the  rib  of  the  gun, 
and  long  enough  to  reach  "from  the  sight  of  the  gun 
over  and  beyond  the  butt.  After  Iieing  particular 
that  the  straight-edge  lies  along  the  rib  and  touches  it 
at  the  nuizzle  and  breech,  take  the  measurements 
from  1  to  2  and  3  to  4,  which  will  give  the  drop.  2. 
In  fortification,  that  part  of  the  ditch  sunk  deeper 
than  the  rest,  at  the  sides  of  a  caponiere  or  in  front 
of  an  embrasure. 

DROP  CHRONOGRAPH.— In  the  course  of  the  trials 
made  on  the  working  of  the  apparatus  for  measuring 
))ressures,  called  accelerographs,  the  construction  of  a 
tarage  apparatus  was  suggested,  founded  on  the  law 
of  the  falling  of  bodies  aiid  presenting  arrangement.s 
borrowed  from  the  two  droivchronograplis  which  Mr. 
Le  Houx  has  described  in  his  studies  on  the  mea.sure- 
ment  of  the  velocity  of  the  transmission  of  sound 
through  pipes.  Th"e  addition  to  this  ajiparatus  of 
electric  organs,  and  especially  of  .Marcel-Deprez  regis- 
ters, has  converted  it  into  a  very  convenient  chrono- 
graph, adapted  with  advantage  to  measurements  in 
which  as  great  precision  is  sought  as  that  which  may 
be  reiLsonal)ly  reqinred  with  the  tuning-fork  chrono- 
graph. This  drop- chronograph  has,  therefore,  been 
frequently  used  in  the  trials  made  at  the  Sevran 
powder  mill  for  the  study  of  the  different  phenomena 
connected  with  the  firing  of  guns  and  the  working  of 
Ciirriagos.  It  affords,  for  example,  a  means  of  study- 
ing thc'  retardation  of  inflammation  of  the  charge,  of 
determining  the  precise  moment  of  the  first  displace- 
ment of  the  projectile  or  of  the  beginning  of  the  re- 
coil, and  the  moment  when  the  carriage  attains  its 
maximum  of  velocilv:  it  also  affords  means  of  meas- 
uring the  velocity  of"  projectiles  with  a  precision  little 
inferior  to  that  of  the  Le  Boulenge  chronograph,  and 
sives  besides  the  means  of  noting  their  pas.sage 
through  a  series  of  successive  frame-targets;  finally, 
it  affords  a  means  also  of  noting  the  instants  of  the 
pas.sage  of  a  projectile  in  different  points  of  the  bore 
by  means  of  special   interrupUr  organs.      We  will 


SBOF-CHBONOGSAFH. 


508 


DKOP  CHKONOGBAPH. 


thorcforp  describe  this  apparatus  here,  whieb,  for  the 
simplicity  of  its  constriuiion  and  nianagemcnt,  and 
the  multiplicitv  of  applications  to  which  ill  is  adapted, 
deserves  a  place  in  all  imicticegrounds,  and  could, 
with  e<iunl  advantage,  be  introduced  in  many  scien- 
tific liilH)mtories.  We  will  notice  incidentally  some 
of  the  exiHTimental  adaptabilities  realized  with  this 
appanitus.  in  order  the  Ix'lter  to  apprehend  the  various 
applications  of  which  it  is  susceptible. 

The  drop-chronoirniph,  which  was  constructed  by 
the  works  of  .Mr.  Bianchi,  of  Paris,  is  represented  in 
Figs.  1  and  2.  It  is  com|X)sed  essentially  of  a  weight 
which  falls  frcelv  between  two  vertical  guide-posts, 
and  which  sometimes  receives  on  its  ovm  surface  the 
traces  left  bv  the  apjiaratus  whose  movement  is  the 
cibjecl  of  studv,  and  sometimes  draws  with  it  the 
electric  registers,  which  leave  on  the  guide-post* 
traces  of  the  signals  which  it  is  desired  to  obtain. 
The  apparatus  is  arranged  for  receiving  on  one  of  its 
faces  the  organs  designed  for  the  first  mode  of  work- 
ing, and  on'its  other  face  the  organs  of  electric  regis- 
tration; there  is  then  on  one  side  a  mechanical  regis- 


Fio.  1. 

tering  chronograph,  and  on  the  other  an  electric 
chronograph.  The  mechanical  registering  chrono- 
graph has  iK'cn  especially  used,  in  the  researches  in 
which  we  are  engaged,  for  tarage  operations  of  the 
aceessorv  orgims  of  the  ballistic  apparatus,  accelero- 
graph-slides,  forks,  and  vibrating  plates.  The  two 
verticjjl  "iiidc-posts  of  the  apjiaratus  are  formed  of 
double  T-iron,  aliout  2  meters  (6.562  feet)  high,  and 
connected  at  their  upper  and  lower  end  by  cross- 
pieces,  to  which  they  are  fastened  with  .screws  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  distance  between  them  can  be 
slightly  varied.  In  the  inside  there  are  two  copper 
rods,  perfectly  upright,  willi  a  V-shaped  gi-oove;  they 
serve  as  guides  for  the  projecting  cars  of  the  movable 
weight.  The  mounting  ought  to  lie  adjusted  so  that 
the  space  between  these  giiides  is  a  little  less  above 
than  at  the  bottom,  so  that  the  weight  may  have  very 
lilllc  play  at  the  upper  part,  while  it  is  left  absolutelj- 
free  in  its  fall  if  the  system  is  placed  exactly  perpen- 
dicular. The  whole  apparatus  rests  on  a  circular 
base  provided  with  three  adjusting-screws,  by  which 
the  vcrticalnesscan  be  established,  and  a  thread,  with 
a  cylinilrical  plummet  fixed  on  the  side,  passes 
through  an  eye  of  the  same  form  a  little  larger  in 
diameter,  by  which  this  condition  is  verified  every 
instant.     The  weight,  of  parallelopipedic  form  and 


weighing  about  10  kilograms  (22.046  pounds),  is  sus- 
pended l)v  a  hook  from  a  movable  cross-piece;  this 
is  secured  by  a  clamp-screw  at  any  height  on  the 
guide-posts. 

The  suspension-hook  forms  part  of  the  lever,  the 
other  arm  of  which  bends  round  horizontally;  l)car- 
iiig  down  on  this  arm  suffices  to  liberate  tlie  weight, 
and  the  form  of  the  hook  is  contrived  in  such  a  nian- 
ner  that  this  operation  is  elTecled  without  producing 
an  oblique  action,  and  without  modifying  the  initial 
height  of  the  weight  until  the  moment  when  it  is  set 
free.  This  result  is  obtained  by  shaping  the  iimerface 
of  thehook  according  toan  arc  of  a  circle  whose  center 
coincides  with  Ihe  center  of  rotation  of  the  lever,  and 
by  placing  the  edge  of  the  counter-hook,  which  holds 
the  weight,  on  the  same  axis.  The  ^^cight  has,  on 
its  front  vertical  face,  two  checks,  whicli  serve  as 
supports  for  a  horizontal  shaft,  set  with  strong  fric- 
tion. This  shaft  extends,  on  each  side,  beyond  the.se 
checks,  so  as  to  forai  two  cyliudrical  supports  on  the 
opposite  jwsts  of  the  apparatus,  and  on  which  Marcel- 
Deprez  registers  can  be  mounted  side  by  side.  These 
registers  may  be  five  in  number  on  each  side,  but 
generally  oiily  the  number 
strictly  "neee.ssary,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  e.vperi- 
ment  in  view,  is  used.  The 
electric  wires  connecting  with 
each  register  are  of  very  tine 
copper  covered  with  silk;  they 
are  collected,  on  each  side, 
into  a  cluster  spirally  arranged 
and  sustained  by  a  support  at- 
tache<l  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
apparatus;  the  whole  is  ar- 
ranged in  such  a  manner  as 
to  permit  the  movement  of  the 
weight,  through  the  whole 
extent  of  its  course,  without 
encountering  any  sensible  re- 
sistance. On  each  support 
the  wires  connect  with  small 
terminals  mounted  on  wood, 
and  which  permits  each  regis- 
ter to  be  easily  secured  to  the 
ordinary  conductors.  On  the 
front  faces  of  the  guide-posts 
are  fixed  two  nickel  rules, 
which  may  be  covered  \\'ith 
lamp-black,  and  on  the  surface 
of  which  the  pens  of  the  regis- 
ters rest ,  which ,  during  the  fall 
of  the  weight,  trace  each  a 
very  fine  vertical  path  which  is  clearly  defined  on  the 
lanip-black.  The  i)ens  are  so  fine  and  flexible  that  the 
pressure  exerted  by  their  points  cannot  sensibly  affect 
the  movement  of  the  weight  in  its  fall.  In  order  to 
facilitate  the  regulation  of  this  support,  and,  in  ease 
of  need,  to  release  all  the  pens  at  the  .same  time,  the 
shaft  is  furnished  with  a  handle  by  which  it  is  turned 
in  its  bearings,  and  a  screw  which  regulates  its  move- 
ment by  bearing  against  the  outer  face  of  the  weight. 
The  registers  also  ]iossess  each  an  individual  move- 
ment of  rotation  on  the  shaft  which  sustains  them, 
because  each  of  them  is  mounted  on  a  divided  ring- 
brace  forming  a  clasp  at  the  lower  part;  this  brace  is 
clasped  on  the  shaft,  and  can  be  tightened  or  loosened 
at  will  by  means  of  a  mill-headed  screw  which  imites 
the  two  branches  of  the  clasp.  It  remains  to  show 
how  it  happens,  in  the  application  of  Ibis  apparatus 
to  ballistic  experiments,  that  the  phenomenon  to  be 
observed,  which  results  from  the  inflammation  of  a 
charge  of  powder,  is  produced  during  the  fall  of  the 
weight.  It  is  easy  to  pro<luce  ignition  of  the  charge 
by  electricity,  and  to  close  the  current  which  ])roduces 
ignition  by  a  single  passage  of  the  weight  in  front  of 
a  special  arrangement  which  can  be  i>laced  at  any 
desired  height  upon  one  of  the  guide-posts.  Fig.  1 
shows  this  organ.  It  is  composed  of  an  in.sulating 
plate  mountcu  on  a  metallic  guide,  which  can  be 


Fio. 


DKOP  CHSONOGEAFH. 


509 


DBOP-CHBONOOBAFE. 


moved  along  a  guide  on  the  left  guide-post  of  the  ap- 
paratus, and  can  be  firmly  secured  at  any  height  by 
means  of  two  clamp-screws.  The  insulating  plate 
has  a  brass  spring  plate,  bent  round  vertically,  which 
rests  firmly,  w'hen  it  is  left  free,  against  the  extremity 
of  a  contact-screw.  It  is  the  contact  of  this  plate  and 
screw  which  establishes  the  cuiTent  of  the  tiring-bat- 
tery; the  two  contact-pieces  are  for  this  purpose  put 
in  communication  with  two  terminals  which  receive 
the  extremities  of  the  wire  for  communicating  lire. 
In  order  to  interrupt  this  current  a  light  steel  lever  is 
used,  pivotingin  a  vertical  plane,  and  forming  a  hook 
which  catches  under  a  notch  made  on  one  of  the 
edges  of  the  conductor-spring,  and  thus  keeps  it  at 
a  distance  from  the  contact-screw.  This  lever  is  ex- 
tended in  front  so  as  to  meet  the  extremity  of  the 
axis  which  supports  the  registers  when  the  weight 
falls.  It  is  then  carried  down  and  sets  free  the 
spring  which  abuts  against  its  stop,  and  thus  estab 
lishes  the  ignition-current.  It  is  evident  that  if  we 
know  approximately  the  retardation  of  ignition,  that 
is  to  say,  the  time  that  elapses  between  the  precise 
instant  when  the  current  is  closed  and  that  when  the 
charge  t;ikes  tire,  and  if  the  time  also  is  known  ap- 
proxunately  that  elapses  between  this  latter  moment 
and  that  when  the  phenomenon  to  be  observed  is 
produced,  we  can,  by  mo\Tng  the  organ  for  commu- 
nicating fire  along  the  guide-post,  obtain  the  inscrip- 
tion of  the  signals  in  that  part  of  the  course  of  the 
movable  weight  which  seems  most  proper,  and,  con- 
sequently, when  this  weight  shall  have  taken  a  velo- 
city sufficient  to  assure  the  precision  of  the  readings. 
This  same  organ  for  communicating  fire  has  been 
completed  by  a  simple  arrangement  which  gives  the 
means  of  measuring,  in  the  course  of  each  experi- 
ment, the  ret;irdation  of  disconnection  of  the  registers 
mounted  on  the  chronograph.  This  arrangement 
consists  in  the  addition  of  a  mass  of  brass  fixed  at  the 
extremity  of  a  light  spring,  and  which  rests  against 
the  front  face  of  the  spring  for  communicating  fire. 
This  mass,  impelled  by  the  movement  of  this  latter 
spring,  when  it  is  set  free  remains  in  contact  with  it 
during  its  movement;  but  as  soon  as  it  is  arrested  by 
the  screw  it  separates  from  it,  continuing  its  force  by- 
virtue  of  its  inertia,  while  the  spring  which  urged  it 
so  far  suddenly-  becomes  stationary.  Thus  a  rupture 
of  contiict  is  obtained  at  the  very  moment  when,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  contact  of  the  detent-spring  is  cs 
tablished  with  the  stop-screw.  At  the  enel  of  a  little 
time  the  inert  mass  resumes  its  place  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  very  weak  spring,  of  which  it  forms  a  part. 
This  spring  ends  at  a  special  terminal,  to  which  a 
conductor-wire  is  fixed. 

When  it  is  desired  to  obtain  more  precision  with 
the  drop-chronograph,  a  vibrating  fork  can  be  mount- 
ed on  the  shaft  designed  to  supjiort  the  registers;  one 
of  it,s  branches  is  furnished  with  a  pen  which  traces 
on  the  lamp-black  and  produces  a  sinusoidal  tracing 
whose  succcssivi;  undidations  each  represent  the 
course  of  the  weight  during  a  unit  of  time  cjual  to 
the  vibration  of  the  fork.  It  may  be  admitted  that 
the  movement  is  approximately  uniform  during  the 
continuanoe  of  each  of  these  vibrations,  and  supposed 
that  in  passing  from  one  to  the  other  it  siiddenly 
tiikes  the  increase  of  velocity  which  the  force  of  gravity 
communicates  and  which  measures  precisely  the  aug- 
mentation in  length  of  the  undulatory  tracings;  by  sim- 
ply counting  the  vibrations  which  separate  the  .signals, 
the  con-esponding durations  can  be  directly  estimated 
by  the  entire  number  of  \-ibrations,  and  determined, 
with  the  aid  of  a  microscope,  by  a  simple  ])roporlional 
calculation  like  the  supplem<"ntary  durations  which 
correspond  to  fractions  of  vibration  with  the  fork- 
chronograph  with  revolving  cylinder.  The  fork, 
mounted  thus  oi>  the  movable  weight,  may  be  sus- 
tained electricallv.  But  considering  the  short  total 
duration  of  the  fall  of  the  weight  whose  movement  is 
to  be  regi.stered,  and  if  it  is  proptised  to  estimate,  as  is 
usually  the  ca.sc,  only  the  durations  comprehended 
between  the  successive  signals,  it  is  more  simple  to 


employ  an  ordinary  fork  mounted  by  means  of  a  split 
band  forming  a  vise  on  the  suijport  of  the  re^sters 
and  whose  vibratory  movement  is  provoked  simply 
by  the  sudden  removal  of  a  small  metallic  wedge,  of 
suitable  dimensions,  introduced  by  force  beforehand 
between  its  branches.  This  wedge  can  be  fixed  sim- 
ply to  the  extremity  of  a  wire  fastened  at  the  other 
end  to  the  upper  part  of  the  eilge  of  the  apparatus, 
and  whose  length  must  be  calculated  so  as  not  to 
withdraw  the  wedge  till  the  weight  has  acquired  suf- 
ficient velocity  to  produce  a  sudden  impetus.  Thua 
it  can  only  be  set  in  motion  a  few  instants  before  the 


Fio.  1. 

moment  wiicn  the  registers  are  required  to  work,  so 
that  the  vibrations  have  a  greater  amplitude  in  the 
part  where  the  readings  are  to  be  made;  but  some- 
times it  is  expedient  to  cause  this  disconnection  a  cer- 
tain time  in  advance  (the  tenth  of  a  second,  for  ex- 
ample) in  order  to  leave  unemployed  the  first  vibra- 
tions, which  are  subject  to  some  irregularities  owing 
to  the  position  of  forced  equilibrium  which  the  intro- 
duction of  the  wedge  between  the  extremities  of  the 
branches  gives  to  the  apparatus.  It  is  well  under- 
stood, besides,  that  the  wedge  mu*t  be  entered  a  very 
little  distance  and  shaped  aJso  in  such  a  manner  as  to 


DBOF-HAMILEB. 


510 


DBOFHAMMEB. 


require  but  a  very  feeble  effort  to  withdraw  it,  so  as 
In  affect  the  movement  of  the  weight  as  little  as  pos- 
sible; but  it  is  to  lie  ivmarked  that  the  very  prineiple 
of  the  employment  of  the  fork  ilocs  away  with  all 
error  tliat  might  proceed  from  this  fact,  as  the  tracing 
left  by  the  JH'U  has  the  advantage  of  making  known 
the  velocity  aiiiuired  by  the  weight  at  each  instant, 
whiitevcr  may  be  its  value.  In  making  use  of  a 
vibniting  fork,  supixirted  electrically  and  set  in  ope- 
ration in  place  before  the  fall  of  the  weight,  the 
movement  of  this  weight  may  be  studied  along  the 
whole  extent  of  its  fall  when  ilhas  been  unobstructed, 
and  it  may  be  ascertained  if  this  movement  is  acc-ord- 
ing  to  the  law  of  gnivitalion,  or,  in  the  contrary  case, 
it  "may  l)e  determined  liow  much  it  deviates  from  it. 
In  combining  the  employment  of  a  fork  of  this  kind 
and  an  oniiuary  fork  disconnected  mechanically  by 
withdrawing  the  wedge,  as  was  sjiid  before,  the  per- 
turbation that  the  withdrawing  of  this  wedge  gives  to 
the  movement  may  be  studied.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  admitteil  that  the  drop  movement  of  the  weight 
is  known,  by  preserWug  only  this  latter  arrangement 
this  experiment  may  be  used  for  determining  the 
number  of  \-ibrations  given  by  a  fork.  The  drop- 
chronograph  has  Ix-en  fi^'quently  utilized  for  meas- 
tirements  of  this  kind.  See  Accekrugiajifm,  Chrono- 
graph, and  Marrd-Deprez  lieffister. 

DBOP  HAHUEB. — A  hammer  in  which  the  weight 
is  rais<-d  by  some  dexice  and  then  released,  so  :ls  to 
drop  upon  the  object  below,  which  rests  upon  the 
anvil.  It  is  used  in  all  Government  armories,  in 
swaging,  die-work,  striking  up  sheet-metal,  etc.  In 
early  times  the  machine  was  so  constructed  that  the 
hammer  could  be  raised  by  means  of  a  hammer-strap, 
which  was  drawn  upwards  by  two  pulleys,  brought 
together  so  as  to  compress  the  strap  between  them. 
One  of  these,  the  driving-pulley,  was  fast  upon  its 
axle  and  turned  in  fixed  bearings,  while  the  other 
turned  loosely  upi>n  an  eccentrically  journaled  axis, 
arranged  also  in  lixed  bearings,  but  so  as  to  be  inca- 
pable of  turning  therein  except  as  force  wa.s  applied 
to  it  to  effect  that  object.  To  one  end  of  the  latter 
shaft  there  was  attached  a  horizontal  arm,  the  outer 
end  of  which  was  connected  to  a  hand-lever  or 
a  treadle  by  a  connecting-rod.  By  means  of  these 
appliances  the  eccentrically  journaled  shaft  could  be 
turned  at  will,  so  as  to  remove  its  roller  from  contact 
with  the  strap,  and  allow  the  hammer  to  fall  through 
any  length  of  space  desired,  within  the  limits  of  the 
machine.  The  drawing.  Fig.  1 ,  on  the  preceding  page 
shows  an  efficient  drop-hammer,  made  by  the  Pnitt 
and  Whitney  Company,  U.  S.  A.  The  drop  is  raised 
by  means  of  a  llat-surfaced  strip  of  tough  wood, 
which  engages  with  the  faces  of  finished  cast-iron 
rolls,  driven  by  gears  at  the  ends.  One  of  these  rolls 
runs  in  fixed  bearings,  and  the  other  has  its  bearings 
in  a  yoLe  suspended  on  journals  which  allow  it  to  be 
moved  towards  its  fellow,  to  engage  with  the  surface 
of  the  lifliiig-lward.  This  yoke  has  a  central  portion 
projecting  downward  and  eng-aging  by  a  connecting- 
bar  with  a  cam  operated  by  a  vertical  starting-bar 
through  the  medium  of  a  crank-lever.  By  this 
combination  a  niueh  greater  force  is  exerted,  iiislan- 
tjineously,  in  jilacing  and  retaining  the  roll  in  contact 
with  tlie  lifting-board,  than  is  possible  when  the 
starting-bar  is  connectcnl  directly  with  the  roll-bear- 
ings. The  two  rolls,  with  their"  gears,  and  tlie  cam 
movement,  are  all  parts  of  the  head-piece,  which  may 
be  removed  as  a  whole,  or  the  rolls  may  be  removeil 
separately.  The  gears  are  made  very  strong,  and 
have  a  iieculiar  form  of  tooth,  specially  adajited  to 
the  work  they  perform.  There  are  two  to  CJich  roll. 
An  automatic  and  adjustable  slop  holds  the  drop  sus- 
I>ended  at  any  height  desired.  An  automatic  trip 
may  l)e  attached,  which  will  secure  a  series  of  blows 
of  uniform  force,  at  the  will  of  llie  operator,  who 
can.  however,  instantly  change  it  from  the  fidl  im- 
pact of  the  drop  falling  from  the  extri'me  height  of 
the  lift  to  the  simple  pressure  of  the  weight  of  the 
mass  without   motion.   -This  absolute  control  and 


instant  adjustment  of  the  force  of  the  blow  is  appre- 
ciated by  all  practical  forgers.  The  workman  has 
the  free  "use  of  his  hands  in  oix-ratiug  the  machine,  as 
its  action  is  governed  entirely  by  his  foot.  Experts 
in  the  use  of  the  hammer  do  not  attach  much  value 
to  llie  automatic  trip  as  hanng  any  advantage  over 
the  foot-motion,  while  the  latter  has  many  over  the 
former.  With  each  machine  is  a  wrought-iron  die- 
bed  secured  by  a  key.  This  die-bed  saves  the  trouble 
and  expense  of  dressing  the  main  bed  by  chisel  and 
file,  or  by  planer,  in  case  of  damage,  and  also  adds 
to  the  strength  of  the  machine  by  increasing  its  resist- 
ance to  the  shock  of  the  blow.  The  weight  of  beds 
may  be  increased  at  will. 

f'or  all  heavy  work  the  steam  drop-hammer  is  now 
employed.  The  following  drawings  show  two  varie- 
ties of  double-frame  steam  drop-hammers,  maniifac- 


tuFed  by  the  celebrated  machine-tool  works  of 
Frederick  B.  Miles,  Pliiladelphia.  Fig.  2  is  designed 
for  stam])ing  the  work  in  formei-s.  The  frames  are 
keyed  and  iKilted  to  a  solid  anvil-base,  in  which  is 
planed  the  seat  for  the  lower  die.  Tlie  ram  carrying 
the  upper  die  plays  between  guide-plates,  fitted  with 
Uiper  shoes  by  which  they  can  be  accurately  adjusted, 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  up  wear  and  for  matching 
the  dies,  which  are  thus  held  in  the  relation  to  each 
other  necessary  for  stamping  work  in  molds  or 
formers  with  aceunicv,  also  for  swedgini;  journals  or 
other  round  work.  In  this  hammer  the  weight  of 
drop  is  IpO,  400,  or  800  pounds;  the  diameter  of  cy- 


DBOP  OF  PEOJECTILE. 


511 


DSUH  MAJOB. 


Under  is  4},  0,  or  6*  inches;  and  the  length  of  stroke 
10,  14,  or  29  niches  respectively.  Fig.  3  is  designed 
for  axles,  truck-bars,  and  heavy  dropforgings,  and  is 
both  hand-acting  and  self-acting.  Single  blows  or  a 
succession  of  automatic  blows  can  be  produced  at 
will,  and  of  any  required  degree  of  force.  The 
weight  of  drop  is  1500  or  3000  pounds;  the  diameter 


Fio.  3. 

of  cylinder  is  lOJ  or  15  inches;  and  the  length  of 
stroke  is  30  or  36  inches  respectively.  These  ham- 
mers are  noted  for  their  adjustable  guides  and  the 
bumpers  made  of  steel  spiral  springs.  The  glands 
are  made  in  halves  for  facility  of  repairs,  and  brass 
bushings  are  introduced  in  all  the  principal  bearings. 
See  Sleam-/iaii>mir. 

DBOP  OF  PBOJECTILE. — When  seeking  protection 
from  the  tire  of  an  enemy,  either  by  natural  or  artifi- 
cial cover,  the  drop  of  the  projectile  must  be  taken 
into  account.  This  depends  upon  the  range,  kind  of 
piece  used,  and  nature  of  fire  employed. 

The  following  table,  showing  the  drop  of  projec- 
tiles at  various  ranges,  indicates  the  importance  of 
this  factor  in  actual  warfare. 


Range. 

Rifle-musket. 

Veloc- 
ity. 

8-inch 
Rifle. 

100-pdr.  Parrott. 

Yards. 

Drop. 

Sec'ds. 

Feet. 

Drop. 

Drop. 

200 

85 

0.5 

1120 

oS 

400 

50 

1 

915 

57.3 

?il 

600 

80 

1.75 

800 

700 

25 

67.8 

38.6 

«=s 

800 

20 

2.5 

700 

E  w  > 

1000 

14 

3.75 

625 

1100 

19 

|2° 

1200 

558 

28.6 

"Z's 

HOO 

.... 

14.3 

^"Si 

1500 

606 

-So 

1600 

19 

-li 

ITOO 
1900 

11.4 
8.1 

|M 

2000 

412 

14  3 

Pf 

2500 

11.4 

7.1 

3000 

8.1 

6.8 

3500 

6.3 

4000 

6.1 

4600 

4.1 

■§3 

When  the  distance  to  the  object  can  X>e  determined 
and  the  range  is  such  as  to  require  considerable  eleva- 
tion, it  is  by  no  means  neces-sjiry  that  flie  object 
should  be  seen  from  the  gun,  provided  range-points 
can  be  accurately  established,  as  in  mortar-firing.  In 
many  cases  it  will  be  a  great  advantage  to  locate  guns 
in  this  manner,  for  the  reason  that  the  enemy  will 
probabl}-  not  be  able  to  ascertain  their  position  with 
suflicicnt  accuracy  to  do  them  much  damage. 

Should  the  distance  behind  which  cover  can  be 
obtained  be  quite  short,  the  charges  for  guns  may 
be  reduced  .so  as  to  allow  the  necessarj-  elevation 
to  be  given  to  carry  the  projectile  over  the  cover, 
and  at  the  same  time  drop  them  into  the  enemy's 
works.  A  few  trial-shots  will  enable  the  artillerist  to 
accomplish  this  w  itli  certainty.  Siege-howitzers  are 
used  ad\antageously  in  this  way.    See  Prtgeetiks. 

DEOP-SIGHT.  — A  variety  of  trunnion-sight,  con- 
sisting of  a  socket,  collar,  pillar,  and   leaf.      The 
socket  fits  into  the  gun,  the  collar  locks  into  the  socket, 
and  the  jnllar,  at  the  top  of  which  the  leaf  in  screwed, 
fits  into  the  collar.    The  arrangement  for  securing  the 
sight  is  a  kind  of  bayonet  joint;  by  lifting  the  collar, 
and  making  a  quarter-turn  from  left  to  right  with  the 
pillar,  the  collar  and  pillar  are  drawn  out;  but  with- 
out raising  the  collar,  the  pillar  is  immovable  in  any 
direction,  and  must  be  exactly  in  its  place. 
The  jiillar  cannot  be  separated  from  the 
collar  w  hile  the  leaf  is  fixed.     See  Siglii. 

DBOSS. — The  xctim,  scoria,  slag,  or  rec- 
rement resulting  from  the  melting  of  metals 
coml)ineil  with  extraneous  matters. 

DRUG  -  CARRIAGE.— The  truck-carnage 
used  for  moxing  heavy  guns  in  positions 
where  the  size  of  the  platform  would  be 
inconvenient.  There  are  several  sizes  of 
dings.  The  laigcst  is  constructed  to  carrj- 
heavy  gims  of  the  present  day,  and  is  fitted 
with  two  pairs  of  frame  shafts  and  outrig- 
gers for  the  swingle-trees  for  four  horses 
abreast.  The  small  and  medium  drugs  are 
fitted  f<ir  man-draught. 

DRUM. — A  hollow  cylinder  of  wood  or 
metal  ha\iug  skin  (parchment)  stretched 
across  one  or  both  ends,  upon  which  the 
drummer  beats  with  an  instniment  of  wood  or 
metal  called  a  dnimstiH:  The  dnmi  is  used  as 
an  instrument  of  music  along  with  other  instru- 
ments in  bands,  and  particularly  for  military  pur- 
poses. The  military  drum  serves  for  giving  vari- 
ous signals  as  well  "as  for  music.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  drum — the  .»»(()•(' dnmi,  the  donblt  or  base 
drum,  and  the  httkiXnim.  Since  1858  the  British 
infantry  are  supplied  with  brass  snare-drums,  3  lbs. 
lighterthan  those  formerly  in  use,  and  tuned  with 
screws  instead  of  straps  "and  ropes.  The  cavalry- 
dnmi  is  a  copper  or  bra.ss  hemisphere,  thus  resem- 
bling a  kettk,  with  a  parchment  lid.  The  base-drum 
has  both  ends  covered  with  parchment.  The  ancient 
Romans  used  small  A'»?(rf-drums— some  resembling 
tambourines,  others  /v/ft -drums— in  their  religious 
dances;  and  the  Partliians  are  said  to  have  used  them 
in  war  to  give  signals.  They  are  l)elieved  to  have 
been  first  brought  into  western  Europe  by  the  Cru- 
saders See  Base-dram,  Kttlhdrum,  and  Ifiiaredniin. 
DEUM-HEAD  COURT  MABTIAL.—A  Court  Martial 
called  suddenly  by  the  Commanding  Officer  to  try 
offenses  committed  on  the  line  of  march,  and  which 
demand  an  immediate  example.  This  method  is  not 
resorted  to  in  lime  of  peace. 

DRUM  MAJOR.— The  introduction  of  the  Drum 
Major  at  the  head  of  a  band  is  comparatively  of  re- 
cent date— that  is  to  sjiv,  with  the  ordinary  band. 
Outside  of  the  larger  and  more  pretentious  militarj' 
and  professional  organizations,  his  duties  and  impor- 
tance have  been  but  little  known  imlil  within  the  last 
few  years.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  when  bands  once 
understand  the  great  improvement  in  appearance  and 
deiMirtment  a  few  weeks'  drill  under  an  officer  of  this 
kind  will  give  them,  they  will  consider  him  a  neces- 


SEDM  HAJOB  GEKEBAL. 


513 


DBUM  MAJOB  OEHEBAL. 


8ary  appendage  to  their  organization.  Anv  person 
li!i\inj;  onliniiry  ability,  willi  practice  and  a  little 
study,  cati  muster  the'  more  important  i)oints  in  a 
viTV  short  lime,  lu.d  take  his  position  at  the  head  of 
thcband  with  credit  to  himself  and  associates.  We 
append  the  direclioiLS  for  the  jdving,  and  how  to  e.v- 
ecuto,  the  most  imjK>rtiint  signals.  We  cannot,  of 
course,  within  the  limits  of  this  work,  go  into  the  de- 
tails for  cliiborate  drill;  but  what  is  given  is  sufficient 
for  an  t>n.linary  street-parade,  and,  when  thoroughly 
ma-steretl,  there  ran  he  e;isily  added  such  fancy  move- 
mcnLs  as  the  star,  the  crosis,  the  triangle,  the  hollow 
stjuare,  etc.,  as  may  be  desired. 

The  person  selected  for  Drum  Major  should  be  of 
good  mililarj-  form,  and,  where  jwssible,  one  who  has 
had  cxpi'rieiice  in  military  drill.  He  should  have 
goo<l  time,  though  he  nee^  not  necessjirily  be  a  mu- 
sician. From  the  time  the  band  leaves  the  band- 
room  until  return  and  dismis,sal,  he  is  the  ranking 
ollicer.  and  has  full  charge  of  the  movements  of  the 
l)and.  The  leader  selects  the  pieces  he  desires  played, 
but  awaits  the  proper  signal  from  the  Drum  Jlajor 


Bear-skin  of  Drum  Major. 

"to  play"  and  "to  cease  playing."  As  soon  as  one 
piece  is  finished  the  leader  should  immediately  decide 
upon  the  next,  and  so  inform  the  band,  though  it  may 
not  be  re<[uired  that  it  should  be  played  for  an  hour; 
then,  without  confusion  or  unnecessary-  delay,  all  are 
in  readiness  when  the  signal  "  play"  is  given.  Con- 
versation in  the  ranks  should  be  especially  avoided, 
as  it  detracts  attention  from  the  Major,  and  soon 
leads  to  carelessness,  which  means  crooked  files,  bad 
"wheels,"  and  general  deterioration. 

The  Drum  Jfajor's  uniform  should,  if  expedient, 
contrast  somewhat  with  that  of  the  band.  The  bear- 
skin hat  of  while  or  black,  shown  in  the  drawing,  is 
the  conventional  emblem,  after  which  the  dre-ss  can 
be  plain  or  elaliorate,  as  the  wearer  may  determine. 

The  position  of  the  Dnim  >Iajor  is  three  yards  in 
front  of  the  band,  opposite  the  center.  The  staff  is 
lield  in  the  right  hand  below  the  chin,  the  back  of 
the  hand  to  the  front,  the  head  of  the  staff  near  the 
hand,  the  ferrule  iwinting  upward  and  to  the  right. 
After  each  signal,  unless  keeping  time  for  the  band, 
the  staff  should  l>e  restored  to  its  original  position. 

The  following  signals  of  the  Drum  ilajor  must  be 


promptly  observed  and  obeyed:— 7y  pUiy:  Face  to- 
ward the  music,  and  extend  the  right  arm  to  its  full 
length  in  the  direction  of  the  staff.  Tn  <•»</*.  plai/iiig: 
Extend  the  right  arm  to  its  full  length  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  staff.  I'o  iiuirch:  Turn  the  wri.st  and 
brine  the  stjiff  to  the  front,  the  ferrule  pointing  up- 
wartl  and  to  the  front;  extenil  the  arm  to  its  full 
length  in  the  direction  of  the  staff.  7'w  halt:  Reverse 
the  staff  and  bold  it  horizontally  above  the  head  with 
both  hands,  the  arms  exiendeil;  lower  the  staff  with 
both  hanils  to  a  horizontal  position  at  the  height  of 
the  hips.  To  countermarch:  Face  to  the  band  and 
give  the  signal  to  march.  The  countermarch  Ls  exe- 
cuted by  the  tile-leaders  to  the  right  of  the  Drum 
Major  w"heeling  indiWdually  about  to  the  right;  those 
to  the  left,  to  the  left;  the  other  men  of  each  file  fol- 
low their  tile  leaders.  The  Drum  JIajor  pa.sses  through 
tlic  center.  Tu  Mique:  Bring  the  staff  to  a  horizon- 
tal position,  the  head  opposite  the  neck,  the  ferrule 
pointing  in  the  direction  the  oblique  is  to  be  made; 
extend  the  arm  to  its  full  length  in  the  direction  of 
the  staff.  T<i  inarch  by  the  ri'ghl  flank:  Kxtend  the 
arm  to  the  right,  the  staff  vertical,  the  ferrule  up- 
ward, the  back  of  the  hand  to  the  rear.  To  march  by 
the  lift  flank:  Extend  the  arm  to  the  left,  the  staff 
vertical,  the  ferrule  upward,  the  back  of  the  hand  to 
the  front.  To  diminmh  front :  Let  the  ferrule  fall 
into  the  left  hand  at  the  height  of  the  eyes,  the  right 
hand  at  the  height  of  the  hip.  To  increase  front:  Let 
the  ferrule  fall  into  the  left  hand  at  the  height  of  the 
hip,  the  right  hand  at  the  height  of  the  neck.  The 
ginercU:  Bring  the  staff  to  a  vertical  position,  the 
hand  opiwsitethe  neck,  the  back  of  the  hand  to  the 
front,  the  ferrule  pointing  upward.  Ttie  assenibly: 
Bring  the  staff  to  a  horizontal  position,  the  hand  op- 
posite the  neck,  the  back  of  the  hand  down,  the  fer- 
rule ])ointing  to  the  front.  To  the  colvr:  Bring  the 
staff  to  a  horizontal  position  at  the  height  of  the 
neck,  the  back  of  the  hand  to  the  rear,  the  ferrule 
pointing  to  the  left. 

In  inarching,  the  Drum  Major  beats  the  time  Avith 
his  staff  and  supports  the  left  "hand  at  the  hip,  fingers 
in  front,  thumb  to  the  rear.  The  Drum  Major,  be- 
fore makinj£  his  report  at  parade,  .salutes  by  bring- 
ing his  staff  to  a  vertical  position,  the  head  of  the 
staff  up  and  opposite  the  left  shoulder.  The  Drum 
Major  marching  in  re\iew  passes  the  staff  between 
the  right  arm  and  the  body,  the  head  to  the  front, 
and  then  Siilules  with  the  "left  hand.  In  executing 
rear  open  order,  each  rank  of  the  band  takes  the  dis- 
tance of  three  yards  from  the  rank  next  in  front. 
When  the  field -music  is  by  itself,  the  fifers  are  placed 
in  front;  in  the  field-music  of  a  company,  the  tifer  is 
on  the  right  of  the  drummer. 

The  Drum  Major,  when  sjduting,  passes  the  staff 
between  the  right  arm  and  the  Ixxly,  the  head  of  the 
.staff  to  the  front;  then  bringing  the  left  hand  up 
smartly,  ixiinliiig  in  the  same  direction  as  the  left 
foot,  the  iialm  of  the  hand  down,  the  thumb  close  to 
the  forefinger,  the  ann  horizontal;  bringing  the  hand 
round  till  the  side  of  the  forefinger  touches  the  lower 
edge  of  the  cap  over  the  left  eye,  at  the  same  time 
turning  the  head  a  little  to  the  right,  looking  toward 
the  person  to  Ix-  siduted,  and  retaining  the  position 
till  the  salute  is  acknowledged;  tlien  bringing  the 
hand  back  to  the  horizont;d  position,  at  the  .same  time 
casting  the  eyes  to  the  front;  then  dropping  the  hand 
quickly  to  the  hip.     See  Band. 

DBUM  MAJOB  GENEEAL.— The  Drum  Major,  as 
a  compoiuiit  mcinlicr  of  a  regiment,  was  not  much 
known  in  the  English  army  till  the  time  of  Charles 
I.  There  was  in  earlier  times  an  officer  in  the  Royal 
Household  called  the  Drum  ifajor  General,  without 
whose  licen.se  no  one  except  Royal  troops  might  use 
a  drum;  but  this  office  fell  into  disuse.  The  Drum 
Major,  when  regularly  established,  received  orders 
from  the  Major  of  the  battalion  concerning  the  neces- 
sary iK'als  or  signals,  and  conununicated  them  to  the 
dnunmers.  The  management  of  the  big  drum,  and 
the  teaching  and  control  of  the  drummers  generally, 


DSUUKEB. 


513 


DBTINO-KACHINES. 


still  devolve  upon  the  Drum  ^lujor.  The  "heats" 
at  present  adopted  by  the  British  infantry  were  com- 
posed by  Drum  Major  Potter  of  the  "Coldstream 
Guards.     See  Dntm  Mij&r. 

DRUMMER.— The  soldier  who  plays  a  drum.  The 
majority  of  drummers  are  boj's,  generally  the  sons  of 
soldiers.  The  drummer  is  a  component  member  of 
every  British  rejximent.  His  position  is  slightly  s\i- 
perior  to  that  of  the  private  soldier,  but  still  he  is 
reckoned  as  one  of  the  rank  and  tile.  Besides  his  or- 
dinary' duties,  the  drummer  performs  the  drumming 
out  when  a  soldier  is  discharged  with  ignominv.  To 
the  drummers  is  also  intrusted  the  repulsive  duty  of 
flogging,  when  that  sentence  is  passerl  upon  soldiers. 
A  Dru Ill-head  Court-Martial  (not  now  much  ado]>ted) 
has  no  particular  connection  with  the  drummers,  but 
is  a  hasty  Council  or  Court-Martial  hel<i  in  the  tield 
around  tlie  big  drum. 

DRUMMING  OUT.  — The  ceremony  of  ignomini- 
oiLsly  discharging  a  soldier  from  the  service.  The 
culprit  is  marched  out  of  the  garrison  at  the  point  of 
the  bayonet,  the  drummers  or  musiciims  playing  the 
"Rogue's  JInrch." 

DRUMMOND  LIGHT.— The  heat  given  out  during 
the  combustion  of  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and  oxjgen 
ga.scs,  or  of  coal-gas  and  oxygen,  is  very  intense;  and 
when  the  mixture  is  directed  on  an  infusible  sub- 
stance, such  as  lime,  a  most  brilliant  light  is  evolved. 
Captain  Drummond,  R.E.,  originally  proposed  the 
emplojTTient  of  this  light  in  the  trigonometrical  sur- 
vey of  Great  Britain,  ami  constructed  ai)paratus  for 
its  production.  The  most  convenient  form  of  the 
apparatus  is  represented 
in  the  figure,  where  the 
mixed  gases  escaping  by 
the  jet  a,  being  set  tire 
to  and  made  to  impinge 
upon  the  cylinder,  A,  of 
lime,  raise  Ihe  surface  of 
the  latter  nearest  the  jet 
to  a  white  heat,  accom- 
panied by  a  very  dazzling 
light.  As  minute  por- 
tions of  liine  become  de- 
tached and  are  volatil- 
ized from  the  spot  on  the 
lime  on  which  the  jet  of 
burning  ga.ses  strikes,  it 
is  necessarj'  to  ex]iose  a 
new  surface  of  lime  to 
the  ga.ses,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  screw,  C,  may 
be  turned  by  the  hand  or  by  clockwork.  The  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  ought  to  lie  contined  in  separate  .gas- 
holders or  bags,  and  to  be  brought  l)y  different  tubes, 
H  and  O,  provided  with  separate  stop-cocks,  to  with- 
in a  short  distance  of  the  exit-jet.  The  common  tube 
through  which  the  mingled  gases  pass  to  the  jet  is 


is  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  tlame,  which  might  lead 
to  a  disastrous  explosion.  When  the  rays  from  this 
light  are  concentrated  by  a  paralx)lic  rellector,  it  can 
lie  seen  at  immense  distances.  Thus  on  the  31st  Dc- 
cernlwr,  1845,  at  half  past  3  P.M.  (daylight),  the  light 
was  exhibited  on  the  lop  of  Slieve  Donard,  in  County 
Down,  and  was  seen  from  the  top  of  Snowdon,  a  dis- 
tjince  of  108  miles;  and  in  other  instances  the  Drum- 
mond light  has  been  seen  at  distances  up  to  113 
miles,  'fhe  employment  of  coal-giis  instead  of  hy- 
drogen has  greatly  increa.sed  the  applications  of  the 
Drummond  light,  anil  it  is  now  often  used  in  magic- 
lanterns  and  other  apparatus  where  great  brilliancy 
and  penetration  of  light  are  required.  It  has  been 
used  lately  on  tlie  Continent  with  great  elTect  in  illu- 
minations. Great  caution  should  at  all  times  be  ex- 
ercised in  the  preparation,  storing,  and  emploj-ment 
of  the  gases,  as  many  dangerous  explosions  have  oc- 
curred. Little  heat  Is  evolved  from  the  Drummond 
light,  nor  does  it  vitiate  the  surrounding  air  or  con- 
sume its  oxygen.     See  Electric  Litjht. 

DRUMSTICK.— A  stick  with  which  a  drum  is  heat- 
en,  or  one  shaped  for  the  purpose  of  beating  a  drum. 

DRUNK  ON  DUTY.— A  crime  severely  and  sum- 
marily punished  in  all  services.  In  the  United  States, 
the  Articles  of  War  provide  that  any  officer  who  is 
found  drunk  on  his  guard,  party,  or  other  duty  shall 
be  dismissed  from  the  service.  Any  soldier  who  so 
offends  shall  suffer  such  (a/rporal)  pimishment  as  a 
Court  JIartial  may  direct.  No  Court-Martial  shall 
sentence  any  soldier  to  be  branded,  marked,  or  tat- 
tooed. 

DRY  CAMP. — Troops  on  the  march  are  said  to  make 
II  (tri/  ramp  w  hen  they  are  compelled  by  exhaustion 
or  other  causes  to  carbp  at  a  place  where  there  is  no 
water.  For  such  camps  water  is  usually  transported 
with  the  troops. 

DRYING-MACHINES.— The  ordinary  processes  of 
drying  by  exposure  in  the  open  air  have  been  found 
too  tedious  for  large  establishments,  and  hot-air 
chambers  ha^e  lieen  extensively  used;  but  a  great  im- 
provement has  been  lately  made  by  using  the  princi- 
ple of  centrifugid  force  to  throw  off  the  greater  part 
of  the  moisture.  The  drjing-machine  commonly 
used  in  arsenals  and  launilries  consists  of  two  drimis 
or  cylhidersopen  at  the  top;  the  inner  one,  into  which 
the  goods  are  packed,  is  pert'orated  at  its  sides,  and 
made  to  revolve  with  great  velocity  either  by  steam, 
water,  or  hand  power.  The  action  of  the  drying- 
machine  is  precisely  the  same  in  principle  as  that  wit- 
nessed when  the  housemaid  is  trundling  a  mop,  or  of 
the  dog  when  he  shakes  himself  on  coming  out  of  the 
water.  The  use  of  the  outer  cylinder  is  merely  to 
catch  the  drops  of  water  thrown  out,  and  prevent  the 
inconvenience  that  would  result  from  its  distribution 
through  the  apartment.  A  pipe  connected  with  this 
outer  drum  carries  the  water  away.  The  drying  is 
not,  however,  quite  completed  by  such  machines:  a 


Drying-machioe. 


about  six  inches  long  by  two  thirds  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter; and  in  Mr.  Heiiiming's  construction  the  tube 
is  very  closely  packed  full  of  verj'  fine  brass  wire, 
which  is  aftei-ivards  wedged  in  by  a  stout  wire  being 
driven  down  the  center.  ^The  object  of  the  fine  wires 


very  sli.ght  degree  of  moisture,  just  perceptible  to  the 
touch  if  the  goods  are  pressed  against  the  cheek,  still 
remains.  This  is  expelled  by  open-air  or  hot-cham- 
ber drying.  These  drjMng-machines  are  commonly 
called  "  extractors."    A"  simpler  and  cheaper  drying- 


DRYING8T0VE. 


514 


DRY  PBOCESS. 


niarbino  hits  bwn  lately  Introduced  for  domestic  use. 
It  ct:>nsists  of  two  rollers  mounted  piiriillel,  iind  one 
above  the  oilier,  with  iiu  adjustment  to  varv  the  dis- 
tanees  l>et\virn  them.  One  end  of  the  article  to  l)e 
driiti  is  inserted  between  the  rollers,  which  are  then 
brought  as  eK>se  as  pt>ssiblc  together,  and  one  roller  is 
turiie«l  by  a  handle;  the  other,  lieiug  free  to  revolve, 
turns  lUso  as  ihe  clothes  pass  Ix'tween  them — the 
moisture  in  this  case  being  extracted  by  pressure,  as 
in  the  common  process  of  "  wringing." 

For  articles  in  bulk,  .such  as  wool,  cotton,  etc.,  the 
amingement  for  drying  shown  in  the  drawing,  has  a 
numlKT  of  advanuiges  over  others  in  use.  The 
method  for  suppl.\iug  and  heating  the  air  is  simple 
and  inexpensive,  as  cora))arcd  with  some  others  in 
which  the  heater  is  arranged  on  the  plan  of  a  tubular 
boiler  with  inside  flues.  The  steam  for  heating  is 
let  into  this  boiler,  and  the  air  to  be  heated  pa.s.st's 
through  the  insideof  the  tubes.  The  heatermust  have 
the  strength  of  a  boiler,  and  the  tubes  secured  in  the 
same  way.  to  Insir  the  pressure  of  the  steam.  This  is 
necessjirily  e.\iX'nsive;  and  the  air  passing  through 
the  inside  of  the  tubes  is  brought  in  contact  with  only 
a  small  heating-surface.  In  the  plan  illustrated,  a 
Roots'  Positive  Blower  furnishes  the  blast,  and  the 
outside  c-ise  or  air-conductor  needs  only  to  be  made 
of  No.  18  galvanized  iron.  The  air  pa.sscs  through 
this  conductor,  and  is  heated  by  steam  passing  through 
return-coils  of  ordinary  gas-piping.  This  arrange- 
ment can  be  made  at  a  small  cost,  as  compared  with 
the  plan  spoken  of  above,  and  is  much  better,  as  the 
air  is  brought  in  contact  with  from  twenty-five  to  fifty 
per  cent  more  heating  surface  by  psissing  on  the  out- 
side of  the  pipes  instead  of  the  inside.  When,  as  in 
the  former  case,  the  air  is  forced  through  the  inside 
of  the  pipes,  considerable  force  or  pressure  is  required 
to  overcome  the  friction,  which  is  only  effected  at  Ihe 
expense  of  considerable  power;  whUe,  in  the  plan 
shown  above,  a  large  and  ample  space  is  given  for 
the  passage  of  Ihe  air. 

DEYING-8T0VE.— An  apparatus  employed  in  the 
maniifactuie  of  gunpowder.  It  is  simply  a  clo.se 
chamber  heated  to  a  high  temperature  by  sfeajn;  the 
dfMirs  and  windows  of  the  building  are  double,  so  iis 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  heat,  and  the  interior  is  fitted 
up  with  an  open  framework  of  wood,  supporting 
trays  uix>n  which  the  powder  is  spread  out  to  dry. 
A  series  of  cast-iron  sleaiu-pi[x»s  consisting  of  twenty- 
two  lengths,  each  about  11  feet  long,  with  an  es- 


l»i'\ini.' -stove. 
temal  diameter  of  7  J  inches,  are  laid  a  few  inches 
above  the  tloor;  these  pipes  are  aiTamicd  horizontally, 
•with  an  inclination  or  fall  of  1  incli  in  11  feet  from 
the  end  where  they  are  connected  to  the  main  steam 
supply-pipe,  which  pijie  is  in  direct  communication 
with  the  steamlH>iler,  the  quantily  and  supply  of 
steam  being  regulated  by  means  of  a  slop-valve  on 
the  boiler.  As  the  sleam  condenses — which  it  will 
do  to  some  extent  in  the  large  pipes— the  water  nins 
off  through  a  small  wrouglil-iron  pipe  atlaclied  to  the 
ends  of  the  large  ones;  tliisc  drain-pipes  arc  Iwnt  in 
such  a  form  as  to  allow  for  the  cxjiansion  and  con- 
traction of  I  he  large  pipes,  each  lenglh  of  which  is 
supported  on  four  rollers  lilleil  inlocasl-iron  brackets, 
for  allowing  a  fn'cdom  of  motion  laterally.  The 
small  wToughl-iron  pipes  conduct  the  distilled  water 
formed  by  the  condens<'(l  steam  into  a  main  cast-iron 
pipe  which  conveys  it  into  a  close  tank,  whence  it  is 
ptimpcd  into  casks  and  taken  to  the  incorporating- 


mills,  where  it  is  of  much  value  for  damping  the 
charges.  The  drying-stove  is  about  32  fwt  in  length 
by  3t)  feet  in  width,  and  from  10  feet  to  11  feet  in 
height,  and  affords  about  10  cubic  feet  of  space  to 
every  sijuare  foot  of  heating  surface.  A  wooden 
staging  is  erected  imniediatc'ly  over  the  pities,  for 
supiiorting  the  trays;  these  tmys  consist  of  wooden 
frames  with  canvas  Iwttoms,  each  being  3  feel  in 
length  by  2  feet  6  inches  in  width,  and  alK)Ut  H  inch 

'  deep,  aiid  upon  each  of  these  from  (5  ix)unds  to 
8  pounds  of  gun|X)wdcr  are  spread  out  evenly  upon 
the  canvas  bottom.  The  stove  contains  '2^i^  trays, 
consequently  from  30  to  40  barrels  of  powder  can  be 
dried  at  one  time.  It  requires  about  four  hours  to 
heat  the  drving-stove  up  to  a  temperature  of  130'  F., 
to  which  liciit  the  powder  is  subjected.  The  tcm- 
peratvire  can  always  be  ascertained  bj'  Ihe  attendant 
without  opening  or  enteriuj'  Ihe  drj-ing-stove,  as  a 
large  thermometer  is  placeil  inside  the  building,  at 
the  window,  with  its  face  outwards.  After  the  pow- 
der has  been  subjected  to  the  full  heat  for  a  period  of 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  hours,  the  steam  stop-valve 
on  the  Iwiler  is  closed,  and  the  chamber  allowed  to 
cool  down.  In  from  two  to  three  hours  the  temper- 
ature is  sufficiently  reduced  to  admit  of  the  attendant 
entering  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  trays.  It  will 
therefore  be  seen  that  by  this  means  one  stove  is  cap- 
able of  drying  a  full  charge  every  twenty-four  hours; 
but  where  the  factory  is  large  the  better  plan  is  to 
liave  two  such  stoves,  with  the  steam-boiler  placed 
between  them,  and  to  work  each  one  alternately.  It 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  Ihe  heat  be  applied 
slowly,  otherwise  the  te.vture  or  shape  of  the  grain 
is  apt  to  change  by  being  cracked  or  burst  into  pieces, 
and  conscfiuently  spoiled.  If  the  moisture  is  not  car- 
ried away  as  it  arises  it  will  settle  on  the  [xiwder,  and 
thereby  injure  the  surface  of  the  grain;  to  ob\-iate 

I  this  the  roof  and  also  the  bottom  of  the  drying-stove 
are  provided  with  ventilators,  and  through  these  all 
the  moist  air  escapes.     These  ventilators  can,  if  neces- 

I  sary,  be  opened  from  the  outside.  When  no  more 
vapor  arises  the  ventilators  are  closed,  and  the  powder 
subjected  to  the  full  effect  of  the  hot  dry  air  for  some 
few  hours  before  the  doors  of  the  stove  are  opened. 
The  action  of  the  heat  in  drv'ing  the  powder  produces 
a  small  quantity  of  dust,  consequently  the  powder  has 
to  be  taken  back  to  the  dusting  liousc,  and  there 
passed  through  a  dusting-reel.  The  large-grain  pow- 
der is  put  into  a  horizontal  reel,  covered  with  canvas 
haWng  twenty -four  meshes  to  tlie  inch,  and  reeled  for 
half  an  hour,  which  effectually  cleans  it,  removing 
all  Ihe  dust  and  giving  to  the  powder  a  fine  finished 
gloss.  The  line-gniin  powder  is  nin  through  a  slope- 
reel,  covered  with  canvas  haWng  twenty-eight  meshes 
to  the  inch,  and  reeled  tor  about  two  hours,  after 
which  it — as  well  as  the  large-grain  powder — is  put 
into  casks  provided  with  copper  or  a.sh  hoops,  and 
when  elcsed  the  heads  of  the  casks  are  branded 
according  to  the  size  and  nature  of  the  powder  con- 
tained in  them.  This  completes  the  manufacturi', 
and  the  gunpowder  is  now  ready  for  use  or  storage 
as  may  be  required.  In  a  given  quantity  of  '•mill- 
cake"  Ihe  proportions  obtained  arc  as  follows:  alMiut 
seven  tenths  large-grain,  two  tenths  fine-grain,  and  one 
tenth  dust;  in  damp  weather,  however,  these  pro- 
portions are  somewhat  altered,  the  dust  during  such 

1  weather  being  considerably  increased.  See  &un- 
pr>irdrr. 

DRY  PROCESS.— The  coUodionizcd  glass  plate,  on 
being  withdrawn  from  Ihe  bath,  pie\-ious  to  and  dur- 
ing exposure  in  the  camera,  has  mechanically  adher- 
ing to  its  surface  a  quantity  of  solution  of  free  nil  rate 
of  silver,  and  it  is  partly  upon  the  presence  of  this  sjtlt 
that  the  exirenie  sensitiveness  of  wet  collodion  plates 
depends.  This,  however,  is  not  Ihe  .sole  cause  of  sensi- 
bility to  actinic  rays;  carefully  conducted  experiments 
fairly  lead  to  Iheassumption  that  Ihe  molecular  ar- 
rangement of  the  ultimate  iiaiticlcs of  iodide  of  silver, 
and  of  the  pyroxyline,  fonning.  as  it  were,  the  net- 
work of  the  film  while  wet,  materially  affect  this  nee- 


SUALINE. 


515 


DUEL. 


fssary  condition;  and  it  is  the  oljjcct  of  what  is  termed 
a  ilry  prorfnn  to  preserve  this  molecular  arrangement 
as  far  as  possible  unaltered,  notwithstanding  the  dis- 
turl)ing  influences  which  would  necessarily  be  exerted 
by  the  desiccation  of  the  tilm.  This  desirable  end  for 
military  photography  is  accomplishi'd  with  more  or 
less  certainty  by  the  employment  of  solutions  of  vari- 
ous substances,  which  are  poured  over  the  film  after 
the  adhering  nitrate  of  silver  has  been  removed  by 
copious  washing  with  water.  The  heterogeneous 
character  of  the  substances  so  used  goes  far  to  prove 
that  their  action  is  principally  mecJianiral,  Ihey  being 
selected  from  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 
kingdoms.  Among  the  first  may  be  mentioned  honey, 
gelatine,  glycerine,  milk,  and  albumen;  among  the 
second,  syrups,  gum,  wine,  beer,  balsams,  and  resins 
added  to  the  collodion,  and  linseed  tea;  and  among 
the  third,  chloride  of  calcium,  nitmte  of  zinc,  and 
nitrate  of  magnesia.  The  plate,  on  its  removal  from 
the  sensitizing  bath,  being  well  washed  with  water, 
liny  one  of  these  sul)stances  is  dissolved  in  water  in 
suitable  proportion,  and  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
plate  by  pouring  on  and  off  several  times.  It  is  then 
set  up  to  drain  and  dry  on  folds  of  bibulous  paper  in 
a  dark  closet  or  box.  The  plate  is  then  ready  for  use. 
The  pictures  obtained  on  plates  so  jirepared  do  not 
suffer  by  comparison  with  those  taken  by  the  wet  col- 
lodion process;  the  only  drawback  to  their  use  being 
a  slight  diminution  in  the  degree  of  sensibility  to 
light.     See  Pliotngraplii/. 

DUAIINE. — An  explosive  composition  of  nitro-gly- 
cerinc,  tine  sawdust,  and  nitrate  of  polas.sa  (in  pro- 
portion of  50,  30,  and  20  jiarts),  intended  to  diminish 
the  danger  in  the  transportation  and  storage  of  nitro- 
glycerine. Compared  with  dynamite,  it  is— 1.  More 
sensitive  tolieat,  and  also  to  mechanical  disturbances, 
especially  when  frozen,  when  it  may  even  be  exploded 
by  friction;  2.  The  sawdust  in  it"  has  little  affinity 
for  the  nitro-glycerine,  and  at  liest  will  hold  but  40  to 
50  per  cent  of  nitroglycerine,  and  on  this  accoimt 
very  strong  wrappers  are  needed  for  the  cartridges; 
3.  Its  specitic  gravity  is  1.02,  whicb  is  ,50  per  cent 
\em  than  that  of  dynamite,  and  as  nitroglycerine  has 
the  same  explosive  power  in  each,  its  explosive  power 
is  50  per  cent  less  than  that  of  dynamite;  4.  The  gases 
from  explosions,  in  consequence  of  the  dualine  con- 
taining an  excess  of  carbon,  contain  cartmnic  oxide 
and  other  noxious  gases.  Lithofractcur  and  diialine, 
however,  can  be  exploded,  when  frozen,  by  means  of 
an  ordinary  fulminating-cap,  which  is  not  the  ca.se 
with  dynamite.  Dualine  was  invented  soon  after 
dynamite.  The  patent  describes  it  as  consisting  of 
"  cellulose,  nitrocellulose,  nitro-starch,  nitro-niannite, 
and  nitro-glycerine,  mixed  in  different  combinations, 
depending  on  the  tlegree  of  strength  desired  in  adapt- 
ing its  use  to  various  purposes."  A  sjimple  supplied 
by  the  inventor,  Carl  Dittmar.  for  trial  at  the  Hoosac 
Tunnel,  was  found  by  analysis  to  consist  of  60  per  cent 
of  nitro-glycerine  and  40  per  cent  of  washed  .sjiw- 
dust,  not  treated  with  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 
The  best  variety  now  manufactured  is  believed  to  be 
cellulose  derived  from  poplar  ])ulp,  treated  with  ni- 
tric and  sulphuric  acids,  and  saturated  with  nitro- 
glycerine. When  soaked  in  water  it  can  beexploded 
only  by  a  \iolent  detonation,  exceeding  that  of  the 
ordinary  fuse,  and  even  then  it  losesmore  than  half  its 
power.  It  congeals  at  about  45  Fahrenheit,  and  in 
this  state  readily  explodes,  becoming  so  sensitive  to 
friction  as  to  make  it  dangerous  to  use  in  cold  weather. 
In  other  respects  its  properties  resemble  those  of  dy- 
namite. See  Ut/namite,  Ei'plosire  Agent»,  and  Nitro- 
gli/ctrinr. 

DUCENAEITJS.— The  title  of  an  oflicer  in  the  Roman 
armies  who  conunnndcd  two  Centuries. 

DUCTILIMETER.— An  instrument  invented  by  if. 
Regnier  for  ascertaining  the  relative  ductility  of  met- 
als. The  metal  to  be  tested  is  subjected  to  the  action 
of  blows  from  a  mass  of  iron  of  given  weight  attached 
to  a  lever,  and  the  effect  produced  is  shown  upon  a 
graduated  arc. 


DUEL. — A  combat  between  two  persons,  at  a  time 
and  place  indicated  in  the  challenge,  cartel,  or  defi- 
ance Itorne  by  one  parly  to  the  other.  A  duel  gener- 
ally takes  place  in  the"  presence  of  witnesses,  called 
.seconds,  who  regulate  the  mode  of  fighting,  place  the 
weajjons  in  the  hands  of  the  combatants,  and  enforce 
compliance  with  the  ndes  which  they  have  laid  down. 

No  trace  of  the  duel,  as  an  institution,  is  to  be  fotmd 
in  die  history  of  the  cla.s,sical  nations  of  antiquity, 
the  Latin  word  from  which  oure  is  derived  having 
been  used  to  signify  a  war  between  two  nations.  So 
long  as  men  continued  to  l)e  barbarians  their  personal 
quarrels  were  no  douirt  decided  in  the  ancient,  as 
national  quarrels  still  are  in  the  modern  world,  by  an 
appeal  to  physical  force.  But  though  w-ar  has  fieen 
in  all  times  the  practical  solution  of  strife,  it  was  not 
till  the  Jliddle  Ages  that  it  came  to  lie  regarded  as  a 
means,  in  any  sense  judicial,  of  settling  disputes. 
Hitherto  it  had  detenniiied  who  was  able  to  prevail, 
justice  being  set  aside,  but  it  was  a  new  view  that  it 
would  determine  who  ought  to  prevail  on  the  princi- 
ples of  justice.  The  rationale  of  the  judicial  romhat 
or  wager  of  battle  was  probably  twofold.  On  the 
one  hand,  and  generally  ;miongst  the  people,  it  de- 
pended on  a  belief  that  God  would  interfere  directly 
and  miraculously  in  the  conflict  to  protect  the  inno- 
cent and  to  punish  the  guilty,  and  that  thus  the  weak- 
est combatant  who  had  CJod  on  his  side  woidd  prove 
more  than  a  match  for  the  strongest  when  destitute 
of  his  aid.  But  there  was  a  view  of  the  matter  which 
was  not  so  directly  superstitious,  and  which  rested 
rather  on  a  confusion  between  the  principle  of  the 
original  constitiition  and  Ihc  principle  of  the  trans- 
mission of  rights.  All  Inunan  rights  originate  in  the 
powers  and  faculties  which  God  has  given  to  man, 
anil  it  was  supposed  that  as  the  right  originated  in 
power,  its  continued  existence  in  the  individual  could 
be  ascertaineil  by  ascertaining  whether  the  power  slill 
existed  in  him.  The  error  consisted,  as  wc  have  sjiid, 
in  confounding  the  )irinciple  of  the  constitution  with 
the  principle  of  tlic  iiansmission  of  rights.  If  a  field 
which  was  claimed  by  two  coinpelilors  had  as  yet 
been  appropriated  to  nobody,  or  had  been  abandoned, 
and  was,  as  lawyers  say,  reti  nulliun,  the  fact  which 
of  the  two  claimants  ought  to  become  the  posse.s.sor 
might  be  ascertained  l>v  judicial  combat.  But  if  it 
was  already  the  iiroperty  of  one  of  them  on  a  title 
which  was  to  be  held  sacred,  and  the  i)uestion  was 
which  of  the  two  had  this  sacred  title,  that  fact  could 
never  be  detenniiied  by  a.scertaining  which  would 
have  been  in  a  condition  to  constitute  it  for  the  first 
time,  had  it  been  non-existent.  The  principle  of  the 
private  duel,  in  so  far  as  it  had  any  principle  at  all, 
and  was  not  merely  a  piece  of  barbarous  and  irra- 
tional foppery,  was  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the 
judicial  combat.  But  the  latter  had  lieen  applied  to 
a  <'lass  of  ca.ses  which  ailmitted  of  legal  investigation 
and  decision,  and  it  was  consequentTy  abandoned  in 
the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth;  whereas  the  former  was 
supposed  to  lie  a  means  of  redre.s.sing  wrongs  which 
hardly  can  come  within  the  cognizimce  of  a  human 
tribunal,  and  the  consequence  was  that  it  continued 
in  green  observance  in  England  until  recently,  and  is 
still  in  \igor  in  many  Continental  countries. 

Like  liie  other  peculiarities  of  media'val  life,  the 
duel  probably  originated  with  the  Gcnnanic  nations. 
It  is  said  to  liave  been  introduced  into  legal  proceed- 
ings in  lieu  of  an  oath  by  Gundebald.  King  of  the 
Bvirgundians,  in  501.  Loiiis  le  Detonnaire  was  the 
first  of  the  French  kings  who  permitted  litigants  to 
appeal  to  arms.  The  practice  was  prohiliitcd  bv 
Henry  II.,  in  consequence  of  a  noted  duel  which  took 
place"  in  his  presence  between  his  friend  Francis  de 
la  Chastaignerie  and  Guy  Chabot  de  Jarnac,  in  which 
the  latter  was  slain.  The  royal  edict,  however,  wa.s 
totally  InefTectual,  and  the  practice  of  private  duel- 
ing has  generally  prevailed  more  extensively  in  France 
than  in  any  oilier  country.  Francis  I  iiatronized  it 
by  declaring  that  a  lie  co"uld  be  borne  without  Siitis- 
faction  only  by  a  base-born  churl,  and  still  more  by 


DUFFASAB. 


516 


DUKE. 


the  example  which  he  set  in  challeupnc  his  own 
LTi'iit  rival  Cliarli-.s  V.  In  1599  thi'  Parliainent  of 
Paris  ikflariil  all  jK-rsons  who  were  either  piineipals 
or  seconds  in  duels  to  lie  R'Ik-Is  to  the  King.  But  its 
efforts  were  unavailing;  and  it  is  sjiid  thai  durini;  the 
tirst  IH  years  of  Henry  IV.  no  fewer  than  40(10  sen- 
llenien  "|HTished  in  this  foolish  manner.  In  l(i09 
Henry  added  to  the  existing  lienallies,  introducing 
even  'punishment  by  death  in  extreme  Civscs.  But 
these  regtdations  were  forcetl  u|>on  him  ijy  popular 
feeling;  lie  had  himself  no  aversion  tt)  the  practice, 
unci  when  he  gave  permission  to  Cretjui  to  tight  Don 
Philip  of  Savoy,  he  added:  "  If  I  were  not  the  king, 
I  woidd  be  yoiir  second."  The  conscfiucnce  of  this 
feeling  was  "that  he  readily  granted  pardons  to  those 
who  had  violated  the  laws  which  he  had  l>een  forced 
to  enact,  and  these  laws  not  unnaturally  produced  an 
effect  the  very  reverse  of  their  ostensible  object. 
I)uelling  acqufretl  the  charm  of  what  the  Frenrh  aiU 
"  forl)idden  fruit,"  and  thus  became  a  fashionable 
and  favorite  vice.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  the 
rustom  was  so  prevalent  that  Lord  .Herbert,  the  Eng- 
lish Anibassiulor.  wrote  home  to  his  Court  that  there 
was  scarcely  a  Frenchman  worth  looking  on  who  had 
not  killed  his  man.  It  would  not  seem,  however, 
that  it  was  from  negligence  in  enforcing  the  royal 
edicts  that  duelling  then  reached  to  so  alarming  a 
height;  for  it  was  during  this  reign  that  two  noble- 
men, the  greatest  duelists  of  the  "day,  the  Count  de 
Koutleville  and  the  Marquis  de  Beiiron,  were  tried 
and  beheaded  for  pcr>isting  to  tight.  In  the  com- 
mencement of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  duels  with 
four  or  live  a  side  bcgim  to  be  fought;  and  two  very 
SiUiguinary  affairs  oif  this  description  having  taken 
place,  in  which  several  jx^rsons  of  the  highest  rank 
were  slain,  the  King  determined  to  put  an  end  to  l!ie 
practice,  lie  published  an  edict  in  lOTi)  forbidding 
it  luider  the  highest  penalties,  which,  unlike  most  of 
his  predecessors,  be  had  the  lirmuess  to  inflict;  and 
this  mciisure,  together  with  a  solemn  agreement  which 
was  entered  into  amongst  the  nobility  themselves,  led 
at  that  time  to  its  almost  total  abolition. 

The  duel  does  not  seem  to  have  existed  in  Eni^land 
in  Anglo  Saxon  times,  and  was  probably  introduced 
at  the  Coni|Uest.  In  its  judicial  form  it  was  not 
lotallv  obsolete  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth;  and 
Sir  llenry  Spelman  gives  an  account  of  a  Trial  by 
Battle,  which  terminated,  however,  without  actual 
combat,  in  the  year  1571.  Private  dueling  was  com- 
mon, however,  both  in  Elizabeth's  reign  and  in  that 
of  her  successor',  by  whom  a  severe  statute  against 
it  was  cnacte<l  in  Scotland.  During  the  civil  wars 
men's  minds  were  too  much  occupied  with  questiims 
of  grave  importance  to  leave  time  for  questions  of 
etiquette,  and  the  duel  consecjuently  declined;  but  it 
became  exceedingly  prevalent  during  the  dissolute 
reign  of  Charles  ll.  Some  attempts  were  made  to 
suppress  it  in  the  reign  of  William  III.,  Ixith  in 
Enghuxl  and  Scotland,  and  in  17r2  the  subject  was 
roconunendeil  to  the  altenlion  of  T^irliament  in  the 
Queen's  speech.  But  the  bill  which  wiis  brought  in 
by  the  Government  was  thrown  out,  and  the  practice 
continued  to  prevail.  When  the  custom  of  wearing 
the  sword  wius  abandoned,  the  number  of  d\iels  di- 
minished, though  it  was  then  that  their  irrational 
character  may  l>e  sjiid  to  have  attained  its  maximum. 
The  pistol  wa-s  sulistituled  for  the  sword,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  chance — which  was  reduced  to  an  absurdity 
by  the  medical  duel  of  a  couple  of  ijills,  one  com- 
posed of  bread  and  the  other  of  |X)ison — was  inaugu- 
rated. Since  this  period  the  practice  bits  fallen  into 
disrepute,  by  the  gradual  opi'ration  of  public  opinion, 
and  in  Great  Britain  it  may  probably  be  now  regarde(l 
as  tinally  abolished.  The  duels  of  the  students  at 
the  German  universities,  of  which  so  much  has  been 
said  and  written  in  this  country,  are  nothing  more 
than  fencing-matfhes  with  sliarp  weapons.  They 
are  foolish  but  not  deailly  affairs,  as  the  seconds, 
who  are  al.«o  anned,  always  interfere  to  prevent  seri- 
ous bloo<]sbcd. 


!  In  the  southern  portion  of  the  United  States  the 
cu-stom  of  dueling,  though  of  late  years  falling  into 
disuse,  is  a  recognized  institution  of  societv.  Half  a 
century  ago  the  pistol  anil  the  bowie-knife  were  as 
much  ii  part  of  a  man's  equipage  as  his  bat  or  his 
boot.s.  A  gentleman  of  gooel  social  position  who  had 
not  fought  at  least  one  duel  was  often  l(H)kwl  ui)on  as 
deficient  in  the  qualities  proper  to  his  station.  Sud- 
den affrays  in  the  streets,  steidthy  a-s^iissiuations,  and 
bitter  family  feuds,  were  the  con.scqucnces.  These 
feuds  rivaled  in  duration  and  ferocity  the  Venetian 
vendett;!.  The  land  was  full  o.'  swaggering  bullies 
who  had,  metaphorically,  in  one  hand  a  pack  of  cards 
and  in  the  other  a  pistol.  Modern  civilization,  and 
more  especially  the  War  of  the  lli'belllon,  in  which 
the  Southern  States  suffered  so  terribly,  have  greatly 
mo<iificd  this  fire-eating.spirit.  Other  influences  have 
assisted.  Not  uiply  is  the  general  voice  against  the 
practice,  but  in  a  large  number  of  the  States  laws 
have  been  enacted  which  itronounce  the  killing  of  a 
fellow-being  in  a  duel  to  be  murder,  and  in  still  more 
States  the  mere  sending  of  a  challenge  is  a  felony. 
A  person  in  the  military  or  naval  service  implicated 
in  a  duel,  either  as  jirincipal  or  second,  may  be  sum- 
marily ca-shiered.  In  some  of  the  Stjites  the  killing 
of  a  man  in  a  duel  is  punishable  with  death;  in  others 
by  imprisonment  and  forfeiture  of  political  right.s. 
In  some  States  certain  officers  are  required  to  swear 
that  they  have  not  been,  within  a  certain  period,  and 
will  not  be.  engaged  in  a  duel.  See  Artirh'^  of  ^^'ar, 
aO,  •27,  and  28;  Challenge,  2;  and  Wugcr  nf  Battle. 

DUFFADAR.— In  the  native  Ea-st  Indian  cavalry,  a 
non-commissioned  officer  corresponding  with  the  rank 
of  Sergeant. 

DUFFADAR  MAJOR.— A  rank  in  the  Indian  cav- 
alry corresjionding  with  the  Sergeant  Major  of  a 
European  regiment  of  cavalrv.     See  Kot  Duffadar. 

DUFOUR  BASTION  SYSTEM.  — The  enceinte  is 
traced  as  in  the  modern  system;  the  ditch  is  30  yards 
wide  at  the  salient  of  the  bastion,  and  the  counter- 
scarp is  ilirected  on  the.  shoulder-angle.  A  eartiUer, 
or  boimet,  24  feet  high,  is  erected  at  the  salient  of  the 
ravelin.  The  parapet  of  the  cavalier  is  only  4  yards 
;  thick,  and  is  su|iposed  to  be  sufficiently  strong  to  re- 
■  sist  ricochet;  there  is  no  rampart;  the  banquette  is 
destined  for  musketry,  .and  its  slojies  descend  to  the 
terre  plein  of  the  ravelin.  The  ravelin  is  22  yards 
wide,  with  ramps  3  yards  wide  and  slope  ',".  The 
reiliiit  of  rareliii  is  separated  from  the  ravelin  by  a 
ditch  10  yards  wide  and  6  yards  deep,  its  bottom 
being  6  feet  above  that  of  ravelin  and  12  feet  above 
the  main  ditch.  The  reduit  has  a  command  of  6  feet 
over  the  ravelin  at  the  salient  and  U  feet  at  the  rear, 
so  that  its  plane  of  defilade  passes  above  the  lodgment 
of  the  cavalier.  The  covered-way  is  10  yards  wide, 
and  ha-s  four  traverses.  This  system  possesses  many 
advantages,  with  but  few  serious  faults.  The  cavalier 
prevents  the  defenders  from  placing  artillery  al  the 
sjilicnt  of  the  ravelin,  where  its  preseircc  is  so  impor- 
tant, and  the  reduit  of  the  ravelin  has  no  room  for 
guns.     See  Furtifieatinn. 

DUKE.— A  term  applied  originally  to  any  military 
leader.  Gibbon  informs  us  that  the  title  came  tirst 
into  use  when  Constantine  separated  the  civil  and  the 
military  commands  in  the  Provinces,  which  had  l)ecn 
exercised  in  common  by  such  men  as  Agricola.  From 
that  time  forth,  the  Military  Governors  of  Provinces 
were  cither  Counts  or  Dukes.  But  these  titles  origi- 
nally stood  to  each  other  in  an  opposite  relation  to 
that  which  they  afterwards  assumed.  "  It  should  be 
recollected,"  says  Gibbon,  "that  the  second  of  these 
appellations — tliat  of  Duke — is  only  a  corruption  of 
the  Latin  word  which  was  indiscriminately  applied 
to  any  MililJiiy  Chief.  All  Provincial  Generals  were 
therefore  Dnhx.  but  no  more  than  ten  among  them 
were  dignilie<l  with  the  rank  of  ('omits,  or  Com- 
panions, a  title  of  honor,  or  rather  of  favor,  which 
had  been  recently  invented  in  the  Court  of  Constan- 
tine." "  A  gold  belt,"  continues  Gibbon,  "was  the 
ensign  which  distinguished  the  office  of  the  Counts 


DUKE  OF  YORK  S  SCHOOL. 


517 


DUPONT  DE  NEMOURS  DENSIMETER. 


and  Dukes;  and,  besides  their  pay,  they  received  a 
liberal  allowance,  sufficient  to  maintain  190  servants 
and  lOH  horses.  They  were  strictly  prohil)itcd  from 
interferinii  in  any  matter  which  related  to  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  or  the  revenue;  and  the  command 
which  they  exercised  over  the  troops  of  their  depart- 
ment was  independent  of  the  authority  of  the  Magi.s- 
trates."  When  the  Goths,  and  Franks,  and  other 
barbarians  successfully  invaded  the  Pro\inces  of  the 
Empire,  they  preserved  the  titles  of  Count  and  Duke, 
if  they  had  not  already  borrowed  them  from  the 
Romans,  But  amongst  races  who  owed  their  suprem- 
acy to  the  sword  no  dignity  could  prevail  over  that 
of  the  Commander  of  an  Army;  imd  the  Dukes,  as 
Military  Chiefs,  acquired  a  marked  pre-eminence 
over  the  Coimts,  whose  lofty  functions  under  the 
Empire  had  been  partly  of  a  civil  and  partly  of  a 
military  natin'e.  The  only  exception  under  the  first 
Merovingians  was  in  the  case  of  the  Count  of  the 
Palace.  In  the  hierarchy  observed  by  the  Franks 
and  other  Teutonic  races,  the  ordinary  Count  became 
the  Lieutenant  of  the  Duke,  aiv^l  the  government  of 
the  latter  extended  to  .several  Provinces;  whereas  that 
of  the  former  was  confined  to  one  Province,  or  even 
to  a  single  locality.  The  power  of  the  Dukes  grew 
so  rapidly,  in  consequence  of  the  dis.sensions  of  the 
Merovingians,  that,  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury (582),  they  arrogated  to  themselves  the  right  to 
dispose  of  the  Crown.  Amongst  the  causes  which 
tended  to  raise  the  power  of  the  Dukes  was  the  im- 
mense wealth  which  had  been  acquired  by  the  great 
provincial  families.  The  Chiefs  who  had  attached 
themselves  to  the  fortunes  of  Clovis  had  been  richly 
endowed  with  conquered  lands.  After  the  close  of 
the  seventh  century  they  overshadowed  the  Crown, 
and  the  title  of  Prince  and  Chief  (C'«/)  began  to  be 
attributed  to  them.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Diies- 
inairen  of  the  Palace  sometimes  a.ssumed  the  title  of 
Archduke.  Under  the  Second  Dynasty  the  title  of 
Duke  retained  all  its  dignity  and  importance,  and  it 
was  to  the  successive  invasions  of  local  upon  central 
power  that  feudalitv  owed  its  origin. 

DUKE  OF  YORK'S  SCHOOL.— the  popular  designa- 
tion fnr  tlie  Riiyal  MilHiirii  Astyliiiii  at  C'helsea.  In 
the  French  army  there  have  long  been  Kiifaiia  dc 
lyoiipr  borne  on  the  liooks  of  eacli  company  or  bat- 
talion of  soldiers;  that  is,  children  of  decea.sed  sol- 
diers, unprovided  with  other  homes.  In  England 
no  such  system  prevails.  The  late  Duke  of  York,  in 
the  year  i8()l,  u.sed  his  influence  to  obtain  the  forma- 
tion of  a  Soldiers'  Orphan  A.sylum.  Accommoda- 
tion was  obtained  at  Chelsea;  and  in  1803  schools 
were  opened  for  700  boys  and  300  girls,  children  of 
deceased  soldiers.  The  Institution  has  been  kept  up 
ever  since  for  the  boys,  of  whom  500  arc  now  main- 
tained, but  was  a  failure  as  to  the  girls.  The  boys 
are  wholly  supported  as  well  as  educated.  They  are 
not  bound  to  serve  the  State  after  they  leave  the  Asy- 
lum; but  most  of  them  nevertheless  enter  the  army. 
A  soldier's  son  has  not  a  riyhi  of  admission;  a  selec- 
tion is  made  according  as  vacancies  may  occur. 
When  the  boys  leave  the  School,  those  who  do  not 
enter  the  army  are  apprenticed  to  trades.  The  Asy- 
lum is  under  a  Board  of  Commissioners,  who  make 
the  necessary  ndes  and  regulations.  The  chief  offi- 
cers are  the  Commandant,  Secretary,  Quartermaster, 
Head-master,  Chaplain,  Surgeon,  and  Dispenser. 
The  expenses  are  defrayed  by  an  annual  Parliameiit- 
arj'  grant,  included  in  the  army  estimates.  No  pro- 
\ision  is  now  maile  by  the  State  for  the  dnughtern  oi 
deceased  soldiers.  The  girls  admitted  into  the  Asy- 
lum in  the  early  years  of  its  history  brought  discredit 
to  it  by  their  after-life;  and  this  part  of  the  system 
was  abandoned.  There  is  oidy  a  Royal  Patriotic 
Fund  Asylum  on  Wandsworth  Conunon,  unaided 
by  the  State,  for  soldiers'  orphan  daughters;  it  origi- 
nated during  the  Crimean  War. 

DUKIGI  BACHI.— The  Second  Officer  in  the  Turk- 
ish artillery,  who  commands  the  Topelas,  or  gunners 
and  founders. 


DULEDOE. — A  pe^  of  wood  which  joins  the  ends 
of  the  felloes  forming  the  circle  of  the  wheel  of  a 
gun-cairiage  ;  the  joint  is  strengthened  on  the  out- 
side of  the  wheel  by  a  strong  plate  of  iron,  called  the 
diiliiliii-jiliitf. 

DUMMY  FRICTION  TUBE.— A  non-ignitible  tube 
which  is  used  for  drill  purjxjses.  It  consists  of  a 
steel  prong,  fork,  and  lanyard  ;  the  prong  is  entered 
in  the  fork,  which  is  inserted  in  the  vent  and  pulled 
through  by  the  same  motion  which  tires  the  service 
friction-tube.  Since  the  original  pattern  was  ap- 
proved of  it  ha.s  been  fotnid  that  the  piongs  are  lia- 
ble to  fracture  the  "eye."  In  the  present  pattern 
the  prong  is  made  stronger,  and  the  split  of  the  spring 
is  carried  through  its  neck,  instead  of  the  latter  being 
.solid. 

DUMPY  LEVEL.— A  leveling  instrument  for  short 
distances.  It  has  a  short  telescope  with  a  very  largd 
Held,  and  the  eompa.ss  is  fi.xed  underneath. 

DUNDAS  GUNS.— Smooth-bore  guns  of  somewhat 
similar  form  to  those  of  Mr.  Monk's,  and  introduced 
into  the  English  service  some  years  ago  by  Colonel 
Duiidas.  R.A.  They  are  not  so  conical,  baring  a 
greater  thickness  of  metal  in  the  first  and  second  rein- 
forces. His  68-pdr.  (95  cwt.)  is  used  both  as  a  land- 
and  sea-serriee  gun,  and  his  32  jidr.  of  58  cwt.  has 
been  largely  used  in  the  Navy.  There  are  other  gim.s 
still  in  the  service  hearing  his  name,  which  are  used 
for  land  or  sea  i)urposes. 

DUPONT  DE  NEMOURS  DENSIMETER.— A  mer- 
cury densimeter,  adapted,  liv  its  cunstniction,  to  the 
reception  of  large  grains,  and  having  caiiacity  for  five 
pounds  of  powder,  which,  for  conveiuence,  is  the 
weight  of  sample  always  em|)loyed.  It  differs,  how- 
ever, from  the  small  densimeter  in  ordinary  use  by  a 
comliination  of  the  different  parts,  such  that  the 
reservoir  for  containing  the  powder  and  mercury  to 
be  weighed,  and  the  balance  by  means  of  which  the 
weighings  are  made,  are  assembled  together  in  one 
instrument.  The  balance  also  is  so  adai>ted  to  its 
s|)ecial  iiiniiose  as  to  .simplify  considerably  the  subse- 
(lueiif  ])rocessof  calculation.  A  great  saving  of  labor 
and  time  is  gained  by  this  form  of  the  instniment, 
and  the  occun-ence  of  breaks  and  leaks,  so  frequent 
in  the  smaller  ones,  is  in  great  measure  avoided. 
Again,  from  the  much  larger  samjile  of  powder  em- 
ployed, a  fair  representative  residt  of  the  siJecific 
gravity  of  the  entire  lot  is  more  likely  to  be  secured. 


Dupont  I)e  Nemours  Instrument. 

To  describe  more  particularly,  the  instrument  consists 
of  three  principal  parts,  to  wit  :  A  beam-scale.  A,  a 
reservoir,  B,  to  contain  the  powder  and  mercury  to  be 
weighed,  and  a  bowl,  C,  to  contain  mercury  alone. 
In  connection  therewith,  an  air-pump  is  employed, 
the  cylinder  of  which  h.as  communication  with  the 
interior  of  the  reservoir  through  a  rubber  tube  leading 
from  the  nozzle  of  the  jiump  to  the  glass  tube,  a. 
at  the  top  of  the  reservoir.  The  balance  is  suspended 
from  a  hook,  b,  firmly  secured  to  the  roof  of  the 
housing,  and  it.s  axis  of  suspension  is  a  knife-edge  ly- 
ing in  the  same  plane  with  the  axes  of  suspension  of 
the  rods  c  and  rf  and  of  the  reservoir  B.     Platforms 


DU&EK  SYSTEM  OF  FOBTIFICATION. 


518 


DUSTING-REELS. 


are  attached  to  the  su>im  nsioiirods  c  and  rf,  on  which 
to  place  the  weiirhts.  The  latter  consist  of  pounds, 
tenths  of  u  pound,  and  tivehundredths  of  a  (lound, 
marked  in  reference  to  the  weights  tliey  will  biilance 
in  the  reservoir,  and  of  a  large  unmarked  weight,  \V, 
tenni-<l  the  "  eounleriwise."  This  counterpoise  has  a 
caxity  borwl  in  it  lengthwise;  its  weight  is  about  eight 
]H)unds.  The  long  arm  of  the  beam  Is  also  graduated, 
and  bv  means  of  "  riders,"  or  sliding  weights,  the 
weighings  win  be  made  to  hundri'dtlis  and  thou- 
sandths of  a  pound;  the  gniduated  edge  of  the  beam 
is  in  the  ssime  pliuie  with  the  knife-eilges.  There  are 
two  counterpoises  admitting  of  movement  on  serew- 
spindles  passing  through  them,  in  directions  that  are 
n>s|)ectively  parallel  and  perj'cndicuiar  to  the  Ijeam. 
The  former  is  used  to  adjust  the  anns  to  the  same 
weight,  the  latter  to  rejJTulate  the  sensibility  of  the 
beam.  In  connection  with  one  counterpoise  a  light 
wire  is  sometimw  u.sed  along  the  beam  to  facilitate 
the  adjustment  of  tlic  arms.  *rhe  beam  and  its  ap- 
purtenances proper  are  of  brass.  The  reservoir  B 
is  of  cast-iron  and  swings  on  trunnions  in  a  yoke. 
It  also  admits  of  a  horizontal  angular  movement 
al)out  a  vertical  pivot  connecting  the  yoke  with 
a  suspension-stirrup.  A  screwcap,  titted  with  a 
lejitber  washer,  coveis  the  mouth  of  the  reservoir, 
and  when  removed,  for  the  purpose  of  intnwhicing 
powder,  is  attached  to  a  hook  on  the  outside  of  the 
yoke,  so  as  to  be  included  in  the  weighing.  The 
mercury  is  admitted  or  withdrawn  through  the  stop- 
cock s.  The  conical  ends  of  the  reservoir  are  cast 
in  separate  pieces  and  are  afterwards  screwed  on 
to  the  cylinder,  the  joints  being  well  leaded.  Careful 
workmanship  is  requisite  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
a  leilge  or  recess  at  these  joints,  which  might  serve 
to  retain  sufficient  portions  of  the  mercury  to  affect 
the  accuracy  of  the  subse(iuent  weighings."  The  dia- 
phragms of  wire  and  of  leiithcr  usually  emjiloyed  to 
cover  resi>ectively  the  upper  and  lower  apertures  of 
the  reservoir  are  not  recjuired  in  this  instrument. 
The  cjipacity  of  the  reservoir  is  about  seventy-eight 
pounds  of  mercury,  or  forty  pounds  of  mercury  and 
live  pounds  of  powder.  The  mouth  is  2i  inches  in 
diameter,  and  the  sample  of  powder  tills  the  reservoir 
to  about  the  top  of  the  cylindrical  portion.  The 
weight  of  the  reservoir  is  twenty  and  a  half  pounds. 
The  bowl  C  is  of  cast-iron,  and  by  means  of  the 
crank  II  can  be  raised  or  lowered  vertically.  An 
outltt-|)ipe,  p,  at  the  bottom  of  the  lx)wl,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  stop-cock,  permits  of  the  discharge  of 
the  mercury  when  desired.  The  air-i)ump  is  one  in 
\yhich,  the  cylinder  rcnunning  stationary,  the  oscilla- 
tion takes  place  in  the  coiuiecting-rod,"  which  com- 
municates the  motion  of  the  handle  to  the  piston-rod. 
To  use  the  in.strument,  the  beam  is  tii-st  accurately 
balanced  by  means  of  a  counterpoise,  when  the 
lx)wl  filled  with  mercurv'  is  run  up  till  the  nozzle 
of  the  reservoir  is  well  immersed  below  the  surface. 
The  large  counterpoise  W  is  then  placed  on  the  plat- 
form suspended  from  the  .shorter arm,  the  rubber  hose 
slipped  over  the  top  of  the  gla.ss  tube  of  the  reservoir, 
the  air  e.xhausUd  by  means  of  the  pump,  and  the 
stop-cock  «  opened  to  admit  the  mercurv.  The 
pumping  is  continued  during  the  ingress  of  "liie  mcr 
curv,  and  when  the  latter  has  risen" to  a  ti.xed  mark, 
indicated  on  the  glass  tube,  the  stop-cock  is  closed 
and  the  rubber  hose  removed.  Usually  it  is  neces- 
sary to  run  off  a  little  of  the  mercurv  and  lower 
its  upiKT  siu-face  to  the  H.\ed  mark.  The  balance 
of  the  Ix-um  is  now  restored  bv  dropping  line  shot 
into  the  cavity  of  the  counleri)oi.se  \V,  the  weight 
of  the  latter  being  slightly  liws  than  the  weight 
of  the  lilled  resc-rvoir;  this  done,  the  slop-cock /<  is 
ojjened  and  the  reservoir  emptied.  The  coimteriwise 
W  is  then  nplaccd  by  the  ."i-pound  weight,  the  screw- 
cap  removed  and  IwHiked  to  the  yoke,  and  a  sutlicient 
quantity  of  the  |M)wder  to  be  ti'.sled  inlrodiiced  into 
the  reservoir  to  balance  the  S-pound  weight.  The 
scrcw-a«p  is  then  rcplacc-d.  the  counteriwise  W  added 
to  the  5-pound  weight,  and  the  reservoir  lilled  with  i 


mercury  by  means  of  the  air-pump  to  the  same  heieht 
as  before.  The  equipoise  is  now  restored  (the  rubber 
tul)e  having  been  removed)  by  placing  weights  on  the 
platfonn  susix'uded  from  the  longer  arm  of  the  beam, 
and  in  addition  by  the  "  riders"  on  the  beam  if  nec- 
essary. The  sum  of  these  weights  is  the  weight  of 
the  mercury  dlsplaci'd  by  the  powder,  or  of  a  volume 
of  mercurv  equal  to  the  volume  of  the  powder,  and 
the  six'cific  gravity  of  the  latter  results  from  the  well- 
establishecl  principle  that  the  specific  gravities  of  two 
substances  are  pro]X)rtional  to  the  weights  of  equal 
volumes  of  those  substances.  Denote  the  sum  of  the 
weights  on  the  longer  arm  by  W,  the  weight  of  the 
powder  by  le,  and  the  six-cific  gravity  of  die  mercury 
at  the  teiiiperature  of  the  time  of  observation  by  D, 
and  we  shall  have  for  the  specific  gravity  of  the  Jhjw- 
der,  denoted  by  d ; 


rf  =  D 


W 


In  the  use  of  this  form  of  the  densimeter  the 
weighings  not  only  aVe  rapidly  and  accurately  made, 
but,  it  is  to  be  observed,  the  actual  weights  required 
for  the  computation  are  obtained  directly  bv  a  dis- 
criminative process  peculiar  to  the  balance.  Yo  sim- 
plify further,  the  weights  for  the  longer  arm  are 
marked  double  their  actual  value  in  reference  to  the 
reservoir,  so  that  in  the  computation  the  specific 
gra\nty  is  obtained  by  setting  the  decimal-point  in  the 
value  "of  D  one  place"  furtlier  to  the  right,  and  divid- 
ing by  the  value  of  W  ,  as  indicated  on  the  weights, 
the  effect  being  the  same  as  multiplying  by  2  both 

it 
terms  of  the  fraction  TTj:::.     See  Deimmeter,  Impec- 

tion  cf  Pmrder,  and  Mcrniri/  Densimeter. 

DURER  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— This  forti- 
fication consists  of  a  wall,  flanked  l)y  circular  towers 
or  bastions,  and  a  ditch  200  feet  w  iile.  The  towers 
are  of  very  different  tracings,  usually  70  feet  high  and 
command  the  enceinte.  The  wall  of  the  enceinte  is 
double  ;  the  top  is  provided  with  loop-holes  and  is 
covered  with  a  roof.  The  great  dimensions,  together 
with  the  immense  cost  of  masonry,  render  this  plan 
practicably  useless.     See  Fortifiea'litm. 

DUSACK. — A  Bohemian  Siiber  of  a  peculiar  shape, 
willioui  a  handle  or  a  hilt.  It  was  wielded  with  a 
gauntlet  protecting  the  hand. 

DUSTING-REELS.— The  large-grain  powder,  re- 
moved from  the  granulating-house,  is  called  "  foul 
grain,"  owing  to  its  containing  a  large  percentage  of 
dust  that  has  been  produced  under  the  granulating 
process,  for,  although  a  great  deal  of  it  is  removed 
from  the  powder  by  means  of  the  lower  long  sixteen- 
mesh  screen  attached  to  the  gninulaling-machine, 
still  the  powder  contains  a  considerable  ciuaiility, 
and  the  object  of  passing  it  through  the  dusting-reels 
is  to  entirely  remove  what  remains,  and  at  the  .sjime 
time  to  rub  down  the  rough,  uneven  surfaces  of  the 
grain,  and  thus  pie\'ent  its  becoming  dusty  again 
through  moving  it  about  in  course  of  transport,  for 
dust  in  gunpowder  is  very  injurious,  as  it  ab.sortis 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere  very  readilv,  and  this 
soon  affects  the  whole  nia.ss.  The  dust  is  removed 
from  large-grain  powder  by  means  of  horizontal 
reels;  these  are  cylindrical  wocHlen  skeletons,  su|> 
ported  upon  a  central  shaft  by  radial  arms,  the 
periphery  of  the  c^ylinder  being  covered  with  canvas 
iiaving  twenty-four  meshes  per  inch.  The  reel  is  about 
8  feet  long  by  2  feet  (i  inches  in  diameter;  the  wooden 
skeleton  is  made  in  halves,  so  thai  it  may  be  ea-sily 
removed  for  recovering.  The  ends  are  closed  by 
disks,  secured  u])on  the  main  central  shaft,  and  one 
end  is  so  constructed  thai  it  can  be  opened  or  drawn 
back  for  the  jmrpose  of  unloading  the  reel.  When 
about  to  be  filled,  the  reel  is  turned  round  until  the 
charging-door  is  directly  under  the  feeding-hopper; 
into  Ibis  latter  three  barrels  of  foul  grain  are  emptied, 
and  when  it  has  all  pas.sed  through  the  hopl»r,  the 
<loor  of  the  reel  is  closed  and  fastened,  the  reel  set  to 


DUST  SHOT. 


519 


DYEB  POINTING-APPARATUS. 


work  at  from  40  to  42  revolutions  per  minute,  and 
kept  in  motion  for  about  lialf  an  hour;  at  the  end  of 
tills  time  it  will  be  found  that  the  whole  of  the  dust 
will  have  passed  through  the  meshes  of  the  canvas 
covering,  and  will  be  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the 
outer  woodwork  casing  in  which  the  reel  is  inclosed, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  dust  spreading  over  the  house. 
When  a  number  of  reels  are  used,  they  are  all  driven 
from  one  main  shaft  which  receives  its  motion  from 
the  water-wheel  or  steam-eugiue,  and  each  reel  is 
provided  with  a  separate  clutch,  so  that  any  one  may 
be  stopped  or  set  in  motion  without  affecting  the 
others.  When  the  reel  has  run  the  requisite  time,  it  is 
stopped  and  the  one  end  lowered  about  10  inches,  the 
disk  at  the  lower  end  is  slackened  back  sufliciently  to 
allow  the  powder  to  run  out  into  barrels,  whicii  it 
will  do  when  the  reel  is  again  stt  in  motion;  when 
quite  empty,  the  disk  is  again  screwed  tightly  up  to 
the  end,  and  the  reel  raised  to  its  horizontal  position 
ready  for  refilling.  By  this  operation  the  dust  is 
not  only  taken  from  the  powder,  but  the  grain— from 
being  rolled  over  for  such  a  time— has  its  rough  sur- 
faces rubbed  off,  and  in  the  case  of  large-gniin 
powder  a  sufficient  gloss  is  imparted   without  its 


Dusting-reels. 

having  to  be  pa.ssed  through  the  glazing-barrels.  The 
powder  is  now  ready  for  the  drying-stove.  The  fine- 
grain  powder  used  for  rifles  or  s'mall-anns  has  a  nmch 
larger  proportion  of  dust  in  it  than  the  large-grain 
powder,  and  is  therefore  dusted  in  what  is  termed  a 
"  slope-reel,"  which  consist.s — as  in  other  reels — of  a 
skeleton  frame  of  wood  fixed  by  radial  amis  on  a 
central  shaft,  and  lies  at  an  incline  of  U  inch  per  foot; 
the  covering  of  this  frame  is  of  very  fine  canvas  hav- 
ing forty  four  meshes  per  inch,  and  the  reel  in  this  case 
has  no  ends;  it  is  also  much  smaller  than  the  horizon- 
tal reel,  being  only  20  inches  in  diameter  by  8  feet 
in  length,  anil  is  driven  at  38  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  fine-grain  powder,  as  it  leaves  the  granulating- 
machine,  is  brought  from  the  magazine  and  placed  in 
the  feeding-hopper,  to  which  is  fi.xed  a  loo.se  spout 
for  gtiiding  the  powder  into  the  reel.  Attached  to 
the  central  shaft  arc  three  ribs  or  cams  which— as  the 
reel  revolves — come  in  contact  with  and  shake  the 
loose  guiding-spout,  imparting  to  it  13.")  vibrations  per 
minute,  thereby  effectually  keeping  it  clear,  the  fine- 
grain  powder  at  this  stage  being  very  apt  to  choke 
up  the  hopper  and  spout.  As  the  powder  pas.ses 
through  the  reel  when  in  motion  it  is  collected  in  a 
tub  placed  for  its  reception  at  the  lower  end;  from 
this  it  is  emptied  back  again  into  the  hopper,  in  order 
that  il  may  be  passed  through  the  reel  a  second  tune, 
and  this  operation  is  sometimes  performed  a  third 
time.  The  fine  grain  thus  treated,  being  only  alx)ut 
one  minute  in  the  reel,  has  had  no  gloss  imparled  to 
it :  the  glazing  has,  therefore,  to  be  effected  by  passing 
it  through  a  glazing-barrel  before  it  is  carried  to  the 
dryimrstove.     See  Ounpcirdir. 

DUST-SHOT.  -The  name  usually  applied  to  small 
shot  when  used  for  military  purposes;  strictly  speak- 
ing, the  term  implies  the  smallest  size  of  shot  made. 

DUTCH  OVEN.— A  mmp-ovfii  used  for  cooking  by 
hot  coals  on  the  hearth.  A  mode  yet  common  in  the 
field,  and   unsurpassed  in   its  results  with   skillful 


cooks.    The  oven  stands  in  hot  embers,  and  more  of 
the  same  are  piled  on  the  dish  shaped  lid. 

DUTY. — There  is  no  word  oftener  used  in  military 
parlance  than  this.  In  the  technical  sense  it  refers 
to  the  various  services  neces.sary  for  the  maintenance, 
discipline,  and  regulation  of  arnnes, — a.s  tiyruil  duty, 
nUiff  duty,  guard  ditty,  etc.  Military  duties  are  var- 
iously classed  as  duties  of  detnil,  which  are  those 
recurring  and  governed  by  a  roster,  such  i;s  guard, 
fatigue,  etc. ;  sjucial  diituti,  which  are  detennined  by 
appointment,  selection,  or  order;  extra  duty,  con- 
timious  special  duty  of  enlisted  men,  entitling  then) 
to  pay;  daily  duty,  short  terms  of  special  serWce  for 
enlisted  men.  In  a  higher  and  broader  sense  duty 
is  that  which  is  due  one's  Country.  It  covers  all  the 
soldier's  obligations,  and  forms  his  simplest  and  sub- 
liniest  rule  of  action.  What  is  termed  the  "  tour  of 
duty  "  is  invariably  from  the  staiior  downwards.  An 
officei'  on  one  duty  cannot  be  ordered  for  any  other 
until  he  has  completed  the  duty  on  which  he  is 
engaged.  If  an  officer's  turn  for  Picket,  General 
Court-Martial,  or  Fatigue  happens  when  be  is  upon 
any  other  duty,  he  is  not  obliged  to  make  good  the.se 
services  when  he  is  relieved,  but  his  tour  passes 
him;  however,  if  an  officer  is  on  the  Inlying  Picket, 
he  is  liable  to  be  relieved  lUid  plaeeil  on  other 
duties.  Officers  cannot  exchange  tlieir  duties  with- 
out permission  of  the  Conini.-mding  Officer.  A 
guard,  detachment,  or  picket  having  once  marched 
off  the  place  of  parade  is  reckoned  to  have  performed 
a  duty,  though  it  may  have  been  dismis.scd  imme- 
diately afterwards.  Officers,  on  all  duties  under 
arms. "are  to  have  their  swords  drawn,  without  wait- 
ing for  any  word  of  command  for  that  purpose. 

DUUMVIB6.— The  officers  among  the  Komans  ap- 
pointed for  special  services,  such  as  Magistrates  of 
Colonies  and  Towns,  Constructors  anil  Coininandcrs 
of  Fleets  and  Trains,  and  ^Municipal  Censors.  In  the 
Eastern  Empire  the  people  elected  for  one  year 
duiiiiimri  ludorum,  who  were  to  provide  exhibitions 
of  games  at  their  own  expense. 

DWARF  PLATFORM.— A  frame  of  wro\ight-iron 
from  which  heavy  gims  are  fired  when  in  open  bat- 
teries. The  original  pattern  is  similar  in  general 
construction  to  the  "common  traversing"  platform, 
and  guns  mounted  upon  this  nature  of  platform  can 
fire  through  ordinary  embrasures.  By  lengthening 
the  legs  of  a  platform  of  this  kind  the  gun  could  be 
fired  over  a  parapet,  if  required.  The  ordinary  gar- 
rison-carriage is  used  with  il,  but  has  blocks  instead 
of  axlefrees'upon  which  il  rests,  the  part  of  the  block 
between  Ihe  cheeks  being  deei)er,  and  pa.ssing  between 
them,  so  as  to  keep  the  carriage  in  its  place.  In  front 
of  each  bracket  there  is  a  pair  of  eheek-plales,  in 
which  a  gim-metal  truck  works,  which  comes  into 
play  when  the  rear  of  the  carriage  is  hoisted  up  by 
the" truck-levers.  The  carriage  is  run  up  by  means 
of  tackles.  Dwarf -platformsWere  made  to  traverse 
on  a  pivot,  but  "raised  racers"  have  been  substituted, 
the  platform  resting  on  hollow  solid  trucks  which 
run  vipon  the  racer.  Since  the  introduction  of  heavy 
rirted  artillery  a  change  of  pattern  has  taken  place 
not  only  in  this  nature  of  platform,  but  in  the  car- 
riage adapted  to  it,  which  is  of  Ihe  ordinary  xinyle 
or  ilniiMe  jilutf  pattfrii.  both  of  which  arc  made  of 
wrought-iron.  Casemate  carriages  and  platforms  are 
similarly  constructed,  and  the  platforms  of  each  only 
differ  iii  the  height  they  are  raised  from  the  ground; 
the  ca.semate-l)latform  being  low  for  use  in  casemates, 
and  Ihe  dwarf-platfoi-m  high  for  open  batteries. 

DYER  POINTING  APPARATUS.— This  method  of 
pointiuL'.  devised  bv  Lieutenant  A.  B.  Dyer,  United 
Stales  Army,  is  esp'ecially  adapted  for  use  with  mor- 
tars mounted  on  center-pintle  carriages;  it  is  also 
readilv  adapted  for  use  with  mortars  mounted  on 
ordinary  and  temporarv  platforms.  Practically  it  is 
independent  of  the  distance  from  the  cre-st  of  the 
parapet  to  the  platform.  The  method  is  as  follows: 
Find  the  point  where  the  vertical  plane  containing 
the  directrix  of  the  platform  cuts  the  interior  crest  of 


DYEB  PEOJECTILE. 


520 


DYNAMIC  UNITS. 


the  piirapet.  At  this  jwint  establish  a  level  plate 
coiituiuiug  an  arc  graduated  both  ways  from  the  point 
where  the  verlic-al  plane  c\as  it,  the"  center  bein^'  the 
[loint  lirst  established  on  the  interior  crest.  An  arm 
with  two  verliiiil  sights  ivvolves  about  this  point  as  a 
center,  and  detenuiues,  l)y  means  of  an  indicator  al- 
tfieluil  to  the  front  of  the  arm,  the  angle  made  l>y  any 
objei't  with  the  vertical  plime  through  the  center, 
called  the  plane  of  the  zeros.  The  mortar  being 
given  the  .sjime  luigle  with  the  plane  of  the  zeros,  the 
plane  of  fire  will  practically  intersect  the  object.  To 
apply  this  methoil  to  a  mortar  mounted  on  a  center- 
pintle  carriage:  On  the  rear  of  the  platform,  with  the 
Center  of  the  pintle  ivs  a  center,  describe  an  arc.  Find 
the  point  where  the  plane  of  the  zeros  cuts  this  arc, 
and  mark  the  jjoint  ziro.  Divide  the  arc  both  ways 
from  the  pt)int  into  degrees  and  parts  of  degrees.  An 
indicator  attached  to  the  center  of  the  rear  transom 
.in  the  verticid  plane  containing  the  axis  of  the  piece) 
« ill  always  mark  the  degrees  to  the  right  or  left  of 
the  plane  of  tlie  zeros. 

A  horizontal  iron  plate  is  permanently  established 
on  the  parapet,  the  rear  edge  being  on  the  crest  and 
the  center  in  the  plane  of  the  zeros.  In  order  that 
the  same  inslriunent  may  be  used  at  different  places 
in  a  work,  or  be  removed  when  not  in  use,  a  detach- 
able plate  containing  the  graduation  and  sights  is  ad- 
justed to  the  permanent  plate.  By  the  use  of  this 
plate  the  index  arm  will  always  be  made  to  move  in 
a  horizontal  plane.  In  the  application  of  the  method, 
place  the  plate  containing  the  graduated  arc  on  its 
bed,  and  level  it  by  means  of  the  tangent-screws;  then 
place  the  arm  to  which  the  sights  are  attached  on 
the  plate.  Traverse  the  chassis  until  the  index  on 
the  rear  transom  indicates  the  required  number  of 
degrees  as  indicated  by  the  instrument.  If  the  arm 
of  the  instrument  be  to  the  right  of  the  zero,  traverse 
the  chassis  to  tlie  left;  and  rice  rersa.  For  the  suc- 
cessful operation  of  this  method  with  the  center-pintle 
mortar-carriage,  it  is  essential  that  the  guides  of  the 
top<arrlage  should  fit  true  and  snug  to  the  chassis- 
rails.     Sec  Paflrlix/i  InterpoUdor. 

DYER  PEOJECTILE.— A  well-known  form  of  pro- 
jectile which  is  composed  of  a  cast- 
^^r?^.  _„       iron  body,  a,  shown  in  the  cut,  and  a 
^^UiSSf'  soft-metal  expanding  cup,  b,  attached 

to  its  base.  The  adhesion  of  the  cup 
Is  effected  by  tinning  the  bottom  of 
the  projectile,  and  then  casting  the 
cup  on  to  it.  The  cup  is  comi)osed  of 
an  alloy  of  lead,  tin,  and  copjjer  in 
certain  proportions.  This  projectile, 
as  imjiroved  by  Mr.  Taylor  at  the 
Wa-shington  Arsenal,  gi\es  good  re- 
sults for  even  as  large  a  calilxjr  as  12 
inches.  A  corrugated  cap  of  tinned  sheet  -  iron,  c, 
is  used  with  ainch  projectiles  to  catch  and  direct  that 
portion  of  the  fiame  of  the  charge  which  escapes 
oyer  the  projectile  on  to  the  fuse  to  ignite  it.  See 
E-rjui  iiiHiiii  Pri'jictilen. 

DYNAMICS.— That  division  of  mechanics  which 
contains  the  doctrine  of  the  motion  of  bodies  pro- 
duced by  forces.  It  is  essentially  a  science  of  deduc- 
tion from  the  laws  of  motion.  The  branches  of  dy- 
namics capable  of  being  treated  in  the  present  work 
will  be  found  di.scu.ssed  under  .separate  heads.  We 
shall  here  confine  oursi'lves  to  giving  a  view  of  the 
main  branches  and  their  correlation.  I.  The  first 
branch  of  dynamics  deals  with  the  fundamental  con- 
ceptions of  the  science,  their  names  and  definitions, 
such  as  velocity  and  the  ilifferent  kinds  of  motion) 
and  accelerated  motion;  force,  acceler.it ing  ff)rce,  and 
moving  force.  Under  this  branch  .ilso  falls  the  com- 
piwilion  of  motions.  II.  The  second  main  bnmch  of 
dynamics  treats  of  the  motion,  free  or  constrained,  of 

points.     Here  two  problems  are  solved  in  each  case 

I.e.,  whether  the  motion  Ix-  free  or  con.strained — viz., 
a  direct  and  an  inverse  problem;  as,  for  example:  1.' 
To  riciermine  the  path  of  a  point  when  the  forces  are 
given  which  act  upon  it;  2.  To  determine  the  forces 


I 


or  force  acting  on  a  point  when  its  path  is  given. 
This  division  of  tlynaniical  problems  into  direct  and 
inverse  obtains  in  all  the  liranches.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  it  was  by  solving  the  inverse  pioblem  that 
Xewton  and  lluygt'ns  effected  their  greatest  glories 
in  connection  with  dynamics.  The  method  of  treat- 
ing the  case  of  a  free  point  now  generally  employed 
is  due  to  Euler.  See,  under  this  head.  Central 
Forces,  F.\i,lixg  Bodies,  and  Projectiles.  III. 
The  third  main  branch  of  dynamics  is  concerned 
with  the  motion  of  a  rigid  system  of  pciints,  or  of  a 
solid  iKidy.  Few  of  the  sub-bninches  of  this  part  of 
dynamics  are  capable  of  exposition  in  this  work,  but 
see  C'E-NTER  OF  Gtr.\tion,  Center  of  Oscilla- 
tion, Center  of  Percussion,  and  Pendulum. 
The  honor  belongs  to  D'Alembert  of  establishing  a 
geiicml  method  of  treating  problems  in  rigid  dynam- 
ics. Previous  to  his  time,  each  set  of  such  problems 
was  treated  on  some  principle  iieculiarly  applicable 
to  it.self.  D'Alembert  iminted  one  (which  goes  by 
his  name)  applicable  to  all  such  problems.  IV.  The 
fourth  main  branch  of  dynamics  is  concerned  with 
motions  of  rotation.  A  system  of  rigid  points  maj 
be  subject  to  two  independent  kinds  of  motion 
may  suffer  a  motion  of  IransUiiwu  in  space,  or  a  mo- 
tion of  rotation  about  some  point  or  suxis  within  it.self, 
or  it  may  suffer  at  once  a  motion  of  translation  and  a 
rotatorj'" motion.  These  may  clearly  be  treated  con- 
jointly or  independently;  they  are  now  uniformly 
treated  indepenilently,  bj-  investigating  (1)  the  veloc- 
ity and  direction  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  (2)  the  direction  at  each  instant  of  the 
spontaneous  axis  of  rotation  i)assing  through  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity,  and  the  velocity  of  the  rotation  of  the 
system  round  that  axis.  To  effect  the  second  task, 
Poinsot  proposed  his  theory  of  couples.  For  the 
conservation  of  living  forces  (ririum  eirariim),  and 
the  principle  of  least  action,  see  Forces.  See  also 
Moment.  Dynamics  is  used  by  some  recent  writers 
with  a  wider  signification,  as  denoting  the  science 
which  investigates  the  action  of  force  (1)  in  compel- 
ling rest  or  preventing  change  of  motion,  and  (2)  in 
producing  or  changing  motion;  the  former  branch 
being  called  sUitien,  and  the  latter  kiniticK. 

I  DYNAMIC  UNITS.— Units  for  measuring  forces 
and  their  effects.  It  is  an  axiom  of  mechanics  that  if 
a  body  at  rest  be  inipres.sed  bv  a  force  and  meet  no 
resistance  other  than  its  own  inertia,  it  will  move  in 
a  straight  line  with  a  velocity  which  varies  as  the 
force;  e.g.,  twice  the  force  \yill  develop  twice  the 

i  velocity.  Also,  if  the  nia.ss  of  the  body  be  increased, 
the  force  must  be  increased  in  like  ratio  to  maintain 
the  same  velocity;  e.g.,  double  the  mass  will  require 
double  the  force;  or,  if  the  force  remain  unchanged, 
double  the  mass  will  move  ■nnth  half  the  velocity. 
Combining  the  two  statements,  we  find  that  the 
velocity  varies  directly  as  the  force  and  inversely  as 
the  mass;  velocity  equals  force  divided  by  mass,  or 

P 
«  =  :n^.    From  this  we  have  P  =  Mr.    The  unit  of 
M 

force  is  that  force  which  will  impart  a  unit  of  velocity 
to  a  unit  of  mass;  that  is,  which  will  cause  a  unit  of 
mass  to  move  through  a  unit  of  space  in  a  unit  of 
time.  If  the  force  considered  be  that  of  graWtation, 
whose  action  in  the  same  place  is  practically  uniform, 
and  if  we  remember  that  the  mea.sure  of  the  force  of 
gra\itation  in  a  body  is  the  weight  of  tlie  body,  we 
have  W  =  Me.  But"if  the  mas.s"lH?  submitted  to  the 
force  of  gravitation,  that  is,  'if  it  be  permitted  to  fall 
freely  in  a  vacuum,  it  traverses  a  space  of  32. 16  feet  in 
one  second,  at  New  York,  approximatelv.  We  have 
then,  by  experiment,  a  value  for  r  which  makes  our 
equation  W  =  M  X  32.16,  whence  M  =  W  -h  32.16. 
The  English  or  American  unit  of  force  is  one  pound 
avoirdupois;  and  the  corresponding  unit  of  mass  is 
1  lb.  divided  by  32.16.  The  unit  of  irork  is  the  force 
which  will  raise  a  unit  of  weight  through  a  unit  of 
space.  The  two  items  arc  indicated  in  the  name  foot- 
pound, which  by  analogy  might  be  exchanged  in 


DYNAMITE. 


521 


STNAHITE-OTTN. 


proper  ratio  for  inch  ounce,  ton-mile,  etc.  The  cor- 
responding French  unit  of  work  k  tlie  kilojrram-meter. 
3Iore  generally  the  foot-pound  is  the  work  of  a  unit 
of  force  acting  through  a  unit  of  space.  The  horse- 
power is  an  arbitraryiynit,  being  (he  force  required  i 
to  perform  33,000  units  of  work  in  one  minute.  It 
may  be  called  the  unit  of  the  rate  of  irorkiiig.  The 
French  eheral  li  tapeur  is  7.1  kilogram-meters  per  sec- 
ond, anil  is  equal  to  32, .550  foot-pcunds  per  minute, 
or  a  little  less  than  our  horse-power.  The  theoretical 
horse-power  is  merely  a  conventional  quantity,  the 
actual  work  of  horses  averaging  about  17,000  and 
rarely  exceeding  23,000  foot-pounds  per  miiuite. 

DYNAMITE. — Xilro-glycerine  is  the  most  powerful 
explosive  agent  now  known,  but,  unconibincd  with 
absorlx;nts,  Is  dangerous  in  manipulation,  and  untit 
for  long  storage,  from  liability  to  spontaneous  tic- 
composition.  Tliis  led  to  experiments  being  made 
with  absorbents,  and  to  the  invention  and  introduction 
in  1866  of  "  dynamite"  or  "  giant  powder."  Dyna- 
mite consists  of  75  per  cent  of  nitro-glycerine  and  | 
25  per  cent  of  a  light  silicious  earth.  Tlie  best  vari-  I 
ety  of  the  latter  is  known  as  "  kieselguhr,"  an  in-  [ 
fusorial  earth  found  in  Hanover  and  in  other  coun- 
tries; it  is  a  tine  white  powder,  capable  of  absorbing 
from  two  to  three  times  its  weight  of  nitroglycerine 
without  becoming  pa.sty.  The  explosive  i)roperties 
of  dynamite  are  those  of  the  nitroglycerine  it  con- 
tains. It  is  less  liable  to  accidental  detonation  from 
shocks,  and  to  spontaneous  combustion,  than  nitro- 
glycerine; freezes  at  the  same  temperature,  and  if  then 
mthe  state  of  loose  powder  does  not  lose  the  pr(>i>erty 
of  exploding  from  the  action  of  the  visual  fuse, 
though  it  will  act  with  less  violence;  frozen  solid  it 
cannot  be  tired.  If  .saturated  with  water  it  retains 
very  nearly  its  full  explosive  power,  but  requires  a 
much  more  powerful  primer  to  develop  it;  ignited  in 
small  quantities  by  a  flame  and  uncontined,  it  burns 
quietly.  It  is  not  sensitive  to  friction  or  moderate 
percussion.  Its  explosive  force  is  not  qiute  so  in- 
stantaneous as  that  of  pure  nitro-glycerine.  The  pro- 
cess of  manufacture  is  simply  to  mix  the  nitro- 
glycerine with  the  drj',  line  powder  in  a  leaden  ves,sel 
with  wooden  spatiUas;  when  completed  it  has  a 
brown  color,  resembling  moist  brown  sugar.  Dyna- 
mite is  generally  put  up  in  paper  cartridges,  which 
are  ignited  by  a  fulminating-fuse.  It  is  extensively 
employeil  in  blasting,  and  has  lieen  adopted  in  the 
Torpedo  Service  of  "the  United  States  army.  By 
combining  the  ingredients  of  djniamile  in  judicious 
percentages  a  certain  control  can  be  exerted  over  the 
quickness  of  its  action,  and  a  classification  similar  to 
that  of  the  different  grades  of  gunpowder,  but  much 
more  restricted  in  range,  may  Ije  made.  Various  at- 
tempts to  improve  upon  dynamite,  by  replacing  its 
inert  ba.se  with  different  materials,  liave  produced 
such  compounds  as  gtyoriline,  lithofrneteiir,  and 
dualine;  none  of  these  are  improvements,  as  the  bidk 
is  incrca.sed  in  them  in  a  higher  ratio  than  the  power. 
Glyoxiline  is  a  mixture  of  gun-cotton  pulp  and  potas- 
sium nitrate,  .saturated  with  nitro-glycerine;  lithofrac- 
teur  is  composed  of  ritro-glycerine,  silica,  and  min- 
eral bodies;  and  dualine  Is"  a  conipounil  of  iiitro- 
flycerine  with  clean  sawdust  and  pota.s.sium  nitrate, 
'he  detonating  force  of  the  preparations  containing 
nitro-glycerine  in  varjnng  aniovmts  is  generally  ad- 
mitted "to  be  due  alone  to  the  nitro-glycerine  con- 
tained in  them;  yet  it  is  far  from  true  that  their 
economic  value  as  explosives  can  l)e  thvis  compared. 
The  clement  of  time  which  detemunes  whether  a 
blow  or  a  push  is  delivered  is  of  primarv-  imjior- 
tance,  and  ui>on  it  should  lie  based  the  selection  of 
the  compound  to  be  used.  In  flint-rock  nothing  ex- 
ceeds the  action  of  liquid  nitroglycerine;  but  for 
common  earth  gimpowder  is  far  more  effective.  See 
Dualine.  Erphmre  Agents,  and  yUro^iyeerine. 

DYNAMITE-GUN.— Ever  since  the  introduction  of 
what  are  known  as  high  explosives,  some  means  have 
been  sought  by  which  they  could  Ije  thrown  from 
guns  with  accuracy,  and  a  sufficient  distance  to  ren- 


der their  use  practicable  for  purposes  of  war.  The 
nature  of  dynamite  and  nitro-glycerine  precludes 
their  being  loaded  in  cannon  and  tired  in  the  ordinary 
manner  by  gunpowder,  which  has  been  proved  eoii- 
clusively  in  many  ways,  and  has  almost  invariably 
led  to  the  destruction  of  tlie  gun  in  which  the  attempt 
was  made.  Thus  far  the  ai)plicalion  of  high  explosives 
has  Icen  principally  contined  to  torpedoc-s.  These 
latter  in  their  various  forms  have  attracted  a  great 
deal  of  attention,  the  different  Governments  spending 
large  sums  in  maintaining  and  perfecting  them.  The 
various  systems,  while  undoubtedly  advantageous 
in  a  great  many  cases,  are  nevertheless  restricted  in 
their  vcrj-  nature,  and  this  has  stimulated  investi- 
gators to  devise  means  by  which  high  explosives, 
such  as  dynamite,  could  be  projected  "  overland  " 
with  safety-.  It  is  now  claimed  that  this  knottj' 
problem  has  been  fairly  .solved,  and,  strange  to 
say,  by  a  medium  long  since  applied  to  the  pro- 
pulsion of  projectiles,  but  the  use  of  which  has 
never  yet  been  attended  with  sufficient  success  to 
warrant  its  jx-mianenl  introduction.  We  refer  to 
the  use  of  air  and  steam  under  high  tension,  and  in  the 
new  dynamite-gun  compre.s.sed  air  of  very  high  ten- 
sion is  used  as  tlie  proiH-lling  power.  Tliis  new  gun 
is  the  joint  invention  of  a  numlierof  gentlemen  under 
the  leadei-ship  of  Sir.  H.  D.  M'insor,  of  New  York, 
and  one  form  of  it  is  now  undergoing  a  series  of  tests 
ordered  bv  the  United  States  Government,  which  are 
being  matle  under  the  special  direction  of  Lieutenant 
E.  L.  Zalinski.  A  description  of  the  apparatus  will 
be  interesting  as  illustrating  a  new  departure  in  ap- 
pliances of  war  in  a  direction  which  has  heretofore 
proved  unsuccessful.  The  4-inch  gun  now  building 
at  the  Delamater  Iron  Works,  and  embodying  the 
latest  improvements,  is  repre.senled  on  page  522.  It 
will  be  seen  to  consist  of  a  tube  40  feel  in  length  and 
i  inch  thick,  mountetl  upon  a  light  steel  girder.  The 
latter  is  trunnioned  and  is  pivoted  on  a  ca.st  -  iron 
base,thus  enabling  it  to  be  swung  into  any  desired  posi- 
tion and  range.  To  assist  in  the  latter  operation  guys 
are  placed  on  either  side  of  the  base,  and  their  length 
can  be  altered  and  fixed  by  tumin-r  the  hand-wheeU 
shown.  Compressed  air  fe  introduced  to  the  gun 
from  below  and  pa-s-ses  up  through  the  center  of  the 
bast',  the  pipe  connecting  with  o'ne  of  the  trunnions 
(which  are  hollow);  it  is  thence  introduced  into  the 
pijie  shown  at  the  side  of  the  gtin  leading  into  the 
valve.  This  valve  is  a  continuation  of  the  breech  of 
the  gun,  to  which  it  iscoimeeted  by  the  short  pa&sage 

i  shown.  Aji  important  feature  of"  the  system  is  the 
projectile,  or  dart,  and  upon  which  the  success  of 
the  undertaking  greatly  depends.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  two  parts;  and  while  several  different  modi- 
fications have  been  tried,  the  principal  features  are 
alike  in  all  of  them.  The  forward  part  of  the  dart 
consists  of  a  thin  brass  tube  into  which  the  charge  of 
dynamite  is  inserted.  At  the  rear  the  tube  is  closed 
i)V  a  wo(Hlen  plug,  which  flares  out  toward  the  rear 
until  its  diameter  equals  that  of  the  bore  of  the  gun. 
The  forward  end  of  the  brass  tube  shows  a  mass  of 
some  soft  material,  into  which  is  inserted  a  pin  firmly 
held  in  place,  the  end  being  closed  by  a  conical  metal 
cap.  Provision  has  also  been  made  to  allow  a  certain 
amount  of  air  to  act  as  a  cushion  for  the  dj-namite 
cartridge,  thus  lessening  the  .shock  due  to  a  sudden 
di.scharce.  It  is  therefore  claimed  that,  luider  ordi- 
narvcircum.stances,  there  is  little  danger  of  the  charge 

'  exiilotiing,  since  the  pin  cannot  reach  it  and  ignite  the 
fulminate  at  its  end;  but  when  thrown  from  the  gun, 
the  impact  asniinst  a  bo<ly  will  displace  the  soft  mate- 
rial and  clrive  the  pin  liome,  causing  an  explosion. 
Another  feature  of  the  projectile  is  the  power  which 

!  it  pos.sessi's  to  correct,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  deflec- 
tion due  to  a  side  wind.  It  will  be  nottnl  that  with 
the  present  construction  the  center  of  gm\ity  of  the 
dart  is  some  distance  forivard  of  its  center  of  figure. 
A  side  wind  would,  therefore,  acting  uiwn  the  lighter 
re'ir  part,  have  the  tendencv  to  deflect  it  so  as  to  turn 
the  head  of  the  dart   into  the  wind,  which  action 


DYNAMO-ELECTKIC  lONITEB. 


522 


DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  IGNITER 


would,  ID  a  measure,  tend  to  keep  it  in  the  line  of  its 
irajeotorv.  Tla-  tiring  of  the  ^un.  if  the  expression 
niiiy  lie  iistd,  is  uc-coniplished  in  the  followini.'  man- 
ner: The  dart  is  iiiserleil  in  the  breech,  and  a  gas- 
check  phicitl  in  [KKiilion;  a  lever  then  being  moved, 
the  valve  is  oixned,  and  the  air-pressure  admittwl. 
This  nuthml  of  discharge  will,  it  is  thought,  obviat<> 
the  daninrof  shock,  which  had  heretofore  proved 
a  stumliling-blcK'k  to  success,  and  in  addition  the 
vUve-conirolling mechanism  is  automatically  arnuiged 
lo  admit  the  air  gently  at  first,  to  overcome  the  in 
ertia  of  the  projectile,"  following  with  full  pressure, 
and  finally  closing  at  the  proper  tinje,  as  the  dart 
leaves  the  gun. 

In  this  gun  we  note  a  great  step  in  advance,  and 
are  forced  lo  believe  tiiat  the  day  is  not  far  disliint 
when  it  will  work  great  changes  in  warfare,  both 
naval  and  military.  iU  an  auxiliary  to  coast  and 
harlHir  defenses  such  a  gun  would  be  of  great  value; 
and  placed  on  board  small  Uiunclies  the  latter  might 
approach  and  hurl  Iluir  diadly  nu'ssiles  with  great 
accuracy,  the  absi'nci-  of  a  loud  report  and  of  a  tiash 
of  tire  "giving  additional  security  from  detection. 
Another  advantage  of  these  guns  is  their  cheapness; 
their  cost  is  but  a  tritle  compared  with  that  of  other 
guns  of  iHjual  power  of  destruction:  and  whereas  the 
latter  require  heavy  special  machinery  and  many 
months  of  labor  to  complete  them,  the  former  can  be 
built  in  any  well-equipped  shop  in  a  period  of  time 


in  the  United  States,  where  Uie  coast-line  is  so  ex- 
tende<l,  where  good  harbors  are  numerous,  and  ap- 
propriations for  harbor  defen.se  .so  meager  and  so 
often  ////,  and  wherein  fancic<l  security  the  defeii.sele.ss 
shores  are  exposed  to  hoslilo^iviusion;  under  tlie.s*- 
circumstances  does  it  become  necessjirj'  to  substitute 
cunning  for  might,  and  rely  u|K)n  some  such  nieau.s 
as  torpedoes  aiul  dyuamitc",guns  for  protection  from 
uncxiKclcd  iiiid  iniiiivilcd  approach. 

DYNAMO  ELECTRIC  IGNITER.— This  igniter,  as 
at  present  ciiiploycd.  consists  of  a  hard  wooden  plug, 
half  an  inch  in  knglh  and  about  ,•',,  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, having  a  .score  cut  about  its  center,  and  a 
longitudinal  groove  on  either  side  (the  bottoms  of 
which  are  ',•  of  an  inch  apart)  for  the  reception  of 
thecoiiper  wires.  There  are  also  two  cotton-covered 
(liraidcd)  copper  wires,  which  are  twisted  together 
tor  alKHit  an  incli,  and  are  stripped  of  their  insula- 
tion almost  to  the  twist.  These  uncovered  parts  are 
pressed  firmly  into  the  grooves  in  the  sides  of  tlie  plug. 


Dynamite-gun. 


not  excwding  a  month,  if  need  be.  Nor  does  it  seem 
unlikely  that  the  system  may  be  applicable  to  the 
use  of  armies  in  the  field  when  engaged  in  siege-oper- 
ations. Experiments  made  thus  far  have  shown  that 
the  apparatus  can  1h-  depended  upon  for  a  fair  degree 
of  aceimicy  and  rapidity  in  firing.  As  regards  the 
range-  allainable.  I  lie  2  inch  gun  now  Ix'iiig  tested 
has  atlained  If  miles  with  a  Jinssure  of  420  pounds 
to  the  square  inch.  In  the  4-  and  6-inch  guns  which 
are  now  in  course  of  construction  it  is  intended  to 
use  pressures  of  201K)  pounils  and  over,  by  the  use  of 
w Inch  a  range  of  time  miles  is  hoped  to  be  attained. 
While  this  new  application  of  eompres.scd  air  to  the 
l>ropulsion  of  <lynamite  is  no  doubt  valuable,  it  is 
harilly  to  be  ex|>ected  thai  it  will,  wilh  its  limited 
range,  ever  lake  the  ])lace  of  heavy  ordnance — a 
jioint  which  its  inventoi-s  wis<'ly  do  not  claim;  but  if 
it  shall  transpire  that  the  gun  is,  in  it.s<-ir,  a  practical 
success  for  much  shorter  distances,  it  will  be  of  the 
greatest  imporlanee  and  a  valuable  accession  to  our 
present  appliances  of  war.     Especially  will  this  be  so 


and  cut  off  so  that  they  project  about  J  of  an  inch 
above  the  Jilug;  the  ends  of  the  wires  are  now  split 
with  a  very  fine  saw,  and  the  distance  between  the  ends 
carefully  "adjusted  to  ,\  of  an  inch,  after  which  pla- 
tinum w  ire  No.  4t)  is  .stretched  between  them  to  fonn 
the  bridge,  and  securelj'  soldered  to  the  ends  of  the 
split  wires.  A  wisp  of  gun-colton,  is  next  wrapped 
around  the  ]ilalinum  wire,  and  the  ends  of  the  copper 
wire  iiinchcd  together  suflieirnlly  to  take  all  sinun  off 
the  iilalinuni  wire.  The  jilug  is  now  inserted  in  a 
hollow  woikU'ii  case,  two  inches  long,  countersinking 
it  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch.  The  resistance  of  the 
wire  is  next  found,  and  marked  upon  the  ca.se;  it 
should  fall  between  .40  and  .45  ohm.  1  he  upper 
part  of  llu'  case  is  filled  with  rittc  powder,  the  top 
being  closed  with  a  disk  of  cork,  over  which  is  (x>ured 
some  waler-proof  composition,  and  the  whole  i> 
properly  coaled  with  shellac  lo  render  it  waler-proof. 
T/ir  (ji/iiamo-fkrlric  fiint:  is  made  by  inclosing  one 
of  the  (lynamo-electric  igniters  in  a  stout  paper  ca.se 
about  six  inches  in  length,  which  is  filled  with  ritle 


DTRAHO-ELECTBIC  HACHIN£. 


523 


DYNAMO  ELECTBIC  MACHINE. 


powder  to  give  more  flame  and  consequently  a  more 
perfect  ignition  of  the  charge  than  can  be  obtained 
by  the  igniter  alone.  The  ends  of  the  case  are  prop- 
erly closed,  a  wooden  plug,  with  grooves  cut  in  the 
si(.lcs  for  the  wires,  being  used  for  the  bottom,  and  a 
disk  of  cork  for  the  top,  which  is  coated  with  collo- 
dion, and  seals  the  cork  tirmly  into  the  case.  The 
fuse  is  given  two  coats  of  brown  shellac.  The  ends 
of  the  wires  Ix-low  the  plug  arc  stripped  of  their  cov- 
ering and  brightened.     See  Fuw. 

DYNAMO -ELECTEIC  MACHINE. —  All  known 
methods  of  generating  electricity  can  produce  light 
of  greater  or  less  steadiness  and  brilliancy.  Cavallo, 
in  bis  treatise  published  a  century  ago,  refers  to  a 


wires  entering  at  binding-screws.  The  rods  slide  in. 
the  heads  of  glass  pillars.  The  wires  from  the  bat- 
tery being  connected,  the  points  are  made  to  touch, 
and  are  then  withdrawn  a  line  or  two,  when  a. 
dazzling  light  appears,  approaching  the  light  of  the 
sun  in  purity  and  splendor.  Its  intensity  prevents 
the  naked  eye  from  examining  its  form,  but  this  may 
be  ascertained  by  projecting  the  images  of  the  ])ointK 
on  a  screen,  when  it  is  no  longer  painful  to  the  eyes. 
The  light  is  partly  due  to  the  incandescence  of  the 
tips  of  the  carbon,  and  partly  to  lui  arch  of  incandes- 
cent particles  extending  from  the  one  to  the  other. 
The  positive  pole  is  brightest  and  hottest,  as  may  be 
proved  by  intercepting  the  current,  when  the  positive 


Dynamo-electric  Machine. 


light,  different  from  the  electric  spark,  produced  by 
frictional  electricity.  A  needle  or  wire  presented  to 
an  insulated  person,  at  the  distance  of  about  one  inch 
from  his  Ixxly,  while  he  is  actur.lly  rubbing  the  tube, 
will,  he  says,"cxhibit  a  lucid  pencil  of  rays,  seemingly 
issuing  from  the  point  and  diverging  towards  the 
person;  and  other  like  experiments  are  described  by 
Watson  and  other  early  writers.  Light  from  batterj' 
electricity  was  first  discovered  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  in  I.'^IO,  when,  on 
the  conrinuitv  of  a  current  from  2000  cells  being 
broken,  a  brifliixnt  light  was  seen.  To  this  the  name 
of  the  "  voltaic  arc"  was  given,  and  the  points  where 
the  current  was  broken  were  termed  "  elecm)des. " 
An  early  and  simple  arrangement  for  producing  this 
light  consisted  of  two  carbon  points  fixed  into  hollow- 
brass  rods,  which  are  connected  with  the  battery  by 


ix)lc  continues  red  for  some  time  after  the  negative 
pole  has  become  dark.  During  the  maintenance  of 
the  light  a  visible  cliauce  takes  place  in  the  condition 
of  the  poles,  and  the  jxisitive  ix)le  becomes  blunt  by 
the  loss  of  particles  of  carbon.  The  wasting  away 
of  the  poles  renders  the  distance  between  them  too 
wide  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  the  current,  and  the 
light  is  thus  suddenlv  extinguished,  until  again  re- 
newed bv  contact  and  removal.  The  heat  of  the 
TolUtic  arc  is  very  intense.  Quartz,  the  sapphire, 
magnesia,  lime,  and  other  sulwtances  equallv  refrac- 
tory are  forced  bv  it  into  a  state  of  fusion.  The  dia- 
mond when  placed  in  it  l>ecomes  white  hot,  swells 
up  fuses,  and  is  reduced  to  a  black  nias.s  rcsemblmg 
coke.  The  electric  liirht  can  l)e  produced  in  a  vacu- 
un>  and  i)elow  the  surfac-e  of  water,  oils,  and  other 
non'-conductiBg  liquids,  and  is  thus  quite  independent 


STNAHOMETEB. 


524 


DYNAMOMETER. 


of  the  action  of  the  air.  In  1820  Oersted  proveil  the 
identity  of  electricitv  and  magnetism;  but  il  remained 
for  Fiiraduy,  in  l^Sl,  by  his  t^rvm  discovery  of  in- 
duceil  curnMits,  to  ix-nder  pnictieable  the  applicalioii 
of  eleclrielly  lo  Ihe  production  of  a  gixxl  artiticial 
li^hl.  Il  was  not,  however,  until  IS'i'i  that  the  nui::- 
netoH'leclric  machine  was  actually  applied  to  Ihe  pur- 
pose; and  in  1H.>7  the  tirsi  great"  pnictical  trial  took 
place,  when  Faraday  had  the  satisfacliou  of  seeing 
his  conception  carried  into  effect.  This  trial  of 
Holmes's  machine  resulted  in  the  electric  lidit  being 
then  introiluced  into  the  South  Foreland  light-house, 
Deci'mlH-r  ^l.  IS-jS,  and  later  the  light  was  adopted  at 
Dungenevs.  The  French  Government  adopted  the 
li::lit  for  two  light-houses  near  Havre  in  18(53. 

The  problems  to  be  .solved  in  the  production  of  elec- 
tric ligbt  are  to  supply  a  constant  and  equal  current 
(which  the  batteij' -electricity  does  not  jield),  and  to 
provide  a  form  of  electrode  "which  will  not  cause  the 
light  to  blink  or  go  out  by  wasting  away.  The  first 
generating  raacliiiies  were  "  magneto-electric,"  revolv- 
ing coils  in  front  ,if  permanent  steel  magnets  (or  con- 
trariwisi',  revolving  magnets  in  front  of  the  coils),  but 
st)me  later  machines  are  "dynamo-electric,"  based  on 
a  discovery  simultaneously  made  by  Werner  Siemens, 
Varley,  and  Wheatstone,  that  by  revolving  coils  in 
front  of  soft  iron  elect ro-magnctis  the  residual  mag- 
netism in  the  iron  would  gradually  be  augmenteil, 
dv'iiamic  force  being  thus  converted  into  electricity. 
The  currents  created  by  machines  of  either  sort  are 
alternate;  but  where,  a.s  in  the  case  of  some  forms  of 
lamp,  the  current  must  proceed  in  one  direction,  the 
alternate  currents  are  made  continuous  by  the  use  of 
a  I'ommutator.  There  are  a  large  number  of  ma- 
chines in  use  for  generating  current.s  for  producing 
the  eltHtric  li"hf.  The  dynamo-electric  machines  of 
the  E.xeelsior  Electric  Company  of  New  York,  repie 
seuted  on  page  .523,  are  believed  to  be  superior  to 
all  others  for  the  illumination  of  large  areas  by  the 
electric  arc-light.  As  the  dynamo  requires  less  ix)\ver 
than  others,  the  machines  can  be  run  where  it  would 
be  found  impracticable  to  use  others,  and  a  special 
point  in  tlieir  favor  is  that  they  require  no  more  at- 
tention than  any  ordinary  piece  of  machinery.  Ow- 
ing to  the  peculiar  construction  of  these  machines,  a 
very  powerful  magnetic  field  is  obtained  with  a  com- 
l)aralively  small  numlxT  of  convolutions  of  copjier 
wire  aroimd  the  inducing  magnet.  The  inductor  is 
sectional,  making  it  possible  to  equip  it  with  wire 
helices  after  they  have  been  completely  fitiished  on  a 
mandrel  and  their  iasulation  thoroughly  tested.  The 
commutator-bars  are  fastened  to  a  stone  plate  and  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  air  spaces.  If  kept 
clean,  an  accidental  short-circuiting  is  impossible. 
The  current  from  the  machine  is  .sent  through  the 
lamps  or  withilrawn  from  them  by  means  of  a  switch, 
which  doc-s  not  break  the  circuit  suddenly  and  there- 
by give  rise  to  a  djingerous  extra  current;  but  it 
merely  deprives  the  magnetic  helices  of  the  excitinij 
current,  lowering  the  power  of  the  magnetic  field 
down  to  zero  and  short-circuiting;  the  inductor-helices. 

The  regulation  of  the  lamp  is  effected  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  The  movement  of  the  upper  carbon- 
holder  is  controlled  by  a  train  of  wheels,  carried  on  a 
lever  which  swings  on  a  fulcrum.  The  escapemen' 
is  arrested  when  the  lever  is  swung  so  as  to  lift  the 
carljons  apart,  and  set  frw  when  tbey  are  caused  to 
appnjach  each  other.  The  end  of  the  lever  carries  a 
Usha|X.'d  iron  core,  whose  straight  parts  are  sur- 
rounded by  fine  wire  helices  fastened  lo  the  floor  of 
the  lamp-case,  and  has  attached  to  il  a  retractile 
.spring  (»|)able  of  adjastment.  The  iron  core  of  a 
coarse  wire  helix  is  resting  on  the  sjimc  lever,  and  de- 
prcs.-ifs  it,  owing  to  iLs  weight  overcoming  the  pull  of 
the  spring.  This  helix  forms  part  of  Ihe  light-cir- 
cuit, an<l  rai.ses  its  core  as  soon  as  the  current  is  sent 
through  the  lamp,  thereby  allowing  the  spring  to  lift 
the  carbons  apart  by  means  of  the  lever  and  gear- 
tniin.     The  tine  wire  helix  is  connected  with  the  pos 


itivc  and  negative  terminals,  and  forms  a  shunt  to  the 
light-circuit.  When  the  carlxms  burn  with  a  small 
separation  the  resistance  in  Ihe  light-circuit  is  low, 
and  but  a  small  portion  of  the  current  traverses  the 
shunt-helix;  but  as  the  carbon  ends  are  consumed  by 
Ihe  current,  the  separation  inerea.ses,  and  the  current 
has  more  resistjince  lo  overcome  in  Ihe  arc.  The 
shunt  will  receive  a  constantly  increasing  amount  of 
curri'nt,  and  will  draw  its  core  and  the  lever  attached 
to  it  down  till  the  escapement  is  relca-se-il  from  its 
detent,  and  Ihe  wheel-train  allowed  to  move  suffi- 
ciently to  let  the  carbons  approach.  As  soon  as  the 
proper  length  of  arc  hius  lieen  reestablished,  the  shunt- 
heli.v — the  current  pitssing  through  it  being  dimin- 
ished— allows  its  core  lo  be  lifted  a  little  by  the  re- 
tractile spring,  and  Ihe  escapement  engages  ag-ain  its 
detent.  The  core  of  the  main  helix  remains  firmlj' 
dr.iwn  up  by  the  strong  suction  of  the  helix  in  the 
light-circuit,  aided  by  the  attraction  of  an  iron  arma- 
ture upon  the  helix,  until  the  current  is  cut  off  and 
the  light  tliereby  extinguisheil.  If  a  luimber  of  lamps 
are  burning  in  series,  the  failure  of  one  to  feed  its  car- 
bon down  would  soon  lead  to  the  extinction  of  all. 
To  prevent  such  an  occurrence,  each  lamp  is  provi- 
ded with  an  automatic  cut-out,  which  furnishes 
another  path  for  the  current  when  Ihe  distance  be- 
tween Ihe  carbons  becomes  abnormally  great.  This 
device  consists  of  a  light  iron  jilate  hung  in  pivots 
near  the  shunt-helices,  and  which  is  forced  towards 
them  bj'  Ihe  combined  attraction  of  the  helix  itself 
anil  its  core  when  an  undue  amount  of  current  flows 
through  Ihe  shunt.  In  swinging  over  it  makes  con- 
tact between  the  two  ends  of  the  helix  in  Ihe  light- 
circuit,  depriving  it  of  the  current,  and  thereby  caus- 
ing its  core  to  drop.  Bui  il  has  also  put  a  lever  at- 
tached to  it  in  such  a  position  that  the  falling  core 
can  force  il  against  a  contact,  completing  a  short  cir- 
cuit between  the  terminals  of  the  lamp.  The  hand- 
switch  allows  the  atlemlaut  to  re-carbon  any  lamp  of 
a  series  while  the  others  are  burning.  See  Electric 
Liijht. 

DYNAMOMETER.— A  device  for  measuring  the 
force  which  does  work  in  overcoming  resistance  and 
producing  motion.  The  foot-pound,  as  a  unit  of 
work,  has  for  its  factors  the  force  acting  and  the  dis- 
tance through  which  it  acts.  The  larger  luiit,  the 
horse-power,  Iwsides  these  factors  has  a  third,  Ihe 
lime  during  which  the  force  is  exerted.  Hence,  in 
getting  Ihe  data  from  which  Ihe  work  oi  a  machine 
is  lo  be  calculated,  we  are  lo  observe  the  force,  the 
distance,  and  Ihe  lime  required  lo  accomplish  a  cer- 
tain result.  Strictly  speaking,  Ihe  dynamometer  in- 
dicates the  first  of  these  items,  but  it  may  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  lo  show  both  the  others.  Dynamometers 
are  designed  to  indicate  the  force  of  traction,  of 
tlin/il,  or  of  rotation.  A  traction-dynamometer  may 
be  Interposed,  for  example,  Iwtwecn  a  team  of  horses 
and  a  reaper  or  a  plow,  to  measure  the  force  ex- 
erted by  the  horses  in  drawing  the  machine.  It  is 
usvially  some  .sort  of  sjiring  balance,  fitted  with  an  in- 
dex and  a  scale;  the  figures  on  the  .scale  show  the 
number  of  pounds  required  to  bring  the  index  to  the 
corresponding  points,  if  the  instrument  were  hung 
up  and  weights  suspended  by  it.  A  dynamometer 
for  thrust  is  often  connected  with  Ihe  screw -shaft  of 
a  sicamshi]),  lo  measure  Ihe  force  with  which  the 
screw  Is  driving  the  vessel  through  the  water.  Rota- 
ry dynamometers  measure  Ihe  force  of  a  null-shaft, 
cither  by  showing  what  force  is  required  to  hold  the 
shaft  in  check,  by  absorbing  Ihe  motion,  or  what 
force  Ihe  shaft  tp.msmits  to  other  machinery.  Nearly 
all  forms  of  dynamometers  are  loo  complex  to  be  de- 
scribed without  the  help  of  elal)orate  drawings  and 
technical  descriptions,  for  which  Ihe  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  special  works  on  mechanism.  The  use  of 
Ihe  dynamometer  In  skillful  bauds  has  acquired  great 
value  in  exchanging  the  rough  and  usually  overesti- 
mated guesses  of  the  efficiency  of  niachines  for  the 
exact  determiuatiou  of  their  performance. 


DYNASTY. 


525 


EABL  HABSHAL. 


DYNASTY. — A  line,  race,  series,  or  succession  of 
princes  of  the  sjjnie  blood  who  have  reigned  in  any 
particular  country;  as,  the  Dynasty  of  the  Plantage- 
nets,  or  Boiu-bons. 


DYSODILE.— A  yellow  or  grayish  laminated  bitu- 
minous mineral,  often  found  with  lignite.  It  bums 
vividly,  and  diffuses  an  odor  of  asafoetida. 


E 


£A6LE. — 1.  The  eagle,  as  a  military  standard,  was 
adopted  by  the  Itomans,  and  even  by  nations  preced- 
ing them  in  history.     The  Persians  in  the  time  of 
Cynis  the  Younger  bore  an  eagle  on  ii  spear    as   a 
standard.     The  liomans  for  some  time  used  the  eagle, 
the  wolf,  the  boar,  the  horse,  and  the  minotaur  for 
standards,  but  afterwards  abandoned  the  last  four  and 
confined  themselves  to  the  first.     The  Roman  eagle, 
sometimes  of  gold,  but  more  frequently  of  silver,  was 
about  as  large  as  a  pigeon  with  extended  wings,  and 
was  borne  on  the  top  of  a  spear,  with  a  cross-bar  or  a 
shield  to  support  it.     Some  of  the  eagles  were  repre- 
sented as  holding  thunderlx)lts  in   their  talons,  and 
u.sually  bore  the  name  of  the  legion  to  which  each 
respectively  belonged.  The  eagle  wa.s  sometimes  made 
of  steel,  but  rarely.     In  modern  times  France.  Russia, 
Prassia,  Austria,  and  the  Unked  States  of  America 
have  all   adopted    the  eagle  as  a  national    military 
symbol.     The  Austrian  e;igle  is  represented  d^)uble- 
headed. — 2.  The  eagle  is  used  heraldieally  as  an  em- 
blem of  magnanimity  and  fortitude.     It  is  variously 
repre.sentetl,  the  best-known  mode  being  displayed  or 
spread  out,  either  with  two  beads — as  in  the  arms  of 
the  Austrian  Empire,  in  which  case  it  is  popularly 
known  as  a  spread  eagle — or  with  one  head,  as  in  the 
arms  of  the  German  Empire. — 'i.  The  Order  of  the 
Black  Eagle  was  founded  by  the  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg on  17th  January,  1701,  the  day  of  his  coronation 
as  king  of  Prussia.     The  number  of  knights,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  princes  of  the  royal  family,  was  originally 
80,  but  it  is  now  unlimited.     They  must  at   Iheir 
nomination   be   at   lea.st 
30  years  of  age.     They 
must  prove  their  noble 
descent  for  four  genera- 
tions through  botli  par- 
ents.    A  chapter  is  held 
twice  a  year.     The  in- 
signia of  "the  Order  con- 
sist of  an  octagonal  cross 
of  blue  enamel,  and  a 
black    eagle    displayed 
between    each    of    the 
arms  of  the  cross.     The 
cross  is  suspended  by  a 
broad  ribbon  of  orange- 
color     across    the     left 
shoulder,  and  it  is  accompanied  by  an  embroidered 
silver  star,  fiistened  on  the  left  breast.     The  '■enter  of 
the  star  represents  a  black  flying  eagle,  holding  in 
one  claw  a  laurel  wreath,  andin  the  other  a  lluuidir 
bolt,   with   the   legend  Sinnii  cniqiic.      Fifty  ducats 
must  be  paid  by  every  new  member  for  the  sujiport 
of  the  orphan  asyluni  at   Kimigsberg,  and   he   then 
receives  ijratis  the  costume  and  insignia  of  the  Order. 
As  the  Black  Eagle  is  the  highest  Order  in  Prns,sia. 
no  member  of  il.  with  the  exception  of  foreign  princes 
and  Knights  of  St.  .John,  is  permitted  to  wear  any 
other  order  along  with  it;  and  as  it  is  generally  grant- 
ed only  to  those  who  are  expected  to  be  about  the 
person" of  the  king,  no  one  who  holds  it  is  iiermitted 
to  travel  from  the  Court  more  than  20  German  miles 
without  gi\in!j  notice.     Knights  of  the  Black  Eagle 
are  likewise  Knights  of  the" Red  Eagle,  first  cla.ss  — 
4.  The  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle  was  founded  in  1734 
by  the  Markgraf  George  Frederick  diaries,  as  a  re- 
organization of  the  "  (>dre  de  la  Siuci'riti',"  which 
had  been  instituted  in  the  beginning  of  the  century 
by  the  hereditarj-  Prince  of  Anspach  and  Baircuth. 


Star  of  ttie  Order  of  the  Black 

Eagle. 


After  passing  through  various  modifications,  the  Or- 
der of  the  Red  Eagle  was  raised  in  1791  by  Frederick 
William  II.  to  the  rank  of  the  second  order  in  the 
Monarchy,  and  it  was  then  that  the  decoration  of  a 
while  enameled  Maltese  cross,  surmounted  by  a  royal 
crown,  with  the  Brandenburg  eagle  in  the  corner, 
was  adopted.  All  the  Knights  of  the  Black  Eagle 
were  received  into  this  new  Order;  and  it  was  latterly 
decreed  that  only  those  who  had  been  decorated  with 
the  Red  Eagle,  in  the  first  instance  could  be  received 
into  the  Black.  In  1810  the  Order  of  the  Itol  Eagle 
was  reorganized,  and  two  more  classes  were  added  to 
it.  In  1830  the  .second  class  was  subdivided  into  two, 
one  of  which  only  was  allowed  to  wear  a  stpiarc  star. 

EAB. — The  name  given  to  the  lug  or  loop  formerly 
cast  on  mortar-shells.  The  term  was  also  usually  ap- 
plied to  the  "dolphin"  on  light  guns.  The  object 
originally  of  casting  mortar-shells  with  ears  was  to 
assist  in  placing  the  shell  in  the  mortar,  but  lewis- 
holes  are  now  adopted  for  that  purjiose. 

EAR-BED. — In  gun-carriages,  the  front  and  hind 
ear-beds  connect  the  corresponding  ends  of  the  frame 
sides,  between  which  latter  and  parallel  to  them  lie 
the  summers. 

EABL. — The  early  relation  which  subsisted  between 
the  Duke  and  the  Count  has  been  explained  under 
the  former  title.  In  Europe,  generally,  il  was  not  till 
the  Count  came  to  be  recognized  as  a  subordinate  of- 
ficer to  the  Duke,  governing  a  district  of  the  province 
committed  to  the  latter,  llial  the  Earl  a.ssiimed  the 
position  of  the  Governor  of  a  County,  by  the  name  of 
which  he  was  commonly  known,  t" he  "title  of  Duke, 
if  it  had  ever  existed,  early  disjippeared  in  England, 
and  was  not  revived  till  the  time  of  Edward  III. 
After  the  Norman  Con(iU(st  the  French  term  Coimt 
was  sub.stiiiited  for  Earl;  but  it  held  its  place  only  for 
a  very  .short  time  as  the  title  of  the  ollicer,  though  it 
has  continued  ever  since  to  give  a  name  to  the  district 
over  which  he  presided,  and  a  title  to  his  wife.  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  after  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  rec- 
ompensed his  chief  Captains  by  granting  to  them  tlie 
lands  and  otlices  of  the  Sa.xon  imbles;  but  by  making 
the  title  of  Earl  hereditary  he  took,  unintentionally 
perhaps,  the  first  step  towards  changing  it  fnjm  a  title 
of  office  to  a  title  of  dignity,  and  thus  depriving  it  of 
.substantial  power.  The  form  of  creation  of  an  Earl 
formerly  was  by  the  king  girdingOn  his  sword,  and 
placing  his  coronet  on  his  head  and  his  mantle  on  his 
shoulders;  but  Earls  arc  now  created  by  letters-patent; 
and  it  is  not  unusual  for  them  to  depart  .so  far 
from  the  old  notion  of  their  being  Territorial  Offi- 
'  cers,  as  to  take  as  their  titles  their  own  names,  with 
the  prefix  Eari— e.g.,  Eari  Grey,  Eari  Rus,sell,  Earl 
Spencer,  etc.  At  present  the  number  of  Earls,  includ- 
ing the  peerages  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  exceeds  200. 
The  Earl's  coronet  is  a  circle  of  gold,  rising  at 
intervals  into  eight  i\vramidal  points,  or  spikes,  on  the 
tops  of  which  are  placed  as  many  pearls,  alternated 
with  strawberry  lea vc-i.     See  ('rintn  and  Dnh. 

EABL  MABSHAL.— An  office  of  great  antiquity, 
and  formerly  of  imi)ortance.  There  seems  rejvson  to 
believe  that  "the  Marshal  of  England,  afterwards  the 
Earl  Marshal,  was  a  distinct  officer  from  the  Marshal 
of  the  King's  House,  but  the  point  is  not  altogether 
clear,  and  there  is,  consequently,  some  difficulty  in 
determining  which  of  the  offices  was  held  by  the 
Mareschals,  Earis  of  Pembroke.  For  many  genera- 
tions the  office  lias  been  hereditary  in  the  family  of 
the  Dukes  of  Norfolk,  though  the  Earls  Marshal 


£ABN£ST  OUN. 


526 


EAST  INDIA  ABHT. 


having,  to  an  unusual  extent,  had  the  fate  to  die  either 
childless  or  without  heirs-male,  the  line  of  di'seeut  has 
been  bv  no  means  a  direct  one.  The  last  gnmt  is  by 
King  Oharles  II.,  and  U-ars  dale  l»th  October,  1673. 
The  Earl  Marshal  pri'sided  jointly  with  the  Constable 
over  the  Court  of  Chivalrv.  tliela.st  prcx'cedinp  of 
which  are  said  to  have  taken  place  in  lt)31.  He  is 
the  head  of  the  College  of  Arms,  which  has  jurisdic- 
tion in  descents  and  pedigrees;  determines  all  rival 
claims  to  arms;  and  he  gntnts  armorial  bearings, 
through  the  medium  of  the  Kings-of-Arms.  to  par- 
ties not  posses.sed  of  hereditary  arms.  The  office  of 
the  Lyon  in  Scotland  is  generally  supposed  to  corre- 
spond to  that  of  the  Earl  Jlarsbal  in  England,  but  not 
quite  correctly.  The  Lyon  having  been  subordinate 
to  the  Marshid  and  Constable  of  Scotland,  his  office 
was  more  nearly  that  of  the  Kin^-of-Arms  in  Eng- 
land; with  this  difference,  that  it  extended  to  the 
whole  kingdom. 

EABNEST  GUN.— A  breech-loading  rifle  having  a 
fixed  chainl)er  closed  by  a  movable  breech-block, 
which  rotates  about  an  axis  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
barrel,  and  on  the  left  side.  The  block  is  in  two  sec- 
tions, the  foremost  of  which  revolves  with  a  screw 
motion  on  that  in  rear,  which  alone  is  fastened  to  the 
hinge.  They  are  both  perforated  for  the  tiring  pin 
and  striker.  The  forward  section  is  provided  with  a 
liandlc  by  which  the  breech  is  opened  and  closed, 
receding  from  and  approaching  the  barrel  alternately. 
The  lock  is  peculiar,  invohing  a  device  for  causing 
the  striker  to  rebound  after  delivering  ils  blow  upon 
tlie  liring-piii.  The  arm  is  especially  designed  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  gas  from  defective  cartridges. 

EABTH  HOUSE.— &r^A-/(rt««fi!<,  rird-/iottseji,  or  yird- 
hiuMK,  were  the  names  which  seem  to  have  been  giv- 
en througlioiit  Scotland  to  the  underground  build- 
ings which  in  some  jilaces  are  called  also  "  Picts' 
houses,"  an<l  in  others,  it  would  appear,  "  weems,"  or 
caves.  Martin,  in  his  Dencriptioii  of  the  Wmlem 
Inlands,  printed  in  1703,  w  lun  their  use  would  appear 
to  have  been  still  remembered,  speaks  of  them  as 
"  little  stone  houses  built  underground,  called  earth- 
houses,  which  served  to  hide  a  few  people  and  their 
goods  in  time  of  war."  The  Cflrth -house,  in  its  sim- 
plest form,  is  a  single,  irregularly-shaped  chamber, 
from  4  to  10  feet  m  width,  from  20  lo  (!0  feet  in 
length,  and  from  4  to  7  feet  in  height,  built  of  unhewn 
and  uncemented  ston&s,  roofed  by  unhewn  flags,  and 
entered  from  near  the  top  by  a  rude  doorway,  so  low 
and  narrow  that  onlVjOne  man  can  slide  down  through 
it  at  a  time.  When  the  chamber  is  unusuiilly  wide, 
the  side-walls  converge,  one  stone  overhippliig  an- 
other, until  the  space  at  the  top  can  be  s|)anncd  by 
stones  of  4  or  .5  feet  in  length.  In  it.s  more  advanced 
form,  the  earlli-house  shows  two  or  more  chambers, 
communicating  with  one  another  by  a  narrow  pa.s- 
sage.  There  are  instances  in  which  one  of  the  chnin- 
bers  has  the  circular  shape  and  dome-roof  to  which 
archa'ologists  have  given  tli<'  name  of  the  "  beehive- 
house."  Quite  frequently  as  many  as  forty  or  fifty 
earth-houses  are  found  in  the  sjime  spot,  as  in  the 
Moor  of  Clova,  not  far  from  Kildrununy,  in  Aber- 
deenshire. They  appear  to  have  been  .ilniost  invari- 
ably built  in  dry  phices,  such  as  gnivelly  knolls, 
sleep  banks  of  rivers,  and  hillsides.  They  arc  gen- 
erally so  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  thai  the  plow 
strikes  u|H)n  Ihe  flagstones  of  the  roof,  and  llius  leads 
to  their  di.s<>overy.  The  object  most  frequently  found 
in  them  is  a  stone  quern,  or  band  mill,  nol  iliffering 
from  that  wliieh  continued  to  1k'  ii^ed  in  remote  cor- 
ners of  Scotliind  within  the  memory  of  living  men. 
Along  with  Ihe  (juern  are  genendly  found  ashes,  tones, 
and  deer's  horns;  and  more  rarely  small  ro\ind  plates 
of  stone  or  slate,  ejirthen  vcs.sels,  cups,  and  imple- 
ments of  bone,  stone  cells,  bronze  swords,  gold  rings, 
and  Ihe  like.  Occasionally  the  surface  of  the  ground 
lieside  llie  earth  house  shows  vestiges  of  wiiat  are  suj)- 
posed  lo  have  l)een  rude  dwellinf'hou.s<'s,  and  folds 
or  indosurea  for  cattle.  This,  with  other  things, 
would  indicate  that  the  earth-houses  of  Scotland  and 


Ireland  (for  they  are  found  al.so  in  that  Island)  were 
put  lo  the  same" purpose  as  the  caves  which,  as  Taci- 
tus tells  us,  the  Germans  of  his  day  dug  in  the  earth, 
as  storehouses  for  their  corn,  and  as  places  of  retreat 
for  Iheinsilves  during  winter  or  in  lime  of  war. 

EABTHWOBKS.— In  ff)rtitication,  a  general  name 
for  all  military  con.slructions,  whether  for  attack  or 
defense,  in  which  the  material  employed  is  chiefly 
earth.  The  word  tdrtliwork,  however,  has  lately  re- 
ceived a  new  importance,  in  reference  to  a  di-scassion 
among  Military  Engineers  whether  earthwork  defen- 
ses generally  are  better  or  worse  than  those  of  ma- 
sonry. Tlic  subject  cannot  be  discus.sed  here,  but  its 
general  character  inav  be  indicated.  The  fracture  of 
the  Ku.ssian  gnuiite  fortiticalioiis  at  Bomarsund,  and 
the  obstinate  defense  made  within  the  earthen  defen- 
ses at  Sebastopol,  led  many  writei-s,  about  the  year 
1855,  to  express  a  preference  for  earthworks  instead 
of  stoneworks.  Mr.  J.  Fergusson  has  especially  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  ailvocacy  of  this  view. 
The  rea.soiis  urged  are,  that  mas.ses  of  earth  can  be 
more  quickly  ami  cheaply  put  up  than  mas.ses  of  ma- 
sonry; that  in  most  iilaces  earlh  is  more  readily  ob- 
tained than  stone;  that  if  an  earthwork  be  knocked 
to  ruin  by  balls  and  shells,  it  can  be  repaired  in  a 
very  short  time;  and  that  the  defenders  are  not  ex- 
posed to  so  much  injury  as  in  masonry-works,  where 
splinters  of  stone  fly  about  in  a  jierilous  way.  The 
late  Sir  John  Burgoyne,  the  leading  Military  Engi- 
neer in  England  of  his  day,  combated  these  views. 
He  contended,  among  other  things,  that  as  a  given 
amount  of  cannonading  will  make  a  much  larger 
breach  in  earthwork  than  in  stonework,  the  latter  \s 
best  fitted  to  prevent  capture  by  as.sault.  He  insisted 
that  earthworks  should  be  regarded  rather  as  tempo- 
rary expedients  than  as  piu-posed  and  permanent  con- 
structions; and  be  claimed  the  authority  of  Continental 
Engineers  in  support  of  this  opinion.  See  Fidd-for- 
t  i  flea  t  ion. 

'  EAST  INDIA  ABMY.— When  the  East  India  Com- 
ponj'  first  sent  factors  or  agents  to  India,  an  army  was 
not  thought  of.  Militarj'  forces  arose  out  of  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  times.  Some  of  the  first  troops  in  the 
Company's  pay  were  mere  adventurers;  some  were  lib- 
erated convicts;  some  deserters  from  European  armies. 
Gradually  organization  was  introduced,  and  improved 
arms  furnished.  As  the  power  of  the  Company  in- 
creased, natives  entered  the  battalions;  until  at  length 
most  of  the  troops  were  Hindoos  or  Mohammedans 
drilled  by  non-commissioned  officers  sent  out  from 
England.  A  few  regiments  were  raised  in  England; 
a  much  larger  number  were  raised  in  India;  but  all 
alike  were  officered  by  the  Company's  favored  English 
officers,  largely  |)aid,  and  having  many  o))])orlunities 
for  making  rapid  fortunes.  The  ranks  were  filled  by 
enlistment;  the  Companj' never  compelled  the  natives 
to  l)ecome  soldiers;  the  pay  offered  was  always  such 
as  to  induce  a  sufficient  number  of  men  to  enter. 
Their  periods  of  leave  of  absence  were  liberal;  and 
after  a  certain  number  of  years'  service  they  retired 
on  a  pension  sufficient  lo  supi)ort  Ihem  for  the  re- 
mainder of  their  days. 

At  the  period  immediately  preceding  the  outbreak 
of  the  revolt  in  1857,  the  army  in  IhepiijL'  of  the  Com- 
pany comprised  about  '24, (MM)  Hoyid  troops  (lent  to, 
and  ]iaid  for  by,  the  Company);  18,000  European 
troops,  raised  and  drilled  by  tlie  ("ompany  in  Eng- 
land; 180,000  native  regulai-s;  and  60, (MM)  native  irreg- 
ular horse — making  about  280. (MM)  in  all.  This  large 
force  was  irrespective  of  40,000  contingents  furnished 
by  dependent  native  princes,  and  of  the  native 
armies  belonging  to  the  independent  and  semi-inde- 
pendent princes.  The  Company's  troops  formed 
three  distinct  armies,  each  imdiT  its  own  Conmian- 
der-in-Chief,  and  each  stationed  in  one  particular 
Pn'sidency.  In  these  three  armies  three  kinds  of 
troops — Europeans,  native  regulars,  and  native  irregu- 
lars— had  their  own  special  organiziilion.  In  order 
to  secure  unity  of  action  when  neces.sarj',  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  give  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Bengal 


EASTMAN  BBEECH-APFABATIT8. 


527 


ECCENTBIC  CUTTEB. 


army  precedence  over  those  of  Madra.«  and  Bombay; 
he  was,  in  effect,  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  whole 
of  the  Company's  forces.  There  were  too  few  Eng- 
lish officers  with  the  native  regiments,  and  these,  in 
most  cases,  knew  too  little  of  the  men  under  their 
oommiind.  This  was  not  the  cause  of  the  revolt  in 
1857,  but  it  was  one  of  the  circumstances  that  led  to 
the  rapid  spread  of  the  revolt  when  once  begun. 
Speaking  generally,  it  may  be  said  that  the  armies  of 
the  Madras  and  Bombay  Presidencies  remained  faith- 
ful, especially  the  infantry.  It  was  in  the  Bengal 
army  that  the  disruption  chiefly  occurred.  The  ir- 
regiilars,  both  cavalry  and  infantry,  raised  amongst 
the  Sikhs  and  Punjabees,  were  in  almost  every  case 
faithful. 

In  August,  1858,  the  Act  which  transferred  the 
Government  of  India  from  the  Company  to  the  Crown  \ 
received  the  Royal  assent.  The  army  wast raasf erred  , 
as  well  as  the  political  power.  As  the  Sikhs  had  be-  ! 
haved  well,  most  of  the  regiments  from  the  Punjab 
were  retained,  as  well  as  most  of  the  native  regiments 
in  the  Bombay  and  Madras  Presidencies;  but  it  was  not 
deemed  expedient  to  restore  the  native  regiments  of 
Bengal  proper,  which  had  proved  so  treacherous.  In 
that  year,  at  tlic  suggestion  of  Earl  Canning,  a  Com- 
mission was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  whole  cir-  ■ 
cumstances  relating  to  the  reorganization  of  the  arm}'. 
The  Companj'  originated  the  inquiry,  l>ut  the  Commis- 
sioners did  not  make  their  rejwrl  till  after  the  transfer  ' 
of  the  Company's  powers  to  the  Crown.  Although 
the  Commissioners'  report  was  presented  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1859,  very  little  was  effected  during  the  re- 
mainder of  that  year,  or  in  1860,  to  reorganize  the 
Indian  army;  matters  were  kept  together  in  a  provi- 
sional wa)".  Meanwhile,  when  the  European  troops 
of  the  Compan3-'s  army  were  turned  over  to  the 
Crown,  a  disturbance,  amounting  almost  to  a  mutiny, 
<K-curred.  The  men  claimed  that,  as  they  had  en- 
listed in  the  Company's  sernce,  they  ought  not  to  be 
transferred  without  their  own  consent  being  asked, 
or  without  receiring  a  bonus  on  re-enlisting.  To  pre- 
vent a  dangerous  excitement,  the  Government  allowed 
such  as  chose  to  retire.  In  1861  an  Act  was  pa.ssed 
reorganizing  the  Indian  army.  The  Bit'tinh  portion 
of  itnow  forms  part  of  the  Queen's  army  generally, 
with  certain  honorary  distinctions,  and  takes  its  turn 
at  home  and  in  the  Colonies  like  the  rest;  but  the  ex- 
penses are  paid  out  of  Indian,  not  Imperial,  revenues. 
■The  itatifi'  portion  is  managed  wholly  in  India;  but 
during  the  Eastern  crisis,  connected  with  the  war  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey,  a  considerable  force  of  na- 
tive Indian  troops  were  sent  to  Malta,  for  service  in 
Europe — in  case  of  England  being  involved  in  war. 
On  the  reorganization  of  the  Indian  army  in  1861  the 
21.st  Hussars,  with  the  105th,  106th,  107th,  108th,  and 
109th  Foot.  w.?re  formed  from  the  European  troops 
previously  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company. 
See  Armi/  and  BritUh  A  run/. 

EASTMAN  BREECH  APPARATUS.  —  An  efficient 
apparatus  for  opening  and  closing  the  breedi  of  cer- 
tain guns  when  firing  rapidly,  'fhe  breech-screw  Ls 
divided  into  six  parts,  in  the  "direction  of  its  axis,  the 
threads  being  removed  from  every  other  one,  Iwth 
from  the  plug  and  from  the  breech  of  the  gun. 
When  the  breech  is  to  he  closed,  the  threaded  jxir- 
tions  of  the  plug  are  presented  so  that  they  come  op- 
posite the  smooth  parts  of  the  breech-hole.  The  plug 
is  then  pushed  in,  when  a  sixth  of  a  turn  with  a 
handle  brings  the  screw  of  both  parts  together.  A 
strong  cranked  lever  serves  to  manipulate  the  breech- 
plug,  by  turning  which  the  threads  of  the  screw  en- 
ter the  corresponding  grooves.  The  movement  in 
the  contrary  direction  disengages  them.  The  breech 
being  closed,  the  lever  handle  is  prevented  from  mov- 
ing back,  and  thus  allows  the  plug  to  be  unscrewed 
by  a  short  metal  catch,  working  freely  on  a  stud 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  right  sight  of  the 
breech.  This  catch  lifts  as  the  lever-handle  reaches 
it,  and  allows  it  to  pass,  but  drops  by  the  action  of  a 
spring  when  the  handle  has  passed,  a'ud  thas  prevents 


the  lever  from  moving  to  the  left;  a  stud  on  the 
breech  prevents  it  from  moving  to  the  right.  The 
weight  of  the  breech-plug  for  a  9J-inch  gun  is  about 
300  pounds;  therefore  a  support,  or  collar,  is  used  to 
hold  it  when  withdrawn.  'This  is  a  metallic  frame 
carrying  a  bracket,  hinged  to  the  side  of  the  breerh 
near  the  opening.  It  has  a  kind  of  gutter  in  which 
slides  the  screw  portion  of  the  plug.  This  support 
being  placed  in  a  line  with  the  bore,  the  hand-gripe 
at  the  middle  of  the  breech-plug  is  seized,  and  the 
screw  being  disengaged,  a  strong  pull  will  bring  the 
whole  to  the  rear.  'I'he  impulse  given  swings  it  open, 
the  breech-screw  remaining  fixed  in  its  support,  or 
collar.  A  safety-catch  held  by  a  spring  secures  the 
collar  fair  in  a  line  with  the  "bore.  To  obviate  the 
danger  resulting  from  a  neglect  to  screw  up  the  plug 
when  the  breech  is  closed,  the  lock-lanyard,  which 
has  a  bob  on  it,  is  made  to  pass  through  the  eye  of  a 
piece  of  iron  fixed  to  the  breech.  When  the  handle 
is  not  in  its  place,  that  is,  when  the  plug  is  not  prop- 
erly screwed  in,  a  spring  closes  the  eye  and  does  not 
allow  the  bob  to  pass.  When  the  handle  is  in  posi- 
tion with  the  plug  screwed  up,  it  opens  the  eye  and 
allows  the  bob  to  pass,  when  the  gun  can  be  fired. 

EBONY. — This  wood,  remarkable  for  its  hardness, 
heaviness,  and  deep  black  color,  is  the  heart-wood  of 
different  species  of  Vioajryros,  of  the  natural  order 
Ebeiiaceu,  the  same  genus  which  produces  the  date- 
plum,  kaki,  and  other  fruits.  The  best  ebony,  ex- 
celling in  uniformitj-  and  intensity  of  color,  is  the 
produce  of  DioHpyros  ihcniim.  which  grows  in  great 
abundance  in  some  of  the  flat  parts  of  Ceylon,  and  is 
a  tree  of  such  magnitude  that  logs  of  its  heart-wood 
2  feet  in  diameter,  imd  varyin^from  10  to  15  feet  in 
length,  are  easily  procured.  Ebony  is  used  in  the 
arsenals  for  handles,  press-screws,  etc. 

EBOULEMENT.— A  term  applied  to  the  crumbling 
or  falliiiLT  of  the  walls  of  a  fortification. 

ECCENTRIC— 1.  A  device  applied  to  the  truck- 
wheels  of  top-carriages  and  beds  of  mortars  in  sea- 
coast  artillery  to  give  either  rolling  or  sliding  friction 
at  will.  A  similar  device  is  attached  to  the  chassis 
near  the  pintle  to  enable  it  to  be  readily  traversed 
when  in  gair,  and  give  it  stability  when  out  of  gear. 
— 2.  In  machinery,  a  contrivance  for  taking  an  alter- 
nating rectilinear  motion  from  a  revolving  .shaft.  It 
consists  of  a  circular  disk  or  pulley,  fixed  on  a  shaft 
or  axis  which  does  nat  pass  through  the  center  of  the 
disk.  The  disk  has  a  groove  upon  its  circumference 
in  which  the  hoop — by  means  of  which  the  rod  is  at- 
tached to  the  disk — slides.  As  the  eccentric  revolves 
with  the  axis,  the  hoop  is  alternatelv  raised  and 
lowered,  and  with  it  the  rod  which  is  keyed  into  it. 
The  extent  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  rod  is  equal  to 
twice  the  distance  between  the  centers.  The  eccen- 
tric is  chiefly  used  where  a  subsidiary  motion  of  small 
power  is  required,  as  for  working  the  force-pump 
that  supplies  the  boiler  of  a  steam-engine. 

ECCENTRIC  CHUCK.— A  chuck  attached  to  the 
mandrel  of  a  lathe,  and  having  a  sliding  pii'ce  which 
carries  the  ctnter.  This  jiiece  is  adjustable  in  a  plane 
at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  motion  by  means  of  a 
set-screw,  and  carries  the  center  to  one  side  of  the 
axis  of  motion.  By  its  means  circular  lines  of  vary- 
ing size  and  eccentricity  may  be  produced.  No  oval 
or  ellipse  is  produced  thereby,  but  circles  on  the  face 
of  the  work,  with  their  centers  at  such  distance  from 
the  axis  of  the  mandrel  as  may  be  desired. 

ECCENTRIC  CUTTER.— A  cutting  tool  placed  upon 
the  slide-rest,  and  having  a  rotation  by  means  of  a 
wheel  and  shaft,  the  cutter  being  attached  to  the  end 
of  the  latter.  The  rotation  is  obtained  by  an  orer- 
head  motion,  and  the  eccentricity  by  fixing  the  cutter 
at  different  distances  from  the  center  by  menn;  of  the 
groove  and  screw.  The  action  of  the  eccentric  cutter 
differs  from  that  of  the  eccentric  chuck  in  this:  in 
the  latter  the  work  is  rotated  and  the  tool  is  station- 
ary; in  the  former  the  work  is  stationary  and  the  tool 
revolves.  When  the  motions  are  used  in  conjunction, 
the  patterns  are  capable  of  unlimited  variation. 


ECCENTBIC  PROJECTILE. 


528 


ECREVISSE8. 


ECCENTBIC  PRO  JECTILE.— A  spherical  projectile, 
in  which  the  center  i)f  inerlia  dix-s  not  coincide  with 
the  center  of  li{:urc.  Such  projectiles  are  subject  to 
irreat  deviations,  which  can  lie  predicted  as  to  direc- 
tion by  knowing  the  position  of  the  center  of  inertia 
of  the" shot  in  llie  liore  of  the  gun.     See  I^ojictiUs. 

ECCENTROMETER. — An  instrument  for  dcterniin- 
ing  the  [HKiiion  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  projec- 
tile.   Sec  Ctiittr  of  Uiatity. 

ECHAROE. — A  term  employed  to  signify  that  a 
column  of  tnx)ps  is  struck  at  a  verj'  oblique  angle. 
Also  written  Fi 'i  d'leliargf. 

ECHAUGETTE.— In  military  history,  a  word  signi- 
fying a  walchlower,  or  kind  of  sentry -Ixi.v. 
"  ECHELON.  —  A  military  term  applied  to  such  a 
formation  or  arrangement  of  troops  that,  if  \newed 
from  a  height,  they  would  present  some  analogy  to 
the  successive  steps  of  a  ladder  or  staircase.  The 
several  divisions  of  the  force,  although  parallel,  are 
no  two  on  the  same  alignment.  Each  has  its  front 
clear  of  that  in  advance,  so  that,  by  marching  directly 
forward,  it  can  form  line  with  it.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  echelon,  direct  and  oblique.  Direct 
ecfieUm  is  adapted  for  attack  and  retreat;  while 
dliliqiie  echelon  (oblique  in  reference  to  the  ori- 
ginal front  of  the  line)  is  adapted  for  changing 
ixisition,  or  for  getting  on  the  enemy's  flank. 

ECLAIREURS.— Literally,  the  feciers  of  an 
army.  They  are  bodies,  generally  of  light 
cavalry,  sent  to  the  front  or  the  flank  of  an 
army  to  obtain  intelligence  as  to  the  move- 
ments of  the  enemy.  They  are  not  used  as 
exceptional  or  distinct  bodies,  but  all  the  light 
cavalry  is  called  upon  to  perform  that  duty. 
When  the  tirst  NaiX)Icon  was  Chief  t'onsul 
of  Fnmee,  he  raised  a  regiment  of  Eclaireurs 
for  the  protection  of  Paris  In  the  Continen 
lal  War  of  1870,  Eclaireurs  were  employed 
bnih  by  the  Germans  and  French. 

ECLOPES.  —  A  military  term  to  express 
those  sol<iiers  wlio,  though  invalids,  are  well 
enough  to  follow  the  army.  Among  these 
may  be  clas.se(l  dragoons  or  horeemen  whose 
horses  become  lame  and  cannot  keep  up  with 
the  troo|)  or  stpiadron.  They  always  march 
in  rear  of  the  column. 

ECOLE  POLYTECHNIftUE.— One  of  the 
most  celebrated  .MiHtaryAcaflemies  in  France. 
In  179:1  all  the  public  establishments  in  Paris 
were  in  a  convulsed  stale,  owing  to  the  Revo 
lution.  In  1794  M.  Lamblardie,  Director  of 
the  I'lintjt  et  (Hiaiiiau'iii,  proposed  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  Kcnif  Cintrale  des  Truraiu 
Piiblirn,  to  thoroughly  educate  young  men 
for  militarj',  naval,  and  ci\-il  engineering. 
Monge  and  Carnot  favoring  his  plan,  it 
was  carried  out,  and  a  School  established 
at  the  Palais  Bourbon.  The  first  list  of  Professors 
comprised  names  which  afterwards  acquired  Euro 
pcan  celebrity — including  those  of  Legraugc,  Prony, 
Monge,  Ilachctte,  Ha.ssenfratz,  Fourcroy.  Vauqueli'n! 
Berthollet,  Chaptal,  Pellcticr,  Guyton-Morveau,  and 
Merimee.  In  171).")  the  name  wa.s  changed  to  Ecole 
Polylechnique:  many  alterations  were  made  in  the 
orgiinlzation;  arlillery  studies  were  included  in  the 
course;  and  the  pupils  were  ordered  to  wear  a  uni- 
form. When  Napoleon  went  to  Egj-pt.  40  pu|)ils 
from  the  Ecolc  Polytcchnique  accompanied  him, 
inany  of  whom  greatly  distinguished  themselves. 
Napoleon  made  the  organization  of  the  School  more 
strictly  military  in  1H04,  to  identify  it  more  fully 
with  the  army.  The  School  was  dissolved  in  1816, 
again  in  18:50,  and  nfjain  in  18.32,  on  account  of  the 
im|K'tuous  way  in  which  the  pupils  mi.xed  themselves 
up  with  the  i)olitical  disturbances  of  those  years;  but 
iLs  the  School  suited  the  militjiry  genius  of  the  French 
Nation,  it  was  re-established  on  each  occjusion,  after 
the  restoration  of  tranquillity.  Candidates  can  be  ad- 
mitted onlv  by  competitive  e.xaminations,  which  take 
place  yearly.     A  Proclamation  from  the  War  Oflice, 


made  public  before  the  1st  of  April,  informs  intend- 
ing compelitoi-s  of  the  subjects  on  which  they  are  to 
lie  examined,  and  the  time  when  the  e.xannnations 
iK-gin.  To  be  eligible  as  a  candidate,  the  youth  must 
be  French,  and  must  be  more  than  sixteen  and  less 
than  twenty  years  of  age  before  the  1st  of  January 
following;  but  soldiers  are  admissible  up  to  the  age 
of  twenty-five,  provided  they  can  give  proof  of  two 
years  of  .service  in  the  regular  army.  The  cost  of 
board  alone  is  1000  francs  ($200)  a"  year.  A  com- 
plete course  of  instruction  lasts  for  two  years ;  when 
the  pupils  who  have  satisfactorily  passed  the  final 
examinations  have  the  i)rivilege  of  choosing,  from 
among  the  various  public  services  supplied  from  the 
School,  the  particular  branch  they  wish  to  enter,  as  the 
Artillerj-,  the  Engineers,  the  StjiiT,  the  Department  of 
Telegraphs,  or  some  of  the  other  government  monopo- 
lies. The  School  was  reorganized  by  a  decree  of  the 
l.'ith  A|iril,  187:3.  See  United  ,S/,tt<>i  Mi/itun/  Academy. 
ECONOMY.— In  a  military  sense,  this  term  implies 
the  minuti;e  or  the  interior  regulations  of  a  regiment, 
troop,  or  company.     Hence  "regimental  economy." 


Edging-machine. 


EC0RCHEUR8.— A  name  given  to  bands  of  armed 
advcnlureis  who  desolated  France  and  Belgium  dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  century,  beginninjj  about  1435,  and 
who  at  one  time  numbered  100,000.  They  are  said 
to  have  stripped  their  victims  to  their  shirts,  and  to 
have  liayed  the  cattle.  They  were  favored  by  the 
English  Invasion  anil  the  Civil  Wars. 

ECOUTES.— l.islcning-galleries.  Such  are  known 
to  engineers  and  others  in  connection  with  siege- 
works.  These  galleries  are  run  out  under  and  be- 
yond the  glacis  at  regular  distances  in  the  direction 
of  the  besiegers'  works,  and  enable  the  besieged  to 
hear  and  estimate  how  near  the  besiegers  have  earned 
their  mining  ojierations. 

ECRETER.— To  batter  or  fire  at  the  top  of  a  wall, 
redoubt,  epaulemeut,  etc.,  so  as  to  dislodge  or  drive 
away  the  men  that  may  be  stationed  Ix'hind  it,  in 
order  to  render  the  approach  more  ea.sy.  Kcreti'r  lei 
jMiinliK  den  jmiUkhiuIik  is  to  lilunt  the  sharp  ends  of  the 
jialisades.  This  ought  always  to  be  done  before  at- 
tacking the  covered-way,  wHich  is  generally  fenced 
by  them. 

ECREVISSE8.— Armor  entirely  composed  of  imbri- 


xcir. 


529 


EFFECTS  OF  PROJECTILES. 


cated  plates,  and  commonly  called  a  suit  of  splints  in 
England. 

ECU. —  A  large  shield  which  wa-s  used  by  the 
ancients,  and  carried  on  the  left  arm  to  ward  off  the 
blows  of  sword  or  saber.  This  instrument  of  defen.se 
was  originally  invented  by  the  .Samnites.  The  Moors 
had  ««««,  or  shields,  sufliciently  large  to  cover  the 
whole  of  their  bodies.  The  dipei  of  the  Romans 
dilfered  from  the  eeu  in  shape  only;  the  former  being 
entirely  round,  and  the  latter  oval. 

ZD6E. — The  thin  or  cutting  part  of  a  sword,  saber, 
or  other  cutting  weajwu  or  implement. 

EDGING-MACHINE.— A  machine  much  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  small-arms,  for  milling;  inside  and  out 
of  metal  forgings  aud  castings  of  in-egular  shapes 
to  an  exact  shape  and  size  of  pattern  required.  The 
machine  is  shown  in  detail  on  the  opposite  page. 
Power  is  supplied  by  a  cone-pulley  ha\-iug  two  speeds 
(and  two  friction-pulleys  on  countershaft,  which 
allow  four  changes  of  speed)  driving  bevel  gears 
which  have  a  direct  belt-connection  with  the  cutter- 
epindle.  This  arrangement  makes  the  working  of 
the  slide  very  easy.  The  pattern,  or  former,  is 
secured  to  the  sliding  table,  which  has  a  forward-and- 
back  motion,  operated  aud  controlled  by  the  hand- 
crank  at  the  side  of  the  machme.  An  automatic  feed 
can  be  substituted  when  desired.  The  top  or  cross 
slide  which  holds  the  cutter-spindle,  and  moves  at 
right  angles  with  the  bed,  is  operated  by  the  hand- 
lever  in  front  and  has  a  counterbalance-spring  and  a 
notch  adjustment.  This  cross-slide  also  has  a  pin 
which  is  brought  to  bear  against  the  pattern,  and  the 
four  motions  to  the  two  slides  will  allow  the  pin  to 
follow  any  pattern  secured  to  the  lower  talile  or  slid- 
ing bed.  The  work  to  l)e  cut  into  shape  is  also  .se- 
cured by  suitable  fastenings  to  the  lower  table,  and  as 
the  pin  passes  around  the  pattern,  so  the  cuttcr-sj)in- 
dle  will  pa.ss  around  the  piece  of  work  and  describe 
the  same  outRne  and  dimensions  as  the  pattern  used. 
By  using  a  cutter  with  teeth  on  the  lower  end,  good 
sui'f  ace-mil  ling  is  nicely  and  qiricklv  done.  The 
machine  as  commonly  employed  in  6oveniment  ar- 
senals and  represented  in  the  drawing  has  the  follow- 
ing general  dimensions : 

Friction-clutch  pulleys  on  coimtershaft,  8  and  12  inches  by 
3  inches  face. 

Countershaft  runs  for  slow  speed 150  revolutions. 

■      ••    fast       ••     a» 

Working  surface  of  table «  by  10  inches. 

Movement  of  table 16 

*'  "    cross  slide 9      " 

Distance  from  bed  to  cross-slide 49^  " 

Up-and-down  movement  of  spindle 3^  '* 

>\'eiEht  of  machine 1100  pounds. 

These  dimensions  are  frequently  varied  for  special 
classes  of  work.     See  Profile-machine. 

EDUCATION. — A  civil  branch  of  the  English  army, 
presided  over  by  a  Director  Gleneral  of  ^Nlilitarj*  Edu- 
cation, under  whose  orders  are  the  Jlilitarv  Inspec- 
tors of  Schools.  All  officers  who  are  candidates  for 
the  Staff  College  are  examined  under  the  orders  of 
the  Director  General.  The  studies  carried  on  at  the 
College  are  regulated  by  him  in  concert  with  the 
Commandant  of  that  Institution.  The  final  examina- 
tion of  officers  who  have  passed  the  prescribed  time 
at  the  C'oUew  takes  place  under  his  cognizance,  and 
a  report  is  submitted  by  him  to  the  Horse-guards  of 
the  qualifications  of  the  officers  examined.  His  De- 
partment supervises  all  Regimental  Schools,  Garri- 
son Libraries,  etc.  In  fact,  on  all  subiccts  of  educa- 
tion in  the  army  he  is  the  Director  and  Referee.  The 
following  is  a"  list  of  the  Government  Educational 
and  Scientific  Establishments  in  England:  the  Depart- 
ment of  Artillery  Studies;  the  School  of  Engineer- 
ing at  Chatham";  the  School  of  Gunnery  at  Shoe- 
bvirj-ncss;  the  School  of  Instruction  at  Aldershott;  the 
School  of  Musketry  at  Hvthe;  the  Anny  Medical 
School,  Netlev  ;  the  Jlilitarj'  School  for  >Iusic  at 
Hounslow;  the  Roval  Militaiy  Asylum  at  Chelsea; 
the  Royal  Hibernian  Military  School,  Dublin.  See 
^rtilhry  Sr?iool. 

EFFAEE.— In  Heraldry,  a  term  which  signilics  that 


the  animal  to  which  it  refers  is  to  be  represented  as 
rearing  on  it.s  hind-legs,  as  if  it  were  frightened  or  en- 
raged.    Als<i  written  Effray,'.    See  Heraldry. 

EFFECTIVE. — A  tenn  u.sed,  in  a  military  sense,  to 
denote  the  number  of  men  actually  borne'anil  doing 
duty  on  the  .strength  of  a  company  or  regiment,  in 
the  tield  or  on  parade. 

EFFECTS.— The  property  of  a  deceased  officer  or 
soldier.  On  the  death  of  either,  a  Committee  of  Ad- 
justment is  formed  to  take  charge  of  the  property, 
and  to  adjust  the  affairs  of  the  deceased,  as  directed 
bv  law.    See  IhiKtsal  Ojlinix  diul  Soldiers. 

EFFECTS  OF  PROJECTILES.— A  knowledge  of  the 
destructive  effects  of  projectiles  on  iron,  wood,  earth, 
and  ma.sonry,  the  materials  of  which  covering  nia.s.scs 
are  made,  is  of  very  great  importance  in  a  military 
point  of  view.  In  geneml,  these  effects,  and  partic- 
ularly that  of  penetration,  depend  on  the  nature  of 
the  projectile,  its  initial  velocity,  and  the  distance  of 
the  object.  The  following  deductions  have  been 
made  from  trials  with  annor-plates,  extending  over 
several  years:  1st.  The  best  material  to  resist  pro- 
jectiles is  soft,  tough  wrought-iron;  and  to  attain 
these  qualities  it  should  Ix;  jiure— free  from  sidphur, 
phosphorus,  and  carbon.  Steely  iron,  commonly 
known  as  homogeneous  iron,  puddled  steel,  etc., 
when  in  large  mas-ses,  is  easily  cracked  by  shot,  and 
is  not,  therefore,  suitable  for  amior-jilates.  Thin 
l)lates  afford  a  greater  comparative  resistance.  Soft 
steel  may  be  used  for  annor  plates;  but  when  cost  is 
taken  into  consideration  it  is  doubt  fvil  if  it  possesses 
any  advantages  over  wrought-iron.  ,2d.  Rolled  iron 
does  not  offer  quite  so  much  resistance  as  lianmiered 
iron,  yet  if  the  size  of  the  plate  admit  of  it,  it  is  to  be 
preferred  on  the  score  of  economy.  Plates  should  be 
as  large  as  possible  to  reduce  the  number  of  joints, 
which  are  lines  of  weakness.  3d.  A  solid  plate  offers, 
for  the  same  thickness,  a  greater  resistance  to  a  projec- 
tile than  a  laminated  one,  or  one  made  up  of  several 
thinner  plates;  but  when  the  surface  is  rounded  in 
shape  and  of  small  extent,  as  in  the  ilonitor  turrets,  the 
latter  may  be  used  to  gieat  advantage,  as  great  thick- 
ness of  metal  may  thereby  be  easily  obtained.  4th. 
The  resistance  of  a  plate  to  perforation  is  very  nmch 
increased  by  a  suitable  backing.  Cast-iron,  granite, 
and  brick  in  ma.s.ses,  while  they  enable  a  plate  to  offer 
a  verj'  great  resistance,  are  soon  broken  up  by  the 
blows  of  heavy  projectiles,  and  their  fragriients 
thrown  off  with  great  force.  Oak  and  teak  arc  the 
most  suitable  timbers  for  backing  plates,  and  are  used 
a.s  such  on  vessels.  A  yielding  backing  is  found  to 
occasion  less  strain  on  the  fastenings  than  a  very  hard 
one.  5th.  Where  projectiles  are  made  of  the  .same 
material  and  are  similar  in  shape,  their  penetration 
into  unbacked  plates  is  nearly  in  proportion  to  their 
liviurj  force,  or  their  iceigftt  multiplied  by  the  squ4xre  of 
the  relocilji  of  impact.  The  resistance  which  an  un- 
backed plate  offers  to  penetration  is  nearly  in  pro- 
portion to  the  square  of  its  thich-nem,  provided  this 
thickness  l)e  confined  within  ordinary  limits.  In  the 
case  of  oblique  plates  the  penetration  diminishes 
nearly  with  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  ineideitce.  6lh. 
The  most  suitable  material  for  shells  to  be  used 
against  iron  plates  is  tempered  steel.  These  projec- 
tiles should  be  made  of  cylindrical  .shape,  with  thick 
sides  and  lx)ttoni,  to  direct  the  exiilosive  effect  of  the 
charge  forward  after  penetnilion  is  effected.  The 
most  suitable  material  for  .solid  shot  is  hard  and 
tough  cast-iron.  Round  shells  made  of  cast-iron  will 
be  broken  in  passing  through  an  inch  i)late,  and  an 
ordinarj-  cast-iron  shot  will  be  broken  in  passing 
through  a  two-inch  plate.  Late  experience  shows 
that  the  pointed,  or  ogival,  is  better  than  the  flat 
form  of  head  for  penetration  of  iron  plates.  7th.  It 
follows  from  the  preceding  that  the  most  suitable 
covering  or  shielfl  for  cannon  is  a  conical-shaped 
turret  made  of  wrought-iron  plates,  as  large  as  it  is 
practicable  to  make  them,  backed  with  oak  or  teak. 
To  protect  the  gunners  from  the  fragments  of  pro- 
jectiles, which  may  penetrate  completely  through  this 


isizsm. 


530 


£000  PERCUSSION  FtrSE, 


covfriu!,'.  there  shouKl  lie  nn  "  inner  skin"  of  thick 
boilerplate  plmcil  Ixhiiul  the  w(xk1. 

JCJ'ti-t  oit  H'-*;.— Tlu-  ellect  of  ii  projectile  tirc<l 
iigiiiust  wood  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  wtxid  and 
the  direction  of  the  ^Knetnition.  If  the  projectile 
strike  iHTiH'ndiciihir  lo  the  tilx'rs,  and  the  tillers  be 
toiiiih  and  elastic,  as  in  the  case  of  oak,  a  |mrtion  of 
them  are  cnished.  and  others  an.' bent  imderthe  press- 
ure of  the  project  lie,  but  rejjain  their  form  as  soon 
as  it  Las  passed  by  them.  It  is  ft>und  that  a  hole 
make  in  oak  bv  a  ball  4  inches  in  diameter  doses  up 
ainiin.  so  as  lo  leave  an  opeiiiiii^scarcelv  larsre  enoufrb 
to  measure  tiie  depth  of  iX'netration.  Yhcsize  of  the 
hole  and  the  shattering  eilect  increases  rapidly  for  the 
larger  calibers.  A  9-inch  projectile  has  been  fouml 
to  Irave  a  hole  that  docs  not  close  up.  and  to  tear 
away  large  fnigments  from  the  back  jiortion  of  an 
oak  targtt  representing  the  side  of  a  ship  of  war,  the 
effect  of  which  on  a  ve.s.sel  would  h:i\c  been  to  in- 
jure the  crew  stationed  around,  or.  if  the  hole  had 
bi-en  situated  at  or  below  the  water-liue,  to  have  en- 
dangcre<l  the  vessel.  If  penetration  take  place  in  the 
direction  of  thetiliers,  the  piece  is  almost  always  split, 
even  by  the  smallest  shot,  and  splinters  arc  th^ow^l  to 
a  eonsiderable  distance.  In  consiMiuencc  of  the  soft- 
ness of  while  pine  nearly  all  the  libers  struck  are 
broken,  and  the  oritice  is  nearly  the  size  of  the  pro- 
jectile; for  the  same  reason  the  clTects  of  the  projec- 
tile do  not  extend  much  beyond  the  oritice;  pine  is 
therefore  to  be  preferred  to  oak  for  structures  that 
are  not  intended  to  resist  cannon-projectiles,  as  block- 
houses, etc. 

Ejt'trt  on  EarUi. — Earth  posses.scs  advantages  over 
all  other  materials  as  a  covering  against  projectiles;  it 
is  cheap  and  easily  obtained,  it  offers  considerable  re- 
sistance to  penetration,  and  to  a  certain  extent  regjiins 
its  position  after  displacement.  It  is  found  by  ex- 
perience that  a  projectile  has  verj-  little  ellect  on  an 
earthen  paiapit  unless  it  passes  completely  through 
it,  and  that  injury  done  by  day  can  be  promptly  re- 
paired at  night.  "  Wherever  iiiasonry  is  liable  to  Ik; 
breached,  it  should  be  masked  by  earthworks  with 
natural  slopes.  The  size  of  tlie  openings  fonned  by 
the  passage  of  a  projectile  into  earth  "is  about  one 
third  larger  than  the  projectile,  increasing,  however. 


W 

t 

'^WM^ 

1 £ji 1 

towards  the  outer  orifice.  Rifle-projecHles  are  easily 
deflected  from  their  course  in  earth.  They  are  some- 
times found  lying  in  a  posiiion  at  right  angles  to  their 
course,  and  sometimes  with  the  base  to  the  front; 
hence  their  penetration  is  variable.  Unless  a  shell 
be  very  large  in  proi^rtiou  to  the  ma.ssof  earth  pene- 
trated, its  explosion  will  produce  but  little  displace- 
ment; generally  a  small  opening  is  formed  aroimd  an 
exploded  .shell  "bv  the  action  of  the  gas  in  pressing 
back  the  earth.  "Exixrience  at  Fort  AVagner  showed 
that  it  t(K)k  one  p<«ind  of  metal  to  pemianenllv  dis- 
place 3.27  lbs.  of  the  sand  of  which  the  fort  W(\s 
made.  Time-fuses,  being  liable  to  l)e  extinguished 
by  the  pres.sure  of  the  earth,  are  inferior  to  ix>rcussion- 
fuses,  which  produce  e.vjilasion  when  the  projectile 
has  made  aliout  three  fourths  of  its  proper  iX'netration. 
The  pcnetnilion  in  earth  of  the  oblong  compared  to 
round  projectiles,  when  tired  with  the  service-charges, 
and  at  a  (ILslance  of  aljout  400  yards,  is  at  least  one 
fourth  greater.  This  diJIerenc-e,"  however,  is  less  at 
short  and  greater  at  long  distances.  The  penetration 
of  the  smallest:  or  3-inch,  cannon-projectile,  at  a  dis- 
slance  of  400  yards,  in  a  newly  mafle  parapet  of  loam 
mixed  with  gravel,  is  about"  6  feet.  The  lOO-pdr. 
projectile,  under  similar  circumstances,  ixnetnitcs 
about  Ifi  feel.  A  penetration  as  great  as  31*  feet  has 
been  obtained  at  the  Washington  Navy  Yard  by  tiring 


a  12-inch  rifle-projectile  into  a  natural  clay -bank  at 
a  short  distance.  The  greatest  penetration  of  a  15- 
inch  solid  shot,  tired  with  00  'bs.  of  powder,  in  well- 
rammed  sand,  at  a  distance  of  400  yards,  is  20  feet. 

Effect  on  Ma»'iiry. — The  effect  of  a  projectile 
against  masonry  is  to  form  a  truncated  conical  hole, 
terminated  by  anotherof  a  cylindrical  fonn,  as  shown 
in  the  dr.iwing.  The  material  in  front  of  and  around 
the  projectile  is  broken  and  shaltered,  and  the  end 
of  the  cylintlrical  hole  even  reduced  to  |iowder. 
Pieces  of  the  ma.st)nry  arc  sometimes  thrown  .")0  or  6l> 
yards  from  the  wall.  The  elasticity  developed  by 
the  shock  reacts  upon  the  projectile,  sometimes  throw- 
ing it  back  I.jO  yards,  .so  as  to  be  dangerous  to  per- 
sons in  a  breachin^-biittery.  The  exterior  ojxining 
varies  from  4  to  5  times  the  diameter  of  the  projec- 
tile, and  the  depth,  as  we  have  seen,  varies  with  the 
size  and  density  of  the  projectile  and  its  velocity. 
AVith  charges  of  1,  i,  i,  and  ,1,  a  projectile  ceases  to 
rebound  from  a  wall  of  masonry  when  the  angles 
formed  by  the  line  of  lire  and  the  surface  of  the  wall 
exceed  20',  24  ,  33  ,  43%  respectively.  With  these 
angles,  the  angle  of  reflection  is  much  greater  than 
the  angle  of  incidence,  and  the  velocity  after  impact 
is  very  slight.  When  a  projectile  strikes  against  a 
surface  of  oak,  as  the  side  of  a  ship,  it  will  not  stick 
if  the  angle  of  incidence  be  less  than  1.5°,  and  if  it  do 
not  penetrate  to  a  <lcpth  nearly  equal  to  its  diameter. 
Solid  cast-iron  shot  bi'eak  against  granite,  but  not 
against  freestone  or  brick.  Shells  are  broken  into 
small  fragments  against  each  of  these  materials. 

Effixl  if  Bulliis. — The  penetration  of  the  new 
breech-loading  rifle-musket  bullet  in  a  target  made 
of  pine  boards  one  inch  thick  is  as  follows:  at  100 
yards,  13  inches;  at  5(10  yards,  9  inches.  If  Ijidlels 
are  hardened  by  the  addition  of  a  little  tin  or  antimony 
to  the  lead,  their  penetration  is  very  much  increa.sed. 
From  e.xperiments  maile  in  Deiuuark,  the  follow- 
ing relations  were  found  between  the  penetration 
of  a  bullet  in  pine  and  its  effects  on  the  Ixxly  of 
a  linng  horse,  \\z.:  1st.  When  the  force  of  the 
bullet  is  sulficient  to  penetrate  .31  inch  into  liine,  it 
is  only  sufficient  to  produce  a  slight  contusion  of  the 
skin;  2d.  When  the  force  of  penetration  is  eijual  to 
.63  inch,  the  wouinl  begins  to  be  dangerous,  but  dix's 
not  disiible;  3d.  When  the  force  of  penetration  is 
equal  to  1.2  inch,  the  wotmd  is  very  dangerous.  A 
plate  of  wrougbt-iron  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch 
thick  is  sufficient  to  resist  a  rifle-musket  bullet  at 
distances  varying  from  20  to  200  yards.  That  ;i  rope 
mantlet  may  give  full  iiroteclion  against  rifle  musket 
bullets,  it  should  be  composed  of  five  layers  (three 
vertical  and  two  horizontal)  of  4J-inch  rope.  See 
Briitchiiiij,  Projectiles,  Punching,  and  Racking. 

EFFENDI.— A  title  of  honor  among  the  Turks,  be- 
stowed upon  civil  dignitaries  and  persons  of  various 
ranks,  in  contradistinction  to  the  title  of  Aga,  Ixirnc 
by  courtiers  and  military  men.  The  word  \:\  equiva- 
lent to  the  English  Sir  or  the  French  Monsieur,  and 
is  frequently  added  to  the  name  of  an  office.  Thlis, 
the  Sultan's  first  Physician  is  termed  Ilakim-Effendi; 
the  Priest  in  the  Seraglio,  Imetni-Effendi ;  and  the 
Slinister  i>f  Foreign  Affairs  was  formerly  called  Se'it- 
Effeinii. 

EFFICIENT.— A  thoroughly  disciplined  and  capable 
soldier.  It  is  also  a  term  used  in  connection  with  the 
volunteers.  A  volunteer  is  .said  to  be  efficient  when 
he  has  iXTformed  the  apjiointed  number  of  drills  and 
tired  the  regular  number  of  rounds  at  the  target  in 
tlie  course  of  the  year. 

EOASD. — An  iiiicient  tribunal  of  Malta  which  de- 
cided, by  cnmmissinn,  suits  among  the  Knights. 

EGGO'PEECUSSION-FUSE.— This  fuse  consists  of 
the  stock  A.  upon  the  outer  surface  of  the  outer  part 
of  which  is  formed  a  screw-thread,  to  enable  it  to  be 
screwed  into  the  shell  in  the  ordinary  maimer.  The 
outer  end  of  the  stock  A  is  made  close,  with  a  flange 
to  overlap  the  seam  or  joint,  and  with  notches  or  holes 
to  receive  the  wrench  for  screwing  it  in  and  out  of 
the  shell.     The  inner  end  of  the  stock  A  is  made 


EIGHT-FOIL. 


531 


EIGHT-INCH  KIFLE. 


open  and  is  closed  with  a  screw-plug,  B,  which  is 
formed  with  holes  or  notches  to  receive  the  \\Tcnch 
for  screwing  it  in  and  out.  C  is 
the  pliuigcr,  wliich  is  made  hollow, 
and  is  proviiled  with  a  nipple,  D, 
at  its  outer  cud  to  receive  a  cap  to 
cause  the  .shell  to  be  exploded 
when  it  strikes,  by  the  forward 
movement  of  the  plunger  C,  caus- 
ing the  cap  to  strike  against  the 
closed,  outer  end  of  the  stock  A. 
The  inner  end  of  the  stock  A  is 
notcUeil  or  slotted  transvei-sely,  to 
receive  the  ends  of  the  hollow  or 
tubular  bar  E,  with  the  center  of 
w  hieh  is  connected  the  inner  end 
of  the  short  lube  F.  The  ends  of 
the  bar  E  may  be  closed  by  a 
paper  patch,  a  slight  wooden  plug, 
or  other  suitable  means,  to  con- 
fine the  powder  until  ignited.  The 
outer  end  of  the  tube  F  is  flattened, 
and  contains  a  fulminate  to  be  ig- 
nited by  friction.  The  tlevice  E  F 
is  connected  with  the  plunger  C  by 
a  wire,  G,  one  end  of  which  is  securely  attached  to  the 
said  Jilunger  C,  and  its  other  end  pas.'ies  through  the 
tube  F.  The  outer  end  of  the  wire  G  is  tiattened  and 
roughed  or  barbed,  so  that  when  drawn  through  the 
tube  F  by  the  forward  movement  of  the  plimger  C 


part-s:  the  msf, /,  which  is  the  10-inch  smooth-bore, 
bored  up  to  a  diameter  of  13.,")  inches,  and  a  lining- 
tube  of  coiled  wrought-iron.  The  tulw  consists  of  two 
Jiarts,  called  respectively  the  A  and  B  tubes.  The 
former  extends  the  entire  length  of  the  bore,  and  con- 
tains the  ritlin'';  the  latter,  or  B  tube,  is  shrunk  upon 
the  inner,  or  A  tube,  which  has  its  exterior  portion 
cut  away  for  that  purjiose.  A  double  tube  is  thus 
fomietl,  extending  32.7.)  inches  from  the  rear  end. 
The  two  tubes,  imiled  in  this  manner,  have  the  same 
exterior  diameter  throughout  the  entire  length,  and 
are  made  to  til  accurately  the  bore  of  the  cast-iron 
casing.  The  bottom  of  "the  tul)e  is  closed  with  a 
wrought-iron  cup  shaped  plug,  p,  screwed  into  the  A 
tul)e.  The  tube  is  inserted  into  the  citsing  from  the 
muzzle,  and  is  secured  from  working  out  by  a  muzzle- 
collar,  #,  screwed  in  at  the  face  of  the"  piece,  and 
from  turning  in  the  casing  by  a  steel  pin,  t,  tapped 
through  the  casing  and  into"  the  tube.  A  shallow 
and  narrow  gas-channel  is  cut  spirally  around  the  ex- 
terior of  the  reduced  portion  of  the  A  tube,  commu- 
nicating with  star-grooves  cut  in  the  end  of  the  barrel, 
and  with  the  gas-e.scape.  or  indicator,  bored  obliquely 
through  the  breech  of  the  casing  opposite  the  vent. 
Should  the  inner  tube  siilit,  under  the  action  of  firing, 
the  fact  would  be  indicated  by  the  escape  of  gas 
through  this  hole,  and  timely  warning  thus  be  given 
of  the  injury  sustained  by  the  gim.  The  ritling  con- 
sists of  fifteen  lands  and  grooves,  each  of  equal  width, 
viz.,  .8377  inch.      Depth  of  the  grooves,  .075  inch. 


I — 

Eight-inch  Rifle. 


'     Pi 


Carriage  tor  8-inch  Rifle. 


it  may  i^iitc  the  fulminate  in  the  said  tube  F  by  fric- 
tion, "and  thus  explode  the  shell.  The  screw-plug  B 
has  a  hole  through  it  to  receive  the  tulie  F  and  protect 
it.  H  is  the  ssifety-pin.  which  passes  in  through  a 
screw-hole  in  the  outer,  clo.sed  end  of  the  stock  A  in 
such  a  position  that  its  forward  end  may  rest  against 
the  end  of  the  plunger  C  at  the  side  of  the  cap-nipple, 
and  thus  holds  the  said  plunwr  securely  in  place  dur- 
ing trans])(>rlation  and  handling,  anil  absolutely  se- 
cures the  shell  from  beimr  exploded  by  an  accidental 
blow,  shock,  or  fall.  The  screw-pin  11  is  removed 
when  the  shell  is  put  into  the  gun  and  ready  to  be 
fired.     See  Fuse. 

EIGHT  FOIL.— A  term  used  in  Heraldry  to  signify 
a  grass  hiivim:  ei^dit  leaves,  as  the  trefoil  has  three. 
Accon'.inir  to  Svlvanus  MorgiUi.  it  maybe  used  as  the 
difference  of  tlii'  ninth  branch  of  a  family. 

EIGHT  INCH  HIFLE.— This  piece,  employed  in  the 
United  States  service,  is  composed,  essentially,  of  two 


Twist  uniform,  one  turn  in  40  feet.  There  is  no 
chamber  proper  to  the  gun.  The  ritling  stops  at  a 
point  10  inches  fnini  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  the  di- 
ameter of  the  unritle<l  jKirlioii  being  equal  to  that  of 
the  ritlcd  [lortion  across  lands.  The  old  vent  of  the 
case  is  closed  by  a  wrought-iron  screw-plug,  and  2.75 
inches  nearer  the  muzzle  a  new  one  is  bored  parallel 
to  the  vertical  plane  through  the  axis  of  the  bore,  and 
distant  therefrom  2. .5  inches.  The  axis  of  the  vent 
enters  the  lioie  at  3.5  inches  from  the  bottom. 

Lemrth  of  bore 117.25  inches. 

Weight  of  piece 16,160  pounds. 

Counter-preponderance 6.30  pounds. 

Weiffht  of  projectile  (average)  180  pounds. 

Weitrht  of  charge  (hexagonal  powder).  35  pounds. 

Initial  velocity 1.430  feet. 

Pressure  upon  s<iuare  inch  of  tore. . .   33,000  i)Ounds, 
Penelrationagain.starmorat  1000 yards  7.42  inches. 
Penetration  against  annor  at  ISOOyanls  6.75  inches. 


EIGHT-INCH  SI£0£  MOBIAS. 


532 


ELASTICITY. 


The  countcrpri'iwmlcmncc  is  corn>clcil  by  an  ec- 
centric rins;  of  bronze  iituubttl  lo  cucli  tnmiiion. 

The  ioHowiiij;  table  shows  the  ranges  of  this  piece, 
with  a  charge  of  35  pounds  hexagonal  powder: 


Elera- 

Time  of 

Angle  of 

Remain's 

Drift. 

Rahoi. 

UOD. 

Bight. 

fikll. 

velocity. 

YartU. 

0      ' 

Seconds. 

e     ' 

J!K.  sec. 

Yards. 

100 

06 

.21 

08 

1,438 

.01 

SOO 

16 

.43 

16 

1,406 

.03 

aoo 

24 

.63 

25 

1,885 

.07 

400 

dS 

.85 

34 

1,364 

.12 

BOO 

41 

1.07 

43 

1,343 

.19 

800 

50 

l.'J9 

58 

1,323 

.28 

TOO 

59 

1.52 

1  03 

1,304 

.38 

709 

1  00 

1  55 

1  03 

1,3(K 

.40 

800 

I  08 

1.75 

1  14 

1,285 

.51 

900 

1  18 

1.99 

1  35 

1,366 

.65 

1.000 

1  28 

2.83 

1  36 

1,348 

.82 

1,100 

1  38 

2.47 

1  47 

1,230 

1,00 

1.300 

1  48 

2.72 

200 

1,213 

1.21 

1.300 

1  58 

2.97 

2  13 

1,197 

1.43 

1,311 

200 

8.00 

2  14 

1,195 

1.4G 

1.400 

209 

3.22 

2  26 

1,181 

1.B8 

1,500 

2  20 

3  48 

2  41 

1,165 

1.95 

1,600 

2  31 

3.74 

2  56 

1,149 

2.25 

1,700 

2  42 

4.00 

3  11 

1,134 

2  .W 

1,800 

25S 

4.27 

S2« 

1.130 

3.90 

1,863 

SOO 

4.44 

333 

1,111 

3  12 

1.900 

304 

4.54 

3  41 

1,106 

3  35 

S,000 

3  16 

4.81 

356 

1,098 

8  05 

a,  100 

828 

6.09 

4  13 

1.080 

4.00 

S,30O 

3  40 

5.37 

4  30 

1,067 

4.50 

S.300 

352 

S.e.'i 

4  47 

1,056 

4,96 

S.365 

400 

5.83 

4  67 

1,049 

5.28 

2,400 

404 

5  »i 

504 

1,045 

5.45 

2,500 

4  16 

6.23 

21 

1,035 

5.95 

2.600 

430 

6.52 

5  40 

1,025 

O.'iS 

2,700 

4  44 

6  81 

5  59 

1,016 

7.13 

S,800 

458 

7.11 

6  18 

1.008 

7.76 

2,817 

500 

7.06 

6  21 

1.007 

7.86 

2,900 

5  13 

7.41 

6  37 

1.000 

8.41 

3,000 

526 

7.71 

6  56 

993 

9.09 

3.100 

5  40 

8.01 

7  17 

985 

980 

3.200 

555 

8  S3 

738 

978 

10.56 

8,243 

600 

8.51 

7  46 

974 

10.85 

3.300 

6  10 

8.63 

7  59 

971 

11.35 

3.400 

6S5 

8.94 

8  20 

964 

12.16 

3.500 

6  40 

9.25 

8  41 

957 

13.01 

3.600 

655 

9.56 

9  02 

951 

13.88 

3.643 

700 

9.70 

9  11 

W8 

14.21 

3.700 

7  10 

9.88 

9  23 

944 

14.78 

3.800 

726 

10.30 

9  46 

938 

15.74 

3.900 

74S 

10.52 

10  09 

933 

16.73 

4.000 

758 

10.84 

10  S3 

936 

17.75 

4.017 

800 

10.90 

10  36 

925 

17.90 

4,100 

8  14 

n.16 

10  55 

920 

18.80 

4.300 

830 

11.49 

11  13 

914 

19.87 

4.300 

8  46 

11.83 

11  41 

909 

20.96 

4,377 

900 

12  08 

13  01 

904 

21.93 

4.400 

90) 

13  15 

13  04 

903 

22.20 

4.500 

9  22 

12.48 

13  29 

898 

23.44 

4.600 

9  40 

12.83 

12  54 

892 

at. 73 

4.700 

958 

18.16 

13  19 

887 

26.04 

4,723 

10  00 

IS. 28 

13  26 

885 

36.25 

It  has  been  found  that  the  10-inch  carriage,  upon 
which  this  ]Mece  is  mounted,  is  not  sufflcieiitly  .stout 
to  stand  niiiny  discharires  willi  a  charge  of  3.5  pounds. 
Charges  of  i'l  poimds  will  penetrate  any  wooden  slii|) 
at  ordinary  ranges,  but  are  of  no  olTect  against  iron- 
clads. The  carriages  will  st^uid  this  charge  without 
serious  daina,iie. 

The  four  varieties  of  carriages  upon  which  these 
pieces  are  mounted  are  those  altered  from  the  10-ineh 
ImrlK-lte-gun  carriage,  and  llius  far  are  only  e.xperi- 
mental.  Carriages  Xos.  1  and  i  have  fricHon-bars 
for  checking  recoil.  Nos.  3  and  4  have  hydraulic 
cylinders  for  the  same  objwt.  Xos.  3  and  -i  have  a 
geared  windla.ss,  with  cranks  and  handles,  attached 
to  the  rear  part  of  the  cliiussis.  Nos.  1  and  3  arc  with- 
out windhuss.  No.  1  is  disiinguishe<l  from  Xo.  3  l)y 
the  absence  of  the  ratchc't-|)Ost.  and  liy  having,  in- 
stead, for  clevaling,  a  circular  looUied"  arc  operated 
by  a  hand-wheel  and  pinions  ujion  the  left  cheek  of 
the  carriage.  No.  2  has  the  nitehet-post.  but  not  a 
toothed  arc.  Carriagi'  No.  3  is  disiinguislied  from 
No.  4  l)y  having  a  wedge-shaped  incline  bolted  to  the 
lop  of  each  rail  of  the  chiuwis.  near  the  rear  end,  and 
by  liavinga  band-lever  on  the  outside  of  each  cha.s.sis- 
ndl,  for  the  purpast  of  uncoupling  the  top-carriage 
from  the  chassis.     See  Converted  Oiins. 


EIGHT-INCH  SIEGE-MOETAK.— This  mortar,  used 
in  the  I'nited  States  servke,  is  made  of  cast-iron,  has 
a  smooth  bore,  and  is  without  chamber.  The  follow- 
ing tables  show  the  weights,  dimensions,  and  ranges 
pertaining  to  the  piece: 


Desionation. 


Caliber 

Weiglit 

Preponderance 

Leugtli  of  niece  

Lengtii  of  bore  (calibers) 

■Windage  

Charge  imaximum).  mortar-powder 

WeiRbt  of  shell  (empty) 

Charge  to  till  shell,  musket-powder 

CharRe  to  hlow  out  fuse-plug 

Weight  of  carriage 

Weight  of  carriage,  mortar,  and  imple- 
ments  

(One    mortar-wagon    will    carry    three 

mortars,  with  their  carriages.) 


No.  '  Lbs. 


1010 
00 


2.25 
46 

2.5 
.25 

900 

1965 


Inch. 


.12 


RANGES. 


Charge. 

Eleva- 
tion. 

Range,  yards. 

Time  of  flight, 
Seconds. 

Ounces. 
8 
12 
10 
14 

Degi-ees. 
45 
45 
45 
45 

Shell  ,93  lbs 
399 
717 
955 
1365 

Shen,M  lbs 
4.33 
727 
1039 
1275 

Sbell,53  lbs 
9.50 
12.45 
14.85 
16.50 

SheU,M  lbs 
9.65 
12.50 
IS 
16.80 

EIGHTY-TON  GUN.— A  large  Woolwich  gun  de- 
signed as  an  armament  for  the  "  Inflexible."  When 
first  made  it  weighed  81  tons,  having  a  caliber  of  14i 
inches.  It  was  bored  during  tbe'progress  of  the 
experiments  to  16  inches,  and  was  given  an  enlarged 
chamber.  The  experiments  were  conducted  by  the 
well-known  and  celebrated  "Committee  on  Explo- 
sion."    See  Ordnanre. 

EISENHUT.— An  iron  hat  or  helmet,  without  vizor 
or  ueck^guard,  but  supplied  with  a  rim.  It  was  lirst 
worn  inthe  twelfth  century,  and  remained  in  tise 
until  the  seventeenth  century. 

EJECTOR.— The  device  commonly  used  in  breech- 
loading  small-arms  to  throw  out  the  metallic  car- 
tridge-<-a.si>  after  it  is  tired.  The  ejector-spring  operates 
the  ejector.     See  SpriiigfieM  Hiji>;. 

ELASTICITY.— When  an  external  force  act.s  upon 
a  solid  body,  it  ]>roduees  at  tirst  slight  alterations  in 
the  relative  positions  of  the  particles;  and  if  before 
these  alterations  exceed  a  certain  limit  the  force 
ceases  to  act,  the  particles  return  to  their  foniier  |xjsi- 
tion  and  the  distigurement  dissippears.  This  power 
or  property  of  recovering  their  ]irevious  form  after 
alteration  is  called  lUiKticUy;  and  we  are  justitied  in 
ascribing  it  to  all  bodies,  though  in  very  different 
degrees.  It  was  once  believed  that  there  were  definite 
limits  within  which  changes  of  form  produced  by 
pressure  or  other  forces  disapjieared  completely.  It 
was  thought,  for  instance,  that  when  a  weight  of  no 
great  magnitude  is  suspended  from  a  metallic  wire, 
the  slight  increase  of  length  which  the  wire  is  observed 
to  undergo  is  completely  lost  when  the  weight  is 
removed:  and  the  limit  to  which  the  win.'  might  thus 
be  stretched  and  si  ill  sulTer  no  permanent  increase 
of  length  was  called  the  limit  of  its  elasticity.  But 
recent  more  accurate  experiments  have  shown  that 
no  such  limits  exist,  at  least  in  the  ca.se  of  metals;  or, 
which  is  the  same  thing,  that  permanent  lengthening 
results,  however  slightly  the  wire  be  loaded — it  never 
contracts  again  quite  so  far  a?  it  was  stretched.  It  is 
nece&sary,  therefore,  to  tix  the  limit  arbitrarily;  and 
this  is  done  by  agreeing  that  it  shall  be  held  to  begin 
when  the  mcfal  in  question  sutlers  a  permanent  elon- 
gation of  .001X15  of  its  length.  To  get  the  elastic 
extensibility  of  a  wire,  then,  we  must  compare  its 
length  suspended  with  its  length  when  the  weight 
is  removed.  In  this  way  it  is  found  that  the  exten- 
sions pro<luced  are  proportional  to  the   extending 


ELASTIC  FBESSTTBE. 


533 


ELECTBIC  CABLES. 


forces  or  weights.  From  this  hiw,  then,  we  can  cal- 
culate what  weight  it  would  require  to  stretch  a  wire 
or  rod  of  a  square  inch  in  section  to  double  its  own 
length;  supposing  it  possible  to  proceed  so  far  without 
breaking  it,  and  that  the  law  of  elasticity  continued 
up  to  this  point  unaltered.  This  weight,  which  is 
different  for  every  metal  or  kind  of  wood,  is  called 
the  coefficient  or  iimdnbig  of  eMsticit;/  of  the  particular 
substance ;  and  is  used  in  mechanics  in  calculating 
how  far  a  given  weight  will  extend  a  wire  or  rod  of 
given  diameter.  This  coefficient  is  not  constant  for 
the  same  metal;  for  all  circumstances  that  increase 
the  density  of  the  metal  increase  the  modulus  of 
elasticity.  Bodies  manifest  elasticity  not  only  when 
extended  in  length,  but  also  when  comjires-sed,  when 
bent,  or  when  twisted.  If  an  Ivor)'  ball  be  drojjped 
from  a  height  upon  a  marble  slab  smeared  with  fat 
and  lamp-black,  when  caught  after  the  rebound,  it  is 
seen  to  have  touched  the  marble,  not  in  a  point,  but 
in  a  circle  of  several  lines  in  diameter,  and  must 
therefore  have  lost  for  a  time  its  spherical  shape  over 
that  extent.  In  the  same  way  the  mark  of  a  well-hit 
golf-ball  is  pretty  broadly  sho^-n  upon  the  face  of  a 
club  after  the  stroke.  The  elasticity  shown  by  wires 
and  threads  of  glass  when  twisted  has  been  turned 
to  account  in  the  torsion-balance  used  for  measuring 
other  weak  forces.  Steel,  ivory,  caoutchouc,  etc., 
are  well  known  for  their  elastic  properties,  to  which 
thev  owe  much  of  their  utility. 

ELASTIC  PEESSUKE.  —  Cannon  are  subjected  by 
the  pressure  of  powder  to  the  following  strains:  /<i7i- 
gential,  lowjitudinal,  transverse,  and  strains  of  com- 
pression. If  p  be  the  pressure  on  a  luiit  of  surface 
of  the  bore,  and  s  the  tensile  strength  of  the  metal,  it 
can  be  shown  by  analysis  that  the  tendency  to  rupture, 
or  the  pressure  on  a  unit  of  length  of  the  bore,  divided 
by  the  resistance  which  the  sidles  are  capable  of  offer- 
ing to  rupture,  for  a  piece  of  one  caliber  thickness  of 
metal,  will  be  as  follows,  viz.: 


Tangential, 


3p. 

2«' 


or,  rupture  will  take  place  when  three  times  the  pres- 
sure is  greater  than  twice  the  tensile  strength. 


Longitudinal, 


2«' 


or,  rupture  will  take  place  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  when  the  pressure  is  greater  than  twice  the 
tensile  strength. 

9i 


Transverse 


3« 


or,  rupture  will  take  place  when  twice  the  pressure  is 
greater  than  three  times  the  tensile  strength.  From 
the  above  it  appears  that  the  tendency  to  rupture  is 
greater  from  the  action  of  the  t.angential  force  than 
for  any  other;  and  for  lengths  above  two  or  perhaps 
three  caliliers  the  tangential  resistance  may  be  said 
to  act  alone,  as  the  aid  derived  from  the  transverse 
resistance  will  be  but  trifling  for  greater  lengths  of 
bore  or  stave;  but  for  lengths  of  bore  less  than  two 
calilKTS  this  resistance  will  be  aided  by  both  the 
transverse  and  the  longitudinal  resistance.  Every 
piece  should,  therefore, "have  sufficient  thickness  of 
breech  to  cause  niptiu-e  to  take  place  laterally,  if  at 
all,  instead  of  splitting  through  the  breech. 

The  most  obvious  ineans  of  enabling  any  vessel  to 
sustiiin  a  greater  elastic  pressure  is  to  simply  thicken 
its  sides,  thus  increasing  the  area  of  subst:mce  to  be 
torn  asunder.  But  to  obtain  much  greater  strength 
by  casting  guns  heavier  is  impossible,  because  in  cast 
giins  the  outside  helps  but  ver>-  little  in  restraining 
the  exi)losive  force  of  the  powder  tending  to  burst 
the  gun,  the  strain  not  being  commimicated  to  it  Iiy 
the  intervening  metal.  The  cunsequence  is  that,  in 
large  guns,  the  inside  is  split,  while  the  outside  is 
scarcely  strained.  This  split  rapidly  increases,  and 
the  guii  ultimately  bursts.     If  we  make  equidistjmt  , 


circular  marks  on  the  end  of  an  India-rubber  cylinder 
and  stretch  it,  we  can  see  plainly  how  much  more 
the  inside  is  strained  than  the  outside,  or  even  the  in- 
termediate parts.  The  spaces  between  the  marks  will 
become  thinner,  each  space  becoming  less  thin  thiui 
that  inside  of  it,  but  the  inner  space  much  thinner 
than  the  others,  showing  that  when  the  inside  is 
strained  almost  to  breaking,  the  intermediate  parts  are 
doing  much  less  work,  and  those  far  removed  almost 
none.  It  is  well  known  that  in  cylinders  of  metal  the 
pnrer  ej'ertetl  by  different  jxirts  varies  inversely  as  the 
squares  of  the  distances  of  the  parts  from  the  axis. 
Thus,  in  a  10-inch  ^n,  when  th('  inside,  which  is  'i 
inches  from  the  axis,  is  fully  strained,  the  metal  3 
inches  from  the  inside,  or  7  inches  from  the  axis,  can 
only  exert  a  force  jg,  or  little  more  than  half,  as 
much.  We  cannot,  therefore,  l)e  astonished  that  it 
has  been  found  in  practice  that  cylinders  for  hydrau 
lie  presses,  with  a  thickness  equal  to  about  one  half 
the  diameter  of  the  piston,  are  almost  as  strong  as  if 
ten  times  as  thick.  Hence  there  is  a  certain  limit  be- 
yond wliicli  it  seems  useless  toincrea.se  the  thickness 
of  the  metal,  and  this  is  when  the  force  exerted  on 
the  surface  of  the  bore  would  be  sufficient  to  rupture 
the  interior  portions  of  the  metal  before  the  strain 
acted  to  any  extent  upon  the  exterior  parts.  Any 
arrangement  of  the  parts  by  which  the  explosive 
strain  is  distributed  equally  over  the  entire  thickness 
of  the  piece  necessarily  brings  a  greater  amount  of 
resistance  into  play.  In  order  to  obtain  the  requisite 
resistance,  and  with  a  moderate  thickness  of  metal,  it 
is  desiralile  to  equalize  as  far  as  possible  the  strain 
upon  every  portion  of  the  metal.  There  are  two 
methods  of  accomplishing  this,  <lepending  upon  the 
pi-inciples  of  initial  tension  and  varying  elasticity. 
Some  gun-makers  use  the  one,  .some  the  other,  and 
some  a  combination  of  the  two.  See  Initial  Tension 
and  Viiri/iiif/  Elasticity. 

ELBOW-GAUNTLET.— An  ancient  piece  of  armor, 
a  gauntlet  of  plate  reaching  to  the  elbow,  adopted 
from  the  Asiatics  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

ELBOW  PIECES.— The  metal  plates  used  to  cover 
the  junction  of  the  rere-bracc  anil  vanl-bracc,  by 
which  the  upper  and  lower  half  of  the  arm  were 
covered.  They  increased  to  im  enormous  size,  as  in 
the  effigy  of  Sir  Thomas  Peyton,  in  Lsleham  Church, 
but  agiiin  decreased  to  their  normal  size.  Also  writ- 
ten Condiires.     See  Armor. 

ELECTRIC  BOMB-LANCE.— An  application  of  the 
electric  force  to  the  exjilosion  of  a  bursting-charge  in 
a  haipoon  or  bomb  lance.  A  copjK'r  wire  is  oirried 
through  the  line,  and,  when  a  circuit  is  established 
by  the  gimner,  a  resistance  section  in  the  fuse  of  the 
bomb  lance  ignites  the  charge. 

ELECTRIC  CABLES. — Electric  cables  for  military 
use  must  pos.sess  the  following  qnalilications:  1.  Ca- 
pacity to  sustain  a  certain  amount  of  strain  without 
breaking.  2.  G'jod  insulation,  composed  of  such  a 
substani-e  that  it  may  lie  readily  stored  and  kept  for 
a  considerable  lime  wilboul  l>eing  injured.  This  is 
essential,  as  the  lines  will  only  be  submerged  while 
actiially  in  use  in  time  of  war,  for  which  purpose 
they  must  consequently  Ix'  kept  in  store,  and  always 
really  in  sufficient  quantities.  3.  For  situations 
where  there  is  a  rocky  or  shingly  bottom,  they  must 
be  provided  with  an  external  covering  capable  of 
protecting  the  insulation  from  destruclion.  Special 
precaulians  must,  of  course,  lie  taken  to  .si'cure  the 
cables  at  jwints  where  they  may  lie  necc.s.s;irily  cx- 
posi'd  to  a  considerable  wsish  of  the  scji,  such  as  the 
places  where  they  may  be  led  into  a  fort,  etc.;  but  as 
there  are  others  where  no  such  six'Cial  precautions  can 
l)e  applied,  an  external  protecting  covering  over  the 
insulation  must  be  provided.  4.  Pliability,  so  that 
it  mav  be  wound  or  paid  out  from  a  moderately 
sizeil  drum  without  injury.  The  conducting  wire  is 
either  soft  iron  or  cojiper.  The  best  substance  for 
covering  it  to  effect  insulation  is  vulcanized  India- 
rubber,  as  it  can  stand  any  degree  of  heat  I  i  kely  to  occur 
to  a  cable,  and  does  not  harden  and  crack  as  does 


ELECTEIC  CLZPSYDEA. 


534 


ELECTRIC  CLEFSTDBA, 


gutta-percha.  The  conductor  should,  however,  be 
galvaniziil  and  covcreti  with  a  thin  coating  of  raw- 
India  nibbor,  to  prtJti-ct  it  from  the  action  of  the  sul- 
phur of  the  vulcanized  rubher.  India-rubtx'r  insula- 
tion possi'sses  one  defect  as  coniiiarcd  willi  jiulta- 
percha;  \-iz.,  that  it  dix'S  not  adhere  to  the  nielallic 
conductor,  and  thai,  consequently,  if  the  India-rubber 
is  once  cut  through,  auv  stram  on  the  cable  has  a 
tendency  to  pull  the  conductor  away  and  incrcjise  the 
fault.  This  docs  not  occur  with  guttaixrcha,  which 
.seems  to  clirii:  to  it  and  prevent  such  a  result.  Gutta 
percha  cracks  and  perishes  unless  considerable  care  is 
e.verciscd  in  preserving  it,  which  is  best  done  by 
keeping  it  under  water. "  ludiarubber  possesses  higher 
dielectric  pro|>erties  than  gutta-percha. 

The  Bishop  gutta-iiercha  cables  and  insulated 
wires,  manufactured  under  the  Simpson  patent  by 
Messrs.  L.  G.  Tillolson  it  Co.,  United  States,  are  iu 
most  cases  used  for  submarine  mines.     The  dmwings 


fall  increases  with  the  time  in  very  rapid  proportiona. 
One  can,  it  is  true,  transform  the  vertical  fall  into  a 
movement  of  rt)talion,  whether  continuous,  such  as 
that  of  revoUing  cylinders,  or  alternate,  such  ivs  that 
of  pendulums;  i)ut"in  both  cases  the  great  advantage 
of  a  constant  chronometric  movement  is  lost;  account 
must  then  be  tjikeu  of  friction,  and  this  nuiy  be  varied 
bv  causes  which  escajie  the  observation,  and  certainty 
aiid  reliability  in  the  result  no  longer  exist.  In  order 
to  avoid  this  inherent  inconvenience  in  the  employment 
of  such  a  mechanical  instrument,  we  may  employ  as 
a  chionometer  the  tlow  of  a  liquid,  and  determine  the 
time  by  means  of  the  weight  run  out  during  the  in- 
terval "to  be  n)easurcti.  For  this  jiurpose  mercury 
presents  itself  naturally  to  the  mind;  this  metal,  very 
fluid  and  homogeneous,  has  great  specific  weight,  its 
evai>oration  is  insensible,  and,  not  moistening  the  in- 
closing surfaces,  its  use  is  extremely  clean  and  con- 
venient.    This  has  been  done  by  Major  Le  Boulenge 


Qutta-percha  JIultiple  Cables. 


show  sections  of  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  and 
seven  conductors.  These  multiple  cables  are  in  many 
cases  found  convenient  where  it  is  required  to  carry  a 
large  number  of  wires  in  a  compact  form  into  a 
fort.  They  may  be  composed  of  any  suitable  num- 
ber of  distinct  cores,  each  of  which  consists  of  a 
strand  of  copper  or  iron  wire  insulated  with  rubber 
or  guttapercha.  Where  there  is  any  strain,  or  any 
chance  for  abrasion  against  rocks  or  gravelly  bot- 
tom, an  exterior  covering  is  neces.sary  for  protec- 
tion. Friclional  electricity  must  not  be  used  with 
the  cjibles,  as  it  would  be  nearly  certain  that  every 
mine  atlaeliecl  ti)  the  cable  would  explode  by  induc- 
tion.    See  (liilriiii'iiiiiti  r  :\m\  Submarine  JUines. 

ELECTRIC  CLEPSYDRA.— Generally,  with  chrono- 
metric instruments,  the  lime  is  deduced  from  the 
space  |)!Ls.si-d  over  during  tli-.;  interval  to  be  measured 
by  a  body  which  moves  according  to  a  delennined 
law.  This  moving  body,  which  we  call  "  ehronom- 
cter,"  is  the  important  |>urt  of  the  aiipartitus;  the 
other  fittings  are  but  acce.s.sories  serving  to  put  the 
clironomeler  in  operation;  that  is  to  Siiy,  to  render  it 
capable  of  marking  the  commeneenieni  and  the  end 
of  the  lime  lo  1h'  measured.  The  choice  of  chronom- 
eter, then,  is  of  first  importance.  A  weight  fallini: 
freely  coiislilules,  ineonlcstably,  the  most  simple  and 
most  exact  chrononuMer;  regulated  by  an  immutable 
law  of  nature,  its  motion  is  accomiilishcd  withf)ut  the 
aid  of  any  intermediary  force;  neither  use  niir  lime 
can  alter  its  rale;  it  is  al)solutely  invariable.  Unfor- 
tunately this  chronometer  is  only  applicable  to  the 
measure  of  times  relatively  short,  for  the  extent  of 


of  the  Belgian  Artillery  in  an  instrument  to  which  he 
has  given  the  name  of  ileetrlc  clepsiidra. 

The  instrument,  rei)reseiited  in  section  in  the  draw- 
ing, is  composed  of  a  circular  reservoir,  A,  of  0"'.20 
diameter  by  0"'.03  high,  containing  mercury,  and 
supported  by  a  hollow  central  column,  B,  of  0°'.20 
height,  terminating  in  a  tripod  fitted  with  leveling- 
screws,  X.  This  ves.sel,  of  cast-iron,  rests  on  a  circu- 
lar plate,  C,  of  the  same  metal,  which  is  fitted  with  a 
rim  to  catch  the  mercurj'  which  may  through  inad- 
vertence flow  out  of  the  receiver,  T).  A  disk  of  cast- 
iron,  E,  covere  the  reservoir  ami  bears  the  electrical 
fillings  of  the  apparatus.  The  hollow  column,  which 
makes  a  ]iart  of  the  receiver,  terminates  at  the  lower 
end  in  a  fine  orifice,  above  which  is  fitted  a  conical 
valve  which  prevents  the  merciuy  from  nuniing  out. 
The  face  of  the  orifice,  the  body  "of  the  valve,  K,  and 
its  seat,  F,  are  of  steel.  A  rigid  stem,  G,  connected 
by  a  swivel-joint  to  the  body  of  the  valve,  rises,  fol- 
lowing the  axis  of  the  receiver,  traverses  a  central 
opening  in  the  upper  disk,  and  then  connects  above 
this  latter  to  a  horizontal  lever.  II,  which  is  called 
the  valve-lever.  If  the  arm  of  this  lever  opposite  to 
the  connection  of  I  he  stem  be  pressed  down,  the  valve 
is  opened  and  flow  is  produced.  If  the  effort  be  dis- 
continue<l,  the  valve  falls  back  upon  its  seat  and  the 
flow  is  arrested  instantaneously.  The  opening  and 
(losing  of  the  valve  are  performed  by  the  aclion  of 
two  levers,  I  and  J,  which  fall  successively,  and  of 
which  the  heavier  extreinilies,  filled  with  armatures 
of  soft  iron,  K  and  L,  are  held  in  the  state  of  "  readv" 
(shown  iu  the  figure)  by  electro-magnets,  51  and  K. 


XIECTBIC  CLOCK. 


535 


ELECTBIC  CLOCK. 


The  lever  for  closing  is  formed  of  two  parallel  arms, 
united  at  one  end  by  the  armature,  at  the  other  bv  a 
cross-piece  used  to  raise  the  lever,  K;  this  disposition 
permits  it  to  move  without  touching  the  valve-lever. 
If  the  current  which  actuates  the  electro-mafrnet,  M, 
be  broken,  the  opening  lever  falls  upon  the  end  of  the 
valve-lever,  opens  the  valve  permanently,  and  the 
mercury  Hows  into  the  receiver,  D,  placed  imme- 
diately under  the  orifice.  We  call  the  lever  K,  open- 
ing-lever; its  magnet  current  and  circuit  will  be  called 
by  the  name  of  electro-magnet  current  and  circuit  of 
opening,  to  distinguish  them  from  similar  tittings 
which  operate  the  dosing.  If  the  second  current 
be  broken,  the  closing-lever  falls  in  turn,  raises  the 
opening-lever  to  its  original  jwsition;  then  the  lever 
of  the  valve  being  freed,  this  latter  falls  back  into  its 
seat  and  the  flow  is  arrested.  A  catch,  T,  prevents 
vibration  of  the  closing-lever  after  its  fall.  This  sim- 
ple combination  of  three  levers  fultil  Is  perfectly  the 
mechanical  conditions  imposed,  for  the  valve  opens 
suddenly  by  a  shock,  while  it  closes  freely  by  its  own 
action.     In  actual  practice  the  two  currents  are  bro- 


ken successively  by  the  projectile;  a  weight,  P  ,  of 
mercury  flows  mto  the  receiver,  and  it  is  required  to 
■deduce  from  it  the  period  which  has  separated  the 
two  ruptures. 

Let  us  suppose  for  a  moment  that  the  apparatus 
furnishes  a  constant  flow,  and  let  P  be  the  flow  of  the 
orifice,  that  is,  the  weight  of  mercury  which  flows  ]>er 
second;  by  dividing  P'  liy  P  the  time  is  obtained 
which  ha.s  elaiisod  between  the  instant  of  opening 
and  that  of  closing  the  value, 
p 

The  relation  g- will  also  give  the  time  which  has 

elapsed  between  the  rupture  of  two  currents,  if  tlic 
valve  has  opened  and  closeil  at  the  jirccise  instant  of 
the  rupture  of  the  corrcsi)onding  current.  But  this 
is  not  the  ca.se;  when  the  first  current  is  broken,  a  cer- 
tain time  is  neces.S)iry  in  order  that  the  magnet  may 
arrive  at  such  a  state  of  demagnetization  as  to  release 
the  armature,  then  a  certain  time  for  the  fall  of  the 
lever,  and  finally  an  additional  time  for  the  complete 
raising  of  the  valve.  Analogous  periods  transpire 
between  the  rupture  of  the  closing  current  and  the 
arrest  of  the  flow.  The  detenninarton  of  these  short 
periods  is  obviated  by  applying  to  the  instrument  the 


meUiod  of  simultaneous  disjunction,  the  important 
feature  of  which  has  been  devised  by  Major  Xavez. 
To  this  end  the  fall  of  the  levers  is  regulated  in  such 
a  way  that  the  oi^ening-lever  occupies  less  time  than 
the  other  from  the  commencement  of  its  fall  to  its 
action  on  the  valve.  Thus,  when  by  means  of  a  dis- 
jvmctor  both  currents  are  cut  at  the  same  time,  the 
first  lever  opens  the  valve  a  certain  time  before  the 
second  closes  it;  the  weight,  P,  of  mercurj'  run  out 
in  this  way  is  the  precise  quantity  to  be  deducted 
from  P'  in  order  to  ascertain  from  the  expression 
P  —  p 

— p-^  the  time  which  has  elapsed  between  the  rup- 
ture of  the  two  currents. 

This  method  of  procedure  takes  into  account  both 
tlie  time  lost  in  the  working  of  the  mechanism  and 
that  of  demagnetization,  which  varies  with  the  respec- 
tive force  of  the  two  currents.     See  Chronoseopc. 

ELECTRIC  CLOCK.— A  dial  with  hands  and  going- 
train  impelled  by  recurrent  impulses  from  an  electro- 
magnet. The  regularity  of  any  clock  depends,  as  is 
well  known,  on  the  action  of  the  pendulum,  which  Ls 
isochronous — that  is,  has  the  jiroperty,  within  certain 
limits,  of  describing  long  and  short  arcs  in  the  same 
time.  The  pendulum,  however,  left  to  itself,  would, 
in  con.sequence  of  the  resistance  of  the  air,  and  of  the 
spring  on  which  it  hangs,  .soon  come  to  rest.  An 
impulse  must  therefore  be  given  it  occasionally  to 
keep  it  going.  This  impulse  need  not  necessarily  be 
exactly  the  same,  for  though  it  might  cause  the  pen- 
dulum to  make  a  longer  swing  at  one  time  than  at 
another,  the  time  of  oscillation  would  not  differ.  In 
ordinary  clocks  these  imptilses  are  given  by  a  hea%T 
weight,  and  are  transmitted  to  the  pendulum  through 
the  wheel-work  of  the  clock.  >'o  mo\ing  power  can 
be  more  steadv  than  gravity,  or  less  likely  to  tax  the 
isochronism  of  the  pendulinn,  but  its  action  on  the 
clock  is  limited  by  the  clistaiice  through  which  the 
weight  descends,  so  that  the  weight  must  lie  periodi- 
cally wound  up  to  preserve  gravity  in  play.  The 
trouble  of  winding,  though  small,  still  leaves  "room  for 
the  wish  that  a  clock  might  lie  constructed  going  for 
long  periods  without  external  help.  Such  an  instru 
meut  the  electric  clock  professes  to  be;  but  an  inde- 
pendent electric  clock  is  not  trustworthy  as  a  time- 
keejicr,  and  all  that  electric  clocks  are  used  for  is  to 
copy  the  time  of  a  good  gravity  clock.  This  work 
theelcctric  clock  does  to  perfection.  The  electric 
clock  was  invented  by  Bain,  an  Edinburgh  clock- 
maker,  in  1840,  and  his  ideas,  though  improved  and 
modified,  still  form  the  basis  of  electric-clock-making. 
In  the  ordinary  clock  it  is  the  clock  that  moves  the 
penduhuu;  in  "Bain's  clock  it  is  the  pendulum  4hat 
moves  the  clock.  As  the  conslruclion  of  the  pen- 
didum  is  the  only  part  of  it  coimeeted  with  elec- 
tricity, we  shall  confine  our  notice  to  a  general 
desci-ii'tion  of  the  pendulum  action.  To  the  lower 
part  of  the  pendulum  a  bob  is  attached,  consisting 
of  a  hollow  bobbin  of  insulated  copper  wire.  Wires 
from  both  ends  ascend  the  pen<Iulum-rod,  and  are' 
in  metallic  connection  respectively  with  the  t\W) 
•  springs  from  which  the  iiendulum  hangs.  Two 
niairiiets,  or  bundles  of  magnetic  rods,  are  fixed  at 
cither  side  of  the  bob,  and  are  of  such  dimensions 
that  the  hollow  Ixib  in  its  oscillation  can  pass  a  certiiin 
way  over  each  without  touching.  The  magnets  have 
their  like  poles  turned  towards  each  other.  The  two 
springs  of  the  iKnduluni-rod  are  in  connection  with 
the  two  poles  of  a  galvanic  battery.  The  wire  con- 
necting one  of  them  is  made  to  pass  round  by  a  break, 
worked  by  the  peudidum-rod.  When  the  pendulum 
is  made  to  move,  si\y  towarils  the  right,  it  shifts  a 
slider,  so  as  to  complete  the  connection  iK-tween  the 
poles  of  the  batter\-.  The  current  thereupon  desceniis 
one  of  the  wires  of  the  pendulum,  passes  through  the 
coil  of  wire  fonning  the  bob,  and  ascends  by  the  other. 
So  domg  it  converts  the  boli  into  a  temi)orar.- magnet, 
the  S  pole  towards  the  right  and  the  N.  jwle  towards 
the  left.  In  this  wav  the  S.  pole  of  the  Iwb  Is  repelled 
by  the  S.  iwle  of  the  right-hand  magnet,  and  ite  N. 


ELECTBIC  FUSES. 


530 


ELECTRIC  FUSES. 


pole  is  attracletl  by  the  S.  pole  of  the  left-hand 
magnet,  so  tlml  fit>m  this  dovilile  i-epulsion  and  nttrae- 
tion.  both  iiclin;;  in  the  sjimo  diiiction,  the  1h)1(  re 
ceive.s  an  inipidsc  towards  the  lelt.  Partly,  therefore, 
from  this  impulse,  and  partly  from  it.s  own  weijrht, 
the  iK'nduhnn  deserilKw  its  left  oscillation;  and  when 
it  n-aehes  the  end  of  it,  it  mo%es  the  slider  so  as  to  cut 
off  the  battery  enrrent,  and  then  returns  towards  the 
right,  uiuler  the  action  simply  of  its  own  weight.  On 
riTiehing  the  extreme  right, "as  Itefore,  it  receives  a 
fresh  impulse,  and  tlivis,  under  the  electric  force  ex- 
cried  durini;  its  left  oscillation,  the  motion  of  the  pen- 
dulum is  liiaintaiMed.  So  long  as  the  electrieitv  is 
supplietl  will  the  pendulum  continue  to  move.  The 
current  required  is  exceedingly  weak,  and  Bain  con- 
sidered that  it  could  he  sullieiently  excited  liy  a  plate 
of  eopiHT  anil  a  plate  of  zinc  sunk  into  the  ground 
and  acted  upon  hv  the  moisture  usually  found  there. 
This  carth-battcry,  as  he  called  it,  was  expected  to 
act  steadily  for  years;  but  the  result  proved  far  other- 
wise, for  the  soil  not  unfrequently  dried  uji,  leaving 
no  trace  of  electrical  action.  The  imiierfection  of  the 
batterv  has  led  to  a  strong  prejudice  against  these 
clocks— stronger,  certainly,  than  they  merit.  Practice 
has,  however,  established  that  a  clock  driven  by  an 
electric  pendulum,  vmdir  no  control,  is  not  to  l)e 
trusted,  and  clocks  of  this  kind,  so  far  at  least  as  this 
eoimtry  is  concerned,  are  entirely  ab.ondoueil.  The 
next  important  step  in  perfecting  the  electric  clock 
was  made  by  Lewis  Jones  (patented  IS.jT).  All  his 
clocks  are  ordinary  gmWty  clocks.  The  standard 
clock  is  not  an  electric  clock  at  all,  but  its  pendulum 
makes  and  breaks  contact  in  the  battery-circuit  which 
controls  the  copying  clocks.  These  last,  though 
driven  by  weights,  have  Bain's  pendulums,  and  the 
currents  transmitted  by  the  standard  clock  keep  them 
oscillating  in  exact  accordance  with  it,  so  that  the 
standanl  clock  and  copying  clocks  have  their  pen- 
dulums always  at  exactly  the  same  point  in  their 
oscillations.  The  copying  clocks  are  adjusted  to  keep 
nearly  the  lime  of  the  priniaiy,  and  the  margin  of 
error  is  whuliy  removed  by  electric  control. 

ELECTRIC  FUSES. — In"  most  blasting  or  mining 
operations  the  use  of  galvanic  batteries  or  electrical 
machines,  together  with  proper  exploders,  has  almost 
entirely  superseded  that  of  the  various  forms  of  run- 
ning fuse.  Among  the  advantages  offered  bj'  the  ap- 
plication of  electricity  to  this  purpose  may  be  men- 
tioned: greater  ease  of  application,  more  complete 
control,  and  greater  safety;  the  power  to  obtain  a 
piactically  simultaneous  explosion  of  a  number  of 
charges,  and  the  al)ilily  to  work  at  greater  distances, 
as  jii  torpedo  operations.  Electric  fuses  may  con- 
veniently be  divided  into  two  cla.sscs:  1st.  Tho.se  in 
which  explosion  is  obtained  by  disrujitive  discharge 
lielween  two  |i<>ints  in  the  circuit.  2d.  Those  in 
which  the  explosion  is  determined  by  the  healing  of  a 
conductor  of  comparatively  high  resistance  introduced 
into  the  circuit. 

The  first  class  can  be  used  with  the  Leydcn-jar  in- 
duction-coil, or  anv  frictional  electrical  machine,  such 
as  Smith's  or  Von  tbner's,  and  are  known  -.vifrirliiiiial 
fiiKix.  Fuses  of  this  kind  are  made  in  a  variety  of 
forms,  but  in  all  es.seiitial  features  are  alike.  All  that 
is  necessary  is  that  there  shall  be  a  break  in  a  circuit 
not  greater  than  a  spark  can  easily  be  made  to  pass 
over  Cirenendly  from  -'j  to  j",,  inch),  and  that  between 
the  points  of  this  break  shall  be  placed  some  composi- 
tion that  will  be  ignited  by  the  pas,s)ige  of  the  sjiark. 
Gunpowder  can  be  used,  "but  does  not  ignit<^  readily, 
and  for  this  reason  some  more  sensitive  composition 
is  generally  emidoyed.  The  objections  to  this  class 
of  fuse  are:  1st.  The  highly  sensitive  comjiosilions 
used  render  them  dangerous. "  2d.  Perfect  insulation 
of  all  leading  wires  \i.sed  in  connection  with  them  is 
necessjiry,  Jiarlicularly  when  working  under  water  or 
in  damp  places.  3d".  The  frictional  machines  used 
with  these  fuses  rc'iuirc  great  care  to  keep  them  in 
working  order,  and  arc  much  affected  by  atmosi)heric 
can.ses. 


The  second  class  of  electric  fuses  may  be  further 
divided  into  two  sub-classes:  1st.  Mmjneto-eUclric 
ftintx,  or  those  in  which  the  introduced  or  scconiUiry 
conductor  is  a  substance  of  high  specific  resistance, 
such  as  plund)ago,  copper  sulphide,  or  Abel's  compo- 
sition. 2d.  Dy lui mo  elect rie  /(/«'»,  or  those  in  which 
the  secondary  conductor  has  a  comparatively  low  re- 
sistance, sucli  as  fine  platinum,  iron,  or  German-silver 
wire. 

The  magneto-electric  fu.ses  are  used  with  Wheat- 
stone's,  Beardslee's,  and  similar  machines.  The  fuse 
con.sists  essentially  of  a  break  in  a  circuit  which  is 
bridged  by  a  layer  of  plumbago  or  composition, 
which,  when  heated  by  the  pa.ssagc  of  the  current, 
burns  and  ignites  the  charge  of  the  fuse.  These  fuses 
are  always  of  high  resistance,  but  are,  however,  safe, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  no  very  .seiLsilive  composition  is 
used  in  their  construction;  but  those  of  the  same 
mamifacture  vary  greatly,  both  in  rcsistmice  and  the 
strength  of  current  required  to  fire  them.  The  prin- 
cipal objections  to  this  cla.ss  of  fuse  are:  1st.  The 
gi'eat  resistance  of  the  fuse  makes  perfect  insulation 
of  all  leading  wires  used  in  connection  with  them 
necessary,  for  any  defect  of  insulation,  particularly 
when  working  under  water,  would  probably  olfer  less 
resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  current  than  the  fuse 
itself,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  current  would  thus 
be  diverted  from  the  fuse.  2d.  Their  unavoidable 
lack  of  uniformity  in  resistimce  and  strength  of  cur- 
rent required  to  fire  them.  iid.  Their  liability  to  be 
rendered  worlhle-ss  by  the  displacement  of  the  plum- 
bag<i,  from  handling  or  other  e;iuses. 

The  essential  feature  in  the  construction  of  all  fuses 
of  this  cla.ss  is  the  introduction  in  a  circuit  of  a  fine 
nutallic  wire,  which,  when  heated  by  the  passjige  of 
a  current,  fires  the  priming  material,  or  in  some  in- 
stances the  charge  of  the  fuse  itself,  placed  in  contact 
with  it.  These  fuses  are  generally  of  low  resLstance 
and  re(piire  a  moderately  strong  current  to  fire  them; 
and  by  care  in  construction  great  uniformity  in  re- 
sistance can  be  obtained,  and  much  greater  ri'gularity 
in  the  strength  of  current  required  to  fire  them  than 
with  the  other  classes.  The  principal  advantages  of 
this  class  of  fuse  are:  1st.  Unifonnity.  2d.  Safety. 
3d.  Owing  to  their  low  resistance,  moderate  defects 
of  ins\dation  will  not  prevent  the  firing  of  the  fuse. 
4th.  The  condition  of  the  fuse  (even  after  it  has  been 
placed  in  the  charge)  can  always  be  safely  tested  by 
the  passage  of  a  weak  current,  and  the  certainty  of 
firing  be  thus  demonstrated.  .5th.  The  fuse  is  not 
likely  to  be  damaged  by  handling,  storage,  or  trans- 
portation. Gth.  The  machines  used  in  connection 
with  them  require  but  little  care  and  are  not  likely 
to  get  out  of  order. 

Platinum  may  be  disjiensed  with  by  bringing  the 
ends  of  the  conducting  wires  so  close  together  as 
barely  to  be  apart,  thus  forming  a  break  or  interval 
in  the  conductor.  The  ends  of  the  wire  arc  held  in 
exact  position,  usvially  by  being  passed  through  a 
short  plug  of  wood.  Around  this  plug  is  wrapped 
jiaper,  which,  projecting  at  the  end  where  the  con- 
ductor is  broken,  forms  an  envelope  for  the  prinung. 
This  wrapping  or  cap  is  afterwards  coven'd  with  a 
strong  shellac  varnisb.  When  rcuularly  manufac- 
tured fuses  cannot  lie  obtained,  it  may  become  neces- 
sary to  improvise  them.  This  may  be  done  in  several 
ways,  one  of  which  is  to  take  a  small  cylinder  of  hard 
wood  about  an  inch  in  diameter  and  half  an  inch  long; 
this  is  provided  with  a  groove  around  its  circumfer- 
ence, in  which  is  ticil  the  paper  envelope  before  men- 
tioned. Two  holes  about  a  (piarter  of  an  inch  ap.irt 
and  of  suitable  size  to  receive  two  moderately  line 
pieces  of  copper  wire  arc  made  lengthwise  through 
the  cyliialer.  One  extremity  of  both  of  these  wires  is 
sharpened  with  a  file,  and  about  a  (piarter  of  an  inch 
of  the  wire  bent  over  at  right  angles,  and  slightly 
Hatlened  with  a  hammer,  the  extreme  point  being 
bent  over  in  the  form  of  a  hook.  The  straight  ends 
of  the  wire  are  then  passed  through  the  holes  in  the 
cylinder,  and  the  flattened  heads  are  fi.xcd  in  the  wood 


bj-  Kolva..iL-  ciM-r^ni        U>.  Galvai.io  i..c,i.idesceiic^.      11,  12.  Galvanic  l.^^ht.      '^-  '       ^,j,  -- 
16.  Oereted'HfunOumenlul  experiment.    19.  Tangent-bussole.    30.  Mulnplier.    ' '^^^^..j, 
Moreu  or  Qraliam  alphabet ;  2fJ.  key;  27.  circuit  coiupletw;  s,  key;  m.  souDder;    .        ^  ^, 
mugnetlsiii.    34.  Electro-dynamic  attraction.    35,30.    Thermo-electric  elemenw.       ■ 
trie  ubal«r.    43.  Qround  iuductor.    44,  45.  BiamasDetiBm. 
V— 388. 


C.'UP'*  or  cells.      H.  Uunsen's  coltiinn.      0.  Generation  of  heat 
■'    ^  "itftmeter.      16.   Electrolysis  of  suiline  soluiiooa.      IT,  Oalvano-plaatic. 
'*Be<:i'n  7    ''      ""'  '^''  ^''''^'"*-''"^"ets.    85  to  27.  Electric  telegraph  (25.  sounder  and  strip  with 
*Qec.rJnm"     !''"''***'■■     **■  ^>^'^''-''-^y'"imic  test.      31.  Solenoid,     33. 33.  Amp.Vre-slheoiyof 
oeneiic  machine.    40.  Induction  apparatus.    «.  RumkorffB  spark  inductor.    4a.  Elec- 


ELECTRICITY. 


537 


ELECTEICITT. 


by  driving  tbe  pointed  extremities  into  the  Intter.  In 
this  way  the  broad,  thin  melal  surfaces  whieli  form 
the  poles  of  the  fuse  are  tixed  in  a  parallel  position  on 
the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  should  tie  as  close  to- 
gether as  possible  without  actually  touching.  Be- 
fore, however,  the  wires  are  thus  jilaced  in  i^osition, 
the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  tipon  which  the  poles  are 
to  be  tixed,  is  brushed  over  lightly  with  a  solution 
of  ordmary  photographic  collodion.  When  the  poles 
have  been  fixed  into  the  cylinder  thus  prepared,  the 
small  surface  of  wood  which  intervenes  between  them 
is  coated  with  graphite  by  ilrawing  a  pointed  l)lack 
lead  pencil  across  it  two  or  three  limes.  A  cap  of 
paper  is  then  tied  round  the  cylinder  so  as  to  inclose 
the  poles  of  the  fuse;  this  cylinder  is  tilled  compactly 
with  tine  gimpowdcr,  and  the  open  end  is  then  choked. 
The  prolrudiug  wires  of  the  fuse,  which  .serve  lo  con- 
nect it  with  the  conducting  wires,  are  coatetl  to  within 
a  short  distance  of  their  extremities  by  molding  ordi- 
nary beeswax  arounil  them  with  the  tingcrs,  and  then 
tightly  wrapping  the  wax  with  thin  strijis  of  tape  or 
rag,  which  is  .secured  to  the  ends  with  thread.  The 
entire  fuse,  except  the  bare  ends  of  the  wires,  is  then 
coated  with  shellac  or  lacquer.  This  fuse  may  be 
fired  by  means  of  a  constant  battery  of  sufficient 
power,  or  by  a  magnetic  exploder,  the  former  of 
which  generates  a  continuous  current,  and  the  latter 
a  rapid  succession  of  short  currents.  C.'urrents  of  this 
character  are  required  to  produce  the  healing  power 
over  the  plumbago  bridge  necessary  to  ignite  the 
priming.  See  Bynamo-tleclricIgniUr,  Fiisc,  and  (fal- 
■Vftnintt..  < 

ELECTRICITY.— The  name  used  with  reference  to 
an  extensive  and  important  class  of  phenomena,  and 
usually  denoting  either  the  unknown  cause  of  the 
phenomena  or  the  science  that  treats  of  them.  Most 
of  the  jihenomena  m  question  fall  under  the  three 
chief  heads  of  frictional  electricity,  galvanism,  and 
magneto-electricity.  The  present  article  is  contincd 
to  the  first.  Thales,  about  600  n.c,  refers  in  his 
writings  to  the  fact  that  amber,  when  rubbeil,  attracts 
light  and  dry  bodies.  This  was  the  only  electric  fact 
known  to  the  ancients.  The  science  of  electricity 
dates  properly  from  the  3'ear  1600  a.t>.,  when  Gilbert 
of  Colchester  published  a  book,  entitled  De  Artf  M<ig- 
iieticn,  in  which  he  gives  a  list  of  substances  which 
he  found  to  possess  the  .same  property  as  amber,  and 
speculates  on  magnetic  and  electric  forces.  lie  is  the 
inventor  of  the  word  electricity,  which  he  derived 
from  the  Greek  word  eketron,  amber.  Otto  von 
Guericke,  Burgomaster  of  JIagdeburg,  in  his  work 
E.rperiinentti  Xora  Maodeburgicn  (1672).  describes, 
among  his  other  inventions,  the  first  electric  machine 
ever  made,  which  consisted  of  a  globe  of  sidphur 
turned  by  a  handle,  and  rulilied  by  a  cloth  jiressed 
against  it  l)y  the  hand.  Ilawksbee  (1700)  constructed 
ainachine  in  which  a  glass  cylinder.  rublie<l  by  the 
drv  hand,  rciilaeed  Guericke's  sulphur  glolie.  Grey 
and  Wehler  (172!))  were  the  first  to  transmit  electricity 
from  one  (loint  to  another,  and  to  distinguish  bodies 
into  conductors  and  non-conductoi-s.  Dufay  (1733- 
45)  showed  the  identity  of  electrics  anil  noncon- 
ductors.  and  of  non-electrics  and  conductors,  and 
was  tlie  first  to  discover  the  two  kinds  of  electricity, 
and  the  fundamental  principle  which  regulates  their 
acti(;n.  Between  the  years  1733  and  17-H  much  at- 
tention was  given  in  Germany  to  the  construction  of 
electric  machines.  Up  to  this  time,  notwithstanding 
the  inventions  of  Guericke  and  Hawksliee.  the  glass 
tube  rubbed  by  a  piece  of  cloth  which  Gilbert  first 
introduced  was  used  in  all  cx|ienment<.  Bozc,  a 
Profe.s.sor  at  Wittenberg,  taking  the  hirl  from  Hawks- 
bee's  maclune,  employed  a  srlobe  of  glass  for  his  ma- 
chine, and  furnished  it  with  a  prime  conductor. 
Winkler,  a  Professor  at  Leipsic,  was  the  first  to  use  a 
fixed  cushion  in  the  machine.  The  Lcyden  jar  was 
(1746)  discovered  accitlentally  at  Leydcn  by  Musch- 
enbroek:  but  the  honor  of  the  discovery  has  been 
contested  also  in  favor  of  Cuneus,  a  rich  liiu-gess  of 
that  town,  and  Kleist,  Canon  of  the   Cathedral  of 


Camin,  in  Pomerania.  PVanklin  (1747)  showed  the 
electric  conditions  of  the  Leyden  jar,  and  (1752) 
proved  the  identity  of  lightning  and  electricity  by  his 
famous  kite  experiment.  The  last  was  performed  with 
the  same  object  about  the  same  time,  and  quite  inde- 
pendently, by  Romas  of  the  town  of  Nerac,  in  FS-ance. 
In  1760  Franklin  made  the  first  lightning-conductor. 
Canton,  Wilke,  and  ^Epiuus  il753-.59)  examined  the 
nature  of  induction.  Hamsilen  (1768)  was  the  first  to 
construct  a  plate-machine,  and  Nairn  (17^0)  a  two- 
I  fluid  cylinder-machine.  The  electrophorus  was  in- 
I  vented  by  Volta  in  1775,  and  the  condenser  bv  the 
I  .same  electrician  in  1782.  In  1786  Galvani  made  the 
discovery  which  led  to  the  addition  of  the  new  brancli 
to  the  science  which  bears  his  name,  and  which  now 
,  far  exceeds  the  older  branch  in  extent  and  iiraclical 
value.  In  1787  Coulomli,  by  means  of  his  torsion- 
balance,  investigated  the  laws  of  electric  attraction 
and  repulsion.  In  1837  Faraday  published  the  first 
of  his  researches  on  induction.  Armstrong,  iu  1840,. 
designed  his  hydro-electric  machine. 

Under  the  head  Conductous  it  Is  stated  that  bodies 
which  do  not  conduct  electricity,  or  non-conductors, 
are  callable  of  electrical  excitation  from  friction,  and 
are  in  consequence  termed  electrics,  and  that  con- 
ductors not  so  affected  are  called  non-electrics.  The 
fumlainental principles  of  electricity  are  illustrated  by 
the  electric  pendnbim.  A  glass  tube  bent  at  riglit 
angles,  so  as  to  project  horizontally,  is  jilaced  on  a 
convenient  stand.  On  the  hook  in  which  its  upper 
end  terminates,  a  cocoon  thread  is  hung,  to  the  end 
of  which  a  pith-ball  is  attached.  The  ball  is  thus 
doubly  insulated  by  the  glass  and  the  silk  thread.  If 
a  tube  of  gla.ss  be  rublieil  by  a  dry  silk  handkerchief, 
and  brought  near  the  ball,  the  ball  is  at  first  briskly 
attracted,  and  then  as  briskly  repelled;  and  if  the 
tube  lie  then  moved  towards  it,  it  moves  olT,  keeping 
at  the  same  distance  from  it.  The  ball  being  so  af- 
fected, or  charged,  as  it  is  called,  a  rod  of  shellac  or 
of  sealing-wax,  after  being  rubbed  with  llamiel,  at- 
tracts it,  if  possible,  more  briskly  than  before,  and 
again  sends  it  off  exactly  as  the  glass  had  done.  If 
tile  glass  tube  be  now  again  taken  up  and  rublxjd  a 
second  time,  if  necessary,  the  ball  will  act  towards 
it  as  it  did  towards  the  sealing-wax.  The  sjime  series 
of  attractions  and  rei)ulsions  would  have  taken  place 
if  we  had  begun  with  the  sealing-wax  instead  of  the 
glass  tube.  We  interpret  this  experiment  in  the  fol- 
lowing way:  A\hen  glass  is  rublied  with  silk,  and 
the  silk  rc'moved,  it  is  charged  with  what  is  called 
positive  electricity.  The  ball  is  attracted  by  it,  and 
becomes  on  contact  also  charged  with  positive  elec- 
tricitv,  and  is  then  repelled.  When  sealing  wax  is 
rubbed  with  flannel,  and  the  flannel  removed,  it  be- 
comes charged  with  negative  electricity,  which  is  the 
counterpart  of  positive  electricity,  for  it  attracts  the 
positively  charged  ball,  and.  communicating  its  own 
eleetricilV  to  it^  finally  repels  it.  From  such  an  ex- 
periment as  this  we  conclude  ihut  bodies  electrified 
either  pnxitirely  or  negatirely  attract  ueittrnl  bodies  and 
bodies  affected  irith  electricitj/  of  an  opposite  name  to- 
their  own,  but  repel  those  affected  trith  ikctrieity  of  the 
same  name;  and  that  electricity  can  /«•  communicated 
from  one  body  to  another  by  contnct.  For  positive  and 
"neirativc  (written  also  -f  and  —  ),  the  temis  vitreous 
and  resinous  arc  also  employed,  as  glass  and  resin  are 
the  t\-pical  substances  from  which  they  may  be  ob- 
tained. Contact  is  not  the  only  way  in  which  elec- 
tricity is  communicated.  We  find,  when  we  deal 
with  "larger  bodies  than  the  pith-ball  of  the  experi- 
ment, and  sometimes  even  with  it,  that  the  pas-sjige 
of  a  «;OTrA- between  two  bo<lies  without  contact  com- 
municates the  electricitv  of  the  one  to  the  other. 
The  part  plaved  bv  the  rubbers  in  the  above  experi- 
ment must  not  be  overlooked.  The  silk  handker- 
chief employed  to  rub  the  glass  a.-wumes  the  resinous 
or  —  electrical  state,  and  the  flannel  rubber  of  the  scal- 
inir-wax  the  vitreous  or  -|-.  This  cannot,  however, 
be  clearly  shown  as  the  experiment  \r.  pcrfoniied, 
for  the  rubbers  are  in  each  case  tigliHy  embraced  by 


ILECTBICITT. 


5SS 


ELECTEICITT, 


the  bond,  which  neutralizes  their  peculiar  electricitj'. 
We  ciui  perform  our  finiilainentjil  experiment  in  a 
way  clearly  to  show  tliis.  Let  us  take  for  our  rub- 
biiiV  auil  rubbi-il  surfaces  two  Imliarubbcr  balkxius 
intlatwl  with  air  (such  as  chililreu  plav  witli).  and 
hold  Ihem  tightly  one  in  each  hand.  They  may  be 
in  all  respwts  perfectly  alike.  Let  lis  then  rub  them 
briskly  on  each  other,  and  then  hold  the  rublKil  sides 
clo.sely  together.  On  bringinjr  the  two  in  contact 
near  the  i>illi-ball,  it  remains  indifferent  to  them:  but 
if  we  pull  thcni  a|)art,  and  put  one  on  each  side  of 
the  pilhball.  the  l)all  plays  actively  between  them, 
iK-ing  attracted  and  re|>elled  by  each  in  turn.  The 
fact  of  no  attraction  occurring  when  the  balloon.s  are 
together  shows  that  in  the  rubbing  both  electricities 
are  generated  in  equal  quantities,  for  they  neutralize 
caeli  other  when  brought  near;  and  the  fact  that  llie 
balloons  must  be  .separateil  proves  that  all  electric 
phenomena  take  place  in  an  electric  field,  with  posi- 
tive electricity  at  its  one  termination,  and  negative 
electricity  at  its  other.  The  non-conducting  nature 
of  the  India-rubber  prevents  the  electricities  finally 
neutralizing  in  contact,  and  disappearing  by  the 
hands  when  apart.  It  is  also  instructive  that  as  force 
is  everted  and  work  is  done  in  pulling  them  apart,  we 
have  the  c(iuivalent  of  that  work  in  the  form  of  an 
electric  field  capable  of  doing  work.  The  motion  of 
the  pith-ball,  and  the  heating  caused  by  the  tiny 
.sparks  which  charge  it,  are  evidences  of  the  truth  of 
the  statement.  It  is  agsiin  worthy  of  note  that  both 
balloons  appear  exactly-  alike,  and  yet  they  assume 
op]>osite  electricities.  That  there  must  be  some  dif- 
ference may  be  readily  seen  from  what  follows.  In 
most  cases  of  friction,  the  nature  of  the  rubbing  and 
nibbed  surfaces  determines  the  kind  of  electricity 
which  each  assumes.  Thus,  if  glass  Ixi  rubbed  by  "a 
cat's  fur  instead  of  silk,  its  electricity  is  —  instead  of 
-|-.  In  the  following  list,  each  body,  when  ruljbed 
by  any  one  preceding  it,  is  negatively  electrified;  by 
any  one  succeeding  it,  positively:  cat's  fur,  smooth 
glass,  linen,  feathers,  wood,  paper,  silk,  shellac, 
ground  gl:iss.  When  two  pieces  of  the  same  mate- 
rial arc  rubl)ed  together,  the  colder  or  smoother  be- 
comes positively  excited.  Jletal  filings  rubl)ing 
against  a  plate  of  the  same  metal  deternune  —  elec- 
tricity in  themselves,  and  +  electricity  in  the  plate. 
When  a  white  silk  ribbon  is  rubbed  by  a  black  one 
of  the  same  texture,  the  white  one  becomes  -(-.  A 
plate  of  glass  becomes  +  when  a  stream  of  air  is  di- 
rected against  it  from  a  pair  of  bellows.  The  friction 
caased  by  steam  of  high  tension  issuing  from  a  nar- 
row piiic  develops  electricities  in  the  steam  and  pipe 
which  depend  on  the  material  of  the  latter.  This 
fact  has  been  turned  to  advantage  by  Armstrong  in 
the  construction  of  a  boiler  electricjd"  machine  of  im- 
mense power. 

Free  electricity  has  the  power  of  inducing  the 
l)odics  in  its  neighborhood  to  assume  a  peculiar  elec-  | 
trical  condition;  this  is  exhibited  in  the  following 
simple  way:  A  brass  cylinder,  roundid  at  both  ends, 
is  insulatttl  on  a  gla.ss  pillar.  Two  pith-balls,  hung 
hv  cotton  threads,  are  attached  at  eitlier  extremity. 
When  a  glass  tube  is  brisklv  rubbed,  and  placed 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  eiul  of  the  evliniler,  the 
balls  at  each  end  diverge,  showing  tb;il  each  jiair  is 
charged  with  similar  electricities.  When  the  glass 
tul)e  Is  withdrawn,  the  balls  hang  down  as  before,  so 
that  the  electrical  excitement  of  the  cylinder  is  merely 
temporary',  and  dependent  on  the  proximity  of  the 
excited  tube.  If,  while  the  balls  are  ai)art,  a  proof 
plaiif,  coasisting  of  a  small  disk  of  gilt  paper  in- 
sulateil  at  the  end  of  a  glass  rod,  be  mude  to  touch 
the  end  next  the  tulK>,  and  then  transferred  to  an  elec- 
trometer, the  electricity  is  found  to  be  — ;  if  the  same 
be  done  at  the  other  ciid,  it  is  -|-.  The  nearer  end  of 
the  cvlinder  is  thus  induced  by  the  +  electricity  of 
the  giii-ss  to  assume  the  negative" electric  state;  and  as 
no  —  electricity  can  be  excited  without  as  nnieh  -f 
jlcctrieity.  we  find  the  other  end  posiiively  electrified 
to  the  Siime  extent.     It  appears,  besides",   from  the 


positions  taken  up  by  them,   that  both  eUctritilks 
ufm-rre  the  mm<  attmetioiig  iinil  npiihitmg  as  the  boditt 
iijt'trlxl  III/  Hum.     This  action  of  the  electricity  of  the 
tube  inducing  in  the  cvlinder  this  peculiar  electrical 
condition  is  called  induction ;  and  the  cylinder  in 
this  slate  is  sjiid  to  be  jiolarized — that  is,  to  have  its 
poles  or  ends  like  a  magnet,  each  having  its  similar, 
but  relatively  opposite,  force.     If  the  hand  touch  the 
cylinder,  the  balls  next  the  tube  diverge  furthir  than 
l>ef(>re,  and  the  other  two  cease  to  Ik'  affected.     In 
this  ca.se,  electrically  sjx'akiug,  the  cylinder  is  a  iwr- 
tion  of  the  ground,  for  the  hand  an<l  body  are  con- 
ductors; the  ground  is  thus  brought  nearer,  moi^  — 
electricity  appears,  and  the  +  electricity  is  lost  in  the 
sjiark  \\  ilh  the  hand.     The  —  electricity  is  kept  fixed 
in  the  pari  of  the  cylinder  opposite  the  tube  by  the + 
electricity  of  the  lattfr;  and  when  the  hand  is  fii-st 
removed,  and  then  the  tulie,  it  causes  the  balls  at 
both  ends  to  diverge  permanently.     We  thus  see  that 
electricity  can  be  produced  and  insulated  in  conduc- 
tors by  the  action  of  free  electricity  on  them.     The 
-f-  electricity  of  the  further  half  of  the  cylinder  is  as 
free  anil  insulated  as  if  no  —  electricity  existed  within 
it.     This  is  shown  by  i>lacing  a  cylinder  near  the 
first,  forming  a  continuation  of  it,  as  it  were,  without 
touching,  when  the  second  cylinder,  under  the  in- 
duction of  the  +  electricity  of  the  first,  is  thrown  into 
the  same  state  as  the  first.     This  second  can  induce 
the  same  state  in  a  third,  and  so  on.     As  the  excited 
tube  is  withdrawn,  the  whole  series  return  to  their 
natural  condition  without  being  in  any  way  i>erma- 
ncntly  alTeclcd.     The  moment,  however,  it  is  again 
lirouglit  near,  there  is  manifested  at  the  further  ter- 
mination of  the  last  a  +  electricity,  which  e.xerts  the 
s;ime  influence  there  as  if  a  portion  of  the  electricity 
of  the  lube  had  been  actually  communicated  or  trans- 
ferred to  it.     The  air  intervening  between  tlie  tube 
and   the  cylinder  is  termed   the  duhrtrif,  for  it   is 
through  it  "that  the  electric  action  is  propagated.     In 
i  proof  of  this,  we  have  only  to  place  :i  cake  of  shellac 
between  the  tulje  and  cylinder,  when  the  polarity  of 
the  cylinder  will  rise  higher  than  before,  as  would  be 
shown  by  the  furlher  divergence  of  the  balls;  and  if 
this  or  a  similar  experiment  be  conducted  with  suffi- 
cient care,  we  find  that  the  inductive  action  vaiics  in 
amount  for  each  non-conductor.     Induction,   there- 
fore, we  have  reason  to  conclude,  is  not  the  direct  ac- 
tion of  one  body  on  another,  but  an  action  transmitted 
through,  or  possibly  residing  in.  the  medium  between 
them.     In  further  proof  of  this,  Faraihiy,  who  was 
the  first  to  examine  the  function  of  Ibe  dielectric  in 
induction,   has  .shown   that   the  action   takes   place 
through  air  in  curved  as  well  as  in  straight  lines, 
which  implies  the  action  of  an  intervening  niediiun. 
The  relative  powers  of  different  substances  in  facili- 
tating induction  are  termed  by  this  ])liilosophcr  tlieir 
upecifir  imliiftire  ciipiiritii'x.     The  following  table  by 
Sir  W.  S.  Harris  gives  the  s|)ecitic  imluctive  capacir 
ties  of  the  more  important  non-couilucting  substances, 
taking  that  of  air  as  unity;     Air,  1.00;  resin,  1.77; 
pitch,  1.80;  beeswax,  1.86;  "glass,  1.90;  sulphur,  1.93; 
shellac,  1.95;  India  rubber,  'i.8.     All  gases,  whether 
simple  or  compound,  have  the  same  inductive  capac- 
ity, and  this  is  not  atTected  by  temperature  or  den- 
sity.     If  a  large  jilate  of  metal  be  placed  between  the 
glass  lube  and  the  cylinder,  the  polarization  of  the 
cylinder  instantly  vanishes,  for  the  induction  is  di- 
verted by  it  into  the  ground. 

Some  idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  }>otfn(ial' 
may  be  gol  from  the  following  comparison.  Sup- 
pose we  have  a  sup|ily  of  water  with  a  cciiain  head, 
to  fill  an  elastic  b;ig:  when  the  water  is  admilled.  the 
bag  will  swell  lill  the  elasticity  of  the  bag  is  eijual  to 
the  lie.-id  of  water,  and  then  the  flow  will  ee:ise.  The 
potential  is  the  head  of  water  or  elaslicily  of  the  bag, 
so  many  feet  high,  or  so  many  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  capacity  of  the  bag  is  usually  the  amount 
it  holds,  but  capacity  in  an  elastic  bag  is  a  shifting 
quantity,  and  we  must  use  the  term  in  this  way  if  we 
wish  to  compare  the  ea]>acity  of  two  elastic  bags — 


3LECTEICITT. 


539 


ELECTRICirr. 


viz.,  the  ratio  of  the  water  it  holds  to  the  head  that 
filled  it.  Thus,  a  bag  holding  10  gallons  with  a  head 
1  foot  would  have  a  ten  times  greater  capacity  than  a 
bag  holding  10 gallons  with  a  head  10  feet;  for  if  the 
first  were  pressed  hj  a  head  of  10  feet,  it  would  hold 
100  gallons,  the  resistance  of  the  hag  being  supposed 
to  increase  with  its  contents.  Now,  let  us  take  a 
somewhat  similar  electric  problem.  An  insulated 
ball  is  connected  with  a  magazine  of  energy,  ready  to 
make  electricity  flow  when  occasion  offers,  such  as  a  I 
galvanic  batterj'.  Let  the  +  pole  of  a  gigantic  bat- 
tery be  connected  with  the  hall,  and  the  other  pole 
with  the  ground:  electricity  will  flow  to  the  ball  till 
the  air  between  the  ball  and  the  ground  presents  an 
electric  reaction  equal  to  the  iwtential  of  the  battery. 
The  charge  of  the  ball  taken  with  reference  to  this 
potential  gives  the  capacity  of  the  ball.  So  much, 
then,  for  a  popular  \iew  of  these  two  words.  The 
potential  of  a  body,  or  anj-  point  in  the  field,  is  de- 
fined thus,  %iz. :  t/ie  amount  of  icork  that  itouUl  he  ex- 
pended in  bringing  a  small  quantity,  a  unit  of-\-  elec- 
tricity, from  an  infinite  distance  Ui  the  body  or  point. 
If  the  body  is  positive,  the  work  would  be  expended; 
if  negative,  the  work  would  be  done  on  the  lx)dy  and 
the  potential  — .  The  siiid  unit  of  +  electricity  will 
always  move  from  a  point  where  the  potential  is 
highto  one  where  it  is  lower;  in  other  words,  elec 
tricity  will  always  flow  between  two  points  where 
there  is  a  difference  of  potential,  and  will  cea.se  to 
flow  when  that  difference  cea.ses.  If  E  be  the  charge, 
V  the  potential.  C  the  capacity,  then  C  =  E  -j-  V. 
From  the  definition  of  potential  just  given,  what  we 
have  called  the  potential  of  the  battery  in  the  pre- 
ceding illustration  is  in  reality  its  electro-motice  force, 
or  the  difference  of  j)otentials  of  its  poles.  As  these 
are  alike  in  ]X)wer  bin  different  in  sign,  and  as  the 
difference  of  two  quantities  of  unlike  sign  is  their 
.sum,  the  electro-motive  force  is  twice  the  ])otential  of 
one  pole.  If  the  chargin<f-liiie  be  withdrawn,  the  ball 
will  Iw  in  all  ros]iccts  as  if  charged  by  an  electric 
machine.  The  battery  having,  .so  long  as  it  acts,  an 
unlimited  supply  of  electricily,  its  electro-motive 
force  remains  the  sjinie;  but  when  balls  charge  one 
another,  the  potential  falls  just  as  when  a  limited  sup- 
ply of  water  has  its  head  reduced  when  made  to  run 
into  another  ves.sel.  Potential,  then,  must  be  esti- 
mated by  the  resistance  of  the  field,  or  the  work  value 
of  the  unit  of  charge.  The  charge  being  the  same, 
the  potential  rises  with  the  smallness  of  the  IxkIv  or 
the  thickness  of  the  dielectric.  Density  is  the  quan- 
tity of  electricity  on  a  unit  of  surface,  and  tenmon  is 
the  strain  which  Faraday  supposes  to  exist  in  the 
molecules  of  a  dielectric  when  charged.  Tension  is 
■commonly  used  in  this  country  and  abroad  for  poten- 
tial, though  our  best  writers  never  use  it  now  in  this 
sense. 

We  might  take  it  almost  as  a  self-evident  truth, 
that  the  greater  the  surface  over  which  electricity  is 
diffused,  the  less  is  its  electric  potential  at  any  par- 
ticular point,  and  so  we  are  taught  by  exjx'riment. 
When  two  equal  balls  are  insulated,  aud  a  charge  is 
given  to  one  of  them,  and  then  communicated  to  the 
other  by  contact  with  the  first,  it  is  found  that  both 
equally  divide  the  charge,  but  that  the  jwlential  of 
the  electricity  of  each  is  one  half  of  that  of  the  origi- 
nally charged  ball.  When  a  watch  guard-chain  is 
charged  and  laid  on  the  plate  of  an  electroscope  by 
means  of  a  gla.ss  rod,  the  gold  leaves  diverge  most 
•when  the  chain  lies  in  a  heap  on  the  plate;  and  as  it 
is  lifted  up,  the  leaves  approach  each  other,  showing 
that  as  the  exposed  surface  of  the  chain  increases,  the 
electric  potential  of  each  jiart  diminishes.  The  rea- 
son of  this  is  obvious.  Let  us  begin  with  one  ball 
with  a  certain  charge,  then  tiike  another  equal  ball 
and  impart  half  the  charge  to  it  by  making  the  two 
touch.  A  sjiark  will  be  seen  at  the  charge  of  the  sec- 
ond biUl.  The  quantity  in  both  is  still  the  same,  but 
energy  has  been  lost  by  the  sjiark,  and  the  heat  gen- 
erated by  the  spark  is  the  measure  of  the  loss.  If  we 
continue  to  add  ball  afU^r  ball  until  we  have  a  verj- 


large  surface,  the  quantity  is  the  same  as  at  first,  but 
energj-  has  been  squandered  in  the  sparks  of  each 
additional  ball,  and  so  the  potential  is  lowered.  E.\- 
periment  teaches  us  that  electricity  is  exhibited  onlj- 
on  the  surfaces  of  conductors.  A  brass  ball  is  sus- 
pended by  a  sUk  thread,  and  covered  with  two  hemi- 
phercs,  which  can  be  held  by  insulating  handles, 
and  w  liich  exactly  fit  it.  A  charge  is  then  comniuni- 
Ciited  to  the  ball  so  compounded.  When  the  hemi- 
spheres are  withdrawn,  Uiey  are  found  to  tiUie  away 
all  the  electricity  w  ilh  them,  not  the  slightest  charge 
being  left  in  the  ball.  The  same  fact  is'exhibited  by 
a  hollow  ball  placed  on  a  gla.ss  pillar,  with  a  hole  in 
the  top  large  enough  to  admit  a  proof-plane  to  the 
inside.  AN  hen  charged,  not  the  faintest  evidence  of 
electricity  is  found  on  the  inner  siiiface,  however  thin 
the  material  of  the  ball  may  be.  The  thinnest  metal 
plate,  when  under  induction,  shows  opiwsite  electrici- 
ties on  its  two  faces.  We  learn  from  these  and  nu- 
merous other  experiments  that  electricity  it  only  found 
OH  the  outer  surfaces  of  conductors  in  an  encehipe  of 
inappreciable  thickness.  This  fact  is  quite  in  keeping 
with  Faraday's  theorj-  of  the  action  of  dielectrics. 
Within  a  conducting  Ixjdy  we  cannot  expect  electricity, 
for  the  moment  it  appeal's  in  it  the  jiarticles  com- 
municate their  electricities  to  each  other,  and  the 
electric  state  ceases.  In  a  dielectric  they  cannot  com- 
municate, and  the  charge  remains.  Hence  the  charge 
at  the  conductor  onlj-  appears  at  the  junction  of  a 
conductor  and  dielectric.  We  are  also  taught  by  ex- 
]ieriment  that  the  distribution  of  electricity  oil  the 
surface  of  insulated  conductors  is  influenced  materially 
by  their  form.  An  electrified  ball,  for  example,  ex- 
hibits the  siime  density  all  round,  for  the  resistance  is 
sensibly  the  same  on  all  sides  of  it.  When,  however,  a 
conducting  body  is  made  to  approach  near  enough  to 
it,  the  density  of  the  electricity  is  found  to  be  greater 
on  the  side  on  which  the  approach  is  made.  This 
is  iiroved  by  the  aid  of  a  proof-plane  iuid  an  elec- 
trometer. When  work  is  done  in  drawing  away  the 
prcof-planes  from  the  charged  body,  its  jKitential,  as 
tested  by  the  electrometer,  is  pro|)orlional  to  the 
density  (if  the  charge  at  the  point  where  it  touched. 
The  reason  of  this  unequal  distribution  is  obvious 
from  the  fact  that  the  potential  of  the  ball  must  be 
the  same  at  every  point.  If,  therefore,  the  resistance 
at  one  side  be  less  than  at  another,  the  density  there 
must  be  greater  to  maintain  equality  of  ]X)lcntial. 
The  disturljance  of  equal  distribution  here  spoken  of 
liolcLs  true  only  for  short  distances;  the  disturbing 
liody,  for  instance,  in  the  case  under  consideration, 
has  to  be  brought  verj-  near  before  any  inequality  in 
the  distribution  of  electricity  on  the"  ball  becomes 
manifest.  It  is  to  this  concentration  of  electricity  on 
the  side  of  the  approaching  conductor  that  we- owe 
the  electric  spark;  and  it  is  as  we  near  the  striking  or 
sparking  distance  that  this  disturbance  is  revealed. 
The  concentration  or  fixing  of  electricity  on  the  side 
of  the  thinnest  and  best  dielectric  is  pirllcularly  illus- 
trated in  the  condenser  and  Leyden  jar,  whose  action 
depends  upon  it;  but  in  these  the  dielectric  must  be 
very  thin  to  .secure  decided  effect.  When  a  conduc- 
tor "somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  prolate  spheroid  is 
charged,  and  the  electric  density  of  the  several  parts 
tested  by  the  proof-plane,  it  is  found  to  be  least  at  the 
thickest" part,  and  to  increase  towards  either  end;  and 
the  difference  is  found  to  be  all  the  greater  as  each 
end  becomes  more  and  more  pointed.  It  is  found 
likewise  that  the  electric  density  on  a  point  is  so 
great  w  ith  a  considerable  charge  as  to  ilcstroy  the  di- 
electric condition  of  the  air,  the  particles  of  which  In- 
come electrified,  and  carry  by  convection  the  charge 
of  the  point  to  surrounding  conductors.  We  there- 
fore learn  that  electricity  concentrates  on  jxiinls  and 
projections.  A  similar  reasoning  with  n>gard  to  the 
relations  of  potential  resistance  and  consequent  den- 
sity bciirs  here  as  in  the  previous  ca.«e.  It  may  l)e 
he"re  remarke<l  that  the  density  of  charge  at  any  jxiint 
resrulates  the  amount  of  tension  at  that  iioinl  on  the 
molecules  of   the  dielectric.     The   constraint  which 


ILICTRICITY. 


540 


ELECTKICITT. 


they  experience  in  being  charged,  and  which  Fam- 
day.calls  tension,  cjin  oiilv  be  carried  to  a  certain 
limit.  When  that  is  reacheil,  the  molecules  are  forced 
to  Ih'  conducting,  and  the  tension  ceases. 

The  words  electrometers  and  electroscopes  are  gen- 
erally taken  as  .synonymous;  electroscopes,  however, 
should  be  applied  to  the  instruments  which  give  evi- 
dence of  eliftrical  |K)lential  without  giving  the  e.\act 
measure  of  it;  and  electrometers  lu  such  as  show 
both.  Of  late  years  immense  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  construction  of  delicate  electrometers, 
chiefly  to  meet  the  demands  for  such  in  the  working 
or  testing  of  submarine  cables.  Sir  William  Thom- 
son's quadrant  electrometer  and  his  abs'ilule  electrom- 
eter in  point  of  exactness  and  delicacy  are  a  hun- 
dredft>ld  in  advance  of  previous  instruments.  The 
ffold-kaf  dertr'iit-djH'  is  a  handy  instrument  for  esti- 
mating roughly  medium  jiotcntials.  In  one  of  the 
best  of  its  forms  a  glass  ball,  about  4  inches  in  diame- 
ter, rests  on  a  bra.ss  tripod,  ami  its  neck,  about  1  inch 
in  diameter,  is  inclosed  by  a  brass  collar  li.xed  with 
shellac.  A  brass  plate,  with  a  hole  of  J  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  in  the  middle  of  it,  can  be  screwed  air- 
tight into  the  collar.  Before  it  is  so  fitted,  a  bra.ss 
rod,  \  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  is  fixed  by  shellac  or 
sealing-wax  into  the  hole  in  llie  middle,  .so  as  to  be 
jjerfectly  insulated  from  it.  The  upper  eiiil  of  the 
rod  terminates  in  a  brass  ball,  and  the  lower  end  is 
filled  on  each  side,  to  allow  of  two  strips  of  gold-leaf, 
1  inch  long,  being  attached  to  it.  Before  the  plate 
and  leaves  are  finally  fixed,  the  interior  of  the  ball  is 
thoroughly  dried  by  passing  hot  dry  air  into  it,  so 
that  the  ball  eonlaius  no  moisture  to  carry  away  the 
charge  of  the  leaves.  When  the  plate  is  screwed  to 
the  collar,  there  is  no  comnmnication  between  the  in- 
cluded and  external  air.  The  insulation  of  the  leaves 
is  complete;  and  they  keep  their  charge  in  dry 
weather  for  hours  together.  When  the  instrument  is 
used,  it  may  Ix;  charged  directly,  by  contact  being 
established  with  the  ball  and  the  body  whose  elec- 
tricity we  would  examine,  or  a  charge  may  be  carried 
to  it  by  the  proof-jilane,  when  the  leaves  "diverge  ac- 
cording to  the  charge  communiealeil. 

Coulomb's  Tor»ioii-lxtl<inr(  has  phiyed  an  imiiortant 
part  in  examining  the  laws  of  electi"ic  forces.  A  glass 
canister  (Fig.  1)  is  jilaced  on  a  wooden  frame,  and  is 
covered  above  by  a  |)late  of  glass  or  wood;  in  tlie  mid- 
dle of  this  plate  a  round  hole  is  cut,  over  which  is  fi.xed, 
by  wooden  fittings,  a  long  glass  tube  having  the  gradu- 
ated rim  of  a  circle  attaclied  at  its  upper  end.  A  cir 
cular  plate,  resting  on  this  rim,  closes  the  ujiper  end 
of  the  tube;  and  when  it  is  turned  round,  a  mark 
upon  it  tells  the  number  of  degrees  through  which  it 
has  been  moved.  A  co- 
coon thread  or  very  fine 
wire  is  tied  to  a  hook  in 
the  center  of  the  lower 
side  of  this  plate,  and 
thence  descends  to  the 
body  of  thecanister.  It 
carries  below  a  collar  of 
paper  or  other  light  ma- 
terial, in  which  a  needle 
of  shellac  is  adjusted 
having  a  disk  of  gilt  pa- 
per placed  vertically,  or 
a  gilt  pith-ball  at  it.sone 
end  and  a  counterpoise 
at  its  other.  When  tlie 
plate  above  is  moved 
through  any  niimber  of 
degrees,  the  needle  be 
low,  iniiiell(<l  by  the  tor- 
sion of  the  thread,  comes 
to  rest  at  the  same  num- 
ber on  the  scale  below. 
This  last  consists  of  a 
strip  of  pajier  dixnded 
into  degrees,  pa.sled  round  the  eyliniUr  at  the  sjmie 
height  as  the  needle.    In  the  cover  of  the  canister  there 


Fio. 1. 


is  another  opening,  for  the  admision  of  a  ball  insulated 
'  at  the  end  of  a  rod  of  shellac,  and  which,  when  sup- 
ported l>y  the  cover,  is  on  a  level  with  the  paper  disk  of 
the  needle.  AVhen  adjusted  for  ob.si'rvation,  the  mark 
on  the  ujiper  plate  and  the  paper  disk  stand  each  at 
the  zero-points  of  their  resiiective  scales,  there  being 
of  course  no  torsion  in  the  thread.  The  ball  is  re- 
moved to  receive  a  charge  from  the  bo<ly  under  in- 
vestigation, and  is  then  placed  in  the  cylinder,  when 
the  disk  is  first  attracted,  then  repelled.  Sujipose 
that  the  disk  be  driven  -40  ,  as  shown  by  the  lower 
scale,  trom  the  ball,  and  that  the  tipper  plate  has  to 
be  moved  in  the  opposite  direction,  through  160'  of 
the  upper  scale,  to  bring  it  back  to  10°;  the  total  de- 
gree of  torsion  is  Kid  +  40=  200  .  If  the  ball  and 
disk  be  now  discharged,  and  another  charge  be  given 
to  the  ball,  which  reipiires  250  of  torsion  to  place  the 
disk  at  10  ,  we  have  the  relation  200  to  250  as  that 
of  the  repulsive  forces  of  the  two  charges,  for  the 
amount  of  torsion  in  degrees  is  itrojiortional  to  the 
twisting  force.  Without  entering  further  into  detail, 
we  may  state  the  two  laws  that  toulomb  established 
by  this  instruineiit:  The  iiiten«ilim  of  the  mutual  re- 
jiulai/tn  or  attniction  of  tito  inrarUibU  quantities  of 
electricity  of  the  mute  or  different  names  are  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  xquares  of  the  distances  at  irhtch 
t/tese  act.  The  intensities  of  the  total  repulsiee  or  at- 
tractire  a/:tion  of  two  electrified  bodies  placed  at  an  in- 
variable  distance  are  projmriional  to  the  products  of 
their  electric  charges. 

In  the  tube  of  glass  and  silk  rubber  of  which  we 
have  made  frequent  mention  we  have  the  embryo 
of  the  electric  machine,  viz.,  a  body  which  when 
rubbed  is  positively  electrified,  and  its  rubber  nega- 
tively. The  first  requisite  we  should  e.vpect  in  a  ma- 
chine of  this  nature  is  a  large  surface,  to  give  a  great 
amount  of  electricity.  But  there  is  another  alrcadj' 
casually  referred  to:  glass  being  a  non- conductor,  the 
electricity  formed  on  its  surface  has  not  a  combined 
action,  so  that  some  arrangement  is  neces.sary  to  col- 
lect it  and  render  it  available — to  act,  in  fact,  as  its 
conducting  reservoir.  This  portion  of  the  machine  is 
denominated  the  prime  citidiictor.  The  rubl)ed  sur- 
face of  the  electric  machines  is  either  a  cylinder  or 
plate  of  glass;  hence  we  distinguish  them  into  cylin- 
der-machines and  plate  machines.  The  former,  from 
I  their  more  compact  form,  are  the  more  manageable; 
and  the  latter,  from  both  sides  of  the  glass  plate  being 
rubbed,  are  the  more  powerful  forms  of  the  instru- 
ment. In  friclional  machines  there  are  two  ways  ia 
which  energy  is  expended — in  friction,  and  in  draw- 
ing away  the  two  excited  and  attracting  surfaces. 
Much  of  the  force  expended  in  friction  results  in  heat, 
and  only  a  fraction  (sometimes  a  small  one)  in  elec- 
j  trieity.  Of  that  spent  in  drawing  away,  which  is  the 
less  consideralile,  the  whole  results  in  increased  po- 
tential. Machines  arc  therefore  very  desirable  where, 
with  a  small  initial  charge,  a  constant  supplv  of  elec- 
tricity may  be  got  by  the  latter  method.  I'he  elec- 
trophorus  is  a  machine  of  this  kind,  and  has  been 
known  since  1 776,  and  Nicholson's  doubler,  another, 
since  1788.  But  the  action  of  these  has  only  been  on 
a  small  scale.  Lately,  however,  induction-machines 
of  great  power  have  iVcii  made,  the  powers  of  which 
quite  eclijjse  the  older  frictional  macliines.  The  best 
known  of  thesi'  is  Hollz's  machine  (invented  1865). 
which  will  sufiiee  to  show  the  general  construction  of 
such.  Fig.  2  shows  Queen's  Toepler-IIoltz  electri- 
cal machine,  which  is  destined  to  be  the  machine  of 
the  future.  Omitting  a  description  of  the  machine, 
the  details  of  which  are  clearly  set  forth  in  the  draw- 
ing, we  will  notice  the  manner  of  its  operation.  Sup- 
pose we  wish  to  work  the  machine,  whose  plate  is 
two  feet  in  diameler,  tin-  tisual  size.  We  first  put  the 
two  poles  in  contact  and  see  that  the  revolving  plate 
passes  an  opening  before  coming  to  the  row  of  teeth. 
Wc  next  take  a  sheet  of  vulcanite  about  the  breadth 
of  an  armature,  and  rub  it  with  cat's  skin  (making 
it  — ),  hold  it  close  to  the  armature,  and  then  make 
the  plate  revolve.     We  at  once  know  If  the  machine 


ELECTEICITY. 


541 


ELECTEICITY. 


is  working  by  a  rushing  sound.  We  now  gradually 
withdraw  the  two  balls  at  the  poles,  and  a  rush  of 
straight,  bright,  but  not  vay  dense  sparks  leap  across 
between  the  two  for  the  tirst  2  inches  or  so.  When 
the  distance  becomes  greater  than  tliat,  brushes  pro- 
ceed from  each  end,  and  there  is  a  fine  purple  glow  in 
the  central  sjiace.  If  we  withdraw  the  poles  to  5  or 
6  inches,*  two  well  defined  brushes  are  seen,  one  at 
each  pole.  If  now  the  hand  be  placed  on  one  pole 
and  the  other  hand  presented  to  the  other,  sparks  of 
2  inches  are  got  which  produce  a  most  painful  sting- 
ing sensjition  on  tlic  hand,  but  cause  lui  twitching  at 
the  joints  of  the  ami.  When  the  poles  are  at  a  dis- 
tance of  half  an  inch,  paper  and  other  combustible 
substances  may  be  kindled  by  the  spark.  On  exami- 
nation it  is  found  that  the  armature  tirst  touched  by 
the  excited  vulcanite  is  —  ,  and  that  tlie  other  is  -\-. 
The  plate  is  +  below;  that  is,  after  passing  the  nega- 
tive armature;  and  —  above,  after  passing  the -{-ar- 
mature. If  the  motion  of  the  plate  be  reversed,  the 
electricity  of  the  poles  changes  sign  or  ceases  alto- 

f ether,  when  the  machine  must  be  excited  anew.  If 
ept  moving  in  the  same  direction,  and  allowed  to 
rest  only  for  short  intervals,  it  may  be  kept  in  action 
for  hours  together  without  renewed  excitement.  In 
order  to  get  long  dense  sparks,  a  small  Leyden  jar  is 


the  mortar  to  drive  the  ball  to  some  distance  off. 
When  the  discharge  is  made  through  gunpowde^,  it 
tosses  the  grains  violentl)'  about,  but  causes  no  igni- 
tion; when,  however,  it  is  retarded  by  introtlucing 
an  imperfect  conductor,  such  as  a  wet  string,  into  the 
circuit,  the  guniwwder  is  fired.  When  the  discharge 
is  made  through  glass  by  two  points  pressing  against 
its  opiwsite  surfaces,  a  small  hole  is  drilled  into  the 
glass. 

The  velocity  of  electricity  is  found  to  vary  with 
the  nature  of  the  circuit  to  the  extent,  indeed,  of  its 
inductive  embarra.s.sment.  Thus,  in  air-lines  of  tele- 
grapli  it  is  greater  than  in  sea-caliles.  Wheatstone 
was  the  first  to  determine  the  velocity  of  electricity 
in  an  insulated  copper  wire  stretched  in  air.  He  did 
this  by  the  deWce  of  a  revolving  minor.  Any  one 
who  takes  a  mirror  in  his  hand  and  makes  it  revolve 
sees  that  objects  are  apparently  displaced  by  it,  and 
that  the  retiected  image  descril)es  an  angle  the  double 
of  that  of  the  mirror.  If,  while  the  small  mirror  ro- 
tates at  50  turns  a  second,  the  image  of  a  spark  should 
show  a  displacement  of  90  ,  we  know  that  the  mirror 
has  moved  through  45',  and  the  time  during  which 
this  tjikes  place  is  jVir  of  jV  =  :|,U  of  a  second.  If  the 
duration  of  the  spark,  then,  had  been  jjj,  of  a  sec- 
ond, we  should  have  seen  its  image  move  through 


Fio. 


hung  on  the  rods  with  their  outer  coatings  in  metallic 
contact.  With  these  condensers  a  splendid  series  of 
long,  intensely  brilliant  sparks  of  six  inches  in  length 
are  got,  each  accompanied  with  a  snap  painfully 
loud,  quite  eclipsing  anything  sliown  l)y  friction-ma 
chines.  The  condensed"  sjiark  does  not  kindle  paper, 
btit  gives  a  very  ])owerful  shock.  We  have  not  space 
to  enter  into  the  theory  of  Holtz's  machine.  Indeed 
it  may  be  ciuestioncd  if,  in  all  points,  its  action  has 
been  "fvdly  accounted  for.  We  w,)uld  only  say  that 
reciprocal  action  of  the  armatures  on  eacli  other  is 
common  to  all  induction-machines,  and  Is  quite  simi- 
lar to  Siemens  and  Wlieatstones  i>rinciple  for  raag- 
neto-electricitv. 

By  diseliarging  the  Le^-den  jar  or  electric  battery- 
throush  particular  channels,  we  obtain  some  beauti- 
ful illustrations  of  the  power  of  electricity.  When 
the  discharge  is  effected  through  thin  wires  of  golil 
or  platinum,  the  heat  accompan.\ing  its  pas.sage  is  so 
great  as  to  dissipate  them  in  vapor.  The  expansion 
of  the  air  caused  by  the  s))ark  is  shown  by  the  ekrinr 
mortar.  This  is  a  wooden  mortjir  with  two  wires 
entering  air-tiirht  at  the  ojiposite  sides  of  the  breach, 
with  a  small  wooden  ball  fitting  closely  in  the  muz- 
zle. The  spark  passing  between  these  wires  in  dis- 
charge causes  a  sulBcient  expansion  of  the  air  within 


90'.  The  eye,  however,  during  this  time  would  not 
have  been  able  to  discern  any  difference  between  the 
iM'irinninL:  and  the  end  of  the  .spark,  .so  that  the  90° 
would  have  appeared  as  one  arc  of  light.  Examined 
in  this  way,  however,  the  s])ark  of  a  machine  and  of 
a  Leyilen  jar  were  seen  as  if  the  minor  had  been  at 
rest.  He  arranged  a  Lej'den  jar  circuit  of  half  a 
mile  with  three  breaks  in  it,  two  near  the  coatings 
and  one  in  the  middle  of  the  half-mile,  and  had  these 
breaks  placed  nearly  side  by  side,  .so  that  the  sparks 
at  them,  when  discharge  took  place,  could  be  seen 
tofrethcr  in  the  revohnng  mirror.  He  found  that  all 
three  sparks  bad  a  duration  of  ,j},nn  of  a  second,  and 
that  the  middle  s]iark  occurred  so  far  behind  the 
other  two  as  to  indicate  a  velocity  of  194,000  miles 
per  second  in  the  wire. 

There  are  two  theories  which  have  played  an  im- 
jiorfanf  part  in  the  historr  of  the  science— the  two- 
fluid  theorv  of  Diifav,  and  the  one-flidd  theorj-  of 
Franklin.  "According  to  the  former,  matter  is  per- 
vaded with  two  highly  elastic  imponderalile  electric 
ll,ii,ls_one,  the  \ntTebus;  the  other,  the  resinous. 
These  are  supposed  to  repel  themselves  but  attract 
each  other.  Neutral  bodies  give  no  evidence  of  their 
presence,  for  thev  are  there  neutralized  the  one  by 
the  other;  but  when  by  friction  or  other  operation 


£L£CTBIC  LAHFS. 


542 


ELECTEIC  LAMPS. 


the  fluiils  are  scpiiratcd,  each  body  obson-cs  the  nt- 
iniclions  aud  icpulsidiis  of  the  fluid  it  bap]K'us  to 
have.  According  to  the  latter,  there  is  only  oue  elec- 
tric rtui<l  which  ri'pcls  itself  but  attracts  matter. 
Friction  determines  a  gain  of  the  fluid  to  the  positive, 
and  a  loss  lo  the  nespilive,  body.  Faraday's  theory  of 
electric  induction  by  contiguous  molecules  appears  to 
be  gaining  groiuid.  It  explains  satisfactorily  how 
conductors  and  non-conductors  are  alike  in  kind; 
how  the  charge  on  the  conductor  can  only  reside  at 
the  boundary  of  the  conductor  and  non-conductor, 
or — which  is  the  sjime  thing — the  surface  of  the  con- 
ductor: how  the  charge  resides  in  the  dielectric;  how 
the  ixilarity  of  the  galvanic  circint  is  effected;  how  a 
battery  current  originates  in  and  effects  chemical  de- 
composition; and"  how  the  velocity  of  discharge  is 
tieiiendent  on  the  conformation  of  the  circuit.  Prof. 
Clerk  Ma.xwell's  classical  work,  Kkctriclly  and  }f(t;j- 
Mtimn  (1873)  gives  to  Faraday's  ^^ews  a  mathematical 
significance  and  comprehensiveness  hardly  contem- 
plated by  the  great  philosopher  himself.  See  Gal- 
ranisiii  and  Miri/nitiyin. 

ELECTRIC  LAMPS.— The  more  recent  inventions  of 
electrodes  pniducing  light  are  those  of  JabloclikofT, 
Lodyguine,  Kohn,  Sawyer,  and  Edison.  The  first  of 
thesi-  produces  the  light  by  the  electric  arc;  the  others 
by  the  incandescence  of  some  refraclorv  substance, 
as  carbon  or  platinum.  The  princijial  iliffcrence  1x3- 
Iwecn  the  JablochkolT  light  and  the  ordinary  ar- 
rangement with  carbon  points  is  in  a  provision  by 
which  the  current  is  reversed  from  time  to  time  so  that 
the  more  mpid  consumption  of  the  positive  electrode  is 
made  to  talie  place  with  one  and  the  other  point  alter- 
nately. When  the  apparatus  is  started,  there  is  also 
ft  slight  bridge  of  carbon  between  the  two  points 
through  which  the  current  pas.ses  before  the  arc  is 
established.  Thccarbdn  rods  are  placed  parallel  and 
near  together,  so  that  a  iniiform  distance  may  be  main- 
tained during  their  consumption.  A  pair  of  carbon 
points  constitutes  a  "candle,"  and  four  candles  are 
usually  placed  in  a  globe  of  opalescent  glass.  Each 
candle  burns  aliout  one  hour  and  a  half,  so  that  the 
set  of  fotir  will  give  light  about  six  hours,  the  change 
of  electiic  action  from  one  candle  to  another  being 
accomplished  by  an  automatic  switch.  The  motive 
power  reipiired  in  the  Jablochkoff  lamj)  is  about  one 
horse-power  applied  to  a  magneto-electric  machine  for 
each  candle,  and  each  such  candle  is  said  to  have  a 
light-value  of  700  standard  candles;  but  this,  from  the 
absorption  of  light  by  the  opalescent  glass,  is  reduced 
to  that  of  300  candles.  In  1873,  M.  Lodyguine,  a 
Russian  as  well  as  Jablochkoff,  invented  a  lanij)  which 
gjive  light  by  rendering  carbon  incandescent  liy  tlie 
electric  current.  A  portion  of  the  eonducting-rod  of 
cjirbou  was  made  much  thinner  than  the  rest,  so  that 
the  increased  electricid  resistance  in  that  iiart  would 
cau.se  it  to  iK'Come  intensely  incandescent.  The  car- 
bon rod  was  inclosed  in  a  glass  vacuum-chamber,  but 
the  apparatus  was  not  practically  successful,  as  the 
carlmn  wasted  too  rapidly,  and  required  too  frequent 
replacement  within  the  vaeinun-chamber.  In  1875  M. 
Kohn  of  St.  Petersl)urg  patented  an  arrangement  in- 
tended toob\iale  thisdillkulty  bya  device  having  the 
same  object  as  that  in  the  JiiblochkolT  lamp,  viz.,  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  consumed  carbon  with  a  new 
piece.  This  lamp  has  U'en  used  with  considerable 
.success.  Tlie  Sawyer  lamp  has  the  following  char- 
acteristics: It  emi)loys  the  resistance  of  a  small  piece  of 
carbon,  placed  in  an  airtight  glasscyliiuler  tilled  with 
pure  nitrogen,  which,  being  a  non-.s'upporter  of  com 
bastion,  protects  the  carbon  in  a  manner  like  that  of  a 
vacuum,  the  advantage  claimed  being  that  it  is  ea.sier  to 
keep  a  vessel  full  of  pure  nitrogen  than  lomainlahi  a 
vacuum,  becaitse  of  the  equalil  v  of  the  inward  aiKl  out- 
ward pres,sure.  The  heat  produced  is  priviiiled  from 
reaching  the  mechanism  at  the  l)asf  of  the  ai>paratus 
by  haWug  the  copper  standards  present  a  great  radiat- 
ing surface.  Dia|)hragms  are  al.so  placed  so  as  to  cut 
oft  much  of  the  downward  heat-rays,  and  a  switch 
device  is  employed  to  prevent  the  too  sudden  turning 


on  of  the  current,  and  thereby  prevent  crumbling  by 
too  sudden  beating.  The  e.vperiments  of  Mr.  Edison 
on  the  electric  light  have  been  in  progress  several 
years,  in  which  time  he  has  used  various  substances 
^or  the  incandescent  material.  He  commenced  with 
platinum,  and  eiuploved  a  device  by  which  the  galvanic 
current  would  be  reduced  when  the  metal  approached 
the  melting-point.  This  device  consisted  chiefly  in 
placing  within  the  fine  platinum  spiral  a  roil  of  the 
.same  metal  which  would  be  moved,  on  the  principle 
of  the  pyrometer,  one  way  or  the  other  by  a  lever,  and 
thus  cool  by  its  presence  the  incandescent  spiral  when 
it  became  too  hot.  But  this  device  did  not  prove 
successful.  Another  arrangement  employed  heated 
air  acting  upon  a  diaphragm  as  the  regulating  power. 
The  various  metals  which  he  used  soon  became  o.xid- 
ized  and  rendered  useless.  He  then  gave  his  attention 
to  perfecting  the  vacuum  employed  i)y  Lodyguine  in 
1873.     Edison's  platimuu  lamp  as  perfected  consists 


Klectrfc  Light  Regulator. 

of  a  long  coil  of  platinum  coated  with  calcined  mag- 
nesia, supported  by  a  platinum  rod  within  a  glass 
vacuum-tul)c,  whicii  rests  upon  a  metal  frame  contain- 
ing the  regulating  apparatus.  It  is  claimed  that  Edison 
has  produced  a  vacinim  more  perfect  than  any  other, 
so  that  only  one  millionth  of  an  afmosidiere  remains. 
His  attention  was  called  from  the  use  of  iilatiiium  to 
that  of  snuill  threads  of  carbon,  made  by  ch:ining  cot- 
ton thread  in  a  vacuum  with  the  electric  current.  Light 
of  great  intensity  was  obtained  in  this  way.  He  ex- 
perimented with  various  forms  of  woixly  fiber,  but 
finally  found  that  nothing  gave  more  satisfactory  re- 
sults than  ch;irred  imjier.  Bristol  card-board  is  cut  in 
the  shape  of  a  horseshoe,  the  strips  being  about  two 
inches  long,  and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  wide,  and  laid 
upon  one  auotlier  in  an  iron  mold,  being  separated  by 
tissue-paper.    When  the  mold  is  packed,  it  is  placed 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


543 


EL£CTBIC  LIGHT. 


in  an  oven  and  gradually  heated  to,  600';  afterwards 
in  a  furnace  to  a  white  heat.  The  carbonized  product 
is  then  carefully  removed  and  placed  in  a  small  glass 
globe,  and  made  the  resisting  portion  of  the  galvanic 
circuit ;  the  globe  is  then  exhausted  and  sealed  air-tight. 
The  drawing  represents  the  most  approved  elcetric- 
light  regulator,  with  double  clockwork,  after  Fou- 
cault's  arrangement.     See  Electric  Light. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT.— Powerful  electric  lights  have 
become  exceedingly  important  as  engines  of  war,  and 
the  soKlier  and  siulor  \ie  with  each  other  in  the  de- 
velopment of  apparatus  suited  to  their  special  needs. 
Enormous  increase  in  the  power  of  single  lights  has 
been  obtained  iluriugtlie  past  few  years  by  the  great 
improvements  which  have  attendetl  the  introduction 
of  electricity  as  au  illuminating  agent.  This  has 
benefited  the  defense  more  than  the  attack,  whether 
the  operations  be  on  land  or  .sea;  for,  usually,  the 
main  functions  of  a  powerful  light  are  to  guard 
against  surprise,  to  give  the  defenders  a  timely  warn- 
ing, and  thus  enable  them  to  aim  at  the  atlvaiicing 
forces.  The  defense  can,  moreover,  emi>loy  the 
most  powerful  lights,  the  machinery  for  which  is 
ponderous  and  not  suited  to  the  mobility  re(iuircd  by 
the  attack.  Nevertheless  the  use  of  a  powerful  light 
may  frequently  aid  the  attacking  forces  very  materi- 
ally. Thus  at  the  attack  on  Charleston,  during  the 
War  of  Secession,  the  Southerners  were  preventid 
from  repairing  the  breach  in  Fort  Sumter  by  night 
on  account  of  a  deadly  shrapnel  tire  which  was 
directed  upon  the  breach  by  the  aid  of  a  lime-light, 
which  is  .so  inferior  to  the  light  now  obtainable  by 
means  of  the  electric  arc.  Again,  in  an  advance  over 
obstacles,  it  has  been  found  that  the  attacking  jiarty 
will  often  receive  great  assistance  even  from  llie  elec- 
tric lights  of  the  defense.  As  before  stated,  however, 
the  bahmee  of  advantage  appears  to  be  considerably 
on  the  side  of  the  defenders.  In  all  descriptions  of 
siege-operations  the  employment  of  the  electric  light 
has  become  a  matter  of  considerable  importance, 
many  operations  which  it  has  hitherto  been  custom- 
ary to  perform  under  the  cover  of  darkness  being  no 
longer  possible,  and  other  operations,  such  as  the 
bridging  of  rivers,  which  formerly  could  only  be  car- 
ried on  during  daylight,  being  now  possible  on  the 
darkest  night. 

The  two  important  war-scr\-ices  for  which  power- 
ful electric  lights  have  been  provided,  in  England, 
are;  1.  As  search-lights  for  the  vessels  of  the  Royal 
Navj-.  2.  As  search-lights  to  act  in  unison  with  the 
artillery  and  submarine  mining  defenses  of  ports  and 
harbors.  In  the  one  case  the  machinery  is  carried  on 
board  the  large  men-of-war,  and  in  the  other  case  is 
erected  inside  the  forts.  In  each  of  these  positions 
the  machinery  can  be  placed  practically  out  of  reach 
of  an  enemy's  shot  and  shell;  but  the"  protection  of 
the  projector,  and  of  the  men  who  manipulate  it,  can 
never  be  so  satisfactorily  pro\'ided  for,  and  the  sub 
ject  has  consequently  received  a  good  deal  of  atten- 
tion, both  in  the  aitny  and  navy.  The  sulo'ect  has 
especially  been  worked  at  by  the  Royal  Engineers, 
and  haslieen  attacked  in  two  ways:  i.  By  attempts 
to  place  the  projector  and  manipulatoi  out  of  the 
direct  tire  of  an  enemy,  and  to  use  a  mirror  for  the 
final  projection  of  the  ray  of  light  in  his  direction, 
such  mirror  lieing  exposed  to  the  tire,  but  being  ar- 
ranged so  that  it  can  be  easily  and  quickly  replaced. 
2.  By  attempts  to  greatly  decrea.se  the  cost  of  the  pro- 
jector, and  to  arrange  the  optical  portions  so  that  they 
can  be  expeditiously  replaced  if  broken.  The  pro- 
jectors at  first  used  were  large  metallic  reflectors, 
either  spherical  or  parabolic;  but  a  lighter,  smaller, 
and  equally  powerful  arrangement  was  found  in  the 
Fresnel  leiis,  now  called  a  spherical  holophote.  It 
consists  of  a  central  lens,  generally  in  three  elements, 
with  a  focal  distance  of  .1.5  meter,  and  which  re- 
ceives dioptrically  the  light-rays  in  a  cone  of  about  60 
degrees.  The  ealadioptric  portion  is  composed  of  five 
or  six  annular  rings  so  placed  that  the  principal  focus 
of  each  ring  coincides  with  that  of  the  dioptric  por- 


tion. There  is  also  sometimes  added  a  small  spheri- 
cal metallic  mirror,  placed  behied  the  focus,  so  as  to 
catch  and  throw  forward  again  the  rays  from  the 
back  of  the  are-light.  Owing  to  the  short  focal  dis- 
tance, it  is  very  difficult  to  focus  the  light  properly 
in  these  costly  projectors,  and  the  glass  rings  are  fre- 
quently cracked  by  the  tlame  and  radiation  from  the 
electric  arc.  For  short  ranges,  however,  they  are 
efficient. 

These  projectors  have  given  place  to  a  most  effec- 
tive arrangement  designed  by  Colonel  Mangin,  of  the 
Corps  du  Genie  (French  army),  and  which  consists 
of  a  retiecting  lens  ground  on  the  inner  side  to  a 
spherical  surface  of  somewhat  shorter  radius  than  the 
outer  spherical  surface,  the  gla.ss  of  the  retlcetor  being, 
therefore,  thicker  at  the  sides  than  at  the  center.  In 
fact,  the  projector  is  a  spherical  catojitric  ajiparatus, 
the  divergence  of  which  is  rectified  dioptricidly. 
The  drawmg  represents  a  smaller  Mangin  projector. 


Mangin  Projector. 

.60  meter  in  diameter,  which  differs  in  a  few  of  the 
mechanical  details  from  the  larger  sizes.  It  is  fitted 
with  two  bars,  and  can  thus  be  moved  alx)ut  by  two 
men,  the  lattice-work  stand  being  moved  separately. 
All  these  projectors  are  costly,  and  to  place  them  so 
as  to  look  over  the  parapets  of  our  forts  f)r  the  bul- 
warks of  our  ships  is  to  invite  their  speedy  destruc- 
tion by  an  enemy's  fire.  To  meet  this  dillicully 
arrangements  were  made  and  tried  at  Chatham  in  ac- 
cordance with  suggestions  made  by  Major  Sale,  H.  E., 
C.M.G.,  in  1876-"?,  then  Secretary-  R.  E.  Conuniltee, 
to  place  the  projector  in  a  splinter-pnmf  pit,  and 
direct  the  beam  of  li.sht  on  to  a  |ilane  mirror  placed 
a  short  distance  off,  and  alone  exposed  to  the  enemy's 
fire.  The  results  were  enco\iragiiig.  but  difficidlies 
were  encoimtcred  in  the  fixing  and  manipulation  of 
the  mirrors,  the  apparatus  tried  being  .so  weak  that 
the  wind  moved  the  mirror  unduly.  In  these  de- 
signs the  prt)jector  and  the  mirror  or  nurrors  were 
placed  nearly  in  the  same  horizontal  plane,  and  there 
was  a  loss  of  light  when  the  minor  was  aj'proaching 
at  extreme  angles  of  training.  Moreover,  ihe  range 
was  limited,  and  unless  two  mirrors  were  used  (m 
some  situations  not  convenient,  and  in  others  not  pos- 
sible) on  opposite  sides  of  the  light,  the  portion  of  the 
whole  circle  illuminated  was  Ifiiiited.  And  in  some 
situations  the  length  of  parapet  required  could  not  be 
spared. 


£L£CTBIC  FSI1I£B. 


544 


ELECTBOLYSIS. 


In  April,  1880,  Captain  Bucknill,  R.  E.,  proposed 
the  following  arnu)>:cmcnl:  1.  To  work  the  my  of 
light  to  ihf  zc'uilb,  I'ithtT  diiectly  or  by  means  of  a 
niirrtir.  2.  To  iletlecl  this  ray  by  an  "upper  mirror 
carrinl  in  a  fniniework  or  funnel.  3.  To  carry  the 
funnel  or  tube  that  supixirts  the  upper  mirror  upon 
a  ring,  and  this  agjiin  uiHin  rollers  and  another  ring 
clamiK'd  or  tixed  to  the  inner  wall  or  walls  of  a  fort. 
A  slow-motion  serew,  a  worm,  etc.,  would  then  move 
the  funnel  in  azinmth  at  pleasure,  and  consequently 
the  niy  of  light  from  the  mirror.  4.  To  move  the 
up|)er  niirror  by  a  slow-motion  screw  actuated  by  a 
light  grip-whei'l  on  the  axle  of  such  screw,  which 
wheel  can  be  turned  by  an  endless  cord  from  below, 
by  a  man  w  ho  would  take  his  orders  through  a  speak- 
iiigtube  from  an  observer  in  the  tiring  station.  The 
only  commands  reqvuri'd  would  be  "Up,"  "Down," 
"  liight,"  "  Left,"  "  Fast,"  "  Slow,"  "  Stop."  Such 
a  tube  could  l>e  taken  down  at  daybreak  and  put  up 
ag!UU  in  the  evening  in  a  few  seconds  by  an  arrange- 
ment like  that  used  in  raising  and  lowering  Thames 
steamboat  funnels.  It  is  difficult  to  work  a  light-ray 
direct  to  the  zenilb,  especially  with  a  JIangiu  pro- 
jector, as  the  burnt  pieces  of  hot  carbon  fall  on  the 
glass  of  the  projeclor  at  the  thinnest  part  (the  center) 
and  perhaps  crack  it.  The  vertical  ray  can,  however, 
bi-  readily  obtauieil  by  means  of  a  lower  mirror.  It 
should  Ix.'  noted  that  this  arrangement  provides  for 
reflection  at  alxiut  4.5  degrees,  a  verj-  smsUl  angular 
movement  of  the  ujiper  plane  niirror  producing  a 
large  vertical  motion  of  the  ray  of  light.  Sec  I>y- 
nauto-ihi-tric  yinchiiie  and  Electrie  Lamps. 

ELECTKIC  PRIMER.— This  primer  consists  of  the 
long  tube  of  the  service  friction-primer,  split  at  one 
end  to  receive  a  large  piece  of  brass  tube,  to  which  it 
is  soUlered.  The  larger  tube  incloses  a  cylindrical 
piece  of  hard  wood,  slotted  midway  of  its  length,  and 
perforated  at  each  end  to  receive  short  pieces  of  cop- 
per wire,  which  arc  connected  across  the  slot  by  a 
coiled  piece  of  tine  platinum  wire.  The  outer  ends  of 
the  copjier  wires  project  a  few  inches  to  connect  the 
■wires  of  the  primer  with  the  terminal  wires  of  the 
battery.  When  thus  connected,  the  battery -cuiTent, 
bj"  reason  of  the  resistance  met  with  in  pa.ssing 
through  the  platinum  wire,  heats  this  wire  sutficiently 
to  ignite  a  small  piece  of  loose  gun-cotton  which,  tii- 
gether  with  the  platinum  wire,  occupies  the  slotted  por- 
tion of  the  wooden  cylinder.  The  ignited  gun-cotton 
commmunicales  its  Haine  to  the  powder  in  the  long 
tube.  The  open  ends  of  the  large  tube  are  turned 
down  on  the  wooden  plug  to  prevent  blowing  out. 
These  and  the  open  ends  of  the  small  tube  are  closed 
and  dipped  in  varnish,  as  described  for  the  friction- 
primers.  The  platinum  wire  is  coiled  to  increase  its 
length  iK'twecn  the  copper  ends.  By  this  means  the 
absorpiion  of  heat  by  the  latter  is  overcome.  The 
coil  is  also  less  liable  to  be  broken  by  any  slight  dis- 
placement of  the  copper  wires.  With  the  standard 
lenirth  of  one  inch  and  thickness  .003  inch  for  the 
platinum  wire,  tlie  resistance  of  this  primer  is  about 
7  olim  cold  and  1.3  ohin  at  explosion.  Fulminate  of 
mercury  may  be  used  instead  of  gun-cotton.  The 
latter  is  preferred,  however,  as  being  equally  service- 
able and  less  <laM^'iTi)us.     See  Fricti'm-primers. 

ELECTRO  BALLISTIC  MACHINES.— The  accurate 
determination  of  the  nhciti/  of  a  projectile  at  any 
point  of  its  trajectory  has  been  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult problems  in  the  science  of  gimnery.  It  has  ex- 
ercised the  talents  and  ingenuity  of  the  "best  .scientific 
minds  of  the  age,  and  hits  given  rise  lo  much  interest- 
ing discussion  and  many  valuable  experiments.  The 
wondrous  mechanical  skill  of  the  day,  and  our  mas- 
tcrj-  over  the  powers  of  electricity,"  have,  however, 
recently  given  us  instruments  whicli,  in  their  results, 
wore  than  realize  the  brightest  ilrcams  of  the  experi- 
menters of  a  century'  ago.  Their  bidky,  unwieldy, 
and  expensive  mac  limes  have  given  i>lace  lo  the  neat 
and  compact  chronoscope,  which,  with  its  pencil  of 
electric  light,  now  notes  with  unerring  cej-ljiintv  in- 
llDitcsimal  iuten'als  of  time.    Besides  the  electro-bal- 


listic machines,  a  great  variety  of  instruments  have 
been  invented  to  determine  directly  the  initial  velocity 
of  a  projectile,  the  most  reliable  of  which  are  the  <7«h- 
jjtiuliiliim  and  the  ballintic  /Hiiilulum.  In  the  tirst 
the  velocity  of  the  projeitile  is  tletermincd  by  sus- 
pending tli'e  i>iece  as  a  pendulum,  and  measuring  the 
recoil  impre.s.seii  on  it  by  the  discharge;  the  expres- 
sion for  the  velocity  is  ileduced  from  the  fact  that  the 
quantity  of  motion  communicated  to  the  pendulum  is 
equal  to  that  communicated  to  the  i)rojectile,  charge 
of  i>owder,  and  the  air.  The  second  apparatus  is  a 
pendulum  the  bob  of  which  is  made  strong  and 
heavy,  to  receive  the  impact  of  the  jirojectile;  and 
the  expression  for  the  velocity  of  the  i)rojectile  is  de- 
duced from  the  fact  that  the  (luantity  of  motion  of 
the  projectile  before  impact  is  cfpial  to  that  of  the 
pendulum  and  projectile  after  impact.  These  ma- 
chines have  been  carried  to  great  perfection  both  in 
this  country  and  France,  anil  very  accurate  and  im- 
portant results  have  been  obtained  by  them;  but  they 
are  very  expensive  and  cannot  be  easily  adapted  to 
the  various  wants  of  the  service. 

The  employment  of  electricity  to  determine  the  ve- 
locit)'  of  projectiles  was  lirst  suggested  by  ^^'heat- 
stone  in  1840.  The  application  flcpcnds  on  the  very- 
great  velocity  of  electricity,  which  for  minute  dis- 
tances may  be  considered  instantaneous.  The  gen- 
eral method  of  applying  Uiis  agent  is  by  means  of 
galvanic  currents,  or  wires,  supported  on  target-frames 
placed  in  the  path  of  the  projectile,  and  communicat- 
ing with  a  delicate  time-keeper.  The  successive  rup- 
tures of  the  wires  mark  on  the  timekeeper  the  instant 
that  the  projectile  passes  each  wire,  and  knowing  the 
distance  of  the  wires  apart,  the  mean  velocities,  or 
velocities  at  the  middle  points,  can  be  obtained  by  the 

relation,  velocity  =  51^£?.     The  various  plans  in  use 

time 
differ  only  in  the  manner  of  recording  and  keeping 
the  time  of  flight;  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  com- 
mon instruments  employed  is  the  pendulum.  The 
ballistic  machine  of  Captain  Navez,  of  the  Belgian 
service,  has  been  tried  in  this  country,  but  has  been 
found  too  ilelicate  and  complicated  for  general  pur- 
poses.    See  ClirDnmmpe  and  EleHric  (lepsydra. 

ELECTRO-CHRONOGRAPH. —  An  instrument  used 
for  recording  time  and  occurrences  in  the  instant  and 
order  of  their  time,  as  in  noting  transits  in  obsirvato- 
ries.  A  paper  marked  for  seconds  is  jilaced  on  the 
surface  of  a  revolving  drum,  over  which  is  a  stylus 
operated  by  electro-magnetic  action  when  the  circuit 
is  closed  by  the  telegraph-key  in  the  hand  of  the  oi)e- 
rator,  who  is  also  the  observer  at  the  transit  instru- 
ment. A  mark  is  thus  made  on  the  linie-])aix'r  at  the 
instant  of  the  occurrence  of  the  transit.  See  Chrono- 
graph. 

ELECTROLYSIS.— That  division  of  the  science  of 
galvanism  which  treats  of  the  laws  and  conditions  of 
elcctro-chcinical  decomposition.  As  this  decomposi- 
tion is  generally  attended  by  electro-chemical  combi- 
nation, it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  electro- 
lysis from  the  more  gener.-d  subject  of  elect ri>-rhrmu- 
Iri/,  which  embraces  all  cheinical  changes  resulting 
in  or  fr(mi  the  galvanic  current.  In  one  ca.si',  how- 
ever, the  application  (if  the  term  is  strictly  correct — 
viz.,  where  decompositions  are  effected  by  electrodes 
wiiich  are  not  attacked  by  the  elements  of  the  electro- 
lyte (the  substance  decomixiscd)  discharged  at  them. 
No  substance  is  decomjioscd  by  the  current  so  long 
as  it  is  in  a  solid  or  ga.seous  state,  and  it  must  first  be 
brought  to  a  liquid  state,  either  by  solution  or  fusion, 
before  the  current  acts  on  it.  The  de<omposition  of 
water  by  platinum  iilates  is  always  taken  as  the  t}-pe 
of  electrolytic  action.  In  a  very  convenient  appa- 
ratus for  the  purpose,  a  glass  basin  is  made  so  as  to 
admit  a  cork  below,  through  which  two  wires  pass 
having  slips  of  iilatinum  iilale  soldered  to  them 
above.  Two  glass  tubes,  open  below,  are  hung  over 
the  plates,  to  hooks  projecting  from  :m  ii)irighl  sup- 
port. The  bowl  is  filled  with  acidulated  water; 
and  the  tubes,  after  being  filled  with  the  same,  aie 


ELECTBOUETEB. 


545 


ELECTBOFHOHE. 


Decomposing 
Apparatus. 


inverted,  and  hung  ■with  their  lower  ends  inclosing 
the  plates.  When  the  wires  projecting  downwara 
from  the  cork  arc  connected 
with  the  poles  of  the  batter}-, 
hydrogen  rises  from  the  nega- 
tive, and  oxj-gcn  from  the  posi- 
tive electroile,  to  till  each  its 
separate  tube.  As  the  decom- 
position proceeds,  twice  as 
much  hj'drogen  is  liberated  as 
osj-gen.  When  the  tubes  are 
tilled,  they  may  l)e  removed 
and  examined.  The  oxygen 
tbus  obtaiucil  smells  strongly 
"f  ozone.  Hydrogen  is  here 
the  type  of  the  metals  or  otlier 
electro-jX)sitivc  substances  (ca- 
tions), which,  during  electroly- 
sis, are  always  disengaged  at  the 
negative  electrode;  and  oxygen 
of  the  salt  radicals,  chlci'rine, 
iodine,  sulphur,  etc. ,  which,  be- 
ing electro-negali  ve  (anions),  al- 
ways appearatthepositive  pole. 
Moreover,  the  proportions  of 
the  volumes  of  the  two  ga.ses 
being  that  of  their  chemical 
combining  volumes,  reminds 
us  that,  when  a  body  isdecom- 
posed,  its  components  are  always  separated  in  the 
proportions  in  which  they  were  linited,  viz.,  those  of 
their  chemical  equivalents.  If  the  tubes  of  this 
apparatus  were  graduated,  il  would  serve  for  a  volta- 
meter. If,  instead  of  one  such  voltameter  included 
in  the  circuit,  we  had  several,  we  should  find  that, 
whatever  amount  of  gas  was  lilierated  in  one  of  these 
'would  be  liberated  in  all,  and  that  independent  of  the 
size  of  the  plates  and  amoimt  of  acid  in  each.  We 
learn,  therefore,  that  the  chemical  power  of  the  cur- 
rent is  the  same  at  eveiy  point  of  the  circuit  where 
it  is  manifested.  From  numerous  experiments  it  has 
been  concluded  that  electrolytes  are  resolved  under 
the  action  of  the  ciurent  into  anions  and  cations 
which  appear  at  their  respective  electrodes  in  the 
proportion  of  their  atomic  weight,  or  multiples  of  their 
atomic  weights.  It  is  not  only  in  cells  exterior  to  the 
battery  that  this  law  holds,  but  in  the  cells  of  the 
battery  itself.  If  the  battery  which  effected  the  above 
deconiposition  consisted  of  six  cells,  for  the  equiva- 
lent atoms  of  hydrogen,  tin,  and  lead  separated  with- 
out the  battery,  equivalent  atoms  of  zinc  in  each  cell 
would  have  been  dissolved,  and  an  equivalent  dis- 
engagement of  atoms  of  hydrogen  at  each  of  the  cop- 
per plates,  if  the  cells  were  one  fluid.  The  above  law 
holds  not  only  for  compounds  whose  elements  enter 
into  combination  with  ibeir  usual  atomicity,  but  for 
those  in  which  theelements,  through  the  Siimc,  change 
their  atomic  equivalents.  Thus,  if  the  same  current 
pass  through  two  decomposing  cells,  one  containing 
a  solution  of  the  cuprous  chloride  (CuCl),  and  the 
other  of  the  cupric  chloride  (CuC'U),  the  same  quan- 
tity of  chlorine  will  be  disengaged  in  both,  l)Ut  twice 
as  much  copper  Ls  deposited  in  the  first  as  in  the 
second.  Here  the  copper  alone  changes  its  atom- 
icity, hence  the  change  in  the  amount  of  il  in  the 
consecutive  cells.  The  accuracy  of  the  electrolytic 
law  is  somewhat  compromised  by  the  fact  that  liquids 
possess,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  power  of  conducting, 
physically,  electricity  without  electrolytic  action,  so 
that  all  that  passes  in  this  way  is  chemically  lost. 
Fortunately  the  error  thus  introduced  is  very  small, 
and  can  be  therefore  practically  disregarded.  The 
drawing  represents  an  improved  water  decomposing 
apparatus,  consisting  of  a  glass  goblet,  with  binding- 
screws,  platinum  electrodes,  and  finely  graduated  bell- 
tubes  for  the  irases.     See  Galranism. 

ELECTEOMETEB.— An  instiument  to  measure  the 
amount  of  electrical  force.  In  Coulomb's  torsion- 
electrometer,  shown  in  the  drawing,  the  force  opjiosed 
to  that  of  electricity  is  the  resistance  to  twisting  offered 


by  an  elastic  thread.  In  Henly 's  quadrant-electrome- 
ter the  electric  force  is  measured  by  the  amoimt  of 
repulsion  which  it  pro- 
duces upon  a  pith-ball 
attached  to  a  silk  fiber 
suspended  from  the 
center  of  a  graduat- 
ed arc.  Sir  William 
Thomson's  and  Var- 
ley's  electrometers  are 
the  most  delicate  of 
all,  and  are  used  in 
reading  the  insulating 
power  of  telegraph- 
cables.  The  quadrant- 
electrometer  consists 
of  a  conducting-rod, 
generally  of  box-wood 
or  brass,  with  a  gra- 
duated semicircle  at- 
tached above,  in  the 
center  of  which  is  a 
pivot  for  the  rotation 
of  a  straw  earning  a 
pith  ball  at  its"  outer 
end.  It  is  used  for  a 
charge  of  high  poten- 
tial, "such  as  that  of  Coulomb  Electrometer, 
the  electric  machine.  When  placed  on  the  prime  con- 
ductor of  the  machine,  the  whole  becomes  charged 
with  -t-  electricity,  and  the  ball  is  repelled  first  by 
the  electricity  of  the  rod,  and  then  by  that  of  the 
prime  conductor,  the  height  to  which  "it  rises  iKing 
seen  on  the  semicircle.  This  is  not  an  electrometer 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  for  although  it  tells  us, 
by  the  straw  rising  and  falling,  when  one  i)Olentinl  is 
greater  or  less  than  another,  it  does  not  tell  us  by  how 
much,  the  conditions  of  its  repulsion  being  too  com- 
plicated for  smiple  mathematical  expression.  It  can 
show  us,  however,  by  the  indicator  standing  at  the 
same  point,  when  the  electric  potential  of  the  ma- 
chine is  the  same  at  one  time  as  at  another.  The 
strength  of  the  electric  force  excited  by  the  rub- 
bing of  glass,  sulphur,  amber,  was,  resin,  etc.,  was 
measured  by  Gilbert  by  means  of  an  iron  needle 
mo\ing  freely  on  a  point,  lersorium  dectritum;  very 
similar  to  the  apparatus  employed  by  Haily  and 
Brewster  in  trying  the  electricity  excited  in  different 
minerals  bv  warmth  and  friction.     Sec  Khctrkity. 

ELECTEOPHONE.— An  instrument  devised  by  Dr. 
Strethill  Wright  for  producing  sound  by  electric  cur- 
rents of  high  tension.  In  its  simplest  form  the  elec- 
trophone consists  of  two  metallic  plates  separate<l  by 
a  sheet  of  cartridge-paper,  the  whole  being  closely 
pres.«ed  together  by  a  hcavj-  weight  or  screw.  Such 
an  instrument,  when  its  plates  are  connected  with  the 
terminals  of  a  small  indvict ion-coil,  forms  a  sonorous 
condenser,  the  note  of  which  varies  with  the  rapidity 
of  action  in  the  electrotonie,  or  contact-breaker.  The 
more  complicated  electrophone  comnuinicated  to  the 
Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts,  25th  April,  1864.  by 
Dr.  Wright,  is  composed  of  four  curved  plates  of  the 
thinnest  sheet-zinc,  each  2  by  4  feet,  and  each  sepa- 
rated from  its  neighbor  by  a  double  laver  of  imita- 
tion silvered  paper,  the  silvered  sides  being  in  apposi- 
tion to  the  zinc.  The  first  and  third,  and  second  and 
fourth  plates  are  connected  by  fine  wires,  which  also 
connect  the  instrument  with  the  induction<-oil.  When 
this  instrument  is  connected  with  a  small  coil,  the  ter- 
minals of  which  afford  a  spark  almost  inaudible,  it 
becomes  charged  and  discharged  with  each  imindsc 
of  current,  each  charge  being  attended  by  a  sonorous 
tap  given  out  by  the  whole  mass  of  metal  thrown  into 
vibration,  and  the  rapid  succession  of  taps  pro<lucing 
a  prolonged  trumpet-note,  the  power  of  which  mav  be 
increased  by  adding  batteiT-power  to  tlie  coil.  The 
electrophone  has  been  recommended  by  its  author  for 
use  as  a  telegraphic  relay  capable  of  giWng  two  or 
four  signs  with  a  single  w'ire.  with  the  advantage  over 
other  relays  that  jxTrfectiou  of  contact  is  not  ncces- 


ELZCTBOSCOPE. 


546 


ELEVATED  BATTEEIES. 


"Lie • 


#2= 


F:g.  1. 


saty  to  its  working.  Fig.  1  shows  the  mode  of  work- 
ing the  electrophone  ns  a  double  relay  with  four  sig- 
nals nnil  the  gjilvnnomeler  of  Thorn- 
sou  ;  A  represents  the  needle  of  the 
giilvauonuter,  B  and  C"  the  wires 
coiuinunieatiug  with  an  electrophone. 
When  the  needle  is  detlected  to  the 
right,  it  falls  on  the  points  IS  and  C, 
and  sovuids  the  electrophone  through 
B,  A,  C.  The  signals  are  produced 
by  long  and  short  contacts,  as  in  the 
code  of  Jliirse.  The  si'cond  set  of 
signals  are  produced  by  the  reversal 
of  the  line-current,  which  throws  the 
needle  on  the  points  of  the  arrange- 
ment D  connected  with  a  second  elec- 
trophone of  different  tone.  The  elec- 
trophone has  been  employed  as  a  lec- 
ture-table instrument  to  report  to  a  large  audience  re- 
sults of  processes  which  can  only  be  rcnderetl  sensible 
by  the  most  delicate  galvanometric  apparatus.  Fig. 
Sshows  the  adaptation  of  the  electrophone  to  the  gal- 
vanometer. AB  represents  the  needle  of  the  galvan- 
ometer suspended  by  a  silk  fiber,  C;  D  is  a  small 
vessel  of  mercury  communicating  bv  a  fine  wire  with 
the  center  of  the  needle;  while  a  similar  wire,  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  needle  B,  dips  into  the  curved  trough 
EF,  containing  distilled  water.  The  wires  inserted 
into  D  antl  F  connect  the  coil  with  the  electrophone, 
the  current  pjissing  through  F,  E,  B,  D.  When  the 
needle  is  detlected,  the  tract  of  water  between  E  and 
F  is  shortenetl,  and  the  electrophone  gives  forth  a  gra- 
dually increa-sing  sound.  By  a  delicate  system  of 
levers  attached  to  the  wrist,  as  in  the  sphygmograph, 
A 


Fio.  2. 


the  rhythm  and  character  of  the  human  pulse,  and  its 
variation  in  disea.se,  may  be  indicated  to  the  class  by 
the  physician.  Further,  the  electrophone  may  be 
adapted  to  the  telephone  by  making  the  telephone- 
membrane  act  the  part  of  a  make-and-break  for  the 
current  circulating  in  the  primary  wire  of  induction- 
coil.  This  can  easily  l)e  done  by  leading  the  current 
through  the  membrane,  and  through  a  spring  carry- 
ing a  platinum  point,  which  presses  lightly  against  a 
piece  of  platinum  attached  to  the  center  of  the  mem- 
brane. If  the  sounds  uttered  into  the  telephone  be 
sufficiently  strong  to  make  the  membrane  so  to  vibrate 
as  to  caase  actual  separation  between  the  platinum 
surfaces,  they  will  Ix-  reproduced  with  great  loudness 
in  the  electrophone;  but  if,  as  in  the  ca-se  of  speaking, 
they  lie  merely  able  to  cause  variations  of  pressure  at 
the  surfaces,  they  will  be  but  imperfectly  heard. 
Hence  the  electrophone  succeeds  best  with  singing, 
and  a  song  gently  sung  in  one  place  may  l)e  repeated 
in  trumpet-tones  in  another  hundreds  of  yardsdistant 
EIECTK08C0PE.  —  An  instrument  for  detecting 
electrical  excitation.  In  its  usual  form  it  consists  of 
a  gla-ss  jar  with  a  wooden  bottom,  a  bra.ss  wire  pa.s,sing 
through  the  cork  and  surmounted  liv  a  ball  of  the 
same  metal;  to  the  lower  end  of  the  wire  are  gummed 
two  dependingstripsof  gold  leaf.  The  gold-leaf  elec- 
troscope is  a  handy  in.strument  for  estimating  rousihly 
medium  potentials.  One  of  its  best  forms  has  a  glass 
ball,  about  4  inches  in  diameter,  resting  on  a  brass 
tripiKl,  and  its  neck,  alwut  an  inch  in  diameter,  is  in- 
closed by  a  bra.ss  collar  Ii.\e<l  with  shellac.  A  bra.ss 
plate,  with  a  hole  i  inch  in  diameter  in  the  middle 


of  it,  can  be  screwed  air-tight  into  the  collar.  Before 
it  is  so  fitted,  a  brass  rod,  i  inch  in  diameter,  is  fixed 
by  shellac  or  sealing-wax  into  the  hole  in  the  middle, 
so  as  to  be  perfectly  insulated  from  it.  The  upper 
end  of  the  rod  ends  in  a  brass  ball,  anil  the  lower  end 
is  filed  on  each  side,  to  allow  of  two  strips  of  gold- 
leaf,  an  inch  in  length,  being  attached  to  it.  Before 
tlie  plate  and  leaves  are  finally  ti.xed,  the  interior  of 
the  ball  is  thoroughly  dried,  by  passing  hot  dry  air 
into  it,  so  that  the  ball  contains  no  moisture  to  carry 
away  the  charge  of  the  leaves.  When  the  plate  is 
screwed  to  the  collar,  there  Is  no  communication  be- 
tween the  included  and  external  air.  The  insulation 
of  the  leaves  is  complete;  and  they  keep  their  charge, 
in  dry  weather,  for  hours  together.  When  the  instru- 
mentis  used,  it  may  be  charged  directly,  by  contact 
iK'ing  established  with  the  ball  and  the  body  whose 
electiicity  we  woidd  examine,  or  a  charge  may  be 
carried  to  it  by  the  proof-plane,  w  hen  the  leaves  di- 
verge according  to  the  charge  communicated.  When 
we  would  ascertain  simply  the  kind  of  electricity  with 
which  a  body  is  charged,  we  proceed  in  the  following 
way:  A  glass  tube  is  rubbed,  and  brought  into  the 
neighborhood  of  the  bra.ss  knob;  the  leaves  diverge 
by  "induction,  and,  when  so  diverged,  the  knob  is 
touched  with  the  finger,  and  the  leaves  fall  to  their 
original  position,  for  they  are  then  out  of  the  line 
of  action.  In  this  stale,  —  electricity  is  fixed  bv  the 
action  of  the  +  electricity  of  the  tube  on  the  si3e  of 
the  knob  next  it,  and  the  corresponding  -|-  electricity 
is  lost  in  the  ground.  When  the  finger  is  removed, 
the  +  electricity  is  cut  off,  while  the  —  electricity 
remains  in  the  knob;  and  its  presence  is  manifested 
by  the  leaves  diverging  permanently  after  the  removal 
of  the  tube.  If,  now,  a  positively  electrified  body  l)e 
brought  near  the  knob,  it  draws  away  the  —  elec- 
tricity from  the  leaves,  and  they  consequently  fall  in; 
but  if  a  negatively  electrified  body  be  brought  near, 
it  sends  the  —  electricity  more  to  the  leaves,  so  that 
they  diverge  further.  We  arc  thus  enabled  to  dis- 
tinguish between  a  -\-  and  a  —  charge.  See  Blec- 
triiiiuii  r. 

ELEMENTS. — In  a  military  sense,  the  first  princi- 
ples of  tactics,  fortification,  and  giuinery. 

ELEPHANT.— The  ancient  Carthaginians  and  other 
nations  employed  elephants  in  war,  not  only  as  beasts 
of  burden,  but  as  combatants.  These  animals  formed 
Iiart  of  the  armv  which  Hannibal  led  across  the  Alps, 
and  they  are  said  to  have  decided  the  \ictory  at  the 
battle  of  Trebia.  For  a  long  time  the  elephant  was 
as  important  an  ann  of  war  as  the  artillery  of  modern 
nations,  and  first  became  known  in  Europe  from  its 
employment  in  the  wars  of  the  East.  They  have 
been  taught  to  cut  and  thrust  with  a  kind  of  scimitar 
carried  in  the  trunk,  and  it  was  formerly  usual  for 
them  to  be  sent  into  battle,  covered  with  armor,  and 
bearing  towers  on  their  backs,  which  contained  war- 
riors. But  the  imncipal  use  of  the  elephant  in  war 
is  for  earrjing  baggage  and  for  dragging  guns.  An 
elephant  will  apply  his  foreheail  to  a  cannon,  and 
urge  it  through  a  bog  through  wiiich  it  would  be  al- 
most impossible  for  men  and  cattle  to  drag  it;  or  he 
will  wind  his  tnmk  round  it  and  lift  it  up,  whilst 
horses  or  cattle  drag  it  forwards.  They  are  exten- 
sively used,  in  India,  for  the  draught  of  siege-trains, 
and  m  mountainous  eoimtries  to  carrj'  mountain-guns 
on  their  backs.  They  are  more  sure-footed  and  ser- 
viceable than  either  horses  or  mules,  in  ditticult  moun- 
tain-roads. On  the  verj'  steepest  declivities  an  ele- 
phant works  his  way  down  pretty  rapidly,  even  with 
a  hmrthih  and  its  occupants  upon  his  back,  his  chest 
and  belly  on  the  ground,  and  each  fore-foot  employed 
in  making  a  hole  for  itself,  into  w  hich  the  hind-foot 
afterwards  follows  it,  and  to  which  the  weight  may 
be  tnisted,  that  another  step  mav  be  ventured  with 
safety.  The  load  for  steady  work  varies  from  1700 
to  2200  pounds,  and  the  pace  is  from  3  to  3i  miles  per 
hour.     See  Pucka nhimU. 

ELEVATED  BATTEBIE8.— Batteries  in  which  the 
platforms  of  the  guns  are  on  the  natural  surface  of 


ELEVATING  AEC. 


547 


ELEVATOR. 


the  ground,  or  above  it.  These  batteries  are  more 
simple  in  construction  than  any  of  the  other  kinds, 
because  the  arming  of  the  batteries  can  l)e  made  inde- 
pendent of  the  execution  of  the  parapet.  Entilading- 
batteries  should  have  their  crests  as  nearly  as  possible 
perpendicular  to  the  prolongation  of  Die  line  to  be 
swept  by  their  tire;  counter-batteries  should  have  their 
crests  nearly  parallel  to  the  Ihie  subjected  to  their  tire. 
These  conditions,  when  fullilled,  will  save  a  gi'eat 
deal  of  labor  in  the  construction  of  embrasures.  Em- 
brasure-batteries are  to  be  preferred  to  barbette,  but 
the  embrasures  must  be  hidden,  if  possible.  Various 
devices  are  given  by  means  of  which  the  embrasures 
are  concealed,  and  the  gunners  screened  from  the  fire 
directed  upon  them.  The  general  principles  govern- 
ing the  construction  of  tield-works  and  trenches  apply 
to  the  construction  of  batteries.  It  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  artillery -tire  ditiws  artillerj--firc;  hence  a 
greater  thickness  is  requisite  for  parapets  and  epaule- 
ments  sheltering  artillery  than  is  required  for  the 
simpler  works.  The  batteries  forming  the  first  artil- 
lery position  may  have  weaker  profiles  than  those  of 
the  second  position.     See  Batteritn. 

ELEVATING-AEC— The  elevating-arc  is  used  for 
such  guns  as  the  10-inch  and  15-inch.  This  consists 
of  a  strip  of  bra.ss  attached  to  the  base  of  the  breech 
parallel  to  the  ratchets.  It  is  graduated  into  degrees 
and  parts  of  degrees,  and  a  pointer,  attached  to  the 
ratchet-post,  indicates  the  elevation  or  depression  of 
the  piece.  When  the  pointer  is  at  zero,  the  axis  of 
the  piece  is  horizontal.  Besides  the  graduation  on 
the  arc,  the  ranges  in  yards  for  the  ordinary  charges 
for  shot  and  shell  are  given.  In  batteries  for  garrison 
and  sea-coast  defense,  where  the  platforms  are  fixed, 
the  line  of  metal  maybe  considered  as  permanent; 
but  with  siege-guns,  mounted  on  traveling-carriages, 
tie  wheels  are  liable  to  vary  in  position  from  uneven- 
ness  of  ground  oi;  unequal  .settling  in  newly-con- 
structed platforms.  This  line  is  constantly  chaiiging, 
and  approximates  the  higher  wheel  in  proportion  to 
the  difference  of  level  between  the  wheels;  hence,  to 
secure  accuracy  of  fire,  allowance  must  be  made  by 
observing  where  the  shots  strike  and  correcting  the 
aim  accordingly.  Deviation  from  this  cause  is  always 
towards  the  side  of  the  lower  wheel.  All  range- 
tables  are  made  out  with  reference  to  the  horizontal 
plane  pa.ssing  through  the  a.xis  of  the  trunnions;  when 
the  object  to  be  tired  at  is  situated  on  a  jilane  lower 
than  this,  an  allowance  must  be  made  for  this  differ- 
ence of  level  by  deducting  from  the  elevation  laid 
down  in  the  table  of  ranges. 

The  following  table  is  calculated  for  oa.ses  in  which 
the  piece  is  abore  the  object;  it  will  also  serve  with 
sufficient  degree  of  appro.ximation  for  cases  in  which 
the  piece  is  behit  the  object,  by  simply  reversing  the 
method  of  application;  i.e.,  by  adding,  instead  of 
subtracting,  the  quantity  due  to  the  height  and  dis- 
tance: 


i% 

Height. 

55 

IFt. 

2  Ft. 

4  Ft. 

8  Ft. 

16  Ft. 

32  Ft. 

64  Ft. 

96  Ft. 

Yds. 

•    / 

0       ' 

■    / 

O        / 

o         / 

o           ' 

o       1 

1,000.. 

1.1 

2.3 

4.6 

92 

18.3 

36.7 

1  IS  3 

1  50 

1,100.. 

1 

2.1 

4.2 

8.3 

16.7 

SS.3 

1    6.7 

1  40 

1.800.. 

.9 

1.9 

3.8 

7.6 

15.3 

30.6 

1     1.1 

1  31.7 

1,300.. 

.9 

1.8 

8.5 

7 

14.1 

28.8 

56.4 

1  24.6 

],-IOO.. 

.8 

1.6 

3.3 

6.5 

13.1 

26.2 

52.4 

1  18.6 

1.500.. 

.8 

1.5 

3 

6.1 

12.8 

24  4 

48.9 

1  13.3 

1.600.. 

.7 

1.4 

2.9 

57 

11.4 

22.9 

45.8 

1    8.7 

1,700.. 

.7 

1.3 

2.7 

5.4 

10.8 

21  6 

43  1 

1    4.7 

1,800.. 

.6 

1.3 

2.5 

5.1 

10.2 

SO. 4 

40.7 

1    1.1 

1,900.. 

.6 

1.2 

2.4 

4.8 

9.6 

19.3 

38  6 

57.9 

2,000.. 

.6 

1.2 

2.3 

4.6 

9.2 

18.3 

36.7 

55 

2,100.. 

.5 

1.1 

2.2 

4.3 

8.7 

17  5 

34.9 

58.4 

2.200.. 

.5 

1 

2.1 

4.2 

8.4 

16.7 

33.3 

50 

2,300.. 

.5 

1 

2 

4 

7.9 

15.9 

31.9 

47.8 

2.400.. 

.5 

1 

1.9 

3.8 

7.6 

15.3 

306 

45  8 

2,500.. 

.4 

.9 

1.8 

3.6 

7.3 

14.7 

293 

44 

8,000.. 

.4 

.8 

1.5 

3 

6.1 

12.2 

24.4 

86.7 

3.500.. 

.3 

.7 

1.3 

2.6 

5.2 

10.4 

21 

31.4 

4.000.. 

.8 

.6 

1.1 

2.3 

4.6 

9.2 

18  3 

27.5 

4.500.. 

.8 

.5 

1 

2 

4.1 

8.1 

16.3 

24.4 

5,000.. 

.2 

.5 

.9 

1.8 

3.7 

7.3 

14.7 

22 

When  the  height  of  the  piece  above  the  water  or 
horizontal  plane  is  known,  the  angle  of  depression  for 
different  distances  can  be  found  thus:  Find  the  angle 
for  any  height  not  given  in  the  tal)le,  as  follows:  di- 
vide the  given  height  into  parts,  which  are  found  in 
the  table,  using  the  largest  numbers  possible;  and  add 
the  angles  corresponding  to  those  parts,  for  the  re- 
quired ilistance.     See  Pointing. 

ELEVATING-BAE.— A  stout  bar  of  iron  with  one 
end  squared  and  made  to  fit  into  the  ratchets  on  the 
breech  of  the  piece  for  the  puqwse  of  giving  eleva- 
tion. It  is  operated  as  a  lever,  the  fulcrum- being  the 
ratchet-jiosts  of  the  carriage. 

ELEVATIKG-EYE.— To  facilitate  the  elevation  and 
depression  of  the  Armstrong  land-service  guns,  an  eU- 
r<jting-ei/e  is  screwed  into  the  under  side  of  the  breech, 
at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  trunnions,  for  the  ad- 
justment of  the  gun,  by  means  of  an  elevating-screw; 
the  40-pounder,  however,  has  a  somewhat  dilTercnt 
arrangement,  having  an  elevating  screw  and  quoin. 

ELEVATING-GEAE.— Gearing  variously  contrived 
for  elevating  the  breech  of  a  gun.  In  the  Galling 
gun  it  consists  of  a  screw  whose  lower  part  rests 
upon  the  trail  of  the  gun,  and  whose  upper  part  ends 
in  a  ball,  working  in  a  socket,  on  the  under  side 
of  a  brass  casting.  On  the  upper  surface  of  the 
casting  is  a  rib  which  works  in  a  corresponding  slot; 
in  a  square  brass  plate  screwed  to  the  under  side  of 
the  breech-casinff.     See  Tmrmiiig-gear. 

ELEVATING-SCEEW.— A  screw  ijeneath  the  breech 
of  a  i>iece  of  orilnance  to  give  the  elevation  or  verti- 
cal direction  to  the  piece.  In  field-pieces  it  is  bedded 
in  the  stock  immediately  under  the  base-ring  of  the 
gun ,  which  rests  on  the  top  of  the  sere w.  The  screw 
is  turned  by  four  handles.  The  elevating-screw  at- 
tached to  the  new  iron  carriages  in  England  is  known 
as  the  Whitworth  pattern.  Heavy  gvm-carriages, 
such  as  the  wrought-iron  standing  or  rear  chock  car- 
riages, have  the  "ratchet-head  and  lever,"  with  a 
modification  in  the  chock-carriages,  which  have  an 
oscillating  instead  of  a  fixed  nut.  In  theodolites  and 
other  geodetical  and  astronomical  instruments  a 
similar  contrivance  is  used  for  leveling  the  instru- 
ment. 

ELEVATING-SIGHT.— The  back  sight  of  a  gun  or 
rirte  which  is  raised,  when  it  is  found  necessary,  to 
elevate  the  piece. 

ELEVATION. — In  gimnerj",  the  raising  of  the  axis 
of  the  piece  sulBciently  high  to  enable  the  shot  to 
range  the  required  distance.  In  firing  at  a  given  ob- 
ject, the  a.xis  of  the  gun  must  neces.siirily  be  directed 
ujion  a  point  at  a  sufficiently  vertical  distance  above 
the  ol)ject  to  allow  for  the  action  of  gra\ity,  which 
causes  the  ball  continually  to  descend  after  leaving 
the  bore  of  the  piece.  The  elevation  of  the  axis  of  a 
gun  is  generally  regidated  by  means  of  a  tangent- 
scale,  which  is  graduated  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
divisions  on  it  conespond  with  the  various  ranges  re- 
quired from  the  gun.  In  geometrical  and  fortifica- 
tion drawing,  tleration  is  the  projection  of  the  face  of 
a  work  on  a  vertical  plane  bv  horizontal  rays.  It 
shows  the  height  or  depth  of  a  work,  and  also  its 
Icni.'th,  when  the  plane  of  projection  is  parallel  to  its 
face. 

ELEVATOR. — Freight-elevators  are  now  regarded 
as  a  business  necessity  by  all  manufacturers  using 
several  floors.  They  tiouble  the  value  of  the  upi>er 
stories  for  storage  and  other  purposes,  enable  them 
to  handle  goods  with  much  less  help  and  in  less  time, 
and  reduce  the  cost  of  manufacturing  in  the  same 
proportion.  These  advantages  are  so  self-evident 
that  their  use  has  become  the  rule  in  commercial  cen- 
ters. As  a  matter  of  safety,  in  all  elevators,  whether 
geared,  screw,  or  hydraulic,  all  the  es.sential  parts, 
winding-machine  connections  and  platform,  should 
be  stronger  than  the  driving  power,  so  that  if  the 
platform  or  its  carelessly  loaded  fn-ight  should  come 
in  contact  with  a  fioor,  or  any  unyielding  obstruction, 
nothing  will  break,  but  thc'belts  will  slip  or  run  off 
and  do  no  harm;  ii  a  hydraulic  elevator,  the  piston 


ELSVATOS. 


548 


ELEVATOR. 


will  stop  in  the  cvUuder.  The  power  for  hoisting 
may  be  obtainctl  "from  various  sources.  As  most 
foundries  imd  const  ruction- works  are  supplied  witli 
an  abuudiuice  of  steam  or  other  power,  they  employ 
steel  screw  iumcIuiics  of  sufficient  lifting  capacities. 


again  and  filled  with  dirt  and  accumulations  to 
grind  out  the  parts.  The  drive-shaft  and  screw  are 
made  from  a  solid  aiststeel  forging,  cut  and  finished 
1)V  special  tools.  The  screw  is  ruu  above  (not  under, 
as  usual)  the  worm-gear,  and  thus  concentrates  all 


A  recent  and  much  improved  screw  winding-ma- 
chine is  commonly  used  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
secured  to  the  ceiling  overhead  in  its  working  posi- 
tion. This  machine  must  not  Im!  confounded  with 
the  ''  worm-gear"  machine,  running  in  oil  u-sed  over 


the  strain  in  the  strongest  portion  of  the  frame  and 
enrries  the  belts  and  pulleys  high  otit  of  the  way. 
The  screw  gears  are  made  of  copper  and  tin,  propor- 
tioned for  the  hardest  antifriction  metal.  They  are 
bulled  direct  to  the  winding-drum,  taking  no  chances 


ELF-ABBOW-HEADS. 


549 


ELF-AEE0W-HZAD8. 


on  the  breakage  of  the  shaft,  or  keys  or  set-screws 
getting  loose.  They  are  also  fitted  with  an  auto- 
matic stop-motion,  which  is  adjusted  to  the  height  of 
the  building,  and  prevents  the  ninding-druni  from 
making  more  than  the  number  of  revolutions  required 
for  the  platform  or  car  to  travel  from  bottom  to  top, 
where  it  is  stopped  automaticallv,  without  any  con 
nection  with  the  shifting-ropes.  ^Vith  the  belt-shifter 
one  belt  only  is  moved  at  a  time,  which  is  much 
easier  to  operate  and  with  less  wear  upon  the  belts 
than  where  both  belts  are  shipped  across  wide  pul- 
leys, as  is  usually  the  ease.  The  loose  pulleys  have 
long  bearings  lined  with  composition  sleeves,  and 
have  large  self-oiling  chambers. 

In  a  locality  supplied  with  a  system  of  water-works 
at  a  sutiicient  pressure,  the  hydraulic  elevator  presents 
many  advantages  over  any  other.  The  lirst  cost  is 
much  less  when  compared  with  that  of  jnuting  in 
steam-boiler  and  engine;  the  cost  of  running  is  much 
less  than  the  cost  of  fuel  and  the  ser\ices  of  an 
engineer;  the  objections  to  steam-boilers  are  avoided; 
the  elevator  is  always  ready,  night  and  day;  there  is 
no  waiting  to  get  up  steam,  nor  noise  from  fa.st- 
running  engines,  belting,  or  machineiy.  The  hy- 
draulic engine  is  very  simple,  strong,  and  dmable, 
slow  and  noiseless  in  its  movements,  and  requires 
little  attention  or  repair.  In  localities  not  supplied 
with  water -works  an  independent  water  -  pressure 
may  be  provided  on  what  is  known  as  the  "tank 
system."  A  water-tank  of  suitable  size,  made  of 
tank-iron  or  cedar,  is  placed  ujjon  the  roof  of  the 
building.  Another  of  similar  size  is  placed  in  the 
basement.  Water  from  the  upper  tank  is  conducted 
by  wrought-iron  pipes  direct  to  the  hjdraulic  valve 
and  engine  below,  the  pressure  of  which  supplies  the 
power  to  raise  the  car.  When  the  car  descends,  the 
water  is  discharged  into  the  tank  below.  Here  the 
problem  of  power  comes  in:  to  return  the  water 
again  to  the  upper  tank,  u.sing  the  same  water  over 
and  over  again.  This  is  usually  done  by  a  steam- 
pump,  working  perfectly  automatic,  the  steam  being 
admitted  and  shut  off  according  to  the  requirements 
of  the  elevator  by  the  height  of  the  water  in  the 
lower  tank.  In  this  system  (as  the  pressure  is  invari- 
ably due  to  the  height)  buildings  of  four  stories  or 
more  high  will  give  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

The  drawing  shows  what  is  known  as  the  "gravity 
safety,"  a  counter-weight  provided  for  elevators  sub- 
jected to  heavy  loads.  Its  principle  consists  in 
making  the  weight,  used  to  balance  the  car,  serve  the 
purpose  of  safety  also,  by  attaching  it  directly  to  the 
safetj'-pawls,  ready  to  throw  them  out  to  engage  the 
safety-ratchets,  if  the  lifting  rope  or  ropes  should 
break.  A  A,  Fig.  1,  are  two  lifting-ropes.  B  is  the 
rope  attached  to  the  weight.  P.  CC  are  two 
wrought-iron  crank-levers,  which  swing  on  pivots 
and  c'ngage  the  two  safety-pawls,  DD.  EE  are  the 
two  guide-shoes,  which  run  on  the  safety  guide-ways, 
H.     G  is  the  guide-post. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  as  the  two  lifting-ropes  are 
attached  to  extremes  of  the  crank-levers,  C  C,  and  the 
weight-rope  to  the  other  extremes  (connected  by  the 
cross  -  lever),  so  long  as  the  lifting-ropes  maintain 
their  hold  they  will  keep  the  levers  and  pawls  in  the 
position  shown  in  the  drawinjr  by  the  superior  weight 
of  the  car;  but  should  one  or  boih  of  the  lifting-ropes 
break  or  lose  hold  upon  the  weight-rope,  always 
ready  to  act,  it  would  instantly  throw  out  the  pawls 
to  engage  the  safety-ratchets  on  the  guide-posts,  and 
lock  the  car. 

Fig.  2  is  an  enlarged  view  of  a  section  of  the  s;ifety 
ratcheted  guide-wav,  shown  also  at  H,  Fig.  1,  with  a 
portion  of  the  wood  casing  cut  away  to  show  the  iron 
ratchets.  The  object  of  this  invention  is  to  provide 
a  smooth,  even,  noLseless  guide  or  track  for  the  plat- 
form or  car  while  moving  up  and  down;  also  to 
retain  and  hold  the  Hanged  iron  safety -ratchets  with 
increased  strength  and  Siifety.  3y  incasing  the  iron 
ratchets  in  or  between  the  hard  wood  by  the  iron 
flanges  as  shown,  and  the  wood  screwed  or  bolted 


to  the  guide-posts,  it  forms  the  noiseless  guide-way, 
and  so  holds,  strengthens,  and  retains  the  latter  that 
should  it  be  broken  it  could  not  separate  from  the 
wood,  but  would  still  ser\e  the  purpose  of  safety- 
stops  for  the  car.  It  might  be  found  desirable  to 
fonn  the  casing  in  two  or  more  strips,  united  awl 
placed,  with  relation  to  the  ratchet  sections,  in  any 
convenient  or  suitable  manner. 

The  shaft  to  receive  an  elevator  should  always  be 
constructed  from  four  to  six  inches  wider  upon  each 
side  than  the  bottom  of  the  car.  This  gives  ample 
room  for  guide-ways,  cables,  counter-weights,  etc. 
The  shaft  should  extend  through  the  roof  and  be 
lighted  from  the  top,  especially  in  pa.s.senger-elevators. 
All  projections  (in  the  shape  of  door-sills  or  pipes)  into 
the  shaft  should  be  avoided;  thej'  are  always  ele- 
ments of  danger.  The  inside  of  the  shaft  should  be 
as  plumb  and  smooth  as  possible.  Whenever  the 
shaft  is  built  of  wood,  the  studding  should  be  2x6 
feet,  if  possible,  and  12  inches  from  centers,  well  and 
firmly  bridged,  and  corners  well  tied  together.  The 
door-openings  to  the  shaft,  upon  each  Hoor,  should 
be  the  width  of  inside  of  the  car.  This  is  necessary 
in  freight-elevators  to  give  ample  access  to  car  or 
platform.  In  pas.senger-elevators  this  space  should 
be  occupied  by  one  stationary  and  one  sliding  door, 
with  the  upper  panels  of  doors  furnished  with  plate 
glass  or  wire  screens.  This  gives  a  prominence  to 
the  elevator-entrance,  and  a  much  more  plea.sant  ap- 
pearance from  without  or  within  the  car.  The  doors 
should  slide  as  nearly  flush  with  the  inside  of  the  car 
as  possible,  and  be  opened  only  from  the  inside  by 
the  attendant  in  the  car. 

In  planning  the  position  of  an  elevator,  it  is  always 
advisiible  to  enter  the  car  from  the  same  side  on  each 
floor,  having  but  one  door  opening  into  the  car,  if 
possible.  Cars  with  two  door-openings,  at  right  an- 
gles, calling  for  corner  guide-posts,  are  more  expen- 
sive, not  so  strong,  and  more  liable  to  accidents. 

ELF-AEEOW-HEADS.— A  name  popularlj;  given  in 
the  British  Islands  to  the  arrow-heads  of  flint  which 
w  ere  in  use  at  an  early  period  among  the  barbarous 
trilies  of  Europe  generall}',  as  thev  are  still  in  use 
among  the  American  Indians,  the  fisquimaux  of  the 
arctic  regions,  and  the  inhabitants  of  some  of  the 
Islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  was  believed  that 
elves  or  fairies,  hovering  in  the  air, 
shot  these  barbs  of  flint  at  cattle,  and 
occasionally  even  at  men.  Thus, 
Robert  Gordon,  of  Straloch,  an  ac- 
complished country  gentleman  of 
Scotland,  writing  in  16.'J4,  tells  how 
one  of  his  friends,  traveling  on  horse- 
back. :ound  an  elf  arrow-head  in  the 
top  of  his  boot,  and  how  a  gentlewo- 
man of  his  acquaintance,  when  out 
riding,  discovered  one  in  the  breast 
of  her  habit.  He  remarks  that,  al- 
though they  are  got  by  chance  in  the 
fields  and  on  the  highways,"  one  who  goes  to  look  for 
tliem  on  purpose  will  search  in  vain.  He  adds  that 
they  are  most  commonly  met  with  after  showers — a 
circumstance  which  probably  hel]ied  them  in  Ger- 
many to  their  names  of  "  thunder-bolts"  and  "  thun- 
der-stones," and  is  easily  enough  explained.  The 
rain,  by  washing  away  the  earth  in  which  they  have 
been  imbedded,  makes  them  more  readily  perceptible 
to  the  eye,  especially  if  the  sunshine  hapiieiis  to  fall 
upf]n  them.  Cattle  "dying  suddenly  in  the  fields  were 
Ix'lieved  to  have  been  struck  by  elf -arrows — a  belief 
which  vet  lingers  in  Ireland,  and  perhaps  in  some 
secluded  parts  of  Scotland.  The  elf-arrow-head  was 
occa.sionally  set  in  silver,  so  as  to  be  worn  on  the  per- 
son as  a  talisman,  or  had  a  hole  drilled  through  it,  so 
that  it  might  be  dipped  in  water,  which,  being  thus 
endowed  with  healing  \-irtuc.  was  used  sometimes  as 
a  wash,  more  commonly  a«  a  draught.  As  a  talisman, 
the  elf-arrow -liead  was  believed  to  be  most  eflicacious 
as  a  prcser\'ative  from  poi.son  and  witchcraft.  The 
ascription  of  the  flint  arrow-head  to  the  elves  or  fairies 


Elf-arrow-head. 


ELLIOT  CABTKISOE-BOX. 


550 


ELLIPSE. 


Is  but  one  of  several  instances  of  the  disposition 
of  a  people  to  elevate  or  degrade  the  earlier  nices 
whom  they  vanquished  or  dispossessed  into  mythical 
beings,  belter  or  worse  than  mankind.  Tlius,  in 
Greece  and  Italy  the  remains  of  the  rude  strongholds 
built  by  the  Pchisiri  came  to  he  regjirded  as  works  of 
Uie  fabled  Cyclops,  or  one-eyed  giants.  So  also,  in 
Scothind,  the  sepulchral  mounds  of  the  aboriginal  iu- 
habilanls  were  C!ille<l  "  elfhillo<'ks;"  and  the  vestiges 
of  ancient  plowshares  which  may  be  tniced  on  heaths 
and  hill-tops  were  calleil  "elfln-furrows."  E.xamples 
of  elf-arrow  heads  may  be  seen  iu  most  Museums  of 
Antiquities.  They  fiill  to  be  more  particularly  de- 
scribeil  in  a  following  jiage,  under  the  head  of  Flint 
Implements  .\nd  AVE.\roNs. 

ELLIOT  CARTRIDGE-BOX.— This  bo.t  consists  of 
two  metallic  i>lates  mounted  side  by  side  on  a  com- 
mon pivot,  by  which  thev  are  secured  in  a  skeleton 
metallic  frame  covered  with  leather.  They  are  fluted 
radially  for  the  reception  of  twenty-four  musket-car- 
tridges, caliber  .4.').  These  flutings  are  so  arranged 
that  the  heads  of  the  cartridges  may  lie  in  an  almost 
continuous  row,  while  the  points  overlap  each  other 
iu  such  a  manner  that  the  cartridges  are  mutually 
supported  by  the  ends  of  tlieir  cases,  the  weight  being 
thus  taken  off  the  point  of  the  ball,  and  rcmoring  its 
liability  to  be  driven  into  the  cartridge  by  the  repeated 
shaking  of  transportation.  The  box  when  used  is  to 
be  worn  over  the  left  breast.  When  charged,  it  is 
rotated  for  tiring  by  bringing  witli  the  lingers  each 
cartridge  in  succession  to  an  open  notch  in  the  periph- 
ery of  the  frame,  beyond  which  it  is  kept  from  going 
by  the  interposition  "of  the  end  of  the  rim,  which  is 
here  turned  down  into  a  Hap  and  serves  to  stop  its 
further  motion  in  this  direction.  Its  return  is  pre- 
vented by  a  spring-pawl  on  the  under  side  of  a  slide 
on  the  circumference  of  the  frame.  This  slide,  when 
pulled  out,  keeps  the  cartridge  Iwneath  it  from  acci- 
dentally falling  out,  and  yet  allows  it  to  be  u.sed  as  a 
means  of  rotating  the  box,  as  soon  as  the  cartridge 
next  preceding  hasl>een  picked  out  through  the  space 
left  for  its  ready  removal. 

ELLIOT  GUN. — A  breech-loading  small-arm  having 
a  fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  breech-block, 
which  rotates  about  a  horizontal  axis  at  9tV  to  the 
axis  of  the  barrel,  lying  above  the  axis  of  the  baiTcl 
and  in  rear,  being  moved  from  above.  By  cocking 
the  hammer,  it  operates  as  a  lever  on  the  breech-block 
pawl,  and  at  each  movement  alternately  pushes  and 
pulls  against  the  lower  arm  of  the  breech-block  and 
opens  and  closes  the  piece.  After  opening  the  ])icce 
the  hammer  falls  forward,  and  resting  upon  the  pawl 
prevents  any  motion  of  the  block  until  the  piece  is 
closed,  which  is  done  by  again  bringing  the  hamnier 
to  the  full-cock,  where  it  is  held  by  the  rear  end  of 
the  trigger.  The  piece  is  locked  by  the  i)osition  of 
the  breech-block  and  by  its  friction  against  the  head 
of  the  cartridge  when  tiring.  It  is  also  braced  by  the 
hammer  falling  behind  a  shoulder  on  the  pawl,  to 
prevent  its  movement  as  in  opening.  It  is  tired  by 
the  usual  center-lock  and  a  tiring-pin  in  two  sections, 
one  of  which  moves  with  the  block  and  the  other 
remains  in  the  frame.  Extraction  is  accomplished 
by  a  lever  pivoted  Ik-Iow  the  chamber  and  worked 
through  the  intervening  extRictor-link  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  hamnier  on  the  pawl.  Ejection  isetlected 
by  an  auxiliary  spring  playing  on  a  "friction-roller  ec- 
centrically placed  in  the  'extractor.  The  guard  is 
hinged  at  its  rear  end  so  as  to  alTord  a  ready  means 
of  inspecting  or  cleaning  the  meclianisni,  and  the 
l(K-k  is  so  coastructed  that  the  hamiiur  cannot  lie  let 
down  slowly  upon  the  tiring-pin  with  the  thumb. 

This  arm  has  iH'en  UKxlilied  so  that  extraction  may 
be  caus*-*!  by  a  iM'iit  lever  of  the  usual  form,  and  ope- 
rated by  the  descent  of  the  breech-block.  In  this 
modilication  the  brecch-blo<-k  pawl  is  single  and 
works  within  the  cheeks  nf  a  slit  hamnier. 

ELLIOT  MAOAZINE-OUN.— This  ami  is  pronded 
■with  a  recipnHalinL;  and  rotating  Iwll  for  closing  and 
locking  the  cartridge  chamber  by  means  of  a  handle 


in  the  usual  way.  It  is  also  pronded  with  a  double 
tubular  magazine,  locateil  in  the  butt-stock,  the  tubu- 
lar chamtK-rs  being  aiTaiigeil  one  over  the  other,  and 
each  provided  w  ith  independent  cartridge-propelling 
devices.  The  upper  end  of  the  revolving  pawl  is  bent 
inward  and  works  in  a  longitudinal  groove  cut  in  the 
side  of  the  bolt:  and  where  the  bolt  is  rotated  in  lock- 
ing and  unlocking  the  arm  it  gives  a  vertical  move- 
ment to  the  revolving  pawl,  which,  being  actuated  by 
a  suitable  spring,  causes  the  disk  or  ratchet  to  revolve 
one  notch.  On  the  face  of  the  disk  anti  over  each  al- 
ternate ralchet-tooth  there  is  a  cam.  These  cams  and 
the  free  ends  of  a  double  feed-pawl  are  so  arranged  in 
relation  to  each  other  that  the  cams  pa.ss  under  and 
raise  the  ends  of  the  feed-pawl  alternately.  Each 
time  one  of  the  ends  of  the  feed-pawl  is  raised  the 
line  of  cartridges  under  it  is  pennitted  to  move  for- 
ward until  the  ball  of  the  first  cartridge  lodges  in  the 
recess  between  the  carrier  and  bolt.  In  this  position 
of  parts  the  head  of  the  first  cartridge  remains  a  little 
way  in  the  mouth  of  the  magazine,  and  the  second 
one  has  not  yet  engaged  the  point  of  the  feed-pawl. 
^\Tien  the  bolt  is  drawn  back  after  firing,  the  maga- 
zine-sprin";  forces  the  whole  column  of  cartridges  for- 
ward until  the  feed-pawl  eiigjiges  the  head  of  the 
second  one,  and  the  first  one  is  landed  upon  the  car- 
rier. When  Uie  backward  movement  of  the  lx)lt  is 
completed  the  first  cartridge  is  raised  into  the  receiv- 
ing-chamber b3'  the  carrier-spring.  By  this  arrange- 
ment of  parts  the  shock  of  arresting  the  forward 
movement  of  the  column  of  cartridges  is  taken  upon 
the  carrier  and  bolt.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary 
spiral  magazine-spring  tliere  is  an  au.viliary  spring  in 
the  bottom  of  each  tubular  space,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  cushion  the  blow  of  the  column  of  cartridges 
upon  the  bottom  of  the  magazine  in  c;ise  of  heavy  re- 
coil or  jolting  when  the  magazine  is  full  or  nearly  so, 
and  thus  ])rcvent  accidentaf  explosions.  The  tubular 
spaces  are  pro\-ided  with  projections  or  shoulders  on 
each  side.  These  projections  are  so  arranged  that 
the  cartridge-heads  strike  them  alternately  on  each 
side,  which  causes  the  heads  to  \ibrate  latenlly  and 
prevents  the  cartridges  from  moving,  from  any  cause, 
with  dangerous  rapidity,  whereby  accidental  explo- 
sion is  avoided.  The  butt-stock  and  tip-slock  are 
made  in  separate  pieces,  being  siqiported  at  their 
inner  ends  by  cheek-pieces,  under  which  they  |)roject. 
The  handle  of  the  bolt  is  attached  to  the  rear  end 
and  has  six  curves,  as  follows:  Backward  and  down- 
ward, which  carry  the  handle  back  within  reach  of 
the  thumb,  while  the  index-finger  is  on  the  trigger; 
also  curves  downwaril,  outward,  and  upward,  to 
form  a  bed  for  the  tluimb  to  rest  in.  The  end  of 
the  handle  has  also  a  downwaril  cun-e  over  the  side 
of  the  hand.  During  the  manipulation  of  the  arm 
the  haniUe  is  grasped  between  the  thumb  and  the 
side  of  the  hand  alKive  the  index-finger,  from  which 
it  is  not  at  any  time  released.  At  the  moment  of  fir- 
ing the  bolt  is  held  in  the  locked  position  by  the 
thumb  on  the  handle.  In  withdrawing  the  bolt  the 
thumb  is  bent  down  a  little  forward  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  handle,  and  the  act  of  returning  and  locking 
the  bolt  carries  the  index- finger  back  to  the  trigger, 
and  the  other  three  fingers  to  the  wrist  of  the  arm. 
See  Magazine-fftin. 

ELLIPSE. — The  name  of  a  figure  in  geon.errr  im- 
portant from  its  lK>ing  the  appro.vimate  shape  of  the 
planitary  orbits,  aiul  frequently  aiipcaring  in  the 
problems  of  guinicry.  It  is  a  curve  of  the  second 
order,  and  is  a  conic  section,  formed  by  cutting  a  right 
cone  by  a  plane  [massing  oljliipiely  through  its  ojiiJO- 

I  site  sides.  It  may  Ik-  defined  asa  curve  the  sum  of 
the  distances  of  every  point  in  which  from  two  fixed 
points  within  the  curve  is  always  the  same.  These 
two  fixed  points  are  called  the  foci;  and  the  <liameter 
drawn  tlirmigh  them  is  the  major  axis:  the  minor  axis 

j  bisects  the  major  at  riirlit  angles.     Tlic  distance  of 

!  either  focus  from  the  middle  of  the  major  axis  is  the 
tfceiitricUit.     The  less  the  eccentricity  is  compared 

I  with  the  axis,  the  nearer  the  figure  approaches  to  a 


SLONOATEI)  PB0JECTIL£8. 


551 


ELSWICK  GUN-WOEKS. 


circle;  and  a  circle  may  be  considered  as  an  ellipse  in 
which  the  foci  coincide. 

There  are  various  contrivances  for  describing  an 
ellipse,  called  ellipsagraphs  or  elliptic  compasneii.  The 
simplest  method  of  description  is  to  fix  on  a  plane  the 
two  ends  of  a  thread  with  pins  in  the  foci,  and  make 
a  pencil  move  on  the  plane,  keeping  the  thread  con- 
stantly stretched.  The  end  of  tlic  pencil  will  trace 
an  ellipse  whose  major  axis  is  equal  to  the  length  of 
the  thread. 

The  equation  to  an  ellipse,  referred  to  its  center  as 
origin,  and  to  its  major  and  minor  axes  as  rectangular 

axes,  is    .,+  .3  =  1,  where  a  and  b  arc  the  semi-major 

and  semi-minor  axes  respectively.  From  this  equa- 
tion it  may  be  shown  by  the  integral  calculus  that  the 
area  of  an  ellipse  is  equal  to  nab,  or  is  got  by  mulliplv- 
ing  the  product  of  the  semi-major  and  semi-minor  a.xis 
by  3. 1416.  It  may  also  be  shown  that  the  length  of  the 
circumference  of  an  ellipse  is  got  by  multiplying  the 
major  axis  by  the  quantity 


'( 


1 


■where  d  =  - 


2».4-.5» ' 


•  etc 


). 


4a' 


ELONGATED  PHOJECTILES.— The  gi;eat  improve- 
ments wliich  have  been  made  of  late,  in  the  accur- 
acy and  range  of  cannon,  consist  simply  in  the  use 
of  the  elongated  instead  of  the  spherical  form  of 
projectile.  To  attain  accuracy  of  flight  and  increase 
of  range  with  an  elongated  projectile,  it  is  necessary 
that  it  should  move  through  the  air  in  the  direction 
of  its  length.  Experienee"  seems  to  show  that  the 
only  sure  method  of  effecting  this  is  to  give  it  a  rapid 
rotary  motion  around  its  long  axis  by  the  grooves  of 
the  rifles.  The  length  necessarily  varies  m  the  dif- 
ferent descriptions  of  projectiles  for  the  same  gun, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  to  some  extent  subonlinate  to  the 
consideration  of  bringing  them  all,  with  certain  ex-  I 
ceptions,  to  the  Siime  weight;  but  experiments  go  to 
prove  that  a  length  of  two  calibers  at  least  is  necessary 
for  very  accurate  firing,  and  it  is  desirable  for  gooil 
««  vira,  or  destructive  effect  on  impact  at  any  but 
very  short  ranges,  to  have  the  weight  great  in  pro- 
portion to  the  caliber,  or,  in  fact,  to  the  surface  of  | 
resistance,  and  of  course  this  is  favored  by  an  in- 
creased length  of  projectile.  As  a  rule,  the  best 
length  for  accurate  tiring  with  any  ordinary  twist 
has  been  found  to  be  froiii  two  to  three  calibers. 

The  form  of  head  is  governed  by  two  considera- 
tions,/i'jr/ti  and /w'n<'<rah<«!.  The  latter  gives  differ- 
ent forms  in  different  instances.  The  question  of 
flight  affects  all  equally,  and  on  this  many  experi- 
ments have  been  made,  which  have  resulted  in  the 
general  adoption  of  what  is  termed  an  ogiml  head,  or 
figure  generated  by  the  revolution  of  an  ogival  or 
pointed  arch  alx)ut  its  axis.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  total  pres.siu-e  on  a  nine-incli  spherical  projectile, 
moving  with  a  velocitv  of  1150  t'eet  per  second,  is 
about  555  lbs.  ANBM  representing  the  spherical 
nine-inch  projectile,  and  the  total  pressure  on  a  hemi- 


spherical-headed, elongated  projectile  of  the  same 
diameter  represented  by  ACDBM,  and  mo\ing  with 
the  same  velocity,  is  487  lbs.,  thus  showinir  a  differ- 
ence of  68  lbs.  total  pressure.  Now  supposing  the 
elongated  projectile  to  move  steadilv,  point  first,  the 
pres.sure  on  the  respective  heads,  A,"M,  Cmust  l>e  the 
same;  therelore  the  difference  of  the  total  jiressure, 


viz.,  68  lbs.,  must  be  due  to  the  difference  of  minus 
presnure  on  the  bases  ANB,  ACDB  respectively,  thus 
showing  that  the  form  of  base  of  a  projectile'  mate- 
rially influences  the  total  pres.sure  which  it  meets  wiiU 
■  when  mo\ing  through  the  air  at  a   high   velocity. 
j  The  total  pressure  on  an  ordinary  ogival-headed  pro- 
!  jectile  of  9  inches  diameter,  represented  bv  ACDBM  , 
IS  only  389  lbs.,  thvLS  showing  the  great  (lifference  of 
pre.s-sure,  viz.,  106  lbs.,  on  an  elongated  ogilval-heuded 
I  projectile  and  a  spheriod  projectile  of  the  same  diame- 
ter when  moving  at  the  same  velocity  through  the  air. 
I  Another  great  advantage  which  the  elongated  projec- 
'  tile  possesses  over  the  spherical  is  that,  for  the  .same 
caliber,  the  momentum  of  the  former  is  much  greater, 
varj-ing,  of  course,  in  proportion  to  their  respective 
weights,  which  would  l)e  nearly  three  to  one,  depend- 
ing on  the  length  of  the  elongated  projectile.  Piobert 
says  that  the  figure  e.xjieriencing  the  least  resistance 
from  the  air  has  a  length  five  times  its  greatest  diame- 
ter, with  its  largest  section  placed  j  of  the  length 
from  the  hind  part.     The  shapes  of  some  of  the 
Whifworth  projectiles  approach  more  nearly  to  this 
form  than  those  of  any  elongated  projectiles' hitherto 
used.     See  Pi'ojecliles. 

ELSWICK  COMPRESSOB.  —  An  arrangement  for 
compressing  friction-plates  used  to  take  up  the  recoil 
of  gun-carriages  iipon  their  slides. '  The  seven  friction- 
plates  arranged  longitudinally  under  the  carriage  and 
attached  to  its  lowest  part  have  alternating  Ijetween 
them  six  long  flat  bars  attached  at  their  ends  to  the 
slide  by  bolts  passing  through  them,  but  allowing 
them  a  side  motion.  "The  plates  anil  bars  are  tightly 
clamped  by  short  rocking  levers,  the  lower  ends  of 
which  act  on  the  outside  plates.  The  levers  are 
worked  by  collars  on  a  threaded  shaft,  which  catch 
their  upper  ends.  The  shaft  is  called  the  compressor- 
shaft,  and  has  a  handle  or  crank  on  the  outside  of 
each  cheek  or  bracket;  one  is  called  the  adjusting- 
lever,  the  other  the  compressor-lerer.  The  first  is  used 
to  give  an  initial  compression  to  suit  the  charge,  the 
other  is  operated  by  the  recoil  Ijeing  forced  down  by 
a  tripper  on  the  slide. 

ELSWICK  GUN-WOEKS.— The  Elswick  Works  of 
Sir  William  Armstrong,  at  Xewcastle-upon-Tyne, 
have  produced  the  largest  constructions  in  England 
of  their  well  known  type,  ami  from  wliich  sprang  the 
modified  form  known  as  the  Woolwich  gim.  We 
cannot  here  attempt  to  give  a  deieriplion  of  the  Works 
in  any  general  sense,  but  merely  to  notice  a  few 
features  such  as  characterize  them,  or  should  be 
noticed  by  visitors  to  Elswick,  especially  engineers. 
We  supix)se  the  works  to  Ix?  traversed  in  the  order 
adopted,  as  far  as  we  understand,  on  the  last  Public 
Day. 

Commencing  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Works, 
the  first  objects  of  interest  are  the  6  inch  and  40-ton 
breech-loading  gun  mounted  in  barl)ette.  It  is  well 
to  observe  the  sy.stem  in  action  and  the  cover  afforded 
to  the  detachment.  Close  to  these  guns  is  a  shrink- 
ing-pit  for  ordnance  from  the  lOOton  gun  downwards, 
also  nineteen  gsis-producers  for  furnaces.  The  shops 
then  may  be  taken  in  the  following  order- 

Cmliitff. — The  largest  section  of  bar  has  been  12 
by  10  inches;  length  of  coiling  fiuiiace,  ISO  feet;  gas- 
furnace  for  healing  barrels,  also  for  teniix'ring,  with 
an  oil-well  50  feet  deep,  over  which  stands  a  hydraulic 
hoist. 

Forge. — The  large  hammer  here,  made  by  Thwaitcs 
&  Carbutt.  Bradford,  has  a  48-inch  cyliiu'ler  and  13 
feet  stroke;  weight  of  piston  and  hammer-head,  oo 
tons.  Blast  smelting-furnaces,  one  furnace  building, 
two  in  work,  and  running  from  9(K»  to  IIMXI  tons  a 
week,  chiefiy  No.  1,  2,  and  3  pig,  made  from  Sjianish 
and  Elba  ori\s,  most  of  it  sold  for  steel-making.  The 
blast  is  at  present  heated  by  horseshoe  pipes,  but 
Cowper's  heating-stoves  are  "in  course  of  erection; 
temperature  of  blast,  from  750  to  800'— about  the 
meIting-i>oint  of  zinc.  The  engine  for  the  furnaces 
is  made  bv  the  firm. 

Carriages/ied.— There  are  band-saws  cutting  iron 


XHBAB. 


552 


EHBABKATIOir. 


which  may  be  noticed,  nnd  Albini  canfiage  on  short 
recoil  andV'If-nmning-iii)  sysloin. 

Prcjertile-nt'in. — Couluiuiug  the  finished  projectiles. 
These  are  cbietiy  made  with  bands  only  up  to  full 
diameter,  which"  saves  work,  and  leaves  to  the  pro- 
jectile the  strength  of  the  uninjured  skin  of  the  cast- 
ing. The  PallisiT  chillitl  orojectiles  will  be  generally 
found  with  sharp-pointed  heads  struck  with  two 
diameters  ogival. 

Fbumlry. — Containini;  the  ten  cupola-furnaces,  of 
which  foiir  are  geneniTly  in  work.  Forty  tons  is 
about  the  maximum  weight  of  casting  made  in  the 
foundry — a  much  larger  one,  such  as  the  bed  of  tlie 
steam-hammer,  weighing  137  tons,  Ix-iug  cast  on  its 
own  ground.  The  system  of  hydraulic  cnmes  should 
be  mil  iced.  Tliey  are  tixed  so  as  to  work  in  pairs,  or 
three  together,  for  heaN-y  work. 

Engiius. — Near  this  arc  the  engines  for  the  East 
Works,  and  also  thase  for  the  West  Urdnance-works. 
Horizontal  double  Corliss  engines  are  employed,  with 
four  boilers;  three  working  at  a  time.  Juke's  bars 
and  system  of  stoking  is  apjilied  to  all.  The  Jetty 
mav  "probably  be  conveniently  visited  next,  near 
which  are  more  horizontal  engines,  100  liorse-power, 
working  on  the  accumulators;  the  water-pressure 
maintained  is  about  700  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Five  or  six  locomotives  are  generally  employed  in 
the  works.  On  the  cast  end  of  the  jetty  are  two  tixed 
hydraulic  cranes  for  lifting  5  tons  and  30  hundred- 
weight; and  between  them  large  hydraulic  shears, 
made  by  Day  «.t  Summers,  worked  by  a  direct-acting 
hydraulic  cylinder,  40  feet  stroke,  lifting  120  tons. 
The  bag-leg  moves  so  as  to  bring  the  lifting-cylinder 
about  30  feet  out,  15  feet  inboard  of  a  ves.ser.  The 
foot  is  moved  l)y  a  screw  50  feet  long,  with  h3'draulic 
engine  and  gear",  with  three  different  powers.  Along 
the  jetty  run  pipes  with  hydrants  from  18  to  36  feet 
apart,  on  which  work  five  movable  cranes,  eacli  lift- 
ing aliout  30  hundredweight,  being  placed  in  position 
to  suit  the  holds  of  the  ve.ssels  by  means  of  telescope- 
tubes  attached  to  the  nearest  hydrants. 

The  fnis/iiiif/s/iop  may  be  taken  next  in  order. 
The  proportions  of  new-type  guns  should  be  noticed 
also;  the  l)reech-loading  tittings,  and  apparatus  for 
firing  by  electricity  and  also  mechanically.  One 
sho])  is  for  small  machine-work,  completing  Gatling 
machine-guns,  hydraulic  valves,  etc.  Another  con 
tains  planing-inachines,  etc.  Others  are  constnicted 
for  turninff,  tinishing,  and  boring  work,  commencing 
on  the  solid  ingot.  At  the  east  end  guns  are  bored 
vertically  in  a  pit  23  feet  deep.  The  tinest  lathe  is 
one  of  Whilworth's  for  tin-ning,  boring,  screw-cut- 
ting, and  ritiins,  taking  a  job  44  feet  in  length,  36- 
inch  centers.  There  is  also  a  convenient  one  made  by 
Fairliairn,  Kennedy  &  Naylor,  nKiditicd  at  Elswick, 
taking  a  chuck  job  20  feet  in  diameter,  4  feet  6 
inches  long,  or  a  job  34  feet  long  and  8  feet  in 
diameter.  It  is  fitted  with  slide-rests  on  imlependent 
beds.  There  are  also  cliamliering  and  riliing  ma- 
chines. In  another  shop,  crank-shafi  and  gun  work, 
coil-welding,  etc.,  are  performed.  The  steam-ham- 
mers, from  24  tons  to  15  hundredweight,  are  ehietiy 
Morrison's  make.  There  is  a  jrrcat  variety  of  small 
machinery,  for  turning  and  boring  out  short  coils; 
also  a  large  endless  band-siiw,  IJ  inch  wide,  which 
cuts  directly  through  iron  cylindrical  work  about  16 
inches  in  diameter.  Its  speed  is  from  76  feet  to  129 
feet  |ier  minute. 

Il  will  he  st'cn  that  the  facilities  of  these  works  are 
ample  in  every  respect  for  ordnance-constructions; 
and  when  we  come  to  consider  the  decidedly  advanced 
progress  in  the  adaptation  of  steel  in  its  strongest  form 
— rihlxjned— in  gun-constructions  of  liirht  weight 
combined  with  great  power,  il  must  be  ailmittcd  that 
in  the  pure  question  of  the  ImildinL'  up  of  guns  to 
resist  the  draff.s  upon  them,  espcriaily  bv  tangential 
strains,  far  l)eyond  standard  liniils  in  lingland.  Sir 
William  Armstrong  &  Co.  are  farthest  advanced  as 
the  pioneers  in  Great  Britain  of  a  system  destined, 
probably,  to  solve  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner 


the  problemn  of  all  heavy  gun-construction,  in  the 
present  state  of  the  art,"  in  producing  the  metals 
deemed  most  suitjible  for  making  sound  and  reliable 
ordnance.     See  AriMtrviiy  Gun  and  Orditiince. 

EMBAS. — The  command,  in  heavy-arlillerv  prac- 
tice, directing  that  the  handspikes  be  placed  in  posi- 
tions for  moving  the  piece  and  the  carriage;  as,  for 
cxam|de,  when  it  is  wished  to  move  a  mortar  in 
battery,  the  four  caimoncers  face  towards  the  epaule- 
mentand  Embau:  Nos.  1  and  2  under  the  front 
maneuvering-bolts,  and  Nos.  3  and  4  under  those  in 
rear,  engaging  the  butts  of  their  handspikes  about 
three  inches;  Nos.  1  and  3  hold  the  small  end  of 
their  handspikes  in  the  left  hand,  Nos.  2  and  4  theirs 
in  their  right.  All  being  reaily,  the  gunner  com- 
mands. Heave,  and  repeats  it  as  often  as  may  be 
neces.sary.  As  soon  as  the  piece  is  on  the  middle  of 
the  platform,  he  commands,  Halt:  all  unbar,  and 
resume  their  posts. 

EMBARGO. — A  temporary  order  to  prevent  the 
arrix  al  or  departure  of  ships.  It  may  apply  to  ves- 
sels and  goods,  or  to  specified  goods  only;  it  may  be 
general  or  special;  it  may  apply  to  the  entering  only, 
to  the  departure  only,  or"  to  both  entering  and  depart- 
ure of  ships  from  particular  ports;  and  lastly,  although 
issued  by  the  Admiralty  in  England,  it  would  be 
equally  an  embargo  if  issued  bj-  any  other  competent 
authority.  Such  embargoes  are  generally  connected 
in  some  way  or  other  with  a  state  of  war  between  two 
countries. 

EMBARKATION.— In  loading  ves,sels  with  stores  for 
a  military  ex-pedition,  the  cargo  of  each  should  be 
composed  of  an  assortment  of  such  stores  as  may  bo 
available  for  service  in  case  of  the  non-arrival  of 
others;  and  they  should  be  placed  on  board  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  may  be  easily  reached  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  required  for  service.  Each  store- 
ship  should  be  marked,  at  the  bow  and  stern,  on  both 
sides,  in  large  characters,  with  a  distinctive  letter  and 
number.  A  list  is  to  be  made  of  the  stores  on  board 
of  each  vessel,  and  of  the  place  where  they  are  to  be 
found  in  il;  a  copy  of  this  list  to  be  sent  to  the  chief 
officer  of  the  proper  department  in  the  expedition,  or 
at  the  place  of  destination.  If  the  disembarkation  is 
to  be  performed  in  front  of  the  enemy,  some  of  the 
field  pieces  should  be  so  placed  that  they  can  be  dis- 
embarked immediately  with  their  carriages,  imple- 
ments, and  ammunition;  also  the  tools  and  materials 
for  throwing  up  temporary  intrenchments  on  land- 
ing. .Some  vessels,  distinguished  by  particular  signal, 
should  be  laden  solely  with  such  powder  and  am- 
munition as  may  not  be  required  for  the  immediate 
service  of  the  pieces.  Boats  of  proper  cajiacity  must 
be  provided  for  the  di.sembarkation,  according  to  the 
clreumstaiices  in  each  case  It  may  be  necessiiry  to 
establish  temporary  wharves  on  trestles,  and  to  erect 
shears,  cranes,  or  derricks.  On  a  smooth  sandy 
beach  heavy  pieces,  etc.,  may  be  landed  by  rolling 
them  overlKiard  as  soon  as  the  boats  ground,  and 
hauling  Hum  up  with  sling-carts.  When  the  em- 
barkation lakes  place  from  a  wharf,  and  the  vessel  is 
not  loo  high,  it  is  lie.st  to  use  gang-planks  and  lead 
the  horses  on  boanl.  The  gang-jilank  leading  up 
from  the  wharf  to  the  gunwale  should  be  about  20 
feet  long  liy  10  feet  wide,  and  be  made  very  strong. 
This  width  admits  of  its  being  used  for  gun-carriages. 
It  should  be  provided  with  ropes  at  the  corners,  roll- 
ers, side-rails,  and  boards  u|M)n  the  sides  to  prevent 
the  hoi-ses  from  getting  their  feet  over  the  edges. 
Another  similar  ganjj-plaiik,  but  not  so  long,  leads 
from  the  gunwale  to  the  deck,  the  two  being  securely 
fastened  together  by  their  ropes.  These  gang-jilanks 
should  be  carrietl  by  the  vessel,  ready  for  disemliark- 
ing.  Every  provision  for  this  latter  operation  should 
be  thorougidy  looked  after  before  starting  on  the  voy- 
age. When  it  is  not  practicable  to  use  gang-planks, 
the  horses  are  hoisted  im  board  liy  means  of  a  sling 
and  liftins-t.ickle.  Five  men  are  required  to  sling  a 
horse  quickly  and  well.  One  man  holds  the  head- 
guy,  which  is  attached  to  a  neck-collar;  two  men,  one 


EMBATERION. 


553 


EHBOSSINO. 


on  each  side  of  the  horse,  pass  the  sling  under  his 
belly;  both  then  hold  up  the  ends  over  his  back,  pass- 
ing the  long  loop  through  the  shorter  one  and  hook- 
ing on  the  eye  of  the  former  to  the  lifting-tackle,  con- 
tinuing to  hold  up  the  sling  until  the  horse's  legs  leave 
the  ground;  another  man  stands  at  the  breast  and  fast- 
ens the  breast-rope,  while  the  fifth  stjinds  at  his  rump 
and  fastens  the  breech  rope.  The  officer  superintend- 
ing commands,"  Hoist  away."  The  first  man  .slacks 
away  at  the  guy-rope,  holding  it  just  sufficiently  taut 
to  keep  the  horse's  head  steady,  ^^■hen  hoisting,  no 
delay  should  be  permitted ;  it  should  be  done  in  the 
shortest  time  compatible  with  sjtfety.  At  the  com- ' 
mencement,  after  a  certainty  that  all  is  right,  it 
should  be  done  rapidly,  to  raise  the  horse  off  his  feet 
and  free  him  from  surroimiling  objects  before  he  has 
time  to  do  any  injur}'  by  kicking.  After  attaining 
the  necessary  height,  he  is  carefully  and  steadily 
lowered  to  the  deck.  Care  should  be"  taken  to  have 
two  or  three  careful  and  active  men  stationed  to  seize 
the  horse  and  prevent  his  phmging  until  the  slings 
are  remove<l.  While  one  holds  him  by  the  head-stall, 
another  rapidly  urdiooks  the  tackle-purchase,  and  two 
others  let  loose  the  breech  and  breast  bands  or  roi»s. 
When  the  horses  are  to  be  lowered  through  a  hatch 
to  a  deck  below,  the  combings  of  the  hatch,  as  well 
as  stanchions  about  it,  should  be  well  padded.  As 
an  additional  precaution,  a  head-collar  should  be  pro- 
vided, with  a  large  pad  on  top  to  prevent  injury 
shoidd  the  horse  strike  his  head  against  the  deck- 
beams  when  lighting  on  his  feet.  Everything  being 
in  readiness  and  skillfully  managed,  an  average  lot 
of  one  hundred  horses  can  be  hoisted  on  board  in 
from  two  to  three  hours.  Hatches  for  horses  must 
be  at  least  10  by  10  feet. 

Allowing  1100  pounds  as  the  average  weight  of 
artillery-horses  and  150  pounds  as  that  of  men,  and 
estimating  for  ten  days'  supply  of  food,  water,  and  for- 
age, the  total  weight  of  a  field-battery  of  six  pieces,  fully 
equipped  and  provided  for  riehl  service,  and  including 
two  baggage-wagons  loaded  with  camp-equipage  ana 
baggage,  will  be  329,000  pounds,  or  about  165Aineri- 
cantons.  Horses  embarked  without  stalls  require 
each  a  space  e(jual  to  3.5  tons,  marine  measurement; 
therefore  about  550  tons  will  be  required  for  the  horses 
alone.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  actual  weight  of  a  bat- 
tery forms  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  shipping 
tonnage  required  for  it.  The  class  of  seagoing 
steamers  usually  chartered  for  transportation  service 
are  those  that  ply  betiveen  points  along  the  seaboard. 
They  are  generally  propellers,  and  varj-  in  tonnage 
froni  one  to  two  thousand  tons.  Omng  to  the  fact 
that  a  considerable  part  of  their  room  is  usually  tiiken 
up  with  passenger  accommodations,  the}-  are  seldom 
able  to  carr}-  more  than  one  full  battery.  A  steamer 
of  2000  ton.s  burden,  with  a  free  spar  aid  main  deck, 
is  capable  of  carrying  two  complete  batteries.  See 
.Trtinsi^jHu. 

EMBATERION.  — A  war-song  of  the  Spartans,  ac- 
companied by  flutes,  which  they  sung  marching  in 
time,  and  rushing  on  the  enemy.  The  origin  of  the 
emhakriiiii  is  k)st  in  antiquity. 
EMBATTLE.— To  amuigein  onlerof  the  battle;  to 
draw  up  in  array,  as  troops  for  bat- 
tle; to  furnish  with  battlements. 

Y.VaKTT'LED.  —  Emhntil(d,  or  iiii- 
biittUil  (called  also  ^rendh'),  is  one  of 
the  i)artition-lines  in  Hcraldrj-,  traced 
in  the  form  of  the  battlements  of  a 
castle  or  tower.  A  bordure  embat- 
tled is  often  given  as  a  difference  to 
anv  memlx'r  of  a  family  who  is,  or 
has  been,  a  soldier.  Set' HeraMry. 
EMBEZZLEMENT.— Any  i«?rson  in  the  milit^ir}- 
service  of  the  I'niled  States  who  makes  or  causes  to 
be  made  anv  claim  against  the  United  States,  or  any 
officer  thereof,  knowing  such  claim  to  be  false  or 
fraudulent;  or  who  presents  or  causes  to  l>e  presented 
to  any  person  in  the  ci^-il  or  military  service  thereof, 
for  approval  or  payment,  any  claim  against  the  United 


Embattled. 


States  or  any  officer  thereof,  knowing  such  claim  to 
be  false  or  fraudulent;  or  who  enters  into  any  agree- 
ment or  conspiracy  to  defraud  the  United  States  by 
obtaining,  or  aiding  others  to  obtain,  the  allowance 
or  payment  of  any  false  or  fraudulent  claim;  or  who, 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aiding  others  to  ob- 
tain, the  approval,  allowance,  or  pajonent  of  any 
claim  against  the  United  States  or  against  any  officer 
thereof,  makes  or  use.s,  or  procures  or  advises  the 
making  or  use  of,  any  writing,  or  other  paper,  know- 
ing the  same  to  contain  any  false  or  fraudulent  state- 
ment; or  who,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aid- 
ing others  to  obtain,  the  approval,  allowance,  or  pay- 
ment of  any  claim  against  the  United  States  or  any 
officer  thereof,  makes,  or  procures  or  ad\-i.ses  the  mak- 
ing of,  any  oath  to  any  fact  or  to  any  writing  or  other 
paper,  knowing  such  oath  to  Ix;  fal.se;  or  who,  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aiding  others  to  obtain, 
the  approval,  allowance,  or  payment  of  any  claim 
agauist  the  United  States  or  any  officer  thereof,  forges 
or  counterfeits,  or  procures  or  advises  the  forging  or 
counterfeiting  of,  any  signature  upon  any  writing  or 
other  paper,  or  uses,  or  procures  or  ad%ises  the  use  of, 
any  such  signature,  knowing  the  same  to  be  forged  or 
counterfeited;  or  who,  having  charge,  possession, 
custody,  or  control  of  any  money  or  other  property  of 
the  United  States,  furnished  or  intended  for  the 
military  service  thereof,  knowingly  ilelivers,  or  causes 
to  be  delivered,  to  any  persons  having  authority  to  re- 
ceive the  same,  any  amount  thereof  less  than  that  for 
which  he  receives  a  certiticate  or  receipt;  or  who, 
being  authorized  to  make  or  deliver  any  paper  certify- 
ing the  receipt  of  any  property  of  the  United  States,, 
furnished  or  Intended  for  tlie  military  ser\-ice  thereof, 
makes,  or  delivers  to  any  person,  such  writing,  with- 
out having  full  knowledge  of  the  truth  of  the  state- 
ments therein  contained,  and  with  intent  to  defraud 
the  United  States;  or  who  steals,  embezzles,  know- 
ingly and  willfully  misappropriates,  applies  to  his 
own  use  or  benefit,  or  wrongfully  or  knowingly  sells 
or  disposes  of  any  ordnance,  arms,  equipnienUs,  am- 
munition, clothing,  subsistence  stores,  money,  or  other 
property  of  the  United  States,  furnished  of  intended 
for  the"  military  service  thereof;  or  who  knowingly 
purchases,  or  receives  in  pledge  for  any  obligation  or 
indebtedness,  from  any  soldier,  officer,  or  other  per- 
son who  is  a  part  of  or  employed  in  siiid  forces  or 
service,  any  ordnance,  arms,  equipments,  ammunition, 
clothing,  subsistence  stores,  or  other  property  of  the 
United  States,  such  soldier,  officer,  or  other  person 
not  haring  lawful  right  to  sell  or  pledge  the  same, 
shall,  on  conviction  thereof,  be  punished  by  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  by  such  other  punishment  as  a 
Court- JIartial  may  adjudge.  And  if  any  person, 
being  guilty  of  any  of  the  offenses  aforesaid,  while  in 
the  tnilitar}-  ser\ice  of  the  United  States,  receives  his 
discharge,  or  is  dismissed  from  tue  sen-ice,  he  shall 
continue  to  be  liable  to  be  arrested  and  held  for  trial 
and  sentence  by  a  Court-Martial,  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  to  the  siinic  extent  as  if  he  had  not  received 
such  discharge  nor  txjcn  dismi.s.scd. 

EMBLEE.— A  prompt,  sudden,  and  \-igorous  at- 
tack which  is  made  ag-ainst  the  covered-way  and  out- 
works fif  a  fortified  place. 

EMBOSSING.— The  art  of  producing  raised  figures 
upon  various  substances,  such  a.s  paper,  leather,  wood, 
metids,  etc.  This  is  usually  effected  by  pressing  the 
substance  into  a  die,  the  kind  of  die  and  nuxle  of  ap- 
plj-ing  the  pressure  being  motlified  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  design  and  the  properties  of  the  sub- 
stance to  be  embossed.  Sheet-metal  is  embosserl  by 
stamping  it  between  a  pair  of  steel  dies,  one  in  relief, 
the  other  in  intaglio.  See  Die-sixkiso.  AV hen  the 
pattern  is  a  deep  one,  several  pairs  of  dies  are  usjxl, 
and  several  blows  civen  with  each,  the  metal  lieing 
occasionally  annealed.  The  first  stamping  produces 
a  crude  resi^niblance  to  the  final  design,  of  motlerate 
depth;  successive  stampings  bringing  iii)  more  of  the 
details,  and  giving  increa.xed  depth.  The  upyieT  die 
is  usually  raised  bv  a  ro|>e  attached  over  a  pulley  to- 


£MBOWED. 


554 


EHBBASUSE. 


A  stirrup,  in  which  the  workman  places  his  foot;  he 
draws  bis  fiH)t  ilown  to  niist-  tlu'  heavy  die  to  the  re- 
quinil  heiirlit,  iinii  then  suddenly  releases  the  press- 
ure of  his  fool  from  the  slirriip,  when  the  die  de- 
seeiiiN  bv  its  own  weight.  'While  thus  raising  the 
die  with  his  foot,  he  ailjusts  the  work  in  its  place 
with  his  hands.  Smaller  work  is  enibosstni  with  a 
screw-i)ress,  the  lever  of  which  Ls  turneil  with  one 
hand,  while  the  work  is  placed  under  the  dies  and 
ri'moved  l>y  the  other.  Paper  and  card  arc  embossed 
in  a  similar  manner,  but  the  dies  are  frequently  of 
brass,  sometimes  of  copper  electro-deposits,  suitablv 
backed.  The  counter-tlie  is  conunouly  made  of  soft 
metal,  card-  or  mill-lward,  pressed  into  the  metal  in- 
taglio die  until  a  sliarp  impression  is  produced.  The 
pajxT  or  card  is  well  damped,  and  a  fly-press  is  gen- 
erally ustni. 

EMBOWED. — The  heraldic  term  ased  for  anything 
which  is  bent  like  a  bow.     A  sinister  arm  couped  at 


Era  bowed. 


Counter-embowed. 


the  shoulder  is  emlxnced.  Trhen  the  arm  is  turned 
the  reverse  wav  it  is  said  to  be  eounter-tmboired. 

EMBRASSEUK.— A  piece  of  iron  which  grasps  the 
tniiiniims  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  when  it  is  raised 
upim  IIk-  borinir-machine  to  widen  its  caliber. 

EMBEASUEE.— The  embrasure  is  an  opening 
made  in  the  parapet  for  a  gun  to  tire  through.  The 
bottom  of  the  embrasure,  termed  the  mJe,  is  2  feet  9 
inches,  or  from  4  to  6  feet  above  the  ground,  on 
which  the  wheels  of  the  carriage  rest,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  gun  and  the  kind  of  carriage.^  It 
usually  slopes  outward  to  allow  the  gun  to  be  fired  at 
a  depression.  The  base  of  this  slope  should  never  be 
less  than  six  times  the  altitude.  In  most  cases  it  may 
he  horizontal,  or  even  have  a  slight  slope  to  the  rear. 
The  interior  opening,  termed  the  iniinth,  is  from  18 
to  ;{6  inches  wide,  according  to  the  caliber  of  the  a:uM, 
and  is  of  a  rectangular  or  trapezoidal  form.  The 
line  which  bisects  the  sole  in  the  direction  of  the  line 
of  fire  is  cjilled  the  di'rectrij:  The  sides  of  the  em- 
bra.sure  are  termed  the  cheeks;  these  widen  out  to- 
wards the  exterior,  which  widening  is  termed  the 
KpUiy,  the  inclination  upon  each  side  from  the  dircc- 
itrix  being  one  upon  ten.     They  furthermore  have  an 


FlQ.    1. 

inclination  outwards  from  the  vertical;  this  inclina- 
tion, at  the  line  of  the  exterior  crest,  is  three  upon 
one.  When  the  directrix  is  lierpcndicular  to  the  in- 
terior crest,  tlie  embrasure  is  termed  (linH;  when 
r)blifiue,  the  embrasure  is  termed  ohlifpie.  Fig.  1.  In 
order  that  the  part  of  the  embra.sure  which  is  next  to 
the  muzzle  of  the  gun  nuiy  1k'  nearlv  of  the  siune 
width  in  both  Die  direct  and  oblique  embrasures  the 
mouth  of  the  latter  is  wider  in  proportion  to  the  ol) 
liquity.  Kmbrasures  are  revetted  with  the  .same  inatc- 
Tial  and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  interior  slope. 


If  the  exact  position  for  the  embrasure  i>  kunwn, 
it  is  iK'St  to  lay  it  out  and  make  it  while  llie  parapet 
is  being  constructed.  As  soon  as  the  latter  is  l)uill  up 
to  the  sill  of  the  future  embrasure,  a  light  stake  is 
planted  in  line  with  the  interior  slope  on  each  side  of 
the  directrix,  in  such  position  as  to  represent  the  sides 
of  the  mouth  of  the  embrasure;  a  strip  is  nailed  across 
at  the  i)roper  height  to  repa'sent  the  sill,  and  another 
above  on  the  line  of  the  interior  crest.  The  earth 
beingsmoothed  oil  to  give  the  desired  slope  to  the  sole, 
the  directrix  is  marked  out  on  it  by  means  of  a  cord; 
the  splay  of  the  cheeks  is  oblaiucd  by  giving  the 
sides  an  inclination  of  one  tenth  with  the  directrix. 
These  lines  being  laid  oil  on  the  sole,  the  revetment 
is  placed  alolig  them  and  is  given  an  inclination 
corresponding  with  the  two  profile  stakes  at  the 
mouth,  and  three  upon  one  at  the  exterior  crest. 
Should  gabions  be  used  for  revetting  the  cheeks, 
fijscines  are  first  partly  imbedded  along  the  edges  of 
the  sole,  and  the  gabions  placed  on  them  in  such 
manner  as  to  ol)taiu  the  proper  flare.  The  gabions 
are  held  in  position  by  bein^  anchored  ■with  telegraph- 
wire  to  a  beam  of  timber  mibedded  in  the  parapet 
parallel  to  and  about  8  feet  from  the  cheeks  of  the 
embrasure.  The  beams  are  held  by  securing  stakes. 
Revetments  made  of  other  material  are  secured  in  a 
similar  manner.  This  preciiution  should  be  tho: 
oughly  looked  after  in  the  first  instance,  l>ecause 
wlien  the  revetment  is  broken  by  the  blast  of  the  gun 
or  the  shots  of  the  enemy  it  is  difficult  to  repair  it, 
and  the  necessity  for  repairing  would  probably  coma 
at  a  time  when  it  could  not  be  done.  If  the  em- 
brasure is  to  be  cut  out  after  the  parapet  is  com- 
pleted, the  mouth  is  marked  off  with  stakes  and 
strips  as  before;  the  earth  is  removed  so  as  to  obtain 


Fra.  S. 


Isometricaf  view  of  wrouglit-iron  casing  for  throat  of  em- 
brasure and  door  or  mantelet  of  same.  A.  sole-piece  re- 
vetted to  elieek-pieces.  B.  ut  the  angles;  C.  front-pieces; 
D,  door  liung  on  horizontal  angle  at  top:  E,  Liever  with 
cord  attached  to  pull  up  the  door;  F,  slot  in  the  door  for 
rammer. 

approximately  Ihe  sole,  which  is  then  laid  off  and  the 
work  completed  as  just  described. 

The  sole  of  the  embrasure  should  be  secured  from 
being  worn  awjty  by  Ihe  blast  with  boards,  poles,  or 
some  similar  malerial  running  lengthwise  with  the 
embrasure.  Kaw-hides  will  greatly  a.ssist  in  pre- 
serving the  rcvclinculs  of  the  checks" from  Ihe  etTccts 
of  alirasidii  produced  liy  tiring.  For  this  jiurpose 
the  hide,  while  green,  is  stretched,  with  the  flesh  side 
outward,  over  tjie  part  to  be  luotceled,  and  is  there 
confined  by  slakes  ilriven  through  it  into  Ihe  i)arapet. 
The  best  method,  however,  for  .securing  the  mouth 
of  the  embrasure,  and  the  sole  and  sides  for  .I  or  (i 
feet  from  the  moulh,  is  a  lining  made  of  J-inch  boiler- 
iron.  Fig.  2.  The  jilales  are  cut  to  the  proper  form 
to  fit  the  sole  and  cheeks,  and  are  fastened  together 
with  angle- irons  and  rivets.  Wings,  about  a  foot 
wide,  extend  out  on  each  side  against  the  interior 
slope  to  iireveiit  the  lining  from  being  moved  to  the 
,  front  by  the  blast.  A  round  bar  of  iron  ])asses  across 
,  the  loi>  about  18  inches  from  the  throat;  to  this  a 


£HBBOCH££. 


555 


EICEBT, 


door  of  sheet-iron  is  suspended,  formini;  a  mantlet 
against  rausketrj-.  In  the  center  of  this  door  is  a  cwt 
or  slot,  about  a  foot  high  and  (!  inclies  wide,  for 
the  double  purpose  of  allowing  the  rammer  to  pass 
through  while  loading  the  piece,  and  for  sighting  it. 
A  vertical  lever  of  wood  or  iron  is  fastened  to  one 
side  of  the  door;  to  this  a  rope  is  attached,  so  that  by 
pulling  on  it  the  door  is  thrown  up  to  allow  the  piece 
to  be  tired. 

The  advantages  of  embrasures  Is  that  the  men  and 
guns  are  less  exposed  than  in  a  barbette-battery. 
Their  principal  defects  are:  they  have  a  very  lim- 
ited field  of  tire;  they  wealvcn  the  parai)et,  and  pre- 
sent openings  througli  which  the  enemy  may  pene- 
trate in  an  a.ssault.  Owing  to  their  limited  field 
of  fire,  they  are  generally  used  for  the  protection  of 
particular  points,  as  to  tlnnk  a  ditch,  protect  a  sali- 
ent, enfilade  a  road,  etc.  The  most  suitable  position 
for  them  in  a  work  is  on  the  tlauks.  See  Direct  Em- 
bnimirf  and  Oblique  Embninu  re. 

EMBROCHEE. — A  common  and  vulgar  term  used 
among  French  soldiers  to  signify  the  act  of  running 
a  man  through  the  body;  literally,  tf>  spit  him. 

EMERY.— A  variety  of  corundum,  or  of  the  same 
mineral  species  of  which  corundum  and  sapphire 


grces  of  fineness  by  the  method  of  elutiiation.  A 
number  of  copper  cylinders  of  graduated  capacities 
are  iilaced  in  a  row,  and  filled  with  water;  the  emerj-, 
churned  up  with  an  abundance  of  water,  is  admitted 
by  a  pipe  into  the  smallest,  it  then  passes  to  the  ne.\t 
in  size,  and  finally  tiows  from  the  largest;  and  thus, 
as  a  given  quantity  of  water  with  emeiy  su.spended  in 
it  pa.sses  in  equal  times  through  vcs.sels  of  varying 
capacities,  the  amount  of  agitation  will  obviously  Ix' 
greatest  in  Uic  smallest  vessel,  least  in  the  largest,  and 
in  like  proportion  with  the  intermediate;  the  largest 
particles,  therefore,  sink  in  the  smaller  vessel,  and  so 
on  till  only  the  very  finest  will  reach  the  largest  ves- 
sel. In  this  manner  an}-  number  of  gradations  of  fine- 
ness may  be  obtained,  according  to  the  ninnlK'r  anil 
sizes  of  the  ves.sels.  Elutriation  in  oil  or  gum-water 
is  sometimes  u.sed  on  a  smaller  scale,  the  emery  being 
stirred  up  in  the  liquid,  and  portions  poured  oiT  at 
different  intervals  of  time,  the  finest  being,  of  course, 
the  last  to  settle.  The  ase  of  the  oil  or  gum  is  to 
make  the  subsidence  take  place  more  slowly.  Emery 
thus  prepared  is  used  for  a  great  many  important  pur- 
poses in  the  arts.  Being  ne.xt  in  hardness  to  diamond- 
dust  and  crystalline  conindum,  the  lapidarj-  uses  it 
for  cutting  and  polishing  many  kinds  of  stone.    Glass 


|-inch  Face. 


{-inch  Face. 


1-inch  Face. 


l-i>ch  Face. 


Faces  of  Tanite  Wlieels. 


'{with  oriental  ruby,  etc.)  are  also  varieties.  It  agrees 
with  them  very  perfectly  in  composition,  hardness, 
and  specific  gra\-ity ;  but  "is  dull,  oi)a(iue,  and  not  crys- 
tallized, sometimes"  of  a  grayish  bhuk  and  .sometimes 
of  a  blue  color.  It  occurs  "both  massive  and  ilissemi- 
nated.  Its  masses,  although  very  compact,  have  a 
somewhat  granular  structure.  It  is  found  in  several 
parts  of  Europe,  in  Asia  Jlinor,  Greenland,  etc., 
generally  in  masses  scattered  through  aqueous  depos- 
its, but  in  one  locality  in  Saxony  in  beds  of  steatite 
in  a  schistose  rock.  The  emery  of  commerce  is 
chiefly  obtained  from  the  Island  of  Naxos.  Being 
very  "hard,  it  is  much  used  for  grinding  glass  and 
polishing  metals  and  other  hard  substances.  It  is 
found  in  lumjis,  having  a  granular  structure.  It  is 
composed  of  alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  and  silica,  with 
a  little  lime,  in  proportions  varying  considerablv  with 
different  specimens.  The  following  may  be  taken  as 
an  average:  alumina,  82;  oxide  of  iron,  10;  silica,  6; 
lime,  11. 

It  is  prepared  for  use  by  first  breaking  it  into  lumps 
about  the  size  of  a  hen's" esg,  then  crushing  these  to 
powder  by  stampers.  It  is  then  sifted  to  various  de- 
grees of  fineness,  which  are  numbered  according  to 
the  meshes  of  the  sieve.  Plate-glass  manufacturers 
and  others  separate  emery -powder  into  different  de- 


stoppers  of  all  kinds  are  ground  into  their  fittinjp 
with  it.  Plate-glass  is  ground  flat  by  its  means;  it  is 
also  used  in  glass-cutting,  and  in  grinding  some  kinds 
of  metallic  fittings.  ^Vhen  employed  for  the  polishing 
of  metals  it  has  to  be  spread  on  .some  kind  of  surface 
to  fonn  a  sort  of  fine  file.  Emery-paper,  emery-civth, 
emern-KtiekK.  emiry-eake,  and  emery-stone  are  various 
contrivances  for  such  purposes. 

Emery-paper  is  made  by  sifting  emery  over  paper 
which  has  been  covered  w"ith  a  coating  of  glue.  It  is 
used  either  by  wrajiping  it  round  a  fine  file  or  a  stick, 
or  in  the  hand,  according  to  the  form  of  the  work. 
Emery  cloth  is  made  like  emerj-paper,  with  coarse 
calico"  substituted  for  paper.  The  emery  does  not  ad- 
here so  well  as  to  paper,  and  it  is  therefore  not  used 
by  metal-workers,  who  work  emery-paper  till  smooth 
w"ith  wear,  but  is  chiefly  used  for  purposes  where  the 
hand  alone  is  used  anti  paper  would  tear.  Emerj'- 
sticks  are  used  for  the  same  purpose's  as  emery-paper 
I  wrapped  romid  files;  they  are  made  of  deal  sticks 
shaped  like  files,  then  clued  over,  and  dipped  once  or 
twice  in  a  heap  of  emery.  Emery -cake  is  a  comiwund 
of  beeswax,  suet,  and  emer)-,  melted  and  well  worked 
tosether.  It  is  applied  to  buttiug- wheels,  etc.  Emery- 
stone  is  a  kind  of  earthenware  mixed  with  emerj-, 
fonned  by  pressing  a  mixture  of  clay  and  eiuerj-  into 


£HEBYOBIND£B. 


556 


EMERY  TE«TING-MACHINE. 


suitable  molds,  and  then  flrinsr  like  common  e-arthcn- 
ware.  It  is  moUKtl  into  wheels,  laps,  etc.  Its  hard 
ness  and  cuttiuj;  power  are  very  considerable.     Sec 

EHERY-GBINDEE.— Au  emery-wheel  mounted  m 
a  stand,  to  Ik-  uxd  as  a  griadsto"ne.  It  inav  be  con- 
sideretlassuch,  iiuii-ed.  The  mineral  conuidum  with 
a  matrix  of  gum-resin,  slue,  vulcanite,  etc.  The 
Tanite  emerN'-griiidiiisr  machinery  is  stixndard  in  the 
I'nitwl  States  and  Canada.  The  French,  Belirian, 
Kussitui,  and  Australian  Governments  have  also  U'en 
large  consumers,  and  even  in  the  works  of  the 
Chinese  atid  Japanese  Governments  Tanite  eincrv- 
■wheels  and  srrinilins-machines  are  largely  employed. 

The  drawins:  shows  a  single-wheel  emery -grinder 
much  usetl  in^arsenals.  Hitherto,  among  the  great 
variety  of  such  machines,  very  few  have  l)een  built 
to  carry  exclusively  one  large  wheel.  In  machines 
■which  "carry  two  wheels  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
dilliculty  iii  providing  solid  and  convenient  rests  at 


of  these  rests  are  accurately  faced  witli  a  Tanite 
wheel  ruiming  on  an  emery-planer.  The  back  of  the 
machine  stands  5  inches  higher  than  the  front,  and 
i.n  the  brace  rod,  I),  which  connects  the  upper  back 
cdrners  of  the  side  fmmes,  swings  the  rest,  B,  de- 
pending for  its  rear  support  on  the  brace-rod,  D,  and 
resting  in  front  by  a  fiK)t  on  the  rest,  C.  It  bridges 
over  the  side  Hange  of  the  emen'-wheel,  and  bein.g  a 
wide,  long,  substantial  rest,  allows  of  work  being 
conveniently  helil  and  ground  on  the  flat  side  of  the 
emerv-wheel.  Owing  to  the  weight  of  this  rest.  B, 
it  reinains  tirmly  in  position  without  lx;ing  held  by 
nuts  or  set-screws,  and  as  it  swings  loosely  on  the 
brace-rod,  D,  it  ain  in  a  moment's  time  be  moved 
out  of  the  way  and  be  left  hanging  down  at  the  back 
of  the  machine,  or  lifted  up  and  placed  in  position. 
The  spindle  of  the  machine  is  of  steel,  and  is  IJ  inch 
in  diameter  at  the  eye  on  the  mindrel-hole  of  the 
wlieel.  The  bearings  are  long,  and  are  lined  with 
Babbitt-metal.     By  far  the  larger  proportion  of  Tan- 


Emery-grinier. 


the  Rides  of  the  wheel.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  emer\-  -  wheels  overhang  the  bearings.  The 
special  object  in  designing  the  machine  here  illustra- 
ted, the  manufacturers  declare,  was  to  make  it 
equally  convenient  to  us(-  the  wlieel  on  the  face  and 
on  the  side.  In  machines  pre\-iously  built  the  side 
rests  were  attached  to  rest-sockets,  and  several  nuts 
had  to  be  carefully  adjusted  before  the  rests  could  be 
secured  in  their  proper  position.  This  grinder  is  de- 
signed to  carrv  an  emery-wheel  of  20  inches  diameter, 
and  of  any  desired  thickness  from  1  to  4  inches; 
20  by  2t  or  3  inches  is  the  most  suitable  size.  The 
front  of  the  machine  stands  at  such  a  height  that  the 
rest,  C,  when  laid  upon  it,  brings  the  metal  which  is 
to  be  workwl  exactly  at  the  center  of  llie  emeri|-- 
wheel,  which  is  the  proper  point  of  contact  when  the 
face  of  the  wheel  is  ased  as  the  cutting  agent.  The 
rest,  C,  is  of  cast-iron,  and  is  20  inejies  long  by  8 
wide.  It  is  shown  in  the  drawing  as  being  faced 
with  a  steel  plate  (saw-steel),  which  was  the  original 
method  of  making  these  rests;  but  more  recently  all 


ite  wheels  are  square  (or  plane)  faced.  As  a  rule,  the- 
wider- faced  ones  are  used  for  surface-work,  and  the 
narrower  for  edge  work.  ATe  give  a  few  diagrams, 
on  page  5")5,  of  shapes  most  frequently  used  in  the 
arsenal.  Of  course  wheels  of  any  desired  face  can 
be  macle  any  diameter;  but  wheels  so  thin  as  finch 
face  sho\dd  not  be  more  than  12  inches  in  diameter, 
nor  wheels  of  i-inch  face  more  than  8  inches  diam- 
eter. It  is  diflieult  to  get  wheels  so  thin  of  even  tem- 
per if  of  a  larger  diameter;  moreover,  they  are  liable 
to  warp,  and  to  he  broken  by  hea\-y  side  prcssm-e. 
These  shapes  are  easily  obtained  by  turning  square- 
faced  wheels  with  diainond  tools.  "  See  Brass-fitting 
ifiii'hiiie.  Exltnimttr.  Griiidinf/  iiutefiiiie,  Gi(miner,imd 
P"ii  V  Pl(i  III  r. 

EMEBY  TESTING-MACHINE.— This  machine,  the 
like  of  which  for  capacity,  accuracy,  dur.d)ility,  and 
general  perfection  of  details  is  not  known,  is  inpos.ses- 
sion  of  the  United  States  Government,  and  is  )ilaced  at 
the  Walerlown  Arsenal  in  Mas.sjichuselts.  The  engrav- 
ing on  t  he  opposite  page  shows  a  perspective  view  of  the. 


XMEET  TESTINO-MACHIinE. 


557 


EMEET  TESTINGMACHINE. 


machine,  and  will  aid  iu  givinc  an  exact  understand- 
ing of  its  construction  and  tlac  manner  of  operation. 
The  problem  before  the  inventor  of  lliis  famous  machine 
■was one  of  no  small  difficulty.     Briefly  stated,  it  was- 


show  the  strain  required  to  break  specimens  no 
stronger  than  a  single  horse  hiur.  2.  That  the  ma- 
chine should  have  the  capacity  of  seizing  and  gi\-ing 
the  necessary  strams  to  the  specimens,  from  the  m^ 


1.  To  construct  a  machine  with  the  capacity  of  tasting 
specimens  for  tension  or  compression  up  to  a  break- 
ingstrain  of  800,000  lbs.,  while  at  tlie  s:inie  time  the 
machine  should  Ix;  of  such  deliaiey  us  to  accurately 


nutest  to  the  greatest,  without  the  construction  of  a 
multitude  of  special  appliances  to  suit  the  numerous 
changes  of  form  and  size  in  which  materials  to  be 
tested  :ue  presented.     0.  That  the  machine  should  be 


£1I£BT  TESTING-MACHINE. 


558 


EMERY  TESTING-MACHINE. 


able  to  give  these  strains  and  receive  the  shocks  of 
Kcoi]  produced  bv  tlie  rupture  of  the  specimen 
without  injurv-.  I'he  dilliculty  of  this  requirement 
niav  Ih?  appn-eiiitiil  by  considering  that  when  a  test 
to  the  full  capacity  of  the  machine  is  made,  the  scale, 
upon  the  breukinj}  of  the  specimen,  receives  bv  recoil 
an  iii»tiiiitam'<i>ifi  liMid  </  800.000  pounds.  The  ma- 
chine and  scale  must  be' so  constructed  as  to  bear  this 
load  placeil  upon  it  instantaneously,  and  bear  it  so  per- 
fectly that  the  next  moment  it  will  correctly  show  a 
load" of  a  iwund  without  any  adjustment  whatever. 
4.  That  the  machine  should  be  so  constructed  that  the 
specimen,  while  undergouig  strain,  may  be  readily 
accessible  for  the  purpose  of  observing  minutely  the 


care  being  used  in  general  throughout  the  whole  ma- 
chine. 

In  the  article  AVEiGniNO-M.\cniXE  will  be  noticed 
the  means  which  Mr.  Emer>'  employed  in  indicating 
loatls  or  strains  of  all  desi-riptions  with  an  accuracy 
hitherto  unknown.  In  this  article  we  will  see  how  a 
system  of  diaphragms  can  be  applied  to  the  weighing 
of  the  work  of  a  testing-machine,  and  also  notice 
what  means  the  designer  lias  adopted  to  obtain  a  ma- 
chine entirely  free  from  back-lash  when  the  specimen 
breaks.  The  apparatus  consists  of  two  parts.  The 
first  is  the  machinery  for  imtting  strain  upon  the 
specimen,  whether  of  compression  or  tension.  In  its 
essential  features  this  consists  of  two  screws  carrjing 


Fio.  1. 


changes  taking  place  with  the  changes  of  the  strains 
or  loads  applied  to  the  specimen,  .'j.  That  the  ma- 
chine should  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  readily  ope 
rated  without  exces,sive  cost.  The  machine,"  after 
lieing  erected,  had  applied  to  it  a  test-load  of  one 
million  jwunds,  which  it  seeme<l  to  Ix'ar  with  the  ut- 
most ease.  Before  describing  the  machine,  it  is  well 
to  remark  that  all  the  working  i>arls  in  genend  were 
at  their  working  l)earings,  titled  tog-auges  to  within  less 
than  one  tUouwmlth  of  an  inch.  For  instance,  the 
main  screws,  which  are  48  feet  long,  were  dressed  to 
gauges  throughout  their  whole  length,  and  then  the 
threads  on  them  cut  to  gimges,  the  threails  in  the 
nuts  being  carefully  gauged  to  match  them,  the  same 


a  straining-beam,  to  which  a  hydraulic  cylinder  is  at- 
tached. This  cylinder  furnishes  the  power  for  com- 
pression or  extension.  These  screws  are  attached  to 
a  frame  in  which  a  pair  of  lieams  are  placed  to  fur- 
nish the  abutments  for  resisting  the  power.  Whether 
the  strain  is  tensile  or  compressive,  it  results  in  com- 
jircssing  the  licpiid  in  the  hydraulic  support  between 
these  beams,  wliich  constitute  alternately  the  platform 
and  bed  of  tlie  scale.  Tlie  second  part  of  the  appa- 
ratus of  the  weigliing  mechanism  comprises  a  system 
of  levers  and  a  scale-beam  with  suitable  weights,  and 
a  pressure-column  with  its  diaphragms,  to  which 
the  pressure  exerted  in  the  testing-machine  is  trans- 
ferred by  a  suitable  tube.    The  liquid  in  the  support 


EMEEY  TESTING-MACHINE. 


559 


EBEBY  TESTING-MACHINE. 


between  the  beams,  being  compressed,  is  forced 
against  the  pressure-diaphragm  of  the  pressure-col- 
umn. The  amoimt  of  force  e.xerted  here  is  then 
weighed,  and  the  indication  read  from  the  scale-beam 
and  the  pointer  which  is  atached  to  it.  The  reader  ! 
should  bear  in  mind  carefully  the  distinction  lx,-tween 
the  two  pieces  of  apparatus.  One  is  in  and  of  itself  es- 
sentially for  testing.  It  gives  no  indications  of  the 
amount  of  strain  ajiplied,  and  is  a  perfectly  indepen- 
dent and  disconnected  apparatus.  The  otlier  is  an 
indicating  mechanism,  and  might  be  adjusted  to  a 
platform-scale,  a  weighing-lock,  a  traek-scide,  or,  in 
fact,  to  a  thou.sand  and  one  other  uses  if  necessary,  its 
office  being  solely  to  register  or  indicate  the  amoimt  of 
force  exerted  upon  the  system  of  levers  which  it  con- 
tains. Although  resemblmg  to  a  certain  extent  the  ordi- 
nary scale-beam,  it  differs  not  only  in  the  nature  of  its 
connections,  but  also  in  the  method  of  jiutling  on  and 
taking  off  its  weights.  This  feature  alone  is  entirely  i 
different  from  anything  of  which  we  have  any  ac- 
count, antl  adds  very  materially  to  the  ease  and  speed 
of  weighing.  One  of  the  features  which,  not  only  in 
chemical  but  also  in  large  balances,  is  inherent  in  ">[r. 
Emery's  system  of  weighing,  is  the  fact  that  the 
motion  of  the  load  is  so  small,  anil  the  eon.sequent 
momentum  .so  insignificant,  that  the  beam  or  pointer 
can  come  to  rest  quickly  without  a  long  series  of  vi- 
brations on  each  side  of  the  zero. 

The  construction  of  the  apparatus  will  be  better 
understood  by  a  reference  to  Fig.  1,  showing  the  base 
of  the  machine  and  framework,  with  portions  broken  ( 
away  to  show  the  more  important  features.  Bearing 
in  mind  that  whether  the  strains  be  those  of  tension 
or  compression — that  is,  whether  in  an  upward  or 
do\vnward  direction — they  must  result  in  compressing 
the  licpiid  in  the  pressure-support,  the  reader  is  pre- 
pared to  understand  the  method  of  operation.  The 
resistance,  or  the  final  abutment,  is  foimd  in  the 
frame,  F,  which  is  of  cast-iron  and  very  heavy.  This 
frame  surrounds  the  two  beams,  E  E,  which  consti- 
tute the  bed  and  platform  of  the  scale,  and  between 
which  is  placed  the  hydraulic  pressure  support.  When 
the  strain  takes  an  upward  direction  these  pieces  are 
forced  against  the  upper  member  of  the  frame.  When 
the  pressure  is  downward  they  rest  on  the  lower  por- 
tion of  this  frame.  They  have  between  them,  in  the 
pressure-support,  a  pair  of  diaphragms  inclosing  a 
quantity  of  fluid,  which,  by  means  of  the  slender 
tube,  /,  commimicateS  with  the  pressure  column  ol 
the  weighing  apparatus.  These  pieces,  E  E,  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  yoke,  B  D  C  D,  in  which  they  are  per- 
fectly free  and  with  which  they  have  no  rigid  con- 
nection. The  strain  of  the  loaJ  is  taken  by  this  out- 
side yoke  entirely,  and  through  it  communicated  to 
the  abutment  pieces,  E  E.  These  two  pieces,  with 
the  diaphragm  between  them  and  its  inclosing  rings, 
are  finished  to  such  a  thickness  that  they  just  fill  the 
space  between  the  tno  members  of  the  frame  to 
within,  say,  y/„ff  inch.  This  is  the  maximum  amount 
of  motion  which  is  permitted.  Having  this  arrange- 
ment of  yoke  and  abutment-pieces,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  hold  it  in  position  and  prevent  it  from  any 
lateral  motion,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  it  perfect 
freedom  in  a  vertical  direction.  This  is  accomplished 
by  a  most  ingenious  modification  of  the  tlexiblc  plate 
or  metal  fulcrums.  For  example,  the  upiier  beam, 
E,  is  held  and  supported  in  position  and  prevented 
from  side  motion  by  the  thin  bars,  b  h.  The  vertical 
motion  is  so  small  that  the  elasticity  of  these  spring- 
bars,  h  b,  allows  it  to  rise  and  fall  with  practically  no 
friction. 

Similar  flexible  bars,  c  e,  support  and  fix  in  position 
the  lower  scale-beam,  E.  against  horizontal  motion 
and  allow  freedom  of  motion  vertically.  The  yoke  is 
in  like  manner  firmly  fixed  against  horizontal  motion 
at  its  top  and  bottorn  by  foui-  pairs  of  spring  plates, 
two  of  which,  a  a  and  a'  a',  at  the  top,  are  attiiched 
at  right  angles  to  each  other  to  the  upper  beam,  A  B, 
of  the  yoke  and  to  the  frame,  F,  while  the  other  two 
pairs  at  the  bottom,  e  e  and  e  e',  also  at  right  angles 


to  each  other,  are  fixed  to  the  lower  beam,  C,  of  the 
yoke,  and  to  tlie  frame,  F.  They  allow  perfect  freedom 
m  a  vertical  direction,  while  compelling  the  whole 
movable  portion  to  work  in  a  vertical  line.  A  beam, 
G,  is  bolted  to  the  bottom,  beam,  C,  of  the  yoke,  and 
has  its  two  ends  extended  between  two  pairs  of  initial 
load  springs,  marked  d  d.  The  yoke,  B  C  D  D,  and 
its  contained  scale-beams,  E  E,  being  suspended  in 
the  air  by  the  six  pairs  of  fixing-springs,  as  lx.'forc 
mentioned,  is  now  carried  firmly  against  the  beams, 
E  E,  by  the  fidl  pressure  of  the  load-springs,  rf  d,  by 
means  of  two  pairs  of  screws  not  here  shown,  one 
pair  of  screws  acting  to  apply  the  load  of  these 
springs,  d  d,  in  an  upward  direction,  and  the  other 
in  a  downward  direction.  When  these  springs  arc 
made  to  bear  upward  against  G,  the  yoke  is  resting 
airainst  the  lower  .scale-beam,  E,  transmitting  the  load 
of  the  springs,  d  d,  through  the  pressure-supitort  to 
the  upper  beam,  E,  which  now  becomes  the  bed  of 
the  scale,  with  its  outer  ends  resting  against  the 
frame,  F,  at  the  top,  while  the  lower  beam,  E,  aet.s 
as  a  free  platform,  and  the  scale  is  then  balanced 
ready  for  use  with  strains  of  tension.  If  strains  of 
compression  or  transverse  loads  are  desired,  the  load- 
springs,  d  d,  arc  made  to  act  downward  on  the 
beam,  G,  the  upper  lieam,  E,  now  acting  as  the  free 
platform,  and  the  lower  beam,  E,  as  the  bed  of  the 
scale.  The  acting  area  of  the  diaphragm  in  this  ap- 
paratus, where  a  strain  of  75  tons  is  to  Ix'  exerted,  is 
13.6  inches  in  diameter. 

The  testing-machine  is  arranged  for  transverse 
strains  by  putting  a  heavy  bar  across  the  top  of 
the  table.  A,  which  carries  at  its  two  ends  suit- 
able supports  with  hemispherical  bearings  on  which 
the  specimen  rests.  The  outer  ends  of  these  bars 
are  supported  by  braces,  the  lower  ends  of  which 
enter  the  slot  shown  near  the  ba.se  of  1)  in  Fig.  1. 
Immediately  under  the  ram  is  shown  a  gauge  for 
reading  the  deflection.  The  cross-head  which  carries 
the  hydraulic  ram  is  arranged  in  a  very  neat  but  some- 
what peculiar  manner.  It  is  carried  by  two  screws, 
the  nuts  of  which  have,  both  above  and  below,  a  pair 
of  gear-wheels.  A  pair  of  intermediate  gears  tran.smit 
the  motion  from  one  to  the  other,  and  the  whole  is 
moved  up  and  down  by  means  of  a  crank  at  the  left 
hand  of  the  machine.  This  crank,  through  a  pair  of 
bevel-gears,  works  the  vertical  shaft  on  the  left-hand 
side  with  its  two  pinions,  thus  revolving  the  nuts. 
The  shaft  is  provided  witli  the  usual  slot  and  feather. 
This  makes  the  matter  of  adjustment  for  different 
lengths  of  specimens  comparatively  e^i.sy,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  simple.  The  cylinder  is  a  double-acting 
one,  and  is  connected  with  the  force-pump  by  means 
of  two  telescopic  tubes,  shown  at  the  right-hand  side, 
and  connecting  ^vith  the  cylinder  itself  by  small  bent 
copper  pipes.  These  telescopic  tubes  are  arranged  in 
such  a  way  that  no  changes  in  the  connections  are 
needed  in  any  part  of  the  stroke.  For  extension  a 
peculiar  form  of  jaw  screws  into  the  bottom  of  the 
piston-rod  or  ram,  and  also  into  a  hole  in  the  beam  A  B. 
The  weighing  mechanism  itself  consists  of  a  weight- 
beam,  somewhat  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  .5  in 
the  article  WEloniNG-M.^CHtNE,  with  its  indicator-rod 
and  a  series  of  susisension-rods  for  carrying  weights. 
This  beam  in  the  scale  shown  is  not  connected  di- 
rectly to  a  pressure-column,  but  is  moved  by  a  large 
steel  beam  2.5  inches  deep  by  10  inches  in  width, 
pivoted  with  plate  fulcrums  and  moved  by  a  pressure- 
column.  Just  above  the  block  is  the  case  containing 
the  small  pressure-chamber  which  is  connected  with 
that  in  the  support  between  the  sealelieams.  The 
method  by  which  weights  are  put  on  and  taken  off  is 
in  this  case  so  entirely  novel  and  different  from  any- 
thing that  has  been  employed  in  ordinary  weighing- 
machines  that  we  give  it  in  detail.  Fig.  2,  on  a  large 
scale,  shows  the  weights  with  their. rt^.  The  rod 
D  carries  on  its  front  side  a  number  of  lugs,  and  is 
supporteil  by  a  plate  from  the  beam,  the  suspension- 
spring  being  shown  at  the  point  marked  I).  The 
rods  A  and  B  also  carry  on  their  faces  a  number  of 


ZKINENCE. 


560 


£MF£ROB. 


lugs,  and  arc  supporteil  by  the  cross-head,  C,  attached 
to  one  end  of  a  rod  which  is  openited  liy  a  lever  be- 
low; (I.  b,  c.  .  .  .  A-  are  the  weishts.  The  problem  is 
to  successively  throw  these  weiijhts  upon  the  beam. 
This  is  luciiniplished  by  a  downward  movement  of 
the  rods  A  and  B.    The  "lugs  not  being  evenly  spaced, 


Fio.  2. 


Fio.  3. 


tois  downward  motion  brinjfs  the  top  weight,  a, 
in  contact  with  the  uppermost  lug  on  the  rod  D.  If 
the  motion  is  continued,  b  is  next  dropped  on  the 
rod,  and  c  follows.  In  the  engraving  <i,  b,  e  have  al- 
ready been  left  by  the  downward  motion  of  A  B  on 
the  rod  D.  The"  weight  d  is  bearing  not  only  on 
the  center,  but  also  on  the  side  rods,  and  any  further 
downward  motion  of  A  B  would  allow  it  to  "rest  vipon 
p.  The  otlier  weights  would  be  in  succession  depos- 
ited on  the  central  rod  by  a  conlinuauce  of  the  do«Ti- 
ward  motion.  On  the  front  of  the  beam  there  are 
three  sets  of  the.se  rods,  each  one  of  tliem  carrying  a 
carefully  adjusted  set  of  weights,  10  in  numfer. 
When  all  of  one  set  are  upon  the  beam  the  ne.\t  set  is 
added,  and  so  on,  grailuallj-  increasing  tlie  weights 
until  tlie  limit  of  capacity  is  reached.  The  weisbts 
are  arranged  to  add  tens",  hundreds,  and  thousimcls 
of  pounds  to  tlie  balancing-load.  At  the  outward  end 
of  the  toim.  however,  it  is  desirable  to  put  on  still 
greater  weights,  and  Fig.  3  shows  how  these  large 
weights  are  arranged.  As  in  the  previous  ease,  there 
are  10  of  them,  but  they  are  carried  by  two  sets  of 
rods  fastened  to  the  cro"ss-head,  C.     The  rod  D  has 


arms  projecting  from  it.  One  pair  of  these  arms  is 
shown  at  it.s  bottom  just  below  the  weights  i  and  k. 
By  the  lowering  of  A  B.  the  weight  a  is  tii-st  picked 
up  by  the  rod  1),  then  h  follows,  and  so  on,  until  all 
are  carried  by  U.  When  the  cross-head,  C,  is  raised 
the  weights  'are  lifted  from  U  in  a  reverse  order. 
In  the  front  of  the  casi'  which  covers  the  beam  four 
handles  are  seen.  These  handles,  by  motion  up  and 
down,  move,  by  means  of  levers,  the  weight-frames, 
and  put  on  or  fake  off  the  weights.  At  the  same 
time  they  raise  or  lower  a  series  of  ]iointers,  and  thus 
intlicate  just  how  many  weights  have  l)eeu  placed  on 
the  beam.  In  starting  to  weigh,  all  the  handles  are 
moved  so  as  bring  the  pointers  to  zero.  See  Testing- 
nuifhines  and  \\'ti!/huif/-muc/iiiie. 

EMINENCE. —  A  high  or  rising  ground  which 
overlooks  and  commands  the  low  places  about  it. 
Such  places  within  cannon-shot  of  any  fortified  place 
are  a  great  disadvantage  if  the  besiegers  become 
masters  of  them. 

EMIR. — An  Arabic  word,  equivalent  to  "  Ruler;"  it 
is  a  title  given  in  the  East,  and  in  the  North  of  Africa, 
to  all  independent  Chieftains,  and  also  to  all  the  actual 
or  supposed  descendants  of  Mohanimed  through  his 
daugliier  Fatima.  The  latter  :ire  very  numerous 
throughout  the  Turkish  dominions;  but  although  en- 
titled by  birth  to  be  classed  among  the  first  four 
orders  of  society,  they  enjoy  no  ])articular  privileges 
or  consiileration;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  foimd  en- 
gaged in  all  sorts  of  occupations,  and  are  to  Ite  meli 
with  among  beggars,  and  the  lowest  of  the  populace, 
as  frequently  as  among  the  Mollahs.  Their  privileges 
are  contined  to  a  few  unimportant  matters,  chietiy  to 
the  exclusive  right  to  wear  turbans  of  a  green  color, 
that  having  been  the  favorite  color  of  the  Proi^het. 
They  are  placed  under  the  super\ision  of  the  Emir- 
Beshir.  In  former  times  the  title  of  Emir  was  Ijorne 
bj'  the  leaders  in  the  religious  wars  of  the  Moham- 
medans, as  well  as  Ijy  several  ruling  families,  such  as 
the  Tbaherides  and  Samanides  in  Pei-sia,  the  Tulu- 
nides  in  Egypt,  the  first  seven  Onmiaiades  in  Spain. 
The  title  Emir,  in  connection  with  other  words,  like- 
wise designates  (.lifferent  offices.  Eiiiir-dl-Minnoiin, 
"  Prince  of  the  Faithful,"  is  the  title  as.sumed  by  the 
Caliphs  themselves;  Eiinr-iil-Mnalemiii,  signifying  the 
same  thing,  was  the  title  of  the  Almoravides.  Emir- 
ol-Omrah,  "Prince  of  Princes,"  was  the  title  of  the 
lirst  Minister,  under  the  Caliphs  and  the  East  Indian 
Moguls,  who  united  in  his  own  ijerson  the  highest 
civil  and  military  dignities.  It  is  now  the  title  of 
the  Governors  of  ditlerent  Provinces.  The  Turkish 
Master  of  the  Horse  is  styled  Einir-Achur;  the  Stand- 
ard-bearer, Emir-Alem;  and  the  leader  of  the  cara- 
vans of  pilgrims  to  Mecca,  Emir-Hiulji.  Ameer  or 
Aim  !■<•  is  another  spelling  of  the  same  word. 

EMISSARY. — A  spy,  a  scout.  In  a  military  sense, 
one  who  during  war-time  personates  the  dress,  lan- 
guage, and  character  of  the  power  or  nation  he  is  sent 
amongst  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  information,  or 
for  the  purpose  of  creating  disaffection  in  the  ranks 
of  the  enemy. 

EMOLUMENT.— The  profit  arising  from  otlice  or 
employ nieiil;  that  which  is  received  as  a  compensa- 
tion for  ser\ices,  or  which  is  annexed  to  the  pos.sessiou 
of  otlice,  as  salary,  fees,  and  pen|Viisitcs.     See  Puf/. 

EMOUSSER.— To  blunt,  to  dull.  In  a  military 
sense,  the  word  signifies,  to  take  off  the  four  eimiers 
of  a  battalion  which  has  formed  a  square,  and  to 
give  it,  by  tliose  ineans,  an  octagonal  figure;  from 
the  different  obtuse  angles  of  which  it  may  fire  in  all 
direclions. 

EMPEROR.— The  original  signification  of  this, 
which  in  the  modern  world  has"  become  the  highest 
title  of  sovereignty,  can  be  understood  only  when  if 
is  taken  in  conjinietion  with  imjuriiiiii,  which  in  the 
Roman  pfililical  system  had  a  peculiar  and  somewhat 
technical  meaning.  The  impirium  of  a  Magistrate, 
be  he  King  or  Consul,  was  the  power  which  be  pos- 
sessed of  bringing  i)liysical  force  into  o]ieration  for 
the  fulfillment  of  his  "behests.     This  power  was  con- 


EMFILEHENT. 


561 


ENCEINTE. 


ferreil  by  a  Lej-  Ctirialft,  and  it  rcfuiirod  tlii."  authori- 
zation to  entitle  a  Consul  to  aet  as  the  Commander  of 
an  Army.  In  the  case  of  the  Kin"-K  also,  the  impe- 
rium  was  not  implied  in  their  election,  but  was  con- 
ferred separately,  by  a  separate  act  of  the  national 
will.  "  C)u  the  death  of  King  Pompilius,"  savs 
Cicero,  "the  jyipulun  in  the  eomitui  cnrkihi  elected 
TuUus  Ilostilius  Kinir,  upon  the  rogation  of  an  inter- 
rei;  and  the  King,  following  the  example  of  Pom- 
piliu.s,  took  the  votes  of  the  pojmUiH,  according  to 
their  euruf,  on  tli£  quftthn  of  hin  impcrium."  Now, 
it  was  in  \irtue  of  this  imperium  that  the  title  Imper- 
ator  was  ^iven  to  its  possessor.  Far  front  being  i\n 
Emperor  in  the  modern  sense,  he  might  be  a  Consul 
or  a  Proconsul;  and  there  were,  in  fact,  many  Im- 
perators,  even  after  the  title  had  been  assumed  as  a 
prenomen  by  Julius  Ca?sar.  It  was  this  assumption 
which  gradually  gave  to  the  title  its  modern  signili- 
cation.  In  republican  times  it  had  followed  the 
mime,  and  indicated  simply  that  its  possessor  was  an 
Imperator,  or  one  possessed  of  the  imperium;  now  it 
preceded  it,  and  signified  that  he  who  arrogated  it  to 
himself  was  the  Emperor.  In  this  form  it  appears  on 
the  coins  of  the  successors  of  Jvdius.  After  the  times 
of  the  Antonines  the  title  ^ew  into  iLse  as  expressing 
the  possessor  of  the  .sovereignty  of  the  Roman  world, 
in  which  sense  Princeps  also  was  frequently  em- 
ployed. In  the  introduction  to  the  IiiKtitittes,  Ju-stin- 
ian  uses  both,  in  speaking  of  himself,  in  the  same 
paragraph.  From  the  Emperors  of  the  West  the 
title  pa.s.sed  to  Charlemagne,  the  founder  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire.  When  the  Carloviugian  family  ex])ired 
in  the  German  branch,  the  Imperial  crown  became 
elective,  and  continued  to  be  so  till  it  ceaseil — Francis 
II.,  who  in  1804  had  declared  himself  hereditary  Em- 
peror of  Austria,  having  laid  it  down  in  1806.  In 
addition  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  there  are  now  in 
Europe  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, the  latter  of  whom  was,  on  Januarj'  18,  1871, 
proclaimed  under  this  title  within  the  Hall  of  Mirrors, 
in  the  Palace  of  the  French  Kings  al  Versailles,  in  the 
presence  of  the  German  Princes,  and  the  standards  of 
the  German  army  which  was  beleaguering  Paris.  In 
1876  the  Queen  of  England  assumed  the  title  of  Em- 
press of  India,  in  addition  to  those  which  she  bore 
previouslv. 

EMPILEMENT.— The  act  of  disposing  shot  and 
shell  in  the  most  secure  and  convenient  manner. 
This  is  always  done  in  arsenals  and  citadels. 

EMPKISE. — A  hazardous  attempt  upon  the  enemy. 
See  Ell  fans  Pirdim  and  Forlorn  Hiype. 

EMPTY  BASTION.— When  the  rampart,  following 
the  outline  of  the  crest  of  the  bastion,  has  in  its  center 
an  interior  space  on  the  level  of  the  ground,  the  bas- 
tion is  called  I'nijily  or  holtoie. 

encampment'.— A  lodgment  or  home  for  soldiers 
in  the  field.  There  are  intrenched  camps,  where  an 
army  is  intended  to  be  kept  some  time,  protected 
agiiinst  the  enemy;  flying  camps,  for  brief  occupa- 
tion; camps  of  ;)««Ywre,  bearing  relation  to  the  strat- 
egy of  the  Commander;  and  camps  of  inKtruction,  to 
habituate  the  troops  to  the  duties  and  fatigues  of  war. 
Under  Camp  has  been  given  an  account  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  Roman  camps  were  constructed.  It  is 
probable  that  the  .same  general  plan  was  adhered  to 
until  the  invention  of  gunpowder.  When  cannon 
came  to  be  used,  however,  a  new  arrangement  of 
camp  became  necessary,  to  shield  the  army  from 
long-range  projectiles.  Everything,  in(lee<l,  relating 
to  attack  and  defense,  especially  to  the  latter,  is  taken 
into  account  in  chosing  the  locality  of  a  camp.  A 
healthy  site,  good  water,  security  from  floods,  and 
plenty  of  fuel  and  forage,  are  the  chief  reipiisites  in  a 
good  encampment.  The  British  army,  whin  in  the 
field,  usually  encamps  by  brig-ades  or  divisions,  roads 
and  paths  being  arranged  before  the  troops  arrive. 
The  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery  are  .so  placed  as 
to  defend  each  other  in  the  event  of  a  sudden  attack. 
There  is  a  chain  of  guards  all  round  the  spot;  and  the 
park  of  artillery  is  placed  behind  the  troops.     The 


sutlers  and  .servants  are  in  the  rear  of  the  camp,  but 
not  beyond  the  limits  of  the  rearguard.  The  tents  of 
the  infant  rj-  are  ranged  in  rmvs  per])endicular  tc  the 
front,  each  row  containing  the  tents  for  one  company. 
The  circular  tents,  now  much  used,  accommodate 
fifteen  men  each.  The  cavalry  are  in  like  manner  en- 
camped in  rows;  but  each  circular  tent  accommodates 
only  twelve  men.  There  are  streets  or  roads  b<'tween 
the  rows  of  tents,  of  regulated  width;  and  the  oflicers' 
tents  are  at  a  given  distance  behind  thos<.'  of  the  men: 
the  .subalterns'  tents  being  nearest  to  those  of  the  com- 
panies to  which  they  respectively  belong.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  line  of  the  whole  encampment  is  made 
to  correspond  as  nearly  as  practicable  with  that  in 
which  the  troops  are  intended  to  engage  the  enemy 
when  fighting  is  renewed;  to  which  end  the  tents  of 
each  battalion  are  not  allowed  to  occupv  a  greater 
.space  in  front  than  the  battalion  itself  would  cover 
when  in  order  of  battle.  Under  most  circumslances, 
in  modern  warfare,  an  encampment  is  not  defended 
by  artificial  constructions;  the  Commander  seeks  se- 
curity for  his  troops  in  streams,  marshes,  ditlicult 
surface  of  country,  and  numerous  advanced  posts. 
Sometimes,  however,  more  extensive  defense-works 
are  necessjiry;  and  then  we  have  an  example  of  an 
intrcnr/ied  camp,  which  becomes  a  fortified  inclosure. 
The  chief  iLses  of  such  a  cam])  are,  to  secure  an  army 
while  covering  a  siege,  or,  in  winter  (luarters,  to  ac- 
commodate a  Corps  of  Observation  while  the  active 
army  is  engaged  elsewhere;  or  to  defend  a  position 
near  a  fortified  place.  Care  is  taken  that  the  site  is 
not  commanded  by  neighboring  hills.  All  villages 
are  occupied,  and  all  obstacles  removed,  within  a  dis- 
tance of  half  a  mile  or  a  mile.  The  area  of  ground 
selected  is  large  enough  to  contain  the  necessary  store 
of  anils,  ammunition,  food,  fuel,  forage,  and  water, 
and  to  enable  the  troops  to  maneuver.  The  junction 
of  two  rivers  is  often  selected  as  a  favoralile  spot. 
Various  defense-works  are  constructed  around  or  near 
the  spot,  such  as  contmuous  earthworks,  redoubts, 
fieches,  etc.  The  position  held  liy  the  Allies  outside 
Sebaslopol,  during  the  long  intervals  when  the  can- 
nonading was  suspended,  had  manj-  of  the  character- 
istics of  an  intrenched  camp.  Cafnps  of  iiiKtrucliun 
may  be  cither  temporarj-  or  permanent.  i)i  the  for- 
mer kind  was  the  camp  formed  at  Chobham  in  Surrey 
in  1853,  merely  for  the  .summer  months,  to  exercise  cer- 
tain regiments  in  evolutions.  Another  was  formed  at 
ShornclitTe  in  Kent  in  IS').^,  at  fii-st  to  receive  troops 
of  the  Foreign  Legion;  but  it  has  since  been  improved 
to  the  condition  of  a  peniianent  camp.  The  great 
establishment  at  Aldcrshott  has  been,  by  an  ungrudg- 
ing outlay  of  public  funds,  improved  m  all  particu- 
lars, and  the  .small  agiicultural  village  of  Aldershott 
has  grown  Into  an  important  commercial  town,  with 
railway-stations,  hotels,  market-houses,  handsome 
shops,  etc.  A  large  permanent  camp  has  also  been 
established  in  Ireland,  on  a  plain  called  the  Curiagh 
of  Kildare,  and  there  is  a  smaller  one  at  Colchester. 
See  C'dnip,  Castmmelation,  and  yieMtterrire. 

ENCEINTE. — The  best  mode  of  arranging  the  ele- 
ments of  a  defense  requires  that  the  work  should  be 
so  planneil  that  every  point  exterior  to  the  defenses 
within  cannon-range  should  be  thoroughly  swept  by 
their  tire.  Owing  to  the  form  and  ht'ight  of  the  par- 
apet, its  fire  can  take  elTect  only  at  .some  distance  be- 
yond it.  The  enemy  having  reached  the  ditch  will 
iiot  be  exposed  to  fire  unless  some  arrangement  has 
lieeii  made  to  sweep  the  ditch.  Any  place  where  he 
can  find  shelter,  where  the  missiles  of  the  defense 
pa.ss  so  high  above  him  as  to  inflict  no  injury,  is  called 
a  dead-angle  or  dead-itptiee.  To  remove  this  defect, 
the  main  work  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  sweep  by  its 
fire  every  point  exterior  to  it,  or  auxiliar\-  works 
tcrined  caponieres,  scaqi  and  counterscarp  galleries, 
etc.,  may  be  used.  In  the  former  case  parts  of  the 
work  must  be  thrown  forward  towards  the  enemy 
ami  other  portions  retired.  Thc.«e advanced  parts  are 
called /(«•«'.«;  the  retired  pints,  flankn;  and  the  parts 
connecting  the  flanks,  curtains.     The  outline  of  such 


£NCOHBK£R. 


562 


ENDURANCE  OF  GUNS. 


a  plan  must  be  anjrular.  The  angular  points  towards 
the  enemy  are  called  »alientii.  The  anirle  formed  by 
two  retin/d  parts,  a  n-enterinii  angle.  The  line  bisect- 
ing a  salient  angle  is  called  the  eapital.  In  firing 
over  a  parapet,  a  soldier  usually  aims  directly  to  the 
front,  s<.>  that  the  line  of  fire  and  the  parapet  make 
nearly  a  riirht  ang'e  with  each  other.  There  is  then 
an  angular  space  in  front  of  the  salient  (equal  to  the 
supplement  of  the  salient  angle)  which  receives  no 
protection  by  direct  fire  from  it.  This  space  is 
termed  a  mefor  irithoiit  fire.  The  continuous  line  of 
fortification  inclosing  a  lX)sition  is  calleil  the  enceinte, 
the  body  of  the  phice  or  the  main  inclosiire.  The 
generalOutline  of  the  enceinte  may  be  nirviUnear,  or 
a  polygoiiiil  figure  of  any  character.  Whatever  sys- 
tem may  be"  adojited  for  the  enceinte,  tliere  are  some 
conditions  which  it  must  satisfy  to  render  it  effective: 
1.  It  .should  have  a  steep  revetted  scarp;  unbroken  on 
all  sides  except  for  the  necessary  openings  for  com- 
munications; thoroughly  flanked  throughout  by  can- 
non and  small-arms;  and  of  sufficient  height  to  pre- 
vent all  ordinary  attempts  at  escalade.  2.  The  scarp 
should  be  .so  covered  by  earthen  or  other  masks  that 
it  cannot  be  reached  by  the  projectiles  of  an  assailant 
from  any  position  exterior  to  these  masks.  3.  The 
parapet  and  interior  covered  shelters  should  be  proof 
against  solid  and  hollow  loaded  projectiles.  4.  The 
parapet  should  command  all  the  site  and  outworks 
exterior  to  the  enceinte  and  within  range  of  its  guns, 
and  sweep  them  with  fiank  and  cro.ss  fires.  .5.  As 
far  as  practicable,  the  principal  lines  of  the  parapet 
should  receive  such  directions  that  the  assailant  can- 
not take  up  positions  to  enfilade  them.  If  the  posi- 
tion thus  inclosed  be  an  inhabited  one,  as  a  city, 
town,  etc.,  or  an  important  point  that  requires  the 
presence  of  other  persons  than  those  necessary  for  its 
defense,  it  receives  the  name  of  fiirlnxn.  or  fortified 
plate.  If  it  is  destined  to  receive  no  other  inhabitants 
but  the  troops  for  its  defense,  it  is  called  a  fort;  and 
the  defenders  are  termed  the  garrison. 

ENCOMBRER.— In  fortification,  to  fill  up  any  hol- 
low place,  such  as  a  stagnant  lake,  etc.,  with  rubbish. 

ENCOUNTER.— Literally,  a  combat  or  fight  between 
two  persons.  It  is  not  unfrc(iuerilly  used  to  describe 
a  Ijattlc  or  attack  by  large  or  small  bodies  of  troops. 

ENDORSE. — In  Ileraldry,  an  ordinary  containing 
the  fourth  part  of  a  pale.  Endorsed,  again,  or  in- 
domed,  signifies  that  objects  are  placed  on  the  shield 
back  to  back.     See  Ileraldry. 

ENDURANCE  OF  GUNS.  — The  principal  injuries 
caused  by  ser\ice  arc  Internal,  arising  from  the  sepa- 
rate action  of  the  powder  and  the  projectile.  They 
increase  in  extent  with  the  caliber,  whatever  may  be 
the  nature  of  the  gun,  but  are  modified  by  the  mate- 
rial of  which  it  is  made.  The  injuries  from  the  pow- 
der generally  occur  in  rear  of  the  projectile.  They 
are :  1st.  Enlargement  of  that  portion  of  the  bore 
■which  contains  the  powder,  arising  from  the  com- 
pression of  the  metal.  This  injury  is  more  marked 
when  a  sabot  or  wad  is  ])lacefl  between  tlic  powder 
and  the  projectile,  and  is  greatest  in  a  vertical!  direc- 
tion. 2d.  Cavities  produced  by  the  melting  away  of 
a  portion  of  the  metal  by  the  heat  of  combustion  of 
the  charge.  3d.  Cracks  arising  from  the  tearing 
a-sunder  of  the  particles  of  the  metal  at  the  surface  of 
the  bore.  At  first  a  crack  of  this  kind  is  .scarcely 
perceptible,  hut  it  is  increased  tiy  continued  firing 
until  it  extends  completely  through  the  side  of  the 
piece.  It  generally  commences  at  the  junction  of  the 
cliamber  with  the  bore,  as  this  portion  is  less  sup- 
p<jrted  than  the  others.  4th,  Furrows  or  scoring  pro- 
duced by  the  erosive  action  of  the  inflamed  gases. 
This  injury  is  most  apparent  where  tbe  current  of  the 
gas  is  most  rapid,  or  at  the  interior  orifice  of  the  vent, 
and  on  the  surface  of  the  bore,  immeiliately  ovi'r  the 
seat  of  the  projectile.  Scoring  commences  very  early 
in  large  gims ;  at  first  it  is  only  a  mere  roughness, 
which  gradvially  increa.ses  in  depth  and  forms  lines 
along  the  Iwre ;  but  it  is  not  until  a  gun  has  been 
fired  very  considerably  that  it  becomes  of  importance. 


The  impressions  of  deep  scoring  resemble  the  bark 
of  an  old  elm-tree,  the  metal  bemg  eaten  away  into 
irregular  furrows  and  ridges.  ETven  when  it  haa 
reached  this  extreme  case,  however,  scoring  has  not 
caused  the  destruction  of  the  gun,  though  in  some 
instances,  acting  like  a  wedge,  it  has  split  the  bore  at 
that  part.  Some  experimental  guns,  excessively 
scored  on  the  upper  side  of  the  bore,  have  been  turned 
over,  vented  and  sighted  on  the  under  side,  but  this 
has  not  been  found  necessary  until  the  gun  has  Ix-en 
used  more  than  is  probable"  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances. 

The  injuries  arising  from  the  action  of  the  projec- 
tile occur  around  the  projectile  and  in  front  of  it. 
They  are  :  1st.  Indentation  in  the  lower  side  of  the 
Dore,  produced  by  the  pressure  on  the  projectile  by 
the  escape  of  gas  through  the  windage,  before  the 
ball  has  moved  from  its  seal.  The  elasticity  of  the 
metal,  and  the  burr,  or  crowding  up  of  the  metal  in 
front  of  the  projectile,  cause  it  to  relxiund,  and,  being 
carried  forward  by  the  force  of  the  charge,  to  strike 
against  the  upper  side  of  the  bore,  a  short  distance 
in  front  of  the  trunnions.  From  this  it  is  reflected 
against  the  bottom,  and  again  reflected  against  the 
top  of  the  bore,  and  so  on  imtil  it  leaves  the  piece. 
The  first  is  called  "indentation,"  and  the  others  are 
called  "  enlargements."  In  pieces  of  ordinary  length 
there  are  generally  three  enlargements  wlien  this 
injury  first  makes  its  appearance,  but  their  number  is 
increased  as  the  "indentation"  is  depressed  and  the 
angle  of  incidence  incresised.  The  effect  of  this 
bounding  motion  is  alternately  to  raise  and  depress 
the  piece  in  its  trunnion  holes,  and  to  diminish  the 
accuracj-  of  fire,  until  finallj'  the  piece  becomes  unfit 
for  serWce.  It  is  principally  from  this  injury  that 
bronze  guns  become  unserviceable.  Mortars  and 
howitzers  are  not  much  affected  by  it.  The  princi 
pal  means  used  to  prevent  this  injury  are  to  wrap  the 
projectile  with  cloth  or  paper,  and  to  shift  the  seat  of 
the  projectile.  The  latter  may  be  done  by  a  wad  or 
lengthened  sabot,  or  liy  reducing  the  diameter  and  in 
creasing  the  length  of  the  cartridge.  The  last  of 
these  methods  is  considered  the  more  practical  as  well 
as  the  more  effective  ;  and  it  has  the  additional  ad- 
vantage of  decreasing  the  strain  on  the  bore,  by  in- 
creasing the  space  in  which  the  charge  expands  before 
the  ball  is  moved.  2d.  Scratches  or  furrows  made 
upon  the  surface  of  the  bore  b}'  rough  projectiles,  or 
by  case-shot.  3d.  Cuts  made  by  the  fragments  of 
projectiles  which  break  in  the  bore.  4tb.  Wearing 
away  of  the  lands  of  rifled  cannon,  especially  at  the 
dri\ing-edges.  A  little  rubbing  of  the  side  of  the 
grooves  from  the  friction  of  hard  bearings  is  of  little 
importance.  5th.  Enlargement  of  the  muzzle,  aris- 
ing from  the  forcing  outward  of  the  metal  by  the 
striking  of  the  projectile  against  the  side  of  the  bore 
as  it  leaves  the  piece.  By  this  action  the  shape  of 
the  muzzle  is  elongated  in  a  vertical  direction.  6th. 
Cracks  on  the  exterior.  These  are  formed  by  the 
compression  of  the  metal  within,  generally  at  the 
chase,  where  the  metal  is  thinnest.  This  portion  of  a 
bronze  gun  is  the  first  to  give  way  by  long  firing, 
whereas  cast-iron  guns  usually  burst  in  rear  of  the 
trunnions,  and  the  fracture  passes  through  the  vent, 
if  it  l)e  nuich  enlarged. 

The  endurance  of  a  .smooth-bore  gun  with  ser^nce- 
charges  may  be  surely  predicted  by  observation  of 
the  progressive  wear  of  the  interior  orifice  of  the  vent. 
There  are  certain  general  forms  in  which  this  enlarge- 
ment takes  place.  They  may  be  classed  as  triangular, 
lozenge,  (piadrilateral,  star,  circular,  and  elliptic. 
With  the  lateral  vent  of  the  Dahlgren  system  it  usu- 
ally takes  the  lozenge  form,  the  cracks  extending 
from  the  opposite  angles  lengthwise  of  the  tiore. 
With  those  rifled  cannon  in  which  the  vent  is  bouched, 
the  cracks  appear  around  thcbouching,  and  although 
the  bouching  pre-icrves  the  vent,  yet  tlie  fonnation  of 
fissures  around  the  enlarged  orifice,  when  once  com- 
menced, causes  a  greater  tendency  to  rupture.  With 
the  vent  not  bouched,  the  wear  in  rifled  cannon  is 


ENEMY. 


563 


ENFANS  FEBDUS. 


about  double  that  of  the  smooth-bore.  So  long  as  the 
wear  of  the  vent  is  regular  and  without  cracks,  a 
mere  enlargement  is  not  indicative  of  danger;  but 
when  it  reaches  a  diameter  of  four  tenths  of  an  inch, 
the  vent  should  be  closed  and  a  new  one  opened.  A. 
gun  of  large  caliber  should  not  in  service  be  expected 
to  stand  more  than  4()0  or  .lOO  rounds  before  it  will 
Ije  necessary  to  open  the  new  vent,  which,  however, 
will  be  of  no  advantage  miless  the  old  one  Ix?  closed 
at  its  interior  orifice,  on  which  the  gases  otherwise 
would  continue  to  act  as  a  wedge.  Tlie  first  distinct 
appearance  of  the  cnicks,  as  shown  by  the  button,  is 
the  proper  limit.  After  the  gmi  bursts,  a  sketch  or 
draught  is  made  showing  the  lines  of  fracture,  and 
specimens  are  reserved  for  trial  of  density  and  tensile 
strength;  and,  if  practicable,  a  photograph  is  taken. 
See  Cannon  and  Ordnance. 

ENEMY. — An  enemy,  according  to  the  ci\-il  law,  is 
one  who  has  publicly  declared  war  against  us,  or  we 
against  him;  all  others  are  thieves  or  robbers.  Iluates 
hi  sunt  qui  nobis,  ant  qiiibus  nos,  publii-v  bellitm  de- 
creHnint ;  f/ptfri  Intronen  ant  pripdonoi  sunt.  Thus, 
in  order  to  constitute  an  enemy,  there  must  1h'  a  pub- 
lic declaration  of  war.  This  declaration  must  also  be 
made  by  a  dvdy  organized  Stjite  or  Kingdom,  for  a 
declaration  of  war  by  an}'  turbulent  IxKly  of  men  is 
not  sufficient;  and  a  hostile  act  committed  by  private 
citizens  will  not  justify  a  war,  unless  that  act  be 
sanctioned  by  the  Government.  The  purpose  for 
which  this  public  declaration  is  required  is  stated  bj' 
Grotius  to  be  that  it  may  Ix'  clearly  known  that  the 
war  is  undertaken  not  as  a  venture,  but  by  the  will 
of  the  two  people.  Hostilities  having  been  fomiallj' 
declared,  every  subject  of  the  hostile  nations  becomes 
an  enemy  of  the  opposing  State,  as  do  likewise  those 
independent  nations  which  attach  themselves  to  the 
interests  of  either  party.  According  to  ancient  usage, 
the  utmost  violence  and  cruelty  was  lawful  towards 
those  who  were  enemies  of  the  State;  but  by  the 
humane  principles  which  prevail  in  modern  times, 
warfare  is  to  be  carried  on  subject  to  certjjin  gcnend 
rules,  which  are  intended  as  much  as  may  be  to 
les.sen  the  calamities  of  war,  and  to  protect  the  rights 
of  individuals.  Thus,  an  army  invading  an  enemy's 
country  is  bound  to  suffer,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
peaceable  inhaljitants  to  remain  unmolested.  Unnec- 
essiiry  devastation  of  the  country  and  the  seizure  of 
property  are  also  contrary  to  the  laws  of  civilized 
war;  and  Grotius  lays  it  down  that  the  use  of  poi 
soned  weapons,  and  of  assas-sination,  and  violence  to 
women,  are  to  be  reprobated.  On  the  other  hand. 
indi\iduals  taking  up  arms,  without  the  siinclion  of 
the  State,  in  order  to  aiuioy  an  invading  enemy,  are 
regarded  a-s  lawless  marauders.  The  result  of  this 
distinction  is  that  such  persons  are  not  treated  as 
prisoners  of  war,  btit  are  subject  to  be  summarily 
dealt  with  by  the  Commander  of  the  Invading  Anny. 
It  appears  to  be  a  recognized  principle  of  international 
law  that  the  property  of  an  alien  enemy  residing  in 
either  of  the  hostile  States  may  be  eonfiscaiert.  The 
Americans,  during  the  war  with  England,  a.sserted 
this  right  in  regard  to  British  property  found  in  their 
territory.  But  the  u.sage  of  ci\-ilized  nations  for  a 
long  period  has  much  modified  the  stern  rule  of  law. 
It  is  provided  by  Magna  Cbarta,  Cap.  30,  that  if  mer- 
chants "  be  of  a  land  making  war  with  us,  and  be 
found  in  our  realm  at  the  Ix-ginningof  the  wars,  they 
shall  be  attached  without  any  harm  of  body  or  goods, 
until  it  be  known  to  us,  or  our  Chief -Justice,  how  our 
merchants  be  inlrcated  there  in  the  land  making  war 
agiiinst  us;  and  if  our  merchants  be  well  intreated 
there,  theirs  shall  be  likewise  with  us.  "  Mcrchantsof  a 
Foreign  State  at  war  with  England  were  allowed  forty 
days,  after  proclamation  of  hostilities,  wherein  to  re- 
move from  the  Kingdom  themselves  and  their  goods; 
and  if  that  space  of  time  were  not  stitficient,  Jorty 
days  more  were  to  be  conceded  to  them.  Vattel 
denies  that  the  right  to  confiscate  the  goo<ls  of  an 
alien  enemy  is  a  right  inherent  in  a  State  by  the  law 
of  nations,  insisting  that  a  Sovereign  having  permit- 


ted foreigners  to  enter  the  State,  and  to  continue 
there,  had  tacitly  promised  them  full  liberty  and 
security  for  their  return.  Whatever  Ix;  the  principle, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  almost  universjil  practice  of 
moilern  nations  has  been  to  respect  the  projierty  of 
individuals  at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  Provisions 
are  frequently  inserted  into  commercial  treaties 
stipulating  that,  in  ease  of  war,  the  subjects  of  the 
enemy  shall  have  time  to  depart,  and  even  that  they 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  and  carrj'  on  a  peaceable 
trade.  The  right  to  confiscate  the  debts  of  the  sul)- 
jects  of  a  hostde  nation  appears  to  rest  on  the  same 
basis  as  that  of  the  confisc-alion  of  other  property. 
Trade  between  the  subjects  of  two  hostile  powers  is 
absolutely  suspended  during  Iiostilities,  unless  per- 
mitted by  express  .sanction;  and  the  importation  of 
articles  particularly  useful  in  war  is  contraband.  All 
such  articles,  whether  supplied  by  the  subjects  of  the 
enenw  or  of  another  State,  are  seized  and  confiscated. 
See  Contraband  of  War,  Prisoners  of  War,  and  Prize. 
ENEBGY. — When  a  projectile  is  in  motion  it  is 
Siiid  to  have  energy,  i.e.,  it  is  capidjle  of  doing  work 
or  overcoming  resistance.  The  amount  of  energ)'  is 
measured  bj-  the  product  of  Vie  ireiyht  of  the  projtctiU 
into  the  height  due  to  rf*  velocity,  and  is  expressed  in 
the  same  units  as  those  of  work  done.  Thus,  if  W 
be  the  weight  of  the  projectile  in  pounds,  A  the  height 
it  would  acquire  in  vacuo  to  attain  a  velocity  t  in 
feet  per  second,  then  the  energy  of  the  projectile  is 

irA  =  /- —  foot-pounds,  where  h  =  —     If  V  be  the 

I  muzzle-velocity  of  the  projectile,  its  energy  at  the 

WV^ 
muzzle  of  the  gun  is ;  and  since   the  energy  of 

2i7 

the  projectile  is  equivalent  to  the  work  done  on  it, 

WV- 
E  =  ,  where  E  represents  the  energy  at  the  muz- 

3.7 
zle.  It  will  therefore  be  seen  that  the  energy  of  the 
projectile  at  the  muzzle  is  equal  to  the  work  done  by 
the  pressure  of  the  powder-gas  in  the  bore  of  the  gim. 
See  Work:  In  order  to  estimate  the  comparative 
power  of  guns  for  piercing  iron  plates,  it  is  usual  to 
express  the  energy  of  a  projectile  in  terms  of  the 
number  of  inches  in  its  circumference.     Thus,  en- 

ergj-  per  inch  of  circumference  =  -- 


foot- 


4480.7  X  nd 

tons,  where  d  is  the  diameter  of  the  projectile  in 
inches.     Also,  onergv  per  inch  of  circumference  at 
c'  W'V^ 

muzzle  =  —  = ;  thus,  muzzle-energy  per 

Tid      4480^  X  T 
inch  of  circumference  of  10-inch  Palli.ser  shell 


5160 


=  165.6  foot-tons. 


3.1416  X  9.92 
In  addition  to  this  energy  (due  to  the  velocity  of 
translation),  there  is  energy  due  to  the  velocity  of  ro- 
tjition.  This,  however,  being  small  as  compared  to 
that  due  to  translation,  is  usually  neglected.  See 
ProjecliliK. 

ENEBGY  OF  BECOIL. — An  expression  for  the  work 
done  in  the  recoil  of  a  gun  when  fired.  It  may  be 
reduced  by  decreasing  the  weight  of  the  projectile, 
by  decrea.sing  the  muzzle-velocity,  or  by  increasing 
tiie  weight  of  the  gim  and  carriage. 

ENEBGY  OF  BOTATION.— The  power  of  a  rotat- 
ing body  to  preserve  its  axis  in  the  original  direction 

depends  upon  its  energy  of  rotation,  or  —\  -'  ,  where 

TTis  the  weight,  k  is  the  radius  of  gj-ration,  and  a  is 
the  angular  velocity.  We  thus  see  that  a  shell  pos- 
sesses ihore  "  energy"  than  a  shot  of  the  .sjime  weight 
rotating  at  the  same  speed,— since  its  nidius  of  gj-ra- 
tion  is  srreater. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  initial  velocity  of  rotation 
depends  directlv  on  the  imizzle-velocity  of  translation; 
but  the  two  do  "not  decrea.sc  together  in  flight,  the  ro- 
tation Ix-inL'  verj'  slightly  decreas«>d  even  at  long  range, 
as  has  been  found  bv  noting  scorings  on  graze.. 

ENFANS  PEEDUS. — Forlorn  hope;  in  military  his- 


£NFI£LI)  B£££CH  LOADING  K£VOLT£B. 


564 


ENFILADING  BATTEBT. 


tory,  the  soldiers  detache<l  from  several  regiments,  or 
Dtlierwise  iippoinlrd,  lo  j;ivc  the  lirst  onset  in  battle, 
or  in  un  attack  viiKin  the  counliTsearp,  or  tlie  lireaih 
of  a  place  besif);e<l:  so  called  (liv  the  French)  because 
of  (he  imminent  dancer  lo  whicli  thev  an'  exposi'd. 

ENFIELD  BREECH-LOADING  KEVOLVER— This 
revolver  ditVei-s  from  the  pattc  riis  usually  met  with 
in  having  a  reboundiiiir  lock,  and  in  lis  method  of 
extniclnii:  the  empty  eartridirecases.  Tlie  principal 
parts  are  tlic  barrel,  tlie  cylinder,  and  the  body.  The 
barrel  is  5j  inches  in  lenfrlh,  and  the  diameter  of  bore 
and  the  form  anil  twist  of  the  ritiing  are  the  same  as 
in  the  ritlc.  The  barrel  Is  attached  to  the  body  by 
means  of  a  screw  pa.ssing  through  a  knuckle-joint  in 
an  arm  which  projects  l)elow  the  breech-end.  It  is 
held  in  the  tiring  jiosition  by  a  spring-catch  in  front 
of  the  hammer.  The  "  axis  pin"  of  the  cylinder  is 
screwed  into  the  body,  its  point  resting  in  a  recess  in 
the  joint-arm  of  the  barrel.  A  iirojcetion  or  boss  on 
the  cylinder  eng-ages  in  the  same  recess.  By  this  ar- 
rangement, when  the  catch  holding  the  top  bar  is 
relea-sed  and  the  barrel  depressed,  the  cylinder  is 
drawn  along  its  axis,  and  thi^  bases  of  the  cartridges 
in  the  chambers  Ix'ing  held  by  a  radial  extractor, 
which  is  free  to  move  only  a  short  distance  along  the 
"axis-pin,"  the  cartridge  cases  arc  drawn  from  the 
chambers  to  such  a  distance  that  those  which  are 
empty  are  free  to  fall  away,  while  filled  cartridges 
are  held  by  the  bullets  remaining  in  the  chambers. 
The  cylinder  contains  six  chambers,  and  the  pistol  is 
loaded  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  lock  consists  of 
seven  components,  viz. :  hammer,  axis-screw,  trig.ger, 
trigger  axis-screw,  pawl,  lever,  and  main-spring. 
The  main-spring  governs  the  movement  of  each 
comi>onent.  The  act  of  pulling  the  trigger  cocks  the 
pistol  and  tires  it,  and  upon  the  release  of  the  trigger 
the  hammer  relx)unds  to  half-cock.  The  stock  is"^of 
walnut,  and  the  remaining  part.s  are  of  steel.  The 
system  of  manufacture  is  similar  to  that  of  the  rifle. 
■\Veiu'hl  of  pistol.  2  lbs.  Si  oz.     See  lityiil  Siiiall-arms. 

ENFIELD  RIFLE.— This  arm  Wits  "at  one  time  in 
use  in  the  British  army.  It  takes  its  name  from  the 
small-arm  factory  at  Enfield,  a  Government  establish- 
ment for  the  manufacture  and  supply  of  small-arms 
of  every  description  lo  the  amiy.  It  was  originally  a 
muzzle-loading  arm,  but  was  subsequently  converted 
into  a  bree<-h-loader;  it  is  now  known  as  "the  Snidcr- 
Enfield.  There  are  two  patterns,  that  of  18,")3  having 
3  grooves,  and  that  of  1800,  5  grooves.  The  length 
of  the  barrel  of  tlie  iiattcrn  musket  of  18o;i  is  h-i  inches 
without  the  bayonet;  having  one  spiral  turn  in  78  ! 
inches.  Weight  with  bayonet,  9  lbs.  la  oz.  The  ' 
short  rifle-musket  pattern  (1860)  is  48}  inches  in  length 
without  the  bayonet,  having  one  spiral  turn  in  78 
inches.  Weight  with  liayonef,  10  lbs.  4*  oz.  Some 
of  the  native  regiments  iii  India  are  ainied  with  the 
Enfield  rifle,  and  some  with  the  Snider-Enfleld.  ' 

ENFIELD  SIGHT.— With  the  exception  of  the  Prus- 
sian infantry  .sight,  the  rear  sights  of  nearly  all  the 
modern  European  small-arms  are  similar  in  construc- 
tion to  that  of  the  English  Enfleld  rifle-musket.  The 
only  e.xceiitioii  seems  to  1k'  the  Swiss  sight,  which 
operates  on  th(^  general  principle  of  the  gunner's 
quadnint.  The  common  features  of  the  Enlield  cla.ss 
of  rear  sight.sare  t4ie  long  base,  which  is  attached  in 
various  ways  to  thi;  barrel,  the  leaf  with  its  .slides, 
and  the  strong  flat  spring  attached  to  the  base  to  keep 
the  leaf  in  ]K)sitioii,  either  standing  up  or  lying  down. 

A  iieculiar  feature  of  this  cla.ss  of  sights"  is  that  the 
elevations  corresponding  to  the  shorter  ranges  are  ob- 
tained by  resting  the  leaf  in  certain  ofl'.sefs  made  in 
the  projecting  sides  of  the  liase.     Great  attention  hius 
bc-en  paiil  in  England  toward  improving  the  sight  of  ! 
the  Martini  Henry  rifle.      The  sightnojch  for  short  ' 
distances  is  made  very  open.     The  slide  for  long  dis- 
tances has  a  very  faint  notch  in  the  middle,  and  two 
white  lines,  one  on  each  siile  of  the  centra]  notcli,  and 
alMjuf  a  tenth  of  an  inch  from  it.     The  object  of  these 
lines  is  to  assist  the  marksman  in  making  allowance  { 
for  drift  and  wind.     Sec  Brovn  Sight. 


The  following  table  gives  the  length  of  the  stock 
and  iM)sition  of  the  rear  sight  for  the  princii)al  Euro- 
pean guns.  These  dimensions  are  considered  to  have 
an  important  elfect  on  the  recoil  of  the  gun  and  the 
accuracy  with  which  it  can  be  aimed: 


Name  op  Ocn. 


Martini-Henry  (British). 

ciiassepot  I  l-'renohl 

Werder  t  Bavarian) 

Mauser  (l*rus.sian) 

Vetterlin  (Swiss* 

Russian  ( Berdan) 

Werndl  (Austrian) 

Cuuil)iain  (Bt'ti^ian) 


Distance  from  Distance  from 
centerof  t>utt-|  center  of  butt- 
plate  to  trig-'  plate  to  line  of 
Ker.  1   rear  sight. 


Inches. 
14  and  14>^ 


13 
14 
13 
13^ 


Inches. 
21 


ENFILADE. — A  military  term  applied  to  a  fire  of 
miLsketry  or  artillery  made  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  a  line  of  troops  or  a  line  of  rampart.  A  be- 
sieging battery  so  placed  as  to  send  its  shot  along  any 
part  of  the  line  of  a  fortiflcation,  and  inside  the  para- 
pet, does  great  execution  in  dismounting  the  guns, 
which  thus  present  the  largest  surface  to  the  balls. 
Hence  the  lines  of  ramparts  shoidtl  be  planned  that 
their  jirolongations  may  fall  in  situations  inaccessible 
I  to  the  enemy.  Where  this  is  not  pos.sible,  the  lines 
are  either  broken,  or  are  protected  by  lionnets,  or  by 
traverses  or  blindages.  In  the  siege  of  a  fortress  the 
trenches  of  apjiroach  are  cut  in  a  zigzag  to  prevent 
the  defenders  eiifllading  them  from  the  walls. 
I  ENFILADING  BATTERY.— Enfllading  and  counter 
(  batteries  are  used  for  destroying  the  artillery  and  tra- 
verses, and  silencing  the  fire  of  the  defenses.  Posi- 
tions are  chosi-n  for  the  enfi lading-batteries  from 
which  the  terrc-pleins  of  the  faces,  and  other  lines 
that  bear  upon  the  ground  on  which  the  parallels  and 
approaches  are  lai<l  out,  can  be  swept  throughout; 
the  counter  batteries  are  so  placed  that  they  can  bring 
a  direct  or  a  slant  fire  against  the  embrasures  of  the 
points  to  be  silenced.  The  shot  from  the  former  is 
thrown  with  small  charges,  under  small  angles  of 
elevation,  .so  as  to  ricochet  along  the  ferre-pleins,  tak- 
ing the  guns  of  the  defenses  in  flank;  the  latter  fire 
with  full  charges  directly  against  the  point  to  be  at- 
tained. As  the  eflccfs  of  Ixjth  ilirect  and  enfilading 
fire  vary  greatly  with  the  range,  positiotis  should  be 
cho.sen  for  these  batteries  as  near  the  defenses  as  they 
can  be  thrown  up  without  too  great  a  sacrifice  of 
life.  Positions  which  will  give  ranges  between  300 
and  700  yards  are  the  best  forsmoothboregims;  near- 
er than  300  yards  the  workmen  would  be  exposed  both 
to  the  fire  of  musketry  antl  case-shot;  beyond  700 
yards  the  fire  upon  the  defenses  becomes  very  uncer- 
tain. 

The  greater  range  of  rifled  gims  gives  to  the  besieg- 
ers a  greatly  enlarged  zone  in  the  choii'C  of  positions 
for  enfilading  and  counter  batteries  over  that  for  the 
ordinary  siege-traiu  of  smooth-bore  guns.  This  greater 
range  and  the  greater  certainty  of  the  tire  of  rifled 
guns  arc  more  favorable  to  counter-batteries  than  to 
those  intended  for  enfilading;  as  the  great  angles  of 
elevation  under  which  the  guns  are  tired,  to  attain  the 
desired  ranges,  give  to  the  projectile,  in  the  descend- 
ing blanch  of  its  trajectory,  a  great  plunge,  which, 
although  more  favorable  to  attaining  objects  covered 
by  traverses  than  if  the  plunge  were  smaller,  is  less 
favorable  to  the  ricochet  of  the  projectile  from  which 
the  chief  advantage  of  enfilading  with  round  shot  is 
derived.  Besides  this,  the  elongated  projectiles  used 
in  rifled  gtiiis  from  the  form  given  to  their  point  are 
readily  deflected  from  their  course  by  vitv  slight  ob- 
stacles, as  a  fascine  even,  whi;-h  also  adds  to  the  un- 
certainty of  their  elTecls.  At  the  siege  of  Fort  Wag- 
ner if  was  observed  that  the  lieavy  projectiles  of  the 
smooth-bore  navy  guns  were  landed  with  more  accu- 
racy within  the  enemy's  works,  and  were  more  de- 
stnictive  in  their  ricochet,  than  the  projectiles  from  the 
armv  rifled  guns. 


ENGAGE. 


)65 


ENOINEEBING. 


The  judgment  and  experience  of  the  officer  must 
in  these  cases  be  left  full  play  in  the  selection  of  the 
position  of  the  batteries  of  these  two  classes  of  jjuns 
and  in  their  armament ;  bearing  always  in  mind  two 
verj'  important  considerations:  tirst.that  with  long 
ranges  and  high  angles  of  elevation  the  projectiles  will 
clear  all  the  trenches  in  front  up  to  a  near  approach 
of  the  besieged  work  without  danger  to  them,  excspt 
from  unforeseen  accidents;  and  second,  that  to  secure 
any  decided  or  certain  effect  from  either  class  of  these 
batteries  there  must  be  nothing  to  obstruct  the  view 
of  the  object  to  be  attained.  The  batteries  may  Ik- 
placed  either  within  the  parallels,  in  advance  of,  or  in 
rear  of  them.  The  positions  usually  selected  are 
from  20  to  30  yards  in  front  of  the  i)arallels;  because, 
if  placed  within  them,  there  might  be  mutual  inter- 
ference between  the  service  of  the  batteries  and  that 
of  the  parallels,  which  is  often  a  ver^-  serious  cause  of 
delay  to  both  the  service  of  the  batteries  and  the  pass 
age  of  troops  ;  and,  unless  placed  some  distance  in 
the  rear  of  it,  the  parapet  of  the  parallel  might  ob- 
struct the  shot  of  the  battery,  and  the  troops  in  the 
trench  be  annoyed  by  the  tire. 

The  most  effective  positions  for  batteries  of  smooth- 
bore gims  are  in  front  of  the  second  parallel  of  from 
300  to  400  yards  from  the  point  to  be  reached;  and 
unless  the  tire  of  the  defenses  is  very  destructive,  it 
will  be  Ix'St  to  place  them  there.  If  placed  in  front 
of  the  first  parallel  it  may  be  necessary  to  shift  the 
most  of  them  to  the  front  of  the  second  parallel  soon 
■after  the  latter  is  thrown  up;  for  the  third  parallel 
and  the  approaches  leading  to  it  from  the  second  par- 
allel run  the  risk  of  being  attained  by  shot  from  bat- 
teries at  so  great  a  distance  in  their  "rear  as  the  first 
panillel.     See  Butteries  and  C'fjunter-battery. 

ENGAGE. — A  movement  in  fencing  and  bayonet- 
exercise  executed  as  follows;  Being  in  the  ])ositlon  of 
the  r/'iiird,  the  Instructor  commands  :  1.  Engage,  2. 
TiEiiCE.  At  the  command  tierce,  numbers  one  and 
two  cro.ss  their  bayonets,  about  6  inches  from  the 
points,  the  bayonets  touching  on  the  right.  Engage 
in  qiitirte  is  similarly  executed,  the  bayonets  touching 
on  the  left.  Each  man  seeks  to  cover  himself  on  the 
side  engaged,  so  as  not  to  be  reached  by  a  direct  lunge 
from  his  advei'Siiry. 

Being  engaged  in  titree,  if  numljer  two  be  too  quick 
to  be  reached  by  disengaging,  the  Instnictor  com- 
mands: One,  Two,  Litnge.  At  the  command  one, 
number  one  pas-ses  his  bayonet  quickly  under  the  bay- 
onet of  number  two,  from  tierce  to  qiiarte;  at  the 
command  tiro,  he  returns  quickly  from  quarte  to 
tierce;  and  at  the  third  command,  lunges  as  explained 
for  the  lunge  in  tierce.  At  the  command  one.  lunnber 
two  executes  qiuirte,  prime,  or  butt  jiarry;  and  at  the 
command  tiro,  executes  the  tierce  or  neconde  parry,  and 
then  thrusts  or  mnges  at  command.  If  engaged  in 
qutirte,  the  feint  from  quarte  to  tierce,  the  return  to 
quarte,  and  the  Inngc  are  executed  by  the  same  com- 
mands, the  lunge  being  in  quiirte.  At  the  command 
one,  number  "..vo  parries  in  tinrc  or  neeonde;  at  the 
command  tirn,  he  executes  the  quarte,  prime,  or  buit 
JKirri/,  and  then  thrusts  or  lunges.  Number  two  is 
taught  the  feints  in  the  same  manner,  and  number 
one  executes  the  double  parries.  See  Bayonet-exer- 
cise, Disengage,  and  Fencing. 

ENGAGEMENT.— A  militarj-  engagement  considered 
as  a  contlict  bit  ween  two  armies  or  hostile  forces  can- 
not be  described  within  limits  suitable  for  this  work. 
Almost  everj-  term  applicable  to  armies  in  the  field 
bears  relation,  in  some  way  or  other,  to  a  hostile  en- 
gagement, and  those  terrns  will  Ix;  found  briefly 
noticed  under  their  proper  headings.  A  naval  en- 
gagement admits  of  more  preciscand  terse  illustration 
than  a  military  engagement,  because  each  ship  of  war 
is  a  unit  in  itslir,  bounded  by  a  clearly  marked  watery 
maririn  from  all  the  other  sliips  of  a  fleet.    See  Battle. 

ENGINEER  BATTALION.— A  component  part  of 
the  Corps  of  Engineers,  consisting  of  five  companies  of 
Engineers,  one  Sergeant  Major,  and  one  Quartermaster 
Sergeant,  who  is  also  Commissary  Sergeant.     Each 


company  of  Engineer  soldiers  consists  of  ten  Scrgejinls, 
ten  Corporals,  two  Musicians,  and  as  many  Privates  of 
the  first  class,  not  exceeding  sixty -four,  and  as  many 
Privates  of  the  second  class,  not  exceeding  sixtv-four, 
as  the  President  may  direct,  and  is  recruited" in  the 
Siinie  manner,  and  with  the  .same  liniilalion,  and  is 
entitled  to  the  .same  provisions,  allowances,  and  bene- 
fits, in  ever)-  respect,  as  are  allowed  to  other  troops 
constituting  the  present  military  peace  establishment. 
A  Battalion  Adjutant,  a  Battalion  Quartermaster,  and 
appropriate  otticers  to  command  the  companies  and 
Battalion  of  Engineer  soldiers,  are  detailed  from  the 
Corps  of  Engineers.  The  enlisted  men  of  the  Engineer 
Battjilion  are  instructed  in  and  perfonn  the  duties 
of  Slippers,  miners,  and  pontoniers,  and  aid  in  giving 
practical  instruction  in  those  brandies  at  the  Militarv 
Academy.  They  may  Ix;  detailed  by  the  Chief  (If 
Engineers  to  oversee  and  aid  laborers  upon  fortifica- 
tions and  other  works  in  charge  of  the  Engineer  Cor])s, 
and,  as  fort-keepers,  to  protect  and  repair  finished 
fortifications.     See  Orrps  of  Engineers. 

ENGINEEE  COLORS.— In  the  United  States  army 
the  national  color,  tis  described  for  the  gtirrison-fiair, 
with  the  words  "U.  S.  Engineers"  embroidered  in 
silver  on  the  center  stripe.  The  battalion  color  Is  of 
scarlet,  of  the  same  dimensions  as  alxjve,  Ix-aring  in 
the  center  a  castle,  with  the  letters  U.  S.  alxjve  and 
the  word  Engineers  below,  in  sUver;  fringe  while. 
The  size  of  each  color,  and  the  length  of  pike,  are  the 
same  as  described  for  artillery  and  infantry  colors. 
Cords  and  tassels  are  formed  of  red  and  white  silk  in- 
termixed.    See  Colors. 

ENGINEER  CORPS.— In  modem  nations  the  neces- 
sity for  a  Corps  of  Staff-officers,  trained  to  arrahgc 
for  and  overcome  the  embarrassments  of  the  move- 
ments of  an  army  in  the  field,  has  Ix-en  tlioroughly 
demonstrated,  and  hence  in  most  European  armies  a 
trained  Staff  of  Officers  is  organized  for  this  purpose. 
In  the  United  States  a  force  of  about  three  hundred 
officers  and  enlisted  men  are  engaged  in  these  duties. 
See  Corps  of  Engineers,  Engineer  Battalion,  and  Boy- 
al  Corps  of  Engineers. 

ENGINEERING.- Engineering,  the  business  of  the 
Engineer,  is  the  art  of  desisning  and  superintending 
the  execution  of  works  of  a  constructive  character, 
such  as  roads,  railways,  bridges,  canals,  harbors, 
docks,  works  for  supplying  water  to  towns,  drainace 
and  sewerage  works,  mining  machinery,  and  the 
working  of  metals.  It  may  be  disided  into  two 
kinds — Ci\il  and  Military.  The  Militarj-  Engineer  is 
an  officer  in  the  service  of  Goveniment,  whose  duties 
are  principally  to  constnicl  fi)rlifications,  to  malfe 
surveys  for  warlike  purposes,  to  facilitate  the  passage 
of  an  iirmy  by  the  construction  of  roads  and  bridges; 
in  short,  to  execute  all  engineering  works  of  a  mili- 
tary nature;  but  he  is  also,  especially  in  this  country, 
called  upon  to  undertake  many  works  which  more 
properly  Ixlong  to  the  business  of  the  Civil  Engineer, 
such  as  the  survey  of  the  country,  the  inspection  of 
public  works,  and,  in  short,  all  the  duties  of  a  Gov- 
ernment Engineer.  The  Civil  Engineering  (irofes- 
sion  is  subdi\ided  into  several  sections  according  to 
the  special  nature  of  the  employment  of  its  members. 
The  Hallway  Engineer  projects  and  superintends  the 
execution  of  railways  and  all  the  works  in  connection 
with  them,  such  as  the  alteration  of  roads  and  streiins, 
the  construction  of  viaducts,  bridges,  cuttings,  and 
embankments.  The  Hydriiullc  Engineer  eonstmcLs 
the  works  connected  with  the  supply  of  water  to 
towns,  the  filtering  of  water,  its  collection  in  reser- 
voirs, and  Its  distribution  through  a  town  or  district; 
the  irrigjition  and  drainage  of  tracts  of  country;  the 
protection  of  low  lands  from  inuiulalion.  and  the  use 
of  water  as  a  motive  power.  The  Dock  and  llarlxir 
Engineer  has  the  management  of  all  works  connected 
with  the  sea  or  navigable  waters,  such  as  the  con- 
struction {f{  piers,  brL-akwatcrs.  docks,  harliors.  and 
light-houses.  The  Mechanical  Encineer  is  princi- 
pally concerned  In  the  manufacture  of  machlner)', 
the  working  of  metals,  the  construction  of  ships, 


£NGIN££S8. 


566 


EKOINEEES. 


steamens.  cannon,  and  all  the  various  structures  in 
which  the  nu'tals  bear  n  itroniincnt  part.  Then  there 
is  the  Mininc:  Eiijjiiieer,  who  discovers  miueriils  and 
manatfes  mines;  then'  are  Enjrineers  who  are  specially 
eugageil  in  llie  (iniinajie  of  towns,  and  many  other 
less  pronjinent  divisions  of  the  profession. 

The  enjrineering  works  of  antiquity  are  I)olh  nu- 
merous and  prominent,  many  of  tliem  reniainins; 
while  all  other  traces  of  their  constructors  have  been 
swept  away.  The  most  notable  of  the  works  belong- 
ing to  very  remote  antiquity  are  the  harbors  of  the 
Pha>nieians,  the  palaces  ancl  sewerage  of  Nimroud, 
and  the  pvramids  of  Egypt;  next  in  order  come  the 
hartors  of  ancient  Greece,  the  bridge  of  boats  across 
the  Dartlanclles,  made  by  Xerxes  to  transport  his 
immense  army  into  Europe,  and  his  canal  across  the 
isthmus  of  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Athos.  The 
buildings  of  ancient  Kome  next  claim  attention — its 
theaters,  temples,  baths,  and  its  aqueilucts,  some  of 
which  Ciirried  water  from  distances  of  more  than 
fifty  miles  into  Rome;  its  roads,  bridges,  and  drain- 
age-works vie  in  extent  and  magnificence  with  the 
most  celebrated  works  of  modern  times.  From  that 
perioil  down  to  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  most  extensive  works  executed  are  the 
canals,"  cmUinkment-s,  and  other  hydraulic  construc- 
tions used  by  the  Dutch  for  the  purposes  of  inland 
navig-.ilion,  and  to  protect  their  low  lands  from  the 
sea;  the  canals  of  North  Italy,  the  cathedrals  and 
fortificatioiLS  of  mediitval  Europe.  Ci\il  Engineer- 
ing, as  a  distinct  profexnim),  may  be  said  to  have  orig- 
inate<l  in  England  about  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury; since  that  time  the  improvements  in  the  steam- 
engine  by  James  Watt,  its  subsequent  application  to 
the  railway  system  by  George  Stephenson,  and  its  use 
in  navigation,  have  given  a  great  impvilse  to  com- 
merce and  civiliziition;  which  in  their  turn  have  cre- 
ated the  necessity  for  the  numerous  and  magnificent 
engineering  works  of  modern  times,  such  as  the  in- 
numerable railways,  roads,  and  canals  that  intersect 
this  and  foreign  countries;  the  l>ridges,  waterworks, 
docks,  harbors,  and  vessels  that  facilitate  our  com- 
merce and  increa.«e  our  comfort  and  prosperity. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  of  these  works  may 
be  mentioned  the  tubular  bridges  of  the  St.  Lawrcnc"e 
and  Menai  Strait,  the  Niagara  Railway  Suspension 
Bridge,  the  New  York  and  Brooklyn  Suspension 
Bridge,  and  the  electric  telegraph  system,  whirli  cov- 
ers this  country  and  the  .seas  and  countries  of  Europe, 
and  may  at  some  future  lime  connect  us  ^^^th  the 
continents  of  Australia  and  India.  The  education  of 
tho.se  who  would  ri.sc  to  eminence  in  the  profession 
must  embrace  a  fair  knowledge  of  pure  mathematics 
and  of  the  mixed  sciences  of  natural  philosophy,  such 
as  mechanics,  hydrostatics,  hydraulics,  and  optics. 
They  should  acquire  a  knowlet^ge  of  the  principles  of 
projections,  and  should  aim  at  being  good  draughts- 
men and  rapid  and  accurate  arithmeticians.  In  con- 
clusion, it  may  be  said  that  every  day  opens  fresh 
fields  of  Engineering  Science  and"  lab(")r;  and  that  as 
the  first  beginnings  of  the  art  are  lost  in  the  obscurity 
of  remote  antiquity,  so  we  see  no  termination  to  its 
u.sefulne.ss  and  necessity. 

ENGINEERS.— The  introdtiction  of  modem  wea- 
pons has  caused  the  development  of  tactics  to  take  a 
peculiar  direction,  and  has  produced  changes  in  the 
action  of  the  various  anus  of  \\w  service,  liut  nowhere 
are  the  changes  more  nuirked  than  in  the  art  of  the 
Engineer. 

Looking  at  the  subject  generally,  we  find  that  one 
of  the  first  consequences  of  the  development  of  fire- 
arms at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  centuries  was  a  large  increase  of  the 
offensive  power  of  arms,  a  reduction  of  defensive  ar- 
mor; and  following  from  this  a  large  increase  of 
field-works,  A  history  of  war  at  this  ])eriod  would 
1)C  the  historj'  of  intrenchments,  one  army  seizing  a 
jx)silion,  intrenching  and  holding  it,  the  other  watch- 
ing it  and  afraid  to  attack. 

The  increase  in  roads,  the  opening  up  of  the  coim- 


trv,  and  the  greatly  increased  size  of  armies  under 
Napoleon,  united  to  his  peculiar  strategj',  the  sudden- 
ness of  action  with  which  he  sought  to  overcome  an 
enemy,  and  the  great  development  which  the  offen- 
sive received,  all  tended  to  the  disuse  of  field-works 
and  intrenchments.  Although  the  rapidity  of  Napo- 
leon's marches  tended  to  develoji  other  branches  of 
the  Engineer's  art,  that  of  bridging  and  that  of  the 
pioneer,  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  had  previous- 
ly been  known,  yet  Napoleon  was  clearly  alive  to 
tiie  evils  produced  by  the  neglect  of  field-works. 
The  history  of  this  century  shows  that  field-fortifica- 
tion, when  it  has  l)een  judiciously  used,  has  invari- 
ably produced  the  greatest  results,  and  these  results 
were  produced  by  the  application  of  the  same  ideas, 
viz.,  the  use  of  field-works  to  cover  the  front  of  a 
large  extended  position,  one  considerably  larger  than 
the  troops  could  hold  in  line  of  battle,  the  flanks  be- 
ing protected  and  the  communications  for  supplies 
being  open  to  llie  rear.  The  celebnUed  lines  of  Tor- 
res Vedras  are  an  instance  of  this.  The  English 
I  army,  with  its  flanks  resting  on  the  Tagusand  the  sea, 
1  occupied  with  about  fiftj-  thousand  men  a  line  of  some 
I  twenty-five  miles  in  length;  it  had  its  internal  com- 
munications perfectly  open,  its  supplies  were  brought 
up  by  the  sea,  and  the  French  General  could  do  noth- 
ing; he  was  unable  to  outflank  the  lines,  turn  or  at- 
tack them.  They  were  so  strong  that  any  attack  in 
front  would  have  failed;  the  defenders  could  not  be 
starved  out,  and  unless  they  were  regularly  attacked 
by  siege-works  there  was  no  means  of  dealing  with 
them.  From  these  lines  the  tide  of  conquest  of  the 
French  armies  first  began  to  recede.  Many  years 
later  tlie  same  thing  happened  at  Sebastopol.  The 
Russians,  holding  a  long  straight  line  of  weak  field- 
works  with  their  cotnmunications  o])en,  actually  ad- 
vanced from  their  works,  threw  up  fresh  trenches  and 
works,  and  almost  besieged  the  Allies  in  their  posi- 
tions. Both  these  cases  were  brilliant  examples  of 
what  field  works  properly  adapted  to  tactics  can  pro- 
duce. There  were  great  opportunities  in  the  block- 
ades of  Paris  and  Metz  for  the  tactics  displayed  by 
the  Russians  to  be  repeated;  and  it  is  no  exaggeration 
to  say  that  hail  the  garrison  of  Paris  been  composed 
of  good  troops  it  might  reallj'  have  dug  itself  out  of 
Paris  and  through  the  German  lines. 

It  apjjears  that  at  the  present  day  the  necessity  of 
making  Hank  attacks  has  given  a  fresh  importjince  to 
field-works.  When  speaking  of  this  subject  pre- 
viously, the  ease  with  which  an  army  haN-ing  its  flank 
threatened  can  change  front  and  attack  was  pointed 
out,  and  it  was  further  pointed  out  that  to  prevent 
such  a  change  of  front  an  attack  in  front  as  well  as 
on  the  flank  was  neeileil.  Now.  is  it  not  possible  to 
check  any  attemi)te(l  change  of  front  by  the  construc- 
tion of  field  works?  Tlie  Americans  in  the  Civil 
War  made  a  very  extensive  use  of  intrenchments  for 
this  purpose;  they  covered  their  front,  and  then 
moved  round  to  a  "flank.  As  soon  as  it  was  definitely 
learned  with  what  severe  losses  front  attacks,  even 
when  succes.sful,  must  be  imifoindy  accompanied, 
and  as  soon  as  the  true  value  of  temiiorary  field-works 
on  the  field  of  battle  was  perceived,  the  further  mili- 
tary history  til  the  Civil  War  is  but  a  narrative  of 
maneuvers  whose  object  was  to  gain  the  flanks  of  the 
enemy's  position,  and  force  him  to  abandon  it  by 
threatening  his  communiciitions.  The  system  of  tem- 
porary works  on  the  field  of  battle  was  carried  to  a 
greater  extent  during  our  Civil  War  than  during  any 
war  before  or  since.  The  troops  on  tach  ■;!(!(•  soon 
learned  to  cover  themselves  at  every  op|jortunity,  and 
this  was  the  first  duty  i)erformed  when  a  halt  tar  any 
length  of  time  was  liiade  by  armies  in  aet\ial  contact; 
in  fact,  on  many  occasions  breast-works  were  con- 
structed to  cover  the  army  as  it  advanced.  The 
whole  spirit  of  modern  war  is  to  reduce  everything 
to^calculation,  to  leave  nothing  to  chance,  to  pro\-ide 
for  and  foresee  all  possible  combinations,  whether 
arising  from  moral  causes,  such  as  panics  amongst 
the  men,  or  from  actual  physical  causes,  such  as  the 


ENGINEEES  TRANSIT. 


567 


ENGINEER'S  TRANSIT. 


enemy's  Are,  or  the  configuration  of  the  ground;  what- 
ever then  increases  the  securit_v  of  certain  places  or 
their  defensive  power  is  of  the  hijrhcst  importance. 

The  duties  of  the  Engineers  in  the  tield  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  classes:  1.  The  iluties  of  making,  re- 
pairing, or  destroying  comnuinications,  including,  in 
the  word  communication,  roads,  bridges,  railways, 
and  telegraphs.  These  may  be  classed  togetheras 
pioneer  duties.  2.  The  preparation  of  positions  for 
attack  or  defense,  which  is  the  higher  duty  of  the 
Military  Engineer,  and  where  the  art  of  fcjrtitication 
must  be  considered  entirely  in  a  tactical  point  of 
view.  With  reference  to  the  first  class  of  duties,  the 
men  and  means  must  be  invariably  present  when  re- 
quired. The  Engineers  should  march  with  the  ad- 
vanced-guard, and  must  be  sufficiently  supplied  with 
tools  and  materials.  It  is  the  second  class  of  duties, 
or  those  of  the  Military  Engineer  as  distinguished 
from  the  Pioneer,  where  the  tacticiil  relation  of  field- 
works  to  the  other  arms  is  fully  developed.  'The 
mere  fact  of  field-works  being  constructed  is  far 
too  often  considered  as  limiting  the  action  of  the 
troops  to  a  strict  defensive;  viewed  in  such  a  light, 
intrenchments  are  useless,  if  not  hurtful,  and  hence 
arises  the  absolute  necessity  of  viewing  all  such  works 
in  their  tactical  relation  to  troops.  In  almost  every 
case  in  war  six  or  seven  hours  may  lie  calculated  oh 
to  put  a  position  in  a  state  of  defense,  and  if  the  En- 
gineers and  tools  are  where  they  should  be,  this  period 
is  ample:  in  si.\  hours  works  of  a  very  powerful 
nature  may  be  constructed  which  will  effectually  sup- 
port an  army.  It  is  generally  allowed  that  an  in- 
trenchment  occupied  by  two  hundred  men  offers  as 
much  resistance  as  a  battalion  not  so  covered,  and 
that  the  labor  of  one  thousand  men  six  hours  on  the 
position  occupied  liy  a  dirision  is  equivalent  to  the 
reinforcement  of  a  brigade.  The  pioneer  duties  of 
the  Prussian  army  were  admirably  performed,  and 
the  true  spirit  of  field-engineering  was  in  many  cases 
seized;  one  remarkable  instance  was  at  Mars-la-Tour. 
Early  in  the  day  the  Prussians  gained  possession  of 
Vionville,  on  tlie  Verdun  Road;  the  instant  the  in- 
fantry got  in,  two  companies  of  Engineers  supplied 
with  six  wagons  of  tools  were  pushed  on;  they  weic 
charged  by  a  regiment  of  French  Hussars  and  lost 
some  of  tlie  wagons  and  a  section  of  one  of  the  com- 
panies, but  the  remainder  got  into  the  village,  and  so 
strengthened  it  that  all  the  attempts  to  retake  it  failed. 
And  although  at  the  close  of  the  day  the  Prussian 
right  and  left  wings  were  forced  back  by  the  French, 
vet  the  village  of  Vionville,  forming  llie  apex  of  the 
IPrussian  position,  was  never  lost,  and  effectually 
barred  the  road  to  Verdun.  Here  forlitication  was 
used  correctly;  it  contirraed  and  established  the  suc- 
cess of  the  infantry,  and  secured  the  object  for  which 
the  Prussians  stru^irled  so  hard.     See  Eni/ineering. 

ENGINEER'S  "TRANSIT.— A  portable' instrument 
of  tlu'  theodolite  kind,  designed  for  measuring  both 
horizontal  and  vertical  angles.  The  essential  parts 
of  the  instrument,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  are  the  Meneeipe 
including  its  axis  and  two  supports,  the  cirnilar  plal^a. 
with  their  attachments,  tlie  mcketx  upon  which  the 
plates  revolve,  the  levelinff-fitad,  and  the  tripod  on 
which  the  whole  instrument  stands. 

The  telescope  is  from  ten  to  eleven  inches  long, 
firmly  .secured  to  an  a.vis  ha\'ing  its  bearings  nicely 
fitted  in  the  standards,  and  thus  enabling  the  tele-scope 
to  be  moved  in  either  direction,  or  turned  completely 
around  if  desired.  The  different  parts  of  the  tele- 
scope are  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  object-glass,  com- 
posed of  two  lenses,  so  as  to  show  objects  without 
color  or  distortion,  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  slide  hav- 
ing two  bearings,  one  at  the  end  of  the  outer  tulie, 
the  other  in  the  ring  C  C  suspended  within  the  lube 
by  four  screws,  only  two  of  which  are  shown  in  the 
cut.  The  object-glass  is  carried  out  or  in  by  a  pmion 
working  in  a  rack  attached  to  the  slide,  and  thus  ad- 
justed to  objects  either  near  or  remote  as  desired. 
"The  eye-piece  is  made  up  of  four  plano-convex  lenses, 
which',  beginning  at  the  eye-end,  are  cjilled  respec- 


tively the  eye,  the  field,  the  amplifying,  and  the  ob- 
ject lenses,  the  whole  forming  a  compound  micro- 
scope having  its  focus  in  the  plane  of  the  cross-wire 
ring  BI3.  Sometimes,  especially  in  English  instru- 
ments, an  eye-piece  of  two  lenses  is  employed;  but 
this,  while  it  gives  more  light,  inverts  the  object  seen, 
and  so  has  been  discarded  by  American  cngmeers. 

Where  it  is  desired  to 
take  greater  vertical  an- 
gles than  is  possible  witji 
the  ordinarj'  eye -piece, 
the  little  cap  on  the  end 
of  the  eye-piece  is  un- 
screwed and  replaced  by 
one  containing  a  small 
prism,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
2,  which  reflects  the  im- 
age of  the  object  at  right 
anglcs,and  brings  it  to  the 
eye  of  an  observer  from 
above;  when  used  on  the 
sun,  a  colored  glass  or 
darkener  is  interjjoscd  be- 
tween the  eye  and  prism. 
This  aiTangement  con- 
sists merely  of  a  diagonal 
prism  attached  to  the  cap 
of  the  eye-piece,  by  which 
the  object  is  reflected  to 
the  eye,  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  telescope ; 
when  directed  to  the  sun, 
the  little  slide  or  darkener 
containing  colored  gla.ss 
is  moved  over  the  open- 
ing. The  circular  plate 
with  which  the  prism  is 
connected  is  made  to  turn 
in  the  cap  sf)  that  when 
it  is  substituted  for  the 
ordinary  cap  of  the  eye- 
piece, the  opening  over 
the  prism  can  be  easily 
adjusted  to  the  position 
of  the  eye. 

The  object-glass  receiv- 
ing the  rays  of  the  light 
which  proceed  from  all 
the  points  of  a  visible  ob-  I 
ject,  converges  them  to  a 
focus  at  the  cross-wires, 
smd  there  forms  a  minute. 


FlO.  2. 


Fio.  1. 


inverted,  and  very  bright  image,  which  majr  be  seen 
1  by  placing  a  piece  of  ground  gla-ss  to  receive  it  at  that 
'  point.  The  eye-piece  acting  as  a  compound  micro- 
scojie  magnifies  this  image,  restores  it  to  its  natural 
position,  and  conveys  it  to  the  eye.  The  visual  angle 
which  the  image  there  subtends  is  as  many  times 
greater  than  that  which  would  be  formed  without  the 
use  of  the  telescope  as  the  number  which  expresses 
its  magnifying  power.  Thus,  a  telescope  which  mag 
nifics  iwciitv  times  increa-scs  the  %isual  angle  just  as 
much,  and  therefore  diminishes  the  apparent  distance 
of  the  object  twenty  times;  or  in  other  words,  it  will 
show  an  object  two  hundred  feet  distant  with  the 
siune  distinctness  as  if  it  were  distant  only  ten  feet 
from  the  naked  eye. 
,      It  might  be  supposed  that  the  greater  the  power  of 


ENGINEEKS  TRAHSIT. 


56S 


ENGINEER'S  TRANSIT. 


a  telescope,  tbe  better;  but  in  practice,  beyond  a  cer- 
t<iin  iHiiul,  this  is  found  to  be  incorrect.  In  the  first 
place,  as  onlv  a  given  amount  of  lijrbt  can  enter  tlie 
objcct-gl!i.s.<,  "the  more  the  object  is  niagnitied  the  less 
clear  and  briiihl  will  i'  appear;  and  again,  the  higher 
the  power  tlie  more  difticult  will  it  be  to  precisely 
focus  the  leles<^'ope  and  to  complete  its  adjustment. 
We  have  found  that  a  power  of  from  twenty  to 
twenty-four  diameters  in  the  telescopes  of  transits 
gives  "the  best  results  and  is  amplj'  sufficient  for  all 
oniinarv  pmctice. 

The  iJellner  eye  piece,  the  main  feature  of  which 
is  the  use  of  a  compound  amplifying-lcns,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  in  place  of  the  single  "one  heretofore  em- 
ployed, has  sensibly  increased  the  brilliancy  of  the 
obj"ect  and  secured  a  better  field.  This  is  now  applied 
to  all  transil-telcscopes.  The  ej'e-piece  is  brought  to 
its  proper  focus  usually  by  twusting  its  milled  end, 
the  spiral  movement  within  carrying  the  eye-tube  out 
or  in  as  desired;  sometimes  a  pinion,  like  that  which 
focuses  the  object-glass,  is  employed  for  the  same 
purpose. 

The  cross-wires,  shown  in  Fig.  3.  are  two  fibers  of 
spider-web  or  very  fine  platinum  wire,  cemented  into 
the  cuts  on  the  surface  of  a  metal  ring,  at  right  angles 
to  eacb  other,  so  as  to  divide  the  open  space 
in  the  center  into  quadrants.  To  remove 
the  cross-wire  ring,  take  out  the  eyepiece 
tube,  together  with  the  little  ring  by  which 
it  is  centered,  and  having  removed  two  op- 
posite cross-wire  screws,  with  the  others 
turn  the  ring  until  one  of  the  screw-boles 
is  brought  into  view  from  the  open  end  of 


optical  axis  of  the  telescope,  and  enables  the  surveyor 
to  fix  it  upon  an  object  with  the  greatest  iirecision. 
The  imaginary  line  passing  through  the  optical  a.vis 
of  the  telescope  is  termed  the  "  line  of  collimation," 
and  the  operation  of  l>ringing  the  inlersietion  of  tbe 
wires  into  the  optical  axis  is  called  the  "adjustment 
of  the  line  of  collimation."  This  will  be  described 
further  on.  The  openings  in  the  tele.scope-tube  are 
made  considerably  larger  than  the  screws,  so  that, 
when  these  are  loosened,  the  whole  ring  can  be  turned 
around  for  a  short  distance  in  either  direction.  The 
object  of  this  will  be  seen  more  plainly  when  we  de- 
scribe the  means  by  which  the  wire  is  made  trnly  ver- 
licjil.  The  sectional  view  of  the  telescope.  Fig.  1, 
also  .shows  two  movable  rings,  one  placed  at  A  A,  the 
other  at  CC,  which  arc  respectively  used  to  effect 
the  centering  of  the  eye-piece  and  the  ailjustment  of 
the  object-gla.ss  slide.  The  centering  of  the  eye-tube 
is  performed  after  the  wires  have  been  adjusted,  and 
is  cfTected  bj'  moving  the  ring,  by  means  of  the  screws 
shown  on  tlie  outside  of  the  tube,  until  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  wires  is  brought  into  the  center  of  the  field 
of  view. 

The  adjustment  of  the  object-slide,  which  will  be 
hereafter  described,  secui'es  the  movement  of  the  ob- 


Fio.  3. 


FiQ.  4. 


the  telescope-lube;  in  this  thrust  a  pointed  splinter  of 
wood  or  a  small  wire,  so  as  to  hold  the  ring  when  the 
remaining  screws  are  withdrawn;  the  ring  is  then 
taken  out.  It  may  be  replaced  by  returning  it  to  its 
position  in  the  tube,  and  either  pair  of  .screws  being 
inserted,  the  splinter  or  wire  is  removed,  and  the  ring 
is  turned  imtil  the  other  screws  can  be  replaced.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  that  the  same  side  of  the  ring  is 
turned  to  the  eye-piece  as  before  it  was  removed. 
When  this  has  been  done,  the  eye-tube  is  inserted, 
and  its  centering  ring  brought  into  such  a  position 
that  the  screws  in  it  can  be  replaced,  and  then  by 
screwing  on  the  end  of  the  telescope  the  little  cove"r 
into  which  the  eye-tube  is  fixed  the  operation  will  be 
completed. 

The  advantage  of  platinum  for  the  cross-wires  of 
telescopes  has  long  been  conceded,  but  the  difllculty 
of  pro<-uring  it  of  sutBcient  fineness  has  prevented  its 
gener.il  adoption.  Platinum  wires  are  now  drawn  of 
a  fineness  of  from  one  eiglil-thous:uullh  to  one  twelve- 
thousandth  of  an  inch,  and  are  used  in  tlie  telescopes 
of  all  the  best  instruments,  unless  spider-lines  are 
specially  desired.  These  wires  are  perfectly  opaque, 
and  of  course  entirely  unaffected  by  moisiure,  and 
arc  universally  preferred  to  the  spider-web  heretofore 
u.s<;d. 

The  intersection  of  the  vnren  forms  a  very  minute 
point,  which,  when  they  are  adjusted,  determines  the 


ject-glass  in  a  straight  line,  and  thus  keeps  the  line  of 
collimation  in  adjustment  through  the  whole  range  of 
the  slide,  preventing  at  the  same  time  what  is  termed 
the  "traveling"  of  the  wires.  This  adjustment  is 
always  made  in  the  process  of  const i-uction,  and,  need- 
ing no  further  attention  at  the  hands  of  the  engineer, 
is  concealed  within  the  ring  neiir  the  ball  of  the  tele- 
scope-axis. 

In  Fig.  5  the  telescope  is  represented  as  plain,  or 
without  any  attachments,  such  as  verticjal  circle,  level, 
etc.;  but  many  if  not  most  engineers  prefer  to  have 
two  or  more  of  these  accessories,  and  it  will  be  well 
to  briefiy  describe  the  same  in  this  connection. 

The  standards  of  the  transit  are  firmly  attached  by 
their  expandwi  ba.ses  to  the  upiwr  plate,  one  of  them 
having  near  the  top,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  a  little 
movable  box,  actuated  by  a  .screw  underneath,  by 
which  the  telescope-axis  is  made  truly  horizontal,  as 
will  be  hereafter  described 

The  circular  plates,  with  their  accompanying  sock- 
ets, are  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  4;  the  ujiper  plate, 
A  A,  currying  the  conipa.ss-cirele,  etc.,  is  screwed  fast 
to  file  flange  of  the  interior  s])indlc;  the  lower  plate 
or  divided  limb,  15  H,  is  fastened  to  the  exterior  socket 
C,  which  again  is  tilted  to  and  turns  in  Ihe  hollow 
socket  of  the  levcling-head.  The  compass-bo.x,  con- 
taining flic  needle,  etc.,  is  covered  by  a  glass  to  ex- 
clude the  moisture  and  air;  the  circle" is  silvered,  and 


ENGINEER'S  TRANSIT. 


569 


ENGINEERS  TRANSIT. 


is  divided  on  its  upper  surface  or  rim  into  degrees 
and  half-degrees,  the  degree-marks  being  also  cut 
ilown  on  its  inner  edge,  and  tigured  from  0  to  90  on 
eacli  side  of  the  center  or  line  of  zero. 

The  magnetic  needle  is  four  to  live  inches  long  in 
the  different  sizes  of  transits,  its  brass  cap  having  in- 
serted in  it  a  little  socket  or  center  of  hardened  steel, 
perfectly  polished,  and  this,  resting  upon  the  hardenetl 
and  polished  point  of  the  center-pin,  allows  the  needle 
to  play  freely  in  a  horizontal  direction  and  thus  take 
its  direction  in  the  magnetic  meridian.  The  needle 
has  its  north  end  designated  by  a  scallop  or  other 
mark,  and  on  its  south  end  a  small  coil  of  tine  brass 
wire,  easily  moved,  so  as  to  liring  both  ends  of  the 
needle  to  the  same  level.  The  needle  is  lifted  from 
the  pin  by  a  concealed  spring  underneath  the  upper 


plate,  actuated  by  a  screw  shown  alwve,  thus  raising 
the  button  so  as  to  check  the  vibrations  of  the  needle, 
or  bring  it  up  against  the  gla.s.s  when  not  in  use,  to 
avoid  the  tmnecessitry  wear  of  the  pivot.  The  forms 
of  the  needle  arc  almost  intinitely  varied,  nrrording 
to  the  taste  or  fancy  of  the  maker  or  surveyor,  but 
maj'  be  resolved  into  two  general  classes,  one  having 
the  greatest  breadth  in  a  hoiizontal.  the  other  in  a 
vertical,  direction.  The  test  of  tlie  delicacy  of  a  mag- 
netic needle  is  the  number  of  horizontal  vibrations 
which  it  will  make  in  a  certain  arc  before  coming  to 
rest:  besides  this  most  surveyors  jirefer  also  to  see  a 
sort  of  quivering  motion  in  a  vertical  direction.  This 
quality,  which  is  manifested  more  in  a  horizontal  than 
in  a  vertical  needle,  and  depends  upon  the  near  coin- 
cidence of  the  point  of  suspension  with  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  needle,  serves  to  show  merely  that  the 
cap  below  is  unobstnicted. 

The  clamp  and  tangent  movement,  shown  in  Fig. 
5,  on  the  upper  plate,  ser\-es  to  fasten  the  two  plates 
together,  so  that  by  the  tangent  .screw  thev  can  be 
slowly  moved  around  each  other  in  either  direction, 
or  loosened  at  will  and  moved  by  the  hand,  thus 
enabling  one  to  direct  the  telescope  rapidly  and  ac- 
curately to  the  point  of  sight.     The  opening  for  the 


clamp  in  the  upper  plate  is  covered  by  a  plate  or  a 
washer,  as  shown,  to  exclude  the  dust  and  moisture. 
The  clamping-piece  into  which  the  clamp-.screw  enters 
is  shown  at  I),  Fig.  4. 

The  two  levels  are  sho^\-n  placed  at  right  angles  to 
each  other  so  as  to  level  the  plate  in  all  directions,  and 
adjusted  by  turning  the  capst;in-head  screws  at  their 
ends  by  a  small  steel  adjusting-pin.  The  glass  viaU 
used  in  the  levels  of  this  transit  are  groimd  on  their 
upper  interior  surface,  so  as  to  make  the  bubble  move 
evenly  and  with  great  sensitiveness. 

The  lower  plale  or  limb,  BB,  Fig.  4,  is  divide<l  on 
its  ujiper  surfaci'— usually  into  degrees  and  half-de- 
grees— and  ligured  in  two  rows,  viz.,  from  0  to  ;!6(), 
and  from  0  to  90  each  way;  sometimes  but  a  single 
series  is  used,  and  then  the  "figures  run  from  0  to  3(iO, 
or  from  0  to  180  on  each  side".  The  tiguring  is  varied 
according  to  the  wish  of  the  engineer,  the  double 
series  bemg  alwavs  used  unless  otherwi.se  desired. 
The  two  verniers,  V  V,  are  attached  to  the  upper  plate 
diametrically  opposite  to  each  other,  and  serve  to  read 
the  limb  around  which  they  revolve. 

The  verniers  are  double,  having  on  each  side  of  the 
zero  mark  thirty  equal  divisions  corresponding  pre- 
cisely with  twenty-nine  half-degrees  of  the  limb;  they 
thus  read  to  single  minutes,  and  the  nimilxT  pas.sea 
over  is  counted  m  the  same  direction  in  which  the 
vernier  is  moved.  The  use  of  two  opposite  verniers 
in  this  and  other  instruments  gives  the  means  of 
"cross-questioning"  the  graduations,  the  perfection 
with  which  thej'  are  centered,  and  the  dependence 
which  can  be  placed  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  angles 
indicated.  Sometimes  a  finer  reading  than  minutes 
is  desired,  and  then  the  divisions  of  the  lind)  and 
vernier  are  both  made  smaller,  so  as  to  give  readings 
to  30,  20,  or  even  10  seconds  of  arc,  if  required.  Tlie 
\ernier-openings  are  covered  witli  glass,  carefully 
cemented  to  exclude  the  moisture  and  dust.  Reflect- 
ors of  silver  or  celluloid,  as  in  the  mountain-transit, 
are  often  used  to  throw  more  light  upon  the  divisions, 
and,  more  rarely,  shades  of  groimd  glass  are  employed 
to  give  a  clear  Imt  more  subdued  light. 

The  graduations  are  made  commonlj-  on  the  brass 
surface  of  the  limb,  afterwartls  filled  with  black  wax, 
and  tl^-n  finished  and  silvered.  Many  instruments, 
however,  have  a  solid  silver  plate  put  over  the  brass 
and  the  graduations  made  on  the  silver  itself.  The 
last  is  more  costly,  but  insures  a  finer  graduation, 
with  less  liability  "to  tarnish  or  change  color. 

The  sockets  of  the  transit,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  are 
compomid:  the  interior  spiniUe  attached  to  the  ver- 
nier plate  turning  in  the  exterior  socket,  C,  when  an 
angle  is  taken  on  the  limb,  but  when  the  plates  are 
clamped  together  the  exterior  socket  it.self,  and  with 
it  the  whole  instinment,  revolves  in  the  socket  of  the 
leveling-head.  The  sockets  are  made  with  the  great- 
est care,  the  surfaces  Iieing  tndy  concentric  with  <ach 
other,  and  the  bell  metal  or  composition  of  which 
they  are  composed  of  different  degrees  of  hardness, 
so  lis  to  cause  them  to  move  upon  each  other  easily 
and  with  the  least  possilile  wear. 

The  leveling-head,  also  shown  in  Fig.  4,  consists  of 
two  plates  connected  together  by  a  socket  having  at 
its  end  a  hemispherical  nut  fitting  into  a  correspond 
ing  cavity  in  the  lower  plate.  The  pla'es  are  inclined 
to  each  other  or  made  parallel  at  will  by  four  leveling- 
screws,  of  which  only  two  are  shown  in  the  section. 
The  screws  are  of  bronze  or  hard  composition  metal 
and  fitted  to  long  nuts  of  brass,  screwed  into  the 
upper  parallel  plate;  and,  as  will  1h'  noticed,  have 
threads  only  on  the  upper  ends,  the  lower  part  of 
their  stemsturniug  closelv  in  the  lower  unthreaded 
part  of  the  nuts.  ""  Bv  this  arrangement  dust  is  ex- 
cluded from  the  lowe"r  enil  of  the  screw  s,  while  thi- 
brass  cover  above  equally  protects  the  other  end. 
The  screws  rest  in  little  cups  or  sockets,  which  are 
secured  to  their  ends  and  in  which  they  turn  without 
marring  the  surface  of  the  lower  plate,  the  cups  also 
permitting  the  screws  to  be  shifted  from  side  to  side, 
or  turned  aroimd  in  either  direction  on  the  lower  plate. 


EN0INEEK8  TRANSIT. 


570 


ENGINEER  S  TRANSIT. 


The  clamp  nnd  lanjicnt  movement  of  the  Icveling- 
hend,  partiiilly  shown  in  Fig.  5,  serves  to  turn  the 
whole  iuslninuMit  upon  its  sockets,  .so  as  to  li.K  the 
telesfOiK"  with  jirecision  upon  any  piveu  point,  and 
■when  undainpiil  allowing  it  to  be  airectcd  appro.xi- 
mately  by  hand.  The  "tangent-screws,  as  will  Ijc 
seen,  "press  on  opposite  sides  of  the  clamp-piece,  and 
thus  insure  a  very  tine  and  solid  movement  of  the  in- 
strument. 

The  lower  levelinij-plate  is  made  in  two  pieces — 
the  up|>er  one,  which  Is  screwed  fa.«t  to  the  top  of  the 
tripod,  having  a  large  oiH'ning  in  it.s  center,  in  which 
the  smaller  lower  one  is  shifted  from  side  to  side  or 
turned  completely  aroimd.  By  this  simple  arrange- 
ment, termed  a  •'shifting  center,"  the  instrunuiU  is 
ea.sily  moved  over  the  upjx'r  iilale,  and  the  ]>luniniet 
■which  hangs  from  the  center,  P,  Fig.  4,  set  precisely 
over  a  point,  without  moving  the  trijiod. 

The  tripod,  the  top  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  .'5, 
has  three  maliogjiny  legs,  the  upper  ends  of  which 
are  presssed  firmly  on  each  side  of  a  strong  tenon  on 
the  solid  bronze  hea<l  by  a  bolt  and  nut  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  leg;  the  nut  can  also  be  screwed  up  at 
will  by  a  wrench  furnished  for  the  purpose,  and  thus 
kept  firm.  The  lower  end  of  the  leg  has  a  brass  shoe 
with  an  iron  point,  securely  fastened  and  riveted  to 
the  wood. 

Every  instrument  should  leave  the  hands  of  the 
maker  in  com|)lele  adjustment;  but  all  are  so  liable  to 
derangement  by  accident  or  careless  use  that  we 
deem  it  neces.sarj'  to  describe  particularly  those  which 
are  most  likely  to  need  attention.  The  principal  ad- 
justments of  the  transit  are:  1.  The  levels;  2.  The 
line  of  coUimation;  3.  The  standards. 

To  adjust  the  levels,  set  up  the  instrument  upon  its 
tripod  as  nearly  level  as  may  be,  and  having  un- 
damped the  plates,  brin^  the  two  levels  above  and  on 
a  line  with  the  two  pairs  of  leveling-screws;  then 
with  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  each  hand  clasp 
the  heads  of  two,  opposite;  and,  turning  botli  thumbs 
in  or  out,  as  may  he  needed,  bring  the  bubble  of  the 
level  directly  over  the  screws,  exactly  to  the  center  of 
the  opening.  Without  moving  the  instrument  pro- 
ceed in  the  same  manner  to  bring  the  other  bubble  to 
its  center;  after  doing  this,  the  level  first  corrected 
may  be  thrown  a  little  out;  brins;  it  in  again;  and 
when  both  are  in  ])lace,  turn  the  instrument  half-way 
around;  if  the  bubbles  both  come  to  the  center,  they 
would  need  no  correction,  but  if  not,  with  tlie  adjust- 
ing-pin turn  the  small  .screws  at  the  end  of  the  levels 
until  the  bubbles  are  moved  over  half  the  error;  then 
bring  the  bubbles  again  into  the  center  liy  the  level 
ing-screws,  and  repeat  the  operation  until  the  bubbles 
will  remain  in  the  center  during  a  complete  revolu- 
tion of  the  instrument,  and  the  adjustment  will  be 
complete.  It  should  be  remarked  ihat  in  this  as  in 
most  transits  the  level  on  the  standards  has  a  move- 
ment only  at  one  end,  the  adjustment  being  made  by 
abutting  screws,  which  are  loosened  and  tightened  iii 
turn,  in  moving  the  level. 

To  adjust  the  line  of  coUimation,— i.e.,  to  bring 
the  intersection  of  the  wires  into  the  optical  axis  of 
the  telescope,  so  that  the  instrument  when  placed  in 
the  middle  of  u  straight  line  will,  by  the  revolution  of 
the  telescope,  cut  its  extremities — proceed  as  follows: 
Set  the  instrument  firmly  on  the  grounci  and  level  it 
carefully;  and  then  having  brought  the  wires  into  the 
focus  of  the  eyi -piece,  adjust  tht'^oljjeet-glass  on  some 
well-defined  point,  as  the  edge  of  a  chimney  or  other 
object,  at  a  distance  of  from  two  hundred  tii  five  hun- 
dred feet;  deterniine  if  the  vertical  wire  is  plumb,  by 
clamping  the  inslrunieiil  liriidy  and  applying  the  wire 
to  the  vertical  edge  of  a  building,  or  observing  if  it 
will  move  parallel  to  a  jioint  taken  a  little  to  one  .side; 
should  any  deviation  be  manifested,  loosen  the  cros.s- 
wire  screws,  and,  by  the  pressure  of  the  hand  on  the 
head  outside  the  tulx',  move  the  rimr  around  until  the 
error  is  corrected.  The  wires  being  thus  made  re- 
spectively horizontal  and  vertical,  fix  their  point  of 
intersection  on  the  object  selected;  clamp  the  instru- 


ment to  the  spindle,  and  having  revolved  the  tele- 
sc<ipe,  find  or  place  sonu'  good  object  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  at  about  the  same  distance  from  the 
instrument  as  the  lii-st  object  assumed.  Great  care 
should  always  be  taken,  in  turning  the  telescope,  that 
the  po.sition  of  the  instrument  upon  the  spindle  is  not 
in  the  slightest  degree  disturbed.  Now,  having  found 
or  placed  an  object  whiih  the  vertical  wire  bisects, 
unclamp  the  instrument,  turn  it  half-wa}'  around, 
and  direct  the  telescope  to  the  first  object  selected; 
having  bisected  this  with  the  wires,  again  clamp  the 
instrument,  revolve  the  telescope,  and  note  if  the  ver- 
tical wire  bisects  the  second  object  observed.  Should 
this  happen,  it  will  indicate  that  the  wires  are  in  ad- 
justment, and  the  points  bisected  are,  with  that  of  the 
center  of  the  instrument,  in  the  same  straight  line.  If 
not,  however,  the  space  which  separates  the  wires 
from  the  .second  point  observed  will  be  double  the 
dc\iation  of  that  point  from  a  true  straight  line, 
which  may  be  conceived  as  drawn  through  the  first 
point  arwl  the  center  of  the  instrument,  since  the  error 
is  the  result  of  two  observations,  made  with  the  wires 
when  they  are  out  of  the  optical  axis  of  the  telescope. 

In  order  that  the  wires  may  trace  a  vertical  line  as 
the  telescope  is  moved  up  or  down,  it  is  necessarj' 
that  both  the  standards  of  the  telescope  should  l)e  of 
precisely  the  same  height.  To  a.scertain  this  and 
make  tlie  correction  when  needed,  proceed  as  follows: 
Having  the  line  of  coUimation  pre\iously  adjusted, 
set  up  the  instrument  in  a  position  where  points  of 
observation,  such  as  the  point  and  base  of  a  lofty 
spire,  can  be  selected,  giving  a  long  range  in  a  ver- 
tical direction.  Level  the  instrument,  fi.x  the  wires 
on  the  top  of  the  object  and  clamp  to  the  spindle; 
then  bring  the  telescope  down  until  the  wires  bisect 
some  good  point,  either  found  or  marked  at  the  base; 
turn  the  instrument  half  around,  fix  the  wires  on  the 
lower  point,  clamp  to  the  spindle,  and  raise  the  tele- 
scope to  the  highest  object.  If  the  wires  bisect  it, 
the  vertical  adjustment  is  effected;  if  they  arc  thrown 
to  either  side,  this  would  prove  that  the  standard  op- 
posite that  side  was  the  highest,  the  ajiparent  error 
being  double  that  actually  due  to  this  cause.  To 
coiTect  it.  one  of  the  bearings  of  the  axis  is  made 
movable,  so  that  by  turning  a  screw  underneath  this 
sliding  piece,  as  well  as  the  screws  which  hold  on  the 
cap  of  the  standard,  the  adjustment  is  made  with  the 
utmost  precision.  This  arrangement,  which  is  com- 
mon to  all  the  best  telescope-instruments,  is  verj'  sub- 
stantial and  easily  managed. 

Besides  the  three  adjustments  already  described — 
which  arc  all  that  the  surveyor  will  ordinarily  have  to 
make — there  are  those  of  the  needle  and  tlie  object- 
(jla.ss  slide,  which  may  sometimes  lie  required.  The 
first  is  given  with  the  description  of  the  compass.  To 
adjust  the  object-glass  slide:  Having  set  up  and  lev- 
eled the  instrument,  the  line  of  coUimation  being  also 
adjusted  for  objects  from  three  hundred  to  five  hun- 
dred feet  distant,  clamp  the  plates  securely,  and  fix 
the  vertical  cross-wire  upon  an  object  as  distant  as 
may  be  distinctly  seen;  then,  without  disturbing  the 
instrument,  throw  out  the  object-glass,  so  as  to  bring 
the  vertical  wire  upon  an  object  as  near  as  the  range  of 
the  telescope  will  allow.  Havingthis  clearly  in  mind, 
unclamp  the  limb,  turn  the  instnimi-nl  half-way 
around,  rever.se  tlie  eye-end  of  the  telescupe,  clamp 
the  limb,  and  w  lib  the  tangent-screw  bring  the  verti- 
cal wire  again  upon  the  near  object;  then  draw  in  the 
object-gla.ss  slide  until  the  distant  object  first  sighted 
upon  is  brought  into  distinct  \ision.  If  the  vertical  - 
wire  strikes  the  siuue  line  as  at  first,  the  slide  is  cor- 
rect for  both  near  and  remote  objects:  and,  being  it- 
self straight,  for  all  distances.  But  if  there  be  an 
error,  proceed  as  follows:  First,  with  the  thumb  and 
forefinger,  twist  off  the  thin  brass  tube  that  covers  the 
screws,  CC,  shown  in  Fig.  1.  Next,  with  the  screw- 
driver, turn  the  two  screws,  ("C,  on  the  opposite  «Vfe» 
of  the  telescope,  loosening  one  and  tightening  the 
other,  so  as  apparently  to  increase  the  error,  making, 
by  estimation,  one  half  of   the  correction  required. 


^ 


.dib 


ENGINE-LATHE. 


571 


ENGLEHAEDT  GUNCAEEIAGE 


Then  go  over  the  usual  adjustment  of  the  line  of  col- 
limation,  and  having  it  completed,  repeat  the  opera- 
tion above  deseribed;  first  sicrhling  upon  the  distant 
object,  then  tiniling  a  near  one  in  line,  and  then  re- 
versing, making  correction,  etc.,  until  the  adjustment 
is  complete.  This  adjustment  is  pecidiar  to  the 
transits  made  by  Messrs.  W.  and  L.  E.  Gurley,  of 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  furnishes  the  only  way  in  \vhich 
the  line  of  collimation  can  Ix;  made  correct  for  all  dis- 
tances. 

When  using  the  transit,  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  it  set  up  firmly,  the  tiipod-Iegs  being  pressed 
into  the  ground,  so  as  to  bring  the  plates  as  nearly 
level  as  convenient;  the  plates  should  then  be  care- 
fully leveled  and  properly  clamped,  the  zeros  of  the 
verniers  and  limb  brought  into  line  by  the  ujiper  tan- 
gent-screw, and  the  telescope  directed  to  the  object 
by  the  tangent-.screws  of  leveling-head.  The  angles 
taken  are  then  read  off  upon  the  liml),  without  sub- 
tracting from  those  given  by  the  verniers,  in  any  other 
position.     Before  an  observation  is  made  with  the 


spindle  for  face-plate  1|  inch  diameter,  8  pitch.  The 
cone,  largest  diameter  9  inches,  is  driven  by  a  Ixjlt  3 
inches  wide.  The  hole  through  the  si)indle"is  ,»„  inch 
diameter.  The  small  feed  -  gears  are  of  wrought- 
iron.  With  the  usual  set  of  gears,  screws  may  be  cut 
with  threads  of  4  to  64  to  the  inch.  Stationarj-  and 
follow  rests,  coimtershaft,  and  wrenches  accompany 
the  lathe.  Speed  by  countershaft,  9  by  3  inch  fric- 
tion-pulleys, 140  revolutions  per  minute.  Lathe  with 
4-foot  be<l  receives  1  foot  8  inches  between  centers,  and 
weighs  1100  pounds.     Beds  4  to  6  feet  long. 

A  larger  size  of  the  same  pattern  swings  16  inches 
over  the  bed  and  8  inches  over  the  carriage.  The 
front  bearing  of  the  live-spindle  is  4*  inches  long  by 
2i  inches  diameter.  The  cone,  largest  diameter  12J 
inches,  is  driven  by  a  belt  2*  inches  wide.  The  hole 
through  the  spindle  is  ,"5  inch  diameter:  screw-thread 
on  spindle  for  face-plate,  2i  inches  ilianietcr,  6  pitch. 
With  the  usual  set  of  gears,  screws  of  from  U  to  48 
threads  to  the  inch  may  be  cut.  Speed  of  counter- 
shaft, 10  by  3  inch  friction-pulleys,  120  revolutions 


EnRine-Iathe. 


telescope,  the  eye-piece  .should  be  moved  in  or  out, 
until  the  wires  appear  distinct  to  the  eye  of  the  opera- 
tor; the  object-glass  is  then  adjusted  "by  turning  the 
pinion-head  until  the  object  is  seen  clear  and  well 
defined,  and  the  wires  appear  as  if  fastened  to  its 
surfaci'.  The  intersection  of  the  wires,  being  the 
means  by  which  the  optical  axis  of  the  telescope  is 
detined,  should  be  brought  precisely  upon  the  center 
of  the  object  to  which  the  instrument  is  directed. 
The  needle  is  used,  as  in  the  rompa.ss,  to  give  the  bear- 
ings of  lines,  and  as  a  rough  check  upon  the  .nngles 
obtained  by  the  verniers  and  limb;  but  its  employ- 
ment is  only  subsidiary  to  the  general  piirfioses  of  the 
transit.  Tlie  instrument  as  described  is  numufactured 
by  the  Messrs.  Gurlev,  United  Slates.  See  Mountain- 
transit,  Prismatic  Tranmt,  Sextant,  Solar  Attafhment, 
Solar  Compass,  Theodolite,  Tranni-iMtrument,  and 
T-lerel.  ,.   ^   , 

ENGINE  LATHE.— A  lathe  of  the  larger  kmd,  hav- 
imr  a  capacilv  for  all  the  principal  turning  work  of 
the  armor)'.  "That  shown  in  the  drawing  is  alS-inHi 
weighted  engine-lathe,  with  screw  and  back  gears.  It 
swings  13  inches  over  the  bed  and  0  inches  over  ttie 
carriage.  The  front  bearing  of  the  head-stock  spindle 
is  1 1  inch  diameter  and  3S  inches  long,  in  Ciwt-iron 
boxes  lined  with  Babbittmetal.      Screw-thresid  on 


per  minute.  This  size  of  lathe  is  made,  also,  with 
gibbed  carriage  and  cross-feed.  It  swings  10*  inches 
over  the  carriage.  Lathe  with  5-fwt  bed  receives  2 
feet  between  centers,  and  weighs  1475  pounds.  Beds 
.')  to  H  feet  lone.     See  iMthf. 

ENGLEHARDT  GUN-CABKIAGE.— The  great  strain 
brouirht  on  the  carriage  by  tiring  the  large  charges 
that  are  used  in  the  new  artillery  renders  the  construc- 
tion of  the  carriage  a  difficult  iiroblem,  to  be  sure  of 
the  required  strenirth  without  exceeding  the  limits  of 
the  weiffht  hitherto  deemed  admissible,  w  hich  caimot 
lie  exceeded  without  encountering  grave  objections  in 
(he  service  of  the  piece.  Already  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  les.sen  the  .shock  on  the  carriage 
by  the  introduction  of  sprinips  of  dilTcrent  forms,  in- 
tended to  give  a  certain  elasticity  and  avoid  breakage. 
A  carriage  of  this  kind  was  exhibited  at  Vienna  by 
the  Bocimm  Company.  The  desired  elasticity  was 
obtained  bv  the  use  of  aBrown's  spiral  .sprinir,  arranged 
somewhat"  in  the  Siimc  manner  as  in  Colonel  Engle- 
hardt's  carriage,  iletallic  springs  are,  at  best,  frail, 
subject  to  accidents,  and  otherwise  objectionable:  con- 
sequently this  carriase  does  not  seem  to  have  found 
favor.  "Colonel  Endehardl.  of  the  artillery  of  the 
Imperial  Guard,  has^x-perimented  in  Russia  on  a  car- 
riage of  this  kind,  which,  it  appears  from  the  expert- 


EKGLISH  FBICTION  PRIMER. 


572 


ENLISTMENT. 


ments  mado,  has  ffiven  liiajhly  satisfactory  re.sults. 
The  carriage  is  ilislinguisht'ill  l)y  it.s  simplicity  of  con- 
slructioii.  anil  is  c(>iii|xiseil  csscutlall.v  of  two  parts, 
the  carriage  propir,  ami  the  slide  and  wheels.  The 
carriage  is  formed  of  two  cheeks  of  sheet-iron,  the 
eilges  forine<l  up  and  joined  together  by  a  lunette  and 
four  tnuisonis,  two  of  which,  64,  cr,  are  between  the 
chi'cks,  and  two,  (Id,  ff,  are  in  the  trail;  these  la.st 
also  form  the  ends  of  "the  trail-chest,  in  which  the 
ela-stie  cushion  is  placed.  The  different  details  of  the 
c<inst ruction  are  given  in  the  ligure,  in  which  the 
elevating-apparatus  is  not  shown;  only  the  stays, ;;,  and 
the  journals  for  its  trunnions  arc  represented.  It  will 
be  sufficient  to  ix)int  out  in  the  drawing  the  iron  plate 
/,  a  khid  of  spade,  riveted  and  bolted  to  the  end  of 
the  trail,  intemled  to  penetrate  the  ground  when  the 
carriage  is  in  battery,  and  to  check  the  recoil.  The 
part  which  the  inventor  designates  by  the  term  slide 
embraces  the  axle.  A,  with  the  wheels;  it  is  joined  by 
two  rods,  not  shown  in  the  drawing,  to  a  strong  cross- 
head,  g.     The  a.\le-understraps,  as  well  as  the  nole  in 


Engletiardt  Gun-carriage. 

the  trail  for  the  cross-head,  are  sufficiently  long  to 
allow  the  pieces  which  work  in  them  considerable 
play,  so  that  the  slide  may  njove  without  imparting 
motion  to  the  carriage.  Under  all  other  circumstances 
except  Wolent  shocks,  ])roduced  by  tiruig  or  by  similar 
causes,  the  carriage  and  slide  arc  united  in  an  unallcr 
able  maimer  by  means  of  an  clastic  cushion.  This 
is  composed  of  five  strong  sheets  of  cork,  h,  pressed 
between  the  transom  rf  and  a  movable  i>late,  m.  The 
two  strong  bolts  /  pass  through  the  whole  and  arc  sc- 
eurcii  to  the  cross-head,  r/.  By  turning  the  nuts  on 
the  ends  of  the  bolls  ('  any  desirable  initial  compres- 
sion-may  be  brought  on  the  sheets  of  cork.  When 
the  gim  is  ilischarged.  the  carriage,  on  accoimt  of  the 
inertia  of  the  .slide,  begins  to  slip,  the  resistance  to 
which  at  the  first  moment  brings  into  play  the  elasticity 
of  the  cork  cushion.  The  inventor  hopes  that  as  the 
carriage  proper  alone  receives  the  shock  of  the  dis- 
charge, the  whole  system  will  suffer  less  fatigue.  See 
Fifld-ra  rruiqis. 

ENGLISH  FRICTION-PRIMER.— The  tube  is  a  quill; 
but  as  the  material  lias  not  sufficient  .strength  or  firm- 
ness to  resist  the  force  of  the  pull  necessary  to  with- 
draw the  friction- wire,  a  loop  of  leather  is  attached  to 
the  (luill  which  passes  over  a  knob  or  projection  cast 
on  the  gim  just  forward  of  the  vent.  The  iiuDl  is 
destroyed  by  the  combustion  of  the  charge,  and  all 
accidents  from  the  Hying  of  the  tube  are  obviated. 
The  leather  loop,  however,  is  perishable  and  dws  not 
last  for  liny  great  Icnglli  of  lime.    See  Frictionprimfr. 

ENGLISH  FUSE.— The  common  name  for  the  Moor- 
mm  filar.  It  is  very  complicated  in  its  construction, 
but  a  great  importance  is  attached  to  it  in  England. 
See  MtufVivntt  Kiiiu\ 

ENGLISH  SYSTEM  OF  RIFLING.— A  modification 
of  the  Freiicli  system,  consisting  of  deep  and  broad 
grooves,  each  of  which  receives  two  soft-metal  circu- 
lar studs  attached  to  the  projectile.  The  grooves  are 
three  or  more  in  mmiber,  according  to  the  caliber  of 
the  piece;  they  are  1.0.')  inch  wiilc,  and  .18  of  an 
inch  deep,  with  curved  edges,  both  the  loaiUng  and 
driving  edges  Ixing  struck  with  the  same  radius. 
The  Ixjttom  of  the  grooves  is  eccentric  to  the  bore, 
being  struck  with  a  radius  of  three  inches;  thcj'  are 
of  the  Rjune  width  for  all  natures  of  heavy  guns,  but 
are  a  little  deeper  for  tlie  lOinrli  giiii  :ind  u])wards; 
the  grooves  are  also  widened  at  tlie  nuiz/.lc  in  the 
larger  guns,  in  order  to  facilitate  loading  by  i  ulting 


away  the  loading-side  slightly  for  two  inches  from 
the  nmzzle.  Tins  system  embraces  uniform  and 
increasing  twists,  the  latter  l)cing  preferred.  Hotli 
the  direction  and  twist  are  given  by  the  bearing  of 
the  studs  on  the  grooves,  the  body  of  the  projectile 
never  being  intended  to  come  into  contact  with  the 
bore.  The  windage  is  .8  of  an  inch  in  all  calitjcrs. 
The  projectiles  have  two  studs  for  each  groove  in  all 
instances;  both  studs  in  the  case  of  the  tmifonn  twist, 
and  the  rear  one  where  the  twist  is  increasing,  are 
nearly  of  the  size  of  the  groove,  with  their  faces  cor- 
responding to  the  curved  bot^om  of  the  groove.  In 
the  large  projectiles  an  intermediate  row  luis  been  in- 
troduceil,  making  three  rows  in  all,  and  a  soft-metal 
gas-check  has  been  applied  to  the  base  of  the  projec- 
tile. The  rear  stud  is  four  inches  from  the  bottom  of 
the  projectile,  and  the  studs  of  each  gi-oovc  are  equi- 
distant from  the  center  of  gravity.  The  particulars 
of  rifling  are  as  follows:  The  12-i'nch  gun,  9  grooves; 
twist  increasing  from  1  in  100  to  1  in  ">0  calibers  at 
muzzle.  ThelO  inch  gun,  7  grooves;  twist  increasing 
from  1  in  100  to  1  in  40  calilx-rs  at  muzzle. 
The  9-inch  gun,  6  grooves;  twist  increasing 
from  0  to  1  in  4.5  calibers  at  muzzle.  The  8-inch 
gun,  4  grooves;  twi.st  increasing  from  0  to  1 
in  40  calibers  at  muzzle.  The  7-inch  gun,  3 
grooves;  twist  uniform,  1  in  3.5  calibers.  The 
7  inch  gun  has  a  uniform  twist  because,  at  the 
time  of  its  introduction,  the  uniform  was  pre- 
ferred to  the  increasing  spiral.  See  System  of 
Jiijtiny  and  WooUtirh  Gun. 
ENGRAILED.— In  Heraldry,  the  line  com- 
posed of  a  series  of  little  half-moons,  or  semicircles, 
supposed  to  have  been  made  in  it  by  hail.  Engrailed 
is  the  ojiposite  of  inrertiil.     See  IJiraldrij. 

ENGUICHE.— A  hunting-horn,  the  rim  around  the 
i  mouth  of  which  is  of  a  different  color  from  the  horn 
I  itself,  is  said  heraldically  to  be  engiikh',  of  the  color 
in  question.     See  Heraldry. 

EN  L'AIR. — Literally,  in  the  air,  unsupported.  It 
is  said  that  a  division  is  en  I'air  when  it  is  unsup- 
)iorte(i  or  too  far  from  the  army  either  to  render  a-s- 
sistance  or  to  receive  support.  For  instance,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  of  1870-71  General  Douai  was 
at  Bell  fort,  JlacMahon  in  the  east  of  the  Vosgcs, 
I)e  Failly,  en  I'air,  between  Prossard  and  the  Duke 
of  Magenta. 

ENLARGEMENT.— The  act  of  going  or  being  al- 
lowed to  go  lievond  the  iirescribed  limits;  as  the  ex- 
tending the  boundaries  of  an  arrest,  when  the  officer 
is  Siiid  to  be  enlarged,  or  under  arrest  at  large.  En- 
largements of  the  bore  and  vent  are  injuries  suffered 
by  all  cannon  that  are  subjected  to  ra])iil  and  constant 
tiring  and  erosion.  When  it  becomes  considerable, 
the  vent  is  reboucbcd. 

ENLISTMENT.— The  mode  by  which  the  English 
army  is  supplied  with  troops,  as  distinguished  ?rom 
the  conscription  prevailing  in  many  other  coun- 
tries. Enlistiiiiiit  was  in  private  hands  until  the 
year  1802,  mi<ldlemen  procuring  recruits,  and  receiv- 
ing a  iirotit  or  commission  for  their  trouble.  This 
system  being  subject  to  much  abuse,  the  matter  was 
taken  into  the  hands  of  the  Government  in  the  above- 
named  year,  and  is  now  managed  by  the  Adjutant 
General.  Formerly  a  soldier  enlisted  for  life,  and 
could  never  look  forward  to  a  pciiod  of  freedom;  or, 
at  best,  he  could  not  retire  on  a  iiension  while  still 
])Os.se.ssed  of  a  fair  share  of  healtli  and  strength. 
This  system  was  changed  in  1847  by  an  Act  relating 
to  liiniled  eidistmcnt ;  which  provided  that  a  man 
should  enlist  for  10  years  for  the  infantry,  or  for  13 
for  the  cavalry  or  artilleiy.  At  the  cxi)iration  of  this 
period  he  could  cither  quit  the  army,  without  pen- 
sion; or  re-enlist  for  the  remainder  of  21  vears  for  the 
infantry,  tir  24  years  for  cavaliy  or  artillery.  This 
second  peiiod  of  service  entitled  the  .soldier  to  a  pen- 
sion for  life,  after  his  discharge:  and  in  1868  two- 
Iiencc  a  day  was  added  to  the  pay  of  every  soldier 
who  re-enlisted  (or  re-engaged).  Yhis  system  of  en- 
listment provided  soldiers:  but  did  nothing  for  the 


ENNISKILLEN  DRAGOONS. 


573 


ENSIGN. 


growth  of  trained  reserves,  with  wliich  to  bring  the 
army  to  fiehling  strength  in  the  event  ot  war.  The 
"Army  Enlistment  Act"  of  1870  seeks  to  remedy 
this  defect,  by  allowing  men  to  enlist  for  12  years, 
■with  the  understanding  that  6  years  or  less  shall  be 
passed  with  the  Colors,  and  the  remainder  with  the 
Reserve.  This  is  known  as  "  short  service."  If  ap- 
prentices enlist,  the  master  may  recover  them  under 
certain  conditions  detailed  in  the  Mutiny  Act  (which 
is  passed  everj'  year).  The  Mutiny  Act  also  provides 
that  servants  enlisting  before  the  term  of  their  engage- 
ment arc  validly  enlisted,  and  are  entitled  to  wages 
up  to  the  date  of  enlistment.  Periods  of  imprison- 
ment are  not  reckoned  as  part  of  the  time  of  limited 
enlistment.  A  recruit  enlists  into  either  one  of  the 
70  sub-district  brigades,  each  of  which  comprises 
either  a  two-battalion  regiment  or  two  single-battalion 
regiments,  or  'le  enlists  for  general  service  in  any 
regiment  to  which  the  Adjutant  General  may  post 
him;  but  artificers,  as  armorers,  etc.,  are  usually  en- 
listed for  general  serrtce,  so  that  their  scr\-ices  may 
be  made  available  where  most  required.  The  Army 
Discipline  and  Regulation  Act  of  1879  made  several 
important  alterations  in  regard  to  enlistment.  The 
recruit  had  always  to  appear  before  a  JIagistrale,  but 
formerly  could  not  refuse  to  take  the  oath  without 
paying  a  tine  of  20».  Xow  he  Is  not  enlisted  until  he 
appear  before  the  Magistrate,  who  causes  to  be  read 
to  him  a  series  of  authorized  questions,  and  sjitisties 
himselif  that  the  man  is  not  under  the  influence  of 
liquor,  and  voluntarily  agrees  to  enlist.  The  recruit 
then  signs  the  declaration,  takes  the  oath,  and  is  at- 
tested by  the  Magistrate.  If  the  recruit  does  not  so 
appear,  or  appearing  does  not  assent,  no  further  pro- 
ceedings are  taken.  If  within  three  months  of  his 
attestation  a  recruit  pays  a  sum  not  exceeding  £10, 
he  is  now  entitled  to  be  discharged. 

Enlistment  in  the  United  States  army  is  superin- 
tended by  the  Bureau  of  the  Recruiting  Service,  the 
Chief  Otiiccr  of  which  is  stationed  in  New  York  City. 
There  are  quarters  or  branches  in  nearly  all  tlie  large 
cities  of  the  Union,  and  two  Depots  to  which  recruits 
are  sent — Fort  Columbus,  New  York  Harbor,  and 
the  Barracks  at  Newport,  Ky.  Men  are  enlisted  for 
five  years,  and  ma}'  be  assigned  to  any  branch  of  the 
serrice. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  various  "  calls"  for 
troops  by  the  I  nited  States  Government  during  the 
War  of  the  Rebellion: 


Date  of  Call. 


April  15, 1862 

May  to  June  S5, 1862, 

Julys,  1862  

Augrust  4.  1862 

October  17.  1868 

Febnmry  1. 1864  .... 

March  14,  1864  

July  18,1864 

December  19, 1861.  . 


Number 
of  Men. 


75,000 
530.000 
300.000 
300,000 
300,000 
200.000 
200.000 
500,000 
300,000 


Term  of 
Service. 


3  months 
3  years 
3  years 
9  months 
3  years  I 
3  years  ) 
3  years 
1-2-3  years 
1-2-3  "years 


Number 
obtained. 


I 


93..328 
714.213 
431. 9.M 

87,oai 

374,807 

2(M.021 
384,882 
2l>4,668 


There  were  other  calls  for  30  and  100  days'  men. 
The  whole  number  called  for  was  2,7.")9,049;  total  ob- 
tained, 2,6o6,.").')3.  Bv  Act  of  Congress  March  3, 
1863,  called  the  "  Con.scription  Act,"  the  President 
was  authorized  to  draft  troops.  The  Act  provided 
for  an  enrollment,  a  draft,  the  reception  of  substi- 
tutes, and  arrest  of  deserters.  About  3,000,000  men 
Ijctwecn  the  ages  of  20  and  45  were  enrolled.  The 
calls  from  October  17,  1863,  were  oixiers  for  drafts. 
But  probably  not  more  than  .50,000  drafted  men  per- 
formed p<-rs()nal  senice.  Substitutes  were  obtained. 
The  "Substitute  Fund"  of  the  Government,  consist- 
ing of  money  paid  in  as  a  release  from  service,  and 
which  was  used  as  a  "  bounty  fund"  for  volunteers, 
amount.'d  to  $2.5.902.029. 

ENNISKILLEN  DRAGOONS.— A  British  regiment 
of  horse;  it  was  tirst  instituted  irom  the  brave  de- 
fenders of  Enaiskillen,  in  1689. 


ENROLL. — To  place  a  man's  name  on  the  roll  or 

nominnl  list  of  a  Ixxly  of  -soldiers.     See  Eiilittment. 

ENSCONCE. —  A  term  generally  signifying,  in  a 
mililarv  <ense,  to  cover  as  with  a  fort. 

ENSEIGNE.— The  Colors.  The  French  designate 
all  warlike  s\Tnlx)ls  under  the  term  enseigne;  but  they 
again  distinguish  that  word  bj-  the  appellations  of 
Drapeaujr,  Colors,  and  Etendaith,  Standards.  Dra- 
peaux  or  Colors  are  particularly  characteristic  of  the 
infsmtry  ;  EttndarcUi  or  Standards  belong  to  the  cav- 
aln.-. 

ENSEMBLE.— Together:  the  exact  execution  of  the 
same  movements  performed  in  the  same  manner  and 
by  the  same  motions.  It  is  the  union  of  all  the  men 
who  compose  a  battalion,  or  several  battalions  or  com- 
panies of  infantry  and  cavalrj',  who  are  to  act  as  if 
put  in  motion  bv  the  same  spring.     See  Cadencf. 

ENSIGN.— 1.  "Until  1871  Ensign  was  the  title  of 
the  lowest  combatant  rank  of  Commissioned  OOicers 
in  the  British  army,  and  is  derived  from  their  Iwing 
charged  with  the  duty  of  carrying  the  Regimental 
Colors  or  Ensign.  In  the  hand-io-hand  mPlees  of  the 
Sliddle  Ages,  the  preservation  of  the  Colors  or  Stand- 
ard, as  the  rallying-point  of  those  fighting  under  the 
same  leader,  was  a  matter  of  vital  importance,  and 
was  only  intrusted  to  the  bravest  and  most  trustwor- 
thy. The  Colors  were  committed  to  him  with  impos- 
ing ceremony  in  presence  of  the  assembled  regiment, 
and  he  had  to  take  an  oath  to  defend  them  with  life 
and  limb,  and  if  need  were,  to  wrap  himself  in  them 
as  a  shroud,  and  devote  himself  to  death.  The  man 
who  undertook  this  perilous  post  received  sometimes 
as  much  as  sixfold  the  usual  pay.  It  was  doubtless 
in  this  waj'  that  the  point  of  honor  arose  rcsix'Cting 
the  Colors.  History  records  repeated  instances  where 
the  oath  was  kept  to  the  letter.  In  the  modern  sys- 
tem of  warfare  the  Regimental  Colors  are  seldom 
exposed  to  such  danger,  and  the  office  of  Ensign  is 
of  less  accoimt.  In  the  infantry  there  were  two 
kinds  of  Subalterns  below  the  Captain,  viz.,  the  Lieu- 
tenant and  tlie  Ensign.  In  the  cavalry  and  the  artil- 
lery the  duties  of  Ensign  were  taken  by  officers  who 
had  the  titles  of  Cornet  or  Second  Lieutenant.  When 
a  gentleman  entered  the  army  he  began  as  an  Ensign 
(if  in  the  infantry),  and  from  this  rank  he  rose  by 
purcha.se  or  seniority.  The  pay  was  .5«.  'id.  per  day, 
and  the  half-pay  Is.'lOrf.  to  3s. ;"  although  it  was  most 
unusual  for  an  "Ensign  to  be  on  half-pay.  An  Ensign 
in  the  Foot-guards  nmked  as  a  Lieutenant  in  the  anny, 
and,  on  transferring  his  services  to  an  infantrj'  or 
cavalry  regiment,  exchanged  with  an  officer  of  that 
grade. 

The  rank  of  Ensign  having  been  abolished  in  the 
British  army,  the  number  of  Lieutenants  has  been 
proportionately  increa.sed  ;  but  for  three  years  the 
officer  only  receives  the  same  pay  as  the  Ensign  for- 
merly had.  The  officer  enters  in  the  probalionarj' 
grade  of  Sub-lieutenant,  which  is  converted  to  Lieu- 
tensmt  as  soon  as  he  proves  himself  qualified  to  com- 
mand soldiers  and  perform  the  other  duties  of  the  of- 
fice. In  the  late  East  Intlia  Company's  armv,  a  Cadet 
became  an  Ensign  in  rank  and  pay  directly  he  landed 
in  India. 

2.  In  the  United  States  navy  an  Ensign  is  the  Na- 
tional Flag.  It  is  also  used  \x\  the  merchant-service 
to  dc-signate  the  countrj-  to  which  the  vessel  belongs. 
There  "is  an  officer  in  the  navy  called  Ensign  who 
ranks  Inflow  Master  and  above  Midshipman.  In  the 
army  and  the  militia  an  Ensign  is  assigiiwl  to  each 
company,  his  dutv  being  to  carry  the  flag  or  standani 
of  the  company.  "  Sometimes  the  duty  falls  *o  a  Ser- 
geant. 

Ensisn  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  flags  Ijelong- 
ing  to  the  British  fleet;  and,  under  that  or  some  other 
name,  to  most  other  fleeUs.  It  is  a  large  flag  or  ban- 
ner hoisted  on  an  Ensign  staff,  a  long  ix)le  erected 
over  the  iXK)p,  or  at  the  gaff  when  the  ship  is  under 
sail.  Its  chief  purjwse  is  to  denote  the  nation  to 
which  the  ship  belomrs.  The  English  Ensign  has  for 
a  groundwork  one  of  three  colors— red,   white,  or 


£NTANGL£1I£NTS. 


574 


EPEE  SE  FAS80T. 


blue — and  bears  the  union  double  cross  of  St.  Gcorjrc 
and  St.  Andit'W,  or  Union  Jack,  in  the  upix-r  corner 
next  the  mast  (dexter-cliicn.  Tlie  ithiU'  Ensign  i.s  al.so 
divided  into  four  <iuarters  by  a  red  cro.s.s  of  St.  George, 
and  i.s  limited  to  sliips-of-wur.  ilerchant-ves.-*'l<  arc 
only  allow  wl  to  carry  the  lilut  Ensign;  but  yachts,  if 
of  "clubs  acknowledged  by  the  Adniinilty,  colonial 
armed  vesiicls,  ships  connected  with  Government  De- 
partments, and  merchant-vessels  conunaudcd  by  otti- 
cersof  the  Naval  Reserve,  arc  permitted  to  use  the  ;<</ 
Ensign.  Formerly  the  English  Admirals  required 
ships  of  all  other  nations  to  dip  their  Ensigns  to  the 
English  flag;  the  refu-sid  of  the  Dutch  to  comply  -with 
this  custom  was  the  signal  for  one  of  Blake's  bloodiest 
encounters  with  Van  Tromp.  See  Fhtys  and  Standard. 
ENTANGLEMENTS.—  Everj-  approach  which  an 
enemy  might  use  to  reach  .i  work  should  be  so  ob- 
structed as  to  keep  him  as  long  as  possible  under  a 
close  tire  of  musketrv.  The  best  thing  for  this  pur- 
pose is  wire  entanglement,  made  by  planting  stout 
stakes,  about  3*  feet  long,  2  feet  in  the  ground  and  7 
feet  apart,  in  quincunx  order  and  in  three  or  four 

lines,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing.  Around  the 
tops  of  these  stakes,  at 
from  12  to  18  inches 
from  the  groimd,  in 
notches  prepared  for 
the  purpose,  telegraph 
or  other  strong  wire 
is  very  securely  wound,  extending  from  one  stake  to 
another.  This  obstacle  is  rapidly  made,  is  difficult 
to  remove,  and  can  be  injured  but  little  by  the  tire 
of  the  enemy.  A  kind  of  abatis  formed  of  trees, 
with  the  trunks  cut  half  through,  forms  a  very  se- 
rious ol)staele  to  the  advance  of  an  assailant. 

ENTERPSISER.— An  officer  who  undertakes  or  en- 
g-.iges  ill  any  important  and  hazardous  design. 

ENTIRE. — A  line  of  men  in  one  continued  row  by 
the  side  of  e;ich  other.  When  formed  behind  each 
other  tliey  are  said  to  be  in  file.  The  usual  expres- 
sion is  rank  entire. 

ENTONNOIR.— The  cavity  or  hole  which  remains 
after  the  explosion  of  a  mine.  It  likewise  means  the 
tin-case  nr  port-fire  which  is  used  to  convey  the 
priniiiiL'  powder  into  the  vent  of  acannon.  See  Crater. 
ENTRENCH.— To  construct  hastily  thrown-up  field- 
works  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  any  force  in 
position.  When  the  ground  is  undulating,  rocky,  or 
■woody,  it  is  easy  to  avoiil  the  enemy's  siglit  and  fire; 
but  w"hen  it  is  bare  and  level,  the  art  of  entrenching 
is  of  first  importance.  Tlie  history  of  all  liattles  of 
late  years  has  shown  the  expediency  of  making  use 
of  natural  shelter  or  constructing  fielil-intrenchments. 
Not  only  is  such  artificial  sliclter  necessary  in  action, 
but  it  is  frequently  invaluable  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
cealing the  troops  before  the  fire  has  opened.  A  very 
sligiit  i)anipet  of  newly  excavated  earth  is  sufflcieiit 
to  protect  men  from  the  effects  of  rifle-balls.  Ex- 
periment shows  that  the  penetration  of  the  ball  (ser- 
vicc-riHe)  at  a  range  of  10  yards  is  20  inches,  and  only 
10  inches  at  200  yards.  After  a  little  pra(!tice,  each 
soldier  will  ascertain  the  fonn  of  pit  that  best  suits 
and  protex-ts  him.  The  depth  need  not  be  uniform, 
hut  should  be  at  least  10  inches  where  tlie  liody  rests, 
and  (i  inches  elsewhere.  With  a  view  to  lessening  the 
effect  of  the  enemy's  fire,  the  soldier  should  lie  down 
well  under  and  behind  the  cover.  The  soldier  should 
never  Ih'  separated  from  an  intrenching-tool  of  some 
description.  Many  are  the  instances  recorded  where 
it  was  impossible  to  forward  the  intrenching-tools  to 
the  front  until  after  the  exigency  for  their  use  had 
pa.ised,  and  the  men  were  compelled  to  use  tin  plat<;s, 
tin  cans,  fragmenls  of  canteens,  knives,  sticks,  etc., 
in  order  to  get  temporary  shelter  from  the  enemy's 
most  galling  fire.     See  Iiitreuchuicut. 

ENTREPOT.— An  intermediate  depot  for  the  recep- 
tion of  stores  and  arms  in  a  garrison  town  where  there 
is  no  ars<-nal  or  magazine. 
ENVELOPE.— The  name  applied  to  the  continuous 


enceinte  formed  when  the  counter-guards  of  the  bas- 
tions are  joined  to  those  of  the  ravelins. 

ENVIRON. — In  a  military  sense,  to  inclose  or  sur- 
round in  a  hostile  manner;  to  hem  in;  to  besiege. 

EPARCH. — The  Governor  of  a  Province  in  ancient 
Greice,  or  Prefect  of  a  region  under  the  rule  of  liome. 
In  modern  GR'Cce  a  Province  of  the  Kingdom  is 
called  a  Monarchy,  and  a  sulxlivision  of  a  Jlonarchy 
an  Eparchy.  In  Russia  the  tenii  denotes  the  Diocese 
or  Archdiocese  of  a  Bishop  or  Archbishop. 

EPAULE. — In  fortification,  the  shoulder  of  a  bas- 
tion, or  the  place  where  its  face  and  flank  meet  and 
form  the  angle,  called  the  angle  of  the  shoulder. 

EPAULEMENT.— hi  fortification,  a  ]iortion  of  a 
battery  or  earthwork.  The  siege-batteries  are  gene- 
rally shielded,  at  one  end  at  least,  by  epaulcmcnts, 
forming  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  main  line  of  the 
battery.  The  object  is  to  protect  the  guns  and  gun- 
ners from  i.  flanking  fire.  The  name  is  often  given 
erroneously  to  the  parajiet  of  the  batter}'  itself,  but  it 
applies  properly  to  the  flanking  return  onlj'.  Some- 
times the  whole  of  a  small  or  secondary  earthwork, 
including  the  batterj-  and  its  fianks,  is  called  an 
epaulement;  and  soiiietimes  the  name  is  given  to  an 
i.solated  breastwork  intended  to  shield  the  cavalry 
employed  in  defending  a  body  of  besiegers.  An 
epaule  is  the  shoulder  of  a  bastion,  where  one  of 
the  faces  and  one  of  the  flanks  meet:  and  this  points 
to  the  proper  meaning  of  epaulement,  as  a  shoulder  or 
flanking  work.  The  following  distinctions  are  usually 
observed:  "When  the  covering  mass  is  so  constructed  as 
to  afford  the  assailed  a  view  and  fire  over  the  assjiil- 
ant's  line  of  approach,  it  is  termed  a  parapet;  when 
intended  simply  as  a  screen  or  cover  from  the  fire  of 
theeneni}-,  it  is  termed  an  epaulement ;  and  when  used 
to  cover  troops  or  guns  from  an  enfilading  fire  on  the 
flank  or  in  the  rear,  it  is  known  as  a  traverse.  See 
Parapet  and  Trarcrse. 

EPAULETS— EPAULETTES.— Shoidder-knots  worn 
by  militarj-  and  naval  officers,  as  the  marks  of  distinc- 
tion, and  as  ornaments.  In  the  British  navy  the  of- 
ficers of  and  above  the  rank  of  Lieutenant  wear  epau- 
lets of  gold  lace,  one  on  each  shoulder.  Sub-lieu- 
tenants wearing  one  only.  The  ranks  and  degrees 
are  marked  in  a  very  systematic  way  by  means  of 
crowns,  anchors,  and  stars  worked  in  silver  on  the 
cpaidct,  and  also  by  the  size  of  the  cords  of  the 
epaulets  itself.  This  decoration  was  formerly  uni- 
versal in  the  British  army,  officers  wearing  those  of 
gold,  men  of  worsted;  but  they  were  aboli.shed  during 
the  Russian  war,  in  consequence  of  the  dangers  to 
which  officers  thus  ea.sily  marked  out  were  exposed. 
It  is  retained  by  the  French  army  alone  of  the  armies 
of  the  great  Powers.  Epaulets  are  worn  by  General 
Officers  in  ♦be  United  States  service,  as  also  by  the 
officers  of  most  militia  organizations.  The  following 
patterns  are  prescribed  for  General  Officers: — thr  the 
General  of  the  Army:  Of  gold,  with  solid  crescent; 
device — two  silver  embroidered  stars,  with  five  rays 
each,  \h  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  "Arms  of  the 
United  States  "  embroidered  in  gold  jdaccd  between 
them.  For  a  Lkntenatit  General:  Of  gold,  with  solid 
crescent;  device — three  silver  embroidered  stars  of  five 
rayseach,  respectively  1*,  1},  and  li  incli  in  diameter. 
The  largest  placed  in  the  center  of  the  crescent;  the 
others  placed  longitudinally  on  the  strap  and  equidis- 
tant, ranging  in  order  of  size  from  the  crescent.  Fiyr 
a  Major  General:  Same  as  for  Lieutenant  General, 
omitting  smallest  star,  and  the  smaller  of  the  two 
remaining  stars  placed  in  the  center  of  the  strap. 
For  a  Hrit/adkr  General:  Same  as  for  Lieutenant 
General,  omitting  everything  but  the  largest  star.  See 
Shiy}ililer-kniit,<. 

EPAULIERE.— A  thick  strap  of  leather  employed 
in  ancient  times.  It  passed  over  the  shoulder  and 
sustiiined  the  cuirass,  composed  of  two  pieces,  breast- 
aiid  liack-iilatc.     Sec  Cuirass. 

EPEE  DE  PA8S0T.— A  very  short  sword  of  Italian 
origin,  used  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  very  much 
like  the  anelace. 


£FHEBI. 


575 


EQUATION  OF  DEFENSE. 


EPHEBI. — In  Grecian  antiquity,  the  name  given  to 
the  Attic  youth  from  tlie  age  of  eighteen  till  they 
entered  upon  their  twentieth  year.  During  thi.s  pcriotl 
they  served  a  .sort  of  apprenticeship  in  arm.s,  and 
were  frequently  sent,  under  the  name  of  peripoli,  to 
«)me  of  the  frontier  towns  of  Attica  to  keep  watch 
against  foreisn  invasion. 

EFIBAT£. — lu  Grecian  antiquity,  the  name  given 
to  soldiers  whase  duty  it  was  to  tight  on  board  ship. 
They  corresponded  almost  exactly  to  the  Marines  of 
modem  naval  warfare.  The  term  is  sometimes 
found  in  Roman  authors  to  denote  the  same  class  of 
soldiers,  hut  the  general  plira.se  adopted  by  them  is 
iiiifites  rhimdrii,  or  sneii  iiaiales. 

EFIGNASE. — A  small  variety  of  ordnance  which 
does  not  exceed  one  pound  in  caliber. 

EPIGONI. — A  term  which  signilies  the  "  heirs"  or 
"descendants."  It  was  applied  to  the  Sons  of  the 
Seven  Chiefs  who  conducted  an  expedition  against 
Thebes  to  restore  Pohiiices,  and  who  were  all  killed 
except  Adrastus.  Ten  years  later,  the  Epigoni — 
namely,  Alcmieon,  Thersander,  Diomedes,  ^gialeus, 
Promachus,  Sthenelus,  and  Euryalus — renewed  the 
enterprise  and  took  Thebes.  The  War  of  the  Epigoni 
was  celebrated  by  several  ancient  epic  and  dramatic 
poets. 

EPINGLETTE.— A  large  iron  needle  with  which  the 
cartridge  of  any  large  piece  of  ordnance  is  pierced 
before  it  is  primed. 

EPINIKIAN. — Pertaining  to  or  celebrating  victory; 
as.  an  epiuikian  ode. 

EPIXAGUA. — All  the  elementary  tacticjil  combina- 
tions, OT  foniidtioiis,  of  the  Greeks  were  methodical, 
but  yet  very  simple.  An  army  corps  was  conipo.sed 
of  a  tetrap/iala ngarc/iid ,  also  termed  a  grand  pha- 
lanx, consisting  of  16,.3.>4  oplitai.  An  epitaf/m<i,  of 
8192  psiloi;  and  an  epitagma  of  cavalry  of  4096  men. 
The  heavy-armed  or  infantry  of  the  line  bore  to  the 
light  infantry  and  cavalry  the  ratio  of  the  numbers 
2,  4,  and  1.  The  epitagraa  of  cavalry  was  divided 
into  two  equal  parts,  each  composed  alike,  termed 
tetea.  One  was  placed  on  each  wing  of  the  line  of 
battle.  The  telos  was  subdivided  into  .5  divisions; 
the  strength  of  each  subdivision  l>eing  the  half  of  the 
one  next  in  order  above  it  The  lowest,  termed  i/a, 
of  64  horsemen,  corresponding  to  the  modem  squad- 
ron, was  drawn  up  on  a  front  of  16  with  4  files,  and 
was  commanded  bv  an  officer  to  whom  was  given  the 
title  of  //-(/•'■;,. 

E  PLURIBUS  UNUM.— "  One  out  of  many."  A 
motto  adopted  by  the  United  States  since  the  "  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,"  in  1776. 

EPOUVANTE.— A  sudden  panic  with  which  troops 
are  seized,  and  under  which  they  retreat  without  any 
actual  necessity  for  so  doing. 

EPEOUVETTE. — A  machine  for  proving  or  testing 
the  strength  of  gunpowder.  It  was  invented  or 
suggested  in  the  last  century  by  Robins,  but  was 
greatly  improved  by  Dr.  Hutton.  The  gun-eprou- 
vette  determines  the  strength  of  gunpowder  by  the 
amount  of  recoil  produced.  A  .small  gun,  usually  a 
"  half-pounder,"  is  fi.xed  to  the  lower  end  of  an  iron 
rod.  its  base  being  adjustwl  to  an  arm  projecting 
from  the  rod;  or  else  it  is  suspended  from  an  iron 
frame.  A  horizontal  steel  axis  is  fixed  to  the  rod  or 
frame  about  which  the  gun  may  vibrate.  A  pointed 
iron  rod  or  style  projects  downwards  from  the  lower 
side  of  the  gun,  and  touches  a  groove  filled  with  soft 
wax;  the  groove  is  so  shaped  that,  when  the  gun  re- 
coils, the  point  cuts  a  path  for  it.self  along  this  wax; 
and  the  length  of  this  path  deteraiines  the  amount  of 
recoil.  Sometimes  a  brass  graduated  arc  with  au  in- 
dex is  used  instead  of  the  pointed  style  and  the  wa.xed 
groove;  but  the  principle  of  action  is  just  the  same. 
On  the  arc  the  recoil  should  vary  from  26  for  new 
fine-grain  powder  to  20°  5'  for  old  powder  of  coarse 
grain.  This  system  of  proof  is  resorted  to  annually 
at  minor  and  foreign  stations  for  the  proof  of  all  pow- 
der in  store,  to  a.scertain  the  amount  of  deterioration; 
five  rounds  constitute  the  minimum  proof.     Before 


the  eprouvette  is  resorted  to,  the  powder  must  pass 
the  test  of  specific  gravity,  by  weighing  not  less  than 
oH  lbs.  to  the  cubic  foot.  The  mortar-eprouvctte  de- 
termines the  strength  of  gunpowder  by  the  distance 
to  which  a  ball  is  projected,  instead  of  the  distance 
to  which  the  piece  recoils.    It  is  generally  a  mortar  of 


Eprouvette. 

8-inch  bore,  in  which  2  to  4  ounces  of  powder  is  em- 
ployed to  propel  an  accurately  turned  iron  shot  to  a 
distance  of  about  120  yards.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  strongest  gunpowder  sends  the  shot  to  the 
greatest  distance;  and  this  is  the  usual  mode  adopted 
in  testing  gunpowder  supplied  to  the  Government  by 
various  contractors.  The  ordinarj'  eprouvette  is  an 
instrument  shaped  like  a  small  pistol  without  a  bar- 
rel, and  having  its  breech-chamber  closed  by  a  flat 
plate  connected  with  a  strong  spring.  On  the  ex- 
plosion of  the  powder  against  the  plate,  it  is  driven 
back  to  a  dis'tance  indexed  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  powder,  and  is  retaine*!  at  its  extreme  state  of 
propulsion  bv  a  ratchet-wheel. 

EPEOTJVETTE-BED.— This  consists  of  a  block  of 
wood,  on  to|)  of  which  is  countersunk  and  bolted  the 
bed-plate,  which  is  a  heavy  circular  plate  of  cast-iron, 
having  a  rectangular  recess,  with  sloping  sides,  so  as 
to  make  it  longest  at  the  bottom.  Into  this  recess 
the  sole  of  the  mortar  slides.  The  wooden  block  is 
bolted  to  a  stone  block  of  the  same  size,  which  is 
firmly  placed  in  the  ground  on  a  masonry  founda- 
tion. The  bed  is  22  inches  long  by  22  inches  wide, 
and  weighs  280  pounds.     See  Pkttform. 

EQUALIZE.— To  render  the  distribution  of  any 
nimiber  of  men  equal  as  to  the  comijonent  parts.  To 
equalize  a  battalion  is  to  tell  off  a  certain  number  of 
companies,  usually  eight,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
several  component  parts  shall  con.sist  of  the  same 
number  of  men. 

EQUATION  OF  DEFENSE.— Let  A  B  C  D  represent 
the  line  of  an  interior  crest;  a  b  c  d,  that  of  the 
foot  of  the  banquette  slope;  F,  the  outlet  through  the 
parapet;  and  E,  the  inferior  traverse.  Representing 
by  X  the  numlx'r  of  yards  in 
the  side  A  B,  the  side  .\  B  will 
be  equal  to  r  diminished  by 
twice  the  di.sfance  t)ctween 
A  B  and  a  b,  which  distance 
may  be  taken  on  an  average 
at  nine  yards;  the  area  of  the 
s(iuare  n  c,  or  of  the  tcrre- 
plcin,  will  tlien  be  represented 
l>y(j-  — »)'.  Let  the  follow- 
ing notation  be  adopted:  y, 
the  number  of  the  garrison; 
r,  the  reserS'C  taken  from  the 
parri.son;  n,  the  number  of  ranks  on  the  banquette 
for  the  defense;  «,  the  area  of  the  terre-plein  occu- 
pied by  a  barbette  in  the  salient;  k' ,  the  area  occu- 
pied on  the  terre-plein  by  the  powder-magazine;  k' , 
the  area  occupied  by  the  traverec,  and  the  pa.s.siige  in 
its  rear;  /,  the  number  of  yards  on  the  interior  crest 
for  a  barbette  in  the  salient;  V,  the  width  of  the  out- 
let F  in  yards.  Now,  as  the  area  allowed  for  each 
man  is  one  and  a  half  square  yards,  we  shall  obtain 
the  following  equation,  to  represent  the  relation  be- 
tween the  terre-plein,  the  garrison,  etc.: 

(J- -9y  =  1..50ir-f »  +  »+«'   ...    (1) 
This  isUtua^A  the  equation  of  the  interior  space.     As 


EQUATION  OF  TIME. 


576 


EQUATIONS  OF  MOTION  OF  PROJECTILES. 


each  man  occupies  one  liocal  yard  along  the  interior 
crest,  we  obtain  also 


4j  = 


y-r 


■l  +  i; 


(2) 


which  is  termed  tfie  equation  of  tl<fen»e,  as  it  expresses 
the  relation  bclwecn  the  development  of  the  interior 
crest,  the  remainder  of  the  gjirrison  after  taking  out 
the  reserve,  the  number  of  ninks  for  the  defense,  and 
the  lenfrtli  of  the  interior  crest  required  for  the  can- 
non in  bartjette,  and  for  the  outlet.  To  show  the  ap- 
plication of  the  equations  (1)  and  ('2),  lei  it  be  re- 
quiR-d  to  find  the  side  of  a  redoubt,  and  the  number 
of  its  garrison,  which  shall  be  defended  by  two  ranks 
on  the  Ixmquette,  after  taking  out  a  reserve  of  one 
tliird  of  the  whole  number,  and  have  a  barbette  in 
each  salient.  By  a  calculation,  easily  made,  it  can  be 
shown  that  each  barbette  will  occupy  alwut  seventy- 
five  square  yards  of  the  terre-plein;  a  powder-mag- 
azine for  four  guns,  twenty  sijuare  yarils;  a  traverse 
of  earth,  with  the  pa.s.siige  between  it  and  the  foot  of 
the  ban(iuette,  about  180  yards;  or,  if  of  timber,  about 
fifty  square  yards;  the  portion  of  the  interior  crest  for 
each  barbette  will  be  nearly  cighteenlineal  yards,  and 
that  for  the  pas-sage  about  four  lineal  yards.  Taking 
equation  (i).  and  making  the  substitutions  required 
by  the  conditions  of  the  problem, we  obtain 


4r: 


.y-\y 


+  4  +  73; 


and  from  it. 


y  =  l%x-  228. 


Substituting  this  value  of  .v  in  equation  (1),  and  placing 
for  «,  »',  «',  their  values,  we  have 

(?  -  9)»  =  l&r  -  342  +  300  +  20  + 180, 
or  (x-9)»  =  iar+158; 

from  which,  by  solving  the  equation, 
«  =  38  yards; 


consequently 
and 


y  =  228  men, 
r  =  76  men. 


EQUATION  OF  TIME.— It  is  well  known  that  the 
earth's  motion  in  the  ecliptic— or  what  is  the  same 
thing,  the  sun's  apparent  motion  in  longitude — is  not 
uniform.  This  want  of  uniformity  would  of  it.self 
ol)\iously  cause  an  irregidarity  in"  the  time  of  the 
sun's  coming  to  the  meridian  on  successive  days;  b\it 
bi'sidcs  this  want  of  uniformity  in  the  sun's  apparent 
motion  in  the  ecliptic,  there  is  another  cause  of  in- 
equality in  the  time  of  its  coming  on  the  meridian, 
\nz.,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equinoctial. 
Even  if  the  sun  moved  in  the  equinoctial,  there  would 
be  an  inequality  in  this  respect,  owing  to  its  want 
of  uniform  motion;  and  even  if  it  moved  uniformly 
in  the  ecliptic,  there  would  be  such  an  incqualitv, 
owing  to  the  obliquity  of  its  orbit  to  the  equinoctial! 
These  two  independent  cjuises  conjointly  produce  the 
inequality  in  the  time  of  its  appearance  on  the  merid- 
ian, the  correction  for  which  is  the  E(iuation  of  Time. 

When  the  sun's  center  comes  to  the  meridian,  it  is 
apparent  noon;  and  if  it  moved  \Hiifomily  on  the 
equinoctial,  this  would  always  coincide  with  mean 
mmii,  or  12  o'clock  on  a  good  solar  clock.  But  from 
the  causes  above  e.\-plained,  mean  and  apparent  noon 
differ,  the  latter  taking  place  sometimes  as  much  as 
Ifii  minutes  before  the  former,  and  at  others  as  much 
as  14*  minutes  after.  The  ditTerence  for  any  dav 
called,  as  we  have  sjiid,  the  Equation  of  Time,  is  to 
be  found  inserted  in  ephemerides  for  everj'  dav  of 
the  year.  It  is  nothing  or  zero  at  fourdifTerent  times 
in  the  yejir,  at  which  the  whole  nii  an  and  unequal 
motions  exactly  agree;  viz.,  atxiut  the  l.'ilh  of  April 
the  l.'ith  of  .lune,  the  31st  of  August,  and  the  24th  of 
December.  At  all  other  times  the  .sun  is  either  too 
fast  or  too  slow  for  clo<'k-time.  In  the  ephemerides 
above  referred  to,  the  sign  +  or  —  is  prefixe<l  to  the 
e(piation  of  time,  according  as  it  is  to  1k'  added  to 
or  subtracted  from  the  apparent  time  to  give  the  mean 
time.     See  Time. 


EQUATIONS  OF  MOTION  OF  PROJECTILES.- In 
the  article  Th.v.ikotouv,  the  following  relation  be- 
tween the  co-ordinates  of  a  point  of  the  trajectoiy, 
the  angle  of  projection,  and  the  height  due  to  the 
velocitv  is  found  to  exist,  viz.. 


'  =  j: .  tan  ,4  — 


4A .  cos*  A' 


(1) 


F being  the  initial  velocity,  it  is  teadily  seen  that 

y=  VtsinA-igt^;  ....     (2) 
also,  x=  FCcos^, (8) 

X 


and 


<  =  v. 


V  cos  A' 


(4) 


To  detennine  the  vertical   ascent  and  horizontal 
range  of  the  projectile,  differentiate  equation  (1),  and 


place  the  value  of 


dy 
dx 


:  0;  whence  we  obtain 


(5) 


X=  4A  sin  4  cos4  =  ih  sin  2A 

^X  being  the  abscissa  of  the  highest  point, 

r=;isin*^ (6) 

The  first  value  of  X  shows  that  the  range  can  be  ob- 
tained with  two  angles  of  projection,  provided  they 
be  complements  of  each  other ;  the  second  value 
shows  that  the  greatest  range  corresponds  to  an  angle 
of  4.5  ,  and  that  this  nrnge  is  equal  to  twice  the  height 
due  to  the  velocity;  and  also  that  variations  in  the 
angle  of  fire  produce  less  variations  in  range  as  the 
angle  of  fire  approaches  45°. 

If  two  projectiles  be  thrown  under  the  same  angle, 
with  different  initial  velocities,  Fand  F  ,  the  ranges 
being  X  and  X',  we  have 

V 
X=r2Asm24  =  — sin  2^,    and    X' —  — sin  2^ 
9 

and  from  these  we  have 

F_  VX 

F  ~   ^/x" 

Therefore,  under  the  same  angle  of  fire,  the  ranges 

are  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  velocities;  and 

reciprocally,  the  velocities  are  proportional   to  the 

square  roots  of  the  ranges. 

ds 
The  velocity  at  any  stated  point  is  equal  to  v..  or 


9 


(7) 


df  +  rfj' 

de     ■ 


dt' 
Substituting  the  values  of  dy  and  dx 


obtained  by  differentiating  equations  (2)  and  (3),  we 
have  J)«  =  F  —  2F<7?sin  ,4 +;?'<'-.  Substituting  for 
—  2  Vgt  sin  A  -\-  g-t-  its  value  —  2gy  derived  from 
equation  (2),  we  have  c'  =  V  —  2gy.  Replace  V''  by 
'2g/i,  and  reduoing,  the  expression  becomes 

''=  \'2glh^),       ....     (8) 

This  shows  that  the  velocity  of  a  projectile  at  anj' 
point  depends  on  its  height  above  the  muzzle  of  the 
piece,  and  that  it  is  equal  to  that  which  is  attained  in 
fidling  through  the  height  (h  —  y).  It  also  shows 
that  the  velocity  is  least  when  y  is  greatest,  or  at  the 
sunimit  of  the  trajectory;  and  that  the  velocities  at 
the  two  points  in  which  the  trajectory  cuts  the  hori- 
zontal plane  are  e(iual. 

Till'  total  time  of  llight  may  be  determined  by  sub- 
stituting the  value  of  X=  4/(  sin  .4  cos  J,  equation 
(5),  in  equation  (4),  which  becomes 

__  4A  sin.4  _  Fsin  J.  ... 


If  ^  =r  45°,  sin  A  =  i'J,  and 
the  time  of  flight,  we  have 


r=VgX.     CaUing  T, 


y  i{i      V  16.07     *^^- 


EftTTATORIAL. 


577 


EQUATOSIAL. 


Hence  the  time  of  flight  for  an  angle  of  45'  is  equal 
to  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  of  the  range  di%ided 
by  one  half  of  the  force  of  gravitj-;  or,  it  is  approxi- 
mately equal  to  one  fourth  of  the  square  root  of  the 
range  expressed  in  feet. 
The  tangent  of  the  angle  made  by  a  tangent  line  at 

any  point  of  the  trajectory  is  equal  to  ---,  which  is  ob- 
tained by  differentiating  equation  (1) ;  calling  this 
angle  0,  we  have 


tan  'i  —  tan  A  ■ 


Ih  cos*  A 


(10) 


Substitute  the  value  of  X  =  4A  sin  .-1  cos^l,  the  angle 
of  fall  on  horizontal  ground  is  tan  'i—  —  tan  A;  that 
is  to  say,  the  angle  of  fall  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  pro- 
jection, measured  in  an  opposite  direction. 

The  position  of  a  point  Ijeing  given,  to  find  the  ini- 
tial velocity  necessary  to  attain'it.  Let  a  and  h  \ni  the 
horizontal  and  vertical  co-ordinates  of  this  point  of 
the  cur\'e,  and  i  its  angle  of  elevation.  Substituting 
these  quantities  in  equation  (1),  and  recollecting  that 

tan  £  =  — ,  we  have 
a 

,  _  a  cos  « 

~  4sinC.l  —  £).cos^' 


or 


r    2sinU 


ag  cos  £ 


£) .  cos  A 


(11) 


The  position  of  a  point  being  given,  to  find  the 
angle  of  fire  neces.sary  to  attain  it.  Substituting  a 
and  h  for  x  and  y  in  equation  (1)  we  have 

h  =  a  tan  J.  ■ 


4A  cos'  A 


from  which  to  determine  A.  Making  tan  ^  =  a,  we 
have  cos'  A  =  — - — -:  which  being  substituted  in  the 
above  equation  gives 


a  =  tan^ 


^\k 


%h  ±  ^'W  -  Ub  ■ 


-J 

o.- 

Hang 
aogl 

es  at 
es  of 

Times  of  flight. 

"a'i 

■5s 

«t 

-°'8 

45» 

30» 

Ob- 

Calcu- 

Ob- 

Calcu- 

a 

5= 

served 

lated. 

served 

lated. 

Kilog. 

Met'rs 

Mefrs 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

0.234 

MS 

290 

9.8 

8.4 

6.8 

5.8 

8-inch.. 

0.851 

629 

561 

12.9 

11. S 

10.0 

8.1 

0.585 

1146 

1011 

16.0 

15.3 

12.3 

10. « 

0.9SM 

1798 

169U 

20.8 

19.2 

16.9 

14.1 

f 

0.468 

457 

dd 

11. 0 

9.7 

7.5 

6.8 

0.693 

784 

6.37 

14  0 

12.2 

10.0 

8.7 

lO-inch. 

1.054 

nsa 

980 

17.0 

15.2 

12.0 

10.2 

1.405 

1&.55 

1355 

20.0 

17.8 

14.0 

12.6 

, 

1.639 

1757 

1516 

23  0 

18  9 

15.0 

13.4 

45°  elevation,  for  the  above  projectiles,  the  initial  ve- 
locities being  the  same  for  each  projectile. 


Ranges  of  10-in.  Mortar-shells. 


*45°  ele- 
vation. 

30« 
elevation. 

Ob- 
served. 

Ob-     Calcu- 
served  lated. 

Differ- 
ence. 

■a'Y      (12) 


The  two  values  of  tan  A  show  that  the  point  may  be 
attained  by  two  angles  of  projection;  and  the  radical 
shows  the  solution  of  the  problem  is  possible  when 
the  quantity  under  it  is  positive:  or,  4A*  >  ihb  +  a'. 

The  preceding  formulae  will  only  be  found  to 
answer  in  practice  for  projectiles  which  experience 
slight  resistance  from  the  air,  or  for  heavy  projectiles 
mo\ing  with  low  velocities,  as  is  commonly  the  ca.se 
with  those  of  mortars  and  howitzers.  The  following 
table  gives  the  difference  between  the  observed  and 
calculated  times  of  flight  of  the  French  8-  and  10-inch 
mortar-shells,  weighing  64  and  119  pounds  respec- 
tively. The  initial  velocities  being  unkno^vn,  the 
times  are  calculated  from  the  observed  ranges.  The 
observed  times  are  invariably  greater  than  the  cal- 
culated times,  as  might  be  exi^ected  from  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air,  which  retards  the  motion  of  projec- 
tiles. 


The  next  table  shows  the  observed  and  calcnlaited 
ranges  for  30"  elevation,  and  the  observed  ranges  for 


Ranges  of  8-ln.  Mortar-shells. 


45*  ele- 
vation. 


30° 
elevation. 


Ob-        Ob-     Calcu- Differ- 
ser\ed.  served   lated.  |  ence. 


Meters.  Met'rs  Met'rs  Met'rs    Meters. 


467 
7»4 
1132 
1555 
1757 


383 

e.17 

980 
1355 
1516  I 


-H3 
6.37      0 

9S2  !  -(-  2  ' 
1350  !  —  5 
1522  '4-6 


243 
629 
1146 
1792 


Met'rs 
•J90 
561 
1011 


Met'rs  Met'rs 
298  ,    -f   8 
.V15       —16 
993  I   —18 
1552  1  —  138 


It   appears   from    the  foregoing  tables  that  the 
RUiges  of  mortars  with  different  degrees  of  elevation 
can  be  calculated  up  to  about  14(X)  yards  from  equa- 
tion (5),  or  X=  2^  sin  2.4;  and  the"  times  fromequa- 
X 

tion(4);  or  r=-=: -..      See   Diction's   Formulas, 

Fcos  A 
Hefristance  of  the  Air.  and  Trajeftory. 

EQUATORIAL. — An  imiwitant  astronomical  instru- 
ment, l)y  which  a  celestial  IxKly  mav  he  obscr^-ed  at 
any  point  of  its  diurnal  course.  It  consists  of  a 
telescope  attached  to  a  graduated  circle,  called  the 
declination  -  circle,  whose  axis  penetrates  at  right 
angles  that  of  another  graduated  circle  called  the 
hour-circle,  and  is  wholly  supported  by  it.  The 
pierced  axis,  which  is  called  the  principal  axis  of  the 
instrument,  turns  on  fixed  supports;  it  is  pointed  to 
the  pole  of  the  heavens,  and  the  hour-circle  is  of 
course  parallel  to  the  equinoctial.  In  this  position 
it  is  easy  to  see  that  a  great  circle  of  the  heavens,  cor- 
responding to  the  declination-circle,  pa.sscs  through 
the  pole,  and  is  an  hour-circle  of  the  heavens.  The 
telescope  is  capable  of  being  moved  in  the  plane  of 
the  declination-circle.  If,  now,  the  instrument  Ix-  so 
adjusted  that  the  index  of  the  declination-circle  must 
point  to  zero  when  an  equatorial  sUir  is  in  the  center 
of  the  field  of  view  of  tlie  telescope,  and  tlie  index  of 
the  hour-circle  must  point  to  zero  when  the  telescope 
is  in  the  meridian  of  the  place,  it  is  clear  that  when 
the  telescope  is  directed  to  any  star,  the  index  of  the 
declination-circle  will  mark  "the  declination  of  the 
star,  and  that  on  the  other  circle  its  right  ascension. 
If  the  telescope  be  damped  when  directed  on  a  star, 
it  is  clciir  that,  should  the  instrument  be  made  to  ro- 
tate on  its  i^rincipal  axis  with  entire  uniformity  with 
the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens,  the  star  would 
always  appear  in  the  field  of  view.  This  motion  of 
rotation  is  communicatetl  to  the  instrument  by  clock- 
work. The  drawing  shows  the  uistrument  as  made 
by  Fauth  and  Company,  United  States.  The  tele- 
scope can  he  moved  in  right  ascension  without  slop- 
ping the  clock  or  disengaging  the  worm.  When 
moved  sufficiently  the  clock  ads  agsiin  with  the  regu- 
lar rate,  without  pre\ious  clamping.  If  desired,  an 
additional  right-ascension  circle  is  provided,  driven 
by  an  auxiliarj'  clockwork,  which  is  kept  running. 
An  index  shows  the  right  ascension  of  the  point  to 
which  the  telescope  is  then  directed.  The  rate  of  the 
driving-clock  is  readily  changed  from  sidereal  to 
lunar.  The  instrument  is  provided  with  a  number 
of  micrometrical  and  astronomical  eye-pieces:  transit 
eyepieces  and  sun-shades;  improved  jMsition  mi- 
c"rometcr,  with  parallactic  eye-piece  movement,  fine 
movement  for  si)iderline,  and  rapid  movement  for 
entire  micrometer  to  traverse  the  field.  The  microm- 
eter-head is  di\ided  on  silver;  the  whole  revolutions 
are  read  off  on  a  separate  dial,  which,  in  our  opinion, 
is  the  prettiest  device  for  recording  whole  rums. 
The  iiasition-circle  is  divided  on  silver,  ri'iiding  by 
opposing  verniers  and  microscopes  to  minutes  or 
hundreilths  of  a  degree.  Large  declination  and  hour 
circles  are  divided  on  silver  and  read  with  two  ver- 
niers and  microscopes  to  five  seconds  of  arc  and 
single  seconds  of  time  respectively.     A  coarse  gradu- 


£QU£BBT. 


578 


EQTTIFAOE. 


atioD,  with  pointer,  for  convenience  in  setting,  is  put 
on  Uie  edge.  The  driving-clock  with  ii  conical  pen- 
dulum is  connected  with  the  polar  iixis  iind  can  be 
thrown  in  and  out  of  gear  from  the  cye-eud  of  the 
telesco^K';  adilitiomd  langent-screw  motion  in  right 
ascension  anil  declination  is  given  by  means  of  rod:^ 
and  himilles.  Ilhuuinaling  lamps  are  attached  to  the 
end  of  the  declination-axis,     bee  I'raMit-instrument 


Equatorial. 

EQUEBEY,— At  the  British  Court,  a  subordinate  of- 
ficer under  the  Master  of  the  Horsi',  who  is  usually  a 
military  man.  There  is  a  Chief  Equerry,  also  four 
Equerries  in  ordinary,  and  an  Equerry  of  the  Crown 
Stables.  Each  member  of  the  royal  family  has  one 
or  more  Equerries. 

EQUESTEIAN.— A  man  who  rides  on  horseback. 
E'/iiin  ivinituK  is  a  term  in  Heraldry  for  a  knight. 

EftUESTEIAN  ORDEE.  —  This  body  originallv 
formed  the  cavalry  of  the  Koman  army,  and  is  siiiil 
to  have  been  instituted  bv  Romulus,  "who  selected 
from  the  three  principal  lV)man  trilx^s  ;)00  Equitcs. 
This  number  was  afterward  gradually  inerea.sed  to 
3600,  who  were  partly  of  patrician  and  partly  of 
plebeian  rank,  and  required  to  posscs.s  a  certain  amount 
of  property.  Each  of  these  Equites  received  a  horse 
from  the  State;  but  alwiit  40a  n.c.  a  new  boeiy  of 
Equitcs  began  to  make  their  appearance,  who  were 
obliged  to  furnish  a  horw;  at  their  own  expense. 
These  were  probably  wealthy  noti  homine*,  men  of 


equestrian  fortune,  but  not  descended  from  the  old 
Equites  (for  it  shoidd  be  observed  that  the  equestrian 
dignity  was  hereditary).  Until  Vi'.i  «.c.  the  K(iuites 
were  exclusively  a  military  body;  but  in  that  year 
Caius  Gracchus  carried  a  measure  by  which  all  the 
Ju(lk<K  had  to  Ik-  selected  from  ihem. 
Then,  for  the  first  time,  they  became  a 
distinct  order  or  chuss  in  the  Slate,  and 
were  called  Ortht  E<iueiitri».  In  70  B.C. 
Sulla  deprived  them  of  this  privilege;  but 
their  power  did  not  then  decrease,  as  the 
forming  of  the  pid)lic  revenues  appears 
to  have  fallen  into  their  hands.  After 
the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  the  Equestrian 
Order,  which  on  that  memorable  occa- 
sion had  yigorously  supported  the  Consul 
Cicero,  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  third 
estate  in  the  Republic;  and  to  the  title  of 
SetiaUis  popiilusque  Uomanns  was  added 
et  e(fue«tri«  ordo.  But,  even  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Empire,  the  honor,  like 
many  others,  was  so  indiscriminately  and 
profusely  conferreil  that  it  fell  into  con- 
tempt, and  the  body  gradually  became 
extinct.  As  early  as  the  later  wars  of 
the  Republic,  the  Equites  had  ceased  to 
constitute  the  common  soldiers  of  the  Ro- 
man cavalrv,  and  tiLrured  onlv  as  ollicers. 
EQUESTRIAK  STATUE.— The  repre- 
sentation of  a  man  on  lioiseback.  Eques- 
trian statues  were  awarded  as  a  high 
honor  to  >lilitary  Commanders  and  per- 
sons of  distinction  in  Rome,  and  latterly 
were,  for  the  most  part,  restricted  to  the 
Emperors,  the  most  famous  in  existence 
being  that  of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aure 
lius,  which  now  stands  iu  the  Piazza  of 
the  Capitol  at  Rome.  It  is  the  oidy  an- 
cient equestrian  statue  in  bronze  that  has 
been  preserved;  an  exemption  which  it 
probably  owed  to  the  fact  that  for  cen- 
turies it  was  supposed  to  be  a  statue  of 
Constantine.  The  action  of  the  liorse  is 
so  tine,  and  the  air  of  motion  so  success- 
fully given  to  it,  that  Jlichael  Angelo  is 
said  to  have  called  out  to  it  "  Caminina!" 
(Go  on,  then  I).  It  was  originally  gilt,  and 
traces  of  the  gilding  are  still  visible  ou 
the  horse's  head.  So  highly  is  this  statue 
prized,  not  only  for  its  artistic  but  its  his- 
torical value,  that  an  otlicer  used  regu- 
larly to  be  appoinlf<l  by  the  Roman  Gov- 
ernment to  take  care  of  it,  under  the 
designation  of  the  Custode  del  Cavallo. 
On  the  occasion  of  the  rejoicings  by 
which  Rienzi's  elevation  to  the  Tril>une- 
ship  was  celejirated  in  1347,  wine  was 
made  to  run  out  of  one  nostril  and  water 
out  of  the  other  of  this  famous  lior,se. 
The  statue  then  stood  in  front  of  the 
Church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  near  to  which  it  was 
found,  and  a  bunch  tif  tlowers  has  always  been  pre- 
sented annually  to  the  chapter  of  that  basilica,  in  ac- 
knowledgment of  ownership,  since  it  was  removed  to 
its  present  site  on  the  Capitol.  All  European  capitals 
are  adorned,  or  distigvued,  by  numerous  equestrian 
statues,  London  belonging  preeminently  to  the  latter 
category. 

EQUIP. — To  furnish  an  individual,  a  corps,  or  an 
army  with  everything  that  is  reipiisite  for  military 
service,  such  as  arms,  accoutemieiils.  uniforms,  etc. 

EQUIPAGE.— In  military  matters,  the  name  given 
to  certain  of  the  necessjir(es  for  oHicers  and  soldiers. 
During  the  Crimean  War  many  officers  applied  for 
and  obtained  money  as  compensation  for  the  loss  or 
injurv  of  their  eipiipage,  comprising  horses,  horse- 
appointinents,  baggage,  saddlery,  anil  accouterments. 
Equipments  issued  to  private  soldiers  are  expected  to 
last  a  cerljun  number  of  years,  and  small  deductions 
from  their  pay  are  made  iu  the  event  of  the  articles. 


^ 


EfjutPiiSNT  AND  Accoutrements.  Flags,  staDdarUs,  sabres,  muskets,  pikes,  biiyonets,  helmets,  caps,  sliakot'  i,  plumes,  cuiiusoeti.  k»up»acks.  can.ridge-bells,  Imversucks  tuippiiig  and  mining  tools,  etc.,  of  varlouH  Eui-opeuii 
countries.  Rmaian:  1—1.4.12,27;  a— I;  3—1,2,7,10;  4— 2,  3,  S;  O-a.  15,  Ifl.  ./JiMfriati ;  ll— 5,  0,  15.  21,  22.  L>T.  33.  aT.  89.  13,  JJ  ;  3—1.9.10.12,22;  U-O.  11.  18;  5-0.  PttiMian:  1—0.13,11,10,29,84. 
W,3S,38.45,  «;  2-C,  11.  13,  14,  10, 17,  18,  10,  20;  3—4,5,9.18,14;  4—7,8,10;  O-ia,  18,  ».  Sa:ci>Mv;  1— 2,  3,  7,  18,  20.  30;  5-4.8.  JVciic/i:  1-10.20.28,40;  »-«;  3--IS;  4-12.  Wurtemberg:  l-U, 
16.    Bavarian:  1—17;  4—1,  11.    Danigh:  1—28;    3—7;  4r-a;    5— T     Brawntchweig :  1—25,  81.  <&■  3—2.  G;    5—5.    Hanover:  3—21.    Swedith:  a-3,  a    EngUnh:  -X-fli    B— 13.    Portui/ttei    5-1.    Spafi- 


V— *9e. 


Uh:  5- 


« 


EQUIPMENT-FUND. 


579 


EBHIN. 


not  lasting  the  proper  time.  In  those  cases  (in  the 
English  army)  where  a  non-commissioned  olficer 
receives  a  commission  on  the  ground  of  meritorious 
scr%ice,  an  allowance  of  £100,  if  in  the  infantry,  or 
£1.50,  if  in  the  cavalry,  is  made  to  him  to  proWde 
an  equipment.  The  equipage  of  a  private  soldier  is 
often  used  as  a  name  for  the  whole  of  his  clothes, 
arms,  and  accouterments  collectively.  The  (qui- 
jHige  of  an  army  is  of  two  kinds:  it  includes  all  the 
furnitiu-e  of  the  camp,  such  as  tents  and  utensils, 
imder  the  name  of  camp-tqulpage ;  -Khile  fcUI-equi- 
payr  comprises  the  saddle-horses,  baggage-horses,  and 
bagL'ase-watrons. 

EQUIPMENT  FUND.— A  fund  for  the  benefit  of 
'  Cadets  graihialing  at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, t'our  dollars  per  month  is  deposited  with  the 
Treasurer  from  the  pay  of  each  Cadet,  to  be  applied, 
at  the  time  of  his  promotion,  to  the  purchase  of  a 
unifonu  and  i(£uipnients.     See  Cackt. 

EQUIPMENTS.  —  A  general  term  signifying  the 
arms  and  accouterment.s  and  all  such  articles  as  are 
worn  or  carried  by  the  soldier;  ILcy  ai'i  supplied  by 
certiiin  Departmeiits  charged  with  their  administra- 
tion. In  the  artillery  service  the  term  eg'iifment 
includes  the  ordnance  and  carriages,  the  supply  of 
ammunition  and  stores.  In  the  cavaln,-,  all  articles 
of  .saddler)',  and  such  as  the  horse  carries,  are  in- 
cluded under  tliis  head.  Cannoneers'  equipnunt* 
include  the  liauimi-p'/ueh,  eartridge-pouchen,  primer- 
poucltes,  and  t/> n inb-staU ,  used  in  the  field-service. 
The  equipments  for  a  field-piece  are  the  Unupion  and 
strap,  tent-cortr,  and  tarpaulin.  Other  things  used 
in  the  ser\ice  of  cannon  are  called  implements.  In 
the  mounted  service  horxe-eqnipments  comprise  the 
bridle,  halter,  irat^riitg-bridle,  mdlle,  saddle-bags,  s<id- 
dle-blankft,  noxe-bag,  lariat,  currycomb,  bnuli,  etc. 
Infantry  equipnunU  comprise  the  personal  outfit  of 
the  soldier,  excluding  the  arms  proper  and  clothing. 
A  set  of  equipments  is  called  a  kit.  The  standard 
kit  includes  the  knapsack,  biits  and  plates,  cartridge- 
box,  bayonet-scabbard,  Jiacersack,  and  canteen.  The 
knapsack,  haversack,  imd  canteen  are  only  used  when 
marching.  In  future  wars  it  is  probable  that  an  in- 
trenching-tool  will  be  added  to  the  soldier's  equip- 
ment. Signal  equipments  comprise  the  flags,  stJtffs, 
flying-torches,  J'mt-titrches,  finuie-shddes,  haversacks, 
telescopes,  etc.  In  the  United  States  the  term  equip- 
ments is  most  commonly  applied  to  im  officer's  out- 
fit, including  especially  those  articles  made  of  gold 
lace  and  cord.  The  supplying  of  equipments  to  the 
Army,  Xavy,  and  National  Guard  has  developed  into 
a  trade  of  magnificent  proportions.  In  this  line  the 
house  of  Horstmanu  Brothers  &  Co.  take  the  lead. 
It  was  founded  in  181.5  by  William.  H.  Ilorstmann, 
of  Cassel,  Germany,  who  had  previously  learned  Uie 
art  of  silk-wea\ing  in  France.  He  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  Jacquard  machine  into  this  country, 
and  applied  power  to  the  production  of  gold  lace  and 
other  narrow  textile  fabrics  several  years  before  the 
attempt  was  made  in  Europe.  After  the  death  of  the 
elder  Mr.  Ilorstmaim,  the  business  was  continued  by 
his  sons,  William  .1.  and  Sigmund  Ilorstmaim,  who 
in  ia53  built  their  factory  in  Philadelphia.  The 
present  owners  of  the  business  represent  the  third 
generation.  In  the  factorv*  are  produced  narrow  te.\ 
tile  fabrics  of  all  kinds,  military  and  society  g(X)ds 
and  trimmings,  including  swords,  metal-work,  leather- 
work,  gold  and  silver  embroidery,  and  a  great  variely 
of  minor  and  miscellaneous  articles.  The  Jlcssrs. 
Horstmanu  have  paid  special  littenlion  to  a  very  fine 
cla.ss  of  goods  for  the  equipment  of  officers,  and  their 
experience  of  over  sixty  years  in  the  production  of 
their  specialties  has  enabled  them  to  bring  the  goods 
to  a  degree  of  perfection  in  finish  which  challenges 
comparison  with  any  of  foreign  manufacture.  Ad- 
joining the  factory  are  the  oftices  and  .salesrooms  of 
the  firm,  who  give  employment  to  over  .500  ])ersons. 
Independent  of  the  facilities  for  manufacturing  all 
articles  needed  for  the  Army,  Navy,  and  National 
Guard,  they  also  import  direct  from  tlie  best  sources 


such  materials  (the  production  of  which  has  not  yet 
been  attempted  in  this  country)  as  arc  required  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  various"  articles  in  the  Ime  of 
equipment.     See  Accoutrements. 

EQUITATION.— The  art  of  riding.  Militarv  equi- 
tation—the principles  of  which  are  the  Siiine'for  all 
clas.ses  of  cavalry,  a  uniform  system  existmg  through- 
out the  country— is  described  as  consisting  iii  the  skill- 
ful and  ready  application  of  the  aids  with  which  the 
rider  guides  and  controls  his  horse  in  all  his  paces, 
and  in  a  settled  balance  of  the  body  which  enables 
him  to  preserve  a  firm  seat  in  everj-  variety  of  move- 
ment. The  aids  in  horsemanship  are  the  motions 
and  proper  application  of  the  bridle-hand  and  legs  to 
direct  and  iletermlne  the  turnings  and  paces  of  the 
horse.  Military  equitation  may  be  diviiled  into  three 
parts:  1st.  The  complete  instruction  of  the  recruit 
upon  a  trained  horse,  from  the  earliest  to  the  last  les- 
sons. 2(1.  The  training  of  the  horse  by  skillful  and 
experienced  men.  3d.  The  practice  of  the  recruit 
and  remount  horse  at  close  files  in  the  elementary 
parts  of  field-exercise  to  prepare  them  for  instruction 
in  the  troop  or  squadron.  This  science  is  indis|)ensa- 
bly  requisite  for  the  militarj-  horseman,  in  order  that, 
being  able  to  govern  his  horse  by  the  aiil  of  his  legs 
and  bridle-hand,  he  may  have  the  right  hand  at  full 
liberty  for  the  use  of  his  weapon,  and  be  capable  on 
all  occasions,  whether  acting  singly  or  in  squadron, 
of  performing  his  various  iluties  with  care.  WiUi 
this  \iew,  both  men  and  horses  should  be  constantly 
practiced  in  the  exercise  of  such  Ics-sons  as  will  en- 
able them  either  to  move  in  a  compact  bo<ly  or  to  act 
singly  or  independently.  The  system  of  "equitation 
now  taught  in  the  English  army  is  that  practiced  at 
the  riding  establishment  at  Canterbury-;  and  with 
the  view  of  maintaining  one  .system  throughout  the 
country.  Commanding  Officers  of  regiments  are  called 
upon  from  time  to  time  to  select  non-commi.ssioned 
officers  and  soldiers,  and  to  send  them  to  the  riding 
depot  at  Canterbury  for  the  puqjose,  as  stated  in  the 
Queen's  Regulations,  of  being  practiced  in  the  equita- 
tion exercises,  and  trained  as  riding  instructors  in 
their  corps.     See  Horsemanship. 

EQUITES. — The  first  of  the  three  classes  of  soldiers 
in  the  Roman  army  who  formed  the  cavalry.  See 
Equestrian  Order. 

ERASED. — Erased  or  eradicated,  in  Heraldry  signi- 
fies that  an  object  is  plucked  or  torn  off,  and  show- 
ing a  ragged  edge;  as  opposed  to 
coupr  or  coupy,  cut,  which  shows  a 
smooth  edge.  A  tree  plucked  up  by 
the  roots  is  said  to  be  eradicated. 

ERICIUS. — In  Roman  anti(iuity,  a 
military  eugine,  so  named  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  hedgehog.  It  was 
a  kind  of  ehevaux-de-frise,  placed  as 
a  defense  at  the  gate  of  the  camp. 

ERICSSON  GUN.— A  gun  with  a  solid  wrouglit-irOD 
barrel,  (orged  from  a  very  superior  iron,  and  rein- 
forced with  a  series  of  thin  washers,  forced  on  with 
accurately  determined  tension  by  hydrostatic  pressure. 
Upon  the  end  of  the  breech  is"  fo'rged  a  solid  fiange, 
against  which  the  washers  abut.  The  wa.shers  are  cut 
out  of  5-inch  boiler-plate,  and  extend  forw.ard  to  the 
middle  of  the  chase,  where  a  nut,  embracing  and 
screwed  upon  the  chase,  pres-ses  them  against  the  solid 
flange,  and  into  close  contact  with  each  other.  The 
following  are  the  particulars  of  this  gun: 

Total  length 153  inches. 

Length  of  reinforce  of  washers. . .  9(J  " 
Length  of  maximum  diameter. . .     42      " 

Ma.ximum  diameter 47 

Diameter  t>f  nuizzle 23 

Diameter  of  bore 13 

Diameter  of  barrel  under  reinforce  28i  " 
Thickness  of  hoops  or  w;i.-;hers. . .  |  " 
ToUd  thickness  of  wall  of  gun....     17      " 

Weisjht 47,000  pounds. 

ERMIN.— An  order  of  knights  instituted  in  1450 
by  Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Bretagne,  and  which  formerly 


Erased. 


£SHINE. 


580 


ESCALADE. 


subsisted  in  France.  The  collar  of  this  order  was  of 
gold,  and  comiK>sed  of  ears  of  corn  in  .'<jiltirt',  at  the 
end  of  whicli  huni:  the  ermine,  with  the  inscription 
,1  mil  (•/<•.  The  order  expired  when  the  Dukedom  of 
Urelasriie  wa.s  annexed  to  France. 

ERMINE.— A  white  fur  with  Waek  spots  ;  the  re- 
vcrsi-  of  which,  or  a  black  fur  with 
•white  spiels,  also  uwd  in  Ilenildrv, 
is  called  outre  ermine.  Ermine  is 
commonly  used  to  difference  the 
arms  of  any  member  of  a  famUv 
■who  is  coimected  with  the  law.  A 
cross  composed  of  four  ermine  spots 
is  saitl  to  be  a  cross  ermine. 

ERRARD    DE    BAR-LE  DUC    SYS-  ^-rmine. 

TEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— This  .sy.stem  limits  the 
minimum  of  tlie  sjilicnt  angles  at  60  ,  adopts  290 
yards  as  the  maxinuuu  of  tlie  line  of  defense,  and 
fortifies  on  the  exterior  polygon.  This  system  is  in- 
ferior to  the  Italian,  although  it  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  Freuch  school.     See  Forlifiedlitin. 

ESCADRON. — A  term  more  ancient  than  the  word 
batUiliiin,  tirst  employed  by  the  French  writer  Frois- 
sart  to  signify  a  troop  of  horse  drawn  out  in  order  oi 
battle. 

ESCALADE. — In  siege  operations,  escalading  is  a 
mode  of  gaining  admi.ssion  within  the  enemy's  works. 
It  consists  in  advancing  over  the  glacis  and  covered- 
way,  descending,  if  neces.s;iry,  into  the  ditch  by  means 
of  ladders,  and  ascending  to  the  parapet  of  the  curtain 
and  bastions  by  the  same  ladders  differently  placed. 


tions  are  made  for  the  counterscarp-ladders,  which 
are  placed  in  line  from  100  to  l.")0  yanls  in  rear  of  the 
others.  At  a  given  signal  the  whole  arc  to  move  for- 
ward, covered  by  an  advanced  liringparty  to  keep 
down  the  tire  of  the  work,  and  followed  l)y  a  reserve. 
The  scarp-ladders  are  let  down  into  the  ditch,  the 
men  descend,  carry  them  across  it,  plant  them  against 
the  scarp,  and  mount  to  the  top.  The  top  of  the 
parapet  gained,  the  men  are  to  group  themselves 
rai)idly  in  ruUyingt-oluinns,  and  procceil  to  clear  the 
parapet  by  charging  the  a.s.siuled  in  flank.  The  sup- 
liiirl  and  reserve,  in  the  mean  time,  are  to  follow  on 
wilhoul  loss  of  time  to  take  their  share  in  the  action. 

Troojis  properly  exercised  in  //.yw  «<(»</«  are  capable 
of  mounting  high  walls  with  arms  and  aeeouterments, 
and  without  the  use  of  ladtlers.  .Most  armies  have 
realized  the  necessity  of  gj-mnastic  training,  and  have 
ad(Jl)led  definite  systems.  The  drawing  shows  a  few- 
combinations  which  might  after  a  little  practice  !is.sist 
recruits  or  poor  climbers  in  mounting  walls  and  enter- 
ing the  upper  windows  of  houses.  In  all  such  attempts 
the  light  weights  should  be  selected  for  the  highest 
story,  and  the  basement -storv  should  consist  of  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  men  to  reniler  the  support  strong  and 
the  climbing  easy.  Precipitous  rocks  may  be  escaladed 
by  grasping  bushes  and  roots,  or  by  planting  the  bay- 
onet in  the  cre\ices  of  the  rocks,  in  order  to  reach  the 
top.  Such  escaUules  are  very  dangerous  when  an 
enemy  defends  the  height,  as  heavj-  stones  may  be 
rolled  down  upon  the  assitilants;  but  activity  and  in- 
genuity accomplish  very  much,  as  was  shown  by  the 


The  ladders  are  either  procured  on  the  spot,  or  are 
sent  out  with  the  siege-armv.  A  convenient  form  is 
in  pieces  of  twelve  feet  length,  fitting  end  to  end  bv 
means  of  sockets.  A  firing  party  is'usuallv  told  off 
to  keep  down  the  fire  of  the  enemy  upon  the  escaladers, 
especially  a  flank  fire  lengthwise  of  the  ditch,  which 
might  sweep  them  off  with  terrible  rapidity.  The 
following  is  the  outline  of  the  method  of  escalade 
proposed  by  Colonel  .lebb  of  the  Roval  Eneineers: 
Ladders  of  sintable  length  for  the  enterprise  are  to 
be  provided  for  scaling  the  scarp;  the  one  proposed  is 
three  feet  longer  than  the  height  of  the  scarp,  so  that 
the  foot  of  the  ladder  being  planted  a  jiacc  or  two 
from  the  bottom  of  the  wall,  the  top  may  project  far 
enough  above  the  wall  to  enable  the  men'to  step  from 
the  ladder  with  ease  in  an  upright  position.  An  allow- 
ance of  one  ladder  is  made  for  every  five  feet  of  the 
face  to  be  scaled;  one  hundred  feet,"  for  example  re- 
quiring twenty  ladders.  To  each  ladder  from  four 
to  six  men  are  as,signeil,  accordins  to  its  length.  The 
ladders  are  home  in  the  usual  manner  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  men,  two  or  lliree  being  placeil  on  each  side 
for  this  purpos<'.  The  ladders  for  sealing  the  scarp 
are  a.s.signed  to  the  advance.  A  second  set  of  less  di- 
mensions,  for  descending  into  the  ditch  only,  are  as- 
signed to  the  support,  the  scarji  lailders  are  l)laced 
<m  the  ground  in  line  at  some  suitable  point,  with  the 
I'roper  intervals  between  them;  the  men  to  cariv  Ihcm, 
properiy  "told  off,"  are  drawn  up  in  rear  of  themi 
and  at  the  proper  commands  are  marclied  to  their 
places  at  tlie  sides  of  the  ladders,  and  rinse  them 
ready  for  the  forward  movement.     Similar  disposi- 


French  in  the  attack  upon  Fort  Scharnitz  near  Inns- 
pruek.  They  tied  their  haversacks  round  tlieir  heads, 
and,  protected  by  this  buckler,  they  scrambled  up  the 
rocks,  despite  the  stones  precipitated  upon  them.  And 
still  later  the  difficidt  ascent  at  Alma  was  scaled  by 
French  troops  in  the  face  of  Russian  artillery  and  iii- 
fantry. 

The  most  favorable  time  for  a  surprise  is  that  of  a 
winter  night,  when  there  is  no  moon.  A  long  march 
may  then  Ijc  made  without  discovery,  and  the  troops 
may  arrive  an  /;»«/•  b(fi>re  dni/.  This  is  tlie  projji- 
lious  moment  for  the  execution  of  the  design.  It  is 
then  thai  men  sleep  most  profoundly;  and  it  is  at  that 
hour  the  attacking  force  may  begin  in  the  dark  and 
end  the  work  by  daylight;  such  favorable  circum- 
stances are  much  increased  by  heavy  wind  and  rain 
during  the  night,  as  the  clanking  of  arms  and  other 
inevitable  noises  made  by  tli<'  troops  cannot  be  heard 
by  the  garrison,  and  the  latter  besides' are  more  dis- 
])osed  to  negligence.  It  is  exfremely  imiiortanl  for 
the  men  to  be  able  to  recognize  each  other  in  the 
darkness,  and  the  simjilest  means  of  doing  .so  is  to 
put  the  shirt  outside  the  dress,  or  to  tie  a  white  band 
around  the  arm.  The  party  must  be  furnished  w  ith 
petards,  axes,  and  levers,  to  force  ojien  doors;  with 
beams  and  ladders,  to  overthrow  and  scale  walls.  1  lur- 
dles  and  fascines  are  necessary  to  cross  muddy  dilches, 
or  broad  planks  m,-iy  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  hur- 
dles. With  fa.seines  small  ditches  and  imols  are  filled 
U]).  All  these  articles  should  be  carried  by  the  men 
from  the  last  halting-place.  Wagons  and  animals 
would  lead  to  discovery,  and  are  therefore  left  at  a 


ESCALADING  LADDERS. 


581 


ESCORT  OF  THE  COLOB. 


safe  distance,  while  every  precaution  is  taken  to  main- 
tain silence  in  the  assailinjr  iiaity.  Tlie  soldiers  should 
also  not  light  their  |iipes,  as  the  tire  can  he  seen  from 
a  long  distance  in  llie  dark.  Barking  dogs  must  be 
disposed  of  or  quieted  without  the  use  of  fire-arms, 
and  every  one  mast  be  on  the  alert. 

The  dispositions  made  for  the  alt;K-k  will  varj-  with 
circumstances,  liut  in  general  it  is  well  to  divide  the 
force  into  three  parts:  the  lirsl  to  i)enetiale  into  the 
city;  the  .second  to  remain  without  and  protect,  if 
neees,sary,  the  retreat  of  the  lirst;  and  the  third  to  take 
such  position  as  is  most  likely  to  ])nvent  aid  from 
reaching  the  enenij-.  When  the  tiivt  division  has 
penetrated  the  city  by  escalade  or  otherwise,  it  sur- 
rounds at  once  some  of  the  adjacent  tjuarters,  and 
holds  the  outlets  of  the  principal  streets,  whilst  detach- 
ments quickly  open  the  gates  to  the  troojis  outside, 
after  having  taken  or  killed  the  guards.  As  soon  as 
the  gates  are  opened,  and  sufficient  numbers  are  at 
hand,  the  troops  spread  them.selves  in  the  city,  after 
leaving  good  reserves  upon  which  to  retreat  in  ca.se of 
check.  The  house  of  the  Commanilant,  barracks, 
arsenal,  and  the  guards  of  the  interior  are  at  once 
sought  to  prevent,  if  possible,  any  reunion  of  the  de- 
fenders, and  to  paralyze  all  their  ellorts  by  the  seizure 
of  the  Commanding  Officer.  If  time  and  means  of 
recovering  from  his  stupor  and  concentrating  his  force 
in  the  interior  of  the  city  lie  left  to  the  enemy,  great 
risk  will  be  nin  of  being  driven  out,  as  the  attacking 
force  is  neces.sarily  everj^vhere  weak,  from  the  great 
number  of  points  occupied.  The  famous  example  of 
Cremona,  where  Prince  Eugene,  after  having  made 
himself  master  of  a  great  part  of  the  city,  and  after 
having  seized  Marshal  Villeroi,  who  commanded 
there,  was  nevertheless  then  driven  out  by  the  defend- 
ers, .shows  that  all  is  not  lost  to  the  defenders  when 
the  enemy  has  seized  the  exterior  posts.  Another  ex- 
ample may  be  cited  in  the  surprise  of  Bergen-op-Zoom 
in  1814,  by  General  Graham,  where,  although  the  s\u-- 
prise  was  successful,  yet  the  assailants  in  the  end  were 
obliged  by  the  garrison  to  surrender  after  very  con 
siderable  loss. 

ESCALABING  LADDERS.— Frames  of  wood,  similar 
to  the  common  ladiler,  consisting  of  two  side  pieces. 
connected  by  rfumds  or  steps,  and  sometimes  by  rope. 
The  length  of  the  ladders  should  be  relative  to  that 
of  the  works  or  the  walls  to  be  escaladed.  They  are 
sometimes  made  in  two  or  three  parts,  so  that  they 
may  be  more  conveniently  carried.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  escalading  ladders;  those  in  lengths  i)rovided 
by  Government  with  other  engineers'  stores,  and  those 
of  an  impromptu  kind,  made" for  the  occasion.  The 
first  description  consists  of  ladilers  about  12  feet  in 
length,  which  tit  into  one  another,  so  that  each  joint 
will  give  an  effective  lemcth  of  10  feet.  The  second 
description  of  ladder  is  in  one  length,  which  is  diffi- 
cult of  carriage.  In  India,  escalading  ladders  are 
made  of  two  "longitudinal  pieces  of  bamlioo,  the 
transverse  pieces  of  wood  being  let  into  the  bamboo, 
and  boimd  roimd  it  with  strong  rope.  They  are  of 
two  sizes.  26  feet  and  14  feet  long.     See  EsniUide. 

ESCALE.— A  machine  used  in  ancient  times  to  pry 
the  petard.     Now  obsolete.     See  Pitm-d. 

ESCALOP-SHELLS.— These  are  often  used  in  Her- 
aldry to  sisnifv  that  the  bearer  has  made  many  long 
vovages  bv  sea.     As   the   I'ilgrim's 
eniblem,  tiiey  «cre  commonly  given 
to  tho.se  who  had  been  to   the  Cru- 
sades; they  came  to  be  regarded  as 
indicating"  either  that  the  bearer  or 
his  ancestor  had  been   a  Crusjider. 
The  escalop-shell  was  the  emblem  of 
St.  James  the  Great,  and  is  ireiierally 
Escalop-shells.     j,j^,,  ^^.j,],    ;„   chnnhcs  dedicated  to 
him.    The  more  ordinary  form  of  the  name  is  scallop- 
she!!.     See  IlniMri/. 

ESCARP.— In  fortification,  the  surface  of  the  difcn 
next  the  rampart,  the  surface  next  the  enemy  being 
termed  the  muntersearp.     See  Scarp. 
ESCARPMENT.— Ground  cut  away  nearly  vertically 


\" 


about  a  position,  in  order  to  render  it  inaccessible  to 

the  enemy.     See  Ditch  and  i'xarp. 

ESCOPETTE. — A  carbine,  an  improvement  on  the 
early  haiid-culverins  or  Kclopus. 

ESCORT. — A  body  of  troops  attending  an  individual 
as  a  ''uard.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  guard 
placed  over  prisoners  on  a  march,  to  prevent  their 
escape,  and  to  the  guard  of  a  convoj'  of  stores. 

ESCORT  OF  HONOR.— Escorts  of  honor  are  detailed 
for  the  inirpose  of  reeeinng  and  escorting  personages 
of  high  rank,  civil  or  milit'ary.  The  troops  for  this 
purpose  are  selected  for  their  soldierly  appeariince 
and  superior  discipline.  The  escort  forms  in  line, 
bayonets  fixed,  the  center  opposite  the  place  where 
the  personage  presents  himself,  with  an  interval 
between  the  wings  to  receive  him  and  his  staff,  the 
band  on  the  tlauk  of  the  escort  toward  which  it  will 
march.  On  the  appearance  of  the  personage,  he  is 
received  with  the  honors  due  to  his  rank.  When  he 
has  taken  his  place  in  the  line,  the  escort  is  formed 
into  column  of  companies,  platoons,  or  fours,  and 
takes  up  the  march.  On  leaving,  the  escort  line  is 
formed,  and  the  same  honors  are  paid  as  before. 
When  the  position  of  the  escort  is  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  point  where  the  person  is  to  be 
received,  as,  for  instance,  where  a  cotirt-yard  or  wharf 
intervenes,  a  double  line  of  sentinels  is  posted  from 
that  point  to  the  e.scort.  facing  inward;  the  sentinels 
successively  salute  as  he  passes,  and  are  then  relieved 
and  join  the  escort.  An  officer  is  appointed  to  attend 
him,  to  bear  sxich  communications  as  he  may  have  to 
make  to  the  Commander  of  the  escort.  See  Funeral 
lloiwi'S, 

ESCORT  OF  THE  COLOR.— The  militarj-  ceremony 
of  sending  for  and  receiving  the  colors  of  a  battalion. 
The  baltaliou  being  in  line,  the  Colonel  after  bringing 
the  battalion  to  carry  arms  details  a  company,  other 
than  the  color-company,  to  receive  and  escort  the 
colors  to  their  iilace  in  line.  The  escort  is  fonned  in 
column  of  plat(xins;  the  band  in  front,  the  Color- 
bearer  between  the  platoons.  Tlie  escort  is  then  put 
in  march,  without  music,  arms  at  a  riyht  shotiUkr. 
On  ai)proaching  the  Colonel's  (juarters.  the  escort  is 
halted  and  formed  in  line  facing  towards  them,  the 
band  on  the  right,  the  Color-bearer  in  the  line  of  file- 
closers.  The  moment  the  escort  is  in  line,  the  Color- 
bearer,  preceded  by  the  First  Lieutenant  and  followed 
by  a  Sergeant  of  the  escort,  goes  to  receive  the  color. 
When  the  Color-bearer  comes  out,  followed  by  the 
Lieutenant  and  Sergeant,  he  halts  before  the  entrance; 
the  escort  presents  arms,  and  the  trumpeters,  or 
field-music,  sound  to  t/ic  color.  The  Captain  then 
causes  the  arms  to  lie  carried;  the  Lieutenant  and 
Sergeant  return  to  their  posts,  and  the  Captain  breaks 
the  company  into  column  of  platoons;  the  Color- 
bearer  iilaces  himself  between  the  platoons.  The 
e.scort  marches  back  to  the  battalion  to  the  sound  of 
music,  in  quick  time,  and  in  the  .same order  asalmvc, 
the  guide  to  the  left.  The  march  is  so  conducted 
that,  when  the  escort  arrives  at  fifty  yards  in  front  of 
the  right  of  the  battalion,  the  direction  of  the  march 
mav  be  parallel  to  its  front;  when  the  color  arrives 
opposite  its  place  in  line,  the  Captain  forms  line  to 
the  left  and  halts;  the  Color-beanr,  passing  between 
the  platoons,  advances  and  halts  twelve  yards  in  front 
of  the  Colonel.  The  Color-bearer  having  haltt-d,  the 
Colonel,  who  posts  himself  twelve  yards  in  front  of 
the  center  of  his  battalion,  faces  about,  commands, 
1.  Present,  2.  Arms,  resumes  his  front  and  sjdutes; 
the  trumpeters,  or  field-music,  sound  to  tlie  color,  and 
the  Color-sergeant  returns  the  color-.sidute.  The 
Colonel  then  faces  about,  brings  the  battalion  to  a 
earn/,  after  which  the  Color-bearer  takes  his  place  in 
the  color-guard.  The  e.scort  presentJt  and  carries  arms 
with  the  battalion  at  the  eonunand  of  the  Colonel, 
after  which  the  Captain  forms  it  ag:iin  in  column, 
and  marches  it  to  its  place  in  line,  pa.ssing  around  the 
left  flank  of  the  battalion.  The  color  is  escorted  from 
the  parade-ground  of  the  color-company  to  the 
Colonel's  quarters,  by  the  color-guard. 


£SC0T7ADE. 


582 


£SQUIBE. 


The  ceremony  of  escorting  the  standard  is  as  fol-  , 
lows:  The  regiment  being  in  line,  the  Colonel,  after 
bringing  the  Vegiintnt  to  carry  mbtr,  details  a  com- 
pany, otlier  than  the  color-company,  to  receive  and 
escort  the  standard  to  iL-i  place  in  line.  The  escort 
is  fonncd  in  eohmm  of  platoons;  the  band  in  front, 
the  Standard-bearer  iK'tween  the  platoons.  The  escort 
is  then  put  in  march,  without  music.  On  approach- 
ing the  Colonel '.s  quarters,  the  escort  is  halted  and 
formed  in  line  facing  toward  them,  the  band  on  the 
risht,  the  Standard-lx-arer  in  the  line  of  tile-closers. 
The  escort  being  in  line, the  First  Lieutenant,  Stjuidard- 
bcarer,  and  the  Right  Principal  Guide  di.smouiil  in 
front  of  the  Colonel's  quarters,  their  horses  being 
held  bv  a  trumpeter;  the  Standard-ljearer,  preceded 
by  the  First  Lieutenant  and  followed  by  a  Sergeant  of  j 
the  e-scort,  then  goes  to  receive  the  standard.  AVhen  [ 
the  Stau(iard-l>earcr  comes  out,  followed  by  the 
Lieutenant  and  Sergeant,  they  halt  before  the  entr;ince 
and  mount,  the  Lieutenant  on  the  right.  Sergeant  on 
the  left;  the  trumpeter  returns  to  his  post;  the  Captain 
then  commands,  1.  Pnseiit,  2.  Saber;  the  escort 
presents  saber,  and  the  trumpeters  sound  to  the 
standard.  The  Captain  then  causes  the  saber  to  be 
earrUd  ;  the  Lieutenant  and  Sergeant  return  to  their 
posts,  and  the  Captain  breaks  the  company  into 
colunm  of  platoons;  the  Standard-bearer  places  him- 
self Ix'tween  the  platoons.  The  escort  marches  back 
to  the  regiment  to  the  sound  of  music,  and  in  the 
same  order  as  above,  the  guide  to  the  left.  The 
march  is  so  conducted  that,  when  the  escort  arrives 
at  fifty  yards  in  front  of  the  right  of  the  regiment, 
the  direction  of  the  march  may  be  parallel  to  its 
front;  when  the  standard  arrives  opposite  its  place  in 
lini ,  the  Captain  forms  line  to  the  left  and  halts;  the 
Standard-bearer,  passing  between  the  platoons,  ad- 
vances and  halts  twelve  yards  in  front  of  the  Colonel. 
The  Standard-bearer  having  halted,  the  Colonel,  who, 
posts  himself  twelve  yards  in  front  of  the  center  of 
his  regiment,  faces  about,  commands,  1.  Present,  2 
S.\BEU,  resumes  his  front  and  salutes;  the  trumpeters 
sound  tn  the  Sliint/iinl,  and  the  Standard-bearer  returns 
the  ssdute  of  the  standard.  The  Colonel  then  faces 
about,  brings  the  regiment  to  a  earri/,  after  which  the 
Standard  bearer,  pas.sing  through  the  interval  to  the 
left  of  his  company,  wheels  to  the  left  about,  and 
takes  his  place  in  the  guard  of  the  standard.  The 
escort  prexeiiin  i\n(\  curries  sabers  ^xith  the  regiment 
at  the  command  of  the  Colonel,  after  which  the  Cap- 
tain forms  it  again  in  column,  and  marches  it  to  its 
place  in  line,  pa.ssing  around  the  left  flank  of  the 
regiment.  ! 

ESCOUADE.— A  term  which  signified,  in  the  old  ' 
French  service,  the  third  part  of  a  company  of  foot 
or  a  detachment.  Companies  were  divided  in  this 
manner  for  the  purpose  of  more  conveniently  keeping 
the  tour  of  duty  among  the  men.  Wc  have  cortupted 
tlie  tenii  and  call  it  a  squad. 

ESC0UA6E. — An  ancient  feudal  tenure  by  which 
the  tenant  w;i.s  liound  to  follow  his  lord  to  war  or  to 
defend  his  castle.  The  term  is  also  used  for  the  com- 
mutation of  personal  service  into  a  money  payment, 
such  lis  is  ol)scrved  in  the  case  of  a  substitute  where 
coinpidsdiv  service  is  eiuieted. 

ESCUTCHEON  OF  PEETENSE.  — A  sm.ill  shield 
pla(<'il  in  the  center  of  tlie  larger  one,  and  covering  a 
portion  of  the  charges  on  the  latter,  in  which  a  man 
carries  the  arms  of  his  wife  when  slic  is  the  heiress  of 
her  family.  It  is  sjiid  to  be  carried  ■•<>irti>>it,  or  over- 
all. Sometimes  also  a  shield  f)ver-all  is  given  as  a  re- 
ward of  honor;  thus,  the  Earl  of  Stirling  did  bear 
two  coats  quarterly,  and  over  all  an  ineseutcheon  of 
Nova  Sentia.  Ixcause  he  was  the  first  planter  of  it. 
Usually  written  [iiesctitchenn. 

E8PAD0N.— In  old  militarj-  works,  a  kind  of  two- 
handed  sword,  having  two  edges,  of  a  great  lemrlh 
and  breadth;  fonnerly  vised  by  the  Spanish.  Recently 
the  term  has  been  applied  to  all  aouble-edged  wea- 
pons. 

E8PAULIEEE.— A  defense  for  the  shoulder,  com- 


posed of  flexible,  overlajiinng  jilates  of  metal,  used  in 
tlie  fifteenth  century;  the  origin  of  the  modem  epau- 
I,  lie. 

ESFINGAKD. — An  ancient  name  for  a  verj'  small 
gun  under  a  1 -pounder,  and  in  u.se  as  early  as  the 
fourteenth  century.     Also  written  Kpingare. 

ESPINGOLE.—" A  kind  of  blunderbu.ss  which,  in 
early  times,  was  loaded  with  several  balls;  the  charges 
were  separated  from  each  other  by  tampions  in  which 
holes  were  made,  and  thus  the  bails  were  tired  in  sue- 
cessiiin.     SiH'  lihinderbnss. 

ESPLANADE. — In  fortification,  the  o|)en  space  in- 
tentionally left  lietweeii  the  houses  of  a  city  and  the 
glacis  of  "its  citadel.  It  requires  to  be  at  "least  800 
paces  broad,  that  the  enemy,  in  ca.sc  of  his  getting' 
possession  of  the  town,  may  not  be  able  to  assail  the 
citadel  under  cover  of  the  nearest  houses.  For  this 
purpose  the  citadel  must  command  the  esplanade,  and 
lie  able  to  send  a  direct  fire  into  the  streets  opening 
upon  it.  In  old  works  on  fortification  the  term  is 
often  applied  to  the  glacis  of  the  counterscarp,  or  the 
slope  of  the  parapet  of  the  covered-way  towards  the 
country.     See  Forti'ticalwii. 

ESPONTOON.— A'.sorf  of  half-pike,  about  3  feet  in 
length,  used  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  Colonels 
of  ("orps,  as  well  as  the  Captains  of  Companies,  always 
used  them  in  action.  This  weapon  was  also  used  by 
officers  in  the  British  army. 

ESPEINGAL. — In  the  liiilitary  engineering  of  the 
days  before  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  in  Euro- 
pean warfare,  a  machine  for  throwing  missiles.  These 
missiles  were  either  large  darts  called  niuchettes.  or 
arrows  T\inged  with  bi;i.ss,  and  called  riretons  from 
their  whirling  motion  when  shot  forth.  Also  wTitten 
Spriiiiitil. 

ESPKIT  DE  CORPS. — A  term  generally  used  among 
military  men.  It  may  not  imjiroperly  be  defined  a 
huulalile  spirit  of  ambition  which  produces  a  peculiar 
attachment  to  any  particular  cori)s,  company,  or  ser- 
vice. (Officers,  witliou'  descending  to  mean  and  piti- 
ful sensations  of  selfish  en\y,  under  the  influence  of 
a  true  esprit  dc  corps  rise  into  an  emulous  thirst  after 
military  glory.  The  good  are  excited  to  peculiar 
feats  of  valor  by  (he  sentiments  it  engenders,  and  the 
bad  are  deterred  from  ever  hazarding  a  disgraceful 
action  by  a  secret  consciousness  of  the  duties  it  pre- 
scribes. 

ESQUIBE.— The  Escjuire  in  Chivalry  was  the  Shield- 
bearer  or  Armor-beirer  to  the  Knight,  and  hence  was 
called  Arwii/ir  in  Latin.  He  was  a  candidate  for  the 
honor  of  knighthood,  and  thus  stood  to  die  Knight 
in  tlie  relation  of  a  novice  or  apiirentice,  pretty  much 
as  the  i)age  did  to  him.  In  this  capacity  he  was 
spoken  of  as  a  Bachelor,  just  as  the  Knight  Bachelor 
came  latterly  to  be  distinguished  from  him  who  had 
already  attained  to  the  higher  honors  of  Cliivalry. 
■\\'lien" fully  equippeil,  each"  Knight  was  attended  by 
two  Es((uires.  The  Esquire  w;u<  a  gentleman,  and 
had  the  right  of  hearing  arms  on  his  own  shield  or 
csculclieon,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  helmet  placed 
siclewavs,  with  its  visor  closed,  to  dLstingnish  him 
from  a"  Kniglit  or  Nobleman.  He  had  also  the  sword, 
the  embleni  of  Chivalry,  though  he  was  not  girded 
with  tlie  knightly  tx'lt.  '  His  spurs  were  silver.fo  dis- 
tinguish them  friim  the  golden  spurs  of  the  Knight; 
and  when  the  King  created  Esquires  of  old.  it  w;is 
liypultiniT  silver  spurs  on  their  heels,  and  collars  of 
S'S  round  their  necks.  Those  who  received  this 
honor  directly  from  the  Sovereign  were  in  general 
the  Esquires  for  the  King's  body.'or  those  whose  duty 
it  was  to  attend  him  in  his  cajiacify  of  a  Knight;  an 
office  now  nearly  obsolete.  Teniints  of  the  Crown 
who  held  by  Knight's  Service  were  a  class  of  Feudal 
E-iipiires  generally  -iupjiosed  to  correspond  to  the 
simple  Hitlers  or"  Knights  of  Gennany,  as  opposed 
to  the  Hitters  who  were  r/eschlat/en  or  dubbed,  inas- 
much as  these  EnL'lish  Esquires  were  entitled  to  claim 
the  nink  of  knightli(K)d.  Though  the  titleof  Es(iuire 
has  now  come  to  be  given  without  discrimination  to 
all  persons  above  the  rank  of  a  tradesman  or  shop- 


S88EBASII. 


583 


ESTIMATION  OF  DISTANCE. 


ieeper,  the  following  seem  to  be  those  whose  claim 
to  it  stands  on  the  ground  either  of  legal  right  or  of 
long-established  courtesy:  1.  All  the  untitled  sous 
of  Xoblemen;  2.  The  eldest  sons  of  Knights  and 
Baronets;  3.  The  sons  of  the  yoimger  sons  of  Dukes 
«nd  Marquises,  and  their  eldest  sons.  All  these  are 
Esquires  by  birth.  Then  there  are  Esquires  bj'  pro- 
fession, wliose  rank  does  not  descend  to  their  chil- 
dren; iind  Esquires  by  oftict — e.g..  Justices  of  the 
Peace — who  enjoy  the  title  only  during  their  tenure 
of  office.  To  the  former  cla.ss  belong  Utlicers  in  the 
Army  and  Navy,  Barristers,  and  Doctors  of  Law,  and 
Doctors  of  iledicine,  but  not  Surgeons. 

ESSEDAEII. — In  Horaan  antiquity,  gladiators  who 
fought  in  a  heavj-  kind  of  chariot  called  enualn  or 
emedum.  The  esscda  differed  from  the  currns  in 
being  open  before  instead  of  behind,  and  in  this  way 
the  owner  was  enabled  to  run  along  the  pole,  from 
the  extremity  of  which,  or  even  from  the  top  of  the 
yoke,  he  discharged  his  missiles  with  surprising  dex- 
teiity. 

ESTABLISH.— A  technical  phrase  to  express  the 
quartering  of  any  considerable  body  of  troops  in  a 
country.  Thus  it  is  common  to  say  the  army  took  up 
a  position  in  the  neighborhood  of ,  and  estab- 
lished the  headcjuartei-s  at .    The  term  is  also  used 

in  the  sense  of  jiosting  guides,  markers,  etc. 

ESTABLISHMENT.— The  extent,  maU'riel,  and  jxr- 
ionnel  allowed  to  an  army  in  peace  or  war  time;  in 
the  latter  case  it  is  regulated  according  to  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  service,  which  being  much  greater  during 
■war  than  peace  has  given  rise  to  the  distinction  of  a 
war  and  a  pmce  tutdblixhiiieiit. 

ESTACADE. — A  dike  constructed  of  piles  in  the  sea, 
a  river,  or  a  morass,  frequently  used  to  check  the  ap- 
proach of  an  enemy. 

ESTAFETTE. — A  militaiT  courier  who  is  sent  ex- 
press from  one  part  of  an  army  for  a  given  time. 

ESTIMATE.— A  comimtalion  of  the  probable  ex- 
pense of  any  project  or  charges  to  be  incurred,  framed 
on  any  recognized  data,  derived  from  previous  experi- 
ence, such  as  the  yearly  militarj'  and  other  estimates 
of  the  country. 

ESTIMATION  OF  DISTANCE.— In  all  circumstances 
"where  ordnanci-  is  emplnycd,  whether  in  the  field  or 
on  the  water,  a  knowledge  of  the  distance  is  the  es- 
sential element  of  correct  practice.  When  consider- 
able, it  is  usually  estimated  verj'  vaguely;  but  the 
necessity  of  knowing  it  as  correctly  as  possible  at 
long  ranges  is  greater  than  when  the  trajectory  is 
nearly  flat  as  in  short  ranges,  elevation  being  given 
according  to  the  distance,  and  inaccuracy  increasing 
with  length  of  range.  At  considerable  distances, 
also,  there  is  more  leisure  and  opportunity,  as  well 
as  greater  necessity,  for  determining  those  distances 
with  precision,  while  in  closer  acli(jn  all  that  is  re- 
quired is  to  be  certain  that  the  enemy  is  within  range 
at  level.  Distances  may  be  estimated  by  six<Tal 
methods:  1st.  By  sight.  "2d.  By  means  of  topograph 
ical  maps.  'id.  By  the  aid  of  special  instnnnents  for 
measuringangles.  "  4lli.  By  the  propagation  of  sound. 
As  in  the  excitement  of  action  the  employment  of 
instruments  is  very  difficult,  it  is  desirable  that  every 
officer  and  soldier  shoidd  be  able  to  judge  of  dis- 
tances by  the  eye.  Under  conditions  favorable  to 
observation,  long  practice  enables  an  observer  to  esti- 
mate immediately  ami  quite  closely  the  iwsition  of 
an  object  within  (he  distance  of  .500  yards.  Beyond 
this  limit,  the  variable  condition  of  the  almosphere, 
as  well  as  the  form  and  nature  of  the  gro\ind,  lead 
the  most  practiced  observer  into  considerable  error. 
A  knowledge  of  the  parts  of  objects  \isible  at  certain 
distances  is  necessary:  but  as  this  will  vary  with  the 
power  of  the  eye,  each  must,  by  comijarison  and  re- 
flection, establish  a  standard  of  ids  own.  In  ordinary 
weather,  good  sisrht  adnuts  of— Isl.  Countintr  the  win- 
dows of  a  house  at  4800  yards;  2d.  Perceiving  men 
and  horses  at  221X)  yards;  "Sd.  Distinguishing  clearly 
infantry  from  cavalrj-  at  1300  yards;  4lh.  Seeing  the 
movements  of  men  at  800  yard's;  5th.  Distinguishing 


the  head  and  hat  of  a  man  at  550  yards;  6th.  Seeing 
faces  and  principal  parts  of  uniform  at  300  yards. 
Objects  always  appciir  too  near  when  seen  distinctly 
outlined  or  agamst  a  bright  background,  as  when  the 
observer  has  the  sun  at  liis  back,  or  when  the  air  is 
particularly  clear,  as  after  a  rain.  Distances  are 
underestimated  also  when  the  ground  is  uniform 
and  offers  no  prominent  points  for  reference.  On  the 
contrary,  objects  appear  too  reomte  when  obscure  and 
indistinct.  This  occurs  if  the  sun  be  in  one's  face, 
and  if  the  weather  be  cloudy  or  foggy.  Distances 
are  also  overestimated  when  the  ground  is  undu- 
lating, cut  by  ravines,  or  covered  with  trces  or  dwell- 
ings. 

Distances  are  most  frequentlj'  estimated  by  special 
instruments.  The  simplest  of  these  instnim"ents  are 
stadias  and  thread-micrometer  or  double-image  tele- 
scopes, which  give  the  unknown  distance  by  observa- 
tion of  the  apparent  height  of  a  man  on  foot  or  on 
horseback,  placed  near  the  distant  point.  None  of 
these  allow  the  estimation  of  distances  greater  than 
1600  yards,  and  the  results  of  observation  are  always 
uncertain.  The  gtadUi  consists  of  a  piece  of  sheet- 
metal  with  an  isosceles  triangle  cut  out  of  it,  the  sides 
of  which  are  graduated  parallel  to  its  base;  a  slide 
moves  along  the  length  of  the  Jilale.  The  base  of  the 
opening  is  perpendicular  to  the  Mili-s  of  the  instru- 
ment, and  reijresenis  the  a]i])arenl  height  of  a  man  at 
a  certain  distance.  The  graduations  may  be  deter- 
mined by  observation  or  by  calcvdation,  a.ssuming  a 
given  height  for  the  infantry  or  cavalry  soldier. 

Instruments  constructed  on  the  principal  of  the 
thread-telescope  have  been  tried,  but  with  little  suc- 
cess for  actual  scr\ace,  and  especially  have  not  been 
found  sufficient  for  artillerj' tiring.  During  tha>last 
twenty  j'ears  many  instruments  for  measuring  dis- 
tiuices  have  Ijeen  devised.  Nearly  all  are  concerned 
with  the  rapid  solution  of  a  triangle,  one  of  whose 
sitles  is  the  distance  to  be  determined,  and  another  is  a 
base  of  known  length.  The  instruments  of  Goulier 
and  Gautier,  used  in  France,  and  that  of  Nolan,  in 
England,  are  good  examples.  Of  these,  Gautier'shas 
been  experimented  with  in  the  I'liited  States.  Gau- 
ticr's  telemeter  is  simple  and  portable,  consisting  of  a 
tube,  similar  to  one  barrel  of  a  field-gla.ss,  containing 
lenses  and  two  mirrors  placed  at  an  imgle  of  about  45 
degrees  with  each  other;  but  it  requires  an  accurate 
ba.se  and  delicate  management.  With  practice,  how- 
ever, an  observer  can  estimate  with  more  than  ordi- 
nary promptitude  and  precision  the  distance  to  be 
obtained.  Nolan's  range-finder  consists  of  two  instru- 
ments for  measuring  angles;  they  are  mounted  on 
tripods  and  are  placed  at  the  extremities  of  a  meas- 
ureil  base  line,  which  is  perpendicidar  to  the  range. 
With  the  data  thus  obtained,  recourse  is  had  to  a 
rirhiiiin;i-ci/li)nJiT,  from  which  the  distance  is  read. 
A  ba.se  of  from  30  to  40  yards  will  be  used  for  ranges 
of  3000  yards  and  over."  The  Weldon  range-tiiKler, 
lately  introduced,  will,  it  is  thought,  prove  a  useful 
instriuuent  for  open  ground.  In  this  system  are  used 
a  base,  proportional  to  the  sides  of  the  triangle  which 
converge  on  the  object  from  the  extremities  of  the 
ba.se,  and  two  simple  plate-gla.s.s  prisms,  the  angles  of 
which  are  constructed  accurately  to  have  certain  fixed 
values,  and  whose  backs  are  silvered  to  act  as  mir- 
rors. Two  observers,  each  with  a  prism,  place  them- 
selves on  a  line,  the  general  direction  of  which  is  per- 
pendicular to  that  of  the  object  from  them.  Each 
then  moves  along  this  line  till  he  brings  the  reflection 
of  the  object  in  the  prism  and  the  eye  of  the  other 
obscrMjr,  seen  direct,  in  the  siime  vertical  line;  the 
distiince  between  the  observers  at  this  instant,  multi- 
plied by  a  certain  factor,  which  dei)ends  on  the  an- 
gles of  the  prism,  gives  the  distance  of  the  ol>jectfrom 
either  observer. 

To  estimate  distances  by  the  velocity  with  which 
sound  is  transmitted  in  the'air,  it  is  ncccs.s!iry  to  note 
the  instant  at  which  the  flash  of  a  gun  or  the  explo- 
sion of  a  shell  is  seen,  and  the  instant  at  which  the 
reixjrt  of  the  same  is  heard  at  the  i)oint  of  observation. 


£SXOC. 


584 


ETOUPILLE. 


This  is  a  simple  and  rapid  method,  but  is  not  always 
uccimilo.  A  watch,  or  anv  inslruniunt  constructt-d 
to  RKXinl  tiiiu',  can  be  ciiiiiloycd.  The  Le  Bniikngt' 
tftfmettr  is  such  iiu  instriiiueiit.  It  consists  of  a  glass 
tube,  tilled  with  a  non-freezing,  transparent  li(iui(l; 
witliin  this  is  a  metal  index,  which,  when  the  tube  is 
vertical,  descends  with  a  slow,  uniform  motion.  The 
tube  is  placed  in  a  brass  case,  to  which  a  scale  is  at- 
tache<l.  The  scale  shows  the  distance,  in  yards, 
throuirh  which  sound  will  travel  in  air  duriiiir  the 
lime  required  for  the  inde.\  to  descend  to  any  di\i- 
sion.  The  elTcvt  of  temperature  on  tlic  liquid  and 
index  is  such  that  the  velocity  of  the  index  is  iiiliu- 
encecl  in  the  same  proportion  as  tlie  velocity  of  sound, 
the  instrument  thus  iK'ing  self-adjusting.  For  pieces 
used  in  the  siege  and  sea-coast  siTvices  tlie  ranges 
do  not  have  to  be  determined  under  the  same  circum- 
stances as  in  the  field.  The  position  of  siege-batteries 
can  be  found  at  leisure,  either  from  maps  or  by  the 
instruments  used  ordinarily  by  surveyors.  In  the 
sea-coast  service,  tlie  distance  of  a  vessel  cim  be  deter- 
mined by  its  ix)sition  relative  to  known  points  on 
land,  or  to  buoys  that  have  been  carefully  located  for 
that  purpose.  "A  simple  instrument  for  taking  hori- 
zontal angles,  or  any  of  lliose  that  are  applied  in  the 
tield,  can  \k  employed.  The  pUine-Uihle  may  be  used 
advantageously  for  recording  the  striking-point  of  a 
shot  or  the  position  of  a  vessel.  The  tables  are 
placed  at  each  end  of  a  base-line,  so  tiiken  that  the 
tables  shall  have  a  cleiir  view  of  the  object,  of  each 
other,  and  of  the  gun;  the  lines  joining  thom  with 
the  object  should  intersect  at  as  near  a  right  angle  as 
possibie.  The  gun  may  be  at  anv  point  of  the  base- 
line. Or  entirely  without  it.  The  distance  can  be 
calculated  from  the  data  obtained,  or  the  object  may 
be  plotted  and  the  distance  measured  by  a  scale. 


Any  of  the  following  methods  may  be  employed 
to  estnnatc  the  breadth  of  a  river,  or  any  impassable 
distance,  without  instruments:  1st.  Assume  dc  in  any 
direction,  and  make  6c  =  bd  (ab  l)eing  as  nearly  jier- 
pendicular  to  the  banlvs  as  practicable);  then,  locating 
e  on  rtc  produced,  make  bf  =  6c;  join  /  and  d  and 
prolong  fd  to  ah  al  g;  then  bf/  =  ab.  2d.  Produce  be 
until  tiie  angle  bra  =  45  ;  then  be  —  ab.  3d.  With- 
out reference  to  ligiire,  the  following  methods  may 
1m;  used  according  to  the  location  of  the  distance  to 
be  measured  with  respect  to  the  surrounding  country. 
('()  Let  AHe(iual  tlicilistanccto  l)eincasure(L  Produce 
AB  to  any  point,  I),  and  l)iscct  IJl)  in  C.  Through 
I)  draw  Via.  making  an  angle  willi  DA,  and  take 
Dc  and  D6  =:DC  and  DB  respectively.  .Join  Br,  CA, 
and  A6.  Through  K,  the  intersection  of  Be  and  CV;, 
draw  DEF,  meeting  A6  in  F.  .loin  BF,  which  being 
prixbiced  will  meet  Dk  in  a;  then  ah  =  AB.  (A) 
From  any  point,  (",  draw  any  line  rC  and  bisect  it  in 
D;  lake  any  point,  E,  in  tlie  prolongation  of  AC  and 
draw  tlie  line  E(,  making  Di  =  DE.  In  like  man- 
ner take  any  jxiint,  F,  \n  the  jirolongation  of  BC,  and 
make  D/  =  DF.  Produce  AD  and  ir  till  thev  meet 
in  6;  then  A6  =  AB.  (r)  At  any  point,  E,  in  AB 
drop  a  perpendicular  and  on  it  make  YJi  —  .Id  feet, 
and  EF  =  (ID  fe<l.  Trace  a  line  through  F  perj)en- 
dicular  to  EF.  Then  plant  pickets  at  M  and  N,  so 
that  M,  Q,  and  B  will  b«  in  (he  same  right  line;  as 


also  the  points  N,  O,  and  A.  Measure  the  distance 
(rf)  between  M  and  N,  then  the  distance  required 
equals  15rf. 

ESTOC. — The  long  narrow  sword  intended  for 
thrusting  rather  than  cutting.  The  expression /m/)- 
;«r  d'lxtiic  ct  de  UiiUe  can  only  apply  to  the  long 
broad-hladed  sword,  inasmuch  as  the  blade  of  the 
rapier  was  suitable  only  for  thnists.  The  rapiers  of 
the  cstoc  shape  were  not  in  use  lieforc  the  reign  of 
Charles  V.,  in  whose  time  the  modern  art  of  fencing 
seems  to  have  originated.  The  estoc  in  Elizabcthaa 
times  was  generally  called  a  tucke. 

ESTOILE.— In  lieraldry,  a  term  differing  from  the 
mtillet  by  having  six  waved  points;  the  mullet  con- 
sisting of  tivc  |)lain  point.s.     See  llira/dri/. 

ESTRADIOTS.— Grecian  and  Albanian'  hor.semen, 
some  of  whcmi  were  employed  in  the  Italian  wars  by 
Charles  VIII.;  their  favorite  weapon  was  the  zagaic. 
Besides  this  they  had  a  broad-sword  and  club  slung 
on  the  bow  of  the  saddle,  with  sleeves  and  gauntlet* 
of  mail.     Also  written  Stradiots. 

ESTRAMACON.— A  sort  of  two-edged  sword  used 
in  ancient  times.  The  term  also  expresses  a  blow 
with  the  edge  of  a  sword. 

ETAPPEN.— A  Department  which  originated  in  the 
Prussian  Military  Railway  Organization,  and  which 
was  tirst  formed  in  l!S67,  and  revised  in  1W)9;  subse- 
quently certain  changes  were  made  during  the  war  of 
1870-71.  The  object  of  this  Department  is  to  relieve 
the  Commander-in-Chief  and  Field  Army  of  all  respon- 
sibility for  their  communications  in  the  rear.  Etap- 
pen  Commissions  a  reappointed  to  each  loading  aiid 
unloading  station,  to  which  a  Field  Ofticer  as  Com- 
mandant, an  Adjutant,  Control  Officer,  Railway  Offi- 
cials, and  Civil  Government  Officials,  are  attached. 
These  officers  supervise  all  local  arrangements  for 
loading  or  unloading,  forwarding,  feeding,  billetin};, 
etc.  One  of  the  officers  originally  appointed  to  this 
Department  was  an  Inspector  of  Etappen;  he  was  sup- 
posed to  be  a  march  in  rear  of  headquarters,  superin- 
tending all  necessary  arrangements,  but  lie  had  no 
atithority  over  the  Civil  Deparlinents  with  which  he 
came  into  contact.  In  1870  the  Inspector  was  found 
to  have  too  much  to  do,  and  a  considerable  amount 
of  friction  ensued.  The  Commissariat  Officer  attacheil 
received  orders  from  an  Inspectcn-  and  from  his  own 
Chief.  The  Railway  Subordinate  was  liable  to  some 
ten  different  Chiefs,  and  the  whole  railway  arrange- 
ments were  half  military,  half  civil.  New  regulations 
were  subsequently  introduceil  which  extended  the 
powers  of  the  Inspector  of  Etappen.  The  official  title 
is  "  Inspector  of  Etappen  and  Railways."  lie  is  pre- 
sent with  headquarters,  and  under  biin  are  ])laced  the 
Medical  Department,  Commissariat,  Post-office,  and 
Telegraphs,  under  responsible  heads.  The  general 
]irinci])lcor  idea  is  this:  Aline  is  imagined  to  be  drawn 
through  the  lieailquarlers.  All  In  front  belongs  to  the 
active  army,  all  in  rear  to  the  Etappen  Inspector.  The 
Quartermaster  General's  Dciiartment  has  to  do  with 
both.  To  take  in  the  whole  of  the  Prussian  Railway 
Control  ,it  would  be  necessary  to  describe  in  full  the 
svstem  pursued,  which  space  will  not  admit.  An 
l5ta]ipen  Department  has  been  raised  in  the  French 
aniiy  after  Ilic  Prussian  system. 

ETAT  MAJOK.— The  Staff  of  an  army,  including 
all  officers  above  the  rank  of  Colonel;  also,  all  Adju- 
tants, Inspectors,  Quartermasters,  Commissaries,  En-  , 
gincers.  Ordnance  Officers,  Paymasters,  Surgeons, 
Signal  Officers,  .Judge  Advocates;  also,  the  non-com- 
missioned a.ssislants  of  the  above  officers. 

ET0ILE8.— Small  icdoulits  which  are  constructed 
by  means  of  angles  rentrant  and  angles  sortant,  and 
hiive  from  .")  to  8  .siilicnt  jioints.  This  species  of  fortifi- 
cation has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  is  superseded  by 
square  redoubts,  which  are  sooner  Imilt  and  arc  ap- 
plicable to  the  same  purpo.se  of  defense. 

ETOUPILLE.— An  intlaminable  match,  composed 
of  tliric  threads  of  very  tine  cotton,  which  is  well 
steeped  in  brandy  mixed  with  the  best  priming  glut 
powder. 


ETTFHOBBIA  TIBtTCALLI. 


585 


EVOCATIOir. 


EUPHORBIA  TIRUCALLI.  — This  plant  is  much 
usfd  in  making  licdgis  in  India.  It  is  an  evergreen. 
The  wood  makes  very  fair  cliarcoal  for  gunpowder 
purposes,  but  il  is  not  e(iual  to  tliat  derived  from  the 
urhur  or  dhall-lmsh.  In  Bengali  il  is  called  lunkaty, 
and  in  Hindustani.  kiihIIi. 

EUREKA  PRO  JECTILE.— A  projectile  consisting  of 
a  cast-iron  liody  in  one  |>iece,  with  a  bras-s  sid)ot;  the 
sabot  is  an  annular  disk  intended  to  move  on  the  frus- 
tiun  of  a  cone  with  the  expanding  cup  in  rear  to  take 
the  groo\'('s.     See  Pnytrlilia. 

EUTHYTONE.— A  very  ancient  machine  of  war,  de- 
scribed by  Heron,  Philon,  and  Vitrmius.  It  was  a  va- 
riety of  tlie  catapult. 

EVACUATE.— To  witlidraw  from  a  town  or  fortress, 
in  conse(|uence  either  of  a  treaty  or  a  capitulation,  or 
of  superior  orders. 

EVAGINATION. — A  common  expression  for  the  un- 
sheatliiuir  or  drawing  out  of  a  sheath  or  scabbard. 

EVANS  MAGAZINE-RIFLE.— A  novel  ritle  of  some 
merit,  but  no  longer  manufactured.  Itililfcred  from 
most  magazine-guns  in  having  no  spiral  spring  for 
the  pvirpose  of  feeding  tlie  cartridges  through  and 
fi'om  the  magazine  to  the  lineihinechanisni,  and  in 
having  its  magazine  located  in  the  stock  of  the  arm. 
The  magazine  consisted  of  a  cylinder  of  forged  iron, 
running  from  the  breech  to  the  butt  plate;  around  the 
inner  circle  of  this  cylinder  was  affl.xed,  in  the  fonn 
of  a  spiral,  a  Hat  wire  of  the  proper  conformation. 
Into  this  cylinder  with  its  tixed  spiral  was  introduced 
a  shaft  of  lluted  or  grooved  iron,  this  shaft  being  re- 
volved by  movement  of  the  lever  in  the  breech-me- 
chanism. The  cartridges  were  introduced  into  the 
magazine  throtigh  the  butt-plate;  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  each  cartridge  the  breech-mechanism  was 
moved,  thus  carrying  forward  the  cartridges  until  the 
magazine  was  tilled.  The  cartridges  in  the  magazine 
were  in  separate  cells,  and  could  not  come  in  contact 
with  each  other,  thus  precluding  any  possibility  of 
discharge;  while  in  all  spiral-spring  magazine-guns 
the  cartridges  press  one  against  the  other,  thus  ren- 
dering a  premature  discharge  possible. 

The  system  of  feed  in  this  gun  strongly  resembled 
the  Archimedean  screw.  The  magazine  carried  26 
roimds  (.f  cartridges  of  2  inches  in  length,  and  could 
be  loaded  in  one  half  of  a  minute,  and  the  entire 
magazine  of  26  roimils  discharged  at  will,  in  from 
15  to  20  seconds,  thus  embracing  a  very  great  repeat- 
ing capacity.  This  arm  couhl  be  tired  20  rounds 
per  miiuite,"  while  used  as  a  single-loader,  introducing 
the  carlritlges  into  an  aperture  at  the  side  of  the  re- 
ceiver at  tile  breech;  or  it  could  be  tired  20  rounds 
per  minuti',  holding  the  magazine  full  and  in  reserve, 
by  introducing  cartridges  into  the  magazine  at  the 
butt,  as  each  cartridge  was  discharged.  The  weight 
of  the  gim  was  9i  "pounds,  and  length  of  barrel  30 
inches.  The  carbine  weighed  bi  pounds,  and  had  a 
barrel  22  inches  in  length.     See  Mag(aine-guri. 

EVENING  PAEADE— The  daily  parade  at  or  about 
sun.set.  SVhen  troops  are  encamped,  the  signal  for 
evening  parade  is  given  from  the  park  of  artillery,  by 
the  discharge  of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  called  the  eixn- 
inji  or  rrlrmt  yiin.     Sei'  />(v.w  I'urade. 

EVIDENCE. — All  that  which  makes  clear,  demon- 
strates, or  ascertains  the  truth  of  the  very  fact  or 
point  in  issue.  Evidence  may  be  considered  with  re- 
ference to  (1)  the  luitiire  of  the  evidence;  (2)  the  oh- 
jert  of  the  evidence;  (3)  the  inntrnments  of  evidence; 
and  (4)  the  I'ffict  of  evidence.  As  to  its  mttitrv, 
evidence  may  be  considered  with  reference  to  its 
being  (1)  the  primarj'  endence;  (2)  secondary  evi- 
dence; (3)  i)ositive;  (4)  presumptive;  (5)  hearsay;  and 
(6)  admissions.  1.  PriiiKiry  eridenee.  The  law  gen- 
erally requires  that  the  best  evidence  the  CJtse  admits 
of  shall  be  produced.  2.  Secondary  erid'iu-e  is  that 
species  of  proof  which  may  be  admis.sible  on  the  loss 
of  primary  evidence.  Be"fore  it  is  admitted,  proof 
nmst  be  made  of  the  loss  or  impossibility  of  obtain- 
ing the  iirimarv  evidence.  3.  Ptmtire  eridenee  is 
that  which,  if  believed,  establishes  the  truth  of  a  fact 


in  i.ssuc,  and  does  not  arise  from  any  presumption. 
Evidence  is  positive  when  the  very  facts  in  dis- 
pute are  commimicated  by  those  who  have  actual 
knowledge  of  them  by  means  of  their  senses.  4. 
Premimptire  eridenee  is  that  which  is  not  direct, 
but  where,  on  the  contrarj',  a  fact  which  is  not 
positively  known  is  presumed  from  one  or  more 
other  facts  or  circumstances  which  arc  known.  5. 
Heanay  is  the  evidence  of  those  who  relate  not 
what  they  know  themselves,  but  what  they  have 
heard  from  others.  As  a  general  rule,  hearsay  en- 
dence of  a  fact  is  not  admi.ssi!)le.  But  evidence  given 
on  a  former  trial  by  a  person  since  dead  is  admissible, 
as  is  also  the  dying  declaration  of  a  person  who  hsw 
received  a  mortal  injurj-.  6.  Adiiiimion^.  which  are 
the  tleclaralions  made  by  a  party  for  him.self  or  those 
acting  under  his  authority.  "These  admissions  are 
generally  evidence  of  facts  declared,  but  the  admis- 
sions theniselve.s  must  be  proved. 

The  ohjert  of  evidence  is  to  ascertain  the  truth  be- 
tween the  parties.  Experience  shows  that  this  is  best 
done  by  the  following  rules,  which  are  now  binding 
in  the  law:  1.  The  evidence  nuist  be  confined  to  the 
point  in  issue;  2.  The  substance  of  the  issue  must 
be  proved,  but  only  the  substance  is  required  to  be 
proved;  3.  The  affirmative  of  the  i.ssue  must  be 
proved.  A  witness,  on  being  admitted  in  Court,  is 
tirst  subjected  to  the  examination  of  the  party  in 
who.se  behalf  he  is  called.  This  is  termed  the  ej-ami- 
miti'tn  ill  rliiif.  The  principal  rule  to  t)e  observed  by 
the  party  examining  is  that  leading  nue.st ions  are  not 
to  be  asked.  The  witness  is  then  cross-examined  h^ 
the  other  (larty.  The  object  of  cross-examination  is 
twofold:  to  weaken  the  evidence  given  by  the  wit- 
ness as  to  the  fact  in  question,  either  by  eliciting  con- 
tradictions or  n(^w  explanatory  facts;  or,  .secondly,  to 
invalidate  the  general  credit  of  the  witness.  In  the 
latter  case  it  is'a  general  rule  that  a  witness  ntay  re- 
fuse to  answer  any  question  if  his  answer  will  ex- 
pose him  to  criminal  liability.  The  general  prac- 
tice of  English  Courts  also  seems  to  authorize  his  re- 
fusal to  answer  any  question  which  will  ilisgrace 
him.  The  credit  of  a  witness  may  likewise  l>e  im- 
peached by  the  general  endence  of  others  as  to  his 
character;  but  in  this  Ciuse  no  evidence  can  be  given 
of  ]iarticular  facts  which  militate  against  his  general 
credit.  \V'itne.s.ses  are  excluded  from  giving  endence 
by:  1.  Want  of  reason  or  understanding;  2.  Want  of 
belief  in  God  and  a  future  state;  3.  Infancy;  4.  In- 
terest. Besides  witncs.ses,  records  and  private  writings 
are  al.so  iiuttrtiinents  of  evidence. 

Records,  in  all  cases  where  the  issue  is  rrnl  tiel  renrd, 
are  to  be  proved  by  an  exemplification  didy  authen- 
ticated; that  is,  an  attestation  made  by  a  projH'r  offi- 
cer, by  which  he  certifies  that  a  record  is  in  due  form 
of  law,  and  that  the  person  who  certifies  it  is  the  offi- 
cer apiiointed  bv  law  to  do  so.  In  other  ca.ses  an  ex- 
amined copy,  duly  proved,  will  in  general  be  en- 
dence. Private  writings  are  proved  by  |iroducing  the 
attesting  witness,  or,  in  case  of  his  absence,  death,  or 
other  legal  inability  to  testify,  as  if,  after  attesting  the 
paper,  he  becomes  infamous,  his  handwriting  may  l)e 
proved.  When  there  is  no  witness  to  the  instniment, 
it  may  be  proved  by  evidence  of  the  handwriting  of 
the  party,  by  a  person  who  has  seen  him  write,  or  in 
a  course  of  correspondence  has  become  acquainted 
with  his  hand.  Parol  evidence  is  admissible  to  de- 
feat a  written  instrument  on  the  grovmd  of  fnuid, 
mistake,  etc.,  or  to  apply  it  to  its  proper  subject  mat- 
ter, or,  in  some  instances,  as  ancillary  to  such  np- 
l)lication,  to  explain  the  meaning  of  doubtful  terms, 
or  reb\U  pre.sinnptions  arising  extrinsical ly.  But  in 
all  cases  the  parol  evidence  does  not  usurj'  t'"'  place 
or  arrogate  the  authority  of  the  written  instrument. 

EVOCATI.— A  class  of  soldiers  among  iiie  Romans 
who,  after  having  served  their  full  time  in  the  army, 
entered  as  volunteers  to  accompany  some  favorite 
Geiierid.  Hence  they  were  likewise  allied  Einereti 
anil  Hi  iielinirii. 

EVOCATION.  — An  old  religious  ceremony  com- 


EVOLUTIONS. 


586 


EVOLUTIONS. 


monly  ol)s<>rvi'<l  among  the  Romans  at  the  comnicnco 
nicnl'of  a  siugc,  wherein  they  solemnly  cnlleil  upon 
the  gods  and  gixldessi's  of  the  place  to  "forsjike  it  aud 
come  over  to  them.  When  any  place  surrendered, 
they  always  took  it  for  granted  that  their  prayer  had 
been  lieanl. 

EVOLUTIONS. — The  movemcnt.s  of  troops  in  order 
to  change  [wsition.  The  object  may  be  to  maintain 
or  sustain  a  post,  to  o<'cupy  a  new  post,  to  improve 
an  attack,  or  to  improve  a  defense.  All  such  move- 
ments as  marching,  counter-marching,  route-march- 
ing, changing  front,  forming  line,  facing,  wheeling, 
making  column  or  line,  making  echelon  or  stjuare, 
detiling,  deploying,  etc.,  come  under  the  general  head- 
ing <>f  evolutions.  The  word  maneurer  signifies  also 
movements  of  troops  or  entire  corps  in  war  executed 
with  general  \iews;  aud  by  some  writers  it  is  confined 
to  that  signification,  and  the  word  ewliilwn  is  made 
to  designate  the  particular  means,  or  the  elements  of 
maneuvers.  Maneuvei-s,  according  to  Bardin,  are 
operations  in  war,  whether  really  before  an  enemy  or 
simulate<l  on  a  field  of  exerci.se.  Their  precision  and 
aptness  dei>end  uiion  the  skill  of  the  General;  the  iiilel- 
ligence  of  his  Aides-de-Camj);  upon  the  Chiefs  of  Bat- 
talions and  their  Adjutants,  and  the  General  Guides. 
Evolutions  and  maneuvers  are,  however,  often  applied 
in  the  same  sense,  and  indeed  it  may  well  be  ques- 
tioned whether  there  be  any  propriety  in  retaining  in 
iKwks  of  instruction  evolutions  which  are  not  used  as 
maneuvers  against  an  enemy.  The  vicious  idea  that 
tactical  evolutions  are  not  used  in  war  is  by  no  means 
uncommon,  and  has  frequently  caused  the  loss  of 
battles.  It  is  true  that  the  number  of  maneuvers 
used  in  combats  is  limited,  and  that  those  which  are 
needed  can  only  be  judiciously  applied  by  keejiing  in 
view  moral  and  ])hysieal  requirements.  The  judi- 
cious tactician  will,  "therefore,  in  war  eschew  deploy- 
ments, which  cause  the  solilier  to  turn  his  back  to- 
wards an  enemy:  counter-marches;  forming  a  battal- 
ion on  the  right  or  left  l)v  file  into  line,  and  some 
other  movements  suited  only  to  parades,  t)ne  of  the 
most  hazardous  maneuvers  is  the  fomiation  of  col- 
umns of  great  depth  and  deploying  those  columns 
when  too  near  the  enemy. 

The  mill  mil  in  an  nnlfr  of  march  and  maneuver, 
rarely  an  order  of  battle.  When  beyond  the  range  of 
canfton,  and  at  a  distance  from  the  line  of  battle  to  be 
occupied,  if  the  enemy  approach  and  time  permits, 
it  is  neces-sary  to  close  in  mass,  in  order  to  hold  the 
troops  in  hand  for  all  possiljle  dispositions.  So,  in 
marches  near  the  enemy  the  columns  should  march 
at  half-<listance,  when  roads  permit,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  less  elongated  and  all  the  troops  In; 
ready  to  act  promptly.  If  surprised  in  this  order  by 
the  nece.s.sity  of  forming  immediately  forward  into 
line  of  battle,  or,  if  without  being  under  this  pressing 
necessity,  there  is  between  us  and  the  enemy  ground 
admitting  an  easy  march  in  line  of  battle,  the  column 
ought  to  execute  forward  into  line,  according  to  the 
principles  of  the  tactics.  This  movement  is  more 
prompt  and  greatly  better  than  closing  column  in 
ma.ss  in  order  to  deploy  afterward.  In  the  first  case 
troops  only  pa.ss  over  one  side  of  the  triangle,  whilst 
by  massing  the  column  to  deploy  afterward  they 
must  pass  over  two  sides  by  a  complicated  maneuver, 
which  is  dangerous  from  the  Ix'ginning.  In  general, 
it  is  neces,sary  to  shun  as  much  as  possible  the  deploy- 
ment of  great  massed  columns,  for  this  movement  "is 
badly  executed  even  in  exercises.  It  can  only  be 
performed  far  from  the  enemy,  and  it  is  even  "there 
inconvenient.  It  should  be  renounced  in  all  forma- 
tions whose  object  is  to  take  the  enemy  in  flank  or  re- 
verse, if  he  be  sufliciently  near  to  take  measures  to 
prevent  success.  In  that"  case  the  formation  of  the 
close  <'ohimns  in  mass  upon  the  right  or  left  into  line 
of  battle  is  a  neces.s;iry  manoiver.  This  movement, 
as  Marslial  Bugeaud  sviggests,  is  most  important  in 
war.  It  would  have  an  influence  upon  battles  by 
the  simplicity  and  rapidity  of  its  execution,  and  acci- 
dents of  ground  would  often  be  found  to  conceal  the 


movement  from  the  enemy.  It  admits  of  an  attack 
in  echelons  of  battalions  against  an  enemy  being  com- 
menced as  soon  as  one  battalion  or  the  half  of  a  bat- 
talion hits  formed  on  the  right  or  on  the  left  of  the 
line  of  the  enemy.  It  also  offers  the  advantage  of 
giving  to  the  line,  with  the  greatest  facility,  every 
form  that  may  be  wished,  and  i)rotecting  the  succes- 
sive formalions  by  a  ma.ss  that  may  1m'  disposed  of  at 
pleasure,  whether  at  the  extremity  of  the  line  to  form 
.square  agjiinst  cavalry,  or  to  occupy  in  advance  upon 
the  right  or  left  a  commanding  position,  protecting 
the  tianks  of  our  line.  When  circumstances,  then, 
comju'l  a  march  in  heavy  mass,  it  is  better  to  present 
to  the  enemy  a  flank  of  columns,  in  order  to  de])loy 
them  by  formations  on  the  light  or  on  the  left  into 
line  of  battle.  When  a  line  has  to  pa.ss  over  a  great 
distance,  it  is  commonly  fornietl  into  columns  of 
attack.  The  formation  by  comiiany  in  column,  in 
rear  of  the  Grenadiers  of  each  battalion,  is  ])referred 
by  JIarshal  Bugeaud,  because  it  is  thus  easier  to  make 
good  dis]Kisitions  against  cavalry.    The  Grenadiers  of 

I  each  battalion  make  a  half-wheel,  and  each  battalion, 
after  being  closed  in  mass,  forms  sciuare.  But  neither 
the  column  by  companies  nordi\isions  should  be  used 
within  range  of  cannon,  whenever  there  is  a  possibil- 
ity of  marchiug  in  line  of  battle.     It  is  time  that  the 

j  fact  should  be  admitted  that  although   the  moral 

'  effect  of  the  column  may  be  considerable,  yet  this 

'  may  be  paralyzed  by  a  little  maneuvering  on  the 
part  of  the  enemy's  line,  which  would  neces.sarily  ob- 

'  tain  great  advantage  from  the  superiority  of  its  fire. 
Small  columns,  at  distances  of  three  battalions  from 

I  each  other  marching  under  cover  of  the  line,  may 
render  great  ser\-ices.  They  would  be  ready  promptly 
to  fill  the  holes  made  in  the  line  of  battle,  and  the 
best  means  of  doing  this  would  be  to  take  the  enemy 
in  flank  who  had  pierced  them,  whenever  they  could. 
It  is  desirable  that  these  columns  should  each  not  ex- 
ceed a  half-battalion,  and  that  they  should  be  com- 
manded by  energetic  oflicei's. 

77ie  depth  of  the  column  adds  nothiiiij  to  the  strength 
of  the  first  battalion  composing  it,  and  dirninishfs  that 
of  the  mass.  It  is,  then,  vicious  to  employ  more  than 
one  battalion,  except  in  the  small  number  of  cases 
where  it  is  necessary  to  tight  in  ma.-w,  as  in  carrying  a 
bridge,  a  defile,  an  intrenchment,  a  breach,  etc.  The 
other  battalions  ought  to  follow  at  such  a  distance 

I  that  they  may  sustain  the  attacking  battalion  without 
sharing  in  its  dis:ister  or  rout,  if  such  should  take 
place.  With  an  interval  the  Chiefs  of  Battalions  have 
time  to  prepare  their  troops  and  make  neces-sary  dis- 
)iositions  ;  with  a  single  mass  the  disorder  at  the  head 
of  the  column  is  communicated  to  the  rear  almost  as 
readily  as  an  electric  spark.  Flank  marches,  in  i>res- 
ence  of  the  enemy,  ought  always  to  be  made  in  open 
column.  In  this  order  we  are  always  ready  to  tight 
by  a  simple  wheel  of  each  subdivision  of  the  column. 
Nothing  is  deranged  in  the  order  of  battle,  whatever 
may  be  the  strength  and  number  of  the  lines.  With- 
out derangement  an  excellent  disjiosition  may  also  be 
made  against  cavalry.  The  column  will  be  halted, 
and  eacli  battalion  will  be  dosed  in  mass  upon  its 
Grenadiers,  who  make  a  half-wheel.  The  Field-olli 
cers,  Statf.  and  the  officers  of  Grenadiers  will  be  pre- 
viously warned.  Each  battalion  will  jcirm  then  Mar- 
shal IJugeaud's  s((uare.  The  fii-st  order  will  be  re- 
sumed i)y  taking  distances  by  the  head  of  each  bat- 
talion; the  Grenadiers  retaking  their  dire<tion  at  once. 
If  deep  columns  are  condemned  as  an  order  of  attack, 
those  barbarous  columns  employed  in  some  of  the 
last  battles  of  Xapoleon,  and  iiarticularly  at  Water- 
loo, ought  to  be  condeunied  still  more.  That  column, 
which  apixaied  to  annouece  the  decline  of  art,  con- 
.sisted  in  emi)loying  all  the  battalions  of  a  division 
one  behind  the  other,  and  thus  inarching  towards  the 
enemy.  Every  column  has  for  its  object  to  pa.ss 
rapidly,  and  Avithoul  confusion,  into  the  order  of 
battle,  to  iia.ss  over  lightly  a  given  space,  and  to 
make  proni])t  dispositions  against  cavalry.  The  col- 
lunn  against  which  these  remarks  are  made  does  noth- 


EZABCH. 


587 


EXAUCTOBATIO. 


ing  of  that  kind,  and  if  it  be  attacked  upon  its  tianks, 
whether  by  cavalry  or  infantry,  it  cannot  fail  to  be 
destroyed.     The  line  of  battle  is  the  true  order  of 
battle.     It  is  also  the  best  order  of  march  when  in 
range  of  cannon  and  not  exposed  to  cavalry.     It  is 
only  in  this  order  that  infantry  can  make  use  of  its 
lire'     If  battalions  consist  of  800  men  they  will,  in  a 
formation  of  two  ranks,  be  too  much  extended  for 
most  Chiefs  of  Battalions.     Two  companies  of  each 
battalion  ought   then   to  be  formed  as  cohmins  of 
reserve.     The  order  in  two  ranks  is  beyond  question 
best  suited,  in  oblique  attacks,  for  that  part  of  the 
line  not  to  be  engaged;  and  with  rifle-muskets  now 
u.sed  the  two-rank  formation  will  be  found  better  for 
that  part  of  the  line  which  is.  to  strike  also.     Even 
with  old  maskets  the  two-rank  formation  was  used  by 
the  British  very  successfully  at  Waterloo  in  squares 
■  against  cavalry.     The  tire  in  two-rank  formation  is 
made  with  more  order,  more  easily,  and  is  better 
aimed.     The  march  in  line  of  battle  ought  to  be  em-  j 
ployed  whenever  the  ground  permits  it,  within  1000 
yards  of  the  enemy.     We  lo.se  then  fewer  men  by  [ 
cannon;  and  even  if  it  be  desirable  to  approach  the  ! 
enemy  in  column  (which  is  verj'  rare,  and  should  j 
even  then  be  in  columns  of  single  battalions),  the 
march  ought  still  to  be  in  line  of  battle  until  within  ' 
two  hundred  yards,  and  then  the  column  of  attack  | 
ought  to  be  formed  while  marching.     Troops  cannot  [ 
be  too  much  exercised  in  marching  in  line  of  battle. 
This  march  is  no  more  difficult  than  the  march  of 
many  heads  of  columns  upon  the  s:ime  line,  perhaps 
even  less  so,  for  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  between  the 
columns  the  intervals  neces.sary  for  deployments.         | 

Cfiangrg  of  front  very  near  the  enemy  are  rarely 
perpendicular.  The  new  front  nearly  always  forms 
with  the  line  of  battle  an  acute  angle.  In  "this  case 
it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  breaking  the  battalions 
into  column.  It  is  better  to  use  the  changes  of  direc- 
tion for  the  line  of  battle  prescribed  by  the  tactics. 
The  two  pivot  battalions  may  be  thrown  upon  the 
new  line  by  companies  half-faced  to  the  right  or  left.  [ 
The  other  battalions  ought  to  be  directed  upon  the  , 
new  line  by  chinges  of  direction  which  would  least 
expose  them  to  artillery.  If,  however,  we  have  to 
guard  against  cavalry  during  the  execution  of  the 
movement,  it  will  be  better  to  break  into  column  the 
battalions  of  the  leading  wing.  They  will  thus  form 
the  stem  of  the  battery,  and  would  rapidly  make  good 
dispositions  against  lavalry,  as  they  woidd  only  be 
■obliged  to  close  in  mass  upon  the  Grenadiers  and  form 
square.  Changes  of  front  forward  are  possible  imtler  | 
fire,  but  changes  of  front  to  the  rear  are  not  so.  I 
believe,  says  JIarshal  Bugcatid,  that  the  loss  of  one 
of  our  battles  in  Spain  may,  in  great  part,  be  attribu- 
ted to  a  change  of  front  in  rear  of  the  left  wing, 
which  was  attempted  at  a  moment  when  warmly  en- 
giiged.  The  movement  rapidly  degenerated  into  a 
rout;  aud  it  could  ilot  be  otherwise.  There  are  no 
troops  with  sufficient  sniig-froid  and  self-possession  to 
make  thai  movement  under  the  tire  of  ball  and  grape. 
To  make  the  movement  it  is  necessary  first  to  stop  the 
enemy,  and  the  means  of  doing  that  vary  with  cir- 
cumstances and  the  resources  within  our  command.  \ 
Charges  of  cavalrj'— above  all  if  the}'  threaten  the 
flanks  of  the  enemy's  line — would  cover  the  change  of 
front  to  the  rear.  If  cavalry  be  not  at  hand,  there  is 
no  l)etter  means  than  to  advance  the  .second  line  to 
the  position  that  it  is  desired  that  the  front  should  oc- 
cupy after  its  change  of  front,  and  withdraw  the  tirst 
line  at  a  run,  directing  it  to  form  the  second  line, 
passing  through  the  intervals  of  the  battalions,  now 
become  the  tirst  line.  If  a  line  is  about  coming  up 
with  the  enemy  at  the  moment  of  receiving  the  order 
to  change  front,  it  would  be  better  to  finish  the  charge, 
by  putting  the  first  line  of  the  enemy  in  rout  before 
executing  the  movement  to  the  rear.  This  last  prin- 
ciple is  applicable  to  retrejits  generally:  it  is  often 
neces.sary  to  overthrow  an  enemy  who  is  too  nigli  be- 
fore retiring.  Kunning  movements  may.  in  many 
.cases,  save  us  from  destruction.    It  is  ncces-sary,  then, 


I  to  exercise  troops  in  such  movements,  and  make  them 

I  rim  in  disorder,  and  re-fonn  at  some  given  point. 

I  The  order  in  lehdons  is  the  maneuver  of  oblique  at- 
tacks.    By  that  means  we  approximate  these  troops 

,  only  who  are  to  fight.  The  remainder  are  at  once 
threatening  and  defensive.  They  hold  in  check  one 
or  many  parts  of  the  order  of  battle  of  the  enemy, 
and  present  the  best  possible  protection  to  the  attack- 
ing portion.  Some  echelons  to  the  right  and  left  of 
that  which  attacks  arc  greiitly  lietter  than  any  other 
support.  They  render,  if  not  impossil)le,  at  least 
verj-  difficult  aii  attack  upon  the  flank  of  the  attack- 

j  ing  portion,  as  that  cannot  be  assailed  without  the 
enemy  in  turn  l)eing  taken  in  flank  l)y  echelons.  And 

1  the  latter  cannot  be  turned  except  by  strong  move- 
ments, which  must  weaken  the  army  executing  them, 
and  also  afford  neces.sarv  time  to  guard  against  them. 
Instead  of  placing  flank  brigades  in  advance  of  the 

'  front  of  the  colunuis  or  lines  that  they  protect,  it  is 

j  better  to  place  them  in  rear.  Besides  the  physical 
advantages  of  this  disposition,  there  are  moral  advan- 

I  tages,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  position  enables  the 

!  echelons  to  a.s.sail,  whereas  if  thev  were  immediately 

j  on  the  flank  of  the  attack  they  might  l)e  assailed.  In 
theory,  echelons  are  placed  at  regular  distances.     In 

'  practice,  the  distance  is  determined  by  circumstances, 

I  and  above  all  by  the  formation  of  the  ground.     The 

[  regularity  of  echelons  can,  therefore,  only  exist  in 
broad  plains.  The  greater  or  less  distance  between 
echelons  depends  upon  the  number  of  troops,  the  dis- 
tances betn-een  those  of  the  enemy,  and  the  ulterior 
views  of  the  General-in-Chief;  but  in  general  they 

I  ought  to  be  within  mutual  succor,  and  if  cavalry  is  to 
be  repulsed,  they  ought  to  cross  fire  at  about  1.50 
paces  after  ha\ing  formed  square.  The  different 
movements  of  echelons,  the  changes  of  front  in  each 
echelon,  with  the  same  angle,  aie  very  useful  in  war  ; 
it  is  necessary,  therefore,  t1iat  troops"  should  be  exer- 
cised in  such  movements.  See  Ma  m  n  nm. 
EXARCH.— The  title  fii-st  conferred  by  .Justinian  on 

j  his  Commander-in  Chief  and  the  Vicegerent  in  I'aly. 

I  The  conquest  of  Italy  by  tlie  Goths  in  the  early  part 
of  the  sixth  century  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  Byzan- 
tine pride;  and  Justinian  determined  to  wipe  out  the 
disgrace  and  recover  the  imixrial  territories.  The 
execution  of  this  project  was  intrusted  at  first  to 
Belisarius,  and  afterwards  to  Narses,  by  whom  the 
reconquest  of  Italy  was  effected.  The  latter  was  the 
first  who  l)ore  the  title  of  Exarch;  and  the  district 
over  which  he  ruled  was  called  the  Exarchate.     The 

I  .seat  of  the  Exarchs  was  Rjivenna,  the  different  towns 
and  territories  belonging  to  them  being  governed  bj' 
subordinate  rulers,  styled  Duces  or  Dukes.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  Exarchate,  however,  wjis  by  degrees  di- 
miiiished.  until  it  embraced  only  the  country  about 
Ravenna,  llie  present  Komagna,  and  the  coasts  of 
Rimini  as  far  as  Ancona.  This  was  brought  about 
partly  by  the  conquests  of  the  Longobanls,  partly  by 
the  Dukes  of  Venice  and  Naples  making  themselves 
independent.  In  the  year  Ti.Seven  this  small  portion 
fell,  for  a  short  time."  into  the  hands  of  the  Longo- 
bards.     In  ~,'fi  Astulf.  or  Astolphus.  Kingof  the  Lon- 

\  gobards.  put  an  end  to  the  Byzantine  rule  at  Ravenna; 
but  in  T.").'5  he  was  comjielled"  to  resign  the  Exarchate 
to  Pepin  the  Less,  King  of  the  Franks,  who  gave  it 
over  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  Stejihanus  II. — In  the 
Christian  Church  Exarch  was  originally  a  title  of  the 
Bishops,  afterward  of  a  Bishop  who  pres"ided  over  seve- 
ral others — a  Primate.  It  was  Iwrnc  by  the  Bishops 
of  Alexandria.  Antioch.  Ephesus,  Ciesjirea.  and  Con- 
stantinople, till  it  was  tinally  exchanged  for  the  title 
of  Patriarch.  A  Superior  over  several  monasteries 
was  also  called  in  ancient  times  an  Exarch.  The 
same  title  is  also  borne,  in  the  modern  Greek  Church, 
bv  the  person  who  "visits"  oflicially.  as  a  sort  of 
L"e,g!ite  of  the  Patriarch,  the  clergy  and  churches  in 
a  Province. 

EXAUCTORATIO.  — In  the  Roman  military  disci- 
pline, this  differed  from  the  mixiio,  which  was  a  full 
discharge,  iuid  occurred  after  soldiers  had  served  in 


EXCAVATOE. 


588 


EXCAVATOB. 


the  amiv  20  years;  whereas  the  eJ-a>ictoratio  was  only 
a  partial  discharge;  they  lost  their  pay,  indeed,  biit 


still  kept  under  their  covers  or  vexilla,  tliouch  not 
under  the  acjuilla  or  eagle,  which  was  the  standard  of 


the  Legion;  whence,  instead  of  Lcgionarii,  they  were 
called  Hubgignarii,  and  were  retained  until  they  had 
either  served  their  full  tinie  or 
had  lands  assigned  them.  The 
cxauctoratio  took  place  after  they 
had  served  17  years. 

EXCAVATOE.— A  machine  for 
digging  earth  anil  removing  the 
same  from  holes.  It  is  usually 
mounted  on  a  carriage  which  tra- 
verses on  a  temporary  track.  At 
one  end  of  the  frame  is  a  crane, 
which  has  a  circular  adjustment 
on  its  axial  post.  To  the  end  of 
the  chain-lackle  is  suspended  a 
scoop  made  of  lioiler  iron,  w  hose 
lip  is  a  .xteel  etige  with  lingers. 
Direction  is  given  to  the  scoop  by 
means  of  a  bciim  which  may  be 
called  the  .sct)op  handle,  and  when 
the  scoop  has  been  thrust  by  its 
weight  into  the  earth,  the  beam 
iiffords  a  fulcrum  on  which  the 
scoop  rotiites  when  the  tackle- 
chain  is  wound  uji  on  the  drum 
by  the  action  of  llie  steam-engine. 
The  excavated  earth  along  some 
parts  of  the  line  of  the  Suez  Canal 
was  transported  by  means  of  a 
pump.  By  the  aid  of  a  steam- 
pump  water  was  tnixed  with  the 
earth  l)iought  up  by  the  dredge, 
and  the  mud  so  formed  was  spout- 
ed out  upon  both  banks  of  the 
canal  to  such  distance  and  in  such 
quantities  as  to  form  high  compact 
ramparts  against  the  sand-showers 
blowing  in  from  the  desert.  Nine- 
ty-six million  cubic  yards  of  earth 
liave  been  thus  taken  out.  The 
accompanying  detailed  drawings 
show  the  side  and  end  elevations 
of  a  land-excavator  such  as  is  used 
by  the  Panama  Canal  Company, 
now  engiiged  in  carrying  out  M. 
de  Lesseps'  bold  undertaking  of 
constructing  a  canal  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  This  ma- 
chine is  built  by  the  Osgood  Dredge 
Company,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  is 
destined  not  only  to  revolutionize 
the  past  systems  of  excavating,  but 
in  consequence  of  its  adaptjibility 
and  etTecti\enc.ss  will  |ilay  an  im- 
portant )iart  in  the  construction  of 
tield  ;in(l  hasty  fortitications.  An 
examination  of  the  drawing  will 
show  that  the  superiority  of  the 
design  lies  in  the  admirable  dis- 
tribution of  the  working  strains, 
i\  ly'l'       ^      ''-^   which  most  of  them  are  sent 

\  It       5      directly    to   the  groiuid  through 

I  "^     I  y      ■=      '^'^  A-frame  and  jack-screws;   in 
(fl7-y    IIhI      S      "'c   l>lacing  of  a   spring   in    the 
l)oom-cliain.   thereby  diminishing 

DT7\    nirt,  the  shocks  which  would  otherwise 

1/  \     tIII  f""**  unimpeded  to   the  A-frame, 

>( -^     f'  thus  prolonging  the  life  of  the  ma- 

^"  chine.    The  A-frame  and  boom  are 

hinged,  and  can  be  lowered  l)y 
sleiiiu -power  on  a  platfonn-car,  in 
front  of  1  he  excavator;  the  machin- 
ery biing  mounted  on  a  car  of 
standiinl  gauge,  the  excavator  can 
then  lie  ])iit  in  any  freight-train. 
The  machines  can  also  be  used  as 
wrecking  or  derrick  cars.  They  are 
self-propelling.  The  dippers  are 
made  of  plate-stal  with  Knli,l  >,/,',  I  l,-,  t/i  reaching  nearly 
to  the  bottom  of  the  dipper.     The  teeth  are  bolted  on, 


EXCHANGE  OF  PRISONERS. 


589 


EXECUTION  OF  LAWS. 


and  can  readily  be  removed  in  order  to  have  them 
sharpened.  The  sheave-shaft.s,  .stay-rod  pins,  etc.,  are 
of  Hied.  The  booms  and  A  -  frames  are  made  of 
angle-iron,  strongly  braced,  stayed,  and  riveted  to- 
gether. By  means  of  the  boom-chain,  the  boom  can 
be  adjusted  to  high  or  low  lifts.  A  light  iron  frame- 
work with  corrugated  iron  roof,  or  a  wooden  house, 
as  may  be  preferred,  shelters  the  engineer  and  fireman. 
Attached  to  the  car  is  an  iron  tank  for  supplying  the 
boiler  with  water.  This  is  placed  under  the  car  and 
contains  alx)ut  .loO  gallons.  The  fact  that  the  ma- 
chineiy  is  mounted  on  a  car  having  spring  trucks  is 
of  great  advantage  to  the  life  of  the  machine.  The.se 
trucks  give  great  elasticity  and  offer  a  favorable  contrast 
to  the  rigidity  of  many  of  the  ordinary  steam-shovels. 
Agiiin,  the  fact  that  the  car  has  eif/ht  wheels  gives  to  the 
machine  a  much  larger  bearing  surface  and  gives  less 
trouble  in  settling  on  the  track,  while  it  is  at  work, 
than  does  the  ordinary  steam-shovel.  This  i>oint  will 
be  appreciated  as  one  of  great  importance  by  any 
one  who  has  had  experience  in  the  practical  work- 
ing of  excavators.  This  is  considered  the  best  way  to 
mount  an  excavator.  In  operation  the  weight  is  taken 
off  the  fonvaril  trucks  by  means  of  the  jack-screws. 
Each  jack  screw  is  supplied  with  a  ratchet-wrench. 
The  hoisting,  the  swinging,  and  the  working  of  the 
dipper-handle  areall  accomplished  throvigh  theagency 
of  friction.  There  is  no  rack-and-pinion  arrange- 
ment. The  manner  of  construction — entirely  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  ordinary  crane-machine — permits 
the  use  of  a  much  larger  power  than  could  be  put  in 
a  crane-escavator.  The  boom  arrangement  permits 
digging  farther  in  advance  of  the  machine  than  is  pos- 
sible with  the  crane  excavator.  While  this  machine 
can  make  moves  ahead  of  eight  feet,  the  move  ahead 
of  the  ordinary  steam-shovel  is  only  four  feet.  This 
excavator  thus  saves  one  half  of  the  time  occupied  in 
moving.  The  speed  of  the  machine  in  sand  or  gravel  is 
three  dippers  per  minute.  In  hard  mdtvrial  it  ha.s 
a  great  superiority  over  crane-excavators,  because  of 
the  great  power  and  its  being  much  more  efticiently 
applied.  For  use  in  hard-panthe  dipper  is  especially 
designed.  The  excavator  has  two  independent  pairs 
of  engines.  The  main  engines  are  for  pulling  the 
dipper  through  the  bank  and  for  swinging  the  turn- 
table, which  latter  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
independent  friction-drums.  On  the  turn-table  is 
a  pair  of  coupled  engines  which  revolve  with  the  turn- 
table. They  operate  a  drum  around  which  winds  a 
chain  and,  the  chain  being  properly  attached  to  the 
dipper-handle,  run  the  handle  out  and  in  with  great 
rapidity  and  case.  They  hold  the  dipper  to  its  work 
while  the  main  engines"  are  pulling  it  through  the 
bank.  These  engines  are  supplied  with  steam  t  hrough 
a  universid  joint,  thus  doing  away  with  ^cr/Afc  ;«;«», 
which  are  liable  to  Imrst,  to  cause  delay,  and  to  scald 
the  cranesman.  The  boilers  are  upright  ones,  of 
sufficient  capacity  for  the  work  to  be  performed,  and 
are  made  so  that  "the  cones  and  stacks  can  be  taken 
off  to  enable  the  excavator  to  go  under  bridges.  See 
Drei}'fui  (j-iii«ch  iiw. 

EXCHANGE  OF  PRISONERS.— Exchanges  of  pris- 
oners take  jilace,  number  for  number,  rank  for  rank, 
wounded  for  wounded,  with  added  condition  for 
added  condition,  such,  for  instance,  as  not  to  serve 
for  a  certain  period. 

In  exchangins  prisoners  of  war,  such  numlK?rs  of 
persons  of  inferior  rank  may  1»  substituted  as  an 
equivalent  for  one  of  superior  rank  as  may  be  agreed 
upon  by  cartel,  which  requires  either  the  sanction  of 
the  Goveniment  or  of  the  Commander  of  the  Array  in 
the  field. 

A  prisoner  of  war  is  in  honor  bound  truly  to  state 
to  the  captor  his  rank;  and  he  is  not  lo  assume  a  lower 
rank  than  belongs  to  him  in  order  to  cause  a  more 
advantageous  exchange,  nor  a  higher  rank  for  the 
purjiose  of  obtaining  better  treatment.  OtTenses  to 
the  contrary  have  been  justly  pimishcd  by  the  Com- 
manders of  released  prisoners,  and  may  be  good  cause 
for  refusing  to  release  such  prisoners. 


The  surplus  number  of  prisoners  of  war  remaining 
after  an  exchange  hsis  taken  place  is  sometimes  re- 
leased either  for  the  payment  of  a  stipulated  sum  of 
money,  or,  in  urgent  ca.ses,  of  provisions,  clothing,  or 
other  necessaries.  Such  arrangement,  however,  re- 
quires the  sanction  of  the  highest  authority. 

The  exchange  of  prisoners  of  war  is  an  act  of  con- 
venience to  both  belligerents.  If  no  general  cartel 
has  been  concluded,  it  cannot  be  demanded  by  either 
of  them.  No  belligerent  is  obliged  to  exchange  pris- 
oners of  war. 

No  exchange  of  prisoners  should  be  made  except 
after  complete  capture,  and  after  an  accurate  account 
of  them  and  a  list  of  the  captured  officers  lias  been 
taken.     See  Oirttl,  Parole,  and  Pri»<)nrri!  of  ]Var. 

EXCHANGES. — Certain  arrangements  made  between 
officers  of  tlic  English  army.  An  officer  may  exchange, 
or  change  places,  in  the  Guards  or  Line,  with  another 
of  equal  rank  in  any  regiment  of  the  above  Cor])s  by 
mutual  consent,  and  sul)jccl  to  the  approval  of  the 
Minister  of  War,  and  on  payment  of  a  sum  agreed 
upon  between  the  officers.  On  the  abolition  of  the  sys- 
tem of  purchasing  commissions  in  1871,  the  sum  paid 
in  effecting  an  exchange  was  limited  to  the  actual  cost 
thrown  upon  the  officer  exchanging.  In  view,  how- 
ever, of  the  general  wish  of  the  army,  a  bill  was  in- 
troduced into  Parliament  in  1874(but"was  Avitlidrawn 
as  regards  that  session)  to  render  again  legal  the  pay- 
ment of  money  as  a  bonus  for  exchanges.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  (187.5)  the  bill,  having  been  again  brought 
forward,  was  passed.  As  each  of  the  exchan^g  of- 
ficci  J  enters  his  new  Corps  at  the  bottom  of  his  nmk, 
exchange  benefits  officers  who  stick  to  their  regiment 
by  advancing  them  towards  the  top  of  the  list,  and 
therefore  nearer  to  promotion.  An  officer  on  full  |)ay 
may  exchange  with  another  on  half  pay,  proWded  a 
yoiinger  life  be  not  thereby  added  to  the  half-pay  list, 
iuid  subject  always  to  the  "consent  of  the  Secretary  for 
War.  Exchanges  are  ordinarily  arranged  by  the  Ar- 
my Agents.     Sec  Transfer. 

EXCUBia;. — In  ancient  warfare,  the  watches  and 
guards  kept  in  the  day  by  the  Roman  .soldiers.  They 
diffend  from  the  cig'ilue,  which  were  always  kept  in 
the  niu'ht. 

EXECUTION.— Military  execution  is  the  pillaging 
or  plundering  of  a  country  by  the  enemy's  army.  It 
also  means  every  kind  of"  punishment  inflicted  in  the 
army  bv  the  sentence  of  a  Court-.Martial.  which  is  of 
vari"ous"  kinds,  includmg  putting  a  soldier  to  death  by 
shooting  him,  which  is  the  ordinary  punishment  of 
deserters  to  the  enemy,  mutineers,  etc.  This  form  of 
death  is  considered  less  disgraceful  than  hanging  by 
the  neck.  In  some  rare  instances  blowing  from  the 
mouth  of  a  gun  has  been  resorted  to. 

EXECUTION  OF  LAWS.— On  all  occa.sions  when 
the  tnwips  are  employed  in  restoring  or  maintaining 
public  order  among  "their  fellow-citizens,  the  use  of 
amis,  and  pai-ticularly  fire-arms,  is  obviously  attended 
with  loss  of  life  or  limb  to  iirivate  individuals;  and 
for  these  consequences  a  military  man  may  be  called 
to  stand  at  the  bar  of  a  Cruninal  Court.  A  private 
soldier  also  may  occasionally  be  detached  on  special 
duty,  with  the  necessity  of  e"xercising  discretion  as  to 
the  "use  of  his  arms;  and  in  such  ca.ses  he  is  rt>s|X)n- 
sible,  like  an  officer,  for  the  right  use  or  exercisi-  of 
such  discretion.  One  of  the  earliest  reiwrted  cases 
on  this  subject  occurred  in  173.5,  when  Thomas  Jlac- 
adam,  a  Private  Sentinel,  and  James  Long,  a  Coqwral, 
were  tried  before  the  Admiralty  Court  of  Scotland, 
upon  a  charire  of  murder  under  the  following  circum- 
stances: They  were  ordered  to  attend  some  custom- 
house officers,  fort  heir  protection  in  making  a  leg-al 
s(>izure;  and  beins  in  a  boat  with  the  officers  in  quest 
of  the  contraband  coods,  one  Frazer  and  his  compan- 
ions came  up  with  them,  leaped  into  the  boat,  and 
endeavored  to  distirm  the  soldiers.  In  the  scuffle  the 
prisoners  stablwd  Frazer  with  their  bayonets,  and 
threw  him  into  the  sea.  For  this  homicide  the  pris- 
oners were  tried  and  con\-icted  of  murder  by  a  juir; 
and  the  Judge  Admiral  sentenced   them  to  death. 


EXECUTION  OF  LAWS. 


590 


EXECUTION  OF  LAWS. 


But  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary  reversed  this  judg- 
nu'iit.  on  the  irroimd  that  the  homicide  in  (|Ucstion 
was  iiccessiirv  for  sicuriiisr  the  execution  of  the  Irusl 
coniinitted  t<>  llie  prisonci-s.  The  report  of  this  case 
fonluius  the  fi)lU(\ving  remarks  upon  it  l)y  Jlr. 
Forbes,  afterwards  Lord  President  of  the  Court  of 
Session  of  Seotlaiitl:  and  they  appear  to  be  of  jrreat 
importance  to  military  men:  '•  Wiierc  a  man  has  by 
Uiir  \veai>ons  put  into  his  hands,  to  be  employed  not 
only  in  defensi"  of  his  life  when  attacked,  but  in  sup- 
port of  the  cxe<-ulion  of  the  laws,  and  in  defense  of 
the  properly  of  the  Crown,  and  the  liberty  of  any 
sutijecl,  heiloiditless  may  use  those  weapons,  not  only 
whiii  his  own  life  is  put  so  far  in  danger  that  he  can- 
not jirobably  escape  without  making  use  of  them,  but 
also  when  there  is  imminent  danger  that  lie  may  by 
violence  be  disabled  to  execute  his  trust,  without  re- 
sorting to  the  use  of  those  weapons;  but  when  the  life 
of  the  officer  is  exposed  to  no  danger,  when  his  duly 
does  not  necessjirily  call  upon  him  for  the  execution 
of  his  trust,  or  for  the  preservation  of  the  properly  of 
the  Crown,  or  the  preservation  of  the  properly  or  lib- 
erly  of  the  subjecl,  to  make  use  of  mortal  weapons, 
which  may  destroy  His  JIajesty's  subjects,  especially 
numbers  of  them  who  may  be  innocent,  it  is  imijossi- 
ble  from  the  resolution  of  the  Court  of  Justiciary  to 
expect  any  countenance  to,  or  shelter  for,  the  inhu- 
man act."  This  fiuotalion,  in  the  latter  part  of  it, 
has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  case  of  the  unfortunate 
Captain  Porteus,  whose  trial  took  place  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  whose  melancholj-  fate  is  the  ground- 
work of  Sir  Walter  Seotl's  Heitit  of  Mid-Lothiun. 
In  the  year  17;JG  the  Collector  of  Customs  on  the 
coasi  of  Fife  made  a  seizure  of  contraband  goods  of 
considerable  value,  which  were  condemned  and  sold. 
Two  of  the  proprietors  of  these  goods  took  an  oppor 
ttuiity  of  robbing  the  Collector  of  just  so  much  money 
as  these  goods  had  sold  for.  They  regarded  this  as 
merely  a  fair  rcpri-sal  and  no  robbery;  but  they  were 
nevertheless  taken  up,  tried,  and  condemned  to  death 
for  the  fact.  Willi  the  exception  of  some  smuggling 
transactions,  in  which  lliey  had  been  concerned,  the 
prisoners  were  men  of  fair  character;  and  the  mob 
cxpre.s.sed  much  dis.s;itisfaction  with  their  sentence 
and  the  prospect  of  their  execution.  On  the  Sunday 
preceding  the  day  appointed  for  the  execution,  the 
prisoners  were  taken  to  a  church  near  the  jail,  at- 
tended by  only  three  or  four  of  the  City  Guards,  to 
hear  divine  service.  None  of  the  congregation  had 
assembled,  and  the  guards  being  feeble  old  men,  one 
of  the  prisoners  made  a  spring  over  the  pew  where 
they  sat,  while  the  other,  whose  name  was  Wilson,  in 
order  to  facilitate  his  companion's  escape,  caught 
hold  of  two  of  the  guards  with  his  hands,  and  seized 
another  with  his  teeth,  and  thus  enabled  his  compan- 
ion to  join  the  mob  outside,  who  bore  him  off  to  a 
place  of  siifety.  Wilson  then  composedly  resumed 
his  own  seat,  without  making  any  alleiii])!  to  recover 
his  own  lilicrty.  This  generous  conduct  of  Wilson 
created  a  strong  public  feeling  in  his  favor;  and  the 
Magistrates  of  Edinburgh  soon  learned  that  an  at- 
tempt would  Ix"  made  by  the  mob  to  rescue  him  at 
the  place  of  execution.  They  therefore  procured 
some  of  the  regular  forces  on  duty  in  the  suburbs  to 
be  posted  at  a  coiivenieiil  distance  from  the  spot,  so 
as  to  support  the  City  Guard,  in  case  they  .should  be 
vigorously  attacked.  The  ofticer  whose  turn  it  was 
to  do  diity  as  Captain  of  the  City  Guard  Ijeing 
deemed  mitit  for  the  crilical  duties  of  the  day,  Cap- 
tiiin  Porteus,  iinforluiiately  for  himself,  w'as  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  on  the  occasion.  His  men 
were  served  with  liall  <iirlridge;  and,  by  order  of  Ihe 
Magistrates,  they  lo.ided  llieir  pieces  when  Ihey  went 
upon  duty.  The  execution  look  place  wilhout  any 
disturbance  until  the  lime  arrived  for  cutting  down 
the  body,  when  the  mob  severely  ])elted  Ihe  execu- 
tioner will)  stones,  which  hit  the  guards  as  they  sur- 
rounded Ihe  scafToM,  and  ])ro\oked  Ihem  to  tire  upon 
the  crowd.  Some  iiei'sons  at  a  distance  from  Ihe 
place  of  execution  were  thus  killed.     As  soon  as  the 


body  was  removed.  Captain  Porteus  withdrew  his 
nu'ii,  and  marched  up  the  A\'esl  IJow,  which  is  a  nar- 
row winding  passage.  The  mob,  having  recovered 
from  llie  fright  occasioned  liy  the  previous  tiring,  fol- 
lowed the  guard  up  this  pa.s.sage,  and  pelted  the  rear 
with  stones,  which  the  guards  returned  with  some 
dropping  shot,  whereby  some  were  killed  and  others 
woundeil.  On  reaching  the  guaidliouse  Ihey  de- 
posited their  arms  in  Ihe  usual  form,  and  Cajilain 
Porteus  went  with  his  piece  in  his  liand  lo  Ihe  Siuead 
KagU'  Tavern,  w  here  the  Magislrates  were  a.ssenibled. 
On  his  arrival  lliere,  he  was  charged  with  the  muriler 
of  the  persons  who  had  been  slain  by  the  City  Guards, 
on  the  allegation  that  he  had  comnianded  the  guards 
to  lire.  The  mob  was  very  riotous,  and  calleil  for 
justice  upon  him;  and  the  Magislrales,  after adjoum- 
uig  lo  Ihe  Council  Chamber,  comniilled  him  to  the 
Tolboolh  lor  trial.  The  strongest  feeling  existed 
against  him  on  the  part  of  the  mob,  unlil  Ihe  hour  of 
his  trial  before  Ihe  High  Court  of  Justiciary  arrived, 
when,  to  their  great  satisfaction,  he  was  found  guilty, 
and  condemned  lo  be  hanged.  The  higher  classes  of 
society,  however,  unaffected  by  the  popular  jireju- 
dicc  against  Ihe  unfortunate  prisoner,  exerted  Ihem- 
selves  strenuously  iu  his  behalf,  and  succeeded  in 
obtaining  a  reprieve.  This  created  the  grcalesi  dis- 
conlcnt  among  the  lower  orders,  who,  on  the  night 
before  the  day  originally  ap|)ointed  for  the  execution, 
broke  ojicn  the  jail,  dragged  Ihe  unhappy  Captain 
Porteus  downstairs  by  the  heels,  carried  him  to  the 
common  place  of  execution,  and  there,  throwing  a 
rope  over  a  dyer's  pole,  executed  him  wilh  many 
marks  of  Ijarbaritj'.  The  perpetrators  of  this  outrage 
were  never  discovered,  and  the  subject  gave  ri.se  to 
very  warm  debates  in  Parliament,  jiarlicularly  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  with  respect  to  the  conduct  of  the 
City  JIagistrates  and  Officers.  It  was  (juite  clear, 
however,  with  reference  to  the  criminality  of  Cajitain 
Porteus,  that  he  had  ordered  his  men  lo  tire  wilhout 
sufficient  cause  or  justification;  and,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, he  was  in  point  of  the  law  justly  fouml 
guilty  of  murder. 

Ensigii  Hugh  JIa.vwell,  of  the  Lanarkshire  Militia, 
was  tried  in  1807,  before  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary 
of  Scotland,  for  the  murder  of  Charles  Cottier,  a 
French  prisoner  of  war  at  Greenlaw,  by  improiicrly 
ordering  John  Gow,  a  Private  Sentinel,  to  tire  into  Ihe 
room  where  Cottier  and  other  prisoners  were  confined, 
and  so  causing  him  to  be  morlally  wounded.  It  ap- 
peared that  Ensign  Maxwell  had  been  appointed  to 
the  military  guard  over  300  prisoners  of  war,  chiefly 
taken  from  French  privateers.  The  building  in 
which  they  were  confined  was  of  no  great  strength, 
and  alforded  some  possibililies  of  escape.  The  pris- 
oners were  of  a  very,  turbulent  character,  and  to  pre- 
vent their  escape  during  the  long  winter  nights  an 
order  was  given  that  all  lights  in  the  jirison  should  be 
put  out  by  nine  o'clock,  and  thai  if  this  was  not  done 
at  the  second  call  the  guard  were  to  tire  upon  the 
prisoners,  who  were  often  warned  that  Ihis  would  be 
Ihe  consequence  of  disobedience  wilh  regard  to  the 
lights.  ( )n  the  night  in  question  there  was  a  tumult 
in  Ihe  prison,  but  of  no  great  importance;  and  En- 
sign Maxwell's  attention  liaving  lieen  on  that  account 
drawn  lo  the  prisoners,  he  observed  a  light  Inirning 
lieyond  the  appointed  hour,  and  twice  ordered  it  to 
be  i)ut  out.  'This  order  not  being  obcycil,  he  ordered 
the  sentry  to  tire,  liul  the  musket  merely  snapped. 
He  repeated  the  order;  the  sentinel  tired  again,  and 
Cottier  received  his  mortal  wound.  Al  Ihis  time 
there  was  no  .symptom  of  disorder  in  the  iirison,  and 
the  prisonei's  were  all  in  bed.  The  general  inslruc- 
tions  issued  from  the  AdjulanI  General's  Office  in 
Edinburgh,  for  llie  conduct  of  Ihe  troops  guarding 
the  prison,  contained  no  such  onU'ras  that  which  En- 
sign Maxwell  had  acted  ujwn;  and  il  appeared  that 
the  f)rder  in  (juestion  was  a  mere  verbal  one,  w  Inch 
had  from  lime  lo  lime,  in  Ihe  hearing  of  Ihe  olliccrs, 
been  repealed  by  Ihe  Corporal  lo  the  .senlries,  on 
mounling  guard,  and  had  never  been  counlermiinded 


EXECUTION  OF  LAWS. 


591 


EXECUTION  OF  LAWS. 


by  those  officers,  who  were  also  senior  to  Ensign 
Maxwell.  The  Lord  Justice  Clerk  described  the  case 
to  tlie  jury  as  altogether  the  most  distressing  that  any 
Court  had  ever  been  called  upon  to  consider,  and  laid 
it  down  most  distinctly  that  Ensign  Maxwell  could 
only  defend  himself  by  proving  specific  orders,  which 
he  w!»s  bound  to  obey  without  discretion;  or  by  show- 
ing that  in  the  general  discharge  of  his  duty"  he  was 
placed  in  circumstances  which  gave  him  discretion 
and  called  upon  him  to  do  what  he  did.  His  Lord- 
ship was  of  <)[)inion  that  both  these  grounds  of  de- 
fense failed  in  the  present  case;  and  the  jury  having 
found  Ensign  Ma.xwell  guilty  of  the  minor  offense  of 
culpiible  hoiiiifide,  with  a  recommendation  to  mercy, 
the  Court  sentenced  him  to  nine  months'  imprison- 
ment. Ensign  Maxwell's  conduct  certainly  exhibited 
none  of  those  gross  features  which  characterize  mur- 
der; but  at  the  same  time  he  was  guilty  of  a  rash  and 
inconsiderate  act.  which,  if  he  had  not  been  engaged 
at  the  time  in  military  duly,  though  he  was  mistaken 
in  the  exercise  of  it,  would  probably  have  been  held 
to  amount  to  nnirder.  In  Maxwell's  case,  the  soldier 
who  fired  the  shot  was  not  prosecuted  for  the  act,  nor 
was  he  lialile  to  such  prosecution. 

It  is  laid  down  that  if  a  ship's  sentinel  shoot  a 
man  because  he  persists  in  approaching  the  ship 
when  he  has  been  ordered  not  to  do  so,  it  will  be 
murder,  unless  such  an  act  was  necessary  for  the 
ship's  safety.  And  it  will  be  murder,  though  the 
sentinel  had  orders  to  prevent  the  approach  of  any 
boats,  bad  ammunition  given  to  him  when  he  was 
put  on  guard,  and  acted  on  the  mistaken  impression 
tliat  it  was  his  duty.  In  Hex  r.  Thomas,  the  prisoner 
was  sentinel  on  board  II. M.S.  Aehille  when  she  was 
pajing  off.  The  orders  to  him  from  the  preceding 
sentinel  were  to  kee])  off  all  boats,  unless  they  had 
officers  in  unifonn  in  them,  or  unless  the  officer  on 
deck  allowed  them  to  approach;  and  he  received  a 
musket,  three  blank  cartridges,  and  three  Ijalls.  The 
boats  pressed,  ujjon  which  he  repeatedly  called  to 
them  to  keep  off;  but  one  of  them  persisted,  and 
came  close  under  the  ship,  and  he  then  fired  at  a  man 
in  the  boat  and  killed  him.  It  was  put  to  the  jury 
to  find  whether  the  sentinel  did  not  fire  under  the 
mistaken  impression  that  it  was  his  duty;  and  they 
found  that  he  did.  But  ttie  ca.se  being  reserved  for 
the  opinion  of  the  Judges,  their  Lordships  were  unani- 
mous that  it  was  murder.  They  thought  it,  however, 
a.  proper  ea.se  for  a  pardon;  and  further,  they  were  of 
opinion  that  if  the  act  had  been  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  the  sliip,  as  if  the  decea-sed  had  been 
mutinous,  the  sentinel  would  have  been  justified. 

The  several  ca.ses  already  cited  turned  upon  the  im- 
proper exercise  of  discretion  by  the  officers  concerned. 
But  in  the  following  case,  tliough  not  attended  with 
actual  consequences  involving  a  criminal  charge,  the 
discretion  in  the  ase  of  arms  was  wisely  exercised, 
and  indicated  great  presence  of  mind  and  correctness 
of  judgment.  Some  years  ago  the  public  journals 
of  London  recorded  the  meritorious  behaWor  of  a 
Private  Sentr)%  upon  the  occasion  of  a  riotous  mob  a.s- 
sembled  at  the  entrance  of  Downing  Street,  with  the 
intention  of  attacking  the  Government  Offices  in  that 
quarter  of  the  town!  This  man  standing  alone  pre- 
sented his  musket,  and  threatened  to  fire  upon  the 
crowd  if  the  slightest  attempt  were  made  to  approach 
tlie  particular  office  for  the  defense  of  which  he  was 
placed  on  duty,  and  succeeded  by  the  terror  thus 
created,  though  at  a  great  risk  of  consequences  to 
himself,  in  keeping  the  rioters  at  bay  until  a  larger 
force  arrived  to  assist  him.  The  soldier's  conduct 
was  put)licly  much  approved.  It  was  also  cU«rly 
legal  accorrling  to  Macadam's  case;  and  if  after  the 
announcement  of  his  intentions  the  mob  had  pressed 
forward  to  execute  their  purpose,  he  would  have  been 
held  justified  at  law  in  firing  at  the  rioters  uix>n  his 
own  responsibility.  The  Duke  of  Wellington,  as 
Constable  of  the  ^Tower.  testified  his  marked  appro- 
bation of  this  man's  conduct,  by  promoting  him  at 
once  to  a  'W'ardership  at  that  fortress.     During  the 


Irish  insurrection  of  1&48  Smith  O'Brien  was  arrested 
at  the  railway  station  of  Thurles,  on  a  charge  of  higti 
treason.  A  public  pas.senger-tniin  was  on  the  point 
of  starting  for  Dublin,  and  the  engineer  was  mounted 
on  the  engine,  with  the  steam  up,  and  everything  in 
readiness  for  the  immediate  prosecution  of  the  jour- 
ney. The  scene  of  the  aiTCSt  lay  in  the  disturbed 
district,  which  was  in  the  occupation  of  the  lrooi)s 
em])loj"ed  to  suppress  the  insurrection  and  prevent  its 
extension.  General  Macdonald's  Aide-de-Canip,  hav- 
ing fieen  apprised  of  the  arrest,  proceeded  instantly 
to  the  station,  and  there  commanded  the  engineer  to 
dismount  from  the  engine  and  to  stop  the  train;  it 
being  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  public  siifety 
and  service  that  the  news  of  the  arrest  should  not  be 
carried  along  the  line  of  railway,  as  the  country  peo- 
ple might  assemble  m  great  numbers  and  destroy  the 
rails,  and  rescue  the  priw^ner,  or  otherwise  impeilc 
the  conveyance  of  the  prisoner  to  Dublin.  Such  in- 
terference would  obviously  have  occitsioned  great 
loss  of  life,  besides  the  danger  to  the  public  service 
at  such  a  season.  The  engineer  at  first  refased  to 
obey  the  Aide-de-Camp's  orders,  whereupon  the  offi- 
cer presented  his  pistol  at  the  engineer,  and  threatened 
him  with  instant  death  if  he  persisted  in  his  refusjil. 
Tile  man  then  dismounted;  l)ut  it  is  conceived  that 
the  officer  pursued  a  correct  line  of  conduct,  and  ex- 
ercised upon  the  occasion  a  sound  discretion,  which 
would  have  l)een  a  good  legal  defense  to  him  if  he 
had  ultimately  proceeded  to  execute  his  threat  iqwn 
the  engineer."  "Power  in  law"  (savs  Sir  Edward 
Coke)  "  means  power  with  force."  'the  right  of  offi- 
cers or  soldiers  to  interfere  in  quelling  ii  fclimioua  riot, 
whether  with  or  without  superior  mililaiT  ordeis,  or 
the  direction  of  a  Civil  Magislnitc,  is  (juite  clear  and 
beyond  the  possiliility  of  mistake.  This  suljject, 
however,  was  formerly  little  un<lerstood;  and  mili- 
tarj-  men  failed  in  their  public  duty  through  excess 
of  caution. 

George  III.  and  his  Attorney  General  (Wedder- 
burn)  both  deservedly  acquired  high  credit  for  their 
energy  in  the  crisis  of  the  riots  of  1780.  When  the 
King  heard  that  the  troops  which  had  been  marched 
in  from  all  quarters  were  of  no  avail  in  restoring 
order,  on  account  of  a  scruple  that  they  could  not  Ije 
ordered  to  fire  till  an  hour  after  the  Riot  Act  had 
been  read,  he  called  a  Cal)inet  Coimcil,  at  which  he 
himself  presided,  and  proiJounded  for  their  considera- 
tion the  legality  of  this  opinion.  There  was  nmcli 
hesitation  among  the  Councilors,  as  they  remembered 
the  outcry  that  had  been  made  l>y  rea.s<m  of  some 
deaths  from  the  interference  of  the  military  in  Wilke's 
riots,  and  the  eagerness  with  which  Grand-juries  had 
found  indictments  for  murder  a^piinst  those  who  had 
acted  under  the  command  of  their  superiors.  At  last 
the  question  was  put  to  the  Attorney  General,  who 
attended  as  Assessor,  and  he  gave  a  clear,  unhesitat- 
ing, and  unqualified  answer  to  the  effect,  that  if  the 
mot)  were  committing  a  felony,  as  by  burning  down 
dwelling-houses,  and  could  not  fie  prevented  from 
(loing  so  by  other  means,  the  militan,-,  according  to 
the  law  of  fengland,  might  and  ought  to  be  ordered  to 
fire  upon  them;  the  reading  of  the  Riot  Act  Ix-ing 
wholly  unncecssfiry  and  nugatory  under  such  circum- 
stances. The  exact  words  used" liy  him  on  this  o<ca- 
.sion  are  not  known;  but  they  mus't  have  iK'en  nearly 
the  same  which  he  employed  when  he  shortly  after- 
wards expounded  from  the  judgment-scat  the  tnie 
doctrine  upon  the  subject.  The  requisite  orders  were 
is,sued  to  the  troops,  the  confiagrations  were  stopped, 
and  tranquillity  was  speedily  restored.  This  eminent 
lawyer  having" become  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of 
Coinmon  Pleas,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Loughlwrough, 
delivered  a  charge  to  the  Grand-jury  on  the  special 
eommi.ssion  for  the  trial  of  the  rioters  of  1780,  m  the 
following  terms:  "  I  lake  this  public  opportunity  of 
mentioning  a  fatal  mistake  into  which  many  persons 
have  fallen.  It  has  been  iinainncd.  because  the  law 
allows  an  hour  for  the  dispersion  of  a  moti  to  whom 
the  Riot  Act  has  been  read  by  the  Magistrate,  the 


IXEMPT. 


592 


EXEMPT. 


better  to  support  the  eivil  authority,  that  during  that 
time  the  civil  power  aiul  the  Mainstracy  are  ilisiirmed, 
and  the  Kinir's  subjects,  whose  duty  it  is  at  all  times 
to  suppress  riots,  an'  to  remain  quiet  and  passive. 
Xo  such  meaning  was  within  Wew  of  the  Legislature, 
nor  diM-'S  the  oixTntion  of  the  Act  wamint  such  etTect. 
The  Civil  Magistrates  are  left  in  jwssession  of  all  those 
powers  which  the  law  had  given  them  before.  If  the 
mob  collectively,  or  a  part  of  it,  or  any  indi\idual 
within  or  before" the  expiration  of  that  hour,  attempts, 
or  Ix'gins  to  perix-trate,  an  outrage  aniounting  to  fel- 
ony, to  pull  down  a  liou.se,  or  by  any  other  act  to 
vic'ilale  the  law,  it  is  the  duty  of  all  jtreivnt,  of  what- 
ever description  they  may  be,  to  endeavor  to  stop  the 
mi.schicf,  and  to  apprehend  the  offender."  "  A  riot" 
(says  ilr.  Justice  Gasclee)"  is  not  the  Icssa  riot,  nor  an 
Illegal  meeting,  liecause  the  prochimation  of  the  Riot 
Act  has  not  been  read;  the  etfect  of  that  proclamation 
being  to  make  the  parlies  guilty  of  a  capital  offense 
if  they  do  not  tlispcrse  witliin  an  hour;  but  if  that 
proclamation  be  not  read,  the  common-law  offense 
remains,  and  it  is  a  misdemeanor;  and  all  Magistrates, 
Constables,'  and  even  private  indi\-iduals  are  justified 
in  dispersing  the  offenders;  and  if  they  cannot  other- 
wise succeed  in  doing  so,  they  may  use  force." 
After  the  suppression  ot  the  great  riots  of  London  in 
1780  t)y  the  aid  of  the  troops,  as  already  mentioned, 
the  Govermnent  was  acrimoniously  attacked  both  in 
and  out  of  Parliament,  on  the  ground  that  the  em- 
plojTnent  of  a  mililarj"  force,  to  (jue!!  riots  by  tiring  on 
the" people,  could  only  be  justified,  if  at  all,  by  martial 
law  proclaimed  under  a  special  exercise  of  the  royal 
prerogative;  and  it  was  thence  argued  that  the  nation 
was  living  under  martial  law.  But  Lord  Mansfield ,  the 
Chief  .Justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  addres.scd  the  House 
of  Lords  on  this  subject,  and  placed  it  in  its  true  light. 
"  I  hold  "  (siud  bis  Lordship) "  that  His  JLijesty,  in  the 
orders  he  issued  by  the  advice  of  his  Ministers,  acted 
perfectly  and  strictly  according  to  the  common  law 
of  the  land  and  the  principles  of  the  Constitution. 
....  Every  individual  in  his  private  capacity  may 
lawfully  interfere  to  suppress  a  riot,  much  more  to 
prevent  acts  of  felony,  treason,  and  rebellion.  Not 
only  is  he  authorized  to  interfere  for  such  a  purpose, 
but  it  is  his  duty  to  ilo  so;  and  if  called  upon  by  a 
Magistrate,  he  is  pvun'shable  in  case  of  refusal.  What 
any  single  individual  may  lawfully  do  for  the  pre 
vention  of  crime  and  preservation  of  the  public  peace 
may  be  done  by  any  number  a.ssembled  to  perform 
their  duty  as  good  citizens.  It  is  the  peculiar  basi- 
ness  of  all  Constaljlcs  to  apprehend  rioters,  to  en- 
deavor to  disperse  all  unlawful  a.sscmblies,  and,  in 
ca.se  of  resistance,  to  attack,  wound,  nay,  kill  those 
who  continue  to  resist;  talking  care  not  to  commit 
unnecesiijirj'  \iolence,  or  to  abuse  the  power  legally 
vested  in  them.  Everv'  one  is  justified  in  doing  what 
is  necessjiry  for  the  failhfid  diseliarge  of  the  duties 
annexed  to  his  otfiee,  although  he  is  doubly  culp:djlc 
if  he  wantonly  commits  an  illegal  act  under  the  color 
or  pretext  of  law.  The  persons  who  assisted  in  the 
suppression  of  those  tunudts  are  to  be  considered 
mere  private  individuals  acting  as  duty  rc(i\iired. 
My  Lords,  we  have  not  been  living  under  martial  law, 
but  under  that  law  which  it  has  long  been  my  sacred 
function  to  administer.  For  any  violation  "of  that 
law  the  offenders  arc  ameiialile  toour  ordinary  Courts 
of  .lustiee,  and  may  be  tried  before  a  jury  of  their 
countrymen.  Supposing  a  soldier  or  any  other  mili- 
tary person  who  acted  in  the  course  of  the  late  riots 
had  exceeded  the  power  with  which  he  was  invested, 
I  have  not  a  single  doubt  that  he  may  be  ])imished, 
not  by  a  Courl-Marlial,  but  uivm  an  indictment  to  be 
found  by  the  Grand  Inquest  of  the  City  of  [..ondoii 
or  the  County  of  Miildlesex,  and  disposed  of  bifore 
the  ermined  .Judges  silting  in  .Justice  Ilall  at  the 
Old  Bailcj'.  Con.sequently  the  itlea  is  fal.se  that  we 
are  living  under  a  military  government,  or  that,  since 
the  commencement  of  the  riots,  any  part  of  the  laws 
or  of  the  Constitution  has  been  suspended  or  dis- 
pensed with.     I  believe  that  much  mischief  has  arisen 


from  a  misconception  of  the  Riot  Act,  which  enacts 

that  after  proclamation  made  persons  present  at  a  riot- 
ous assembly  shall  dejiart  to  their  homes;  tho.se  who 
remain  there  al)ove  an  hour  afterwards  shall  be  guilty 
of  felony  and  liable  to  suffer  death.  From  tLis  it 
has  been"  imagined  that  the  military  caimot  act,  what- 
ever crimes  may  lie  committed  in  their  sight,  till  an 
hour  after  such  proclamation  has  been  maile,  or,  as 
it  is  termed,  '  the  Riot  Act  is  read.'  But  the  Riot  Act 
only  introduces  a  new  offense — remaining  an  hour 
after  the  proclamation — without  qualifying  any  pre- 
existing law,  or  abridging  the  means  which  before 
existed  for  preventing  or  punishing  crimes." 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  u.sef ul  to  subjoin  a  General  Or- 
der issued  to  the  Commander-in-Chief  at  Madras,  in 
April,  Wi'h  during  the  government  of  Sir  Thomas 
Munro,  shortly  after  a  melancholy  affair  at  Kiltoor, 
in  which  one  or  two  ci^il  servants  of  the  East  India 
Company  lost  their  lives  under  circumstances  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  public  authorities,  indicated, 
both  in  the  civil  and  military  functionaries,  a  want 
of  general  knowledge  respecting  the  subject  of  the 
order:  "The  Honorable  the  Governor  in  Council 
deems  it  neces,sary  to  lay  down  the  follo\\iug  rulej 
relative  to  the  exercise  of  the  authority  with  which 
Ci\il  Slagistrates,  and  other  ofticers  acting  in  a  similar 
capacity,  are  vested,  for  calling  out  military  force  to 
preserve  the  peace  of  the  country:  1.  The  first  and 
most  important  rule  is,  that  no  Ci\il  Officer  shall  call 
out  troops  until  he  is  con\-inced,  by  mature  considera- 
tion of  all  the  circumstances,  that  such  a  measure  is 
necessary.  3.  When  the  Civil  Officer  is  satisfied  of 
the  necessity  of  the  measure,  he  should,  before  carry- 
ing it  into  execution,  receive  the  sanction  of  Govern- 
ment, unless  the  ilelay  requisite  for  that  purpose  is 
likely  to  prove  detrimental  to  the  public  interests.  In 
that  case,  also,  he  should  fully  report  the  circumstan- 
ces to  Gfovernment.  3.  When  the  Civil  Officer  may 
not  deem  it  .s;ife  to  wait  for  the  orders  of  Government, 
he  should  address  his  requisition  for  troops,  not  to 
any  subordinate  military  officer,  but  to  the  officer 
commanding  the  division,  to  wliom  he  should  com- 
mimicatc  his  object  in  making  it,  and  all  the  infor- 
mation he  may  possess  regarding  the  strength  and  de- 
signs of  those  by  whom  the  public  peace  is  menaced 
or  disturbed.  His  duty  is  confined  to  these  points. 
lie  has  DO  atithoriti/  in  dmrtiiig  milttiry  operations.  4. 
The  officer  commanding  the  troops  has  alone  author- 
ity to  determine  the  number  and  nature  of  those  to  be 
employed,  the  time  and  manner  of  making  the  at- 
tack, and  every  other  operation  for  the  reduction  of 
the  enemy.  .5.  Whetiever  the  officer  commaniling 
the  di\-ision  may  think  the  troops  at  his  disposal  in 
adequate  to  the  enteiprise,  he  should  call  upon  the 
officer  commanding  the  neighboring  division  for  aid, 
and  report  to  Government  and  to  the  Commander-in- 
Chief.  6.  No  Assistant  or  Subordinate  JIagistrate  is 
authorized  to  call  out  troops.  When  any  such  officer 
thinks  military  aid  necc.s.saiy,  he  must  refer  to  his 
Sujicrior,  the  Principal  Magistrate  of  the  district. 
The  foregoing  rules  are  to  be  observed  when  it  can 
be  done  without  danger  to  the  public  siifety.  Should 
any  cxtraordinarj'  ca.se  occur,  which  admits  of  no 
delay.  ci\'il  and  military  officers  must  then  act  ac- 
cording to  the  emergency  and  the  Ix'st  of  their  judg- 
ment. Such  cases,  however,  can  rarely  occur,  tiidess 
when  an  enemy  hecomes  the  a.ssailaut;  and  therefore 
occasion  can  hardly  ever  arise  for  departing  from  the 
regular  course  of  calling  out  troops,  only  by  the  re- 
quisition of  the  principal  Ci\-il  Magistrates  of  the 
Pro\incc,  to  the  officer  commanding  the  divisioix 
Ordered,  that  the  foregoing  resolutions  Ix;  published 
in  General  Orders  to  the  ;inny,and  be  communicated 
for  the  information  and  giudance  of  such  Civil  Offi- 
cers as  they  concern."     See  Posse  C'omitatiis. 

EXEMPT.— A  term  variously  applied  in  military 
matters.  Men  of  certain  age  are  exempt  from  .serv- 
ing in  the  militia.  An  Aide-de-Camp  and  Brigade 
^lajor  are  exempt  from  all  regimental  duties  whUe 
sernng  in  those  capacities.    Officers  on  Courts- Mar- 


EXEBCISE. 


593 


EXPANSIVE  SYSTEM  OF  RIFLING. 


tial  are  sometimes  exempt  from  nil  other  duties  until 
the  Courts  arc  dissolved. 

EXERCISE, — Maneuvering  liodics  of  men  together. 
Tile  drill  of  a  mounted  battery  of  artillery  is  termed 
exercise.  All  such  use  as  the  soldier  is  instructed  in 
in  the  knowledge  of  his  weapon  is  termed  exercise, 
such  as  bayonet-exercise,  tiring-exercise,  lancc-excr- 
cise,  manual,  pistol,  and  sword  exercise.  See  Gi/m- 
iiaxticfi. 

EXHAUSTER. — \n  ajiparatus  used  in  connection 
with  the  emery -grinder  and  similar  machines  to 
carry  off  the  emery-d\ist,  shavuigs,  etc.  The  value  of 
this  excellent  machine  is  highly  ajipreciated  by  those 
who  have  much  work  to  perform  at  the  emery-wheel. 
Emery-dust  set  free  in  a  workshoj)  is  an  intolerable 
nuisance,  and  destructive  to  line  machinery,  even 
though  this  be  sittiated  in  an  adjoining  room.  It  ha.s 
caused  serious  inconvenience  to  the  eyes  as  well  as 
fatal  injurj'  to  the  lungs  of  the  opexator.  In  conse- 
quence these  valuable,  and  now  almost  indispensable, 
assi,stant.s  to  the  iron-worker  are  rejected  by  many 
who,  if  it  were  not  so,  would  be  glad  to  introduce 
them  at  once.     To  tlie  grinder  is  attached  a  small 


but  extra  powerful  exhauster,  which  takes  its  driving 
power  direct  from  the  mandrel  of  the  grinder,  thus 
combining  the  two  tools  in  one — a  saving  in  tiret  cost 
of  construction  to  the  consumer  of  at  least  tifty  per 
cent,  as  the  usual  countershaft,  puUe^-s,  belts,  etc., 
arc  dispensed  with,  without  taking  into  account  the 
economy  of  space,  which  in  itself  is  a  desideratum. 

The  simple  construction  of  this  nuichine  makes  it 
possible  to  be  set  up  in  any  part  of  the  arsenal  con- 
venient to  the  driving-power.  The  icfusc  dust  may 
be  deposited  into  a  small  tank  of  water  immediately 
in  front  of  the  tal)le,  or  it  may  be  conveyed  out  of 
the  building,  either  at  a  window  or  through  an  ordi- 
nary chinmey-tlxie.  As  every  particle  of  dust  is  car- 
ried from  the  stone  as  fast  as  made,  the  eyes  and  ro- 
Bi)iratory  organs  of  the  workman  will  need  no  artificial 
protection.     See  Eriurunrimler. 

EXON.— In  England,  an  ofDcor  of  the  Yoomen  of 
the  Koyal  Guard  fan  exempt. 

EXOSTRE.— The  bridge  of  the  helepole,  or  movable 
tower  of  the  ancients,  by  which  they  passed  upon  a 
wall  during  a  siege.  . 

EXPANDING  PROJECTILES.— Projectiles  of  this 
rla.ss  are  forced  to  lake  the  grooves  by  the  action  of 
the  charge  of  powder,  and  require  no  other  precau- 


tion in  loading  than  spin  ri(  al  shell.  It  is  cs.sential, 
however,  that  the  basi-ring  of  every  rifle-projectile, 
especially  theParrott,  shall  be  greaseil  iK'fore  entering 
it  into  the  gun,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  hard 
deixjsit  in  the  grooves.  Parrott's  projectile  is  com- 
posed of  a  cast-iron  body  and  brass  ring  cast  into  a 
rabbet  formed  around  its  base.  The  ring  is  from  1 
inch  to  li  inch  in  width,  and  about  1  inch  in  maxi- 
mum depth.  The  gas  ])res.'^es  against  the  bottom  of 
the  ring  and  underneath  it,  so  as  to  cx-pand  it  into  the 
grooves  of  the  gun.  To  prevent  the  rinjj  from  turn- 
ing in  the  rabbet,  the  latter  is  rcces.sed  at  several 
points  of  its  circumference,  like  the  teeth  of  gearing. 
The  (liamelcr  of  the  rabbet  is  gieatest  at  the  extreme 
rear  of  the  shot,  so  that  the  brass  ring  cannot  tly  off 
without  breaking.  The  entire  projectile  is  slightly 
smaller  than  the  bore,  so  as  to  be  easily  rammed  home. 
The  projectile  has  a  .slight  groove  turneil  out  of  the 
iron  of  the  ba.se  to  permit  the  powder  giises  to  enter 
and  expand  the  ring.  The  use  of  a  little  grease  or 
other  lubricating  material  on  the 
ba.sc  of  the  projectile,  before  tiring, 
is  advantageous.  Parrott's  .shot  for 
iron-clad  lighting,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing,  is  entirely  of  east-iron,  but 
is  reduced  and  chilled  at  the  end,  which  prevents  its 
mashing  like  strong  soft  cast-iron. 

The  new  Parrott  projectile  differs  from  that  just 
ilescribed  in  that  the  ba.se  is  separated  from  the  ex- 
panding ring  by  a  cannelure  which  renders  its  taking 
the  grooves  more  certain.  Those  for  the  60-poiinder 
and  under  have  one  hole  for  the  core-stem,  which  be- 
comes the  fuse-hole.  The  larger  iirojeetiles  have  a 
hole  in  each  end  in  consequence  of  the  necessity  of 
using  two  core-stems  to  steady  the  core.  The  batter- 
ing-shell have  but  one  hole  in  rear  which  serves  as  a 
loading-hole;  the  hole  in  rear  is  cIo.sed  by  a  screw- 
l)lug.  The  ilotehkiss  projcclile  is  comijoscd  of  three 
parts:  the  body,  the  expanding  ring  of  lead,  and  the 
cast-iron  cup.  The  action  of  the  charge  is  to  crowd 
the  cup  against  the  soft-metal  ring,  thereby  expand- 
ing it  into  the  rifling  of  the  gun.  The  tinie-fu.se  pro- 
jectile has  tleep  longitudinal  grooves  cut  on  its  sides 
to  allow  the  flame  to  pa.ss  over  and  i'^nite  the  fii.se. 
The  last  rifle-projectile  submitted  bj'  Mr.  Ilotehkiss 
has  an  expanding  cup  of  brass  attached  to  its  ba.se  in 
a  very  peculiar  manner.  The  cup  is  divided  into  four 
jiarts  by  thin  projections  on  the  base  of  the  ])rojecliIe. 
This  nirangemcnt  is  intended  to  facilitate  the  expan- 
sion of  the  cup  and  to  allow  the  flame  to  pa.ss  over  to 
ignite  the  fuse. 

The  Butler  shell  also  belongs  to  this  class,  and  dif- 
fei-s  from  the  mode  of  attaching  the  expanding  ring 
and  in  the  position  of  the  cannelure.  The  expanding 
ring  is  screwed  on  to  the  base,  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  rotary  motion  screws  in  lighter;  the  rear  ]iarl  is  di- 
vided bythe  cannelure  into  two  lips,  so  that  the  gases 
are  distnbutcd  evenly  and  the  entrance  of  the  gas  be- 
tween the  ring  and  the  body  of  the  iirojectile  is  pre- 
vented; the  grip  of  the  inner  lip  on  the  projectile  be- 
ing also  increased  by  the  wedging  action  of  the  wis. 
See  Arrick  Projectile,  Blnlely' ProjertiU- ,  Butler  Pro- 
jectiles, Confederate  Projectiles,  Dana  I^ojcctik,  Dy- 
er Projectile,  Hutchkiss  Pr<fjectHes,  James  Projectile, 
Parrott  Projectiles,  Projectiles,  Satryer  Projectiles,  and 
Si-/ienkle  Projectile. 

EXPANSIVE  SYSTEM  OF  RIFLING.— This  .system 
embraces  all  projectiles  which  in  loading  are  inserted 
in  the  gun  without  respect  to  the  riflmg,  but  which 
take  the  grooves  bj-  the  action  of  the  gases  of  dis- 
charge upon  a  de\-ice  or  feature  of  the  projectile, 
which  is  readilv  expanded  thereby  into  the  grooves 
of  the  gun.  Tliis  class  of  projectiles  has  l>een  so  ex- 
tensively and  almost  exclusively  used  in  the  United 
States  tiiat  it  is  known  as  the  American  system.  The 
chief  projectiles  of  this  class  are:  1.  Those  wluTe  the 
sabot  is  of  lead  or  soft  metal.  In  tlie.se  the  windage 
is  apt  to  be  entirely  closed.  The  lead  may  strip  or 
Ik-  forced  over  the  "proiectile,  and  balloting  or  wedg- 
ing be  induced.      2.    Tho<e  having  sabots  of  cop- 


DZFATBIATION. 


594 


EXPLOSIOH. 


piT  or  bn-.ss,  cup-sbiiped  on  the  bottom  of  the  pro 
ji-ctile.  Thi-so  seem  to  sutler  from  tlie  violence  of  the 
explosion  wilbin  the  cup,  wbieU  is  apt  to  be  broken 
or  unevenly  set  up.  3.  Those  where  n  leaden  jacket 
is  forced  out  by  the  action  of  the  discbari;e  upon  a 
wedge  or  key.  "  These  have  small  capacity  as  shell 
and  little  .slreiijith  as  shot,  strip  ca.sily,  and  arc  open 
to  many  objections.  4.  Those  where  a  concave  or 
convex  "disk  is  flattened  ajr.iinst  the  base  of  the  i>ro- 
jectile,  or  in  addition  is  pro\ided  with  a  flanjre  or  key 
which  is  driven  by  the  discharge  upon  the  tajXTed 
base  of  the  projectile.  5.  Those  where  the  rotating 
device  consists  of  an  annular  band  or  ring  attached 
to  the  base  of  the  projectile  and  intended  to  be  ex- 
panded into  the  rilling  by  the  gases  of  discharge. 
These  have  proved  most  successful  in  practice.     See 

i<l/nl<  III  iif  Ititlim.l- 

EXPATRIATION. —  A  voluntary  transfer  of  resi- 
dence and  allegiance  from  one's  native  land  to  an- 
othercountry  and  government.  Despotic  governments 
have  a.ssunud  the  right  to  fortnd  such  a  change  on 
the  part  of  their  citizens,  l)ut  the  United  States  recog- 
nizes the  right  of  the  individual  citizen,  at  his  own 
plciisure,  to  leave  the  counlrj-  of  his  birth  and  make 
his  home  in  a  foreign  land.  Naturalization,  however, 
is  necessary  to  the  complete  transfer  of  allegiance. 
The  United  States  defends  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
natundized  precisely  as  it  does  tliose  of  native  citi- 
zens. A  naturalizerl  citizen  of  this  country,  visitftig 
his  native  land,  is  protected  by  the  American  flag  as 
though  he  had  been  born  on  American  soil.  Of 
course  this  right  of  expatriation  cannot  be  made  a 
cover  for  a  previous  breach  of  trust,  or  the  commis- 
sion of  any  crime,  in  the  place  of  one's  birth;  but  the 
assumption  that  the  law  of  his  native  laud  requiting 
him  at  a  certain  time  of  his  life  to  do  military  duty 
nullities  for  the  time  being  a  man's  right  of  ex|)atria- 
tion  is  not  allowiii  by  the  United  States.  Thousands 
of  yoinig  men  leave  the  Old  World  for  the  avowed 
purpose  of  avoiding  military  conscription,  and  the 
United  States  welcomes  them  to  citizenship,  with  all 
its  rights  and  obligations. 

EXPEDITION.— The  organization  and  march  of  a 
small  army  or  body  of  men  for  hostile  purposes.  One 
of  the  principlesof  many  small  expeditions  is  surprise, 
which,  if  well  carried  out,  will  insure  success.  To 
the  soldier,  no  part  of  his  duty  is  so  exciting  and  In- 
teresting as  an  expedition,  for  it  implies  risk,  hazard, 
and  danger,  in  which  nature  of  warfare  the  enthusi- 
astic and  daring  soklier  delights. 

EXPENSE-MAGAZINES.— The  very  small  gunpow- 
der-magazines, cunlaiiiing  the  made-up  ammunition 
for  the  service  of  the  guns  on  the  works,  at  the  rate  of 
so  many  rounds  per  gun.  In  forlilications  of  the  old 
construction  an  expense-magazine  was  made  in  each 
bastion  and  battery,  though  this  was  not  always  the 
case.  Kxiiense-magazines  are  often  made  imder  the 
earthen  ramparts  of  fortificatiocs,  with  a  passage  cut 
into  them  in  the  interior  slopes.  In  the  more  modern 
works,  such  as  the  Instruction  of  Ff/rtifieatimi  at 
the  liuyid  Milititrji  Aciuhiiiy,  Wimlin>/i.  it  is  shown 
that  expense-magazines  shoidd  be  placed  as  near  as 
is  practicable  to  the  gims  which  they  have  to  supply, 
and  may  often  be  conveniently  constructed  under  the 
traverses  and  below  the  level  of  the  terre-plein,  with 
lifts  of  comnuniicalion.  They  can,  if  so  situated,  be 
ea-sily  secured  against  the  enemy's  fire,  and  l)e  jiro- 
vnded  with  siditernuiean  communications  with  the 
main  magazine,  which  would  permit  them  to  be  re- 
plenished without  risk,  even  during  action.  The  first 
suggestions  made  as  to  the  size  of  expense-magazines 
in  fortifications  of  the  present  day  gave  four  guns  to 
be  supjilied  by  ejicli,  but  a  later  recommendation  pro- 
poses (iidy  two  g\ins,  in  the  ease  of  very  heavy  guns. 

EXPERIMENTS.- The  trials  (U-  applications  of  any 
kind  of  ndlilary  machines  in  order  to  asccrfjdn  their 
pnu-lical  (|Ualili(s  and  uses. 

EXPIRATION  OF  SERVICE.— The  termination  of  a 
soldier's  eonlract  of  enlistment,  usually  five  years. 

EXPLOSION.— The  term  explosion  is  rather  loosely 


used.  Considering  it  as  synonymous  with  exjilosive 
reaction,  it  may  be  defined  as  a  themical  action  cau-s- 
ing  the  sudden  or  extremely  rapid  formation  of  a 
very  g^reat  volume  of  highly  exjianded  gas. 

Explosive  elTect  is  caused  by  the  blow  or  impulse 
given  by  this  rapid  production  of  gas  in  a  contined 
space.  The  cxplo.sive  character  of  the  change,  then, 
depends — 1st.  Upon  the  great  change  of  state  pro- 
duced; that  is,  the  formation  of  gas  very  much  great- 
er in  volume  than  the  substance  from  which  it  is 
derived,  aiul  which  is  still  more  expanded  by  the 
heat  evolved.  2d.  Upon  the  shortness  of  the  lintc 
required  for  the  change  to  take  place.  Both  these 
causes  oiterale  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all 
explosive  reactions.  When  both  are  fully  exerted 
the  most  energetic  chenucal  reaction,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  most  violent  explosion,  takes  i)lace.  Also, 
the  differences  in  explosions  and  exiilosive  bodies 
depend  upon  the  differing  manner  and  proportions 
in  which  they  are  exerted.  Thus,  nitroglycerine  is 
much  more  powerful  and  violent  lliau  guniiowder, 
bec;msc  it  generates  a  larger  vdluine  of  gas  in  a 
shorter  time.  Again,  fulminating  nierciu'y  is  not 
more  powerful  than  gunpowder,  although  the  decom- 
position goes  on  more  quickly,  since  the  quantity  of 
gas  given  off  and  the  temperatiu'e  of  the  reaction  are 
less. 

I  The  kinds  and  quantity  of  gas  given  off  in  an  ex- 
plosive reaction  depend  upon  the  chemical  composi- 

[  tion  of  the  explosive  body  and  the  character  of  the 

I  decomposition.  The  heat  evolved  during  the  reac- 
tion adds  to  the  effect  by  increasing  the  tension  (ex- 
panding the  volume)  of  the  gas  fonned.  The  heat 
given  off  in  a  reaction  is  an  absolute  (luantity,  the 

\  same  whether  the  reaction  goes  on  slowly  or  rapidly. 
But  the  (.rjtliisive  effect  will  evidently  greatly  dipeiid 
upon  the  rfipiilifi/  of  the  formation  and  expansion  of 
the  gas.  Thus,  if  an  explosive  undergoes  the  same 
change  uniler  all  circumstances  of  filing,  then  the 
total  amount  of  force  develojied  will  always  be  the 
.same;  but  the  exphsire  effect  will  be  increased  as  the 
time  of  action  is  lessened.  Explosions  are  greatly 
affected  by  the  circumstances  attending  them.-  Dif- 
ferent substances,  of  course,  give  dillereiit  rcsidts, 
from  their  different  compositions  and  reactions.  But 
we  also  find  that  the  same  substance  \\  ill  exertise  a 
different  explosive  effect  when  tired  under  certain 
conditions  than  under  other--.  These  may  affect 
either  the  rajiidity  or  the  results  of  the  chemical 
change.  By  shortening  the  time  of  the  reaction  the 
explosion  is  rendered  sharper  and  more  violent.  With 
some  explosives  the  decomposition  is  different  imder 
different  circumstances.  Thus,  gunpowder  when 
fired  under  great  pressure  gives  different  products 
than  when  fired  unconfiued.  Circinnstances  of  ex- 
plosion may  be  generally  considered  under — 1st. 
Physical  or  mechanical  condition  of  the  explosive 
bofly  itself.  2d.  External  conditions.  ;id.  Mode  of 
tiring.  JIany  instances  may  be  given  indicating  the 
influence  of  itsstate  upon  the  cx])l<ision  of  a  substance. 
Thus,  nilro-glyeeriMr  at  tiinperulures  above  40  Fahr. 
is  a  liquid,  aukl  in  a  liquid  comlition  may  be  violently 
exii|o(led  by  a  fuse  containing  l!>  grains  of  fulminat- 
ing mc'rcury.  Below  40  it  freezes  and  cannot  Ik;  so 
fired.  The  advantage  of  dynamite  over  nilro-glycer- 
ine  lies  allogelher  in  the  fact  that  the  foimer  is  pre- 
sented in  another  mechanical  condition,  more  con- 
venient and  safer  lo  use  than  the  liipiid  form.  The 
nitro-glvcerine  itself  is  the  sune  {hcniically  in  cither 
cjisc.  't"he  sjmie  nuxture  of  charcoal,  sulphur,  and 
sidtpeter  gives  a  very  different  effect  if  made  up  into 
large  grains  than  if  made  up  into  small  ones.  Gun- 
cotton  presents  the  most  marked  example  of  the  effect 
of  mechanical  slate,  since  it  can  be  prepared  in  so 
many  ways.  If  flame  is  applied  to  loo.se  uncom- 
pres,sed  gun-cotton  it  will  flash  off;  if  it  is  spun  into 
thri'ads  or  woven  into  webs,  its  rate  of  combustion 
may  be  so  nuuii  reduced  that  it  can  be  used  in  gun- 
nery or  for  a  ((luc  k  fuse;  powerfully  compre.s.sed  and 
damp,  it  burns  slowly;  dry  gun-cotton  may  be  ex- 


EXPLOSIVE  AGENTS. 


595 


EXPLOSIVE  AGENTS. 


ploded  by  a  fulminale-fuse;  wet,  it  requires  an  initial 
explosion  of  a  small  amount  of  tin-,  etc. 

Confinement  is  necessary  to  obtain  the  full  effect  of 
all  explosives.  The  most  rapid  explosion  requires  a 
certain  time  for  its  accomplishment.  As  the  time  re- 
quired is  less,  the  amount  of  confinement  necessary  is 
less.  Then,  with  the  sudden  or  \-iolent  explosives, 
the  confinement  required  may  be  so  small  that  its  con- 
sideration ma}'  be  practically  neglected.  For  instance, 
large  stones  or  blocks  of  iron  may  be  broken  b\'  the 
explosion  of  nitroglycerine  upoii  their  surfaces  in 
the  open  air.  Hero  the  atmosphere  itself  acts  as  a 
confining  agent.  The  explosion  of  the  nitro-glycerinc 
is  so  sudden  that  the  air  is  not  at  once  moved.  Again, 
chloride  of  nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  sudden  and 
violent  of  all  ex|)Iosi\cs.  In  its  prejianition  it  is  pre- 
cipitated from  a  watery  liquid,  and  tbercl'on-  is,  when 
used,  wet  or  co\ered  with  a  very  thin  tilni  of  water. 
This  thin  film  of  water,  not  more  than  (,,'jn,  of  an 
inch  in  thickness,  is  a  necessary  and  sufficient  confine- 
ment, and  if  it  is  removed  the  explosive  elleet  is 
mueli  diminished.  Gunpowder,  on  the  other  hand, 
requires  strong  confinement,  since  its  explosion  is 
comparatively  slow.  Thus,  in  firing  a  large  charge 
of  gimpowder  under  water,  unless  the  case  is  strong 
enough  to  retain  the  eases  until  the  action  has  become 
general,  it  will  be  broken,  and  a  largj-  amount  of  the 
powder  thrown  out  unburned.  This  is  often  the 
ca.se  in  firing  large-grained  powder  in  heavy  guns. 
The  ball  leaves  the  gun  before  all  tlic  powder  has 
burned,  and  grains  or  lumps  of  it  are  thrown  out  un- 
injured. The  confinement  needed  by  the  slower  ex- 
plosives may  be  diminished  l)y  igniting  the  charge  at 
many  points,  so  that  less  time  is  required  for  its  com- 
plete explosion. 

In  any  explosive  reaction  the  mode  of  bringing 
about  the  change  exercises  an  important  infinence. 
The  application  of  heat,  directly  or  indirectly,  is  the 
principal  means  of  causing  an  explosion.  Thus,  in 
gunnerj-,  the  flame  from  the  percussion-cap  or  primer 
directly  ignites  the  charge;  so  also  a  fine  platinum 
wire  heated  by  an  electric  current  will  ignite  explo- 
sive material  "which  is  in  contact  with  it.  Friction, 
percussion,  concussion,  produce  the  sjime  effect  indi- 
rectly, by  the  conversion  of  mechanical  energy  into 
heat,  which  is  communicated  to  the  Iwxly  to  be  ex- 
ploded. When  one  explosive  bodv  is  used  as  a  means 
of  firing  another,  it  may  be  considered  that  the  blow 
delivered  by  the  gas  suddenly  formed  from  the  tiring- 
charge  acts  jx-rcussively  upon  the  mass  to  be  ex- 
ploded. The  particles  of  this  gas  are  thrown  out 
with  great  velocity;  but  meeting  \Wth  the  resistance 
of  the  mass  around  them,  they  are  checked,  and 
their  energy  is  converted  into  heat.  It  is  found,  how- 
ever, that  the  action  of  explosives  on  one  another 
cannot  be  perfectly  explained  in  this  way.  If  the 
action  were  simply  the  conversion  of  energy  into 
heat,  then  the  most"  powerful  explosive  would  be  the 
best  agent  for  causing  explosion.  But  this  is  not  the 
case.  Nitro-glyeerine  is  much  more  powerful  than 
fulminating  mercur}-;  but  l.i  grains  of  the  latter  will 
explode  gun-cotton,  while  TO  limes  as  much  nitro- 
glycerine will  not  do  it.  Chloride  of  nitrogen  is 
much  more  violent  than  fulminating  mercury,  but 
larger  quantities  of  the  former  than  of  the  laltermust 
be  used   to  cause   other  explosions.     Again,   nitro- 

flycerine  is  fired  with  certainly  by  a  small  amount  of 
liminating  mercury,  while"  with  a  much  larger 
amount  of  gunpowd"er  the  explosion  is  less  certain 
and  feebler.  In  thes<>  ca.ses  it  is  evident  that  the  ful- 
minating mercury  must  have  some  special  advantage, 
since  it  produces  the  desired  effect  more  easily  than 
the  others.  It  may  be«considered  that  the  fulminat- 
ing mercury  sets  up  a  form  of  motion  or  vibration 
to  which  the  other  Iwdies  are  sinsitive.  Just  as  a 
vibrating  tody  will  induce  corresponding  vibrations 
in  others,  so  the  pecidiar  rate  of  motion  or  wave  of 
impulse  sent  out  bv  the  fulminating  mercury  exerts  a 
greater  disturbing' influence  upon  the  molecules  of 
some  bodies  than  that  derived  from  other  substances. 


I  An  explosive  moleciile  is  unstable  and  verj-  suscep- 
tible to  external  influences.  Its  atoms  are  in  a  nicely 
balanced  equilibrium,  which  is,  however,  more  read- 
ilv  overturned  by  one  kind  of  blow  than  another. 
T'he  explosive  molecule  takes  up  the  wave  of  impulse 
of  the  fulminate,  but  the  strain  is  too  great,  and  its 
own  balance  is  destroyed.  So  a  glass  may  stand  a 
strong  blow;  while  a  particular  note  or  vibration  will 
break  it.     In  the  case  mentioneil  alwve,  of  gim-cotton 

I  affected  by  nitroglycerine  or  fulminate,  the  explosion 

I  of  the  nitroglycerine  is  strong  enough  to  tear  and 

!  scatter  the  gam-cotton,  but  the  blow,  though  very 
powerful,  is  not  one  that  the  gun<'otton  is  sensitive 
to;  on  the  other  hand,  the  fulminate  blow,  though 
weaker,  readilj-  upsets  the  molecule  of  the  gun-cot- 
ton. In  addition,  the  explosion  proceeds  very  difTer- 
entl)-  when  brought  about  in  this  way  than  when 
ojused  by  simple  inflammation.  When  a  mass  of 
explosive  is  ignited  by  a  flame,  the  action  extends 
gradually  through  it;  but  if  it  is  explodwl  by  a  blow, 
acting  in  the  manner'above  described,  it  is  plain  that 
the  explosion  will  be  nearlj-  instantaneous  through- 

!  out,  since  the  impulse  will  be  transmitted  through  the 
ma.ss  with  far  greater  rapidity  than  an  inflammation 

I  proceeding  from  particle  to  particle.     The  explosive 

'  reaction  will  then  proceed  much  more  rapidly,  and 
the  explosive  effect  will  be  more  violent. 

The  phenomenon  of  the  explosion  of  powder  may 
be  divided  into  three  distinct  parts,  vi/...  ignition,  tn- 

'  flammalion,  and  combustion.     By  ignition  is  under- 

I  stood    the    setting    on  fire  of  a  particular  point  of 

j  the  charge;  by  inflammation,  the  spread  of  the  igni- 
tion from  one  grain  to  another;  and  by  combustion, 
the  burning  of  each  grain  from  its  surface  to  center. 

j  See    C'ombuMion,   Detonation,  Explonce  Agentg,  (htn- 

!  poirdei;  Ignition,  and  Inflammation. 

\  EXPLOSIVE  AGENTS.— There  is  some  question  as 
to  the  influence,  direct  or  indirect,  upon  modern  civili- 
zation of  the  introduction  of  explosive  agents  for  the 

'  purpose  of  war.  Some  eminent  authors  have  gf)ne  so 
far  as  to  consider  the  invention  of  gunpowder  as  next 
in  import.mce,  in  its  ultimate  effects,  to  those  of  print- 

!  ing  .nid  the  application  of  steam-power.     However 

I  this  may  be,  it  is  well  to  rememlxT  that  explosive  sub- 
stances are  now  of  immense  utility  in  the  arts  of  peace; 
indeed,  it  is  not  too  much  to  s;iy  that  without  their 
aid  many  of  the  great  engineering  enterprises  of  the 
present  day  woidd  either  be  impo-^sible,  or  else  have 
to  be  carried  out  at  a  v;ist  additional  expenditun^  of* 
time  and  labor.  The  germ  of  all  the  knowledge 
which  we  possess  of  explosive  reaction  undoubtedly 
lay  in  the  probably  accidental  disi-overy,  many  years 
ago,  of  the  deflagrating  properties  of  the  natund  sub- 

j  .stance  niter  or  s;ilti>cter  (KXOs),  when  in  contact  with 
incandescent  charcoal.  By  distilling  niter  with  oil 
of  vitriol  the  alchemists  obtained  a  corrosive  fluid 
which  thev  called  aqunfnrtis,  now  known  as  nitric 
acid  (IlXdj),  which  parts  with  its  ox-ygen  even  more 
rapidly  than  saltpeter;  so  that  if  the  strongest  nitric 
acid  lie  poured  upon  finely  powdered  charcoal,  the 
latter  takes  fire  at  the  ordinary  temperature.  Some- 
what less  than  half  a  century  "back  it  was  discovered 
bv  some  French  chemists  that  upon  treating  various 
organic  substances,  such  as  starch,  the  sug-ars,  cotton 
fabrics,  and  even  paper,  with  concentrated  nitric  acid 
under  proper  precautions,  the  chemical  constitution 
of  the  substances  underwent  a  great  change,  and  they 
became  endowed  with  \iolently  explosive  properties, 
while  remaining  for  the  most  part  unaltered  in  exter- 
nal characteristics.  To  this  discovery  we  owe  a  dis- 
tinct class  of  explosive  compounds,  tlie  most  power- 
ful for  practical  purposes  as  vet  known.  Examining 
into  those  principles  of  constitution  and  action  which 
arc  more  or  less  common  to  all  explosive  substances. 

■  we  may  define,  for  oiu-  purpose,  the  term  "  explo- 
sive" as  the  sudden  or  extremelv  rajiid  conversion  of 
a  solid  or  liquid  bodv  of  small  bulk  into  gas  or  vapor, 
ofcupvins  verv  many  times  the  volume  of  the  origi- 
nal sul)stance,"and.  fn  addition,  highly  expande«l  by 

I  the  heat  geneniteel  during  the  trunsformalion.     This 


EXPLOSIVE  AGENTS. 


596 


EXPLOSIVE  AGENTS. 


sudden  or  very  rapid  expansion  of  volume  is  attended 
by  an  exhibition  of  force  more  or  less  \nolcnt  accord- 
ing to  the  constitution  of  the  original  substance  and 
the  circumslanci-s  of  cxjjlosion.  Any  s\ibstanco  capa- 
i)!e  of  iindiri-'oi!!!.'  such  a  clianjje  upon  llic  application 
of  heat  or  other  disturbing  cause  is  called  an  explo- 
sive airent.  The  most  explosive  substances  that  are 
practically  the  most  important  es.sentially  contain  car- 
bon, oxygen,  anil  nitii)gen,  the  last  always  existing 
in  a  state  of  feeble  combination  with  the  whole  or 
part  of  the  oxyg<'n,  and  tlius  creating  that  condition 
of  unstable  chemical  eciuilibrium  which  is  necessary. 
When  explosion  takes  place  the  nitrogen  parts  with 
its  oxygen  to  the  carbon,  for  which  it  has  a  greater 
affiniiyr  fonning  carbonic  acid  (COj)  and  carbonic 
oxide'  (CO)  gii.ses,  the  combination  being  accom- 
panied with  great  generation  of  heat,  and  the  nitro- 
gen being  set  free.  In  most  explosives  there  is  also 
liydrogen  accompanying  the  cjirbon,  and  by  its  com- 
bustion producing  an  extremely  high  temperature: 
it  combines  with  part  of  the  oxygen  to  form  water 
in  the  form  of  greatly  expanded  vapor.  Other  sub- 
ordinate elements  are  often  present;  in  giuipowdcr, 
for  instance,  tlie  potassitnn  binds  the  nitrogen  and 
oxygen  loosely  together  in  the  state  of  sjdtpeter,  and 
there  is  sulphur,  a  second  combustible  whose  oxida- 
tion evolves  greater  heat  than  that  of  carbon.  When 
chlorate  of  potash  is  present  tlie  elilorinc  plays  the 
part  of  nitrogen,  and  is  set  free  in  the  ga.seous  state. 
Two  very  unstable  and  practically  useless  explosive 
substances,  the  so-called  chloride  and  iodide  of  nitro- 
gen, contain  neither  carbon  nor  oxygen;  but  their  great 
violence  is  equally  caused  by  the  feeble  affinities  of 
nitrogen  for  other  elements,  large  volumes  of  gaseous 
matter  being  suddenly  disengaged  from  a  very  small 
quantity  of  a  licjuid  and  solid  body  respectively. 

Explosives  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two 
distinct  classes— ^1)  Ex|ilcsive  Mixtures,  aiul  (2)  Ex- 
plosive Compounds.  The  first  class  consists  of  those 
explosive  substances  which  are  merely  intimate  me- 
chanical mixtures  of  certain  ingredients,  and  which 
can  Ix;  again  separated  more  or  less  completely  by 
mechanical  means  not  invoh-ing  mechanical  ai  tion. 
These  ingredients  do  not,  as  a  rule,  possess  explosive 
properties  in  their  sei>arate  condition.  There  are, 
however,  explosives  which  might  also  be  classed  in 
both  categories;  for  es;ample,  pierk  poirder  is  com- 
J)0scd  of  ammonium  picrate  and  saltpeter,  the  former 
of  which  contains  an  explosive  molecule,  1)ut  is  mixed 
with  the  latter  to  supply  additional  oxygen  and  thus 
increase  the  force.  If  a  substance  that  will  burn 
freely  in  air,  condjining  gradually  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  atmosphere,  be  ignited  in  pure  oxygen  ga.s,  the 
combustion  will  be  nuich  more  rapid  and  the  amomit 
of  heat  generated  greater  at  the  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure.  If  it  be'possible  to  burn  the  substance  in  a 
very  condensed  atmosj^here  of  o.xygen,  we  can  readily 
imagine  the  combustion  as  very  greatly  accelerated, 
and  therefore  increased  in  violence;  tliis  is  wliat  is 
ordinarily  effected  by  an  explosive  "mixture."  A 
condmstible  body  and  a  sujiportcr  of  combustion  arc 
brought  into  extremely  close  contact  with  one  an- 
other by  means  of  intimate  mechanical  nii.xture;  also, 
the  supporter  of  combustion,  or  oxidizing  agent,  is 
present  in  very  concentrated  form,  constituting  what 
may  be  termed  a  magazine  of  condensed  oxygen, 
solid  or  liquid.  In  the  case  of  the  explosion  of  a 
detinile  chemical  compound,  the  change  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  resolution  of  a  complex  body 'into  sim- 
pler forms.  This  is  not,  however,  always  the  ca.se. 
when  a  mechanical  mixtnre  is  concerned;  gunpowder, 
for  example,  may  be  said  to  contain  two  elementary 
substances,  carbon  and  sulphur,  not  in  cliemici'd 
iminn.  The  chief  explosive  mixtures  may  be  sub 
divided  into  "  nitrate  nnxtures"  and  "  chlorate  mix- 
tures." In  the  nitrates,  the  oxygen  is  held  in  com- 
bination with  sutlicient  force  to  need  a  jiowerful 
disturbing  cause  to  separate  it,  so  that  mixtures 
made  from  lutrates  do  not  explode  very  rapidly,  and 
their  action  is  comparatively  gradual;  they  arc  not 


sensitive  to  friction  or  percussion,  and  hence  are  to  a 
great  extent  safe.  Any  of  the  nitrates  will  form  ex- 
plosive mixtures  with  combustible  substances,  but 
nitrate  of  potash  (KNOj)  is  the  only  one  jiractically 
employed.  The  nitrate  of  soda,  called  "culiical  "  or 
Chili  saltpeter,  has  l)ecn  used,  but  absorbs  moisture 
from  the  air  so  readily  as  to  give  very  inferior  results. 
Gunpowder  may  be  taken  as  the  reiJresentative  of  the 
nitrate  explosive  mixtures.  Picric  powder,  already 
referred  to,  has  been  propo.sed  by  Abel  for  use  as  a 
bursting-charge  for  shells,  as  being  more  powcrfid 
than  a  corresjionding  charge  of  gunpowder,  equally 
safe  as  regards  friction  or  percussion,  and  less  hygro- 
scopic; it  consists  of  two  parts  anunonium  picrate 
and  three  parts  saltpeter,  incorporated,  i)res.sed,  and 
finished  very  much  as  ordinary  gunjiowder.  The 
chlorates  part  with  their  oxygen  far  more  readily  than 
the  nitrates,  the  strong  affinities  of  chlorine  for  the 
metals  coming  into  play,  and  consequently  chlorate 
mixtures  are  veiy  sensitive  to  friction  and  percussion, 
and  explode  with  great  \'iolence;  chlorate  of  ]iotash 
(KCIO)  is  the  only  one  used.  Very  many  chlorate 
mixtures  have  been  made,  some  of  which  are  employ- 
ed in  fireworks.  "White  gunpowder"  is  a  mi.xture 
of  two  parts  chlorate  of  jwtash.  one  of  yellow  prus- 
siate  of  potash,  and  one  of  sug-ar;  it  is  exjilodcd  very 
easily  by  friction  or  percus,sion.  The  most  important 
chlorate  nnxtures  are  those  used  for  igniting  other 
explosives,  such  as  the  cf)mposition  for  friction-tubes 
for  firing  cannon,  percussion-cap  composition,  and 
percussion-fuses  for  bursting  shells  on  impact;  it  is 
sometimes  mixed  with  sulphur,  as  a  combustible,  and 
sometimes  with  black  sidiihide  of  antimony,  which 
gives  a  longer  flame. 

In  an  explosive  compound  the  elements  are  all  in 
chemical  combination,  presenting  a  definite  explosive 
"molecule."  which  contains,  so  to  speak,  both  the 
combustible  and  the  supporter  of  combustion  in  the 
closest  jiossible  union;  we  can  therefore  understand 
its  action  heing  much  more  sudden  and  violent  than 
that  of  the  most  intimate  mechanical  mixture.  The 
chief  exjilosive  compounds  are  formed  from  some 
organic  substance  containing  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  by  introducing  into  it,  through  the  action  of 
concentrated  nitric  acid,  a  certain  portion  of  nitric 
peroxide  (NO:),  in  substitution  for  an  eqtnvalent 
amount  of  hydrogen.  A  new  compound  differing 
outwardly  very  little,  if  at  all,  from  the  original 
substance  is  thus  formed,  but  in  a  very  tmstable  state 
of  chemical  equilibrium,  because  of  the  feeble  imion 
of  the  nitrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  NO:  molecule. 
A  slight  disturbing  cause  brings  into  play  the  stronger 
affinity  of  the  carbon  and  Jiydrogen  for  the  large  store 
of  oxj-gen  contained  in  the  new  compound.  Gun- 
cotton  and  nitroglycerine  are  the  leading  members 
of  this  grovip,  being  produced  in  a  precisely  similar 
manner  by  the  substitution  of  three  molecules  of  NOj 
for  three  atoms  of  hvdrogen  (H).  As  those  explosives 
will  be  elsewhere  described  in  ilelail.  we  give  the 
formation  as  a  representative  member  of  the  group  of 
nitro-plienol  or  picric  acid  by  treating  phenol  or  car- 
bolic acid  with  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sul]ihuric 
acids,  the  latter  being  required  to  absorb  the  water 
and  preserve  the  full  strength  of  the  nitric  acid: 

Carbolic  acid.    Nitric  acid.  Picric  acid.  Water. 

C.H,0  +   3HX0,  =   C,H3(N0,),0  +  3H.,0 

The  formula  of  the  product  may  be  empirically  writ- 
ten CuIIjNjO: ;  it  is,  like  gun  cotton  and  nitro-glycer- 
ine,  a  tri-nitro  .s\d)stitution  product.  Only  the  picrates 
or  salts  of  picric  acid  formed  with  potassium  or  am- 
monium are  used  in  practice  as  possessing  more  force 
than  the  imcombined  acid.  Prom  starch  may  be  ob- 
tained, in  a  strictly  analogous  maimer,  an  explosive 
called  .i-i//oii/iiu,  which  is  a  hi-nitm  ])roduct,  two 
molecules  of  nitric  iHToxide  being  substituted  for 
two  atoms  of  hydrogen.  In  the  case  of  nilro-mannite, 
an  explosive  made  from  mannite,  one  of  the  sugars, 
as  many  as  six  molecules  of  the  NOj  are  inserted. 
The  number  of  nitro-substitution  products  is  very 


EXPLOSIVE  AGENTS. 


597 


EXPLOSIVE  AGENTS. 


great,  many  of  them  being  more  or  less  \nolcntly 
explosive.  The  fulminates  are  among  the  most  vio- 
lent of  all  explosive  compounds,  their  chemiciil  seii- 
sibilit}'  being  very  small.  Sudden  in  action,  their 
effect  is  great  locally;  thus  they  are  well  ailapted  to 
the  purpose  for  which  alone  they  are  practically  u.sed, 
of  igniting  or  upsetting  the  equilibrium  of  other  ex- 
plosives. Fulminate  of  mercury  is  produced  by  add- 
ing alcohol  (C'lHeO),  under  great  precautions,  to  a 
solution  of  mercury  in  nitric  acid;  a  gray  crystalline 
precipitate  is  obtained,  vcrj-  hea\T  (sp.  gr.  4.4),  and  so 
sensitive  to  friction  or  percussion  that  it  is  kept  in 
the  wet  state.  The  results  of  analysis  show  one  atom 
of  mercury  and  two  each  of  carbt)n,  nitrogen,  and 
oxj-gen;  so  that  the  formula  may  be  emijirically  writ 
teii  HgC^NjOi,  or  perhaps  more  correctly  HgO.CjXjO; 
the  chemical  factor  CjNjO  is  called  'f>ilii<iiiic  aeid, 
but  has  never  Iwen  produced  separately.  Opinions 
differ  as  to  the  precise  "  rational"  formuheof  the  ful- 
minates, some  chemists  considering  their  process  of 
formation  to  be  similar  to  that  of  tin-  nitro-substitu- 
tion  products.  It  will  be  observed  that  two  atoms  of 
nitrogen  take  the  place  of  hydrogen,  being  the  ratio 
of  combining  proportions  of  those  elements.  The 
products  of  combustion  arc  carbonic  oxide,  nitrogen, 
and  metallic  mercury,  and  the  violence  of  action  is 
due  to  the  sudden  evolution  of  a  volume  of  gas  and 
vapor  very  large  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  sub- 
stance, its  density  being  so  great.  This  fulminate 
enters  into  the  composition  used  for  percussion-caps 
and  electric  fuses;  its  practical  value  has  of  late  years 
been  immensely  increased  by  the  discovery  of  its 
power  even  in  ven,-  small  quantities  to  procluce  the 
almost  instantaneous  decomposition  of  several  ex]ilo- 
sivc  substances.  Fulminate  of  silver  is  prepared  in  a 
similar  manner,  but,  being  far  more  sensitive,  is  of  lit- 
tle practical  value;  it  is  used  in  very  minute  quan- 
tities in  making  such  toj's  as  detonating  crackers. 

ll  may  be  generally  concluded  that  the  amoimt  of 
force  exerted  by  an  explosive  substance  depends  upon 
(1)  the  roliiiiic  of  ydn  or  riqnir  produced  by  the  trans- 
formation compared  with  that  of  the  original  sub- 
stance; and  (2)  the  h'lripirnt'ire  of  eTplosioii,  which 
determines  the  extent  to  which  the  ga.ses  are  ex- 
panded, or  their  tension  increased;  or  in  other  words, 
the  explosive  force  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
heat  of  combustion,  and  the  vohmie  of  gas  and  vapor 
calculated  at  0'  C.  and  7.60  mm.  pressure,  :md  in- 
Tersely  proportional  to  the  specitic  heat  of  the  mixed 
protiucts.  It  has  been  supposed  by  Bcrthelot  and 
others  that  the  volume  of  gas  produced  may  possiblj- 
be  still  further  increased  Ijy  the  partial  or  total  "  dis- 
sociation" of  the  compound  gases  at  the  high  tem- 
peratures concrned;  for  example,  that  the  carbonic 
acid  (CO2)  may  be  decomposed  into  carbonic  oxide 
(CO)  and  oxygen,  or  the  aqueous  vapor  into  oxygen 
and  hydrogen.  However,  Nobel  and  Abel  demon- 
strate that  hi  the  former  instance  the  loss  of  tempera- 
ture conseciuent  u]ion  the  absoi-plion  of  heat  by  tlie 
decomposition  would  more  than  compnisale  for  the 
increase  of  volume  by  dis.sociation.  Il  must  also  be 
remembered  that  if  "the  temperature  be  extremely 
high,  so  also  is  the  pressure  under  which  dis,soeiation 
must  take  place.  We  may  therefore  consider  that  it 
has  no  sensi!)le  influence  "upon  the  explosive  force. 
It  is  most  important  to  distinguish  lietween  explosive 
force  and  explosive  effect,  the  latter  in  great  mcjisure 
depending  upon  the  rapidity  with  which  the  meta- 
morphosis takes  place,  while  the  sjime  amount  of 
force  may  be  exerted  suddenly  or  gradually.  We 
may,  therefore,  consider  that  the  explosive  effect 
varies  direftly  as  the  volume  of  gas  produced  and  the 
temperature  of  explosion,  and  inremly  as  the  time 
required  for  the  transformation.  But  the  time,  and, 
to  a  certain  extent,  the  products  and  temperature,  will 
vary  with  {a)  the  physical  state  of  the  explosive  sub- 
stiiiice;  {h)  the  external  conditions  imder  which  it  is 
fired;  (r)  the  mode  of  firing  or  exploding.  The  physi- 
cal or  mechanical  state  of  the  e.xiMosive  substance  has  a 
most  important  bearing  upon  the  effect  obtained  from 


it.  To  prove  this  it  is  only  necessarj-  to  point  to  the  very 
different  results  given  by  gunpowders  made  with  the 
same  proiwrtions  of  the  three  ingredients,  but  vary- 
ing in  density,  and  in  shape  and  size  of  gTains  or  piecea. 
Gun-cotton  is  even  more  affected  by  variations  in  me- 
chanical condition.  In  the  fonnof  loose  wool,  it 
burns  so  rapidly  that  gunpowder  in  contact  with  it 
is  not  intlamed;"  plaitecl  or  twisted  li^^htly,  its  rate  of 
combustion  in  air  is  ^.'really  modified.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  inflammable  carbonic  oxide,  which 
is  evolved  bv  the  decomposition  from  the  want  of  suf- 
ficient storecl-up  oxygen  to  oxidize  completely  all  the 
carbon  of  the  gun  cotton,  cannot  penetrate  between 
the  fibers  and  accelerate  the  combustion,  but  burns 
with  a  bright  fiame  away  from  the  surface  of  the 
twisted  cotton;  when  the  yarn  is  yet  moreconii)res.sed 
by  any  means,  the  temperature  is  not  kept  up  to  the 
height  necessary  for  the  combustion  of  the  carlninic 
oxide,  so  that  it  escapes  uncunsumed,  abstracting 
heat  and  yet  more  retarding  the  rate  of  burning. 
For  the  same  reason,  pulped  and  compressed  gun- 
cotton  burns  comparatively  .slowly  in  air.  even  when 
dry;  in  the  wet  state  it  merely  smouldei's  away,  as 
the  portion  in  contact  with  the  flresucces-sively  becomes 
dried.  Yet  this  same  wet  compressed  gun-cotton  can 
be  so  used  as  to  constitute  one  of  the  most  powerful 
explosives  known.  It  is  well  known  that  gun|x)wder 
behaves  differently  when  in  the  open  air  and  under 
strong  confinement;  not  only  the  rate  of  burning,  but 
even,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  products  of  combus. 
tion  are  altered.  We  have  discussed  the  effect  of 
tightly  plaiting  or  compressing  gun-cotton;  but  when 

j  confined  in  a  strong  envelope,  the  whole  of  the  in- 
flamed gas,  being  unable  to  escape  outwards,  is  forced 
into  the  interetices  under  immense  pressure,  and  the 

j  decomposition  is  greatly  accelerated.  The  amount  of 
confinement  or  restraint  needed  by  any  explosive  de- 

!  pends,  however,  upon  the  nature  of  the  substance  and 

I  the  mode  of  exploding  it,  tx-cominn:  very  much  le.ss 
as  the  transformation  is  more  rapid,  until  it  may  Ixi 
said  to  reach  the  vanishing-point.  For  examjile,  the 
very  violent  explosive  chkiride  of  nitrogen  is  usually 
surroumied,  when  explodeil.  with  a  thin  film  of  water. 
Abel  slates  that  if  this  film,  not  exceeding  y„V,n  inch 
in  thickness,  be  removed,  the  explosive  effect  is  much 
lessened.  Nitro-glycerine,  again,  when  detonated  by 
a  fulminate,  is  sufficiently  cohfinetl  by  the  surromul- 
ing  atmosphere.  By  the  .same  means,  gun<'(,>tton  may 
e.vplode  unconfincd  if  compressed,  the  mechanioil 
cohesion  affording  sufficient  restraint.  In  the  case 
of  wet  compressed  gun-cotton,  which  can  be  deto- 
nated with  even  fuller  effect  than  dry,  the  mechanical 
resistance  is  greater,  Uie  air-spaces  being  filleil  with 
incompressible  fluid. 

The  manner  in  which  the  explosion  is  brought  alwut 
li.as  a  most  important  bearing  upon  the  effect  pro- 
duced. This  may  be  done  by  the  direct  application 
of  an  ignited  or  heated  body,  by  the  use  of  an  elec- 
tric cuirent  to  heat  a  fine  platinum  wire,  or  by  mejins 
of  jXTCussion,  concussion,  or  friction,  converting  me- 
chanical energy  into  heat.  A  small  quantity  of  a 
sulisidiary  explosive,  such  as  a  composition  sensitive 
to  friction  or  percussion,  is  often  employed,  for  the 
sake  of  convenience,  to  ignite  the  main  charge,  the 
combustion  spreading  through  the  mass  with  more  or 
less  rapidity,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  substance. 
A.'.thoiigh  subsidiary  or  initiatory  explosives  were  at 
first  usc'd  merely  to  generate  sufficient  heat  to  ignite 
the  charge,  and  are  often  still  so  employed,  tlicy  have 
of  late  years  received  an  application  of  far  wider  im- 
portance. 3Ir.  Alfred  Xobel,  a  Swedish  engineer, 
while  endeavorinir  to  employ  nitroglycerine  for  prac- 
tical |iurposcs,  found  consid"erable  difficulty  in  explod- 
ing it  \vith  certainty;  he  at  length,  in  lf<(i4,  by  using 
a  large  percussion-cap,  charged  with  fulminate  of 
mercury,  obtained  an  exTilosion  of  great  violence. 
This  result  led  to  the  discovery  that  many  explosive 
substances,  when  exploded  by  means  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  a  suitable  initiatory"  explosive,  produce  an 
effect  far  exceeding  anything  that  can  be  attributed 


HXFLOSIVX  MACHINES. 


598 


£XPB£S8  BIFLE. 


to  the  ordinorj'  combustion,  however  mpid,  of  the 
body  in  question;  in  fact,  the  whole  mass  of  the  ex- 
plosive is  converted  into  gas  with  such  suddenness 
that  it  may,  practically,  Ix"  considered  instantaneous. 
This  sudden  transfoniiation  is  termed  "detonation." 
Of  the  substances  cajiable  of  producing  such  action, 
fulminate  of  mercury  is  the  most  important.  Some  ex- 
plosives appear  always  to  detonate,  in  whatever  man- 
ner they  may  lie  exploded,  such  as  chloride  and  iodide 
of  nitrogen;'  the  explosive  etfect  is  therefore  much 
greater  than  that  of  a  slower  explosive  substance, 
although  their  explosive  force  may  be  less.  Again, 
other  substances,  such  as  gun-cottoii  and  nitro-giycer- 
ine,  arc  detonated  or  not,  according  to  the  mode  of 
explosion.  Indeed.  Abel  has  proved  that  most  explo- 
.sives,  including  gunpowder,  can  be  detonated,  Jiro- 
vided  the  ]>roper  initiatory  charge  be  employed. 
Koux  and  Sarrau  have  divided  explosions  into  two 
clas.ses  or  orders — "  detonations"  or  cxjilosions  of  the 
first  order,  and  "simple  explosions"  of  the  second 
order.  They  made  a  series  of  experiments  with  the 
object  of  determining  the  comparative  values  of  vari- 
ous explosive  sulislances,  deldiiated  and  exjilodcd  in 
the  ordinary  manner;  the  method  employed  was  to 
ascertain  the  quantity  of  each  just  sufticient  to  produce 
rupture  in  small  spherical  shells  of  equal  strength. 
These  experiments,  although  valuable,  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  affording  a  precise  method  of  comparison; 
the  results  would  be  affected,  inter  alia,  by  t(ie  im- 
po.ssibility  of  insuring  that  the  shells  were  all  of  the 
same  strength — a  point  of  great  importance,  consider- 
ing the  very  small  weights  of  each  explosive  used; 
also,  the  rate  of  combustion,  ami  tlierefore  tlie  explo- 
sive effect,  of  gunpowder  is  materially  affected  by  its 
mechanical  condilion,  so  that  difterent  powders  would 
give  a  varying  standard  of  comparison.  However, 
they  afford"  fair  evidence  that,  when  detonated,  gim- 
cotion  has  about  six  times,  and  ptire  nitroglycerine 
about  ten  times,  the  local  cxiilosive  effect  of  gun])OW- 
dcr  sim|)ly  ignited  in  the  onlinary  manner;  nitro- 
glycerine is  usually  emplojed  in  the  form  of  "dvna- 
mite,"  mixed  with  .some  inert  alj.sorbent  substance,  so 
that  its  power  is  proportionately  reduced. 

The  rationale  of  detonation  is  not  yet  understood. 
If  the  transformation  were  due  merely  to  the  mechan- 
ical energy  of  tlie  particles  of  gas,  liberated  from  the 
initiatory  charge  at  a  tremendous  velocity,  lieing  con- 
verted into  heat  by  impact  against  the  inass  of  the 
explosive  sulistanee,  then  it  would  follow  that  the 
powerful  exi)losive  would  be  the  best  detonating 
agent.  This,  however,  is  not  the  fact;  for  a  few 
gr.iins  of  fulminate  of  mercury  in  a  metal  tube  will 
cletonate  gun-cotton,  whereas  nitro-glycerine,  although 
possessed  of  more  exjilosive  force,  will  not  do  so  uidess 
used  in  large  quantities.  The  fact  of  its  being  possi 
ble  to  detonate  wet  gun-cotton  is  also  a  proof  that  the 
action  cannot  lie  due  to  beat  alone.  It  would  rather 
seem  to  be  wliat  Professor  Bloxam  terms  "  sympa- 
thetic" explosion.  Tlie  experiments  of  Abel,  as  well 
as  those  of  CMiampion  and  Pellet  in  France,  appear  to 
indicate  a  \-iliralory  action  of  the  detonating  agent 
upon  the;  ultim.Mte  particles  of  the  substance  to  Ix-  ex- 
ploded. An  explosive  molecule  is  most  unstable,  cer- 
tain very  dilicat<'ly  Imlanced  forces  prescrsnng  the 
chemical  and  ))hysic.\l  equilibrium  of  the  compound. 
If  thesi'  forces l)e  rapi<lly  o\erthrown  in  succession,  we 
have  explosion;  but  when,  l)y  a  lilow  of  a  certain  kind, 
they  are  instantaneously  destroyed,  the  result  is  deto- 
nation. .Just  as  a  irlass  gkil)e  inay  withstand  a  strong 
blow,  but  be  shattered  by  the  vibration  of  a  particula? 
note,  so  it  is  considered"  by  some  aulliorilies  that,  in 
the  instance  cited,  the  fiihninate  of  mercuiy  com- 
municates a  vibration  to  which  the  gimcottoii  mole- 
cule is  sensitive,  and  which  overthrows  ilse()uililirium; 
it  is  not  sensitive  to  the  vibrations  caused  by  the  nitro 
glycerine,  which  only  tears  and  scatters  it  niechaiii- 
cally.  Although  the  action  of  detonation  has  lieen 
spoken  of  as  instantanr'ous,  and  niav  practically  be  so 
considered,  yd  a  certain  intinitesimal  duration  of  time 
is  required  for  llie  inetamorphosis;  different  substances 


pos.sess,  doubtless,  different  rates  of  detonation,  for 
we  can  scarcely  conceive  of  a  mechanical  mixture, 
such  as  gunpowder,  being  so  sensitive  to  the  action  of 
the  detonating  imiuilse  as  a  delinite  chemical  com- 
l>o\ind,  and  the  rate  even  varies  slightly,  for  the  simie 
ex|ilosive,  with  its  physical  state.  It  has  been  shown 
by  means  of  the  chfouoscope  that  well  compressed 
irun-cotttin,  when  drv,  is  iletonated  at  a  velocitv  of 
ifrom  17,000  to  18,000  feet  a  second,  or  about"  200 
miles  a  minute;  by  using  a  small  primer  of  dry  gun- 
cotton,  the  same  substance  in  the  wet  state  may  be 
detonated  at  an  increased  rate  of  from  18.000  to  21,000 
feet  a  second,  or  about  2-10  miles  a  minute.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  potential  energy,  in  foot-toPS, 
calculated  from  the  heat  of  combustion  for  each  ex- 
plosive, determined  by  Rotix  and  Sarrau,  in  the  ex- 
periments already  referred  to;  that  for  gunpowder  is 
the  mean  given  l5y  five  kinds: 

Explosive  Substances.  Potential  energy  pejMb. 

Gunpowder 480 

Gun-cotton 716 

Nitro-glyceruie 1139 

Picrate  of  potash .536 

Picrate  of  potash  and  saltpeter 61.5 

Picrate  tiiid  chlorate  of  potash 781 

Chloride  of  nitrogen 216 

The  above  figures  naturally  direct  our  attention  to  the 
small  amount  of  work  stored  up  in  even  the  most 
violent  explosive  suVislauce,  conqiarid  with  the  poten- 
tial energy  of  1  pound  of  coal,  which  is  about  4980 
foot-tons.  Xobel  and  Abel  jioint  out  that  this  great 
difference  is  due  not  alone  to  the  fact  that  the  coal 
draws  its  oxygen  from  the  air,  but  also  to  the  neces- 
sity that  the  explosive  should  exiu'iid  a  considerable 
amount  of  work  in  converting  its  condensed  magazine 
of  oxygen  into  gas.  before  it  can  combine  with  the 
carbon;  further,  with  reference  to  the  economical 
value  of  the  work  done,  that  the  oxygen  used  by  the 
coal  costs  nothing,  whereas  much  expense  is  incurred 
in  condensing  the  oxygen  into  the  exjilosive  substance. 
The  (jraclical  value  of  any  exijlosi\e  must  depend 
greatly  upon  the  object  to  be  attained.  It  is  essential 
to  distinguish  between  explo.sive  force  and  effect;  the 
more  sudden  the  action  tlic  more  local  will  be  the 
effect  iu\)duced,  and  hence  the  very  violent  e.viilosive 
substances  are  useless  as  propelling  agents  for  heavy 
guns  or  small-arms,  since  they  woidd  destroy  the 
weapon  before  overcoming  the  inertia  of  the  piojec- 
tile.  It  is  true  that  gun-cotton,  prepared  in  vaiious 
forms,  and  mixed  with  other  substance  to  moderate 
its  action,  as  well  as  a  similar  compound  made  from 
sawdust,  an  inferior  form  of  cellulose,  are  sometimes 
used  with  small-arms;  but  in  addition  to  a  want  of 
uuiformily  in  action,  the  strain  caused  tiy  such  sub- 
stances would  be  far  too  great  in  the  large  charges 
needed  for  heavy  guns.  Again,  there  are  cases,  even 
in  mining  or  blasting  operations,  for  instance,  when 
it  is  desired  to  displace  large  masses  of  earth  or  soft 
rock,  in  which  a  comjiaratively  slow  explosive,  such 
as  gunpowder,  would  give  better  results  than  gun- 
cotton  or  dynamite.  However.  s])iaking  generally, 
gunpowder  in  some  one  of  its  forms  is  far  the  most 
valuable  as  a  jiropclling  agent,  while  for  destructive 
jiurposes  the  lastiiam((l  substances  are  much  more 
effective,  especially  when  detonating.  See  Kxphiaion, 
PiiliiiiDiitis.  Cnn-rottiiii,  G ti npoirder,  Uiyh  £xplo»i»ni, 
Ifitro-r/li/rniiii\  antl  I'irriitts. 

EXPLOSIVE  MACHINES.— Very  ancient  machines 
of  war  em|iloyed  by  the  Greeks.  They  were  some- 
what like  the  air-cannon  or  air-gun  of  the  present  day, 
but  on  a  more  i;ii:aiitic  .scale. 

EXPRESS  RIFLE.— A  modern  sporting-rifle  of  great 
killing  |)ower.  This  title  takes  a  large  charge  of  i)ow- 
dcr  and  a  li;;ht  bullet,  which  gives  a  very  high  initial 
velocity  and  a  trajectory  practically  a  right  line  u))  to 
l.'iO  y:iriN,  lirncc  the  liTin  i.rprmH.  To  increase  the 
killing  jiower  of  the  bullet,  it  is  made  of  pure  lead  and 
has  a  hollow  point.     Upon  striking  the  object,  tha 


IXPUGNABLE. 


599 


£XT£BIOB  S£F£IIS£S. 


bullet  spreads  outwardly,  inflictini^  a  fearful  death- 
wound.  This  ami  is  well  adapted  to  meet  the  wants 
of  tliose  who  hunt  large  game  at  short  range.  It  is  a 
modification  of  llie  Winchester,  moilel  187(i,  and  dif- 
fers from  it  only  in  caliber  (.50),  and  in  the  cartridge 
to  which  it  is  adapted.  This  last  contains  95  grains 
of  powder  and  a  bullet  weighing  :W0  grains.  The 
cartridges  may  be  loaded  with  hollow-pointed,  solid, 
or  split-pointed  bullets,  as  may  be  desired.  All  these 
bullets  weigl)  300 grains  each,  and  tlieir  ihooting  quali- 
ties are  about  equal.  The  primer  is  tlie  No.  2i  Win- 
chester. The  jwwder  used  in  loading  the  cartridges 
at  the  factory  is  United  States  Government  Musket, 


but  any  uf  the  approved  brands  of  powder  suitable  for 
large  cartridges  can  be  used.  As  has  been  noticed, 
the  bullet  having  a  high  initial  velocity,  a  very  Hat 
trajectory  is  obtained,  and  no  change  iii  sighting  is 
required  "up  to  150  yards,  thus  enabling  the  hunter  to 
avoid  inLssing  the  game  through  error  in  calculating 
distances,  'f  he  recoil  is  not  greater  than  that  of  a  12- 
gauge  shotgun  using  ordinary  charges;  this  model,  as 
made  up  for  the  English  market  with  a  22-inch  barrel 
and  witii  full-length  magazine,  weighs  but  8J  jiounds. 
If  (lesirable,  a  snirdl  explosive  carl  ridge  can  be  tlroiiped 
into  the  oa\ity  in  the  point,  making  it  an  explosive 
bullet.  A  caliber  as  large  as  .57  is  niueh 
used  in  England,  but  the  .50  caliber  is 
considered  suffleient  in  the  United  States. 
See  Winrhextfr  Rifle. 

EXPUGNABLE.— In  a  military  sense,  a 
term  for  tint  wliich  is  capable  r^f  being 
t;iken  liv  assiull,  forced,  or  conquered. 

EXTEND. — A  term  peculiarly  applic- 
able to  light-infantry  movements  when 
the  files  are  frequently  loosened  and  the 
front  of  the  line  extended  for  tlie  l)ur- 
poseof  skinnisbiug.  When  thedivisions 
of  a  column  are  made  to  occupy  a  greater 
space  of  ground,  they  are  said  to  extend 
their  front.     See  Krhiirkt)  Order. 

EXTENDED  OKDER.— A  light-infantry 
maneuver  which  is  freciuenlly  |)raeticed. 
It  comprehends  the  oi)ening  of  files  of 
a  battalion  or  a  company  standing  two 
deep,  so  as  to  have  just  space  enough  for 
one  man  between  each  two.  The  battal- 
ion or  company,  after  it  has  obtained  all 
its  relative  distances  and  been  halted,  is 
frontc<l,  and  each  rear-rank  man  springs 
into  the  vacancy  when  the  v  ord  ot  com- 
mand is  <.'ivcM. 

EXTERIOR   CREST.— In  fortification, 
the  crest  of  the  exterior  slope  of  a  parapet. 
ieri'ir  S'ope  and  Forlifif  itini. 

EXTERIOR  DEFENSES.— Detached  works  should 
not  only  receive  a  strong  profile,  but  li.ive  accunm 
laled  in"  their  front  every  accessory  obstruction  that 
will  best  impede  the  assailant  in  an  attempt  at  an 
open  assiidt,  and  if  not  flanked  from  the  parapet  be 
provided  with  secure  ditcli-defensi-s.  The  arrange- 
ment for  the  armament  should  be  of  the  most  sulv 
stiinlial  character  for  heavy  guns  and  mortars. 
Bomb-  and  .■plint<r-proof  shelters  should  be  pro\-idcd 
for  the  securitv  and  lodging  of  the  garrison,  and  in 
works  open  at  "the  gorge  these  should  be  ]ilaeed  across 
the  gorge  and  Ix;  loop-holed  to  meet  an  a.ssault  in  the 
rear.  If  the  sround  in  advance  of  these  works  is  not 
well  swept  by  their  fire,  or  that  of  the  connecting  in- 
trenchments,  the  ordinary  trench,  now  better  known 
as  rifle-pits,  shovdd  be  made  for  this  service.  Besides 
these,  good  covered  communications  for  field-gtms 
should  be  arranged  so  that  batteries  may  be  speedily 


moved  from  point  to  point,  where  their  services  mav 
be  most  needed.  These  covered-wavs  shoidd  also  l>e 
arranged  for  the  use  of  mtiskctry.  iTIie  plan  of  these 
works  will  depend  upon  the  eliaracter  of  their  site 
and  the  more  or  less  exposed  position  of  il  to  the 
fire  of  the  assailant.  For  the  most  imiwrtant,  bas- 
tioned  forts  will  be  the  best;  for  others,  the  star-fort 
redoubt;  or  simply  lunettes  or  redans  will  suflice. 
No  specific  rules  can  be  laiil  down,  as  everjihing 
must  depend  on  the  judgment  and  skill  of  the  engi- 
neer charged  with  planning  the  defenses. 

The  drawing  represents  the  topography  of  a  site, 
and  the  general  plan  of  a  fort  for  its  immediate  de- 
fen.se,  and  in  reciprocal  defensive  relations  w  ith  other 
works  on  its  flanks.  The  fronts  A  B  and  A  D  are 
baslioned.  and  .so  placed  that  the  fire  from  their  faces 
and  curtains,  armed  with  heavy  guns,  lan  swei-p  the 
approaches  on  the  collateral  "works;  their  flanks, 
armed  with  guns  of  smaller  range,  sweeping  the 
principal  approach  to  the  work  and  flanking  the 
ditches  of  the  salient  A.  The  front  I)  C,  to  suit  the 
configuration  of  the  ground,  isteiiailled,and  the  front 
B  C,  for  the  sjime  reason,  is  simply  a  right  line,  with 
onlv  sufficient  relief  to  sweep  the  approaches  in  front 
and  be  .secure  from  a  fire  of  muskelry.  For  the  bet- 
ter flanking  of  the  ditch  of  the  face'at  the  salient  B 
and  the  front  B  C,  a  counterscarp-gallery  is  placed 
in  front  of  B.  Rifie-pits  are  arranged  at  "F  and  G  to 
sweep  the  steep  ground  in  advance  of  the  fronts  A  B, 
B  C,  and  C  D.  As  the  site  admitted  tii  some  discre- 
tion in  fixing  the  salient  A,  and  the  direction  of  the 
two  fronts  A  B  and  A  D,  these  are  sup|)()si(l  to  have 
been  so  determined  as  to  avoid  all  enfilading  and  re- 


See  .Er- 


Plan  of  Exterior  Defenses  of  a  Fort. 


verse  views  on  these  two  fronts.  The  command  of 
these  two  fronts  from  A,  each  way  to  the  ojiposite 
flanks,  is  supposed  to  be  so  regidated  as  to  sweep  the  ap- 
proaches on  thetwo  fronts  and  to  cover  all  the  interior 
from  ])lun.gingfire.  The  outlet  is  at  F,  and  a  bridge 
leads  from  it  across  the  ditch  to  the  road  which  pa.s.s- 
es  aroimd  the  salient  D,  along  the  ridge  in  front  of 
A  JI  R'pK'sents  the  bomb-pr(X)f  barrack,  coveretl  in 
front  by  the  parapet  and  arninged  as  a  keep. 

In  the  exercise  of  his  judgment  the  engineer  will  be 
called  upon  to  make  a  particular  study  of  and  draw 
up  memoranda  on  the  general  iilan  of  defense  for  the 
whole  position  to  be  occupie<l,  in  which  he  will  liave 
to  consider  its  extent  and  its  topogr.iphical  and  mili- 
tary features;  the  side  towards  which  it  must  lie 
pai-liculariy  fortified;  the  defensive  and  offensive 
character  (if  the  fortifications  best  adapted  to  it;  its 
most  strikina  tactical  points  both  absolutely  and  rel- 
atively to  the  general  plan  of  defense;  the  number 
of  troops  by  which  it  is  to  Ije  occupied;  and  the  tim« 


IXTEBIOB  FOKM  OF  CANNON. 


600 


EXTEHNAL  PRESSUEE-GAUGE. 


in  which,  with  the  ineausat  his  disposal,  the  fortifica- 
tions can  lie  erectfd.  These  general  points  hii\  iiii: 
been  settled,  the  next  stop  will  be  to  i-oiisider  tlii' 
naosl  suitable  kind  of  work  foreacb  point,  takinj;  inlu 
account  all  natural  and  artilieial  obstructions  thai 
will  contribute  to  the  defense,  the  tactical  relations 
of  each  work  to  the  others,  and  the  best  distribution 
of  the  troops  for  each  one.  The  discus-^ion  of  the 
peculiar  features  of  each  work  as  to  its  profile,  defile- 
ment, and  construction  will  finally  be  fixed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  naliu-al  and  artificial  features  of  the 
site  exterior  to  the  works,  the  nature  of  the  uround 
itself,  and  the  disposable  means  that  the  locality  it.-iclf 
may  furnish  for  the  construction  of  the  work.  All 
of  "this  demands,  on  the  part  of  the  engineer,  a 
thorouu'h  knowledge  of  jreneral  principles  antl  an 
acquaintance  with  all  the  details  and  resources  of  his 
art.     See  Fi>rtirir<iti»n. 

EXTERIOR '  FORM  OF  CANNON.  — The  exterior 
form  of  cannon  is  determinid  Ijy  the  variable  thick- 
ness of  the  metal  which  surrounds  the  lioreat  different 
points  of  its  length.  In  general  terms,  the  thickness  is 
greatest  at  the  seat  of  the  charge,  and  least  at  or  near 
the  muzzle.  This  arrangement  is  made  on  accoimt 
of  the  variable  action  of  the  powder  and  projectile 
along  the  bore,  and  the  necessity  of  disposing  the 
metal  in  the  safest  and  most  economical  maimer;  or, 
in  other  words,  to  proiiorliou  it  according  to  the  strain 
it  is  reiiuired  to  bear.  It  has  Ix-en  proposed  to  dcler- 
niine  the  pressure  of  the  powder  at  the  different  points 
of  the  bore  by  suppo.siug  all  the  gases  evolved  in  the 
tirst  moment"of  combustion,  and,  as  the  space  behind 
the  projectile  increased,  applying  ilariotle's  law,  that 
the  tension  of  gas  is  jiroportional  to  its  densitj-,  which, 
in  turn,  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  space  it  occu 
pies.  This  method  of  determining  the  pressure  gives 
a  very  rapid  taper  to  the  exterior;  and  however  well 


bustion  of  any  charge  of  powder  (other  things  hemg- 
e(iual),  and  hence  the  greater  will  be  the  strain  on  the 
gun  in  which  it  is  burned.  1  be  strains  to  which  all 
wrcarnis  are  subjected  are  Jour  in  number,  viz.:  1st. 
The  to.iigtiilidl  stniin,  which  acts  to  split  the  piece 
open  longitudinally,  and  is  similar  in  its  action  to  the 
force  which  bursts  the  hoops  of  a  barrel.  2d.  The 
Itiiii/itudiiial  strain,  which  acts  to  pidl  the  piece  apart 
in  the  direction  of  its  length.  Its  action  is  the  greatest 
at  or  near  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  and  least  at  the 
muzzle,  where  it  is  nothing.  These  two  strains  in- 
crease the  volume  of  the  metal  to  which  they  are  a\y- 
plied.  3d.  A  strain  of  wiiipnsmiiii ,  which  acts  from 
the  axis  outward,  to  crush  the  truncated  wedges  of 
which  a  unit  of  length  of  the  piece  may  be  supposed 
to  consist.  This  strain  compresses  the  metal  and  en- 
larges the  bore.  If  the  metal  were  incompressible,  no 
enlargement  of  the  liore  would  result  from  crushing; 
and  imy  enlargement  of  the  bore  caused  by  the  action 
of  the  tangential  f(.)rce  would  be  accompanied  by  a 
corresponding  enlargement  of  the  exterior  diameter 
of  the  piece;  and  hence  the  absolute  extension  of  the 
metal,  at  the  inner  and  outer  surfaces  of  the  gim, 
would  be  inversely  as  the  radii  of  these  siu'faces. 
4th.  A  transeerse  strain,  which  acts  to  break  trans- 
versely, by  bending  outward  the  stmcK  of  which  the 
piece  may  be  supposed  to  consist.  This  strain  com- 
presses the  metal  on  the  inner,  and  extends  it  on  the 
outer  surface.  The  resistance  which  a  bar  of  iron, 
supported  at  its  extremities,  will  offer  to  a  pressure 
uniformly  distributed  over  it,  is  directly  as  the  square 
of  its  depth,  anil  inversely  as  the  square  of  its  length. 
See  CiiiuiDii  and  Onliiauee. 

EXTERIOR  SIDE.— The  side  of  a  polygon  upon 
which  a  front  of  fortitication  is  formed.  Takins;  the 
height  of  parapet  at  8  feet  and  the  depth  of  the  ditch 
at  6  feet,  the  relief  of  14  feet  will  be  the  least  used; 


External  Pressure  gauge. 


it  may  answer  for  cast-iron  cannon,  is  unsuitable  for 
tliose  made  of  bronze;  which  are  found  in  practice  to 
burst  in  the  chase,  in  consequence  of  the  enlargement 
of  the  bore  from  the  striking  of  the  projectile  against 
its  sides.  About  the  year  1841  Colonel  Bom  ford  de- 
vised a  plan  for  determining  this  pressure  by  direct 
experiment.  It  essentially  consisted  in  l)oi-ing  a  num- 
ber of  small  holes  through  the  side  of  a  gun,  at  right 
angles  to  its  axis,  the  first  hole  being  placed  at  the 
seitt  of  the  charge,  and  the  others  at  intervals  of  one 
calil)er.  A  steel  ball  was  projected  from  each  hole, 
in  succession,  into  a  target  or  ballistic  ]ienduhim  liy 
the  force  of  the  charge  acting  through  it  ;  and  the 
pres,sures  at  the  various  points  were  deduced  from  the 
velocities  commimicated  to  the  balls;  it  was  by  this 
means  that  the  iorm  of  the  columbiads  was  iletcr- 
mined.  This  plan  has  been  lately  tried  in  Prussia 
with  great  care  and  success.  Instead  of  the  i>rojectile. 
Captain  Rodman  uses  a  steel  pimch  which  is  jiressed 
bv  the  force  of  the  charge  into  a  piece  of  .soft  copiKr. 
"fhe  weight  necessary  to  make  an  equal  indentation 
in  the  same  piece  is  thei\  a.scertained  by  the  "  testing- 
machine,"  or  a  machine  employed  to  determine  the 
strength  of  cannon-materials.  This  instrument  is 
known  as  the  "  pressure-pLston,"  and  is  used  in  prov- 
ing powder  to  measure  the  strain  which  is  exerted  on 
the  i)ore  of  the  eprouvetti^  or  gun. 

In  estimating  the  effect  of  any  force  upon  a  yielding 
material  to  which  it  may  be  applied,  the  rate  of  appli- 
cation, or  the  lime  which  elapses  from  the  instant 
when  the  force  begins  lo  act  until  it  attains  its  maxi- 
mum, should  not  be  neglecte<l;  for,  with  ecpial  ulti- 
mate jiressures  per  square  inch  of  surface,  that  iiowiler 
will  be  most  severe  upon  the  gun  which  attains  this 
pressure  in  the  shortest  period  of  time  after  ignition. 
The  smaller  the  grain  the  more  rapid  will  l)e  the  com- 


taking  the  height  nt  13  feet  and  the  depth  at  13,  the 
corresponding  relief  of  24  feet  will  be  the  greatest 
used.  Assuming  the  superior  slope  at  J,  the  least 
length  of  curtain  for  the  least  relief  is  5G  yards;  the 
least  length  for  the  greatest  relief  is  96  yarils.  For  a 
curtain  of  .")6  yards  in  length,  the  extci-ior  side  must 
be  about  12.5  yards  long;  for  the  curtain  of  9(i  yards, 
the  exterior  siile  nnist  be  2.50  yards  long.  The  least 
length  of  the  exterior  side  will  lluTcf'ore  be  between 
12.5  and  2.50  yards,  depending  ui)on  the  relief  of  the 
work.  The  greatest  length  of  the  exterior  side  de- 
pends upon  the  length  given  to  the  line  of  defense. 
If  the  weajion  used  to  arm  the  flanks  is  the  rifled 
musket — tlie  weapon  now  used  by  infantry — its  close 
and  effective  range  determines  the  length  of  the  line 
of  defense.  The  limit  of  accurate  aim  for  the  ordi- 
n.iry  soldier  is  aljout  ;i()0  yards.  A.ssuming  this  to  be 
the  length  of  the  line  of  defense,  the  exterior  .side 
will  be  alwnit  400  yards  long,  and  will  be  the  greatest 
length  onlinarilv  used.     See  Fi<M-fiirtifie<itu)n. 

EXTERIOR  SLOPE.— In  a  fortificalion,  the  surface 
comiecling  the  superior  slope  with  the  ground  in  front. 
The  exterior  slope  in  the  ndine  (hat  the  nitth  mitiintUii 
asniiim'K.  Any  means  used  to  make  it  sleeper  would 
be  injurious;  because  such  would  be  soon  destroyed 
by  the  enemy's  fire,  and  the  earth  giving  way,  the  ne- 
cessary Ibickiicss  of  the  parapet  would  be  diminished. 
Sec  Fitlrl-t'iirtitiai/iiJii. 

EXTERNAL  PRESSURE-GAUGE.- A  form  of  pres- 
sure-gauge variously  ein]iloyed.  The  drawing sliowsa 
form  for  taking  (iressures  at  the  bottom  or  at  any  |)oint 
along  the  surface  of  the  bore.  The  length  of  the  plug 
in  which  the  gsiuge  is  screwed  is  such  that  its  lioltom 
reaches  to  ami  forms  a  part  of  the  bore  at  the  position 
where  the  pressure  is  lo  be  taken.  The  plug  has  a 
seclional  screw  lo  facilitate  its  insertion  or  withdrawal. 


EXTORTION. 


601 


FABRICATION  OF  FIRE-ARMi 


and  the  rim  of  the  plug  is  provided  with  a  gas-check 
to  cut  off  the  gas  from  the  surface  of  the  plug.     See 

EXTORTION.— Under  tjic  modem  laws  of  war,  hon- 
orabli'  men  no  longer  peniiit  the  use  of  any  violence 
against  prisoners  in  order  to  e.xtort  information  or  to 
punish  them  fcr  havinir  given  false  information. 

EXTRACTOR.— iVii  instrument  used  in  e.\tracting  a 
projectile  from  a  muzzle-loading  rilleil  gun.  That  in- 
troduced into  the  service  for  the  various  calibers  of 
projectiles  is  constructed  to  act  independently  of  the 
grooves  of  the  gun.  The  term  tj-tnirtor  is  given  to 
some  other  articles  of  artillery  stores,  such  as  the  ex- 
tracting implement  used  with  "the  Galling  gun,  and  the 
inslnunent  used  in  extractins  a  fuse  from  a  shell. 

EXTRADITION.— The  Federal  Constitution  pro- 
viiles  that  "  A  jierson  charged  in  any  State  with  trea- 
son, felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  tlee  from  jus- 
tice and  be  found  in  another  Slate,  sliall.  on  demand 
of  the  executive  authority  of  the  St)ite  from  which  he 
tied,  be  delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the  State  hav- 
ing jurisdiction  of  the  crime."  As  to  foreign  coun- 
tries, extradition  is  regulated  by  special  treaties,  and 
the  United  States  has  such  treaties  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  most  of  the  States 
now  forming  the  German  Empire,  anil  with  that  Em- 
pire, Austria,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Italv,  Switzer- 
land, Venezui'la,  the  Dominican  Kciniblie,  "Nicaragua, 
Ilayti,  and  Mexico.  These  treaties  |)rovide  for  ex- 
tradition in  cases  of  the  higher  crimes,  such  as  mur- 
der, assault  with  intent  to  kill,  piracy,  arson,  robbery, 
forgery,  rape,  embezzlement  by  i)ublie  otlicers,  bur- 
glary, etc.  Proceedings  in  cases  of  extradition  are 
carefully  detined  and  giiarded  by  law.  Political 
offenders,  even  though  making  war  upon  their  own 
Government,  are  not  suliject  to  extradition.  There 
are  sonu'  treaties  made  between  the  United  States  and 
.several  Indian  tribes,  recognized  as  nations  or  distinct 
comnumilies,  in  some  of  which  the  Indians  have 
stiimlated  to  surrender  to  the  Federal  Authorities 
persons  accused  of  crimes  against  the  laws  of  the 
United  Stales. 

EXTRA  DUTY.— Although  the  necessities  of  the 
service  may  require  soldiers  to  be  ordered  on  work- 
ing-parties as  a  duty,  Commanding  Offieere  should 
hear  in  mind  that  titness  for  military  service  by  in- 
struction and  discipline  is  the  object  for  which  the 
army  is  kept  on  foot,  and  that  they  are  not  to  employ 
the  troops  when  not  in  the  tield,  and  especially  the 
mounted  troops,  in  labors  that  interfere  with  their 
military  duties  and  exercises,  except  in  ease  of  im- 
mediate necessity,  which  should  lie  forthwith  report- 
ed ffjr  the  orders  of  the  War  Department.  Extra- 
duty  men  should  attend  the  weekly  and  monthly  in- 
spections of  their  companies,  and,  if  possible,  one 
drill  in  eveiy  week.  Private  soldiers  employed  in 
hospitals  as "  cooks  and  nurses  continuously  for  a 
period  exceeding  ten  days  are  paid  the  lowest  rate  of 
extra-duty  pay.  by  the"  Paymaster,  on  the  hospital 
muster-rolls.  "  Eiilislid  men  of  the  Ordnance  and 
Engineer  Deiiartments,  Hospital  Stewards,  and  Ord- 
nance and  Commissary  Sergeants,  do  not  receive 
extra-duty  pay,  unless  under  special  authority  of  the 
Secretary  of  "iVar.    The  company  artificers,  farriers, 


blacksmiths,  and  wagoners  receive  no  extra  pay  ex- 
cept when  detailed  on  extra  duty  in  the  Quartermas- 
ter's Department,  wholly  disconnected  with  their 
companies.  Soldiers  detailed  as  Acting  Superintend- 
ents of  National  Cemeteries  while  so  acting  are  en- 
tilled  to  extra  pay  as  Overseers.  Signal  Servfce  men 
do  not  receive  extra-dutv  pay  unless  specially  direct- 
ed by  the  Secretary  of  ^Var.  The  following'  Signal 
Service  men  are  authorized  to  receive  extra-duty  pay 
at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  cents  per  day:  Non-com- 
mis.sioned  officers  in  charge  of  sections;  Coqiorals 
and  privates  in  charge  of  stations,  or  serving  as 
operators;  and  repair-men  on  the  United  States  tele- 
graph lines  carrjing,  or  which  may  carrj',  com- 
mercial business.  Soldiers  emi>loyed  as  scouts  are 
not  to  be  paid  extra-duty  pay,  it  being  a  military  duly 
to  which  they  are  liable.  A  prisoner  undergoing 
sentence  does  not  receive  extra-<luty  pay.  Enlisted 
men  being  liable  to  perform  guard  and  other  nulitary 
duty  are  entitled  to  extra  pay  when  employed  on 
extra  duty  more  than  ten  days  In  a  month,  though  the 
emiilonucnt  may  not  have  lieen  continuous.  Eight 
hours  constitute  one  day's  work  for  all  pei^sons  who 
are  employed  and  paid" by  the  day,  by  or  on  iK'half 
of  the  Government  of  the  United' States.  This  does 
not  extend  to  persons  who  are  paid  regular  sjdarics. 
Watchmen,  clerks,  messengers,  and  others,  whose 
time  may  be  necessary  at  any  fir  all  hours,  are  not 
considered  to  be  emliraced  within  the  terms  of  the 
law.  Men  on  extra-duty  pay  are  held  to  such  houi's 
as  may  be  expedient  and  necessary;  b>it  except  in 
case  of  urgent  public  necessity,  as  in  military  opera- 
tions, when  they  nuist  work  regardless  of  hours,  not 
more  than  ten  hours'  laljor  should  be  reijuired.  But 
when  more  than  eight  hoiu's'  work  is  reipiired  in  any 
one  civil  daj',  the  soldier  rendering  the  service  will  be 
paid  for  more  than  a  day's  labor,  in  pro|)ortion  to 
the  time  actually  employed.  In  ordinary  cases  the 
hours  of  work  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  agree,  as 
far  as  pos,siblo,  with  the  hours  established  in  civil 
work  in  each  localitv.     Sec  Dull/. 

EXTRAORDINARIES  OF  THE  ARMY.- In  the  Bri- 
tish service,  the  allowances  to  the  troops  beyond  the 
gross  pay  in  the  Pay  Office.  Such  are  the  expenses 
for  barracks,  marches,  cncamimients.  Staff,  etc. 

EXTRAORDINARII. — In  the  ancient  Roman  army, 
a  select  l)ody  of  men  consisting  of  the  third  part  of 
the  foreign  cavalrj-  anda  fifth  oftlie  infantry.  These 
were  carefully  separated  from  the  other  forces  bor- 
rowed from  the  Confederate  States,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent any  treacherous  coalition  between  them.  From 
among  the  Extraordinarii  a  more  choice  bodj'  of  men 
were  ilrawn,  inidir  the  name  of  Abkcli. 

EXTREME  RANGE.— The  distance  from  the  piece 
to  the  point  at  which  the  projectile  is  brought  to  a 
state  of  rest.  Oreatait  ranric  nfa  piice  \*  the  farthest 
distance  to  which  it  will  throw  a  projectile,  the  piece 
Ijeing  mounted  on  its  appro))riate  carriage.  All 
ranges  are  expressed  in  yards.  In  air,  the  maximum 
range,  under  all  ordinary  circimistances,  is  obtained 
from  an  angle  not  far  from  34  degrees.     See  limine. 

EYE  SPLlCE.^A  splice  made  by  turning  the  end  of 
a  rope  back  on  itself  and  splicing  the  end  to  the  stand- 
ing part,  leaving  a  loop.    See  Cordage. 


F 


FABIAN.— Delaying:  dilatory;  avoiding  battle,  in 
imitation  of  (JuintusFabius  Maxinms  Vemicosus,  a 
Konian  General  who  conducted  militarv'  oper:ilions 
against  Hannilial,  Iiy  declining  to  risk  a  battle  in  the 
open  field,  but  liarassing  the  enemy  by  marches, 
eouMler-niarclies,  and  nmbuseades. 

FABRICATION  OF  FIRE  ARMS.— With  the  excep- 
tion of  swords  and  patent  arms,  all  small-arms  for 


the  United  States  army  and  militia  are  made  at  the 
'National  Armorv,  now  situated  at  Springlield.  Mass. 
This  Armory  is  under  the  genend  charge  of  the  Chief 
of  Ordnanc"e,  who,  bv  the"^authority  of  the  War  De- 
partment, furnishes  "the  models  and  prescribes  the 
kind  and  (pinntity  of  work  to  lie  done;  the  operations 
are  conducted  by  civilians.  A  principal  requisite,  in 
the  manufacture"  of  small-arms,  is  that  similar  parts- 


FABRICATION  OF  FIRE  AKMS. 


602 


FABRICATION  OF  FIRE-ARMS. 


of  tlie  same  kind  of  arm,  or  model,  shall  be  capable 
of  iiitertUaiigi'.  This  (lemands  a  hi-rher  degree  of 
aecur.icv  iii  the  workmauship  than  can  be  attained  by 
iiandlai>or,  without  great  cost,  and  the  consequence 
is  that  niaehiiierv  is  iiow  very  generally  employed  in 
this  bnuK-h  of  nianufacture.  The  principal  opera- 
tions of  manufacturing  arms  are  itMimj,  sirar/iiig. 
burin;;,  liiininy,  drilling,  tappiiKj,  milling,  cutting  and 
Jiling,  grihding,  c<i»e-hiirdining.  tempi-ring,  ixnd  jxilixli- 
'ing.  Welding  and  swaging  are  performed  by  black- 
smiths; the  other  operations,  by  armorers  or  tinlshers. 
Forthe  purpose-  of  minutely  investigating  the  fabrica- 
tion of  lire-arms,  we  will  notice  in  detail  the  various 
processes  and  operations  performed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  Springtield  rifle,  calilx-r  .45  inch.  The  sub- 
ject will  be  more  readily  embraced  by  following  the 
work  in  detail  through  "the  forging  department  and 
subsiKiucnt  operations. 

Bulling  barrels— A.  Springfield  gun-barrel  is  made 
from  a  2-inch  round  bar  of  decarbonized  steel.  The 
first  operation  is  to  cut  the  bar  into  lengths  of  9.2.") 
inches  each;  the  second  is  to  center  both  ends  of  each 
piece;  the  tliird  is  to  drill  a  bole  }  inch  diameter 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  piece,  forming  a 
tube,  called  a  "barrel-mold,"  which,  for  a  rifle, 
weighs  7  iMimds,  and  a  carbine  6  pounds.  The  mold 
is  heated  and  then  drawn  out  between  grooved  rolls. 
Each  set  of  rolls  has  eight  grooves,  two  of  them  cy- 
lindrical and  si.\  taper.  In  connection  with  the 
grooves  eight  mandrels  are  iLsed,  which  vary  in 
diameter  of  knob  from  .7.5  to  .37  inch.  Four  molds 
are  placeil  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  and  brought  to 
a  red  heat.  A  workm-n  then  thrusts  the  largest 
mandrel  through  one  of  them,  while  still  in  the 
furnace.  He  then  carries  it  to  the  rolls,  and  placing 
the  mandrel  through  the  frame,  introduces  the  end  of 
the  mold  into  the  first  of  the  cylindrical  grooves. 
The  action  of  the  rolls  is  to  draw  the  mold  over  the 
mandrel.  The  ej'linder  is  straightened  by  striking  it 
on  a  flat  iron  table,  and  placed  in  the  furnace  to  be 
reheated.  The  molds  are  run  through  the  first 
groove  in  succession,  after  which  the  second-sized 
mandrel  is  iLsed.  The  cjiinders  are  run  through  the 
second  groove  in  the  same  manner.  The  remaining 
grooves  are  maile  of  the  same  shape  as  the  required 
barrel.  The  cylinders  are  i>assed  breech  foremost 
throtigh  tbe-se,  precisely  as  before,  each  cylinder  being 
reheated  after  passing  through  any  one  groove  except 
the  last  one,  through  which  it  is  pa.s.scd  Ihree  times  to 
give  the  required  form.  A  ninth  groove  is  on  the 
rolls,  but  it  is  only  used  when,  as  rarely  happens,  the 
barrel  ap|K'ars  to  be  running  a  little  short.  When 
the  first  four  molds  have  reached  the  third  groove, 
four  a<lditional  molds  are  placed  in  the  furnace. 
Thus  the  sujiply  is  constant  without  risk  of  binning 
the  metal.  One  hundred  and  fifty  can  be  rolknl  per 
day  of  eight  hours  with  one  set  of  rolls.  One  roller 
and  two  hel|)ers  are  required  for  each  set  of  rolls. 
One  funiaei'  can  heat  molds  suflicient  for  two  sets  of 
rolls.  From  .T  to  H  pounds  of  coal  are  used  yier  bar- 
rel. Cutting  (iff — The  barrel,  after  passing  through 
the  last  groove  and  while  still  hot,  is  cut  to  a  li'nglh 
of  33  inches  for  the  rifle,  and  to  221  inches  for  the 
carbine,  by  a  set  of  two  circular  saws.  Straighten-  ! 
ing  — The  ban-el  is  placed  in  the  straightc-niiig-  ' 
machine,  which  is  composed  of  two  dies  each  of  the 
length  and  shape  of  the  half-barrel,  and  winch  close 
upon  <-aeli  other  as  the  workman  turns  the  barrel 
abo\il  its  ;ixis  with  a  pair  of  tongs.  Anneiiling — 
Tlie  barrels  aie  again  placed  in  a  reverberatory  fur- 
nace, brought  to  a  n-d  lu-at,  taken  out,  and  packed  in 
east-iron  bo.xes  in  alternate  layers  with  fine  charcoal. 
Each  box  contains  about  HO  barrels.  This  operation - 
renders  the  barrels  less  brittle,  and  also  makes  them 
easier  to  turn,  file,  etc.  They  remain  in  the  charcoal 
from  three  to  fivi-  days  before  they  an-  cool  enough 
til  Ix;  remov(-d.  Firnl  ulraiglitcning — Tin-  barrels  are 
tli(-n  straightened  jvirlly  on  an  anvil  with  a  common 
]iamni(-r  and  partiv  imder  a  drop-hammer.  First 
nnd  second  boring — "The  barrels  are  now  "  first-bored  " 


with  two  twist-augers,  of  .37  and  .12  inch  diameter 
respectivelr,  in  a  swift  Ijoring-maehine,  and  "second- 
bored  "  with  a  (luadrangtdar  auger  ribbed  with 
splints,  to  a  caliber  of  .-t-i  inch.  In  the  first  boring 
the  augers  are  drawn  through  the  bore  rather  than 
pushed.  In  the  second  and  additional  boruigs  the 
cutting  is  done  in  both  directions,  tint  milling — 
The  rough  ends  left  by  the  circular  .sjtws  are  squared 
up  in  a  hand  niilliug-machiue,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  the 
spindle  of  which  carries  a  cone  of  several  grades. 
First  turning — The  barrel  is  i>l,-iced  in  a  lathe  and  a 
iwrtion  at  the  breech  is  turned  down  to  receive  a 
"  dog"  (a  contrivance  for  holding  the  barrel  in  the 


Fio.  1. 

turning-lathes'),  after  which  a  ring  of  Babbitt-metal  is 
cast  around  the  middle  of  the  barrc-l.  This  ring  is 
turned  down  smooth  to  give  a  bearing  for  a  support 
which  ju'events  the  harrel  fnmi  springing  while  the 
cutter  is  turninij  down  the  rough  exterior.  The  lathe 
for  this  portion  of  the  work  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
/^■riinil  turning — One  half  lh<-  length  of  the  barrel  is 
now  turned  down,  after  which  it  is  taken  from  the 
lathe,  the  ring  knocked  off,  and  the  other  half  com- 
pleted. During  the-  latter  half  of  the  turning  the 
support  bears  against  the  smooth  surfac<-  of  the  part 
first  turned  off.  Seroml  straig/itening — The  barrel  is 
now  siraighleiied  on  the  interior  by  the  use  of  the 
anvil  and  hammer.  Tin- accuracy  of  thiswork  is  de- 
termined by  holding  the  barrel  up  to  the  light  and 
refiei-ting  the  ima-i-e  of  a  straight-edge  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  bore.  If  the  barrel  be  straight,  the  reflect- 
ed image  will  be  straight  In  all  jiosilions  of  the  barrel. 
Tliird  turning — The  barnl  is  jil.ioeil  in  a  lathe  and 
.().')  iiK-h  turned  ofl  throughnul  its  whole  length. 
Third  boring — It  is  again  borc-d  in  a  manner  sinular 
to  the  second  boring,  the  caliber  being  brought  up  to 


FABRICATION  OF  FIBE-ABMS. 


603 


FABRICATION  OF  FIKE-AEHS. 


.4445  inch.  Second  milling — The  muzzle  is  now 
milled  for  a  few  inches  to  the  true  taper  to  serve  as  a 
guide  to  the  grinder.  Grinding — Tlie  barrel  is 
ground  very  nearly  to  its  true  size  on  a  large  and 
rapidly-revolving  grindstone.  Proriii;/ — At  this  stage 
the  Ijarrels  are  proved.  About  40  are  loaded  with 
380  grains  of  musket-powder,  a  paper  wad,  a  lead 
.slug  weighing  500  grains,  and  a  paper  wad  over  all. 
Tlu;  barrels  are  clamped  down  in  a  semicircular  bed 
and  tired  by  a  train.  The  operation  is  repeated, 
except  that  the  powder  charge  is  250  grains.  After 
each  fire  the  letter  P  is  stamjied  by  an  Inspector  on 
the  under  side,  near  the  breech,  of  all  barrels  which 
endure  the  test.  To  prevent  mistakes  the  stamping 
is  done  before  the  barrels  are  removed  from  the  ]iroof- 
house.  Miizzh-filiiiij — The  mu/.zle  is  tiled  to  remove 
the  roughness  left  by  the  milling,  and  to  bring  it  to 
shape  for  receiving  the  bayonet-socket.  It  is  done  in 
the  turning-lathe.  Tliinl  milling— The  breech  end 
is  squared  up  smoothl\-.  Siqliliiig — The  barrel  is 
placed  in  the  milling-machine,  and  a  seat  for  flie 
front  sight  milled  out.  The  ends  of  the  seat  are  un- 
dercut, leaving  the  upper  edses  comparatively  thin. 
The  cclgcs  are  turned  up  with  a  chisel  and  hanuner 
and  the  roughly-formed  sight  pressed  in  the  seat. 


cally  through  the  spindle  and  pushes  tlie  cutters  out 
more  and  more  until  the  oix'ration  is  completed. 
When  the  otoovcs  are  cut  to  the  required  dei)tli  the 
automatic  device  for  feeding  the  rod  ceases  to  act,  a 
pawl  being  lifted  from  a  ratchet  by  a  spring.  The 
cutters  then  move  back  and  forth  "until  the  grooves 
are  thoroughly  polished.  The  pushing  out  of  the 
cutters  takes  place  just  after  they  have  passed  clear 
through  the  barrel,  so  that  the  culling  is  done  as  the 
spindh-  is  withdrawn.  An  automatic  arningemcnt 
also  turns  the  barrel  one  third  of  a  revolution  about 
its  axis  each  time  the  cutters  leave  the  breech-end  of 
the  bore.  The  cvitters  then  enter  different  grooves. 
By  this  means  the  grooves  are  made  of  equal  widths 
and  depths,  since  any  little  variation  due  to  the  size 
of  a  cutter  is  eliminated  by  the  others.  Each  cutler 
enters  all  the  grooves  many  times  before  the  rifling  is 
completed.  Simnd  miizdi -fling — ThebaiTcl  is  place<l 
in  a  lurniiig-lathe,  and  the  nuizzle  is  accurately  tiled  in 
front  and  in  rear  of  the  sight.  Finixliing  iniizzh — The 
portion  of  the  muzzle  which  is  prevented  bv  the  .sight 
from  being  tiled  while  thi;  barrel  is  revoh-ing  is  filed 
off  by  hand.  Jigning  front  sightx — A  jig  is  i)laced 
over  the  sight,  and  the  sight  is  then  filed  down  to  size. 
tiixth  milling — This  consists  in  slightly  rovmding  ofE 


Fio.  2. 


The  edges  arc  then  driven  do-mi,  bearing  against  the 
sight  so  as  to  hold  it  in  po.sition.  The  liarrel  is  then 
carried  tollie  brazing-room  and  the  sight  is  bra/ed  on. 
Fourth  millinr/—T\it'  front  end  of  the  sight  is  milled 
off  so  that  lhere(iuired  distnuce  shall  remain  between 
the  sight  and  the  muzzle.  Front-sight  fling— This 
consists  in  tiling  aroiuid  the  sight  after  the  brazing. 
Fifth  nii//iiig—T\u'  muzzle-end'  is  smoothly  squared 
up.  Fimrlh  boring — Reams  out  the  barrel  to  a  cali- 
ber of  .44(i5  inch.  Ffth  boring — Reams  out  the  bar- 
rel to  a  caliber  of  .45  inch.  Firxt  poli.-<hiiig—\hm\\  5 
inches  at  the  breech-end  are  jiolished  on  a  buff  wheel. 
Seci.nd  jwlixhing—The  barrel,  plac'eil  in  a  vertical 
polishing-machine  and  held  by  the  portion  already 
polished,  is  moved  rajiidly  up  "and  down  and  at  the 
same  time  turiu'd  about  its  own  axis  between  clamps, 
the  surfaces  of  whieh  are  covered  with  emery  and  oil. 
Rifling— Thi'  barrels  are  rifled  in  a  machine  specially 
prepared  for  this  i)urp()se.  A  hollow  spindle,  armed 
with  three  cutters,  is  moved  luiiformly  through  the 
barrel,  entering  at  the  muzzle.  The  spindle  has  also 
a  uniform  motion  aboiit  its  axis  sufficient  to  cause 
one  revolution  in  22  inches.  At  the  end  of  the  stroke 
the  niolidii  is  reversed  and  the  si)inille  withdrawn. 
The  cutters  are  let  in  the  surface  of  the  spindle  and 
held  by  springs.     A  conical  rod  is  moved  automati- 


the  corners  or  edges  at  muzzle.  Tnsjierlions — The 
barrels  are  carefully  inspected  after  rolling,  first  ai\d 
•second  borings,  third  turning,  third  boring,  second 
milling,  grinding,  proving,  fourth  and  fifth  borings, 
second  polishing,  riff ing,"  second  muzzle-filing,  and 
sixth  milling.  These  inspections  are  for  ascertaining 
the  quality  of  the  work  and  material,  and  for  gauging 
as  to  size. 

1  The  material  from  which  the  bayonet-blade  is 
formed  is  a  cast-steel  bar,  cross-section  .625  inch 
s<iuare,  the  lens'h  of  whieh  is  sufficient  to  bring  up 
the  weight  to  "14  ounces.  Cutting— Thv  bar  is  cut 
into  suitable  lengths  by  a  large  pair  of  shears  worke<l 
by  power,  and  is  deteiinined  as  follows:  A  tulx-  con- 
tiiinins  water  is  capable  of  receiving  14  ounces  of 
steel  withovil  causing  the  water  to  run  over.  The  bar 
enters  the  tidje,  and  when  the  water  rises  to  the  level 
the  bar  is  cut  off.  The  intention  is  that  the  sjime 
amount  of  stock  shall  be  in  each  bar.  yecl-roii tiding 
—Each  piece  thus  cutoff  is  healed  and  a  .small  round 

[  head  formed  at  one  end,  under  a  pony-hammer.     A 

I  neck  connects  the  head  with  the  bar.  Rilliiig— The 
bars  arc  placed  in  a  reverberalory  furnace.  When 
brouirht  to  a  red  heat  a  bar  is  taken  out  by  a  work- 
man with  a  pair  of  tongs  and  inserted  in  the  first  of 

i  the  nine  grooves  on  the  surface  of  the  rolls.     It  is 


FABRICATION  OF  FIRE-AKMS. 


604 


FABRICATION  OF  FIRE-ARMS. 


then  inserted  in  each  j»rcove  in  succession  up  to  the 
fourth,  throudi  wliiih  it  i<  piuwcd  three  times.  It  is 
then  pii-ssed  tiiruuu'h  laoh  of  the  rcmaiuii:!;  grooves, 
after  which  it  is  insiTted  up  to  the  neck  in  a  cast-iron 
Ih)X  tillitl  with  tine  iharcoal,  where  it  undergoes  an-  j 
uealiiig.  No  rchcaling  is  neces.siiry  throughout  the 
whole  oper.ition.  Thetirst  four  grooves  serve  merely 
to  draw  out  the  har.  while  tljc  others  flute  the  blade. 
yti-k-/iimliiig—TUv  head  and  neck  are  heated,  the 
neck  iK'nt  at  right  angles  to  the  blade  under  a  drop- 
hammer,  and  the  head  upset  under  a  trip  hanmier.  to 
form  a  broailer  surface  for  receiving  the  socket-plate. 
The  socket-plate  is  of  wroughl-iron,  forged  and 
trunmed  from  a  piece  2.35  inches  square  by  i  iucli  in 
thickness.  It  is  pickled  in  oil  of  \-itriol  and  water 
heated  by  steam,  before  it  is  welded  to  the  blade. 
SdcAit  ireldfd  on — The  sockct-plale  and  head  of  the 
blade  arc  heati'd.  the  plate  placed  on  the  head,  and 
quickly  welded  to  it  by  a  trip-hammer.  The  socket 
is  reheiued,  trimmed  by  a  pair  of  shears,  and  curved  ( 
over  a  mandrel  by  a  hand-hammer.  iMp-ireliUng— 
The  socket  is  reheated,  a  mandrel  inserted,  and  the 
edges  weldeil  together  in  a  die  under  a  trip-hammer.  ' 
The  socket  is  again  heated,  ))laced  in  a  die  under  an- 
other trip-hammer  and  brought  to  shape,  ^eck-sicag-  \ 
ing — The  socket  and  neck  are  again 
heated  and  their  position  with  re- 
spect to  the  blade  determined  by 
a  drop-hammer  forcing  the  differ- 
ent parts  into  a  die.  Atnualing 
tocket — The  bayonets  are  placed 
in  the  annealing-furnace,  and  the 
blades  for  the  greater  portion  of 
their  length  ])assiug  downward  be- 
tween the  bars  of  a  grate.  Char- 
coal is  laid  on  the  grate,  over  the 
socket-necks  and  upper  portion  of 
the  blades.  A  tire  is  startetl  and 
the  parts  mentioned  are  heated  to 
a  red  heat.  The  charcoal  liurns 
away  and  the  metal  cools  slowly, 
remaining  in  the  furnace  about  48 
hours.  The  lower  jtortions  of  the 
blades  do  not  rcipiire  annealing,  as 
they  arc  annealed  immediately 
after  rolling.  Pickled— 1l\c  bayo- 
nets are  vitrioled  as  before  ex- 
plained. First  boring— The  sock- 
ets are  roughly  bored  nearly  to 
size.  First  titriting — The  exterior 
of  the  socket  is  turned  otf  except 
at  the  bridge.  Burring  swket-t — 
The  tin  at  each  end  of  the  socket 
is  tiled  off  by  hand.  Straightiri- 
ing  Made — The  blade  is  straight- 
eneil  on  an  anvil  preparatory  to 
milling.  Fimt  J'wing—Tln:  face 
of  the  blade  next  to  the  neck  is 
now  milled  off  for  a  distance  of 
about  three  inches.  Mi/linr/  Made — The  grooves  and 
edges  are  milled,  bringing  the  blade  nearfv  to  the  re- 
quired size.  Punching  jmnts— The  end  o"f  the  blade 
is  punched  in  a  die  nearly  to  shajU'  and  size.  Heeling 
anil  jiointing—Thv  point'of  the  blade  and  the  sides  at 
the  point  of  junction  with  the  neck  arc  milled  to  the 
required  form.  Ti  m peeing— Thv  blade  is  heated  to 
a  cherry  red  and  then  iiUm|;e(l  into  brine.  This  ren- 
ders it  very  hard  and  brittle.  The  blade  is  then 
coated  with  sperm  oil  and  heated  vmtil  the  oil  is 
burned  off,  when  it  is  left  with  a  spring  temper.  It 
is  then  straightened  on  an  anvil.  Buffing  edge— The 
edges  are  straightened  and  sm<K)thlv  buffed  oil  a  hori- 
Kontal  buff-wlieel.  Huffing  yi/<-,— The  face  of  the 
blade  is  bulled  to  remove  tlie  ronirh  surface  left  in 
millinj,'.  Huffing  Imek  and  ]»nnl— The  three  ed;;es  of 
the  point  are  also  buffed  to  give  a  smooth  surface  for 
IJolishing.  /'/;•*/ /)«nf/un</— The  socket  is  placed  on 
a  mandrel  containing  a  die,  and  the  slot  is  punched 
out  excejit  the  portion  through  the  arch.  Sicond 
boring — The  socket  Ls  bored  up  nearly  to  its  true  size. 


Second  turning — The  exterior  of  the  socket  is  turned 
down  except  at  the  arch.  First  milling  siM-ket—ThQ 
ragged  ends  of  the  socket  are  milled  off  and  the  length 
of  the  socket  brought  down  to  gauge.  Third  turning 
— The  exterior  of  the  .socket  is  turneil  off  at  the  arch. 
Second  punching — The  socket  is  punched  through 
the  arch.  Milling  neck — The  neck  is  nulled  to  shape 
and  nearly  to  size.  Buffing  /;«•/•— The  neck  is  huffed 
to  remove  roughness  left  by  the  niillingtt>ols.  Grind- 
ing blade  —The  back  flutes  of  the  blade  are  ground  to 
give  a  smooth  surface  for  polishing.  Filing  sM — The 
slot  is  tiled  to  size  for  the  front  sight,  aftci  which  the 
socket  is  milled.  Second  niilling-Thh  operation 
rounds  the  end  of  the  socket  next  the  blade.  Block- 
ing—The bayonet<lasp  is  roughly  blocked  from  an 
iron  bar,  the  cross-section  of  which  is  .625  inch  by 
.;!12  inch,  by  means  of  dies  and  a  drop-hammer. 
First  trimming — The  central  portion  is  ])unclied  out, 
and  the  tiu  at  the  sides  trimmed  ntV  in  a  trinuniug- 
machine,  wliich  consists  essentially  of  a  die  and 
pimcli.  Dropping — The  clasp  is  reheated,  placed  on  a 
mandrel  and  swaged  into  a  die  under  a  droi)-liammer. 
Seci/nd  trimming — The  tin  around  tbe  arch  and  at  the 
opposite  end  is  trimmed  off  in  a  trinuning  n\achine. 
Annealing — A  number  of  clasps  are  placed  in  cast- 


Fio.  3. 

iron  retorts  in  alternate  layers  with  fine  charcoal,  and 
covers  are  fastened  on  with  brick-clay.  Several  re- 
torts are  placed  in  an  annealing-furnace,  charcoal  is 
packed  between  and  over  them,  a  tire  started,  and 
the  retorts  brought  to  a  red  heat.  The  charcoal  hav- 
ing burnt  away,  the  retorts  cool  graduidly,  remaining 
in  the  furnacealK  ut  24  hours.  The  da'sps  are  then 
soft  enough  to  be  easily  turned,  milled,  etc.  They 
are  then  vitrioled.  Turning — The  clasp  is  jilaced  on 
a  mandrel  having  an  arbor  or  shaft  by  which  the 
mandrel  is  held  in  a  turning-lathe.  Cutters  prcs.sing 
against  each  side  of  the  clasp  trim  off  the  tin  around 
it  left  by  the  die  in  dmiiping.  Pressing — The  clasp, 
again  |>iaced  on  a  mandrel,  is  cold-pre.s.sed  into  shape 
ami  thickness  to  avoid  milling  the  sides. 

First  cutting— \  length  amjily  sufficient  for  a  ram- 
rod is  cut  from  a  cast-steel  bar.  .2S  inch  round,  by  a 
pair  of  heavy  shears.  First  struighti  ning — The  piece 
cut  off  is  straightened  on  an  anvil  with  a  hand-ham- 
mer. First  grinding — The  rod  is  now  ground  to  a 
uniform  size  on  a  grindstone.    First  dropping— One 


TABBICATION  OF  FIBE-ABHS. 


605 


FABBICATION  OF  FIEE-AEMS. 


end  having  been  heated,  the  rod  is  placed  vertically 
in  a  clamp-visc  and  the  heated  end  upset  to  form  a 
head,  by  a  drop-hammer,  y/wrmiy— The  burr  fonned 
by  the  edges  of  the  vise  is  ground  off  on  a  grindstone. 
Firat  mnttjing — The  thickened  end  of  the  rod  is  re- 
heated and  the  head  formed  in  a  die  under  a  pony- 
hammer,  the  rod  being  turned  slowly  about  its  longer 
axis,  tkeond  culling— The  ix)d  is  again  cut  to  a  pre- 
scribed length,  to  act  as  a  guitle  for  determining  the 
position  of  the  swell.  &con(l  dropping — The  portion 
near  the  head  is  heated  and  the  rod  upset  in  a  clamp- 
vise,  at  the  ijroper  distance  from  the  head  for  the 
swell  for  the  ramrod-stop,  tkcond  sir<igi/ig — The  form 
of  the  swell  is  determined  in  a  die  un(lcr  a  pony -ham- 
mer, as  exi)lained  for  the  head.  J-'ii:it  amualing — 
The  rod  from  the  head  to  the  swell  is  brought  to  a  red 
heat  in  melted  lead  and  placed  in  wood-ashes,  where  it 
undergoes  annealing,  after  which  it  is\itrioled.  Sec- 
ond stvaigliii  iiing — The  rod  is  again  straightened  on  an 
anvil  witli  a  hand-hammer.  Fint  miUing — The  head 
and  about  3  inches  of  the  body  are  now  milled  in  a 
power  milling-machine,  shown"  in  Fig.  3.  Tlie  ma 
chine  has  automatic  screw-feed,  and  stop  motion  ad- 
justable at  an_y  point.  Stc/nd  milling — 
The  head  is  ne.xt  milled  to  fonu  the 
flat.  Drilling — Four  small  holes  are 
drilled  at  right  angles  to  the  tlat  to  form 
the  slot.  Fiiiir/iing — The  slot  is  formeil 
by  a  punching-niachine,  which  <?asily 
removes  the  metal  remaining  l)etween 
the  holes  already  drilled.  /Sizing — The 
head  is  now  brought  to  size  in  a  clamp- 
milling  machine.  Third  milling — The 
swell  antl  boily  for  about  2J  inches  each 
side  of  the  swell  are  milled  in  a  clamp 
milling-machine.  Fourth  nulling — A- 
boul  4  inches  from  the  swell  are  now 
milled  to  meet  the  grinding.  Fifth 
milling — Same  as  third  milling,  except 
that  it  extends  aliout  3A  inches  each  side 
of  the  swell.  Filing  slot — The  slot  is 
linished  by  hand-fjling,  which  removes 
sharp  edges  left  by  the  punch  and  rounds 
the  corners.  Srond  grinding — The  roil 
is  now  ground  to  meet  the  tifth  milling. 
Temjiering — The  rods,  held  in  a  pair  of 
tongs,  are  placed  in  a  long  hollow  tire 
and  brought  to  a  cherry-red  heat.  They 
are  then  pluuged  in  a  vat  of  brine,  which 
renders  them  very  hard  and  brittle. 
They  are  next  coated  with  sperm-oil, 
and  heated  until  the  oil  is  burned  off, 
when  they  are  left  with  a  spring  temper. 
Third  grinding — They  are  regi-ound  to 
remove  the  roughness  produced  in  tem- 
pering, and  to  bring  them  more  nearly 
to  true  size.  SiflJt  milling — The  small 
end  is  milled  off,  so  that  the  rod  is  of  the 
right  length,  fyrond  unnruling — About  4  inches  of  \ 
the  small  end  are  annealed  precisely  as  Vxfore  ex- 
plained. Third  utmighli  ning — The  rod  is  straight- 
ened on  an  anvil  after  being  annealed.  Serenth  mill- 
ing— The  grooves  on  the  small  end  are  formed  in  a 
clamp-milling  machine.  Firi<i  polishing — The  head 
is  polished  in  a  lathe  with  emery  and  oil.  Sermd 
polishing — The  rod  is  polished  up  io  the  milling,  near 
the  swell,  in  a  vertical  polishingmachine,  in  the  sjune 
manner  as  explained  for  the  barrel.  Third  jyjli*hing 
— The  whole  of  the  jxirtion  milled,  exceiJt  the  head, 
is  polished  on  a  buff-wheel.  The  jointeil  ramrod  for 
the  carbine  is  comprised  of  three  sections  of  equal 
length  of  8i  inches.  The  tirst  section  has  the  stem, 
head,  and  screw.  The  second  and  third  sections  have 
the  stem,  sirell,  and  seror.  The  swells  on  the  end  of 
these  two  sections  are  drilled  and  tapped  to  receive 
the  screw -ends  of  the  first  and  second  sections  which  \ 
make  the  complete  rod.  The  material  of  which  this  1 
Rimrod  is  made  is  cast-steel.  ini>r<7/«'7— Theendof  the  ' 
rod,  which  is  round,  is  upset  sufficientl)'  to  form  the 
iiead,  and  then  drawn  and  rounded  under  a  small  tilt-  I 


hammer  to  the  proper  size  and  length.  First-straight- 
ened—This  is  done  by  hand,  while  cold,  on  an  anvil. 
i''(>«/-(jH«tv(/<"rf— Annealed  in  cast  iron  retorts  by  pack- 
ing in  charcoal-flust  and  heating  in  a  funiace  to"a  cher- 
p'-redheat  for  live  or  six  hours,  after  which  the  furnace 
is  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  Firal-miiled—Thv  tirst  mill- 
ing is  done  in  a  clamp-milling  machine,  which  forms 
the  head  and  stem  about  3  inches  to  nearly  the  right 
size.  Sicond-milled~The  rod  is  then  reversed  and 
the  remainder  of  the  stem  is  milled  in  another  set 
of  clamp-milling  dies.  Third-mi/led— Thh  operation 
clamp  mills  the  entire  .section  to  its  fini.sh-size  in  dies 
that  receive  both  the  head  and  stem  at  one  operation. 
First  buffed — Buff-polished  on  a  revohing  emery- 
wheel  to  remove  the  roughness  and  prepare  it  for 
tem]xring.  Tempered — Heated  to  a  cherry  red  and 
hardened  in  water;  then  it  is  drawn  over  a  blaze 
to  a  spring  tcmjxT,  and  second-straightened.  .Sr*-- 
ond-anneeiled — The  point  of  the  rod  is  now  annealed 
about  half  an  inch  for  cutting  the  thread.  Fourth- 
milled — Clamp-mills  aliout  half  an  inch  of  the  end  to 
the  proix?r  size  for  cutting  the  thread  that  screws  into 
the  other  section.     Cm/— The  thread  is  made  in  the 


Fig.  4. 

screw-cutting  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  4.  Seeond- 
*)///;<?— Polishes  the  head  of  the  rod  on  an  emery- 
wheel.  The  drilling  and  tapping  on  the  second  and 
third  sections  is  done  on  a  screw-milling  machine  and 
tapping-machine  which  drills  into  the  sirell  about  half 
an  inch,  then  taps  the  hole  to  receive  tht  screw-end  of 
the  other  section;  the  other  operations  are  the  same 
as  specified  in  the  first  section.  The  ramrotl-slop  is 
formed  from  a  steel  rod  .57  inch  in  diameter.  One 
end  ha\'ing  been  heated  is  drawn  out  to  give  more 
stock  at  the  ends  of  the  stop  in  a  die  under  a  trip- 
hanmier,  after  which  it  is  relunied  to  the  fire.  Four 
rods  are  us\ially  worked  at  the  same  time.  Each  one 
having  undergone  the  above  operation,  the  first  one 
is  taken  from  the  fire,  transferred  to  a  drop-hammer, 
and  the  forging  completed  by  a  single  blow.  It  is 
then  annealed,  rilrioled,  and  trimmed. 

The  following  oj'ierations  are  uecessarj-  for  the 
mountings  and  small  parts:  The  hutt-plnte  is  blocked 
from  a  bar  by  being  forced  in  dies  by  a  single  blow 
from  each  of  two  "drop-hammers.  ■The  fin  aroimd 
the  edge  is  trimmed  off  by  a  trimming-machine.    The 


FABBICATION  OF  FIBH-ABHS. 


606 


FABRICATION  OF  FIB£.ABH8. 


plate  is  well  beatid  iiiul  placed  under  a  drop-hamiiuT 
which  beuds  it  and  at  the  same  time  swages  it  into 
shape  in  a  die.  It  is  then  annealed  and  ritrioUd, 
after  which  it  is  coUI-tiropptd,  that  is,  forced  while 
cold  in  a  die  bv  a  drop-hammer.  Fi>r<jin;i — The 
screws  are  forgcif  from  a  rod  .1)7  inch  in  diameter  in 
a  die  imder  a  ponv-hammer.  Annealing — They  are 
then  annulled  and  citruiUd.  The  rear-xight  ba«e  is 
partially  formed  from  a  bar,  the  cros.s-seetion  beuijr 
.562  inch  square,  in  a  die  under  the  drop  hammer. 
Annealing — It  is  ne.xt  annealed,  ritrioled,  heated  and 
dropi^d:  then  annealed,  ritrioled,  and  Irimnud.  The 
rear-fight  base-spring  is  forged  in  a  die  uudir  a  drop- 
hammer  from  a  cast-steel  bar  .375  inch  by  .125  inch, 
after  which  it  is  annealed,  ritrioled,  and  trimmed. 
The  rear-sight  leaf  is  partially  formed  from  a  bar.  the 
cross-.seclion  of  which  is  .4;i8  inch  by  .'A)  inch,  in  a 
die  under  a  pony-liamnier.  It  is  then  transferred  to 
a  drop-hammer,  where  the  forging  is  com|)lele<l  by  a 
very  hea\-y  blow.  It  is  then  annealed,  ritrioled,  and 
trimmed.  The  rear-sight  slide  is  formed  from  a  bar 
.31  inch  square  precisely  as  explained  for  the  rear- 
sight-base  spring.  The  bar  from  which  the  front 
sights  are  formed  is  tirst  rolled  to  bring  its  cross-sec- 
tion to  the  form  of  the  cross-section  of  the  sight.  A 
piece  of  sufficient  length  for  the  sight  is  cut  from  the 
bar  by  a  punching-machine,  after  which  the  sides 
and  bottom  of  the  pieces  are  milled  nearly  to  size. 
Subsequent  ojieralions  relating  to  the  sight  are  ex- 
plained in  connection  with  the  barrel.  The  guard- 
plate  is  partially  lirought  to  fonn  from  a  rod  .57  inch 
in  diameter  under  a  trip-hammer.  It  is  then  heated 
and  dropped,  annealed,  and  ritrioled.  The  guard  lioie 
is  blocked  from  a  rod  .48  inch  in  diameter;  then 
dropped,  annealed,  ritrioled,  and  trimmed  in  the  man- 
ner explained  for  the  guard-plate.  The  giiard-boir 
sirirel  is  formed  from  a  rod  .28  inch  in  diameter.  A 
portion  sufficient  for  the  swivel  is  drawn  out  under  a 
pony-hammer,  leaving  stock  at  lioth  ends  to  form  the 
pads,  and  afterward  cut  from  the  rod.  The  jiiece 
having  been  reheated  is  placed  in  a  foot-vise  and  the 
pads  formed  by  a  hand-hammer.  It  is  then  annealed 
and  ritrioled.  "The  hammer  is  made  a.s  follows:  The 
heated  end  of  a  bar,  the  cross-section  of  which  is  1.13 
inch  by  .5  inch,  undergoiw  a  drawing  out  process  in 
a  die,  under  several  blows  from  the  drop-hannner. 
While  still  hot,  the  end  thus  roughly  prepared  is 
placeil  under  another  drop-hammer  and  forced  in  a 
die  by  a  single  blow.  It  is  now  returned  to  the  fire. 
The  workman  usually  has  four  bars  in  the  lire  at  the  I 
same  time,  all  of  which  undergo  the  above  operation 
in  succession.  The  first  one  is  now  taken  from  the 
fire,  the  hcateil  end  placed  under  the  drop-hammer  ! 
last  used,  given  a  single  blow,  immediately  afterward 
placed  in  a  trimming-machine,  when  the  tin  surround- 
ing is  cut  off,  i)]a,-ed  imder  another  drop-hammer  and 
forced  into  a  die  by  a  single  blow,  which  brings  the 
hammer  nearly  to  shape  and  at  the  same  time  cuts  it 
from  the  bar.  The  lin  or  surplus  metal  forced  out 
by  the  dies  is  removed  by  the  trimming-machine. 
The  hammer  is  reheated  and  dropped  in  a  die  smaller 
than  those  used  In-fore.  It  is  then  annealed,  ritrioled, 
seeond-trimmed,  and  eold-pressed.  The  cold-pressing 
is  for  the  puiT)ose  of  giving  a  smooth,  compact  sur^ 
face,  and  to  .<ave  milling  the  body.  In  making  the 
toek-pUite,  a  Hat  bar  of  decarbonized  steel,  the  cioss- 
section  of  which  is  1.75  inch  bv  .22  inch,  is  annealed 
in  charcoal,  after  which  the  plate  is  punched  out 
by  a  punching-press.  The  main-spring  is  partially 
formed  in  a  die  under  a  pony-hammer,  from  a  east- 
steel  bar,  the  cross-section  of  which  is  .31  ir.ch  square. 
It  is  then  heated  and  dropped,  annealed,  and  rilriohd. 
The  main-spring  sirirel  is  forged  from  a  cast-steel 
ro<l,  .375  inch  by  .125  inch,  in  a  die  under  a  drop  ham- 
mer. It  is  then  an //^(/(y/,  ritrioled,  i\iu\  trim  nail.  The 
tumbler  is  roughly  formed  from  a  cast-steel  bar,  the 
cross-section  being  1  inch  by  .38  inch,  in  a  die  under 
a  trip-hammer.  It  is  next  "heated  and  dropped,  then 
ritrioled.  The  bridle  is  partially  formed  from  a  bar, 
the  cross-section  of  which  is  .47"iucU  square,  in  a  die- 


under  a  drop-hammer.  It  is  then  trimmed,  heated 
and  dropped,  and  agjun  trimmed.  The  sear  is  formed 
from  a  cast-steel  rod,  .313  inch  by  .25  inch,  precisely 
as  explained  for  rear-sight  base-springs.  The  sear- 
spring  is  partially  formed  from  a  cast-steel  bar,  .32 
inch  by  .18  inch,  in  a  die  under  a  drop-hammer.  It  is 
then  trimmed  while  hot  and  the  forging  completed. 
It  is  in  order  «nH<<(/<rf,  ritrioled,  and  trimmed.  The 
upper  band  Ls  formed  from  a  bar,  .75  inch  bj'  3.75 
inches,  in  a  die  imder  a  drop-hammer.  The  surplus 
stock  (centnd  portion  and  outside  tin)  is  removed  by 
a  trimming  machine.  The  band  is  reheated,  placed 
on  a  mandrel,  and  forced  in  a  die  bv  a  ilrop-hammer. 
It  is  then  ((««<(//<<?  and  ritrioled.  The  hirer  buiul  is 
blocked,  trimmed,  dropped,  annealed,  and  ritrioled, 
precisely  as  explained  for  the  upper  band.    It  is  next 


Fro.  5. 

placed  on  a  mandrel  in  a  turning-lathe,  and  the  fin  at 
the  edges  turned  off,  in  the  manner  explained  for  the 
bayonet-clasi>.  .  It  is  then  reheated  and  dropped  on  a 
mandrel  to  bring  it  to  the  right  thickness,  after  which  it 
is  edged.  <jr  the  tin  at  the  edges  turned  off.  It  is  driven 
while  cold  on  a  mandrel-gauge,  which  serves  to  give  it 
the  required  taper.  It  is  afso  stamped  with  the  let- 
ter U.  The  band-springs  are  formed  from  a  cast-steel 
rod,  .108  inch  .sijuare,  in  a  die  under  a  droivhammer. 
They  are  then  annealed,  ritrioled,  trimmed,  and  cold- 
dropped.  The  side-srreir.s  are  forged  from  a  rod,  .438 
inch  diameter,  in  a  die  under  a  pony-hamnu-r.  They 
are  then  annealed  and  ritrioled.     The  side-screw  iram- 


FABEICATION  OF  FISE-AEMS. 


607 


FABSICATIOR  07  FISE-AEXB, 


ers  are  forged  from  a  bar,  the  cross-section  of  which 
is  .313  inch  by  .563  inch,  in  a  die  tinder  a.  drop-ham- 
mer. Eight  or  ten  are  forged  on  a  single  strip.  They 
are  then  anntaled  and  ritru/W.  The  breedi-sereir  is 
forged  from  a  bar,  .75  inch  square,  one  end  of  which 
is  heated,  placed  under  a  drop-hammer  and  forced  in 
a  die  by  a  single  blow,  which  partially  forms  the 
screw.  The  tin  around  it  is  removed  by  a  trimming- 
machine,  after  which  the  screw  is  forced  in  a  slightlj- 
smaller  die  by  one  blow  from  another  drop-hammer. 
One  heat  suffices  for  the  forging.  It  is  then  itnnealed 
and  r/^-wte/,  after  which  it  is  tntumed  in  a  trimming- 
machine;  that  is,  forced  while  cold  through  a  die  by 
a  piuich  which  removes  the  tin.  The  breech-block  is 
roughly  formed  from  a  bar.  1.30  inch  by  .75  inch, 
cross-section,  by  being  forced  in  dies  by  a  single  blow 
from  each  of  two  drop-hammers.  It  is  then  ritrioM, 
Jint-trimmed,  then  heated  and  dropped,  after  which  it 
is  anneak'd,  vitriokd,  and  nemnd-trimmed.  The  breech- 
block cap  is  brought  to  shape  in  a  die  by  a  single  blow 
from  a  drop-hammer,  after  which  it  is  annealed, 
vitriolid,  and  trinmicd.  The  thumb-piece  is  roughly 
formal  from  a  bar,  1.31  inch  by  .38  inch,  cross-scc- 
tioii,  iu  a  die  under  the  drophammcr.  It  is  then 
trimmed  and  ritrinhd,  heat<-d  and  dropped,  after 
which  it  is  annealed,  n'trMed,  and  second-trimmed. 
The  cam-leitch  is  formed  in  a  die,  under  a  pony-ham- 
mer. It  is  then  dropped,  annealed,  ritrioUd,  and 
trimmed.  The  extractor  is  forged  from  a  cast-steel 
rod,  .31  inch  square,  in  a  die,  under  a  drop-hammer. 
It  is  in  order  annealed,  ritrioled,  and  (rimmed.  The 
hinge-pins  are  partially  formed  in  a  die,  under  a  pony- 
hammer,  after  which  the.y  are  tiansfeiTed  to  a  drop- 
hammer  and  the  forging  completed.  They  are  made 
from  cast-steel  rods,  .28  inch  in  diameter.  They  arc 
in  order  annealed,  ritrioUd,  and  trimmed.  The  temg- 
screics  are  forged  from  a  bar  .4  inch  in  diameter; 
then  annealed  and  ritriokd  in  the  manner  explained 
for  the  side-screws.  The  rercinr  is  roughly  formed 
from  a  bar,  the  cross-section  of  which  is  1.25  inch 
square,  one  end  of  which  having  been  heated  is  forced 
into  a  die  by  a  single  blow  of  a  drop-hammer.  It  is 
immediate!)'  transferred  to  another  drop-hammer, 
where  it  receives  one  blow,  which  completes  the 
blocking  and  cuts  the  receiver  from  the  bar.  It  is 
trimmed,  then  heated  and  dropped,  ritrioled,  second- 
trimmed,  and  second-dropjxd.  Immediately  after  the 
second  dropping,  while  still  hot,  the  receivers  are  im- 
bedded in  fine  charcoal  in  cast-iron  bo.xes  in  the  same 
manner  as  explained  for  baiTcls.  In  about  three  days 
they  are  sufficiently  cool  to  be  removed,  when  they 
are  also  soft  enough  to  be  easily  drilled,  milled,  etc. 
The.y  arc  then  ritrioled  and  third-trimmed. 

From  the  forging  tleparlment,  the  parts  are  taken 
to  the  milling  and  tiling  departments,  and  finally  to 
the  assembling  department.  Many  of  the  parts  are 
subjected  to  a  variety  of  operations.  The  object  of 
drilling  is  to  form  holes  for  the  screws,  rivets,  etc. 
Fig.  5  represents  a  combined  drill  and  slotter,  made 
with  a  double  table  and  operated  two  ways,  in  and 
out  from  the  column  and  crosswise  at  the  .=anie  time. 
By  this  arrangement  pieces  can  be  fastened  to  the 
table  and  moved  to  different  positions  under  the  ope- 
rating spindle  without  loosening  the  work  from  the 
table.  By  having  drills  suited  to  the  operating  spin- 
dle, this  machine  can  be  used  for  milling  irregular 
forms,  such  as  is  usually  done  in  a  regular  die-sinking 
machine.  The  object  "of  the  tapping  is  to  convert  the 
surface  of  the  hole  into  a  female  screw.  This  opera- 
tion is  performed  by  an  instrument  called  the  tap, 
which  is  formed  of  "a  piece  of  steel,  of  a  pyramidal 
shape,  and  upon  the  edges  of  which  are  segments  of 
screw-threads.  In  all  operations  of  cuttius:  and  drill- 
ing wrought-iron,  it  is  ncccssarj'  to  use  oil  or  water 
to^preserve  the  temper  of  the  tools.  In  working  cast- 
iron,  no  cooling  substance  is  required.  The  object 
of  turning  is  to  give  shape  and  smoothness  to  the  ex- 
terior of  a  body,  which  is  accomplished  in  the  lathe 
(Fig.  2).  The"  body  is  generally  made  to  revolve 
aroimd  a  fixed  axis,  and  a  cutter,  "which  has  a  motion 


parallel  to  this  axis,  is  made  to  press  against  its  sur- 
face; the  combination  of  these  two  motions  cuts  away 
a  s])iral  chip,  and  leaves  a  new  surface  concentric 
with  the  axis.  It  will  Ix!  easily  seen  that  if  the  cutter 
has,  in  addition  to  its  motion  paniUcl  to  the  axis 
of  rotation,  another  perpendicular  to  it,  the  result- 
ing figure  will  be  no  longer  round,  but  irregular. 
This  constitutes  the  principle  of  eccentric  turning, 
and  affords  the  means  of  turning  an  almost  infinite 
variety  of  shapes,  simply  bj'  regulating  the  motion  of 
the  cutter  by  a  pattern,  or  model  of  hardened  steel. 
In  this  way  gim-slocks,  and  other  irregular  figures, 
are  formed  by  machinerj';  the  principle  has  even 
been  used  in  copying  statuary.  Pieces  of  metal 
which  are  not  suited  io  the  turning-lathe  may  be  re- 
duced to  their  proper  shape  by  milling,  an  operation 
adapted  to  nearly  all  surfaces  which  have  right-line 
elements.  It  is  i>erfornud  by  a  revolving  cutter, 
anneil  with  saw-teetli,  while  the  piece  to  be  cut  is 
fastened  on  a  carriage,  which  moves  steadily  under 
the  cutter,  and  along  a  plane  director.    See"  Figs.  1 


Fig.  6. 

and  3;  also  article  Mn.i.ixo.  Fig.  6  represents  the 
index  milling-machine,  which  is  applicable  to  a  great 
variety  of  light  work,  such  as  milling,  slabbing,  gear- 
cutting,  cutter-making,  and  jirofiling.  The  eros.s-l)ar 
is  .secured  to  the  foot  of  the  uiirighl,  below  the  hori- 
zontal spindle  and  at  a  right  angle  with  it,  by  a  large 
bolt  which  pa.s.scs  through  the  ui>right.  The  index- 
spindle,  of  steel,  is  mounte<i  vertically  in  a  long  Ijear- 
ing  on  the  swivel-plate,  which  plate  is  also  graduatctl 
on  its  periphery  to  mark  its  angle  on  the  cross-bar 
saddle,  to  which  it  is  secured  by  two  Ik)1Is,  and  ha.s 
an  index-plate  on  its  lower  end,  in  any  one  of  the 
holes  in  which  the  steel  iwint  may  be  inserted  to  hold 
the  spindle,  while  cutting  any  piece  that  niav  be  in- 
serted in  the  tapering  hole  in  the  upper  end  of  this 
spindle,  or  held  in  a  small  \ise.  chuck  or  centers  on 
which  a  suitable  hub  is  cast,  bored  and  provided  with 
screws  to  secure  them  to  the  up|xr  end  of  the  spindle. 
This  machine  will  cut  small  gears  (to  (>  inches  diam- 
eter) either  spur  or  tx'Vel,  or  cutters,  mill-taps  and 
reamers,    straight,   tajx-r,  or    spiral,  slab-nuts,   slot 


TABEICATION  07  PROJECTILES. 


608 


FABRICATION  OF  FROJFCTILES. 


scrcw-bcails,  saw,  drill,  or  profile  small  parts  or  fix- 
turi'S,  ami  steel  tools  ami  ji^s  of  all  kiiuls.  Cutting 
ami  filiiiri  are  done  liy  the  hand— the  former  with  a 
(■old-ehis«'l,  and  the  latter  l)_v  a  file.  Thev  are  em- 
jiloyed  to  finish  siieh  jiarts  as  are  not  well  adapted  to 
niaehinery.  To  guide  the  workman  in  !ri\'in<;  tlie 
proiK'r  form,  the  piece  is  placed  in  a  hardened  steel 
frame,  ealled  ajeg.  Grinding  is  done  ^vith  rapidly- 
revoUinir  grindstones,  and  is  principally  contined  to 
finishing  the  bayonet  and  the  exterior  of  the  barrel. 
PoUfJiiiig  t/if  suifiKV  of  finished  parts  is  done  with 
emery-wheels,  which  revolve  witli  great  nipiility. 
The  "wheels  are  made  of  wood,  and  the  circumfer- 
ence is  covered  with  bufT-lcather,  to  which  is  glued  a 
coating  of  emery.  Oise-lmrdtning  is  the  conversion 
of  the  "surface  of  ^vrought-iron  into  steel,  to  enable  it 
to  receive  a  polish  or  bear  friction.  Tlie  process 
consists  in  heating  the  iron  to  a  cherry  red.  in  a  close 
vessel,  in  contact  with  carbonaceous  matter,  and  then 
plunging  it  into  cold  water.  Did  shoes  are  generally 
employed  for  this  purpose  at  the  annories,  although 
bones."  hoofs,  soot,  etc.,  will  answer.  The  materials 
should  be  first  burnt,  and  then  pulverized.  Harden- 
ing is  effected  by  heating  the  steel  to  a  cherry  red,  or 
imtil  the  scales  of  oxide  are  loosened  on  its  surface, 
and  plunging  it  into  a  li(iuid,  as  water,  oil,  etc.,  or 
placing  il  in  contact  with  some  cooling  solid;  tlie  de- 
gree of  hardness  depends  on  the  heat  and  the  rapid- 
ity of  cooling.  Steel  is  thus  rendered  .so  hard  as  to 
resist  the  hardest  file;  and  it  becomes  at  the  same 
time  extremely  brittle.  In  its  hardest  state  steel  is 
t<X)  brittle  for  most  purposes;  the  requisite  strength 
and  elasticity  are  obtained  by  tempering,  which  is 
done  by  heating  the  hardened  steel  to  a  certain  de- 
gree and  plunging  it  into  cold  water.  The  requisite 
heal  is  usually  ascertained  by  the  color  which  the 
surface  of  the  steel  presents,  due  to  the  film  of  oxide 
formed  on  it: 

''Suitable  for  hard  instru- 
ments, as  the  faces  of  ham- 
mers, etc. 
'"Gives  a  spring  temper,  or 
one  that  will  bend  before 
breaking:  suitable  for  saws, 
sword-blades,  etc. 
Shades  of  colors  between  these  extremes  give  inter- 
mediate decrees  of  hardness.  If  steel  be  heated  above 
600  ,  the  effect  of  the  hardening  process  is  destroyed. 
The  parts  of  small-arms  are  tempered  by  dipping 
them  in  oil,  then  heating  them  until  the  oil  is  biu-ned 
off,  when  they  arc  again  plunged  into  cold  water.  A. 
blue  color  is  given  to  the  surface  of  iron  or  steel  parts 
by  heating  them  till  the  desired  shade  appears,  when 
they  are  removed  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually,  by 
which  the  color  becomes  fast.  The  barrel  anil  the 
bayonet,  to  protect  them  from  the  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  to  prevent  the  surface  from  reflecting  the 
sunlight,  are  browned,  or  covered  with  a  coating  of 
rust.  This  is  accomplishrd  by  a  mLxture  of  .such 
materials  as  tincture  of  iron,  spirits  of  mne,  nitric 
acid,  etc.,  which  being  applied  to  the  clean  surfaces 
produces  a  coat  which  is  then  well  nibbed  with  a  steel 
scratrh-card  until  it  has  a  metallic  luster.  This  ope- 
ration is  repeated  till  the  desired  color  is  obtained. 
See  Drop-hamnur,  Einen/i/rinder,  Milling,  Hitting, 
linjinl  Sinoll-firnm,  and  SuitiU-armK. 

FABRICATION  OF  PRO JECTILES.— .S/,n?  and  Shells, 
depending  vipon  their  kind  and  size,  should  be  made 
of  gray  or  of  mottled  cast-iron,  of  good  quality. 
Those  that  arc  large  and  required  to  possess  gi-e"at 
strength  should  be  of  "gun-metal,"  melted  in  an 
air-furnace  For  ordinar>-  projectiles  mottled  iron  is 
used;  it  is  obtained  by  melting,  in  a  cupola-furnace, 
a  mixture  of  white  and  gray  pig-irons.  S/irhpne'l 
must  be  made  of  the  licst  (juality  of  iron,  and  with 
pccular  care,  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  liable  to 
break  in  the  piece,  (rrape  and  Canister  should  be  of 
.soft  gi'ay  iron,  brought  to  a  very  fiuid  stjite  liefore 
casting.  Vliitled  shot  are  ca.Hl  from  a  speciai  uiixturc 
uf  irons,  minted  in  a  cupola- furnace 


All  projectiles  should  be  cast  in  sand  and  not  in  iron 
molds,  as  those  from  the  latter  are  seldom  uniform  in 
size  or  shape,  are  liable  to  contain  cavities,  and  are 
cracked  if  heated.  Sand  jiossi'ssing  all  the  properties 
to  be  desired  for  molding  is  seldom,  if  ever,  found  in 
a  state  of  nature.  But,  when  the  requisite  qualities  are 
known,  the  materials  may  be  selected  and  an  artifi- 
cial composition  produced  without  ditlieulty.  The 
sand  should  l)e  silieiuus,  refractory,  and  of  an  angu- 
lar grain  of  moderate  size.  The  degree  to  which  the 
first  and  second  qualities  should  be  pos.sessed  depends 
j  ui)on  the  size  of  the  casting;  the  s;md  nmst  not  be 
fused  or  even  softened  by  the  heat  to  which  it  is  sub- 
jected. The  angular  form  and  large  size  of  the  par- 
ticles increase  the  resistance  of  the  mold,  though 
rendering  it  less  compact;   this  last  facilitates  the 


At  450°  Fahr.,  a  pale  J 
straw-color. 

At  600' Fahr.,  a  gray- 
ish blue. 


Fig.  1. 

evaporation  of  the  moisture  in  drying,  and  permits 
the  escape  of  the  gases  formed  in  the  material  of  the 
mold  by  the  heaf  of  the  fused  metal.  Pit-  and  not 
river-sand  should  be  used,  as  the  latter  is  not  suffi- 
ciently sharp  or  cohesive. 

The  molding  composition  must  contain  such  an 
amount  of  clay  that,  when  slirfitly  moistened,  it  will 
i  retain  its  .shape  when  pressed  in  the  hand;  it  must 
become  hard  when  dried  that  it  may  not  lose  the  form 
given  it,  and  must  possess  the  consistence  neces.sary  to 
resist  the  prcssme  of  the  liquid  metal.  As  clay  con- 
tracts by  heat,  an  excess  of  it  will  cause  cracks  in  the 
mold  in  dr\-ing.  The  manner  of  preparing  the 
composition  is  usually  to  mix  fire-sand  and  loam  or 
field-sand,  to  sift  it  carefully,  and  then  to  moisten  it 
with  water  in  which  clay  has  been  stirred.  The  par- 
ticular sand  to  be  employed,  and  the  proportion  of 
clay  to  be  introduced,  depend  upon  the  size  of  the 
casting. 

Spherical  Projectiles. — Case-shot,  shell,  and  all  solid 
shot  smaller  than  the  1.5-inch  arc  cast  singly.  Fif  teen- 
and  twenty  inch  solid  shot  are  usually  cast  in  dusters 
of  five  and  three  respectively.  When  cast  singly  the 
pattern  of  a  spherical  projectile  is  composed  of  two  hol- 


FiG.  : 


low  cast-iron  hemispheres,  imiting  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  form  a  perfect  siiherc;  on  the  interior  of  each 
hemisphere  is  a  handle  by  which  il  is  withdrawn 
from  the  sand  after  molding.  The  llask  has  neither 
top  nor  bottom,  or  has  movable  ones;  it  is  usually  in 
two  jiarts,  joining  in  the  .same  plane  as  the  pieces  of 
the  pattern.  In  nuildiiig  a  ^/(r// (Figs.  1  and  3),  the 
pattern,  P,  of  that  half  in  which  is  silualed  the  fuse- 
hole  is  placed  with  its  fiat  side  upon  the  innlding- 
boari/,  li\  this  is  covered  with  its  eorn-ipoiiding  half 
of  \hc  Jlaslc,  F;  the  spindh  ( /)).  attached  to  the  pattern, 
passes  through  a  hole  in  the  cross-piece  (/)  of  the 
flask.  Powdered  charcoal  or  fine  dry  sand  is  sprin- 
kled over  the  board  and  ])atlern,  to  prevent  the  fresh 
.sand  from  adhering  lo  these  surfaces.  The  mold 
ing-saad  is  then  inti'oduced  gradualh-  into  the  fiask 


TABBICATION  OF  FBOJECTILES. 


609 


FABRICATIOK  OF  PB0J£CTIL£8. 


being  wtll  rammed  as  it  rises  up  about  the  pattern. 
AVlieu  completed,  this  portion  of  the  flask  with  its 
contents  is  turned  over  on  a  board,  the  other  half 
of  the  pattern  placed  upon  that  already  in  position, 
and  the  second  part  of  the  tiask  laid  onthc  first  and 
properly  fitted  thereto.  The  pattern  and  the  exposed 
surface  of  the  mold  are  sprinkled  a.s  before,  and  the 
moldinu;  continued,  a  conical  stick  having  first  l)een 
so  placed  as  to  form  the  "gate,"  G,  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  molten  metal.  The  tlask  havinjr  been 
filled,  the  two  parts  are  separated;  each  now  contains 
one  half  the  mold  with  the  corresponding  part  of  the 
pattern.  The  stick  for  the  gate  is  withdrawn  from 
the  outside,  and  the  hemispheres  are  extracted  from 
the  inside.  A  channel  is  cut  in  the  plane  surface 
from  0  to  in,  so  that  the  metal,  entering  at  G,  may  be 
carried  to  the  mold-cavity  at  a  point  where  it  can 
flow  into  place  without  iiijury  to  the  surface  of  the 
sand.  Any  imperfections  are  at  this  time  repaired. 
The  whole  interior  surface  is  then  coated  with  a  wa.sh 
of  powdered  coke  and  clay-water,  after  which  the 
mold  is  thoroughly  dried  in  an  oven.  This  wash 
gives  a  smooth,  hard  surface  to  the  sand,  which  in- 
sures a  smooth  ca.sting. 

The  core  is  formed  about  a  hollow  iron  spindle, 
perforated  with  small  holes  through  which  escape 
the  steam  and  gases  generated  by  the 
heat  of  the  metal.  The  core  is  cen- 
tered in  the  mold  by  means  of  a 
gauge,  and  is  supported  in  that  po- 
sition by  the  spindle  which  forms 
the  fuse-hole.  The  spindle  is  per- 
forated with  small  holes  to  allow 
the  escape  of  steam  and  gas  genera- 
ted b}'  the  heat  of  the  melted  metiil ; 
that  part  of  it  which  forms  the  fuse- 
hole  is  coated  with  sand  to  prevent 
adhesion.  When  the  ears  for  the 
shell-hooks  are  cast  in  the  projectile 
the  necessiiry  projections  for  their 
formation  are  placed  in  position  be- 
fore drjnng  the  mold.  In  pouring 
the  melted  iron  into  the  mold  with 
the  ladle,  care  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent scoria  and  dirt  from  entering 
■with  it,  and  for  this  purpose  the  sur- 
face should  be  skimmed  with  a  stick 
of  wood.  After  the  iron  has  become 
sufficiently  hardened  the  flask  is  removed,  the  sprue- 
head  is  broken  off,  and  the  composition  scraped  from 
the  outside  of  the  cjisting.  The  core  is  then  broken 
up  and  removed,  and  the  interior  surface  cleaned  by 
a  scraper.  The  projection  at  the  gate  and  other  ex- 
crescences are  next  chipped  off  and  the  surface  of  the 
projectile  is  smoothed  in  a  rolling-barrel,  or  with  a 
file  or  chisel  if  foimd  necessary.  The  fase-hole  is 
then  reamed  out  to  the  proper  size  and  the  projectile 
is  ready  for  inspection. 

When  shot  are  cast  in  clusters,  the  pattern  is  made 
of  wood  and  consists  of  two  longitudinal  halves, 
■which  are  fitted  with  iron  pins  or  dowels  .so  thai  they 
can  be  accurately  joined  together  for  the  construction 
of  the  mold.  The  clasler  is  cast  with  a  sinking  head 
to  feed  the  shrinkage,  while  the  shot  are  made  with  a 
diameter  slightly  in  excess  of  the  reipiired  one,  to 
permit  of  their  being  turned  dow  n  and  finished.  The 
flask  is  also  made  in  two  equal  parts  or  sections  which 
are  united  l)y  bolts.  The  back  of  each  section  is  fitted 
■with  movable  plates,  to  admit  of  the  introduction  of 
the  molding  coTuposition.  To  form  the  mold,  one  half 
of  the  pattern  is  laid  upon  the  molding-board,  together 
■with  the  pattern  for  one  half  of  the  channel  for  the 
metal,  both  being  held  in  place  hy  dowels.  A  section  of 
the  flask  is  then  placed  in  position  over  the  patterns, 
and  the  intervening  space  is  filled  with  molding  com- 
position, which  is  firmly  rammed  down,  the  patterns 
for  the  branches  to  thechannels  being  introduced  as 
the  work  progresses.  The  plates  are  then  allached  in 
their  places.  To  fonn  the  other  .sect  ion  of  the  mold,  the 
finished  one  is  removed  from  the  molding-board  and 


turned  over,  the  remaining  halves  of  the  patterns  and 
flask  are  placed  in  p'osition  upon  it,  and  the  molding 
composition  filled  in  in  the  same  manner.  A  layer  of 
dry  sjind  is  first  sprinkled  over  the  surface  of  the  fin- 
ished section  to  prevent  adhesion.  The  mold  lieing 
completed,  the  two  sections  are  separated  and  llie  pat- 
terns withdrawn.  After  being  thoroughly  drieil  in 
an  oven  and  recei\ing  a  coating  of  coke  wash  on  the 
interior  surface,  the  sections  are  united  and  firmly 
secured  together  with  bolts  and  nuls.  The  mold  is 
then  ready  for  the  casting  and  is  lowered  into  the 
pit.  Several  clusters  are  usually  cast  with  one  heat 
of  metal,  the  number  depending  u])on  the  capacity  of 
the  furnace.  The  casting  is  usually  allowed  to  re- 
main in  the  pit  for  twelve  or  fifteen"  hours  after  the 
pouring  of  the  metal,  when  it  is  hoisted  out  and  taken 
from  the  flask.  After  it  becomes  cool  it  is  freed  from 
the  adliering  composition  and  the  gates  are  broken 
off. 

To  separate  the  shot  in  the  cluster,  the  latter  is 
placed  in  a  lathe,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  the  sinking-head 
being  secured  in  the  chuck  at  the  head  of  the  ma- 
chine, while  the  other  end  is  supported  by  a  movable 
center  which  slides  upon  the  ways.  When  the  cluster 
is  properly  centered,  the  necks  which  comiect  the 
I  shot  are  tiu'ned  down  as  small  as  it  is  safe  to  make 


them  without  risking  the  breaking  of  the  cluster  In 
the  lathe.  The  neck  nearest  to  the  Iniltom  is  then 
carefully  turned  down  until  it  begins  to  show  indica- 
tions of  breaking.  The  duster  is  then  chocked  up 
by.  placing  blocks  between  it  and  the  lathe-bed,  the 
center  is  slid  l)ack,  and  the  shot  is  broken  off  by  blows 
with  a  hammer  and  removed.  The  cluster  is  "then  re- 
centcred  in  the  lathe,  and  the  shot  are  successivelv 
detached  in  a  similar  manner  until  all  are  separatcJ. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  pre.serve.  as  far  as  practi- 
cable, a  spherical  form  to  that  portion  of  the  surface 
where  the  neck  is  turned  away.  The  small  portions 
of  the  necks  which  remain  after  the  sejiaration  are 
chipiied  off  by  hand.  The  shot  is  next  tunied  down 
to  the  recpiired  diameter  and  given  a  .smooth  lUid  fin- 
ished surt'ace.  The  tool-rest  of  this  lathe  is  attached 
to  a  gejired  wheel,  which  is  pivoted  in  a  horizontal 
position  upon  an  iron  frame  secured  to  the  lathe-bed. 
The  motion  of  this  wheel  by  means  of  a  feed  causes 
the  edge  of  the  tool  to  move  on  the  arc  of  a  circle,  its 
distancjt!  from  the  center  of  the  circle  meanwhile  being 
reirulated  bv  a  screw  in  the  base  of  the  rest.  The 
shot  is  centered  in  the  lathe  by  means  of  a  square- 
hcadeil  screw  in  the  axis  of  the  wheel.  In  turning 
the  shot  it  is  made  to  revolve  upon  that  diameter 
which  coincides  with  the  axis  of  the  lathe,  while  the 
movement  of  the  tool-rest,  a-s  above  described,  brings 
the  tool  in  contact  with  all  of  the  surface  which  is  not 
covered  by  the  supports.  In  this  jiosition  the  shot  is 
finished  as  far  as  practicable,  and  is  then  recentered 
so  that  the  unturned  portions  of  the  surface  can  be 
brought  in  contact  with  the  tool,  when  they  are  fin- 


FABSICATION  OF  SWOSDS  AND  SABERS. 


610 


FABBICATION  OF  SWORDS  AND  SABEBff. 


Fig.  4. 


islicKl  ill  like  niauiiiT.  The  ciii-s  for  the  shell-books 
an-  tbeu  ilrilliil  in  a  drilling-machine  and  the  shot 
is  ready  for  iuspeetion.  Fifteen-  and  twenlvineli 
shell  are  stMnetinies  cast  above  size  and  finished  in 
the  lathe  in  the  s;une  way  as  chister-shot . 

EUiniinUd  I'rojtetiltf.^The  same  principles  are  fol- 
lowed in  the  ditferent  operations  attending  the  fabri- 
cation of  elonjraleil  as  of  sjiherical  projectiles.  The 
shape  and  construction  of  the  fla.sk  and  pattern  de- 
pend npon  the  |)articular  form  of  the  projectile,  the 
system  to  which  it  belonss,  and  the  object  for  which 
it  must  be  employed.  The  construction  applied  in 
the  fabrication  of  a  Parrott 
shell  is  shown  in  Fig.  4;  the 
Hask  and  pattern  are  each  in 
two  parts,  united  along  the 
plane  {J\  f  ):  the  ring  (m),  of 
luoUling -SiUid,  is  made  in  a 
special  box;  and  is  inserted 
■when  the  mold  is  a.sscmbled 
before  casting,  and  is  neces- 
sary to  give  the  shape  pe- 
culiar to  that  system  of  pro- 
jectiles. The  Kpindle,  S,  as 
in  all  the  large  oblong  shells, 
passes  entirely  through  the 
core,  C,  and  is  secured  at  both 
ends  to  the  flask,  or  to  the 
mold.  The  metal  is  taken 
from  the  cupola  into  the  ladles,  and,  in  the  case  of 
chilled  shot,  usually  slightly  cooled  by  throwing  in  a 
piece  of  scrap-iron.  This"  is  done  "to  prevent  the 
chill-molds  from  being  cracked.  The  metal  enters 
the  mold  from  below,  near  and  above  the  chill-mold, 
and  (from  the  shape  of  the  lower  branch  of  the 
"  feeder")  in  an  oblique  direction,  to  avoid  disturbing 
the  core  anil  to  give  a  circidar  motion  to  the  metal  as 
it  rises  in  the  mold,  and  so  prevent  the  scoria  frotvi 
adhering  to  the  sides.  One  workman  skims  the  sur- 
face of  the  metal  with  a  wooden  stick,  as  it  runs  from 
the  ladle,  to  prevent  the  admission  of  the  scoria,  while 
another  stirs  it  as  it  rises,  with  an  iron  rod,  through 
the  "riser,"  to  bring  the  impurities  to  the  surface. 
Before  fairly  cooled  the  flasks  are  removed,  the  .sand 
knockeil  otf,  the  core-stem  extracted,  and  the  shot 
left  to  cool  in  the  heated  sand  in  which  it  was  cast. 
The  sjuid  is  now  carefully  scraped  from  the  cavity, 
the  sinking-head  is  removed,  and  the  rough  edges 
trimmed  otf  with  a  cold-chisel.  It  is  then  examined 
as  to  (juality  and  weight,  and  the  amount  of  eccentri- 
city roughly  determiucfl.  The  .shot  is  at  once  con- 
demned if  there  be  a  variati(m  in  any  of  these  particu- 
lars in  excess  of  that  allowed.  It  sometimes  happeos, 
too,  that  the  chill  ha.s  extended  so  far  over  the  surface 
as  to  make  it  imi)ossible  to  finish  the  shot  by  the 
means  ordinarily  employed  in  this  country.  Such 
shot  are,  however,  sometimes  finished  by  the  grind- 
stone. Having  pa.ssed  this  preliminary  inspection,  it 
is  put  in  the  lathe  and  turned  down  to  the  true  diame- 
ter for  the  length  of  .2.5  inch.  The  shot  is  finally 
pa.ssed  through  llu;  finixliiii^i-jursK,  and  placed  in  "a 
luthe  w^here  the  base  is  finished;  if  the  Butler  sabot  is 
to  be  u.sed,  a  screw-thread  is  cut  upon  the  base.  The 
sabot  is  usually  formed  of  an  alloy  of  70  parts  copjier 
and  30  of  zinc.  It  is  either  cast  sepanitely  or  direct- 
ly upon  the  base  of  the  projectile;  in  the  former  case 
it  is  bored  and  turned  to  thi'  fini.sbed  size.  The  shot 
is  completed  by  tiipi)ing  a  thread  on  the  screw-plug 
hole,  fitting  it  "with  a  plug,  and  screwing  or  casting 
on  the  sabot.  See  Coreiox,  Fiimhing-press,  and  Projec- 
tilrn. 

FABRICATION  OF  SWORDS  AND  SABERS.— The 
compli.'te  sword  consists  of  the  */(«/<,  .miM,iiril,  i/ri/ie, 
and  the  mountinys.  The  blade  is  made  of  the  best 
English  ca.sl-stcel ;  the  skelp,  which  is  Hj^  inches  in 
length,  being  cut  from  a  sqtiare  S-inch  bar.  The 
principal  operations  in  making  the  blade  are  fori:- 
ing,  milling,  temi)ering,  grinding,  polishing,  and 
etching.  The  first  o|>erali()n  of  forffinij  consists  in 
drawing  out  the  skolp  to  nearly  the  required  length  of 


the  finished  blade,  ami  is  done  imder  the  tilt-hammer. 
The  second  operation,  also  midcr  the  tilt-hammer, 
draws  it  out  to  a  little  longer  than  its  finished  length 
and  shapes  it,  forming  an  arris  on  each  side.  The 
t<nir/,  of  wrought-iron.  is  then  welded  on,  and  sha])e(l 
under  a  rf/v»/y. ""  After  the  forging  the  blade  is  straight- 
ened by  hand  while  cold.  To  reduce  the  tang,  shoul- 
der, aiid  the  ])ortion  of  the  blade  inunediately  adjoin- 
ing the  shoidder  to  the  proper  shape  and  dimensions, 
they  art  milted.  Four  dilTerent  cuts  are  neccssaiy. 
At  this  point  the  edges  of  the  blade  arc  ground  on  a 
revolving  stone,  to  near  their  required  shape,  so  as  to 
serve  as  a  guide  in  future  grinding  operations.  The 
blade  is  set  in  a  fixture  for  the  purpose.  The  opera- 
tion is  known  as  first-edging.  The  blade  after  being 
forged  is  soft  and  flexible,  and  it  is  necessary  ti>  give 
it  a  certain  degree  of  hardness  and  t'lasticity,  which  is 
done  by  Itardening  and  tei/ijieriiig.  The  succes.s  of 
this  operation  depends  greatly  on  the  skill  of  the 
workman  and  his  ability  to  detect  by  the  eye  the  tem- 
perature best  suited  to  the  steel  used.  To  harden  the 
iilade  the  workman  holds  it  in  the  heat  of  a  charcoal- 
furnace,  moving  it  liack  an<l  forth  to  heat  the  .several 
part.s  uniformly.  When  its  color  is  a  cherry-red  it  is 
withdrawn  and  plunged  into  colli  .salt-water.  It  is 
now  very  hard  and  brittle,  and  generally  warped.  It 
is  therefore  necessary  to  straighten  and  partially  aiu- 
ncal  or  temper  it.  T^o  effect  this  it  is  again  heated; 
this  time  to  only  a  blue  heat.  While  thus  heated  it 
is  soft  and  can  be  straightened,  which  is  done  quickly, 
and  it  is  then  plunged  into  cold  water  as  before.  This 
jlives  it  the  proper  degree  of  hardness  and  elasticity. 
After  being  tempered  the  blade  is  yr&und  on  rapidly 
revolving  coarse  grindstones  to  reduce  all  parts  to  the 
pro]>er  size.  Two  grindings  are  ncces-sary:  the  first 
extending  to  the  cros.s-grinding  of  the  whole  blade, 
except  the  point  by  which  it  is  held  in  the  fixture;  and 
the  second  on  a  finer  grindstone,  v.  here  the  point  is 
shaped  and  the  whole  blade  ground  lengthwise.  The 
accurate  dimensions  are  determined  by  projier  gauge. 
The  tang  is  fitted  to  a  gauge  by  the  file.  The  final 
grinding  is  that  of  the  edges,  known  as  second-edging, 
by  which  the  edges  are  reduced  to  the  required  accu- 
racy. By  grinding,  the  blade  is  oftentimes  bent  and 
partially  anneaknl.  To  correct  these  defects  it  is  again 
heated  to  a  blue  heat,  straightened  quickly,  and 
plunged  into  cold  water,  by  which  it  is  retempered. 
The  object  oi  jmliiiliing  is  to  remove  thcniarks  of  the 
grindstone  and  give  it  a  smoother  finish.  This  opera- 
tion, done  on  a  buff-wheel  with  emery  or  corundum, 
generally  warps  the  blade,  and  makes  a  third  straight- 
ening ncces-sary.  A  second  lighter  polishing  prepares 
it  for  etching — the  process  of  marking  the  blade  with 
ornamental  devices.  It  is  done  by  first  painting  the 
design  on  the  polished  blade  witii  any  varnish  that 
will  resist  the  action  of  diluted  nitric  acid.  When 
this  is  dry  the  acid  is  applied  with  a  woolen  swab 
and  attacks  the  parisof  the  blade  left  uncovered,  leav- 
ing them  in  a  rough  or  oxidized  state,  while  the  design 
remains  smooth  and  bright.  The  varnish  is  dissolved 
oil  by  s]iirits  of  turpentine,  and  the  blade  is  cleaned 
with  alcohol  and  whiting. 

The  fcihliiird  is  made  of  sheet-steel,  thickness  No; 
1!)  Providence  wire-giiuge.  The  first  oi)eralion  is  that 
of  .slitting  or  cut  I  ing  the  metal  into  strips  of  the  proper 
size.  These  strips  are  first  annealed  and  bent  through- 
out their  length  into  a  gutter  shape  by  means  of  a  simple 
hand m.ubine  known  as  a  bending-macbine.  They 
are  still  further  curved  by  being  placed  on  a  mandrel, 
clamped  in  a  fixture  on  the  bed  of  a  iilancr.  and  pa.s.sed 
uniler  a  wheel  or  roller  attached  to  the  loolfixture  of 
the  machine.  This  finishes  the  shaping  of  the  scab- 
bard, which  is  elliptical  in  cro.ss-seclion.  The  scaly- 
bards  being  very  hard  and  brittle,  to  facilitate  further 
operations  they  are  at  this  point  reamiealed.  The  an- 
nealing is  done  by  |)a<king  them  in  cast-iron  retorts 
with  jiowdered  cb.arcoal  and  ashes,  and  subjecting 
tlicni  to  a  red  heat  for  five  or  six  houi-s.  They  are 
then  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  which  renders  Ihem  soft 
and  flexible  and  easily  worked.     To  produce  good  and 


FABEICATION  OF  SWORDS  AND  SABERS. 


611 


FABRICATION  OF  SWORDS  AND  SABERS. 


accurate  surfaces  for  brazing,  the  open  joint  of  each 
is  sawed  through  its  entire  length  and  the  scal)bar(ls 
are  again  rolled  on  the  planer.  After  being  liirhtly 
■wrapped  with  wire  the  scabbards  are  ready  for  braz- 
ing, which  is  done  by  placing  a  piece  of  brass  wire 


without  mandrel.  After  having  the  edges  sawed  up 
about  li  inch  from  the  small  end,  for  the  better  fitting 
of  the  ferrule,  the  scabbards  are  polished  twice,  being 
straightened  after  the  first  or  rough  polishing.  The 
polishing  is  done  on  buff-wheels  with  emery  or  corun- 


B 


United  States  Regulation  Swords. 


over  the  joint  on  the  inside  and  heating  to  the  melting- 
point  of  the  brass.  In  heating  them  for  brazing  they 
are  covered  by  a  coat  of  oxide,  and  they  are  a  gooil 
deal  warped.  To  remove  the  black  covering  and  re- 
duce them  to  a  smooth  surface  they  are  ground  on 
a  revolving  stone  and  after^vard  straighleued.  The 
straightening  is  first  done  bv  hand  and  then  by  being 
rolled  on  the  planer ;  this  "time  on  both  edges  and 


dum.  After  the  second  polishing  they  are  smooth 
and  bright  and  ready  for  either  browning  or  nickel- 
plating.  The  nickel-plated  ones  are  polished  a  third 
time ;  this  time  on  a  brush-wheel,  with  crocus  and 
rouge.  The  scabbards  are  inspected  after  each  polish- 
ing," and  again  after  they  arc  tinisbcd.  The  ffripe  or 
handle  of  the  sword  is  turned  out  of  black  walnut, 
with  grooves  for  wrapping  with  wire.    It  is  covered 


FABRICATION  OF  SWORDS  AND  SABERS. 


a\-2 


FABRICATION  OF  SWORDS  AND  SABERS. 


with  shark-skin,  glued  on  and  blacked,  and  is  then 
wrapped  tijrhllv  willi  doiilile  brass  wire.  They  are 
bored  through  irom  oiui  to  end  to  receive  tlie  tan.s  of 
the  blade,  and  tittetl  witli  a  ferrule  at  each  end.  The 
mountings  of  hard  bronze  arc  made  by  casting  in  sand- 


shops.  The  difftn  111  parts  being  thus  prepared,  the 
swords  are  "as.soiiibled;"  the  mountings  being  accu- 
rately tilted  to  the  bhuies  and  scabbards,  and  the  .scab- 
bards lined  on  either  Hat  side  with  a  thin  strip  of  pine, 
which  e.\tends'about  1 5  inches  from  the  mouth.    They 


United  States  Regulation  Sabers. 


molds.  They  consist,  for  the  blade,  of  the  guard, 
crown-piece,  and  two  ferrules  for  the  gripe;  and  for 
the  scabbard,  of  the  moulli-piece,  ferrule,  and  two 
bands,  with  rings  for  attaching  to  .swordbclt.  The 
guard  has  on  the  side  next  the  wearer  a  hinged  shell, 
held  in  place  by  a  button  and  spring.  The  mount - 
ings  are  lilted  in  lets,  gilt  and  biu-nished  in  the  armory 


are  finally  examined  by  the  Inspector,  who  selects 
the  blades  and  scabbards  suited  to  each  other.  The 
swords  are  issued  with  two  scabbards,  one  browned 
and  one  nickel-plated,  and  are  also  supplied  with 
chamois-skin  cases. 

The  bamnctseaM>ard  is  formed  from  sheet-steel, 
thickness  No.  19  Providence  gauge.    The  first  opera- 


FABRICATION  OF  TUBES. 


613 


FABEICATION  OF  TUBES. 


tion  is  that  of  slittiog  or  cutting  the  mctnl  into  strips  | 
of  trapczoirlal  shape,  18.75  inches  long,  2.53  inches 
wide  al  the  larger  and  1.5  inches  wide  at  the  smaller 
end.  The  strips  are  annealed  by  i)ackinL''  them  in 
ca.st-iron  retort-s  with  powdered  chtircoal  anil  ashes, 
and  subjecting  them  to  a  red  heat  lor  5  or  0  liours, 
and  then  allowing  them  to  cool  off  slowly  before  e.\-  I 
posing  them  to  the  air.  These  strips  are  first  bent 
throughout  their  length  hito  a  gutter  shape  by  means 
of  a  simple  hand  machine  known  as  a  bemling-ma- 
chine.  They  are  still  further  curved  by  being  placed 
on  a  mandrel,  clamped  in  a  ti.xture  or  the  bed  of  the 
planer,  and  i)a:;sed  under  a  wheel  or  roller  attached  to 
the  lool-tixtuic  of  the  machine.  Tbis  finishes  the 
shajiing  of  the  scabbard,  wbicb  is  elliiilical  in  cross- 
section.  To  i)roduce  a  good  joint  f(jr  bra/ing,  the 
scabbard  is  jilaccd  in  the  planer  and  a  cirt-ular  saw  is 
pa.ssed  through  its  entire  length;  the  scabbard  is  again 
rolled  on  the  planer  and  the  edges  of  the  joint  are 
brought  into  contact;  a  second  annealing  is  required 
sometimes,  if  the  steel  appears  tot)  rigid  and  stiff  to 
remain  in  the  position  bent.  The  bntzinr/  is  done  bj' 
first  tightly  wrapping  the  scabbard  with  iron  wire  to 
hold  the  edges  of  the  steel  finnly  in  contact,  then 
placing  a  piece  of  brass  wire  on  the  inside  over  the 
joint  and  heating  to  the  melting-point  for  brazing  in 
the  flame  of  a  blow-pipe  furnace.  The  operation  of 
buffgrinding  consists  in  grinding  off  the  wire  and 
brass  which  adhere  to  the  scabbard  after  brazing,  and 
is  done  on  an  emery  or  corundum  w  bed  of  the  coars- 
est number.  The  scabbard  is  ne.xt  finish  polished,  the 
entire  surface,  with  fine  emery  or  corundum.  The 
operation  of  broirning  is  the  same  us  for  rifie-barrels. 
The  scabbard-spring  is  punched  from  sheet-sleel,  No. 
19  Prowdcnce  gauge,  in  a  power-press,  to  the  right 
length  and  width.  The  carcinf/  is  done  by  heating 
the  springs  separately  in  a  hollow  oven,  which  is  kept 
constantly  tit  a  red  heat;  when  cherry  red  the  spring 
is  taken  out  and  replaced  by  another,  with  a  pair  of 
tongs,  and  curved  in  a  clamp- vise  to  the  right  shape; 
it  is  allowed  to  chill  before  it  is  removed  from  the 
vise  for  another.  The  hole  for  the  rivet  is  drilled  in 
an  upright  power-press,  the  scabbard  being  held  in  a 
suitable  fi.xture.  The  springs  are  packed  in  sheet-iron 
pans,  edgewi.se,  and  heated  in  an  oven  to  a  red  heat; 
then  plunged  into  a  tank  of  oil  to  harden  tbcin;  then 
drawn  to  a  spring  temper  in  a  sheet-iron  pan  by  ajiply- 
ing  oil  and  moving  the  pan  forward  and  back  over 
the  blaze  of  a  charcoal-fire  until  the  oil  blazes  off  en- 
tirely, when  they  are  thrown  upon  a  tjible  to  coo!  off. 
The  spring  end  that  rides  on  the  bayonet-blade  to 
hold  it  is  polished  to  prevent  it  from  scratching  the 
surface  of  the  blade.  The  spring  is  rinUd  to  the 
scabbard  by  hand  with  a  suital>le  fi.xture  for  the  )iur- 
pose.  The  scabbard  and  spring  are  finally  inspected: 
first,  to  see  that  the  .scabbard  is  projierly  browned  of 
good  body  and  color;  second,  to  see  that  the  sjiring  is 
riveted  firndy ,  and  that  it  does  not  set  when  a  bayonet- 
blade  is  insei-ted  into  the  scabbard,  and  that  the  work- 
manship is  good. 

The  proof  and  inspection  of  swords  and  sabers  is 
conducted  as  follows:  First.  The  dimensions  and 
form  of  the  blade  are  verified  by  comparing  it  with 
the  model  and  bv  ai)iilying  the"  appropriate  gauges 
and  patterns  for  ihe  length,  width,  and  thickness  at 
several  points,  and  the  curvature,  if  any.  Second. 
The  blade  is  then  proved  as  follows:  1.  The  point  is 
confined  bv  a  staple,  and  the  lilade  is  bent  on  each  of 
the  Hat  sides  over  a  cylindrical  block,  tbe  curvature 
of  which  is  that  of  a  circle  35  inches  diameter,  the 
curvature  of  the  part  next  tbe  tang  Ix'ing  reduced  by 
inserting  a  wedge  .7  inch  thick  at  the  head  iuid  14 
inches  long.  2.  It  is  struck  twice  on  each  of  tbe  flat 
sides  on  a  block  of  oak  wood,  the  curvature  of  which 
is  the  Siime  as  the  above.  3.  It  is  struck  twice  on  the 
edge  and  twice  on  the  back  across  an  oak  block  1  foot 
in  diameter.  4.  The  point  is  p'.aced  on  the  floor  and 
the  blade  bent  until  it  desciibes  an  arc  having  tbe 
versed  sine  inilicated  in  the  appropriate  table.  After 
these  trials  the  blade  is  examined  to  see  that  it  is  free 


from  flaws,  cracks,  or  all  other  imperfections,  and  that 
it  is  not.  set — that  is,  it  does  not  remain  bent.  5.  See 
that  a  piece  of  iron  is  welded  on  the  tang  for  riveting. 
6.  Observe  that  the  ijommel  is  properly  countersunlc 
for  riveting  tang.  The  blade  of  the  artillerj-sivord  is 
proved  by  striking  each  of  the  sides  and  edges  twice 
on  a  flat  block  of  hard  oak  wood.  Tbe  stamp  of  ap- 
proval or  condemnation  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the 
blade  below  the  tang.  Third.  The  form,  dimensions, 
and  workmanship  of  the  moimtiiigii  arc  examined  ami 
compared  with  the  model.  After  the  blade  is  mount- 
ed the  sword  is  again  exammed,  and  it  is  stmck  four 
times  on  a  bard  block  of  wood  to  test  the  strength  of 
the  mountings.  The  (juality  of  the  bra.ss  mountings 
may  be  tested  by  breaking  a  certain  number,  not  more 
than  four  in  each  lumdVed,  which  should  be  taken 
from  the  pieces  rejected  for  erroneous  dimensions. 
Fourth.  Tbe  form,  workmanship,  and  finish  of  the 
scabbards  are  examined  and  comi)ared  with  tbe  model 
and  their  fitting  to  the  blades  tested.  The  sewing  of 
leather  scabljards  and  the  fastem'ng  of  the  ferrules 
and  ti|>s  will  be  paiticuliirly  examined.  Steel  scab- 
bards are  proved  by  letting  fall  on  them  from  a  height 
of  18  inches  an  iron  weight  of  2  pounds,  1  inch  scjuare 
at  the  base:  1st.  On  one  side  just  Mow  the  upper  Imnd; 
2d.  On  the  same  side  6  inches  from  the  tip;  3il.  (Jn  the 
opposite  side  just  above  the  lower  band.  In  this  proof 
the  scabbard  should  not  remain  indented .  The  nature 
of  the  material  (whether  iron  orsteel)may  betestc'd,  if 
there  be  anj'  doubt,  by  asing  nitric  acid,  which  will 
leave  a  black  spot  on  the  steel,  but  not  on  the  iron. 
See  that  the  mouth  of  the  .scabbard  is  not  split  or 
swelled  by  driving  in  the  mouth-piece.  After  sheatli- 
ing  the  saber,  draw  it  from  the  scabbiird  nearly  to  its 
full  extent,  and  return  it  with  considerable  forc'e  three 
or  four  times  in  succession;  then  examine  the  riveting 
of  tlic  tanir  to  tbe  hilt.     See  Small-an/is. 

FABRICATION  OF  TUBES.— Two  plans  of  conver- 
sion of  our  10-inch  smooth-bore  cast-iron  guns  into 
8-inch  muzzle-loading  rifles,  by  lining  with  coiled 
wrought-irou  tubes,  find  place  in  our  .service;  one  by 
"  nuizzle,"  and  the  other  by  "  breech"  insertion.  The 
parts  in  general  of  these  converted  rifles  are:  first, 
the  old  casing  bored  out  to  the  exterior  diameter  of 
the  inserted  tube;  second,  the  rifled  coiled  wrought-iron 
tube.  The  mode  of  manufacturing  the  iron  for  the 
tubes  is  fully  explained  in  the  article  Coiled  Tubes. 
The  A  or  main  tube  is  composed  of  four  sections  or 
short  tubes  welded  together,  each  section  consisting 
of  two  bars,  which  are  united  end  to  end  before  coil- 
ing. The  B  tube  and  jacket  for  tubes,  designed  to 
\)C  inserted  from  the  muzzle  and  from  the  breech  re- 
spectively, have  now  to  be  made.  Their  construction, 
which  forms  the  principal  feature  of  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  plans  of  conversion  employed,  will  be 
sub-sequently  described.  The  breech-cup  is  made 
from  a  .soliJl  forging  stamped  into  shape  under  the 
steam-hammer.  The  collar  for  securing  the  tube  at 
the  muzzle  is  made  of  tul)e-iron.  fagoted  and  ham- 
mered oiu  to  the  proper  size.  It  is  then  bent  over  a 
man<bcl  an<l  the  cuds  welded  together.  The  tube 
anil  its  accompanying  parts  have  now  to  be  transferred 
to  the  finishing-sho|i  and  prepared  for  insertion. 
The  power  is  "distributed  from  the  engine  by  Ihe 
shafting,  which  consists  of  rotis  of  iron  running  Ihe 
length  of  the  work.sho]),  and  which,  by  means  of  at- 
tached i)idleys,  transmit  the  |iower  used  to  tbe  differ- 
ent machines.  The  motion  is  transferred  by  means 
of  belts  or  bands,  ordinarily  of  leather,  pa.ssing  from 
those  above  mentioned  to"  similar  pulleys.  These 
belts  may  nm  direct  to  the  machines  themselves,  but 
more  usually  pass  over  an  intermediate  ]iulley  at- 
tached to  Ihe  courtershafting;  this  is  placed  below 
the  main  shafting,  iind  carries  pulleys  of  .lifferent 
sizes,  and  idle  pulleys,  by  the  former  of  which  the 
rale  of  speed  may  lie  varied,  by  the  latter  tbe  ma- 
chine brought  to  rest  without  mterfering  with  the 
motion  of  the  main  shafting.  It  is  frequcnil)-  nece* 
.sary  to  reverse  the  niotion  of  a  machine,  and  this  is 
effected  by  using  a  belt  v.hich  is  crossed  between  the 


rABBICATION  OF  TUBES. 


GU 


FABRICATION  OF  TUBES. 


pulleys  over  wbich  it  pnsscs.  While  belts  arc  gener- 
ally employed  lo  transfer  rotation  from  one  .nxle  to 
another  wiiere  these  are  at  a  consiiienible  distance 
apart,  when  they  are  very  near  each  other  toothed 
wheels  are  used  of  dilTerenl  form  and  size,  aceordinjr 
to  the  relative  positions  of  the  axles  and  the  work  the 
machine  is  rciiuireil  to  perform.  AVlien  llic  nxles  are 
pandlel,  s|)ur-wheels  are  used,  in  which  the  teeth 
project  radially  from  the  circumference,  ^^'hen  the 
axles  are  not  parallel,  bevel-wheels  are  employed,  in 
which  the  teeth  are  formed  on  the  surface  of  a  cone. 
Miter-wheels  belong  to  the  latter  class,  and  are  used 
when  the  axles  are  at  right  angles,  and  frequently 
for  simply  changing  the  direction  of  niolion.  To 
enable  the  various  machines  to  perform  the  work  re- 
quired of  them,  the  n)tary  motion  of  the  shafting 
must  be  converted  into  rectilinear  and  other  motion. 
Circular  motion  is  changed  into  rectilinear  by  means 
of  cams.  Rectilinear  motion  is  converted  into  cir- 
cular by  a  enink.or  by  means  of  a  pawl  and  ratchet- 
wheel,  the  i)a\vl  being  on  a  jointed  arm  worked  by  a 
cam;  the  former  gives  continuous,  the  latter  inter- 
mittent motion.  The  A  tube  and  B  tube  or  jacket 
arc  now  bored,  turned,  and  otherwise  prepared  for 
assembling;  the  tube  turned  down  for  the  reinforcing 
tube  and  muz/le-eollar;  the  breech-cup  turned  on  the 
inside  and  a  screw-thread  cut  on  the  outside,  and  the 
muzzle-coUar  bored  out  and  a  screw-thread  cut  on 


motion  to  the  slide-rest  in  screw-cutting.  A  series  of 
change-wheels  is  provided  with  each  lathe,  by  a  suit- 
able combination  of  whicli  any  desired  pitch  can  Ix! 
given  to  the  thread  cut.  The  back-center  can  be  ad- 
justed by  hand  lo  any  position,  and  in  many  machines 
an  automatic  longitudinal  motion  is  also  provided  by 
means  of  gearing  in  rear,  to  enable  it  to  carry  a  bor- 
ing-rod. 

In  boring  short  tubes,  such  as  the  sections  of  the  A 
tube,  the  cutter  is  generally  pas,scd  through  a  slot  in 
the  lx)ring-bar,  which  passes,  in  an  ordinary  lathe, 
from  the  head-stock  to  the  back-center.  The  tube 
is  then  attached  to  a  saddle  which  has  a  motion  of 
translation,  while  llie  cutler  has  the  motion  of  rota- 
tion received  from  the  head-slock.  Ordinarily,  both 
in  boring  and  turning,  the  cutter  has  the  motion  of 
translation,  while  the  tube  revolves.  In  boring  or 
turning  cast-iron,  it  is  not  usual  to  use  a  lubricant. 
In  turning  wrought-iron,  a  mixture  of  soap  and  water 
is  allowed  to  drip  upon  the  tool,  which  serves  lo  di- 
nnnish  the  f  rid  ion  on  the  tool  and  preserves  its  tem- 
per. In  boring  wrought-iron,  no  lubricant  need  be 
used  for  the  rough-cut,  but  oil  nuist  be  used  during 
the  finishing-cut.  Pre%ious  to  the  first  turning  of  any 
article,  the  axis  must  be  found  so  as  to  center  it  tndy 
in  the  lathe.  This  is  simply  done  in  a  solid  cylinder 
liy  finding  centei"s  at  each  end  with  a  l>air  of  com- 
passes; but  in  the  case  of  a  tube  a  mandrel  must  be 


Boring  and  Section  Latlie. 


the  exterior.  The  gun-casing  is  also  bored  to  receive 
the  tube,  and  a  recess  and  screw-thread  cut  on  the 
muzzle-collar.  Much  of  this  work,  including  that  of 
preparing  the  sections  for  welding,  is  ]ierformed  in 
the  lathe  shown  in  the  drawing.  I'his  work  requires 
much  power,  and.  as  a  consequence,  low  speed.  The 
power  received  from  the  main  shafting  is  first  reduced 
by  the  eounlershafling,  and  afterwards  lo  a  diffc  renl 
degree  by  the  different  steps  of  the  conical  pidleys 
attached  to  the  head-stock.  The  face-plate  is  fas- 
tened to  a  mandrel,  which  passes  through  the  conical 
pulley  and  is  independent  of  it.  The  motion  of  the 
conical  pulley  is  tiansf(  rred  in  a  reduced  form  lo  the 
face-plate  by  the  gearing.  When  il  is  desired  lo  give 
the  face-plate  the  .same  rale  of  motion  as  the  conical 
pulley,  the  two  can  be  Imllcd  together,  and  the  inter- 
mediate gearing  thrown  out  of  gear.  The  cutting- 
tool  is  attached  at  any  inclination  to  a  holder,  whicli 
can  be  moved  by  hand  on  tliesli<le-resl,  longitudinally 
or  transversely,  l)y  means  of  the  handles  shown  in 
the  drawing.  These  motions  are  made  anU)mati(!  by 
a  connection,  through  gearing,  with  llie  feed-screw. 
An  aulomalic  longitudinal  motion  is  given  to  Ihe  base 
of  the  slide-rest  by  means  of  Ihe  feeding-shafi  and 
worm,  while  il  is  nioved  by  hand  in  Ihe  same  direc- 
tion— when  thrown  out  of  gear  with  llie  feeding- 
shaft — bv  means  of  the  pinion  gearing  into  the  rack. 
The  leading-screw  gives  all  the  required  longitudinal 


inserted  in  each  end  in  order  that  the  axis  may  be 
actually  obtained.  After  the  easing  has  been  bored 
out  to  receive  the  tube,  careful  measurements  are 
made  with  the  star-gauge  for  every  inch  of  length  of 
bore.  These  measurements,  ploiled  on  jwper,  are 
the  workman's  guide  in  so  finishing  the  tube  that 
the  play  between  il  and  the  casing  shall  not  exceed 
that  prescribed.  Before  shrinking  Ihe  reiiiforeing- 
lube  upon  the  tidie  proper,  both  are  subjected  to  the 
hydraulic  test.  The  aiijiaratus  for  applying  this  test 
consists  of  two  iron  cro.ss-heads  fitted  to  tlie  ends  of 
the  ttdje.  and  which  are  enabled  lo  sustain  Ihe  press- 
ure apjilicd  through  the  medium  of  Ihe  connecting 
rods.  Leathef  washers  are  used  lo  render  Ihe  cross- 
heads  water-]uoof.  The  water  is  forced  in  by  a  steam- 
pump  tliro\igh  one  of  Ihe  cross-heads,  and  the  degree 
of  Ihe  pressure — wbich  must  reach  120  ))ounds  lo  Ihe 
square  inch— ^s  registered  by  Ihe  gauge.  The  rein- 
foreing-tidie  is  now  sliniidv  on.  and  Ihe  united  tubes 
returned  lo  the  bed  and  finished,  and  then  inserle<i  in 
the  casing.  The  mu/.zle-collar  is  then  screwed  into 
place,  and  the  steel  securing-pin  is  inserted  through 
the  easinsr.  Il  is  usual  to  rifie  Ihe  tube  Ixfore  il  is 
inserted  in  the  easing;  but  as  il  is  not  unfrec|Ucnllv 
done  at  this  stage  of  the  work,  Ihe  description  of  il  is 
here  introduced.  Only  a  single  groove  is  cut  at  a 
time,  and  that,  ordinarily,  as  the  cutter  is  going  down 
the  bore.     All  the  grooves  in  a  gun  are  first  cut  out 


fACE. 


615 


FAsmo. 


roughly  and  then  finished  with  another  cutter.  The 
•distance  between  the  ^ooves  is  rej^lated  by  a  disk 
fixed  to  the  breech  of  the  foin,  having  its  periphery 
equally  divided  by  as  many  notches  jis  there  are  to  be 
grooves.  The  ffun  is  fixed  each  lime  by  a  pawl,  and, 
when  a  new.groove  has  to  be  cut,  is  turned  round  to 
the  next  notch.  Sometimes  the  perijihery  is  simply 
sulxlividcd  into  the  required  number  of  equal  spaces, 
•while  a  stationary  pointer  indicates  the  position  to 
wh'ch  the  marks  on  the  disk  are  to  I)e  successively  | 
brought.  The  gun  is  held  horizontjiUy  in  its  bed  in  1 
front  of  the  machine,  and  remains  stationary  while 
the  head  carryinji  the  cutter  moves  in  and  out  the  bore. 
Consequently  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  bar,  to  which 
the  head  is  attached,  turn  as  it  advances  and  returns. 
Many  varieties  of  machines  are  ased  in  this  country  ^ 
for  rifling  guns.  They  differ  from  each  other  in  the  i 
mechanism  employed  to  give  this  motion  of  rotation 
to  the  ctitter.  In  all  of  them,  thi-  gunmetal  head, 
■which  carries  the  cutter,  tits  the  bore  accurately  by 
means  of  burnishers.  It  is  fastened  to  a  stout,  hollow 
iron  bar,  termed  the  "  ritling-bar. "  This  bar  is  fi.xed 
to  a  saddle  which  can  be  moved  backwards  and  for- 
wards, but  is  capable  of  a  motion  of  rotation  inde- 
pen<lent  of  it.  During  rifling  the  metal  on  the  edges 
of  the  grooves  occasionally  becomes  burred.  The 
bore  must  therefore  be  smoothed,  and  this  is  accom- 
plished by  a  process  called  "lapping."  The  opera- 
tion consists  in  working  backward  and  forward  in  the 
iKjre  a  wooden  head  covered  with  lead  and  smeared 
over  with  emery -powder  and  oil.  The  bore  of  the 
gun-casing  is  also  subjected  to  the  same  operation  be- 
fore the  in.sertion  of  the  tube.  Both  the  tube  and 
collar  now  project  beyond  the  mu/zle  of  the  casing. 
They  are  therefore  cut  off  flush  with  it,  and  finished. 
The  hole  is  tapped  for  the  vent-bushing,  which  is 
then  screwed  into  place,  and  its  lower  end  tinislied  off 
flu.sh  with  the  surface  of  the  bore.  See  Coiled  Tubes, 
Conrerted  Guiid,  anil  Ordnance. 

FACE. — A  term  of  varied  application.  1.  In  forti- 
fication, it  is  an  appellation  given  to  several  parts  of 
a  fortress,  as  tlwfuce  <>f  the  huHi'in,  which  is  the  two 
sides,  reaching  from  the  flanks  to  the  salient  angles. 
The  prolonged  or  extruded  fure  is  that  part  of  the  line 
of  defense  which  is  terminated  by  the  curtain  and  the 
angle  of  the  shoulder.  Strictly  taken,  it  is  the  line 
of  defense  niyanf.  diminished  by  the  face  of  the  Ijas- 
tion.  2.  In  tactics,  //)  fare  is  to  turn  on  the  heels,  as 
a  riejhtfaee  ;  also  the  word  of  command  for  the  move- 
ment.    See  Fortification. 

FACE  COVER.— Eugmeers  since  the  times  of  Cor- 
montaignc  have  mostly  adopted  his  method  of  placing 
the  toi>  of  the  scarp-wall  on  a  level  wi(h  the  crest  of 
the  glacis,  or  a  little  below  this  crest,  to  give  the  wall 
cover  from  the  assjiilant's  distant  batteries.  But  this 
is  evidentlv  only  a  partial  remedy,  since  the  plunge 
of  projectiles  fired  from  a  distaiice  is  very  great  in 
the  descending  branch  of  the  trajectory,  and  with  the 
rifled  guns  now  used  these  projectiles  fired  froni  a 
distance  may  pass  nver  the  glacis-crest  and  strike 
the  wall  quite  low  down,  thus  effecting  serious  dam- 
age, particularly  in  the  case  of  very  wide  and  shal- 
low ditches. 

Various  exiieclients  have  been  proposed  by  engin- 
eers to  remeilv  this  defect.  Choumara,  an  engineer 
of  celebritv,  has  proposed  to  form  what  he  terras  an 
interior  glacis  within  the  ditch,  the  crest  of  which 
shall  rise  so  liiih  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  that 
it  shall  mask  the  scarp-wall  from  the  plunge  of  the 
distant  batteries,  and  shall  force  the  a.s.sailant  to  es- 
tablish his  hreachinir-liatteries  on  this  interior  glacis 
to  enable  him  to  fire  low  enough  to  effect  a  practica- 
ble breach  in  the  wall. 

Brialmont,  a  more  recent  writer,  proposes  a  like 
plan  for  the  s:ime  piuposes:  and  in  one  of  our  own 
works.  Fort  Warren,  B.)ston  Harbor,  a  heavy  earthen 
face-Cdver  masks  a  portion  of  the  s(;u-i>-wall  from  a 
position  from  which  a  breaching  lire  might  have  been 
brought  agiunst  the  part  thus  masked.  Sec  Perma- 
nent "Forttjicatioii . 


FACE  OF  A  PIECE.— In  gunnery,  the  terminating 
plane  perjjendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  bore. 

FACE  OF  A  PLACE.— In  fortification,  the  front  com- 
prehended lx;tween  the  flanked  angles  of  two  neigh- 
boring bastions,  composed  of  a  curtain,  two  flanks, 
and  two  faces.  Sometimes  called  the  tenailU  of  the 
pliirr.     See  Fortification. 

FACE-PLATE.— A  plate  screwed  on  to  the  spindle 
of  a  lathe,  and  affording  the  means  of  attaching  the 
work  to  be  turned;  or  the  place  of  attachment  for  a 
pin  which  comes  against  the  dog  oT  driver  on  the  work 
and  imparts  rotation  to  the  latter.     See  Lathe. 

FACES  OF  A  SQUARE.— The  sides  of  a  battalion  or 
regiment  when  formed  in  square. 

FACHON.— An  iVnglo-Norman  term  for  a  sword  or 
falchion;  but  little  used.     See  Fakliion. 

FACING.— 1.  Powder  applied  to  the  face  of  a  mold 
which  receives  the  metal.  The  object  is  to  give 
a  finQ  smooth  surface  to  the  casting.  The  facing 
consists  of  various  materials,  economy  and  the  de- 
scription of  casting  being  taken  into  consideration. 
The  follo^\^ng  are  commonly  used :  Jleal-dust  or 
waste  flour,  powdered  chalk,  ashes  of  wood  or  Ian, 
charcoal-dust,  loam-stone  powder,  and  rotten-stone 
powder.  An  equivalent  effect  is  pro<luced  by  depos- 
iting a  layer  of  soot  upon  a  metallic  pattern  by  smok- 
ing it  in  a  fire  of  cork-shavings,  or  of  resin  bunied  in 
an  iron  ladle,  or  in  the  flame  of  a  link  or  a  lamp. 
2.  The  front  covering  of  a  bank  by  means  of  a  wall 
or  other  structure  to  enable  it  to  be  made  steeper  than 
the  natural  talus  of  the  material. 

FACING-IMPLEMENTS.— Implements  u.sed  for  fac- 
ing or  renewing  thu  vent  and  the  breech-pieces  of  an 
Armstrong  or  similar  gun. 

FACINGS. — 1.  The  cuffs  and  collars  of  military 
coats,  which  are  generally  of  a  different  color  from 
that  of  the  coats.  2.  The  movenniits  of  soldiers  by 
turning  on  their  heels  to  the  right,  left,  right-about, 
left-abdul,  etc. 

FACTION.— 1.  In  ancient  history,  one  of  the  troops 
or  bodies  of  combatants  in  the  games  of  the  circus, 
especially  of  the  horse-races.  2.  A  term  applied  in 
an  ill  sense  to  any  party  in  a  State  that  offers  uncom- 
jironiising  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  Govern- 
ment, or  that  endeavors  to  excite  public  discontent 
upon  unreasonable  grounds.  3.  The  duty  done  by  a 
private  soldier  when  he  patrols,  goes  the  round,  etc., 
l)ut  most  especially  when  he  does  duty  as  a  sentinel. 
The  French  usuailv  say,  entrer  en  faction,  to  come 
upon  duty;  I'tre  en' faction,  to  be  u|x>n  duty;  $ortir 
de  faction,  to  come  off  duty. 

FACTIONNAIEE. — A  soldier  who  does  every  species 
of  detail  dutv.  The  terra  was  likewise  applicable  to 
the  dutv  doiie  by  officers  in  the  old  French  ser^-ice. 

FAG-END. — The  end  of  any  rope.  The  term  is 
senendly  applied  to  the  cud  of  "a  rope  when  it  has  be- 
come untwisted.  To  fag  out  means  to  wear  out  the 
end  of  a  rope  or  a  piece  of  canvas. 

FAGOTS. —  1.  In  military  histon,-,  men  hired  to 
muster  liy  otticers  whose  companies  were  not  com- 
plete; by  "which  means  they  cheated  the  public  out 
of  the  nien's  pav,  and  deprived  the  country  of  its  regu- 
lar establishment.  2.  Fa-scines of  brushwood,  used  to 
revet  the  interior  of  batteries,  embrasures,  etc.  See 
Faficinen. 

FAKING.— Faking  is  an  operation  which  requires 
some  care.    Any  person  may  learn  to  do  it  in  a  kind 


of  way,  but  it  requires  a  man  who  can  exercise  a  lit 
tie  common-sense  to  do  it  well.  Careles,sness  and  ig- 
norance arc  the  most  fruitful  causes  of  want  of  sue 


FAKING-BOXES. 


616 


FAKING-BOXEff. 


ct'ss  iu  laying  up  the  Hues  by  this  method.  Practice 
alone  can  luiike  a  successful  "  faker."  One  man  imiji 
fake  a  Hue,  but  lia\iii^'  to  attend  to  tbrei-  operatious 
at  the  saiue  time,  does  none  of  tbem  pro|)erly.  Two 
men  may  i)ut  up  a  liue,  but,  as  before,  there  beini; 
more  oiH'nitions  than  men,  they  often  fail.  Three 
men  can  fake  a  line  well.  This" work  requires  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  care  and  common-sense.  The  neces- 
sity for  thorough  instruction  luid  frequent  jiraclice  is 
nowhere  so  urgently  called  for  as  in  the  tittiug  of  men 
to  handle  etticicntlj"  the  appliances  for  saving  human 
life. 

The  method  sho-wn  in  Fig.  1  has,  after  various 
trials,  been  found  the  most  practical  for  laying  the 
roix;  and  placing  it  into  compartments.  A  particu- 
lar attention  to  this  mode  will  never  fail  with  a  good 


Fig.  2. 


rope  when  the  impediments  are  removed  that  might 
otherwise  obstruct  its  rapid  flight.  Its  advantages 
are  that  it  will  allow  the  eye  rapidly  (.vet  correctly, 
just  bifiii-f  Jin'iif/,  which  is  ab.solutely  necessiiry)  to 
pass  over  the  different  compartments,  and  at  once  dis- 
cover if  any  fake  has  been  displaced  by  the  storm,  or 
by  any  other  Ciisualty  or  accident  come  in  contact 
W'ith  another  part,  which  would  destroy  its  applica- 
tion by  the  rope  breaking. 

It  may  likewi.se  be  coiled  in  the  manner  useil  in  the 
■whaletishery,  ir/nih-l<tir,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  and  in 
the  method  called  chain-fdkiivj,  shown  in  Fig.  3.  It 
is,  however,  neccssiiry  to  add  that  great  attention  is 
required  in  laying  it  agreeably  to  the  two  latter  meth- 
ods, arising  not  only  from  the  arm  being  liable  to  get 
under  certain  parts  of  the  rope,  and  thereby  dis])lace 
it,  but  from  the  great  anxiety  of  mind  natural  on  i 
these  occasions,  where  the  lives  of  fellow-creatures 
are  literally  dependent  on  the  correctness  with  which 
the  rope  is  lai(i.  It  is  therefore  extremely  dillicult, 
in  a  moment  of  agitation,  to  determine  whether  any 
overlay  has  taken  jilace,  an  error  that  would  infalli- 
blj-  destroy  every  endeavor,  and  occasion  even  the  i 
fate  of  those  whose  lives  we  might  be  exerting  our-  I 


Fig.  3. 

selves  to  preserve.  Could  persons  in  the  performance 
of  this  si'rviee  Ix'  always  collected,  the  two  latter 
methotls  would  have  a  decided  advantage  over  the 
first  mo<le  of  faking,  they  being  laid  in  a  nuich  less 
space  of  time.  As  all  these  methods  of  laying  the 
rope  occupy  time  to  place  it  with  the  care  nece.s,sar_v, 
and  as  it  has  repeatedly  happened  that  vessels  ver\' 
soon  after  gTOim<ling  have  gone  to  pieces,  and  ail 
lian<ls  perished,  it  was  necessary  to  profluce  a  method 
of  arranging  the  rope  so  that  it  could  l>e  immediately 
I)r<i,ieeled  as  soon  as  it  arrived  at  the  spot ;  and  none 
jiroved  so  effectual  as  when  broiiijhl  ready  in  a  bas- 
ket. In  this  ease,  the  rope  should  l)e  mosi  carefully 
laid  in  alleriialc  tiers  or  fakes,  no  part  of  it  overlaying, 
and  it  should  be  well  .secured  down,  that  in  traveling 
it  be  not  displaced;  but  above  all,  no  mistake  must 


happen  in  placing  the  basket  properly.  For  example, 
that  the  end  of  the  basket  from  which  the  shot  hangs 
in  the  above  ligure  shoidd  be  previou.sly  marked,  and 
must  be  placed  toward  the  sea  or  wreck  that  the 
rt)pc  be  delivereil  freely  and  without  any  chance  of 
entanglement.  It  will  be  scarcely  neee.s.sary  to  add 
there  will  be  several  tiers  of  the  rope  when  laid. 
The  utmost  care  and  attention  are  required  in  laying 
the  rope  in  tiers  with  strict  regularity  to  prevent  en- 
tiinglement.     See  Lifcsaring  lioctetx. 

FAKING-BOXES.-^These  boxes  are  designed  for 
placing  the  shot-lines  in  position  for  tiring.  The 
lines  are  stowed  away  in  the  boxes  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner, called  "  faking."  The  melhiKl  is  one  adopted  by 
the  English  for  the  .stowage  of  their  rocket-lines.  la 
the  pattern  used  iu  the  United  States,  the  sides  and 
ends  are  dovetailed  together  at  the  comers. 
The  top  is  nailed  to  the  ends  and  sides  with 
11-inch  and  sixpenny  finLshing-nails.  The 
cleats  carrying  the  rope-bamlles  are  fa.stened 
to  the  box,  one  at  each  end,  by  four  small 
screws.  The  "  false  bottom"  has  a  row 
of  holes,  1.3  inch  (3.05  centimeters)  in  di- 
ameter, around  the  perimeter  Along  the 
sides  and  ends  the  centers  of  these  holes 
are  situated  1.3  inch  (3.3  centimeters)  from 
the  edges.  The  distance  between  the  cen- 
ters of  any  two  consecutive  holes  is  2  inches  (5.08 
centimetei^i).  The  sides  and  ends  of  the  frame 
for  the  faking-pins  are  put  together  with  mortises  and 
tenons.  Along  the  sides,  the  centers  of  the  screw- 
holes  for  the  faking-pins  are  placed  2.5  inches  (6.35 
centimeters)  from  the  outer  edges;  the  centers  of 
these  holes  are  3  inches  (7.62  centimeters)  from  the 
outer  edges  along  the  ends  of  the  frame.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  centers  of  any  two  conGccutive 
screw-holes  in  2  inches  (5.08  centimeters).  These 
holes  are  bored  and  tapped  to  form  a  coarse-threaded 
female  .screw.  There  are  seventeen  holes  on  each 
side  and  seven  at  each  end  of  both  the  bottom  and 
the  frame,  making  forty-eight  holes  in  each.  The 
faking-pins  are  turned  in  a  laihe  from  pieces  of 
hickoiy  of  the  jiropcr  length.  The  body  is  a  frustum 
of  a  cone.  The  upper  end  is  slightly  rounded  off.  A 
coarse  cylindrical  screw  is  cut  upon  the  lower  end. 
A  metallic  hasp  which  passes  ever  a  button  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  box  is  fastened  to  each  end  of  the 
frame,  and  serves  to  hold  the  frame  and  box  together 
iu  transportation  and  handling. 

The  method  of  fastening  in  u.se  in  the  United  States 
Life-saving  Service  prior  to  1879  was  simply  two 
stai>lcs  and  a  hook.  In  tran.sportation  the 
hooks  were  liable  to  droji  out  of  the  engag- 
uig-staple  on  the  box  and  ]H-nnit  the  frame 
carrying  the  faking  pins  and  .shot-line  to  fall 
to  the  ground  and  the  line  to  become  en- 
tangled. While  experimenting  with  life- 
saving  apparatus  during  the  vears  1877-'78, 
Lieutenant  D.  A.  Lyle.  Oritnance  Depart- 
ment, U.  S.  A.,  contrived  a  metallic  has])  and 
turn-bulton  to  replace  the  old  hook  and  staple. 
In  his  rejiort  of  1878  he  sjiys:  "  Hasps  and 
turn-buttons  were  tried  on  the  experiment- 
al boxes;  these,  though  safe,  sometimes  gave 
trouble  in  getting  ready  for  the  firing  when  in  great 
ha.stc.  and  the  button  "being  placed  on  the  lx)x.  it 
was  thought  to  give  an  opportunity  for  the  line 
when  vibrating  or  whipping  to  catch  and  be  cut  off." 
In  view  of  llicse  disailvantages.  Lieutenant  Lyle  de- 
vised a  fastening  of  three  staples,  a  hiusp,  ring,  safety- 
chain,  and  lever  snap-hook.  The  lever  snap  hooks 
are  made  of  malleable  iron;  the  two  large  staples  and 
has])  of  wrought-iron;  the  I'mall  slajile,  ring,  and  safe- 
ty-chain of  brass.  The  whole  arc  tinned,  to  protect 
them  from  rust.  The  only  thing  allaelied  to  the  box 
is  one  of  the  large  staples;  consequeiilly  there  is  no- 
thing on  the  faking-box  that  can  interfere  willi  or  in- 
jure the  line  .«o  far  as  tliefastening  iseoncerned.  The 
other  parts  are  all  attached  to  the  "frame,"  and  are 
removed  with  it  when  preparing  for  firing. 


FAEIB. 


617 


FAKTK. 


The  operation  of  the  lever-snap  is  veiy  simple. 
The  mere  act  of  hooking  the  snap  in  the  stjiple  com- 
presses the  spring,  raises  the  bent  end  of  the  lever, 
allows  the  staple  to  pass  within  the  hook  when  the 
elastic  force  of  the  spring  closes  the  snap,  and  locks 
it.  To  remove  the  hook  from  the  staiile,  seize  the 
looped  end  with  the  thumb  and  iude.x-linger,  and 
press  them  tt>jrelhcr.  This  action  will  depress  the 
end  of  the  lever  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  fulcrum 
from  the  hook  and  unlock  the  snap  so  that  it  can  be 
■withdrawn  from  the  staple.  The.se  lock-snaps  were 
intended  for  the  use  of  harness-makers,  and  hence 
the  lengthened  slot  at  the  end  opposite  the  hook — 
■which  was  made  for  the  attachmenfof  a  strap  or  rein 
of  a  given  width.  This  length  of  slot  is  unnecessarj' 
as  regards  the  convenience  of  fiustening  the  safety- 
chain  and  snap-hook  together,  but  ser\-es  a  most  use- 
ful purjjose  in  the  Life-s;iving  Ser\-iee.  The  excess  of 
lengtli  of  slot  necessitates  a  corresponding  amplitude 
of  the  rear  end  of  the  hook,  and  allows  a  nmch  wider 
cavity  for  the  play  of  the  rear  end  of  the  bent  lever. 
It  also  admits  of  this  end  of  the  lever  iK'ing  made 
spatula-shaped.  The  size  of  the  cavity  and  end  of 
lever  are  such  that  the  snap  may  1m'  unlocked  with 
ease  by  the  surfman,  no  matter  how  large  his  thumb 
may  be  or  how  thick  the  gloves  or  mittens  that  he  is 
■wearing.  This  is  a  point  of  great  importance,  as  the 
surfmen  can  manipulate  this  portion  of  the  apparatus 
in  the  coldest  weather  without  removing  their  hand- 
coverings. 

The  German  faking-boses  are  ver}-  similar  to  those 
in  use  in  the  United  States.     They  differ  from  the 
American  box  in  being  longer,  a  little  less  in  width, 
and  far  more  complicated  in  construction.     The  top 
of  the  box  has  three  equidistant  t  ransverse  cleats  on  the 
upper  side  to  strengthen  it.     A  lip  at  each  end  over- 
hangs the  end  of  the  box.     Iron  straps  attached  to  the  i 
lid  and  run  inside  of  the  box  form  the  hinges.    These 
hinges  are  held  in  position  and  swing  upon  iron  pins 
5.y75  inches  in  length,  having  an  eye  at  one  end  and  i 
a  slot  at  the  other.     A  leather  thong  is  made  ftist  in  j 
the  eye-hole,  and  is  long  enough  to  pa.ss  through  the  | 
slot  in  the  other  end  of  the  pin.     This  pin  is  thrust 
through  the  cylindrical  heads  of  the  hinge-straps  on 
the  box  and  licl,  and  the  thong  is  passed  through  the 
slot  to  secure  the  pin  in  position.     This  arrangement 
admits  of  the  top  or  lid  being  removed  entirely  when 
desired.     Two  slotted  straps  or  hasps  attaclied  to  the 
front  side  of  the  lid  engage  the  st;iples  on  the  front 
of  the  box.     The  body  of  the  box  is  rectangular  in 
shape,  open  at  the  top"  and  bottom,  and  of  sufficient  , 
depth  to  contain  the  faking-pins  and  line.  I 

It  has  been  found  that  the  term  of  .service  of  a 
wooden  faking-box  is  verj-  short.  The  \'ibrations  of  ■ 
the  line,  when  the  full  chiirge  of  po^ivder  is  used,  arc 
so  violent  that  the  ends  of  the  box  are  often  split,  and 
sometimes  the  sides  and  top.  It  was  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  this  splitting  that  angle-pieces  of  cast- 
brass  were  placed  upon  the  four  corners.  Though 
this  method  of  construction  has  remedied  the  defect 
to  a  certain  extent,  it  has  not  fully  obNiated  it.  To 
secure  the  necessary  lightness  of  the  box.  it  was  re- 
quisite lliat  it  be  Tiiade  of  light  wood,  and  that  the 
material  be  verv  thin:  consequently  the  box  is  quite 
fragile.  If  a  material  can  be  obtained  that  will  pos- 
sess a  greater  degree  of  durability  than  one  made  of 
wood,  and  weigh  no  more  than  the  latter,  that  material 
should  lie  adopted,  provided  the  cost  of  manufacture 
be  reasonable.     See  Fiikinn  and  Life-miriiin  liochU. 

FAKIR.— A  word  deriviil  from  "the  Arabic /«AA<?r 
(poor),  and  designating  a  member  of  an  order  of  men- 
dicants or  penitents,  chietly  in  India  and  the  neigh- 
boring countries.  In  Persia  and  Turkey  the  word 
is  also  used  for  Moslem  priests  and  der\nshes.  The 
origin  of  fakirisni,  an  institution  which  reaches  back 
to  the  most  remote  antiquity,  is  lost  in  myl Ideal  dark- 
ness. The  common  account  of  the  son  of  a  mighty 
Rajah,  who,  expelled  from  his  bome  and  country  by 
the  cruelty  of  his  father,  made  a  vow,  half  in  re- 
venge and  half  in  contrition,  henceforth  to  roam  a 


beggar  through  the  world,  and  to  win  proselytes  to  a 
life  of  poverty  and  self-mortification,  as  the  one  most 
befitting  in  man  and  most  pleasing  to  the  Deity,  can 
hardly  i)e  called  historical.    The  same  yearning  for 
rest,  for  peace  and  pious  contemplation,  for  escipe 
from  the  noise  and  turbulence  of  the  world,  which 
has  everywhere  and   always   led   still  and  pensive 
minds  into  seclusion  and  solitude,  must  naturally 
have  teen  more  powerful  here,  in  a  laud  which 
yielded  almost  of  it.self,  and  in  abundance,  all  that 
was  neccs.S!irj'  for  the  sustenance  of  man — in  a  cli- 
mate of  flower  and  sun.shine,  where  a  hermit's  calm 
retreat  might  well  rise  before  the  wearied  eye  in  all 
the  soft  sunset  hues  which  surround  the  alxjile  of  the 
recluse  in  the  Ramayana  or  in  the  Sakoontala.     But 
constant  seclusion  and  ceaseless  meditation  here,  as 
elsewhere,  produced   in  all   but  exceiitional   minds 
their  sad  results.     Piety  is  no  longer  enough;  sanc- 
tity is  the  goal.    Thus,  abstinence  becomes  mortifica- 
tion and  a  self-torture ;  mental  repose,  mystic  self- 
absorption  or  frenzied  exaltation.     This  lesming  of 
the  Hindus  to  a  life  of  asceticism  was  fostered  by 
their  primeval  religion,  which  enjoins  various  exer- 
cises of  penance  and  mortification  upon  the  three 
higlier  castes  in  general,  but  upon  the  Brahmins  in 
particular.     These,  ha^nng  pas.sed  through  diHerent 
stages  of  regeneration,  end  by  becoming  SanyiLssis 
("who  have  left  everything")  and  are  dead  to  the- 
law.     The  world  and  its  usjiges  have  no  more  any 
claim  upon  them;  even  religious  ceremonies  are  no 
longer  neces.sary  to  the  "united  with  God."    They 
go  naked  or  in  filthy  rags,  receive  the  meanest  food 
only,  and  that  without  either  a  demand  or  thanks. 
Their  ethical   code   consists  in   the  observance  of 
truth,  chastity,  internal  purity,  constant  repentance, 
and   contemplation   of   Deity.     After  these  models 
fakirlsm  seents  chiefly  to  have  been  framed,  and  its 
adherents  were  not  only  pious  men,  but  occasionally 
saints,  workers  of  miracles,  and  healers  of  all  ills,  es- 
pecially epilepsy  and  .sterility.     The  halo  which  from 
tlie  first  surrounded  fakirism,  and  the  ready  worship 
offered  by  the  people,  attracted  to  its  ranks,  at  a  very 
early  date,  manj-  whose  motives  were  anything  but 
pure,  and  who,  under  a  garb  of  humility  and  men- 
dicity, collected  fabulous  treasures.     Sirabo  already 
distinguishes  these  vag^abonds  from  the  more  honest 
members  of  their  class,  and  if  we  may  trust  the  travel- 
ers of  our  own  day,  the  more  respectable  element  has 
now  altogether  disappeared.     Their  numlwr  is  vari- 
ously stated.     In  the  time  of  Tavernier's  visit  there 
were  more  than  1,3(XI,000  Hindu  and  800,000   :Mo- 
hammedan  Fakirs  in  tlie  East  Indies,  and  their  pres- 
ent number  is  said  to  exceed  3,000,000.     Papi  de- 
sc'ribes  the  Mohammedans  as  guilty  of  the  greater 
follies.     At  times,  especially  in  their  return  from  dis- 
tant pilgrimages,  they  are  even  dangerous,  as  the  kill- 
ing of  an  unbeliever"  is  supi)osed  to  be  an  infallible 
introduction  to  the  glories  of  paradise.     They  live 
either  separately  as  hermits  or  solitary  mendicants, 
or  unite  in  large  gangs,  carrying  arms  and  a  banner, 
beating  drums,  and  sounding  horns  as  they  approach 
a  town  or  village.     Their  appearance  is  disgusting  in 
the  extreme ;   they  go  naked,  Itesmeared  with   the 
dung  of  the  holy  animal,  the  cow.     Some  bedeck 
themselves  with  the  skins  of  serpents,  some  with  hu- 
man bones;  others  array  themselves  in  the  garb  of 
women.     Their  fearful  shrieks,  and  the  hideous  roll- 
ings of  their  eyes,  add  to  the  disgust  of  their  ajipear- 
imce.     Inutatiiig  madmen,   they   generally  end   by 
Ix'coming  madmen.     The  height  to  which  stlf-tor- 
ture  is  ffequentlv  carried  by  these  wretched  fanatics, 
and  of  which  we  meet  with  signs  even  so  far  back  as 
the  Ramayana,  where  a  )»nitent  is  descrilied  as  per- 
petually sittinc  with   upraise<l   arras  betv,  een   four 
tires,  the  sun  forming  the  filth,  is  .so  appalling  thtit 
human  nature  shrinks  from  the  mere   description. 
Some  pa.ss  their  whole  lives  in  iron  cages,  laden  with 
heavy  chains;  some  clinch  their  fists  till  their  nails 
grow-  through  the  hand;  others  hold  aloft  both  their 
arms  till  they  become  like  withered  branches;  while 


TALAEIQUi:. 


618 


FALLING  BODIES. 


otbcrs.  ngHiu.  tic  their  hands  am)  feet  together,  and 
roll  lii-ad  iiviT  Iiirls  for  thousands  of  miles.  Not  the 
K-iisI  sad  fi'aturi'  in  all  this  is  thai  these  religious  antics 
aR'  not  ciinliiu-dtonieii,  but  that  youths,  and  even  chil- 
ilrcM  of  tender  :ii.'e,  are  initiated  therein. 

FALARIQUE.  —  Combustible  darts  or  arrows  of 
various  tliieknesses,  iri'uerally  alxiut  3  feet  long;  close 
behind  the  head  was  loilged  the  combustible  matter, 
by  which  shipping,  etc.,  was  set  on  lire.  The  fala- 
niiue  was  projwned  from  a  Ikjw  or  catapult. 

FALCAIB. — A  soldier  who  was  armed  with  afalca- 
riiis,  or  short  crooked  sword. 

FALCHION.  —  A  ix;culiarly  shaped  broad-bladed 
srwonl,  ailded  to  the  ofl'cnsive  weajwus  u.sed  in  the 
n•l^'n  of  Edward  I.,  1272-1807. 

FALCON-BEAKED.— A  term  applied  to  battle-axes 
and  the  like  when  large  and  curved. 

FALCONET.— A  uahie  used  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries  for  the  smallest  class  of  cannon. 
The  ball  weiglR-d  from  1  lb.  to  3  lbs.,  and  the  gun 
from  5  cwt.  to  1.5  cwt. 

FALL. — 1.  In  artillery  material,  the  name  given  to 
any  rope  which  is  pas.sed  through  blocks,  so  as  to 
form  part  of  a  tackle.  The  rope  attached  to  a  gin, 
■which  passes  over  a  double  and  triple  block,  the  end 
of  it  passing  round  the  windUiss,  is  termed  the  fall. 
The  fall  for  this  purpose  is  generally  made  of  stroug 
Tope,  deix>nding  on  the  weight  to  be  lifted. — 3.  The 
surrender  or  capture  of  a  place  after  it  has  been  be- 
sieged.— 3.  The  descent  of  a  body  by  the  attraction 
of  the  earth. 

FALL  FOUL. — An  expression  used  in  the  military 
sense  of  making  an  attack  or  assaulting. 

FALL  IN. — The  word  of  command  for  soldiers  to 
fonn  iu  ranks,  as  in  parade,  line,  division,  etc. 

FALLING  BODIES.— Owing  to  gravity,  all  terres- 
trial IxHlies.  if  unsupported, /«?/,  or  niove  towards 
the  earth's  center.  When  a  falling  bod)'  is  absolutely 
without  support,  it  is  sjud  to  fa^ll  freely,  as  distin- 
guished from  one  descending  an  inclined  iilane  or 
curved  surface.  We  shall  here  considerthe  two  cases 
of  free  descent  and  of  descent  on  inclined  planes. 

1.  JiidUs  fitUinfi  freely. — The  first  fact  of  observa- 
tion i-eg-arding  falling  bodies  is  that  they  fall  with  a 
variable  velocity;  from  this  we  infer  that  they  are 
acted  upon  by  some  force.  Again,  on  observing  how 
the  velocity  varies,  we  find  that  its  increments  in 
eqiml  times  are  equal;  from  this  we  conclude  that 
gravity  is  a  uniform  force,  which  it  is,  at  Iciust  sensi- 
ulj',  for  small  distances  above  the  earth's  surface. 
■yVe  have  next  to  tind  a  measure  for  this  force.  By 
exjieriment  it  is  found  that  a  body  in  1  second  falls 
through  Ifi.l  feet,  and  that  at  the  end  of  1  second  it 
moves  with  such  a  velocity,  that  if  it  continued  to 
move  unifomdy  after  the  1  second  exjiired,  it  would 
pass  over  32.2  feet  in  the  next  second.  Ilence  33.3 
feet  is  the  measure  of  the  velocitv  which  has  been 
generated  in  1  second,  and  is  thei^efore  the  measure 
of  the  accelerating  force  of  gravity;  for  the  inea.sure 
of  accelerating  force  is  the  velocitv  which  it  will  pro- 
duce in  a  body  in  a  second  of  time.  The  quantity 
32.2  feet  is  usually  lUiioicd  bv  the  letter  q;  a:id  it  is 
projK'r  to  mention  here  that  this  quantity  niea-^^ures 
the  accelerating  force  of  the  earth's  attraction  on  all 
Imdies.  Experiment  shows  that  imder  the  exhausted 
receiver  of  an  air-pinnp  all  bodies  fall  with  equal 
nipidity,  and  that  the  dilTerence  of  velocities  of  fall- 
ing iKxlies  in  air  is  due  entirely  to  the  action  of  air 
upon  them.  -Vs  the  acceler.-iling  force  is  uuiforni.il 
follows  that  the  velocity  generated  in  anv  time.  I,  will 
l)e  given  by  the  formula  r  =  gt.  Since  the  force  is 
uniform,  it  must  generate  an  n\na\  velocity  every 
second.  In  t  seconds,  therefore,  it  must  generate  a 
velocity  gt,  since  it  produces  «7  in  1  second.  In  2 
seconds,  a  falling  body  will  be  moving  with  a  velocity 
of  <!4.4  feet— i.e.,  were  the  velocity  to  l)econie  con- 
stant for  the  third  second,  it  would  in  that  second 
niove  through  64.4  f.-el.  We  are  now  in  a  position  to 
inquire  more  partieularlv  how  iMidies  fall,  and  to  an- 
swer such  questions  as— Fii'st:  What  time  will  a  body 


falling  freely  take  to  fall  through  a  given  space? 
Second:  What  velocity  will  it  gain  in  falling  through 
a  given  space'/  Thiril:  How  high  will  a  lK)dy  ascend 
when  projected  straight  up  with  a  given  velocity  r  etc. 
Let  A  be  the  point  from  which  a  botiy  falls,  and  B 
its  position  at  the  end  of  the  time  t;  and  let  KM  =  S. 
Then  we  know  that  at  B  the  Ixwly  has  the  velocity  gt. 
Supi>ost',  now,  the  body  to  be  jirojected  upwairds 
from  B  towards  A  with  this  velocity  j^— gravity  act- 
ing apunst  it,  and  tending  to  retard  its  motion.  Wc 
know  that  at  the  end  of  a  time  t  it  will  be  again  at  A, 
'  having  exactly  retrace<l  its  course,  and  lost  all  the 
I  velocity  with  which  it  started  from  B.  because  gra^^ty 
will  just  take  thei*anie  time  to  destroy  the  velocity  j< 
which  it  took  to  produce  it.  From  this  consideration 
we  may  obtain  an  expression  for  the  space  AB  or  S 
in  ternis  of  the  time  t.  In  the  time  t.  the  body  rising 
from  B  with  a  velocity  =  gt  woidd  ascend,  if"  not  re 
tarded,  a  height  (gt)  .  t,  or  gP.  But  in  the  time  t, 
gravity,  we  know,  earned  it  through  S;  it  will  there- 
I  tore,  in  the  same  time,  by  retarding  it,  prevent  it  go- 
ing to  the  height  gt-  by  a  space  —  S.  The  space 
through  which  it  actually  ascends  is  then  represented 
bv  the  (litTerence  jf  —  S;  but  this  space  we  know  to 
be  AB  or  S.  Therefore  S  =  ^f'  -  S;  or  28  =  gC-,  or 
S  =  igt-.  Wc  may  give  this  equation  another  form. 
For  V  being  the  velocity  acquired  in  the  time  t,v  =  gt. 


t: 


Hence  !* 


-.    Then  S  =  iff. -  =  5-. 

From  these  formulae  we  see  that  when  a  body  falls 
from  rest  under  the  action  of  granty,  its  velocity  at 
any  time  varies  as  the  lime,  and  the  sfjuare  of  its  vel- 
ocity as  the  space  described.  If  the  liody,  instead  of 
starting  from  rest,  has  an  initial  velocity  V;  and  if  v, 
as  before,  be  the  velocity  at  the  time  t,  then  endently 
«■  is  =  the  original  velocity  +  that  which  is  generatea 
by  gravity,  or  c  =:  V  +  f/i;  and  the  space  will  be  that 
which  would  have  been  described  by  the  body  mov- 
ing vnnformly  with  a  velocity  V  -j-  that  which  it 
wouid  describe  under  gravity  alone,  or  S   =  \i  -\- 

—-.     With  regard  to  the  last  two  fonnulte,  it  is  easy 

to  sec  that  they  ma.v  be  made  to  suit  the  case  of  a 
body  projected  upwards  with  a  velocitj-  V,  by  a 
change  of  .signs;  thus  v  —  V  —  gt,  and  S  =  \'t  — 

'-7,-;  gravity  here  acting  to  destroy  velocity  and  di- 
minish the  height  attained.  From  the  general  for- 
mula' in  the  case  of  an  initial  velocity,  whether  the 
body  lie  projccte<l  upwards  or  downwards,  we  may 
express  r  in  terms  of  S,  as  we  did  in  the  case  of  mo- 
tion from  rest.     For 

s-  =  (V  ±  gtf  =  \'  ±  2g  ^Yt  +  '^-j  =  V»  ±  2gS. 

These  are  all  the  fomiuhe  applicable  to  the  case  of 
falling  bodies,  and  by  their  means  all  problems  in  this 
branch  of  dynamics  mav  be  solved.  It  also  apjiears 
thai  the  fornuda'  above  investigated  apply  to  all  cases 
of  rectilinear  motion  of  bodies  considered  as  particles 
under  the  action  of  any  uniform  force.  In  all  such 
Ciires,  if  ,/'  measure  the  accelcraling  force  S  =  iff', 
V-  —  2/S.  for  the  case  of  motion  from  rest;  and  S  = 
Vt  ±  ifC,  !ind  r«  =  'V'  ±  3/S,  for  the  case  of  an  ini- 
tial velocity. 

3.  BodCen  descending  inelinfd  planes. — In  this  ease 
the  formula'  already  investigated  apply  with  a  slight 
change.  In  the  figure,  if  P  be  a  body  on  the  inclined 
plane  AB,  descending  under  gravity, 
we  observe  that  only  that  resolved 
part  of  gravity  parallel  to  AB  is  ef- 
fective to  make  it  descend,  the  other 
part  at  right  angles  to  AH  merely 
producing  pressure  on  the  plane. 
The  angle  of  inclination  of  the  plane 
being*/,  we  know  that  the  resolved 
part  of  gravity  parallel  to  the  i)laiie 
is  .7  sin  a.  TJic  body,  then,  m.iy  be 
conceived  to  be  dcsccudiiig  under 
crating  force  g  sin  a. 


unifonn  acccl- 
Wc  obtain  the   forniula-,  ac- 


PALLING  BRANCH. 


619 


FANFAEE. 


cordingly,  for  descent  on  inclined  planes  by  substitute 
in^  </  sin  a  for/ in  the  general  fomuiliv  given  above. 
■\\e  notice,  however,  that  in  descent  on  inclined 
planes  the  velocity  acquired  is,  as  in  tje  ca.sc  of  bod- 
ies falling  freely,  due  solely  to  the  vertical  height 
through  which  the  body  fall.s.  By  our  fonnula, 
T-  =  2^  sin  a  .  S,  where  S  =  AB,  if  the  body  falls 
from  B.  This  may  be  written  »'-'  =  ig.  S .  sin  u,  or 
=  'ig .  AB  .sina,oi  =  2g .  BC,  since  AB  .  sin  o  =  BC. 
But  this  is  the  same  as  the  velocity  acquired  by  a  body 
in  falling  freely  through  BC.  In  fact,  it  holds  gen- 
crallv  true  that  the  velocity  acquired  by  a  body  lall- 
.  ing  clown  the  surface  of  any  smooth  curve  is  that  due 
to  the  vertical  height  through  which  it  has  fiUlen; 
which  might  be  proved  in  various  ways,  but  is  suffi- 
ciently clear  from  this,  that  any  curve  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  succession  of  inclined  planes,  iudclinitely 
short  in  length  and  great  in  number;  for  the  proposi- 
tion being  true,  as  above  proved,  for  each  of  them, 
will  be  true  for  all,  and  therefore  for  the  curve.  Sec 
Atirood's  Machine,  Parallelogram  of  Forces,  and  Pro- 
jectiles. 

FALLING  BRANCH.— That  part  of  the  trajectory 
of  a  projectile  in  which  it  approaches  the  earth.  See 
TriijicViry. 

FALL  OUT.— To  quit  the  rank  or  file  in  which  one 
is  tirst  posted.  Untidy  soldiers  on  parade  are  fre- 
quently ordered  to  full  out,  and  remain  in  the  rear  of 
their  comjianies.  Tlic  phrase  is  aiiplicable  in  a  great 
varietv  of  instances. 

FALOIS  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— The  front 
of  this  sj'stem  consists  of  two  enceintes  of  equal  com- 
mand, so  that  the  inner  one  is  well  covered.  The 
bastions  contain  cavaliers  which  may  readily  Ix; 
transformed  into  retrenchments.  The  .second  enceinte 
consists  of  counterguanls  and  ravelitis  connected  by 
liatardeau.x.  A  low  battery  forms  the  reduit  of  ravelin. 
The  ravelin,  its  reduit,  and  the  counterguard  are  case- 
mated  for  artillery.  The  covered-way  is  replaced  by  a 
system  of  creniailleres,  which  possess  the  great  defect 
of  furnishing  the  besieger  with  a  parallel  ready  made. 

FALOTS.-^Small  lanterns  fixed  upon  die  end  of  a 
stick  or  pole.  Small  lamps  likewise  used,  attached 
in  the  same  manner,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  them 
readily  about  to  light  a  camp,  or  besieged  towns,  as 
occasion  may  re(iuire. 

FALSE  ALARMS.— Stratagems  of  war  frequently 
made  use  of  to  haras.s  an  enemy  by  keeping  him  per- 
IHtually  under  arms.  A  vigilant  otticcr  will  occa- 
sionally make  a  false  alarm  to  learn  if  his  guard  is  on 
the  alert.  A  fearful  or  negligent  sentinel  will  create 
alarm  by  false  rejiorls. 

FALSE  ATTACK.— An  approach  which  is  made  as 
a  feint  for  the  jnirposc  of  diverting  an  enemy  from 
the  real  oljject  of  attack.  False  attacks  should  be 
carried  out  on  several  points  of  the  works  to  be  at- 
tacked, and  at  the  sjinie  time  as  the  real  one  is  going 
on.  The  strength  of  the  force  detailed  for  this  dutj- 
.should  be  imiiosing.     See  Feint. 

FALSE  FIRES. — Lights  or  tires  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  deceiving  an  enemy.  When  an  army  is 
about  to  retire  from  a  position,  during  the  night  false 
fires  are  lighted  in  different  parts  of  (he  encampment 
to  impo.se  upon  the  enemy's  vigilance. 

FALSE  FRAMES.— Wlien  the  soil  is  very  bad,  the 
miners  make  use  of  these  frames.  They  are  of  the 
usual  height,  but  narrower,  and  exactly  of  a  width 
from  outside  to  outside,  equal  to  the  width  in  the  clear 
of  the  ordinMTV  frames. 

FALSE  IMPRISONMENT.— Every  confinement  of 
the  person  is  an  imprisonment,  whether  it  be  in  a 
common  prison  or  a  private  house,  or  in  the  stocks, 
or  even  by  forcibly  detaining  one  in  the  public  streets. 
A  man  is  liable  for  detaining  the  person  of  another, 
not  only  w  ithout  cau.sc,  but  widiout  Icgjil  cause.  Thus, 
where  a  man  gives  another  in  charge  for  comnntling 
an  offen.se,  the  former  is  liable  to  an  action  for  false 
imprisonment  if  he  fails  to  substantiate  his  c:iuse. 
Police-officers,  also,  are  liable  for  apprehending  a  man 
without  a  competent  warrant,  or  « ithout  reasonable 


suspicion.  But  where  a  felony  has  been  committed,  an 
Officer  is  entitled  to  arrest  on  suspicion.  Not  only 
Constables  but  private  persons  may  arrest  a  man  who 
commits  a  felony  in  their  presence.  A  person  who 
has  falsely  imprisoned  another  is  liable  to  a  criminal 
prosecution,  and  also  to  a  civil  action.  In  the  former 
case  he  may  be  pimishcd  by  fine  and  imjirisonment; 
in  the  latter,  he  must  pay  such  damages  as  are  award- 
ed. Any  one  detained  without  sufficient  cause  is  en- 
titled to  apply  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  to  procure 
his  liljeration.  In  Scotland  this  species  of  offense  is 
called  Wrongoas  Imprisonment. 

FALSE  LIGHTS.— lu  debarkations  under  cover  of 
the  night,  lights  may  be  used  as  signals  of  deception, 
when  it  is  found  expedient  to  attract  the  attention  of 
the  invaded  country  towards  one  part  of  the  coast  or 
territory,  whilst  a  real  attack  is  meditated  against  an- 
other.    See  False  Fires. 

FALSE  MUSTER.— An  incorrect  statement  of  the 
number  of  effective  soldiers  and  horses.  Any  officer 
who  knowingly  makes  a  false  muster  of  man  or  horse, 
or  who  signs,  or  directs,  or  allows  the  signing  of  any 
nnister  roll,  knowing  the  sjune  to  contain  a  false  mus- 
ter, shall,  upon  proof  thereof  by  two  witnc.s.ses,  Ix'fore 
a  Court-Martial,  be  dismis,sed  from  the  service,  and 
shall  thereby  be  disabled  to  hold  any  office  or  employ- 
ment in  the  s<rviee  of  the  Tnited  States. 

FALSE  RETURN.— A  willful  reiK)rt  of  the  actual 
state  of  a  brigade,  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  by 
which  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment is  deceived  as  to  the  effective  force  of  such  regi- 
ment or  company.  Every  officer  who  knowingly 
makes  a  false  return  to  the  Dejiartment  of  War,  or  to 
any  of  his  Superior  Oflicers,  authorized  to  call  for  such 
returns,  of  the  state  of  the  regiment,  troop,  or  com- 
pany, or  garrison  under  his  command;  or  of  the  arm.s, 
ammunition,  clothing,  or  other  stores  thereunto  l)e- 
longing,  shall,  on  con\iction  thereof  before  a  Court- 
Martial,  be  cashiered.     See  False  Muster. 

FANARIOTS.— The  general  name  given  to  the 
Greeks  inhabiting  the  Fanar  or  Fanal  in  Constanti- 
nople, a  cjuarter  of  the  city  which  takes  its  name  from 
the  beacon  (phanarion)  situated  in  it.  They  first  ap- 
pear in  history  after  the  taking  of  Constant iuojjle  bj- 
the  Turks,  and  appear  to  have  been  originally  de- 
scendants of  such  noble  Byziuitine  families  as  escaped 
the  fury  of  tlie  barbarians.  Afterwards,  however,  the 
class  was  recruited  by  emigrants  from  different  parts 
of  the  old  Byzantine  Ein|)ire.  Subtle,  insinuating, 
intriguing,  they  soon  took  advantage  of  the  ignorance 
of  tile  Turkish  Governors,  and  made  themselves  po- 
litically indispensiible  to  their  Kulers.  They  filled  the 
offices  of  dragomans,  secretaries,  bankers,  etc.  One 
of  them,  named  Pimayotaki,  at  a  later  period,  was 
appointed  Dragoman  fo  the  Divan, and  his  successors 
ol)tained  still  greater  honors.  Through  their  influence 
the  lucrative  office  of  Dragoman  of  the  Fleet  was 
called  intoexisiencc,  which  g;ive  them  almost  unlimit- 
ed power  in  the  Islands  of  the  Archipelago.  Besides, 
from  them  were  chosen,  imtil  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  in  lySO,  the  llosjiodars  of  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia,  while,  in  addition,  the  dispos;d  of  most  of 
the  civil  aixl  military  posts  under  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment was  in  their  hands.  In  spite  of  their  power, 
however,  the  Fanariots  never  exhibited  much  iiatriot- 
isiii;  they  were  animated  by  the  petty  motives  of  a 
caste,  aiid  when  tlie  A\'ar  of  Liberation  broke  out 
among  their  countrymen,  they  tcx>k  no  part  in  it.  In 
the  present  altered  stjite  of  affairs  in  Turkey,  they 
have  no  political  influence. 

FANFARE. — The  French  name  of  a  short  and  live- 
ly militaiT  air  or  call,  executed  on  brass  instnnnents. 
It  was  brciughl  by  the  Arabs  into  Spain,  whence  it 
pa.s.sed  into  Alexico  and  the  Xew  World.  Faiifiron, 
derived  from  fanfare, is  the  name  given  to  a  .swagger- 
ing bully  or  cowardly  boaster,  prolmbly  because  of 
the  empty  noise  he  makes  when  "  blowing  his  own 
tnnnpet,"  or  threatening  timid  people,  and  the  tenn 
aiiplied  to  his  idle  braggadocio  and  vaporing  vaunt* 
is  fa  nfa  ronnade. 


FAN  ION. 


620 


FANNEB. 


FANIOH. — A  small  flng  wliich  was  sometimes  car- 
rii'il  at  the  bend  of  \hv  liuL'pi.W  of  "  bripicie.  It  was 
niatle  of  serge,  ami  resemliKil  in  color  the  unifonii- 
livi-rv  of  tlu'  Urijnidier,  or  of  the  Commamlant  of  uuy 
parliiiilMr  t'orps. 

FANNER.— A  madiine  of  great  value  for  produc- 
liiL'  i-urrciilsof  air  audi-ruating  blasts  to  melt  pigiron 
in  fomulries.  It  is  much  us<.'<i  in  the  ventilation  of 
hospitals,  armories,  shiiis,  and  mines.  For  the  last 
it  is  now  eousidereil  iirefcr.il)le  to  the  plan  of  fiiraace- 
ventilation,  es|>ecially  where  there  are  tiery  seams  of 
coid.  Ill  its  const riiet ion  the  fanner  is  like  a  wheel, 
haviiis:  the  arms  tippe<l  with  vanes,  instead  of  being 
ioined  liv  a  rim.  ll  is  placed  inside  a  chest — usually 
in  an  eceeulric  position — with  openings  on  each  side 
rounil  the  si)iiKlle  for  the  admission  of  air.  The  mo- 
tion is  given  by  steam  or  other  power;  and  as  it  re- 
volves, the  centrifugal  action  sucks  in  air  at  the  center, 


largely  augments  the  working  pressure.  In  Piatt  and 
Sciiiele's  silent  fanner  the  air  enters  bv  a  central  en- 
trance at  one  side  only,  and  is  expelled  from  the  case 
at  the  opix)site  side.  The  vaiiis  liave  a  peculiar 
.shajie,  and  descriljc  what  the  inventor  (Schick)  calls 
an  antifriclion  curve.  It  is  .siid  to  lie  verj-  elticient, 
and  .so  also  is  another  form  of  noiseless  fanner  man- 
ufactured by  Mr.  George  Lloyd,  London. 

The  (Irawing  shows  a  form  of  Sturtevant's  e.\haustr 
ing  fanner  especially  adajitcd  for  use  in  any  place 
where  the  blower  can  be  placed  in  the  ba.sement,  and 
ihe  air  lie  useil  for  the  ventilation  of  rooms  aliove.  In 
such  cases  it  can  be  used  as  an  exhauster  by  closing  up  , 
the  inlet  on  engine  side  and  conuec-ting  a  piiK'  or  duct 
to  the  op|X)site  side,  bringing  the  air  from  any  distjmt 
point  where  it  can  be  had  fresh  and  pure.  This  man- 
ner of  discharge  is  also  most  conveiiieiil  and  desirable 
when  used  for  exhausting  foul  air,  gases,  smoke,  etc.. 


Sturtevant  Exhausting  Fanner. 


draws  it  towards  the  tips  of  the  vanes,  and  these  impel 
it  forward  through  the  exit-pipe.  Engineers  differ  as 
to  the  proportions  which  should  be  adopted  for  the 
fanner,  and  as  to  t  lie  extent  of  spiral  which  the  fan- case 
should  have.  For  foundries  and  smithies,  where  the 
pressure  of  the  blast  reipiired  is  from  four  to  five 
oimccs  per  square  inch,  the  following  ha^■e  been  found 
to  suit  very  well  in  i)raclice:  the  width  of  the  vanes, 
lis  well  as  their  length,  made  one  fourth  of  the  diameter 
of  the  fanner;  the  inlet  o|ieiiings  in  (he  sides  of  the  fan- 
chest  one  half,  and  the  degree  of  ccceiitricily  one 
tenth,  of  this  di;nneter.  There  is  a  segmental  slide  by 
wliich  the  opening  into  the  deliveri'-|>ipe  may  be  in 
crcii.st-d  or  iliminished.  For  such  purposes  fanners 
vary  froui  three  to  six  feel  in  diameter,  and  tliey  are 
entirely  constnicted  of  iron.  Double  fanners  have 
been  introduced  by  Mr.  ('hal>lin  in  Engliiml,  by  M. 
Perrigaull  in  France,  and  by  .Mr.  Stiirlevanl  in  .Vmer- 
ica.  In  these,  two  simple  fanners  are  so  disposed  on 
one  spindle  that  Ihe  blast  produced  by  one  passes  in  its 
compressed  state  through  a  lube  to"  the  other,  which 


from  mines,  tunnels,  or  other  underground  apartments, 
and  it  is  desired  to  discharge  it  upward,  out  of  Ihe  way 
of  workmen,  or  above  the  tops  of  luiildings.  One  of 
the  hap])iesl  applic.ilions  of  the  fanner  lias  been  to 
draw  oil  and  render  harmless  the  shavings  from  plan- 
ing-niaeliines  and  the  tine  steel-dust  in  the  operation 
of  needlegriiidiiig.  It  .should  lie  reinemliered  that 
small,  long  branch-pipes  with  large  openings  for  air 
around  the  revolving  cutters,  or  tielween  them  and  Ihe 
hoods,  (•.•imiol  be  made  to  work  unless  the  exhauster 
is  driven  at  a  very  high  speed.  Large  jiipes  and  closc- 
tilling  hoods  around  Ihe  cutters,  fitting  so  closely 
that  Ihere  will  be  no  unneces.s!»y  opening  for  the  air, 
will  enable  the  exhauster  to  do  its  work  with  less 
number  of  revolulion.s.  The  velocity  of  the  air  enter- 
ing the  hood  around  Ihe  eulters  should  be  about  Ihe 
same  as  Ihe  velocity  with  which  the  outside  of  the 
blast-wheel  travels,  sjiy  one  liunilred  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  per  second,  according  to  Ihe  kind  and 
dryness  of  the  inalerial  being  planed.  The  full 
power  of  the  exhauster  can  only  be  felt  at  the  plan- 


FANTA8SIN. 


621 


FAEEOW  COMBINATION-TENT. 


inp-machine  by  means  of  large  pipes  and  closc-fltting  [ 
hoods.     The  hoods  should  tit  down  as  closely  a.s  is 
possible  around  the  point  where  the  sharaips  are  to 
be  made.     See  Bloirer,  Iran,  and  Stenm-fun. 

FANT ASSIN.— A  foot-soldier.  This  term  is  derived 
from  the  Italian  /ante,  a  boy,  the  light  troops  in  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  being  formed  of 
Ixjys  who  followed  the  armies  and  were  formed  into 
corps  with  light  arms;  hence  the  origin  of  the  word. 

FAECY. — A  contagious  disease  ainong  horses,  de- 
pending ujion  the  same  causes  as  glanders,  which  it  ' 
usually  precedes  and  accompanies.  The  absorl)ent 
glands  and  vcs.sels,  usually  of  one  or  l)oth  hind-limbs, 
are  iuHamcd.  tender,  swollen,  hard,  and  knotted.  The 
^^tiated  lymph  thus  poured  out  softens,  and  ulcers  or 
farcy-buds  ajii^ar.  Unlike  the  ulcers  of  glanders 
they  are  curable,  but  require  time  and  care.  They 
must  be  scarified  with  the  hot  iron,  which,  to  prevent 
their  spreading,  may  also  be  gently  rini  over  the  ad- 
jacent souiul  skin.  Good  feeding  and  comfortable 
lodgings  are  essential,  and  if  they  do  not  interfere 
with  the  appetite,  give  tonics,  such  as  a  dram  each  of 
sulphate  of  copper  and  ioilinc,  re])ealcd  twice  a  daj'. 

FAEBIER. — A  person  who  shoes  horses  and-  treats 
their  disejses.  The  better  class  of  Farriers  often  were, 
and  indeed  still  are,  men  of  great  shrewdness  and  ob- 
servation, sometimes  possessing  considerable  e.\i)eri- 
ence,  and  with  skillful,  useful  hands.  Their  manage- 
ment of  sick  horses  is  occasionally  sensible,  but  gene- 
rally altogether  empirical.  They  have  usually  but 
crude  ideas  of  the  structure,  functions,  or  diseases  of 


angles.  For  regular  troops  C  D  =  6  feet,  and  for  the 
officer's  tent  C  D  =  7  feet.  The  shape  of  the  canvas 
is  such  as  to  permit  its  being  secured  about  the  kit  so 
as  to  thoroughly  protect  it — the  triangular  end-tlajis 
being  folded  over  before  rolling;  also,  when  foldeil 
over  from  both  sides  along  lines  parallel  to  A  C  and 
B  I),  and  at  distance.s  from  them  a  little  less  than  one 
fourth  of  C  D,  as  in  Fig.  2,  to  fonn  an  excellent  bed- 
covering  for  a  single  sleeper.  When  spread  u|)on  tlie 
ground,  the  blankets  are  placed  upon  the  central  [wr- 
tion  of  the  rectangle  A  B  I)  C.  In  this  manner  a 
ilouble  layer  of  canvas  covers  all  of  the  sleeper  (his 
feet  resting  along  the  lineAB)except  his  head,  which 
appears  at  the  triangular  opening  D  H  C.  When 
used  as  a  shelter-tent,  the  edges  E  C,  0  D.  and  D  F 
rest  tipon  the  ground.  When  pitched  in  this  manner 
the  tent  covers  a  maximum  aeailuble  space  for  a  mini- 
mum canvas,  with  the  following  advantages:  Isl. 
Quickly,  easily,  and  securely  pitched.  2d.  The  tent 
is  composed  of  but  one  piece  of  canvas — the  allowance 
of  one  man.  3d.  Three  of  its  faces  are  covered,  two 
ot  which  may  lie  raiseil  for  the  pun'oses  of  ventila- 
tion. 4th.  By  attaching  a  blanket,  extra  piece  of  can- 
viLS,  or  a  second  tent  along  the  upper  edge,  the  fourth 
face  may  be  closed:  or,  by  varjing  its  inclination, 
more  or  less  shade  may  be  secured. 

Two  of  these  tents  may  be  so  combined  as  to  form  a 
tent  having  a  large  base  and  a  small  altitude,  that  will 
^vithstand  a  trind  »t'/rm  (a  component  less  than  one  half 
of  the  forceof  the  wind  tending  to  overturn  it).  In  con- 
sequence of  the  gradually  sloping  walls,  there  is  much 


Fio.  1.— JPorm  of  Section-covering  for  Bed 
or  Clottung. 


FiQ.  2.  —  Bed-covering 
for  Single  Sleeper. 


Fig.  3.— Used  as  a  Common 
or  '■  A  "  Tent. 


animals,  and  pin  their  faith  mainly  on  a  few  oirefuUy  • 
cherished  recipes.  To  their  calling  as  horse-doctors 
and  shoeing-smiths  they  usually  unite  those  of  cow- 
leech  and  cutter  of  colts  and  pigs:  and  although  still 
met  with  in  many  of  the  rural  districts  of  Enghmd 
and  Ireland,  their  practice  is  p.i-ssing  into  the  hands 
of  regularly  educated  Veterinarians.  In  the  United 
States  army  one  Farrier  is  allowed  to  each  troop  of 
cavalr\'. 

FABEIEE -MAJOR. — A  person  formerly  employed 
by  the  Colonel  of  a  Dragoon  Regiment  to  superintend 
the  Farriers  ot  troops.  He  has  since  l)een  superseded 
by  a  Veterinary  Surgeon.  In  the  English  armv  Far- 
riers-Major and  Farriers  are  Xoncommissioned  Otli- 
cersin  the  Cavalry,  ArliUery,  Engineers,  andJIilitary 
Train,  whose  duty  it  is  to  shoe  the  horses  of  the  coqts, 
and,  generally,  to  a.ssist  the  Veterinary  Surgeon  in 
exercising  a  jjroper  care  over  the  regimental  animals. 
They  receive  the  same  pay  as  other  Sergeants  (with 
whom  they  rank);  and,  in  a'ddition,  certain  allowances 
proportioiiate  to  the  immber  of  animals  in  charge. 
The  sum  ueoes,s;irv  to  dcf  rav  this  allowance  for  a  year 
is  about  £lO,n()(1.  ■ 

FAEEOW  COMBINATION-TENT.— This  novel  com- 
bination shelter,  storm,  and  conmion  tent,  designed 
for  active  field-service,  consists  of  a  peculiarly  shaped 
sheet  of  lishl  canvasor  other  .suitable  material,  having 
a  strong  cord  and  flaps  (several  inches  wide)  about  its 
edges  and  ftirnisheil  with  /lookn  and  rin;/s  or  ta/ies  at 
suitable  intervals.  The  shape  of  the  tent  is  descrilwd 
as  follows:  A  B  D  C,  in  Fig.  1,  is  a  rectangle:  B  F  = 
i  F  D;  A  E  =  i  E  C  ;   B  F  D  and  A  E  C  are  right 


available  space  for  the  pvirpo.ses  of  shelter  and  sleep- 
ing. By  subjecting  the  canvas  to  a  water-proofing 
process,"  it  will  shed  the  water  during  a  niin-stonn 
when  pitched  in  this  manner,  and  will  not  l)ecome 
heavy  by  wetting.  If  concealment  lie  desirable,  this 
form"  of' tent  is  particularly  valuable.  Fig.  3  shows 
how  two  *lielters  may  lie  combined  so  as  to  form  the 
common  or  "A"  tent.  Here  the  canva.s  is  reversed. 
The  edge  C  D  is  at  the  ridge,  and  the  edges  E  A,  A  B, 
and  B  JP  rest  upon  the  ground.  The  poles  used  for 
the  shelters  are  joined  tiro  and  tiro,  and  form  the  long 
poles  re<iuiretl  for  the  common  tent.  This  form  of  tent 
is  particularly  desirable  during  rain-storms,  and  is  well 
suited  for  ofticcrs  and  others,  living  two  in  a  tent,  who 
arc  liable  to  become  sejtarated  at  any  lime.  It  more- 
over furnishes  a  covering  for  the  kit  of  each,  and  the 
individual  will  at  all  times  have  his  proper  allowance 
of  canvas  with  his  own  bedding,  or  in  ca.se  of  forced 
marches,  etc.,  he  may  carry  it  on  his  person  or  Ix'hind 
the  saddle.  The  poles  are  made  of  stronff  and  li<jhl 
trood,  with  plain  ferrule- joints  and  projecting  screws, 
which  sen-e  to  strengthen  the  joints  and  hold  llie  cor- 
ners of  the  canvas  in  place.  Ixing  run  through  a 
worked  hole  or  ring  arranged  for  the  purpose.  The 
shelter-tent  may  be  neatly  pilchcd,  without  poles, 
whenever  it  is"  possible  to  .susiienil  the  ridge-rope 
(formed  by  uniting  the  guy-ropes)  l)etwcon  trees  or 
their  branches,  piles  of  stores,  sjiddles.  aparejos,  rocks, 
etc. ;  or  it  may  Ix-  pitched  agjiinst  a  fence,  fallen  tree, 
etc.  When  without  poles  or  any  facilities  on  the  open 
prairie,  either  the  carbine  or  ramrod  will  make  a  good 
substitute. 


FAEEOW  KNIFETBOWEL  AND  TENT  PEG. 


622 


FASCINES. 


The  following  extract  from  the  proceedings  of  a 
Board  of  Oflicors  convened  at  'West  Point,  N.  Y., 
til  examine  and  report  iiyum  the  merits  of  this  tent 
will  serve  to  point  out  its  eapaliilities: — Dimensions 
of  Officer's  Tent  pitcheil  :  First,  as  a  shelter-len't. 
Base  7  feet  square,  34  feet  high.  Second,  as  a  storm- 
tent,  eombinini;  two  shelter-tents,  omitting  the  poles 
of  one.  Biuse  1  feet  by  14  feet;  3i  feet  high.  Third, 
as  a  common  or  "A"  tent.  Ba.se  7  feet  square;  7 
f  i-et  2  inches  high.  Weight,  including  poles,  3  pounds 
2  ounces.  The  following  are  some  of  the  advantjiges 
of  the  tent:  1.  Capable  of  subtlivision.  2.  Maximum 
arai/tifilc  space  for  minimum  canvas.  3.  Same  poles 
for  each  form  of  tent.  4.  The  tent  is  exjiediliously 
pitchetl.  ij.  As  a  shelter-tent  it  is  farmori'  si'curcand 
roomy  than  the  one  now  used.  6.  Three  faces  of  the 
tent  iire  covered,  and  tiie  fourth  may  be  covered  by  a 
blanket  or  mid  piece  of  canvas.  7.  No  ridge-pole  is 
reipiired.  f.  The  only  ropes  required  may  be  used 
to  tie  up  the  bundle.  9.  It  is  a  superior  wrapix-r  for 
the  bundle.  10.  When  not  pitched  it  serves,  on  ac- 
count of  its  iKTuliar  form,  as  an  excellent  bed-cover- 
ina.  11.  It  is  the  only  practicable  storm-tent,  and  to 
this  point  the  Board  particularly  invite  attention. 
12.  It  forms  a  roomy  and  convenient  "A"  or  common 
tent,  and  as  it  can  be  opened  at  both  ends,  it  can  be 
rentiered  more  comfortable  in  warm  weather  than  the 
old  tent.  13.  Thirty-four  tents  (officers')  or  forty  tents 
(men's),  with  poles  in  suitably-construcled  bags,  form 
a  handy  pack  for  a  mule.  The  common  tent  is  here 
referred  to.  14.  If  transportation  is  abandoned,  the 
tent  is  readily  borne  on  the  person.  15.  It  is  readily 
adapted  to  the  wind-  or  rain-storm.  16.  The  shelter- 
tents  are  ejisily  put  together  to  form  a  secure,  storm 
or  common  tent.  In  conclusion,  the  Board  is  of  the 
opinion  that  if  "Farrow's  Portable  Combination 
Shelter,  Storm,  and  Common  Tent "  is  adopted,  it 
will  prove  a  valuable  addition  to  the  camp-equipage 
now  issued.     Sec  Tint. 

FARROTV  KNIFE-TROWEL  AND  TENT-PEG.— An 
imention  designed  to  combiue  the  iutrenching-tool 
and  a  great  many  other  necess;try  articles  for  tield- 
equipment.  The  scabbard  (one  edge  sharp)  is  of  the 
same  shape  and  size  as  the  blade  ot  the  trowel-bayo- 
net. A  knife  (rasp,  sjtw,  or  any  other  article  required 
by  the  particular  man  who  uses  it)  enters  the  scab- 
bard and  is  retained  m  position  by  means  of  a  small 
but  strong  spring.  The  back  edge  of  the  scabbard  is 
prepare<l  so  as  to  form  a  convenient  wrench,  screw- 
driver, shell-extractor,  etc.;  while  to  the  upper  and 
outer  ed^e  is  attached  a  small  neck  and  ring,  so  as  to 
convert  it  into  a  suitable  tent-peg  or  picket-pin  when 
driven  into  the  gro\ind.  While  on  the  march  the 
scabbard,  with  knife  encased,  is  hooked  to  the  belt 
and  worn  at  the  side.  For  intrenching  and  chopping 
purposes  the  whole  is  unhooked  and  used.  To  use 
the  knife  it  is  simply  drawn  from  the  scabbaixl;  and 
after  arrival  into  camp,  the  scabbard  (with  or  without 
the  knife)  is  driven  into  the  ground  wherever  needed, 
as  a  picket-pin  or  tent-peg.  Each  soldier  might  be 
provided  with  a  knife-troirel,  to  be  worn  on  the  body; 
and  each  cavalrvman,  packer,  etc.,  might  have  at- 
tached to  his  sacfdle  an  additional  trowel,  containing 
a  ra.sp,  saw,  etc. 

FASCES.— Bundles  of  rods  usually  nuide  of  birch, 
but  S(jmelimes  of  elm,  with  an  axe  jirojecting  from 
the  middle  of  them,  which  were  carried  before  the 
Chief  Magistrates  of  ancient  Rome,  as  symlxjls  of 
their  jwwer  over  life  and  limb.  Thev  were  borne  by 
the  Lictors,  at  first  Ix'fore  the  King^i;  in  the  time  o"f 
the  Republic,  before  Con.suls  and  Pr.etors;  and  after- 
wards liefore  the  Emperors.  Their  nuiulK'r  varied, 
a  Consul  having  twelve,  and  a  Pr.etor  six;  but  within 
the  city  only  two.  Valerius  Publieola  introduced  a 
law  that  within  the  city  the  axe  was  withdrawn,  ex- 
cept in  Ihe  ca.se  of  a  I)ictator,  who  was  preceded  by 
24  Lictors,  l)earing  as  many  fasces.  Publieola  also 
made  the  fii.sccs  l)e  lowered  al  the  assemblies  of  the 
l)eop!c.  as  a nacknow led i!inenl  of  their  supreme  power. 

FASCINE  EEVETMENT.— To  form  a  fa.scine  revet- 


ment, the  first  row  of  fascines  is  imbedded  about  half 
ils  thickness  below  the  tread  of  the  banquette,  and  is 
secured  by  means  of  the  anehoring-stakes,  and  also 
by  si'veral  stakes  driven  through  the  fascine  itself 
aix)ul  12  inches  into  the  earth.  The  knots  of  the  lies 
are  laid  iubide,  and  the  earth  of  the  parapet  is  well 


Fascine  Revetment  and  Palisaded  Ditch. 

packed  behind  the  fascine.  A  second  row  is  laid  on 
the  first,  so  as  to  give  the  requisite  interior  slope;  it 
should  break  joints  with  the  first  row,  aud  Ix?  con- 
nected with  it  by  several  stakes  driven  through  them 
both.  The  other  rows  are  laid  with  similar  precau- 
tions, and  the  parapet  is  usually  finished  at  the  top 
by  a  course  of  sods.  The  revetment  of  the  interior 
slope,  by  using  fascines,  and  a  palisaded  ditch  are 
shown  in  the  drawing.     See  Reretment. 

FASCINES.— Fagots  for  military  jnirposes  made  of 
young  branches  of  trees  or  brushwood,  and  also  of 
osiers,  bound  together  with  yam  or  withes.  They 
are  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  of  various  lengths, 
averaging  12  feet,  according  to  the  object  for  which 
they  are  intended.  Fascines  are  >iscil  in  the  con- 
struction of  temporary  works;  for  filling  a  ditch,  and 
sometimes,  in  a  pile,  for  setting  tire  to  an  ol)Stniction. 
Before  a  siege,  the  soldiers  are  employed  in  making 
fascines  in  great  number;  and  when  needed,  each 
soldier  bearsone  to  the  place,  casts  it  on  the  heap, 
and  the  quantity  required  is  thus  accumulated  in  a 
remarkably  short  time. 

To  make  a  fascine,  straight  twigs  are  selected,  be- 
tween the  thickness  of  the  little  "finger  and  thumb, 
the  longer  the  better;  they  should  be  stripped  of  the 
smaller  twigs.  A  support,  termed  ufascine-liome.  is 
put  up.  by  driving  two  stout  poles  obliquely  into  the 
ground  about  two  feet,  so  as  to  cross  each  other  alwut 
i  two  feet  above  the  ground,  where  they  are  firmly 
tied  together;  as  many  of  these  supports  as  may  be 
required  are  put  up  in  a  straight  line,  about  eighteen 
inches  apart;  this  forms  the  horse  on  which  the  twigs 


Fascine-borse  and  Cboker. 

are  laid  to  be  bound  together.  A  machine,  termed  a 
fajtcine-e/i/iker,  is  formed  of  two  stout  levers  alwut 
five  feet  long,  connected  near  their  extremities  by  a 
chain  or  strong  cord,  which  should  be  long  enough 
to  pass  once  round  the  fascine,  and  be  drawn  tight 
by  means  of  the  levers.  The  twigs  are  laid  on  the 
horse  with  their  large  and  small  ends  alternating;  the 
choker  is  applied  to  bring  them  together,  and  they 
are  bound  by  wire,  or  by  w  ithes  made  of  tough  twigs, 
properly  i>re])ared  by  twisting  over  a  blaze,  so  as  to 
render  ihem  pliable.  The  ties  are  placed  12  inches 
apart,  and  every  third  or  fourth  one  should  be  made 
with  an  end  about  three  or  four  feet  long,  having  a 
loop  at  the  extremity  to  receive  a  stake  through  it. 
This  slake  is  termed  an  aiichiyriiigniake,  its  object 
being  to  secure  the  fascine  very  firmly  to  the  parapet. 
See  Mucine  Itecettnent. 


FASTNESS. 


623 


FEDEKAL  OOTEENHEHT. 


FASTNESS.— A  well  fortified  place;  a  stronghold;  a 
fortres-s  or  lurt;  a  castle,  etc. 

FATIGUE-CALL.— A  particular  military  call,  sound- 
ed oil  the  bugle  or  di-uiu,  by  which  soldiers  are  called 
upon  or  assembled  to  perform  fatigue-<luties. 

FATIGUE-DUTY.— The  term  fatigue  is  applied  to 
the  labors  of  military  men  distinct  from  the  use  of  i 
arms.     Extra  pay  is  pro\1ded  for  all   soldiers  per 
forming  the  authorized  fatigue-duties.     The  follow-  , 
ing  law  was  enacted  as  early  as  1854 :    That  the  1 
allowance  of  soldiers  employetl  at  work  on  fortifica-  ! 
tions,  in  surveys,  in  cutting  roads,  and  other  const;int 
labor,  of  not  l&ss  than  ten  days,  authorized  by  an  Act 
approved  March  2,  1819,  entitled  "An  Act  to"  regulate 
the  pay  of  the  anny  when  employed  on  fatigue  duty," 
be  increased  to  twenty -live  cents  per  day  for  men  em- 
ployed as  laborers  and  teamsters,  and  forty  cents  ]K'r 
day  when  employed  as  mechanics,  at  all  stations  east 
of  the  Kocky  Mountains,  and  to  thirty-five  cents  and 
fifty  cents  per  day,  respectively,  when  the  men  are 
emploved  at  the  stations  west  of  those  Mountains. 

FATIGUE-HAT.— A  military  hat  worn  on  fatigue- 
duty  and  while  in  the  field.  In  the  United  States 
the  fatigue-hat  for  all  officers  and  men  is  of  black 
felt,  according  to  pattern;  to  Ix- worn  in  garrison  only 
on  fatigue-duty,  and  on  marches  and  campaigns.     In 


United  States  Regulation  Fatigue-hat. 
extreme  southern  latituiles,  in  summer.  Commanding 
Officers  are  authorized  to  sanction,  on  duty,  the  straw- 
hat,  to  be  bought,  out  of  the  pay  of  the  soldier,  of  the 
local  merchant  or  trader.  Whenever  straw  liat-s  arc 
worn  by  enlisted  men,  the  officers  must  in  like  manner 
wear  them.  The  wearing  of  the  fatigue  hat  is  gen- 
erallv  optional.     The  forage-cap  may  replace  it. 

FAUCHAHD.— A  formidable  weapon  of  the  si.\- 
teenth  century.  It  resembled  a  very  large  razor-blade 
fixed  to  the  end  of  a  staff. 

FAUCKE.— A  kind  of  hook  which  served  to  fix  the 
heavy  lance  to  the  cuirass.  It  was  used  in  the  twelfth 
century,  when  tournaments  became  a  regular  practice 
and  when  very  hea\T  lances  were  employeil. 

FAUDES.— A  species  of  kilt  of  armor,  "or  iron  petti- 
coat.    It  is  known  as  taws  in  England. 

FAULCON.— A  very  small  cannon  employed  by  the 
ancients.     See  FaUonet. 

FAULX. — An  instrument  very  much  resembling  a 
scythe.  It  was  often  used  to  defend  a  breach,  or  to 
prevent  an  enemy  from  scaling  the  walls  of  a  fortified 
place.  This  weapon  was  first  resorted  to  with  some 
success  when  Louis  XIV.  besieged  Mons.  Ou  the 
surrender  of  that  town,  large  quantities  of  fauls,  or 
scythes,  were  found  in  the  garrison. 

FAUSSE-BKAIE— FAUSSE-BBA YE.— A  low  rampart 
encircling  the  body  of  a  place,  and  raiseil  about  three 
feet  above  the  level  groiuid.  This  Avork  has  Ikhju 
mostly  discarded  by  modern  engineers,  e.\ce])t  when 
used  in  front  of  curtains,  under  the  name  of  knaille-g. 
The  French  engineers  gave  this  title  to  the  work,  as 
an  adaptiilion  from  the  Italian  term/rt»sa  brea,  which 
had  its  origin  from  the  fausse-braic  being  commonly 
in  the  ditch,  in  front  of  the  main  wall.  The  fausse- 
braie  ha<l  the  advantage  of  giving  an  additional  tier 
of  guns  for  defensive  purposes,  but  the  still  greater 
disadvantage  of  affording  facilities  for  the  scaling  of 
the  parapet,  In  many  of  the  places  constructed  be- 
fore Vauban's  time  there  was  a  faussc-braie,  envelop- 


ing the  enceinte  and  connected  with  it.  This  work 
W!is  suppressed  by  Vauban,  who  was  the  first  to  use 
the  lenaille  in  its  place. 

FAUSSTOURNIEK.— A  description  of  tournament 
practiced  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century. 

FECIAL. — Pertaining  to  heralds,  and  the  denunci- 
ation of  war  to  an  eiu-mv;  as,  fecial  war. 

FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT.— A  iKxly-politic  com- 
posed of  the  people  of  several  different  and  in  some 
respects  independent  States,  over  which,  in  its  own 
prescribed  sphere,  it  exerts  a  supreme  authority;  while 
outside  of  that  sphere  the  States  and  the  people  there- 
of are  sovereign  within  their  respective  jurisdictions. 
The  character  of  a  Federal  Government  varies  with 
the  extent  of  its  powers.  The  first  form  of  Federal 
Government  established  in  this  countrj-  was  that  of 
the  "  Articles  of  Confederation,"  adopted  during  the 
War  of  the  Revolution,  July  9,  1778.  The  separate 
Colonies,  finding  some  form  of  Central  Government 
indispensable  to  the  efficient  prosecution  of  the  War 
of  Independence,  gave  a  reluctant  consent  to  those 
Articles,  which,  while  the  war  lasted  and  all  felt  the 
presence  of  a  common  danger,  worked  tolerably, 
though  not  without  some  embarrassing  friction  aris- 
ing from  notions  of  Colonial  or  Suite  Sovereignty. 
Biit  after  the  Independence  of  the  country  was  estab- 
lished, and  the  pressure  of  a  common  danger  no 
longer  existed,  there  was  a  disposition  to  exalt  the 
State,  and  to  depreciate  the  National  Authority, 
which  to  some  extent  was  regarded  as  a  burden. 
The  National  Government  had  no  judicial  tribunal 
to  make  an  authoritative  exposition  of  its  powers,  and 
no  executive  officers  to  enforce  its  decrees;  it  was 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  volimtary  action  of  the 
States  for  means  to  carry  on  its  operations;  so  that, 
in  the  language  of  Washington,  it  was  "little  more 
than  a  shadow  without  the  substance,"  and  "  Con- 
gress a  nugatory  body,  their  ordinances  being  little 
attended  to""  There  was,  in  short,  an  utter  want  of 
all  coercive  authority  on  the  part  of  the  Government 
to  carrj'  into  effect  "its  own  constitutional  measure-s. 
The  embarrassments  growing  out  of  this  state  of 
tilings  were  endured  till  1787,  when  a  Convention  of 
Delegates  from  the  several  States  was  held  in  Phila- 
delphia "  for  the  purpose  of  revising  the  Articles  of 
Confederation  and  reporting  to  Congress  and  the  sev- 
eral Legislatures  such  alterations  and  provisions  there- 
in as  shall,  when  agreed  to  in  Congress  and  confirmed 
by  the  States,  render  the  Federal  Constitution  ade- 
quate to  the  exigencies  of  the  Government  and  the 
preservation  of  the  Union."  The  Convention  en- 
countered many  difficulties  arising  from  diversities 
of  opinion  among  its  members,  and  from  conflicting 
local  interests,  but  finally  succeeded  in  framing  a 
Constitution  which  the  pt'ople  of  the  several  States 
finally  ratified,  and  which,  with  various  Amendments, 
has  continued  to  this  day.  From  the  time  of  its  adoi>- 
tion  different  theories  of  interpretation  have  prevailed, 
and  these  conflicting  theories,  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, have  determined  the  character  and  aims  of  po- 
litical parties.  It  has  been  contended  on  the  one  side 
that  the  Union  was  merely  a  league  between  the  sev- 
eral States  in  their  organized  capacity,  and  that  each 
State  had  the  right,  at  its  pleasure,  of  withdrawing 
therefrom.  On  the  other  side  it  has  been  held  that 
the  Union,  instead  of  being  the  creation  of  the  States, 
as  such,  was  formed  by  "  the  people  of  the  United 
States,"  acting  indeed  "through  their  respective  State 
Organizations,  lint  still  as  citizens  of  a  common  na- 
tionality. According  to  this  theory  no  right  of  seces- 
sion on"  the  part  of  a  State  has  any  existence,  but  it  is 
the  right  and  the  duty  of  tlie  National  Government 
to  maintain  the  Union  by  force.  This  question  was 
brought  to  an  issue  in  the  late  ReU'Uion,  the  slave- 
holding  Stales  seeking  to  exercise  the  assumed  right 
of  secession  for  the  iiroleetion  of  slavery,  and  the 
non-slaveholdimr  States  taking'  up  arms  for  the  de- 
fense of  the  Union.  The  results  of  the  war  aR'  gene- 
rally reirarded  as  a  vindication  of  the  anti-secession 
theory,  though  there  are  still  some  disputed  questions 


F££D-DBini. 


624 


FENCING. 


concerning  the  relative  powers  of  the  National  anil 
Slate  (.iovcrnnicnts.     Sec  Conttitution. 

FEED-DKUM.— Thi'  contrivance  by  which  the  sup- 
ply of  carlriilires  to  cerlaiu  machiiie-jriHis  is  made. 
In  the  Galliuij  irun  it  consists  of  a  metal  framing  of 
ryliiidrical  shape,  having  twenty  divisions  or  slots 
around  ils  circumference,  radiating  from  the  center, 
Eacli  division  contains  twenly  cartridges,  placed  one 
above  the  other  in  a  horizontal  iwsition.  A  hole  in 
the  center  of  the  ilruni  tits  over  a  pin  on  the  hop|)er- 
plute.  The  carlriilges  sire  fed  to  the  carrier  l)elow, 
and  thence  to  the  barrels.  The  cartridges  pass  to  the 
hopper  through  an  aperture  at  the  bottom  of  each 
division  of  the  drum.  On  the  bottom  face  of  the 
drum  is  a  projecting  rib,  which  fits  into  a  slot  on  the 
hopper-plate,  to  steady  the  drum  when  tiring.  On  its 
lower  periphery  the  driun  has  a  seiies  of  thumlvlugs 
by  which  it  is  revolveil.  A  small  bra.ss  weight  in  each 
division  is  caused  to  bear  upon  and  slide  down  a  groove 
provided  for  it,  so  that  it  follows  the  cartridges  as 
they  descend,  and  prevents  their  becoming  choked  in 
the  dinsions. 

To  till  the  feed-drum,  invert  it  and  unlock  it,  turn 
the  lK)ttom  plate  until  the  hole  in  tlie  plate  comes 
directly  over  a  division  of  tlie  drum,  then  raise  the 
brass  weight  and  till  in  the  cartridges  regularly,  the 
bullets  being  placed  toward  the  center  of  the  drum, 
letting  the  weight  descend  slowly  until  the  division  is 
full.  Proceed  in  like  manner  with  the  remaining 
di\isions;  then  lock  the  plate  and  place  the  drum 
upright.  The  improved  feed  lately  devised  has  not 
only  greatly  increased  the  direct  life,  but  is  of  ines- 
timable value  in  enabling  the  gun  to  deliver  high 
angle  or  mortar  lire  so  as  to  drop  the  balls  on  men 
behind  intrenched  positions  at  all  distances  from  300 
to  3.')0tl  yards  witli  deadly  effect.  Tables  of  distances 
and  elevations  have  been  established  to  obtain  with 
certainty  the  above  rcsiUt.  Experiments  with  the  gun 
have  proved  that  bullets  so  discharged  come  down 
nearly  perpendicularly,  and  with  force  sufficient  to 
penetrate  from  3  to  5  inches  of  timber.  With  this 
new  feed  there  is  no  possible  chance  of  the  cartridge 
jamming,  even  when  the  gim  is  used  by  inexperienced 
men.  It  is  beyond  doubt  the  most  valuable  improve- 
ment at  any  time  made  in  machine-guns.  See  Galling 
Gmi. 

FEIGNING  DISEASE.— A  ruse  much  practiced  in 
the  Army  and  Kavy,  and  also  by  convicts  and  others 
an.xious  to  escape  from  discipline  or  jirocure  a  dis- 
charge from  compulsory  service.  In  the  Army  it  is 
technically  called  malingering.  The  (letection  of 
feigned  di.sease,  of  course,  necessarily  belongs  to  the 
highly  educated  Physician,  find  is  impossible  without 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  reality,  unless,  indeed, 
the  imitation  he  very  coarse  and  badly  studied.  The 
diseases  most  commoidy  simulated  are  epileirsy,  cata- 
lepsy, convulsions,  blindness,  deafness,  palsy,  in- 
sanity, iniligestion,  neuralgia,  rheumatism,  palpita- 
tion of  the  heart,  and  generally  all  di.sorders  which 
may  exist  without  leading  to  any  distinct  external  ap- 
pearances. Ulcci-s  of  the  legs,  however,  have  often 
been  made,  and  kept  open  artificially  through  the 
applicatioM  of  irritant  substances;  anil  vomiting  or 
coughing  up  of  blood  is  very  easily  simulated,  if  the 
supposc'd  patient  can  get  access  to"  the  neces-sary  ma- 
t«;rials  in  the  slaughter-house  or  elsewhere.  Tlie  de- 
tection of  such  im|x)stures  is  easy  or  not  according  to 
the  opportunities  and  knowledge  and  skill  of  the  de- 
ceiver, as  comi)arcd  with  those  brought  to  bear  on 
the  discovery  of  the  fraud.  Many  men  in  the  iitiblic 
services,  and  women  altectcd  w  itii  hysteria,  have  be- 
come so  expert  as  to  deceive  even  men  of  high  char- 
acter and  skill.  There  is  one  instance  on  record 
in  which  a  man  submitted  to  .succcs.si ve  amputal  ions 
of  the  arm  upwards  nearly  to  the  shoulder,  for  an 
ulcer  produced  and  kept  open  at  w  ill  by  local  appli- 
cations; and  a  case  was  some  time  ago' recorded  by 
Dr.  Murchison  in  the  Medim-rhirurgii-nl  Tniiixiirtuiui, 
in  which  there  is  no  re.'isonable  doubt  that  a  larce 
opening  into  the  stomach  was  the  result  of  cimstic 


substances  delihenktely  applied  to  the  abdomen,  with 
the  view  of  exciting  sympathy. 

FEINT. — 1.  In  military  or  naval  matters,  a  mock 
attack  or  assault,  usually  ma<le  to  throw  an  enemy 
oti  his  guard  against  some  real  design  upon  his  posi- 
tion. 2.  In  fencing,  a  .seeming  aim  at  one  part  w  hen 
another  is  intended  to  be  struck.     See  Finring. 

FELLOES. — The  parts  of  a  wheel  which  form  its 
circumference.  The  felloes  fulfill  the  following  offi- 
ces: 1.  They  furnish  a  secure  ser.ting  for  the  head 
of  the  spoke.  3.  They  connect  spokes  and  tire  rig- 
idly together.  3.  They  support  and  stiffen  the  tire, 
acting  as  a  beam  between  each  pair  of  contiguous 
s])okes.  The  felloes  are  made  of  limber  having  a 
long  straight  grain  or  fiber.  Each  feUoe  should  be 
so  restricted  as  to  its  length  compared  w  ith  its  depth, 
that  the  tangent  to  the  inner  arc,  or  6<«<//«,  at  its  cen- 
tral i)oint  shall  not  intersect  tlie  outer  arc,  or  xole. 
By  this  provision  the  interior  fiber  at  the  center  of 
the  felloe  spans  its  entire  length,  contributing  its  sup- 
port to  the  weakest  parts,  which  are  at  the  extremi- 
ties. The  tongue-holes  for  the  spokes  must  be  sepa- 
rated far  enough  from  each  other  and  from  the  ends 
of  the  felloe  to  allow  of  a  sufficiency  of  intervening 
material  to  withstand  all  pressures  and  wrenches  from 
the  tongues  and  adjoining  felloes  without  splitting. 
Experience  has  proved  that  the  numl)er  of  felloes  in 
a  five-fool  wheel  can  safely  be  limited  to  «>,  each  of 
which  is  enabled  to  receive  two  spokes  without  en- 
dangering its  strength.  One  bolt  passing  through 
each  felloe  and  the  tire  is  sufficient  to  prevent  side- 
shifting.     See  W/itel. 

FELL  RAILWAY.— The  railway  under  this  name 
was  well  known  to  travelers  proceeding  to  or  return- 
ing fi-om  India,  as  it  was  the  only  means  of  going 
over  Mont  Cenis,  in  Italy,  Ix-fore  the  tunnel  was  bored 
through  the  mountain.  This  nature  of  rail  has  been 
found  useful  during  war-time,  and  did  good  siege- 
service  during  the  Franco-German  War.  The  gauge 
is  18  inches.  Each  truck  carries  three  tons.  Five 
hundred  unskilled  workmen  can  lay  a  mile  in  a  day. 

FELTRE. — A  cuirass  made  of  strong  woolen  cloth, 
much  worn  in  early  times  by  the  Romans  and  others. 

FENCE.— Self-defense  by  "the  use  of  the  sword;  the 
art  and  practice  of  fencing  or  sword-play. 

FENCIBLE.— 1.  A  soldier  enlisted  for  the  defense 
of  the  country,  and  not  liable  to  be  sent  abroad.  2. 
Capable  of  being  defended,  or  of  making  or  afford- 
ing defense.     See  Ftudhhu. 

FENCIBLE  LIGHT  DRAGOONS.— A  body  of  caval- 
ry raised  voluntarily  in  various  Counties  of  England 
and  Scotland  in  1794  to  serve  during  the  war  in  any 
part  of  Great  Britain.  This  force  was  disbanded  in 
1800. 

FENCIBLES. — Regiments  formerly  raised  for  local 
defense,  or  at  a  sjiecial  crisis  and  for  a  limited  time. 
The  oltieers  had  the  same  rank  as  officers  of  militia, 
according  to  the  dates  of  their  respective  commis- 
sions. The  only  English  regiment  now  bearing  this 
title  is  the  Royfd  Malta  Fencible  Artillery. 

FENCING.— The  art  of  defending  one's  own  body 
or  as.sailing  another  person's  in  fair  fight  by  the  tiid 
of  a  side-weapon — i.e.,  by  a  sword,  rapier,  or  bayo- 
net. Technically,  fencing  is  usually  limited  to  the 
second  of  these;  an<l  works  on  the  art  touch  only  on 
attack  and  defense  w  ith  the  foil  in  pastime,  and  the 
rapier  in  actual  [lersonal  combat.  The  objection 
formerly  existed  that  instniclion  in  fencing  encour- 
aged a  propensity  to  dueling;  but  as  that  absurdest 
of  absurd  customs  has  entirely  ceased  to  demand  its 
annual  victims,  no  such  objection  now  holds.  Fenc- 
ing may  therefore  be  sjifely  learned  and  taught  as  an 
elegant  and  manly  aecomiVlishment,  develoi)ing  grace- 
fulness and  acli\ity,  w  Idle  it  imparts  suiiiilencss  lo  the 
limh.s,  strength  to  the  muscles,  and  quickness  to  the 
eye.  This  regards  fencing  with  the  foils  (the  rapier 
has  disjippcared  with  the  duels  which  employed  it); 
but  instruction  in  fencing  with  the  sword  and  bayo- 
net, while  conferring  the  .s;une  advantages,  has  in 
addition  the  recommendation  of  heli)iug  to  lit  tho 


FENCING. 


625 


FENCIHQ, 


student  for  taking  an  active  part  in  any  general 
national  defense  that  political  circumstances  niiplit 
render  necessary.  Tlie  foil  is  a  circular  or  polygonal 
bar  of  pliable  and  very  highly  tempered  steel,  mounted 
as  any  other  sword,  and  blunted  at  the  point  by  a 
"  button,"  to  prevent  danger  in  its  use.  From  its"na- 
ture,  the  foil  can  only  l)e  employed  in  thrusting  and 
being  edgelcss,  it  can  be  handled  without  liability  to 
cutting  wounds.  The  length  of  the  blade  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  height  of  the  person  asing  it— ai 
inches  being  tlie  medium  length  for  men, 'and  38 


Fio.  1. 


Fio.  a. 


Fro.  3. 


inches  from  the  hilt  to  point  the  maximum  allowable. 
As  a  protection  against  accidental  thrusts,  the  face  is 
generally  guarded  by  a  \vire-niask.  The  two  por- 
tion.«i  of  the  blade  are  known  as  the  "  forte"  and  the 
"foible;"  the  first  extending  from  the  hilt  to  the  cen- 
ter, and  the  other  from  the  center  to  the  point.  In 
fencing  there  are  three  opeuiugn  or  entrances— the 
imide,  comprising  the  whole  breast  from  shoulder  to 
shoulder;  ouUkle,  attackable  by  all  the  thrusts  made 
aboye  the  WTist  on  the  outside  of  the  sword ;  and  the 
Um  parts,  embracing  from  the  armpits  to  the  hips. 
For  reaching  and  guarding  these  entrances  there  are 
five  positions  of  the  wrist — prime,  seconde,  tierce, 
carte  (quarte),  and  quinte.  The  most  important, 
and  those  to  commence  with,  are  carte  and  tierce, 
from  which  are  derived  the  subordinate  positions  of 
carte  over  the  arm,  low  carte,  and  flanconnade  or 
octave.  To  engage  is  to  cross  swords  with  your  ad- 
versary, pressing  against  his  with  suflicicnt  "force  to 
prevent  any  maneuver  taking  you  unawares.  To  dis- 
engage is  to  slip  the  point  of  your  sword  briskly  under 


Fio.  4. 

his  blade,  and  to  elevate  it  again  on  the  other  side, 
pressing  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  previous 
case.  The  guard  in  each  position  is  a  pa.ssive  obstruc- 
tion to  the  o|>posing  tliriist;  the  parade  is  an  active 
obstniction  in  which  the  guard  is  first  assumed,  and 
the  blade  then  pressed  outward  or  inward  by  a  turn 
of  the  wrist  against  the  advcrsiiry's  sword,  so  that 
when  thrust  a?  your  body  it  shall  l>c  diverted  from 
its  aim  and  held  off.  The  parade  may  therefore  l)e 
regarded  as  a  mere  extension  of  the  guard.  If  the 
parade  were  called  the  "parrj-,"  it  would  convey  its 


meaning  more  readily  to  English  ears.  Another  and 
perhaps  more  appropriate  name  for  thrust  is  the 
"lunge"  or  "longe,"  as  the  thrust  is  almost  always 
accompanied  by  a  lunge  forward  of  the  ri-ht  foot,  to 
give  at  once  greater  force  and  longer  command  to  the 
blow. 

The  fundamental  princijile  of  fencing  eonsiste  in 
the  execution  of  the  right  ann,  the  longe,  the  recov- 
ery ;  advancing  and  retreating  quickly;  and  lastly 
not  Icjist,  a  good  opposition,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
essential  thmgs,  as  you  are  guarded  at  least  on  one 


Fio.  S. 


side.  This  will  also  give  the  advantage  of  knowing 
what  your  adversary  intends  doing,  which  you  must 
endeavor  to  discover  by  the  feel  of  his  foil. 

First  Pnsition  of  the  Body.— P\ace  the  right  heel 
against  the  left  ankle,  so  as  to  form  a  right  angle 
with  both  heels,  the  foil  to  be  held  in  the  left  hand 
under  the  hilt  with  the  thumb  and  lingers,  the  right 
hand  straight  on  the  outside  of  the  right  thigh,  shoul- 
ders square  and  pressed  rather  backward,  eyes  turned 
towanl  the  adversary,  showing  the  right  breast  to  the 
front,  without  constraint.    (Fig.  1.) 

Serirnd  PoKition. — Bend  the  right  arm  as  high  as 
the  elbow,  and  at  the  same  time  bring  it  aerc&s  the 
body;  take  hold  of  the  foil,  thumb  stretched  along 
the  convex.  In  this  movement  the  body  must  l5 
kept  quite  steady,  shoulders  square,  eyes  front,  head 
up  without  appearing  stiff,  knees  perfectly  straight, 
waist  in.     (Fig.  2.) 

Third  Position. — Raise  both  hands  above  the  head, 
holding  the  button  of  the  foil  with  the  thumb  and 
first  finger  of  the  left  hand,  turn  your  eyes  to  the  right, 
so  as  to  see  your  opponent  full  in  the  face.     (Fig.  3.) 


Manner  of  Holding  the  Foil  in  Hand. — Let  the  con- 
cave of  the  handle  rest  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  the 
thumb  stretched  along  the  convex,  the  first  finger 
about  half  an  inch  in  advance  of  the  thumb;  the  foil 
should  only  he  held  firm  in  the  hand  when  pan-ying 
or  thrusting,  otherwise  the  fingers  and  thumb  will 
get  stiff  from  grasping  it  too  long. 

On  Guard  in  Carte. — Bend  Ixjih  knees  together 
until  they  are  in  a  perpendiculirr  line  with  the  toes; 
step  out  with  right  foot  in  a  direct  line  from  the  left 
ankle,  about  twenly-two  inches  or  more,  according  to 


FEMCING. 


626 


FENCING. 


the  length  of  the  legs;  keep  the  left  arm  up  and  bent, 
so  as  to  form  a  half-circle  as  high  as  llie  head,  palm 
of  the  biuul  turned  toward  the  left  face;  keep  the 
body  upright,  the  weight  to  Ix'  kept  ecjually  on  hoth 
legs";  bring  the  pt)int  of  the  foil  down  to  the  lieight 
of  your  adversary's  left  eye.  This  is  the  engage  of 
carle;  arm  t>ent  and  the  elbow  drawn  inwanl,  the 
hand  as  high  as  the  center  of  the  chest.  (Fig.  4.) 
The  Ilalf-longe. — 1.  Straighten  the  right  arm  with- 


Fio.  7. 

out  moving  the  body,  point  of  the  foil  as  high  as  the 
chest  of  the  opponent,  hand  as  high  as  your  face. 
2.  Throw  the  left  band  backwanl,  at  the  same  time 
press  the  shoulder  well  back,  palm  of  left  hand  to  the 
front,  about  four  inches  from  the  thigh.  3.  Straighten 
the  left  knee  and  incline  the  weight  of  the  body  for- 
ward on  the  right,  without  moving  the  foot  from 
the  ground.      7o  Secorer. — 1.  Bend  the  left  knee. 

2.  Throw  the  left  arm  upward  to  tlie  position  of  the 
guard,  bear  the  weight  of  the  body  again  equally  on 
both  knees,  right  arm  bent,  elbow  turned  inward; 
stand  lirm  on  guard  without  appearing  stiff;  head 
held  easy  and  upright. 

The  Longe. — 1.  Extend  the  right  arm,  direct  the 
point  of  your  foil  to  the  height  of  your  chest,  longe 
in  carte,  looking  over  the  right  arm,  the  hand  as  high 
as  your  face.  2.  Throw  tlie  left  hand  backward  to 
within  four  inches  of  the  left  thigh,  palm  of  the 
hand  to  the  front ;   press  the  shoulders  well  back. 

3.  Straighten  the  left  knee  and  keep  the  foot  flat 
on  the  ground.  4.  Longe  forward  in  a  direct  line 
from  the  left  ankle  about  forty  inches  or  more,  ac- 
cording to  the  length  of  the  limbs,  until  the  right 


Fio.  8. 

knee  is  in  a  vertical  line  with  the  instep,  toes  turned 
out.  (Fig.  5.)  These  four  motions  should  be  repealed 
often,  so  as  to  give  freedom  of  action  to  all  the  joints. 
To  Recoter.—i.  Bend  the  left  knee  back.  2.  throw 
the  left  hand  upward  to  Wu-  position  of  the  guard, 
palm  of  tlie  hand  turned  inward  toward  the  kit  face, 
arm  bent.  3.  Bring  the  right  foot  up  to  the  guard, 
svipporling  the  weight  of  the  body  equally  on  both 
knees.  4.  Bend  the  right  arm,  nails  upw'anl,  point 
opposite  the  face,  hanil  as  high  as  the  chest,  elbow 
rather  inward,  head  kept  up. 

To  Adrance  and  Retire, — Being  on  the  guard,  to  ad- 


rnnce,  take  one  step  for^vard  with  the  right  foot, 
about  twelve  inches,  bring  up  the  left  foot  directly, 
keejiing  the  same  distance  between  both  feet,  as  if 
making  one  movement  with  both;  the  knees  equally 
bent,  the  body  held  upright,  eyes  tixed  on  the  oppo- 
nent or  object  in  front.  To  retire,  take  one  pace 
back  with  the  left  f(K)t,  bringing  the  right  foot  up 
immediately,  at  the  siuue  time  beat  once  with  the  flat 
of  the  right  foot  tirmly  on  the  groimd.    The  distance 


Fig.  9. 

in  walking  backward  should  be  longer  than  the  ad- 
\ancing  by  two  or  three  inches,  taking  care  that  the 
weight  of  the  body  is  kept  equally  on  both  feet;  the 
left  breast  should  be  turned  slightly  toward  the  ad- 
versary. Haring  practiced  these  movements  fre- 
quently, finish  by  beating  twice  with  the  right  foot, 
bringing  up  the  left  foot,  and  right  hand  under  the 
chin,  lastly  straightening  the  right  arm  on  the  right 
side. 

The  Engage  of  Carte— Inside  Guard  High. — Being 
engaged  in  carte  with  an  adversary,  turn  the  nails 
upward,  cross  foils  about  nine  inches  from  the  but- 
ton :  this  half  of  the  foil  is  called  the  foible,  from  bein^ 
the  next  part  to  the  end  ;  the  other  half  is  termed 
the  forte,  or  part  next  the  hilt.  Oppose  the  oppo- 
nent's foil  sufficiently  to  prevent  him  from  touching 
you  in  the  engage,  keep  the  right  arm  bent  inward, 
point  of  youi  foil  opjiosite  your  adversary's  face,  right 
arm  as  high  as  your  chest.  (Fig.  G.)  If  your  oppo- 
nent does  not  cover  himself  in  the  engage,  straighten 
your  arm,  lower  the  point  to  his  chest,  longe  in 
carte,  looking  over  the  right  arm,  hand  as  high  as  the 
face,  recover  and  engage  in  carte,  crossing  foils  as 
before. 


Fio.  10. 

The  Engage  of  Tierce — Outside  Onard  High. — This 
being  the  opposite  guard  to  carte,  it  only  differs  from 
it  in  the  position  of  the  hand,  nails  of  which  are 
turned  downward.  Engaged  in  tierce,  join  foils  as 
in  carte;  if  your  adversary  is  not  well  covered  in  the 
engage,  straighten  your  right  arm  by  lowering  the  point 
to  his  chest,  longe  in  tierce,  looking  inside  the  arm, 
shoulders  pressed  well  back,  left  foot  lirm  on  the 
ground,  left  knee  straight,  the  body  not  thrown  for- 
ward but  rather  upriirbt;  recover  in  tierce.     (Fig.  7.) 

The  Guard  of  llalf-eirele— Inside  Guard  Ix»c.— 
The  half-circle  guard  is  generally  used  agstinst  the 


FENCING. 


627 


FENCING. 


thrust  of  seconde  and  low  carte.  The  guard  is  gener- 
ally taken  in  the  following  manner:  Riiise  the  hand 
as  high  as  the  left  shoulder,  nails  upward,  the  elbow 
turned  well  in  toward  the  body,  the  foil  to  be  held 
firm  in  hand  and  opposed  to  your  adversary,  the  point 
as  low  as  your  opponent's  waist.  If  an  opening  should 
occur,  raise  the  point  and  return  carle.  (Fig.  8.)  The 
guard  of  octave  is  the  opjjositc  guard  to  the  half- 
circle,  and  is  used  against  the  thrust  of  octave;  it 
also  prevents  the  ailversary  from  counter  disengaging. 


Fio.  11. 

Haise  the  band  as  high  as  the  chest,  keeping  the  point 
as  high  as  the  lower  part  of  your  opponent's  chest. 
This  is  a  very  useful  parry  in  returning  the  thrust  of 
low  carte. 

The  Disengage  from  Carte.  —  If  yoiir  adversary 
presses  your  foil,  lower  your  point  to  within  about 
two  or  three  inches  of  his  hilt,  at  the  same  time  pa.ss- 
ing  it  to  tierce,  straighten  the  right  arm,  and  longe; 
recover  in  carte.     (Fig.  9.) 

The  Feint  of  Ont\  Tiro. — Being  engaged  in  carte, 
if  your  opponent  takes  the  guard  of  tierce  when  you 
disengage  on  him,  return  back  to  carte  and  longe, 
making  the  movement  quickly  from  the  fingers,  not 
from  the  shoulder  ;  right  arm  quite  straight,  nails 
upward,  look  over  the  right  arm;  recover  in  carte. 
(Fig.  10.)  7'he  Feint  of  One,  Tiro,  Three: — Engage  in 
carte  as  before,  disengage  to  tierce,  again  in  carte.  In 
both  cases  raise  the  ])oint  of  your  foil  as  high  as  your 
opponent's  face,  arm  kept  straight,  return  again  to 
tierce,  point  to  the  chest  of  yourailvcrsjiry,  and  longe 
in  tierce,  looking  inside  your  arm,  shoulders  pressed 
well  back,  body  upright;  recover  in  carle.     (Fig.  11.) 

The  Disengage  from  Tierce. — Engage  in  tierce.     As 


Fio.  12. 

soon  as  j-our  opponent  presses  your  foil,  lower  your 
point,  straightening  the  arm,  at  I  lie  same  lime  pa.ssyour 
foil  to  carte,  longewith  the  knuckles  turned  upward, 
taking  care  that  the  left  foot  does  not  (piil  the  ground; 
recover  in  tierce.  The  Feint  if  One,  Tim. — Engage 
in  tierce.  Di.sengage  to  carte,  poinling  to  the  face  of 
your  adversary,  arm  straight,  the  body  kept  steady; 
the  moment  your  opponent  takes  the  simjile  guard  of 
carte,  return  "to  tierce,  longe,  looking  inside  the  right 
arm ;  recover  in  tierce.  The  Feint  of  One,  Tiro, 
Three. — Being  engaged  in  tierce,  disengage  to  carte, 
again  to  tierce,  extending  the  arm  in  the  first  disen- 


gage ;  finding  that  he  takes  the  simple  guards  each 
time,  return  to  the  carte,  longe,  looking  over  Ihe  arm, 
left  knee  always  being  kept  straight  in  the  longe;  re- 
cover in  carte. 

Wri»t  Practice.— Asi.  excellent  practice  for  the  wrisl 
is  for  two  persons  to  practice  the  counters  of  carte 
and  tierce.  This  is  done  in  the  following  manner: 
Being  engaged  in  carte,  your  advei-saiy  disengages  on 
you,  take  the  counter  of  carte,  and  di.sengage  on  him 
without  touching,  unless,  by  mutual  agreement,  he 


Fio.  13. 

takes  the  counter  of  your  disengage;  keep  repeating 
this  for  some  time;  then  engage  in  tierce,  the  oppo- 
nent disengages,  take  the  counter  of  tierce,  disengage 
on  him;  continue  this  also  for  some  lime,  and  change 
again  to  counter-carte.  These  i>ractices  will  .soon 
make  the  wrist  supple  and  strong— the  two  essential 
things  for  fencing. 

Tlie  Parade  (f  Prime. — Being  engaged  in  tierce, 
your  adversary  tries  to  get  in  by  main  force;  bend 
your  arm  and  wrist,  turning  the  nails  downward  at 
Ihe  same  time,  raise  the  hand  as  high  as  your  cliin, 
drawing  Ihc  arm  inward  as  you  raise  I  In-  band,  Ihe 
point  of  your  foil  directed  toward  tbe  lower  jiart  of 
the  chest  of  your  adversary;  parry  and  longe  ia 
seconde.  recover  quickly  in  tierce.     (Fig.  12.) 

Thrimt  of  Si.rte. — After  having  i)airied  prime, 
should  your  opponent  keep  his  hand  low  in  trj-ing  to 
get  in  by  force  in  tierce,  turn  the  knuckles  upward 
quickly,  bring  the  point  over  his  aim,  lluusl  .sixte 
over  tile  arm  by  binding  his  foible  w  ilh  your  forte: 
tiiis  must  be  done  by  a  quick  tura  of  die  wrist. 

The  Parade  of  Seconde. — Engaged  in  tierce,  if  vour 
adversary  should  drop  his  point,  parry  the  seconde  by 


Fio.  14. 

giving  a  dry  beat  on  the  foible  of  his  foil  with  the 
forte  of  yours,  nails  downward,  band  opposed,  so  as 
to  ])reveiit  him  touching  you  in  the  longe.  point  to  the 
lower  jiiirt  of  his  waist,  holding  llie  bead  well  up,  the 
body  not  to  be  thrown  too  iiiucli  forward,  other- 
wist-  you  cannot  recover  quickly  ;  recover  in  sixte. 
(Fig.  13.) 

Ttie  Feint  of  Semnde. — Being  engaged  in  tierce, 
drop  your  point  under  the  hilt  of  your  opixment ,  prio- 
cipallv  with  tbe  fingers,  nails  downward,  but  without 
lowering  the  hand,  retuni  directly  back  again,  longe 
by  turning  the  nails  ujiward  in  sixte,  over  the  arm,  or 


F£NCINO. 


628 


FENCING. 


return  back  to  s<Tonde  ainiin,  longe  and  recover  in 
tiercf.     This  is  called  the  feint  of  secondc  and  tierce. 

Tlw  Pariidf  of  Qiiiiitf. — This  parade  is  used  in  the 
siinie  side  as  carle  inside  {Tuaril,  and  taken  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  The  lianii  as  hii;h  as  the  breast,  nails 
turned  downward,  ]iiiiry  and  longe  in  seeonde  or 
carle  over  the  arm.  The  jiarry  is  mostly  taken  when 
the  advcrs;iry  thrusts  low.  It  is  also  a  very  quick  re- 
turn thrust  when  your  advcrsjirj-  keeps  his  hand  too 
low,  or  drops  the  jwint  to  feint  for  the  lower  part  of 
your  body. 

The  Parade  of  Sixle. — This  parade  only  differs 
from  tierce  in  the  nails  being  turned  upward  instead 
of  downward.  The  hand  must  be  kept  as  high  as  the 
shoulder;  point  as  high  as  your  adversarj's  face  if 
your  opponent  is  not  well  covered,  straighten  the 
arm,  longe  with  the  nails  upward,  recover  ;  if  he 
presses,  disengage  in  carte.  The  feint  of  one,  two, 
and  one,  two,  three,  is  generally  made  from  this  posi- 
tion. 

The  Parade  of  Counter-carte. — Having  joined  foils 
in  carte,  nails  upward,  as  soon  as  your  adversary  dis- 
engages, follow  his  foil  by  making  a  small  circle 
until  you  meet  it  again  in  carte;  if  he  disengages  a 
second  time,  take  the  simple  guard  of  tierce.  This 
is  one  of  the  best  and  safest  parries  in  fencing,  as  it 
stops  most  of  the  feints.  Being  engaged  in  tierce,  if 
the  opponent  feints  one,  two,  take  the  counter  of 
carte  in  the  sjime  manner  as  before;  should  he  disen- 
gage a  third  lime,  tixke  the  guard  of  tierce;  if  he  low- 


I^G.   15. 


ers  the  point,  take  the  half-circle,  returning  again  to 
carte.  tFig.  14.)  When  your  advei-sary  stretches 
his  arm  to  thrust,  give  a  beat  on  the  foit)le  of  his  foil 
with  the  forte  of  yours,  so  as  to  make  an  opening  for 
your  thrust.  This  may  also  be  done  in  the  counter 
of  cjirte,  when  your  opponent  is  not  too  close. 

The  Parade  of  (Miuter-ikrce. — This  parade  is  per- 
formed similar!}'  to  the  counter  of  carte,  but  the  nails 
must  be  downward.  Being  engaged  in  tierce,  if  your 
adversary  disengages,  follow  Ids  foil  in  a  circular 
manner  until  you  meet  it  ag-ain  in  tierce;  if  he  disen- 
»gages  a  second  time,  take  the  simple  guard  of  carte. 
Should  he  make  the  feint  of  one,  two,  w  ilhout  stop- 
ping, take  the  counter  of  tierce,  as  before,  but  be 
careful  not  to  be  too  near,  as  the  guard  is  only  safely 
tjiken  when  out  of  distance;  If  he  disengages  after 
having  feinted  one,  two,  take  the  simple  guard  of 
carte.  To  paijy  tierce,  turn  the  nails  downward, 
keeping  the  foil  tirm  in  hand,  to  prevent  being  dis- 
armed. When  your  opponent  stretches  his  arm  to 
thrust,  give  a  dry  beat  on  the  foible  of  his  foil  with 
your  forte,  so  as  to  throw  it  out  of  the  line.  Direct 
your  point  to  hLs  chest,  longe  either  in  tierce  or  in 
.seeonde. 

Half  circle  Parade. — The  half-circle  is  generally 
used  after  having  parried  tierce  against  the  thrust  of 
seeonde  or  low  carle.  For  this  jjurposc  raise  the 
hand  as  high  as  the  shoulder,  Und  the  arm,  nails 
tiirned  well  upward,  elbow  drawn  inward,  parry  and 
point  rather  low,  longe  in  carle.  To  perforiii  the 
counter  of  half-circle; — having  crossed  foils  in  half- 


circle,  which  is  only  done  in  making  an  assault,  your 
oi)l)onent  pa.sst'S  his  foil  over  yours;  follow  by  mak- 
ing a  circle  till  you  meet  him  again  in  half<-ircle;  if 
he  di.sengages  again,  take  the  guard  of  octave  or 
seeonde,  longe  and  recover  in  tierce.  Sometimes  the 
circle  may  be  made  twice  with  success  by  keeping 
the  hand  "well  up,  holding  the  foil  tirmly.     (Fig.  14.) 

7' he  Paradt  of  Octtirc. — The  octave  parade  is  the 
op|M)site  guard  to  half-circle,  and  is  tiiken  to  prevent 
the  opponent  from  getting  in  by  force  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  body  in  octave  or  .seeonde.  Keep  the 
hand  as  high  as  the  center  of  j'our  body,  straighten  the 
arm  slightly  so  as  to  oppose  your  adversarj*,  [Mint  of 
the  foil  rather  low,  parry  and  longe  in  tierce  or  octave. 
To  perform  the  counter  of  octave,  having  opjxjsed 
your  adversary  in  octave,  he  may  disengage  over  your 
foil;  therefore  follow  his  foil,  immediately  describing 
a  circle  until  you  meet  his  foil  again  iu  octave,  taking 
care  to  keep  the  hand  well  up.  If  he  passes  over  a 
second  time,  take  the  guard  of  lialf-circle  or  quinte, 
longe  in  low  carte,  keeping  the  head  up. 

Ttie  Cut  over  the  Point  from  Corif  to  Tierce. — En- 
gage in  carle.  If  the  opponent  holds  his  hand  low 
with  the  point  high,  raise  your  wrist  sufflciently  to 
clear  the  foil  of  your  adversary  without  exposing 
your  body.  Cut  with  the  foil  over  his  point  until  it 
hits  the  center  of  his  chest.  If  your  adversary  par- 
ries tierce,  as  soon  as  you  see  liim  take  the  guard,  dis- 
engage imder  his  arm  by  passing  your  point  under 
the  wrist.  Longe  in  carle.  The  cut  and  longe  should 
be  made  simultaneously.     (Fig.  15.)    The  cut  from 


Fig.  16. 

tierce  to  carle  is  made  in  the  same  manner  a.s  carte, 
but  the  longe  must  be  in  carle  inside  the  arm  ;  be 
careful  that  the  body  is  well  covered,  and  not  run  the 
risk  of  being  hit  at  the  Siime  time;  keep  the  body  a 
little  backward.  If  the  adversary  takes  the  guard  of 
carte  when  you  cut,  disengag(^  to  tierce  by  passing 
your  foil  quickly  over  his  wrist,  arm  quite  straight, 
longe  in  tierce. 

The.  Disengages. — The  disengages  are  made  when 
an  adversary  takes  the  simple  guards,  or  leaves  him- 
self uncovered  on  either  side;  however,  care  nmst  be 
taken  that  he  does  not  thrust  at  the  .s,ime  time  as  you 
disengage,  thereby  both  hitting  at  the  same  lime. 
This  can  be  avoided  by  keeping  the  hand  ojjposed  to 
the  ariversarj'  either  in  carte  or  tierce,  whichever 
you  may  ha  engaged  in  at  the  time  of  making  the  dis- 
engage, the  one,  two,  or  one,  two,  three.  The  disen- 
gage is  also  advantageously  taken  when  the  adversary 
advances  or  retreats.  Allow  him  to  lake  one  pace 
backward,  opposing  his  foil  on  either  side;  lower  the 
point  of  your  foil;  longe,  covering  your  body  in  carte 
or  tierce,  whichever  you  may  be  engaged  in  at  the 
time.  Should  your  opponent  advance,  I'elreat  one 
pace,  keeping  a  good  o]ipositioii;  disengage  as  before, 
longe  and  recover  (luickly  on  guard.  The  feint  of 
one,  two,  and  one,  two,  three,  caa  be  made  in  the 
same  manner. 

The  Sfilnte. — The  salute,  previous  to  making  an  as- 
sauU  or  loose  play,  as  it  is  lenned,  is  .-.n  e.stabli.shcd 
fonn  of  politeness  before  fencing  for  hits;  it  is  also 
an  excellent  practice,  as  it  prepares  the  body  to  un- 


FENIAN  SOCIETY. 


629 


FENIAN  SOCIETY. 


der^  the  more  enersetic  movements  in  the  assault. 
Begin  in  this  niiinncr;  1.  Stand,  as  in  Fig.  1,  with 
the  foil  in  the  left  band.  Salute  by  presenting  the 
right  hand  to  your  adversaiy  a.s  high  as  the  chin, 
palm  of  the  hand  upwanl.  £  Bring"  the  hand  across 
the  body,  as  in  Fig.  2.  3.  Raise  both' hands  al)ove  the 
head,  as  in  Fiur.  :i.  4.  Step  out  on  guard,  in  tierce, 
with  your  foil  out  of  the  line  of  your  adversary's 
body,  your  opponent  doing  the  .same;  now  both  beat 
twice  with  the  right  foot,  leaving  the  body  e.xjw.sed; 
ask  the  adversiin,-  to  thrust  tirst,  uix)n  which  he  brings 
his  point  in  front  of  your  body,  and  longes  in  carte, 
but  without  touching  your  body.  The  distance  of 
his  point  should  be  at  least  one  inch  from  your  breast. 
This  is  called  measuring  distance.  Your  adversurj- 
having  recovered,  do  the  same  by  bringing  tlie  riglit 
foot  up  to  tlie  left  ankle,  dropping  thelelt  hand,  the 
right  hand  lirought  under  the  chin.  From  this  posi- 
tion salute,  tirst  in  carte,  by  turning  the  eyes  to  the 
left  simultaneously  with  thefoil ;  bring  the  foil  under 
the  chin  again;  salute  in  tierce,  bringing  the  foil  back 
once  more;  salute  j'our  opponent  by  presenting  your 
point  in  front  of  his  face;  then  b_v  a  circular  inove- 
ment  made  inward  with  both  hands  get  on  guard  in 
carte. 

Thrniting  Carte  and  Tierce. — Engaged  in  carte, 
it  being  tlie  adversarj-'s  turn  to  thrust  first,  he  disen- 
gages in  tierce,  you  parry  tierce,  and  turn  the  hand 
to  seconde,  nails  down,  by  dropping  the  point;  your 
opponent's  foil  is  now  over  the  left  shoulder,  holding 
■with  the  fingers  and  tliumb  very  slightly.  (Fig.  16.) 
Si.x  disengages  are  to  be  made,  that  is  to' say,  three  on 
each  side,  finishing  in  carte.  When  youradversary 
gets  on  guard  in  tierce,  engage  with  "the  foil,  at  the 
same  time  beating  once  with  the  right  foot;  now  he 
disengages  to  carte,  parry  carte,  and  tuni  your  foil  in 
half-circle,  nails  up;  his  foil  is  now  over  the  right 
shoulder.  When  he  gets  on  guard,  engage  again  in 
carte,  beating  once  with  the  right  foot.  When  he  has 
completed  the  six  disengages,  he  finishes  bj-  feinting 
one,  two,  without  longeing,  recovers  in  tierce,  leaving 
his  body  exposed,  bringing  the  right  foot  up  to-  the 
left  ankle,  left  hand  down  to  the  side. 

Dmngagiiig  Carte  mid  Tierce. — Being  your  own 
turn  to  thrust,  your  opponent  asks  you  to  do  so.  Be- 
gin by  bringing  the  foil  in  front  of  your  adversary's 
body,  ann  quite  straight,  longe  in  carte  within  one 
inch  of  his  chest,  recover  and  both  go  tlirough  the 
salute  as  before;  engage  in  carte.  Make  three  disen- 
gages on  each  side  as  before,  tinishing  in  carte,  each 
beat  twice  \vith  the  right  foot,  bring  the  right  foot  up 
directly  to  the  left  ankle,  take  one  pace  backward  with 
the  left  foot,  resting  the  pommel  of  the  foil  on  the  right 
knee,  the  foil  perpendicular,  bo<ly  upright;  beat  twice 
again,  bring  the  left  foot  up  to  the  right  heel,  right 
band  under  the  chin,  go  through  the  sjilute  again, 
finish  b}'  desciibing  a  circle  with  both  hands,  resting 
the  right  hand  on  the  knee;  beat  twice  with  the  right 
foot,  bring  the  right  foot  up  to  the  left  ankle,  hand 
under  the  chin,  and  droji  it  to  the  right  side  over  the 
knee,  left  hand  down,  after  which  put  the  mask  on. 

The  Axsaiilt. — An  a.ssault  with  foils  resembles  an 
encounter  witli  small-swords.  AH  the  thru.sts  and 
parries  learned  in  the  les.son  should  be  brought  into 
play,  the  object  of  each  fencer  being  to  discover  the 
intentions  of  his  adversary  and  conceal  his  own. 
Never  fence  without  ha\ing  a  mask  on,  also  a  jacket 
of  leather  or  .some  strong  material  to  prevent  accident ; 
alsosee  that  the  foils  are  properly  buttoned.  When  you 
put  yourself  on  guard,  endeavor  to  discover  whether 
your  opponent  has  a  mind  to  attack  or  defend;  for 
this  purpose,  take  one  step  backward,  showing  your 
point  opposite  hLs  chest;  if  he  thrusts,  parry  carte  by 
giving  a  beat  on  his  foil ;  if  engaged  in  tierce,  parry 
tierce ;  .should  he  make  the  feint  of  one,  two,  take 
the  covmter  of  carte;  and  so  on.  Try  not  to  let  vour 
adversary  know  your  intention  by  your  eye ;  keep 
changing  to  avoid  this  advantage  which  you  may 
give  him.  Never  throw  the  head  forward  m  longe- 
mg:  by  so  doing  you  cannot  recover  quickly.     Al- 


ways take  care  to  be  covered  in  whatever  side  vou 
are  engaged:  if  in  carte,  cover  the  bo<1v  to  the  inside; 
if  in  tierce,  cover  the  body  outside;  observe  the  same 
rule  in  the  low  guards. 

The  Double  Counters. — Engaged  in  carte,  disengage 
to  tierce,  straightening  the  arm  without  longeing.  If 
your  adversiiry  takes  the  guard  of  counlercarlc,  dis- 
engage again;  should  he  take  the  counter  a  second 
time,  double,  following  his  foil,  longe  in  tierce;  for 

I  instance,  by  doubling  counter  tierce,  you  deceive 
with  acircle  your  opponent's  counter-carte.  Eniraged 
in  tierce,  disengage  to  carte;  straightening  your  ann. 
point  to  your  o|)i)onent's  chest,  biit  Ix!  care"ful  not  to 
expose  your  Ix)dy  by  inclining  it  forward;  this  should 
always  be  avoided.  As  soon  a.s  he  takes  the  counter 
of  tierce,  double,  and  longe  in  carte;  the  same  rule  is 
to  be  observed  in  the  lower  guards;  that  is,  if  you  are 
engaged  in  half-circle,  disenmge  to  m-lave;  if  your 
adversiiry  takes  the  counter  of  half-circle,  double' and 
longe  in  octave,  engage  in  octave,  disengage  to  half- 
circle;  if  he  takes  the  counter  of  octave  or  seconde, 
double  circle  and  longe  in  half-circle  or  carte. 

To  Guard  the  Double  Counters. — After  having  taken 
the  counter-guard  twice,  not  meeting  with  the  foil  of 
your  adversjirj-,  take  the  simple  guard  on  the  oppo- 
site side;  for  example,  being  deceived  in  your  double 
guard  of  coimtcr-carte,  take  the  simple  guard  of  tierce 
or  half-circle;  being  deceived  in  your  double  guard 
of  counter-tierce,  take  the  simple  guard  of  carte;  the 
same  for  the  low  guards.  Being  deceived  in  your 
double  circle,  take  the  guard  of  octave  ;  being  de- 
ceived in  your  double  of  octave  or  seconde,  take 
the  guard  of  half-circle  or  tierce,  always  continuing 

I  the  guard  until  j-ou  meet  with  tlic  adversary's  foil. 
Another  way  of  stopping  the  double  movements 
is  to  take  the  guards  of  counter-carte  and  coimter- 
tierce,  (jr  counter-tierce  and  counter-carte,  without 
stopping;  for  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  take  the 
guards  of  counter-circle  and  counter-octave,  or  coun- 
ter-octave and  counter-circle.  This  is  an  excellent 
practice  to  strengthen  the  wrist  and  make  it  supple. 

In  an  article  limited  in  length  as  this  must  neces.sa- 
rily  be,  it  is  impossible  to  give  more  than  the  merest 
outline  of  the  various  motions;  but  of  course  in  actual 
practice  there  are  endless  variations  of  the  different 
modes  of  attack  and  defense,  which  will  be  severally 
adopted  according  to  the  skill  and  option  of  the  fen- 
cer. There  is  no  finer  indoor  e.xercise  than  fencing, 
as  the  muscles  in  every  limb  are  developed  and 
strengthened  by  it.     The  great  requirements  for  suc- 

i  cess  are  a  steady  eye  and  hand;  a  quick  purpose,  as 

quickly  executed ;  and  perhaps,  above  all,   perfect 

equanimity  of  the  temper.     See  Bayonet  exercise  and 

SirordiTireiM. 

FENIAN  SOCIETY.— A  political  association  of  Irish 

!  or  Irish  Americans,  the  object  of  which  is  the  over- 
throw of  the  English  authoritv  in  Ireland  and  the 

;  establishment  of  a"  Republic.  I'he  etymology  of  the 
name  has  been  the  subject  of  .some  discussion.  It  is 
traced  to  the  ancient  Irish  militaiy  organization  called 
Fionna  Eirinn,  which  took  its  appellation  from  the 
celebrated  hero  of  Irish  leeend.  Finn  (or  Fionn)  Mac- 
Cumhail.  The  accounts  o^  this  renowned  body,  w  ith 
which  the  bardic  literature  of  Inland  abounds,  are 
most  curious.     It  was  designed  as  a  National  Militia, 

1  and  its  origin  is  ascribed,  by  Keating,  to  Se<ina  II., 
wiio  w;as  Monarch  of  Ireland  about  400  years  B.C. 
In  time  of  peace  it  consisted  of  three  bodies,  each 
formed  on  the  model  of  a  Roman  Legion,  and  con- 
sisting of  3000  men;  but  in  war  it  was  ca)iable  of 
being  enlarged  to  imy  required  limit.  Candidates  for 
enrollment  were  required  to  be  of  honomble  family, 

j  to  be  irri'proachable  in  morjds,  and  to  bind  themselves 

I  to  observe  the  laws  of  justice  and  mondity;  they  were 
required  to  be  of  a  certain  height,  and  strong,  supple, 
and  vigorous  of  iKKly:  each  King  submitted,  before 
enrolltnent,  to  an   oVdeal,  in   which  his  powers  of 

I  speed,  strength,  endurance,  and  courage  were  tested 
by  trial  with  his  future  commdes.  The  bardic  ac- 
coimts  of  some  of  those  conditions  are  extravagant 


F£B. 


630 


FERGUSON  KIFLE. 


and  amusing  in  the  bijrliost  de^e,  but  the  generally 
hislorifjil  cluir.ictcr  of  the  institution  is  unqucstion 
able:  ami  it  sulisisteil  until  the  reign  of  C'arlirv,  stm 
of  Corniac  JIaeArt,  liy  whom  the"  Iwdy  of  Honna 
Kirinn  was  disbanded, "and  the  membei^  having,  in 
consequence,  transferred  their  allegiance  to  Mocorb, 
King  of  Munster,  sulTered  an  almost  total  extermina- 
tion in  the  battle  of  Gavra,  2b4  A.D.,  which  formed 
the  theme  of  many  a  bardic  poem  from  the  days  of 
Oisin  (known  in  cJaelic  legend  as  Ossian),  son  of  Finn 
MacCumhail,  downwanls. 

Adopting  the  name  of  this  ancient  military  associa- 
tion, the  modern  Fenians  (or  Finians)  are  a  secret  as- 
sociation for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the  alien 
ascendency  of  the  Saxon,  and  of  restoring  to  the 
ancient  Celtic  population  their  legitimate  status  and 
influence  in  their  native  country.  It  hail  its  first  scat 
in  America,  where  the  Irish  p'opulation  has  largely 
increased  since  the  famine  of  1846-47.  JIany  of  the 
cmignuits  being  driven  from  their  homes  by  arbitrary 
ejectment,  or  from  inability  to  pay  rent,  carried  with 
them  a  sense  of  fancied  wrong,  which  prepared  them 
for  almost  any  enterprise  which  seemed  to  promise 
revenge.  Others  had  been  sympathizers,  if  not  par- 
ticipators in  the  insurrection  of  1848;  and  almost  all 
were  deeply  imbued  with  general  political  and  social 


young  recruits  enrolled  in  the  Fenian  Conspiracy  in 
Ireland.  Newspapers,  moreover,  both  in  America 
and  in  Ireland,  were  established  or  subsidized  for  the 
purpo.ses  of  the  Conspiracy;  and  journals,  broadsides, 
ballads,  and  other  inllainmatory  publications  were 
largely  circulated  among  the  peasantry  and  artisans. 
Taverns,  alehouses,  and  other  places  of  entertainment 
were  the  ordinary  places  of  meeting;  and  one  of  the 
most  formidable  of  the  plans  of  the  Conspiracy  was 
an  organized  attempt  to  seduce  the  Irish  soldiers  from 
their  allegiance,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for  their  de- 
.si-riing  to  the  ranks  of  Fenianism  when  it  should 
have  reached  the  expected  degree  of  maturity.     It 

I  became  apparent,  moreover,  that  in  this,  unlike  al- 
most all  similar  movements,  jiains  were  taken  by  the 
organizers  to  exclude  tlie  Catholic  Clergj-,  by  whom 
the  Fenian  Confederation  had  from  the  first  been 
steadily  resisted,  from  all  knowledge  of  its  character 
and  objects,  a.s  well  as  of  the  names  or  number  of  its 

'  members  in  the  several  localities;  and  many  of  the 
most  active  of  the  leaders  were  distinguished  by  the 
freedom  of  their  religious  opinions,  and  by  their  un- 
concealed disregard  of  clerical  authority. 

FEK. — A  word  figuratively  used  for  a  sword  or  a 
dagger;  as  in  the  phrase  maiiier  le  fer,  to  wear  the 
sword,  to  follow  the  profession  of  amis. 


Ferguson  Rifle. 


discontent.  By  all  these  the  prospect  of  a  secret  or- 
ganization for  the  establishment  of  Irish  independence 
was  eagerly  accepted.  The  most  ojieidy  active  seat 
of  the  organization  was  in  the  Western  States,  espe- 
cially Chicago;  but  the  movement  was  directed  from 
New  York,  and  it  possessed  ramifications  in  almost  ; 
every  old  city  of  the  Union.  Tt  wa.s  conducted  by  a 
Senate,  and  consisted  of  "  Circles,"  each  directed  by 
a  Center.  The  duly  of  the  Centers  was  to  enroll  meni- 
iK-rs,  who  lx)UD(l  themselves,  generally  by  oath,  "  to 
be  faithful  to  the  Irish  Kopublic  as  at  present  virtually 
established  ";  to  instruct  am!  practice  them  in  military 
exercises;  to  raise  funds  for  the  purposes  of  the  as.so- 
ciation,  especiallv  for  the  imrchaseof  arms  and  nutni- 
tions  of  war;  and  to  extend  the  organization  by  every 
means  at  their  disposjd.  Agents  were  sent  iiito  Ire- 
land, and  to  the  chief  st-ats  of  the  Irish  pojndation  in 
England;  and  while  the  work  of  secret  enrollment 
was  iiiduslriously  carried  on  in  Ireland,  measures 
were  openly  coucerlcd  in  America,  as  well  for  the 
raising  of  funds  by  ])rivalc  <ontril>utions,  as  for  the  ! 
purcha.se  of  arms  and  ndlitary  stores.  Opportunely, 
too,  for  the  purposes  of  the  enterprise,  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Ci\il  War  in  America  .set  free  a  large  num- 
berof  militarj-  adventurers  who  had  served  as  privates 
or  as  olhcers  "in  one  or  other  of  the  American  armies, 
and  whose  exiK-ricnce  of  service  was  turned  secretly 
but  most  actively  to  account  in  the  training  of  the 


FEK  A  CHEVAL.— In  fortification,  a  horseshoe,  a 
small  round  or  oval  work,  with  a  parapet,  generally 
made  in  u  ditch  or  in  a  mai-sh.  It  further  means,  ac- 
cording to  the  French  acceptation  of  the  term,  a  work 
constructed  for  the  pur|i()sc  of  covering  a  gate,  by 
having  within  it  a  guardhouse,  to  prevent  the  town 
from  being  taken  by  surprise. 

FERDWIT. — In  the  .mcient  military  history,  a  term 
used  to  denote  the  freedom  from  serving  upon  any 
military  expedition,  or,  according  to  some,  the  being 
acquilled  of  manslaughter  committed  in  the  army. 

FERENTARII. — Among  the  Romans,  the  auxiliary 
troops  lightly  armed;  their  weapons  being  a  sword, 
arrows,  and  a  sling.  We  have  also  mention  of  an- 
other sort  of  Ferentarii,  whose  business  was  to  carry 
arms  after  the  army,  and  to  be  ready  to  supply  the 
soldiers  therewith  in  battle. 

FERGUSON  RIFLE.— A  curious  breechloader  used 
early  in  the  Hevdluiionary  War.  .Major  Ferguson,  a 
Brillsh  olliier.  was  a\illiorizid  to  arm  and  drill  his 
troops  according  to  his  own  ide.as;  and  if  tradition 
and  circumsiantlal  evidence  are  to  be  relied  on,  it  was 
his  pur)wse  to  ))laee  in  their  hands  a  breech-loading 
rifle  with  a  variety  of  improvements,  considered  of 
recent  date.  Some  of  these  rifles  were  used  in  the 
battle  of  King's  Mountain,  7th  October,  1780,  the 
turning  point  of  the  war  at  the  South, — as  Oriskany, 
another  riflemen's  fight,  6th  August,  1777,  had  been 


FEBEABA. 


631 


FIEF. 


at  the  Nortb, — a  battle  in  whicb  he  was  defeated  and 
shiin.  Although  a  breech-loader  not  of  American  in- 
vention, it  has  become  American  from  the  fact  thai  it 
made  its  tirst  appearance  as  a  weapon  of  war  on  tlie 
battlc-liclds  of  America,  and  is  the  first  instance  of  a 
brcech-loailing  rifle  ever  ha\nng  been  used  on  this 
Continent  or  any  other.  The  aiTn  has  been  photo- 
graphed and  engraved.  Referring  to  the  drawing,  a 
few  details  will  serve  toexTihiln  its  peculiarities.  The 
length  of  the  piece  itself  is5t)  inches,  weight  7i  pounds. 
The  bayonet  is  25  inches  in  length  and  1  i  inch  wide, 
and  is  what  is  commonly  called  a  sword-blade  bayo 
net;  flat,  lithe  yet  strong,  of  tine  temper  and  capable 
of  receiving  a  razor  edge,  and,  when  unfi.xed,  as  ser- 
viceable as  the  best  balanced  eut-andthrust  sword. 
The  sight  at  the  breech  is  so  arranged  that  by  elevat- 
ing it  is  equally  ada]>ted  to  ranges  varj-ing  from  one 
hundred  to  five  hundred  yards.  Its  greatest  curiosity 
is  the  arrangement  for  the  loading  at  the  breech.  The 
giianl-plate  which  proti-cts  the  trigger  is  held  in  its 
position  by  a  spring  at  the  end  nearest  tlie  butt.  Re- 
leased from  this  spring  and  thrown  around  by  the 
front,  so  as  to  make  a  complete  revolution,  a  plug 
descends  from  the  barrel,  leaWng  a  ca\ity  in  the 
upper  side  of  the  barrel  sufficient  for  the  insertion  of 
a  ball  and  cartridge  or  loose  charge.  This  plug  is  an 
accelerating-screw,  and  is  furnished  with  twelve 
threads  to  the  inch,  therebj'  enabling  it,  by  the  one 
revolution,  to  open  or  close  the  oritice;  so  that  the 
rifle  is  thereby  rendered  capable  of  being  discharged, 
it  has  been  claimed,  asrapidly  as  Hall's  I'nited  States 
(flintlock)  carbine.  This  accefersjting  screw  constitutes 
the  breech  of  the  piece,  onlj-  instead  of  being  hori- 
zontal, as  LS  usually  the  case,  it  is  vertical.  Were  there 
not  twelve  Independent  thR-ads  to  this  screw,  it  would 
require  two  or  three  revolutions  to  close  the  oritice; 
•whereas  one  suflices.  Many  of  the  muskets  fabricated 
in  the  French  arsenals  during  the  last  j-ears  of  Napo- 
leon had  bayonets  of  the  shape  mentioned  herein 
adapted  to  them,  specimens  of  which  were  deposited 
among  the  French  trophies  in  the  Tower  of  London. 
In  case  of  any  injury  to  the  fire-arm,  the  swordblade 
bayonet  would  have  been  as  effective  a  weapon  as  the 
artillerj'or  even  the  infantrj- sword  carried  by  foreign 
troops. 

FERRABA. — A  sword  of  excellent  temper,  made 
of  steel  from  Ferrara,  Italy.  The  kind  most  prized 
,was  manufactured  by  Andrea  di  Ferrara;  hence  such 
a  sword  was  often  called  an  Andrea-Fernira. 

FERRIC  OXIDE.  —  The  jx-roxide  or  sesquioxide 
of  iron,  Fe^Oj.  The  anhydrous  pero.xide.  as  found 
in  nature,  cry  stall  i/.es  in  flattened,  rhomboidal  tablets, 
nearly  black  and  verj-  brilliant,  known  to  mineral- 
ogists as  "  specular  iron;"  it  also  occurs  in  compact 
red  mas.ses,  called  "red  hematite."  Prepared  arti- 
ficially, by  calcining  ferric  prolosulphatc,  or  cop- 
peras," it  is"  a  red  powder,  called  colcothar,  used  as  a 
paint,  and  for  polishing  silver  and  minors.  Mag- 
netic iron-ore  is  commonly  held  to  Ix"  a  compound  of 
ferric  oxide  and  ferrous o.xiile,  Fe.O,  4-  FeO  -  FcO,. 

FESS. — The  Fcss  in  Heraldrj-  consists  of  lines  drawn 
horizontally  across  the  shield,  and  containing  the 
third  part  "of  it,  between  the  honor  point  and  the 
nombril.  It  is  one  of  the  honorable  ordinaries,  and 
is  supposed  to  represent  the  waist-bell  or  girdle  of 
honor,  which  was  one  of  the  insignia  of  knighthoo<l. 

Per  Fess. — A  shield,  or  charge  in  a  shield,  is  s.aid 
to  be  party  per  fi«x  when  it  is  horizontally  divided 
through  the  middle,  or,  as  the  French  say,  simply 
couih: 

Fesswise  is  said  of  a  charge  placed  in  fnvi;  that  is 
to  say,  horizontally  across  the  shield.     See  JfiraMry. 
FETLOCK— FETTERLOCK. 
English   heralds  speak  of  a 
horse   fetlock    or  horse    fet- 
terlock, and  represent  it  ius  in 
the  two  accompanying    fig- 
ures.    It  seems  to  have  been 
Fetlocks.  jjj,  instrument.fixed  on  the  leg 

of  a  horse  when  put  to  pasture,  to  prevent  his  run- 


:  ning  off.  In  Scotch  Heraldry,  a  hoop  is  usually  sub- 
stituted for  the  chain,  and  the  fetlock  is  represented 
:is  in  the  anns  of  Lokkert  (Lockhart)  of  Barre,  giren 
bj-  Sir  David  Lindsay:  Argent,  on  a  bend  sjible  three 
fetterlocks  or.  Some  bnmehes  of  this  family  carry 
a  man's  heart  within  the  fetterlock,  one  "of  th'e 
heads  of    it   having  accompanied   good   Sir  .James 

;  Douglas  with  King  Robert  the  Bruce's  heart  to  the 
city  of  .lerusiilem. 

FETTER.— To  put  fetters  upon,  or  confine  the  feet 
with  a  chain.  Deserters  are  frequently  fettered  while 
undergoing  punishment  for  the  crime  of  desertion. 

FEUD. — Another  form  of  the  word  fyht,  and  is  al- 
lied to  foe,  and  probably  to  fiend.  It  meant  a  war 
waged  by  one  family  or  small  trilx;  on  another,  to 
avenge  the  death  or  other  injury  of  one  of  its  mem- 
bers. In  a  certain  state  of  soeietj'  this  is  a  legitimate 
mode  of  obtaining  redress.  It  jirevailed  exteasively 
among  the  nations  of  Xorthern  Europe;  and  it  was 
only  by  giadual  steps  that  the  practice  was  first  re- 
stricted and  then  abolished.  The  laws  of  Rudolf  I. 
of  Germany  recognized  the  right  of  waging  feuds. 
At  last  partial  as.sociations  were  formed,  th.r  mem- 

'  bers  of  which  bound  themselves  mutually  to  settle 
their  differences  by  Courts  of  Arbitration  and  Com- 
pensation, without  going  to  war. 

I  FEUDAL. — Consisting  of,  or  foimded  upon,  feuds 
or  tiefs;  embracing  tenures  by  military  .system;  as, 
the  feudal  sy.stem.  By  some,  the  word /««  or  feud, 
of  which /(""(fans  the  adjective,  is  derived  from  the 

'  Latin  fidex,  faith,  and  ead  or  od/i,  or  od,  a  Teutonic 
word  signifying  a  property,  or  estate,  in  land;  whilst 
by  others,  with  perhaps  greater  probability,  the  first 
syllable  also  is  maintained  to  be  Teutonic,  equivalent 
to  riefi,  cattle,  ultimately  from  the  same  rofit  with  the 
Latin  pecun.  which,  in  the  form  of  pecunia,  came  to 
signify  property,  and  its  representative,  monej' — be- 
cause, as  Varro  remarks,  property  amongst  pastoral 
nations  consisted  of  cattle. 

FEU  DE  JOIE. — A  discharge  of  musketry  into  the 
air,  made  in  honor  of  a  victory  or  other  great  occa- 
sion. It  commences  with  the  right-hand  man  of  the 
line,  who  discbarges  his  rifle,  and  is  followed  succes- 
sively, at  scarcely  perceptible  intervals,  by  the  men 
on  his  left,  until  the  extreme  left  of  the  line  is  reache<l. 
The  effect  much  dejiends  on  the  regularity  with  which 
the  slight  interval  between  the  discharges  is  preserved. 
FEU  RASANT. — A  grazing  fire,  or  a  discharge  of 
musketry  or  cannon,  so  directed  that  the  balls  shall 
nm  parallel  with  the  ground  they  fly  over,  within 

i  3  or  4  feet  of  the  surface. 

FEVER. — In  veteriuarj-  practice  a  disease  charac- 
terized by  increased  heat,  quick  pulse,  and  thirst.  In 
horses  it"  is  caused  by  cold  or  chill,  high  feeding,  ir- 
ritation, or  pain.  The  symptoms  are  lassitude,  shiv- 
ering, quick  pulse,  and  breathing  after  feed.  The 
cure  consists  in  bleeding,  juid  keeping  open  the  bow- 
els by  dvsters  and  laxative  medicine.  The  animals 
Iwdyand  extremities  should  he  kept  wann  by  cloth- 
ing "and  hard  rubbing;  the  diet  green  meat,  or  bran 
mashes,  chilled  water;  and  the  horse  should  be  kept 

i  as  quiet  as  possible. 

FEZ. — A  red  cap  without  a  brim,  commonly  worn 
l)v  the  Turkish  soldiers  and  others. 

"FICHANT.  —  In  fortification,  a  term  applied  to 
flanking  fire  which  impinges  on  the  face  it  defends; 
that  is,  of  a  line  of  defense  where  the  angle  of  defense 
is  less  than  a  right  angle.  A  fortification  is  said  to 
be  fie'uait  when'the  command  is  very  great. 

FID.— 1.  A  block  of  wcKxl  use<l  in  heavj'-gun  exer- 
cise, for  slinging  the  gun,  and  for  mounting  and  dis- 
mounting purposes.  The  latest  pattern  of  fid  is  of 
beech  or  elm,  and  each  is  provide<l  with  a  rope  grum- 
met, iiml  has  the  natvire  of  the  gun  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended stamped  upon  it.— 2.  A  large  pointed  pin  for 
splicing  ropes,  with  an  eye  at  the  thick  end,  of  mm 
or  lignum  vitie,  used  by  "sjiilors  in  sepjirating  and  in- 
terlacing the  strands  of  which  the  rope  is  composeii. 
FIEF. — An  estate  held  of  a  superior  on  conditiou 
of  military  service;  a  fee;  a  feud. 


FIELD. 


633 


FIELD  AND  MOUNTAIN  AMMUNITION. 


FIELD. — 1.  A  cleared  space  or  plain  where  n  battle 
is  fought;  also,  llie  battle  it.self.  To  take  the  Jielil 
iiioaiis  to  coinincnci'  active  operations  ajrainst  the 
enemy. — 2.  In  Henildrj-,  the  tield  is  the  whole  sur- 
face or  continent  of  the  escutcheon  or  shield.  It  is 
so  called,  according  to  some,  bwause  it  repre.sent.s 
the  tield  of  battle  on  which  the  achievements  or 
charges  repri-sented  on  it  are  supposed  to  have  been 
gained.  In  blazoning,  the  tincture  or  metal  of  the 
tield  must  be  llie  tii>.t  thing  mentioned. 

FIELD-ALLOWANCE.— A  daily  allowance  granted 
to  ofticers  of  the  British  army  in  consideration  of  ex- 
tra expen.si'  entailed  upon  them  in  consequence  of 
nulitary  operations.  Oriliiiari/  field-allowance,  rang- 
ing from  £1  lOx.  for  a  General  Officer  to  1».  for  a  Sub- 
altern, is  applicable  when  troops  are  encamped  at 
home  or  in  the  Colonies.  EHraordinnry  field-allow- 
ance is  sanctioned  when  and  wherever  troops  are  eii- 
CJiged  in  actual  warfare:  it  ranges  for  the  above  nuiks 
from  £2  10«.  to  Is.  6rf.  Strict  rules  are  laid  down 
that  no  officer  shall  receive  this  allowance  unless 
positively  present  with  the  army. 

In  India  there  is  no  such  allowance,  as  the  pay  which 
officers  receive  is  considered  sufficient  to  enable  them 
to  I<eep  up  their  camp  equipage,  and  to  meet  all  ex- 
penses attendant  upon  a  move  from  cantonments  or 
in  .setting  out  on  a  campaign.     See  Allowiinees. 

FIELD  AND  MOUNTAIN  AMMUNITION.— The  am- 
munition for  field  and  mountain  servici'  in  the  United 
Stjites  service  consists  of — shot  for  the  12-pounder 
gun;  shells  for  the  12-pounder  gun,  12-pounder 
mountain-howitzer,  and  3-  and  3i-inch  rifle-guns; 
cn-ne-iihnt  for  the  12-pounder  gun,  12-pounder  moun- 
tain-howitzer, and  3-  and  3i-ineh  rifle-guns;  canis- 
ter  for  the  12-pounder  gim,  12-poundcr  mountain- 
howitzer,  and  3-  and  3J-inch  rifle-guns.  The  pro- 
jectiles are  attached  by  straps  of  tin  to  a  wooden 
sabot,  to  which  is  also  fastened  the  cartridge-bag  con- 
taining the  charge  for  the  12-pounder  and  the  moun- 
tain-howitzer, malting  together  one  round  of  fixed 
ammunition.  With  rifle-guns  the  cartridge  is  not 
attjiched  to  the  projectile.  The  cartridge-bag  is  a 
cylindrical  bag  with  a  circular  bottom,  made  of 
iflerino  or  serge.  The  material  should  be  composed 
entirely  of  wool,  free  from  any  mixture  of  thread  or 
cotton,  and  of  sufficiently  clo.se  texture  to  prevent  the 
powder  from  sifting  through;  that  which  is  twilled 
is  preferred.  Flannel  is  used  when  the  other  ma- 
terials cannot  be  conveniently  obtained. 

The  manner  of  fixing  anil  strapping  ammunition  is 
explained  in  the  articles  Fixed  Ajtmunition  and 
Stk.\pped  Ammunition.  The  foUowmg  is  the 
mode  of  charging  shells  for  field  and  mountain  .ser- 
vice: The  shells  having  been  properly  cleaned,  dried, 
lapped  to  receive  the  plug  and  the  fuse,  imd  attacheil 
to  the  sabot,  are  placed  in  two  rows.  The  workman 
fills  the  measure  with  powder,  strikes  it  level  with 
the  straight-edge,  and  pours  it  in  the  shell;  the  assist- 
ant holds  the  funnel,  and  marks  the  shell  with  chalk 
when  filled,  to  prevent  mistakes.  The  assistant  screws 
in  the  plug.  The  workman  puts  a  little  white-lead 
on  the  threads  of  the  fuse,  punches  4  or  .5  small  holes 
in  the  tin  disk,  ami  screws  the  fuse  firmly  into  the 
shell,  the  assistant  holding  the  shell  to  prevent  il  from 
turning. 

In  the  matter  of  a  ca.se-shot,  the  shot  having  been 
cleaned  and  inspected,  the  upper  pari  of  the  fuse-hole 
is  tapped  to  receive  the  fu.se;  the  small  holi^  is  tapped 
to  receive  the  plug.  The  following  materials  are  re- 
quired to  fill  the  shells:  spherical  leaden  balls,  cali- 
l)er  .69  inch;  sulpliur  or  rosin;  linsccd-oil.  To  fill 
the  shell,  cover  the  lead  balls  with  linsccd-oil,  and  fill 
the  shell  with  them,  pasliing  the  ujipei  balls  aside 
■with  a  stick,  to  get  in  as  many  as  possible.  Wanii 
the  shell  gently,  and  screw  the  neck  of  the  funnel 
into  the  fasehole;  pour  in  the  melted  sulphur,  filling 
the  shell.  To  make  the  chandler  for  tlie  charge, 
chuck  the  shot  in  a  lathe;  .screw  the  furniel  into  The 
fuse-hole  to  protect  the  threads  from  being  injured 
by  the  auger,  and  with  a  common  screw-auger  bore 


a  hole  in  the  axis  of  the  shell  to  the  bottom.  Diam- 
eter of  the  auger,  .75  inch.  Lacker  the  shot  and  strap 
it;  paint  it  red.  To  charge  the  shot,  fill  the  cliamljer 
with  musket-powder,  ramnung  it  slightly  with  a 
wooden  drift  and  light  mallet;  .screw  in  the  iron 
phig,  leaving  its  top  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the 
large  portion  of  the  fuse-hole,  and  lay  over  it  a  thin 
leather  washer  with  a  hole  in  the  center;  fill  the  hole 
in  tlie  plug  and  wa«her  with  rifie-powder;  punch  four 
or  five  .sniiill  holes  in  the  tin  disk  in  the  bottom  of  the 
!  fuse;  put  a  little  white-lead  on  the  threads  of  the 
,  fu.se,  and  screw  the  fuse  tirml}'  into  the  shell.  The 
case-shot  is  fixed  the  .same  as  round  shot. 

A  canister  for  field-service  consists  of  a  tin  cylinder 
attached  to  a  sabot,  and  filled  with  lead  balls,  eleven 
to  the  pound.  Canister  for  the  mountain-howitzer 
are  filled  with  lead  balls.  The  following  materials 
are  required:  sheets  of  tin,  .02  inch  to  .02.5  inch 
thick  (double  tin);  soft  solder;  rosin;  culots  of  rolled 
iron,  .2.5  inch  thick;  covers  of  sheet-iron,  .07  inch 
thick  for  the  guns  and  12-pounder  howitzers,  and  .1 
inch  thick  for  the  2-4-  and  32-pounder  howitzers;  sa- 
bots; tacks. 

Canister  for  rifle-gtms  have  metal  sabots,  and  are 
filled  with  lead  balls.  The  following  utensils  are  re- 
quired: patterns;  tracing-point;  shears;  cylinder  of 
hard  wood;  mallet;  gauges;  furnace;  soldering-iron; 
hammer;  punch.  To  make  the  cylinder,  the  work- 
man marks  out  the  rectangle  on  the  sheet  with  the 
pattern,  cuts  it,  and  traces  the  line  for  the  lap.  He 
draws  a  line  parallel  to  the  long  side  of  the  rectangle, 
.4  to  .5  inch  from  it,  for  the  length  of  the  slits.  It  is 
then  bent  round  the  former,  the  edge  brought  to  the 
line  of  the  lap,  clamped  and  soldered.  If  lumps  of 
solder  be  left,  they  are  filed  down.  The  cylinder  is 
made  round  and  gauged  on  the  exterior  with  the 
large  shot-gauge  of  the  caliber,  and  the  interior  with 
a  cylinder  of  a  diameter  .02  inch  less  than  that  given 
in  the  table,  which  should  enter  the  canister.  If  it 
be  not  of  the  right  size,  it  is  unsoldered  and  soldered 
over  again.  The  slits  are  made  and  the  sabot  in- 
serted and  nailed  with  6  to  8  nails.  Before  filling  the 
canister,  dip  the  tin  cylinder  into  a  lacker  of  Ijeeswax 
dissolved  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  to  prevent  it  from 
rusting.     Coat  the  plates  with  paint  or  coal-tar. 

The  workman,  sitting  astride  the  bench,  places  the 
canister  upright  in  front  of  him;  inserts  the  iron  bot- 
tom and  places  it  fiat  on  the  sabot;  puts  in  a  tier  of 
balls;  fills  the  interstices  with  dry,  sifted  sawdust; 
packs  it  with  a  pointed  stick,  so  that  the  balls  will 
hold  by  themselves,  and  throws  out  the  loose  saw- 
dast.  He  places  another  tier  of  halls,  each  ball  Ijing 
in  the  interval  between  two  balls  of  the  lower  tier, 
and  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  until  the  canister  is 
filled;  covers  the  upper  tier  with  sawdust;  puts  on 
the  cover,  places  on  it  one  of  the  iron  bottoms  fur- 
nished with  a  handle,  and  strikes  it  with  a  small  mal- 
let in  order  to  compress  the  .sawdust;  then  removes 
this  bottom,  and  turns  down  the  slit  pieces  of  the 
canister  over  the  cover  with  a  hammer.  In  the  can- 
ister for  the  12-pounder  gun  the  cimtor  ball  of  the 
last  tier  is  omitted.  When  the  canister  is  finished, 
verify  its  diameter  with  the  large  shot-gauge  of  the 
same  caliber. 

The  Sawyer  canister-shot  for  all  guns  and  howitzers 
consists  of  a  casing  of  malleable  iron,  in  one  piece,  in 
the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder,  having  one  end  closed 
by  a  head  cast  therewith,  througli  which  head  is 
formed  one  or  more  small  holes,  through  which  a 
portion  of  tlie  gas  occasioned  by  the  explosion  of  the 
charge  of  powder  enters,  driving  forward  the  small 
iron  balls,  imd  disengaging  the  metal  cover  placed  in 
the  forward  end  of  the  casing  to  hold  the  contents  in 
position  till  fired.  The  casing  has,  cut  through  its 
walls,  one  or  more  series  of  oblicpie  slits,  the  end  of 
each  slit  .slightly  overlapping  the  enil  of  the  next  .slit 
in  the  same  series,  thus  nearly  severing  the  casing 
into  two  or  more  .sections,  said  sections  being  held 
together  only  by  narrow  bars  of  metal  between  the 
contiguous  ends  of  two  .slits,  which  bars  are  sufll- 


FIELD  AND  MOUNTAIN  AMMUNITION. 


633 


FIELD  AND  MOUNTAIN  AMMUNITION. 


cdently  stroDg  to  withstand  the  ordinary  shocks  of 
handling  and  transportation,  but  not  strong  enough 


mouth  of  the  casing,  and  the  casing  is  broken  into 
two  or  more  sections,  from  which  the  small  shot  are 


g 

3" 

K 

o 


:  3 
:  3 


o 

p 

s- 


3  0T!        ■.  ?.,.%*  Sic.     •     ~» 


~  »  ?b  (t  -  CTft 

1  -J  1  X"   T 

B 


L.'O 

CO 


to  -'-* 

o  (5  «0  »  >i  cd      g 


•r  cw  wi  bt  CO     ■_ 


GDiBkOOO-} 


sbiMCR 


^oaooo^AaD^     tt  !u -S  o  o  1^  ti^  oa  lb-     4^.-7 


«6  0IOACO(0 


sis   «3« 


<o  01  o  >;-■  <bi  «o 


•fill  O  to  3t  O -(^  Cd  U 

iu  b*  t4  IP       to  -1 

«t  -J  »  B»  Crt 


si  35  *5  **  OD  ■     -» eo       •     ■ 
^  en  Cnijt«D      -^■ 


<outoao-^ce<t>i><c^tot«^cnciioo 


a)SM£aoco-§«3    OD- 


"8= 


"S"    §5'    g      68= 


S  i-^  ^  .£>.4>. 

P  C-»  W  S»  X       .fa-  *3       ti       ti  -^ 


'*:DCOO-lM>M.^tCCAitk.C;iOtOO 

i         &  CO  U<         &  3D  tS  2? 


SceS-'ODtSS 
2  b»bt 


0     a  — 


5*^0        «3  — — 


o2!oOt6l9-m> 

*i     L.  —  <»  OD     o 


•^ooooeoeoDi- 

"i-i-tswb* 

fe88 


eoaooa*-^ 


SheU. 


Case. 


Shot. 


Canister. 


SheU. 


Case. 


Canister. 


era 

o  a 


SheU. 


Case. 


uaoooii-^ 


,    tr 
I     3 


Canister. 


0.01        jo 


0.0.         is 


otbtot         K 


2 


.-O 


-« 


SbelL 


Case. 


Canister. 


SbelL 


Canister. 


r 


to  resist  the  shock  of  the  c.^lo'iion  of  the  charge  of 
powder  in  the  gun,  so  that  %vhen  the  shot  is  dis- 
charged from  a  gun  the  cover  is  stripped  from  the 


more  readily  and  completely  discharged  than  they 
would  be  if  "the  ciisinrr  remained  intact. 
For  t4ie  greater  security  of  Hold-ammunition,   the 


FIELD-AKTILLEEY. 


634 


FIELD-ABTILLERT. 


cartridges  are  covered  with  paper  cylinders  and  caps. 
The  cap  is  drawn  off  at  the  moineut  of  loading  the 
piece,  and  in  using  solid  shot  it  mav  be  placed  over 
the  shot  to  iliniinish  the  windaire.  A  cylinder  and  a 
cap  are  formed  to-retlier  by  folding  the"  paper  over  a 
former,  which  allows  a  lap  of  about  .75  inch  for  past- 
ing. The  reqiusite  length  for  the  cylinder  is  cut  off 
from  the  smaller  end.  The  rest  fomis  the  cap,  which 
is  choked  at  the  end  from  which  the  cylinder  is  cut 
on  a  cylindrical  former,  which  has  a  groove  around 
it,  marking  the  length  from  the  rounded  end  for  cut- 
ting the  cap.  The  former  should  be  bored  through 
the  axis  with  a  .r)-ineh  hole,  to  facilitate  drawing  off 
the  cap.  The  caps  for  shells  are  black;  for  spherical  ! 
case-shot,  red;  for  shot,  not  colored.  | 

On  the  PR-ceding  page  will  be  found  a  summary  of 
the  ammuniliiin  for  tieid  and  mountain  service.  j 

Shells  arc  tilled  with  the  bursting-charge  of  movtar- 
powdcr  lo  their  lapacity.  Case-shot  are  tilled  with 
lead  balls  which  are  set  with  melted  sulphur  or  rosin, 
and  bored  out  for  the  bursting-charge  with  as  large 
a  chamlicr  as  the  fusc-lio'.e  will  admit  of,  which  is 
tilled  with  powder  or  bursling-charge  of  other  explo- 
sive, space  being  left  for  the  fuse-plug  or  fuses.  When 
s;»bots  are  u.scd,  a  spherical  ca^^ty  is  made  for  the  seat 
of  the  projectile.  When  port-fires  are  used,  one  to 
each  box  of  ammunition,  and  half  a  yard  of  slow-  ' 
match  is  packed,  and  sufficient  tow  to  render  the 
whole  packing  secure.  Large  charge  for  3-inch  rifle- 
gun,  1.5  ix)und;  half  an  iiich  is  allowed  for  each 
seam  in  a  cartridge-bag.  Rilie-aramunition  has  no 
wooden  sabots,  nor  is  the  cartridge  attached  to  the 
projectile  ;  these  are  packed  on  top  of  the  projectiles, 
or,  better,  in  a  part  of  the  box  separated  from  the 
projectiles  by  a  partition,  in  which  ca.se  the  small 
stores  are  packed  on  top  of  the  cartridges.  Hotch-  , 
kiss  ammunition  is  metallic;  wrapped  metal;  centre- 
primed  case.  See  Ammunition,  Ammunition-lioxi'K, 
Ciirtridye-(ni;js.  Fiitd  Ammunition,  Projectiles,  Sabot,  I 
and  Stiiipped  Ammunition.  i 

FIELD-ARTILLEEY.— Field-cannon  are  intended 
to  be  used  in  the  operations  of  an  army  in  the  field  ; 
they  should,  therefore,  have  the  essential  quality  of 
mobility.  They  are  divided  into  light  and  heavy 
pieces.  The  former  are  constructed  to  follow  the 
rapid  movements  of  light  troops  and  cavalry.  The 
latter  are  employed  to  follow  the  movements  of  heavy 
troops,  to  commence  an  action  at  long  distance,  to 
defend  field-works  anil  important  positions  on  the 
field  of  battle,  etc.;  hence  they  are  .Siiid  to  constitute 
"batteries  of  position."  Formerly  the  light  pieces 
of  the  tield-serviee  of  the  United  States  were  the 
6-pdr.  gun  and  12-pdr.  howitzer;  and  the  heavy 
pieces  were  the  12-pdr.  gun  and  24-pdr.  and  32-pdr. 
howitzers.  At  the  commencement  of  the  late  war  in 
this  country,  these  pieces  were  set  asiile  for  arming 
field  works,  block-houses,  etc.,  and  their  places  were 
supplied  with  the  light  12-pdr.  gun  (smooth-l)ore) 
and  the  3-inch  rifle-gun.  The  regulations  iirescribe 
that,  as  a  general  rule,  one  third  of  the  pieces  of  a 
fleld-battery  be  rifles  and  the  remainder  smooth-bores. 
Of  course  this  proportion  is  subject  to  be  modified  by 
the  character  of  the  operations  and  the  nattne  of  the 
country.  The  country  in  which  most  of  our  late  mil- 
itary operations  were  conducted  was  either  broken 
in  surface  or  heavily  wooded,  and  the  most  effective 
fighting  was  done  at  moderate  ranges,  at  which  the 
light  12-pilr.,  with  its  heavy  shell  and  case-shot,  was 
found  more  destructive  than  the  3-inch  rifle-gun. 

Field-artillery  is  used  in  combination  with  infantry 
and  cavalrj-.  or  with  both,  to  augment  their  fire  and 
to  weaken  that  of  the  enemy.  It  prepares  the  way 
for  sub.se(iuent  operations  by  its  fire  upon  the  enemy 
before  he  comes  within  reach  of  other  wea|ions;  it 
supports  the  maneuvers  of  the  various  arms,  and 
forms  points  of  support  and  a.s.scmbly  for  troops  when 
driven  back.  In  selecting  the  position  for  a  battery, 
the  ground  must  be  considered  both  in  plan  and  pro- 
file. The  guns  must  Ik-  placed  neither  too  high  nor 
too  low.     Late  wars  have  shown  that  it  is  not  alone 


desirable  but  necessary  to  cover  the  guns  and  horses 
of  a  battery  from  the  enemy's  tire,  either  by  the  acci- 
dents of  the  grounil  or  by  iiiiprovi?ed  cover;  for  noth- 
ing else  can  insure  the  battery  against  destruction 
by  the  enemy's  infantry  and  artiller)'.  The  range, 
accuracy,  and"  rapidity  "of  fire  of  small-arms  of  the 
prc-senl  day  are  such  that  lotteries  which  have  been 
brought  into  action  with  the  greatest  possible  rapid- 
ity have  Ix'cn  placed  liov  <fu  enmlml  before  firing  a 
sliot.  The  most  favorable  ix>sition  isagt'iitle  hillock, 
sloping  gradually  to  the  front  and  more  abruptly  to 
the  rear,  with  a  command  over  the  ground  occupied 
l)y  the  enemy  of  about  1  in  100.  Considering  the 
ground  in  ])lan,  guns  may  be  drawn  up  with  good 
effect  behind  a  marsh,  pond,  or  river  or  ravine,  pro- 
vided such  obstacles  do  not  render  an  advance  im- 
practicable, and  the  ravine  be  not  occupied  by  the 
enemy.  The  guns  shoidd  not  be  in  the  neighborhood 
of  woods,  brush,  or  other  cover  that  can  be  occupied 
by  the  enemy.  Heavy,  muddy  ground,  as  well  as 
that  which  is  stony,  should  be  avoided.  The  ground 
for  .'JO  to  100  yards  in  front  of  the  battery  should 
be  as  unfavorable  as  possible  for  the  enemy's  artillery- 
fire. 

The  extreme  range  should  be  employed  only  when 
the  nature  of  the  ground  or  the  shortness  of  the  time 
does  not  permit  a  nearer  ai)proach  to  the  object,  and 
then  only  till  the  effect  desired  has  been  obtained. 
With  rifl"ed  pieces  this  tire  may  exceed  5000  or  600O 
yards.  It  maj'  annoy  troops  in  their  camp,  may  im- 
pede the  movement  of  trains,  and  endanger  inflam- 
mable buildings  and  materials,  but  cannot  affect  an 
action;  therefore,  to  open  fire  beyond  the  limit  at 
which  the  effect  can  be  ascertained  by  good  sight, 
aided  by  telescopes,  is  a  waste  of  valuable  ammuni- 
tion. If  the  ground  and  atmosphere  be  favorable, 
and  the  range  can  be  determined  accurately,  fire  may 
be  oi)ened  against  troops  at  2.500  yards,  and  under 
exceptional  circumstances  at  3000  yards;  the  former 
is  about  the  distance  at  which  bodies  of  troops  can  be 
distinguished  with  certainty  by  the  best  eye.  This 
dist;ui<c  is  modified  by  the  formation  of  the  troops; 
a  column  can  be  fired  at  effectively  oOO  yards  beyond 
troops  in  line.  At  long  range  the  object  must  1k'  well 
defined,  the  distance  carefully  determined,  and  the 
firing  calm  and  very  deliberate.  As  a  battery  caimot 
withstand  the  fire  of  small-arms,  artillery  without 
cover  camiol  now  maintain  a  position  within  900  yards 
of  the  enemy's  infantry. 

The  object  selected  upon  which  to  direct  the  fire 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  action.  In  acting 
offensively,  the  fire  should  be  concentrated  on  the 
enemy's  artillery  and  on  obstacles  which  oppose  an 
advance;  whilst  if  acting  defensively,  the  guns  should 
bear  upon  the  infantry  and  cavalry.  As  a  general 
principle,  the  fire  should  be  directed  uix)n  that  arm 
of  the  enemy  w  hich  most  immediately  threatens  us. 
Definite  rules  cannot  be  given  for  what  must  practi- 
cally be  decided  almost  entirely  by  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances of  the  indi\idual  case.  The  nature  and 
position  of  the  object  fired  at  determine  the  projectile 
to  be  used.  The  emplo.\^llent  of  solid  shot  is  grow- 
ing greatly  into  disuse;  with  rifled  guns  it  is  but  little 
used,  and  in  many  services  is  entirely  discarded,  a* 
the  .sliell  ;ind  shrapnel  as  now  constructed  are  .suffi- 
ciently strong  and  lieavv  to  replace  it  and  i)roduce  far 
more  ultimate  effect.  It  may  be  useful  in  firing  over 
troops,  but  even  then  shells,  lueferably  with  percus- 
sion-fuse, can  be  employed.  Shells  are  used  at  first 
to  determine  the  range;  for  this,  percussion- fuses  are 
best  if  the  nature  of  the  groiuul  permit.  This  fire 
is  usetl  to  dis;ible  artillery;  again.st  columnsof  troops, 
or  when  a  line  can  l)e  enfiladed  or  taken  obliquely; 
against  obstacles,  such  as  intrcnchmcnts  and  buihl- 
ings,  and  against  combustible  materials.  If  the  shell 
Ix'  intended  for  incendiary  i)urp()ses,  a  time-fuse  cut 
long  is  employed.  Should  the  distance  be  accurately 
known  and  the  time-fuse  burn  uniformly,  such  a  fuse 
can  be  advantageously  used;  but  generally  a  percus- 
sion-fuse is  more  uscfid.     The  nature  of  the  iiround 


FIEU)  ABTILLERY  FUSE. 


635 


f  I£LD  CABBIAOES. 


is  of  importance  only  at  the  spot  where  the  shell 
strikes;  there  it  should  be  fimi  enough  to  cause  a  jier- 
cussion-fuse  to  act  and  to  prevent  the  shell  from  pen- 
etrating so  far  as  to  lose  its  explosive  effect.  Shell- 
fire  is  employed  when  the  enemy  is  posted  under 
cover,  or  on  a  higher  or  lower  giound;  when  he  is 
moving  on  a  road  through  a  \alley,  and  when  being 
pursued;  when  the  groimd  is  much  broken,  wooded, 
or  cannot  be  seen;  when  the  ran''c  is  too  great  for 
effective  shrapnel  tire;  for  incendiarj-  purposes,  and 
when  a  moral  rather  than  a  physical  effect  is  desired. 

In  the  tire  of  shrapnel  and  segment  shells,  it  is  of 
more  importance  to  iiuve  a  knowledge  of  the  distance 
than  of  the  nature  of  the  ground,  as  the  elevation 
must  be  properly  taken  and  the  fuse  correctly  timed. 
If  such  a  projectile  explode  after  jiassing  the  object, 
its  effect  is  entirely  lost;  and  if  it  explode  too  far 
short,  the  effect  is  greatly  diminished;  therefore  the 
aim  should  be  taken  a  little  short  of  the  object,  that 
it  may  be  the  more  readily  corrected.  The  spread  of 
the  pieces  being  greater  in  the  direction  of  the  tire 
than  laterally,  these  projectiles  are  more  effective 
against  high,  deep  objecUs  than  against  broad,  flat 
ones;  they  are  therefore  more  destructive  against  cav- 
alry in  colunm  than  in  line,  and  more  so  against 
either  than  against  infantry  in  column  or  in  line. 
Shrapnel-tire  is  also  employed  against  troops  dis- 
persed or  scattered;! against  troops  in  defiles  or  open- 
ings, or  ma.ssed  at  points.  It  is  effective  against  ar- 
tillery in  position,  cs|)eeially  when  it  can  be  taken 
obliquely  ;  time  tuses  should  be  used  against  the  ani- 
mate objects,  and  percussion-fuses  against  the  mate- 
riel. Time-  or  percussion-fuses  can  be  employeil 
against  troops  in  column  or  in  line;  but  if  they  be 
scattered,  time-fuses  only  should  be  used.  Well-ap- 
plied shrapnel-tire  is  more  effective  thim  any  other 
artillery-lire  against  troops,  but  it  is  subject  to  so  many 
contingencies,  and  the  amnuniition  is  so  costly,  that 
it  should  not  be  employed  unless  it  will  jiroljably 
create  considerable  effect,  and  when  other  projectiles 
will  not  answer.  The  possibility  of  shrapnel  ex- 
ploding in  the  piece  causes  great  care  to  be  neee.s.sarv 
in  firing  over  the  heads  or  through  the  intervals  of 
the  troops.  The  tire  of  canister-shot  is  confineil  to 
ranges  within  500  yards,  and  is  rarelj-  of  any  effect 
beyond  3.50  yards.  The  nature  of  the  surface  has  a 
great  influence  on  the  utility  of  this  tire;  it  is  largely 
diminished  on  rough  or  soft  ground,  especially  if 
covered  with  bushes  or  standing  crops,  and  is  in- 
creased on  hard,  level  ground.  As  batteries  can  no 
longer  move  up  to  short  range  of  troops  and  open  fire 
with  canister,  its  use  offensively  is  entirely  ended. 
(In  the  flefense,  it  is  used  to  most  advantage  against 
troops  in  column  whose  front  is  greater  than  thirty  or 
forty  feet;  it  is  useful  against  scattered  or  dispersed 
troops  at  short  ranges,  and  against  the  attack  of  tield- 
intrenchments,  villages,  and  the  skirts  of  woods.  In 
cases  of  great  emergency,  a  double  charge  of  canis- 
ter, fired  with  a  single  cartridge,  may  be  used  for  dis- 
tances within  two  hundred  yards.  A  canister-tire 
should  not  be  used  too  early,  "as,  if  ineffective,  it  de- 
stroys the  confidence  of  the  troops  and  increases 
that  of  the  enemy.  It  does  not  always  produce  the 
desired  effect:  1st,  because  the  distance  is  underesti- 
mated; 2d,  sufficient  care  is  not  taken  in  aiming,  be- 
cause the  danger  is  exaggeratetl;  :W,  the  character  of 
the  ground  is  not  properly  appreciated  and  projectiles 
are  wasted.  The  fire  of  machine-guns,  which  can  be 
used  effectively  at  1.500  yards,  may  replace  the  em-  | 
ployment  of  canister.  I 

The  selection  of  the  most  suitable  kind  of  fire, 
whether  direct  or  ricochel ,  depends  upon  the  distance 
of  the  enemy,  the  conformation  and  nature  of  the 
intcrvcnins  ground,  the  foiirallon  of  the  troops,  so 
far  as  it  ca'n  be  judged,  ami  the  effect  to  be  produced. 
Direct  fire  should  be  employed  whenever  the  surface 
of  the  ground  is  uneven  and  the  quality  of  the  soil 
varied,  or  the  soil  soft  and  light.  It  is  used  in si>ecial 
cases:  1st.  When  the  enemy  is  so  situated  as  to  con- 
ceal the  depth  of  his  formation.     2d.  When  he  is 


about  to  pass  a  detile,  and  the  head  of  the  column 
only  is  seen,  or  when  the  depth  of  the  column  can  be 
seen  by  Ix-ing  commanded  or  overlooked.  3<1.  In  all 
sustained  cannonades.  4th.  If  the  enemv  be  on  a 
mountain  or  in  a  valley.  When  the  diiferencc  of 
level  between  the  object  and  piece  is  not  irreat,  tlie 
character  of  the  fire  will  be  dea-rmined  bv  the  nature 
of  the  intervening  ground.  Kieochet-tire  should 
never  be  used  for  a  less  distance  than  1000  yards, 
even  when  the  ground  Ls  favorable,  as  it  is  necessary 
that  the  projectile  should  nmke  at  least  two  or  Uiree 
rebounds  in  front  of  the  enemy.  For  the  12-irounrler 
gun  the  limits  of  this  fire  may  lie  consideretl  as  be- 
tween 1200  and  1500  yards;  the  extreme  ranse  ex- 
tending, however,  to  2000  yards:  for  a  less  distance 
the  rebounds  are  too  high  and  the  space  commanded 
loo  small.  If  the  ground  he  uneven,  ricochet-tire  will 
lie  too  irregular  to  be  useful.  An  o|K'n.  flat,  and  tirm 
I)iece  of  ground  is  most  favorable;  if  within  a  certain 
distance  in  front  of  the  piece  or  of  the  enemy  the 
ground  be  soft  and  uneven,  this  species  of  tire  cannot 
be  employed.  As  much  depends  ujwn  chance  in 
ricochet-tire,  it  is  seldom  used  on  the  offensive,  for  it 
attracts  the  attention  of  the  enemy  without  doing 
much  execution.  See  Artillery,  Kapoleon  Ouii,  Ord- 
noiici',  and  Three-inch  liifle. 

FIELD-AETILLEEY  FUSE.— The  name  given  to 
the  Breithauiit  fuse  by  its  inventor,  because  he  de- 
signed itifor  all  kinds" of  shells  u.sed  with  field  artil- 
lery.    See  Breithatipt  Fuse. 

FIELD -BATTERY.— A  certain  number  of  pieces 
of  artillery  so  equii)ped  as  to  be  available  for  attack 
or  defense,  and  capable  of  accompanying  cavalry  or 
infantry  in  all  their  movenunts  in  the  tield.  There 
are  usually  allotted  lo  a  field-battery  four  pieces  in 
lime  of  peace  and  six  in  time  of  war.  "and  it  is  divided 
into  mounted  artilUri/,  which  usually  serves  with  in- 
fantry, and  hi/me-iirtiUir;/,  which  ordinarily  serves 
with  cavalry-.  The  main  difference  between"  the  two 
consists  in  the  cannoneers  of  the  latter  being  mounted; 
in  rapid  evolutions  of  the  former  they  are  conveyed 
on  Ihe  gun-carriages.     See  Artillery  and  Battery. 

FIELD-BED.— A  folding  bed  used  by  officers  while 
on  campaigns  or  in  the  field.     See  Ciimp-bedsteae}. 

FIELD-CARRIAGES.— A  marked  change  hits  been 
made  within  the  last  few  years  in  the  fabrication  of 
carriages  for  field  and  mountain  artillery.  The  prin- 
cipal nations  have  arrived  in  quick  succession  at  the 
simie  conclusion  with  reference  to  Ihe  material  of 
which  these  caniages  .should  be  made,  and  have 
already  abandoned  the  use'  of  wood  except  for  the 
spokes  and  felloes  of  the  wheels,  and  for  f>oles,  and 
substituted  in  its  pl.ace  wrought-iron  or  steel.  The 
consideration  which  has  led  to  this  important  modi- 
fication is  Ihe  superior  strength,  si'rviceability,  and 
\iltiniate  economy  of  the  wroughtiron  carriage.  The 
general  plan  of  construction  adopted  isnmch  Ihe  same 
in  all  countries,  and  the  carriages  differ  oidy  in  minor 
details,  which  vary  according  to  the  different  ideas  of 
taste  and  convenience,  or  as  influenced  by  long-estab- 
lished usage. 

The  cheek  and  side  of  the  trail  are  formed  of  one 
piece  of  boilir-plate,  cut  into  the  required  shape  and 
strengthened  by  angle-iron  riveted  to  it  around  its 
outer  edge,  or  made  in  one  piece  in  a  die.  with  Ihe 
flange  struck  up  while  the  nu'Ial  is  hot.  The  two 
pieces  constituting  the  trail  are  joined  together  by  the 
neces.sarv  transom  and  liolls.  and  by  the  lunelte,  which 
isriveted  lo  both.  The  trail  is  further  strengthened 
by  the  tran.soms  forming  the  two  ends  of  Ihe  trail 
tool-chest.  The  two  pieces  which  form  Ihe  sides  of 
the  trail  slo|X'  from  the  head  of  the  cheeks  or  from  a 
IX)int  a  short  distance  in  rcjir  of  it  to  the  lunette,  and 
al  Ihe  sjune  lime  diminish  in  depth.  The  iinglc-iron 
which  is  riveted  to  the  cheeks  lo  strengthen  and  stiffen 
them  forms  also  the  trunnion-l>eds,  and  is  jilaccd  sonic- 
times  on  the  outside  and  sometimes  on  Ihe  inside  of 
the  plate.  The  elevating-screw  is  arrangitl  ilifferently 
in  different  services.  Minor  differences  will  be  men- 
tioned  in  describing  the  carriages  in  detail.     The 


rULD  CAEBIAGES. 


636 


FIELD  CABRIAGES. 


nomenclature  is  given  in  detail  in  the  description  of 
the  carriages  employed  in  the  United  States  service. 

Uiiitfd  i'ltiiU-K.—Tlivrv  is  a  gun-carriage  for  the  three- 
inch  rifle,  which  willi  slight  modilications  is  adapted 
to  the  one-inch  milniillcur;  one  for  the  half  inch  nii- 
trailleur;  and  one  for  the  twelve  pounder.  'I'hi'  corre- 
sponding parts  of  these  carriages  differ  only  in  their 
dimensions.  There  are  three  kinds  of  wheels,  viz.: 
No.  1,  for  tlie  three-inch  ritle  and  one-inch  mitrailleur 
guu-carriaiies,  forcai.s.sons,  forges,  ujitlery-wagons,  and 
all  limlK-rs  except  those  of  the  half-inch  mitrailleur; 
No.  2,  for  the  twelve-pounder  gun-carriages;  No.  .i,  for 
the  half-inch  niilrailleur  gun-carriages,  CiUs,sous,  and 
limbers.  Wheels  Nos.  1  and  2  are  of  the  .Siime  fomi 
and  height,  tit  on  the  same  a.xle-arm,  and  differ  only 
in  the  dimensions  of  their  parts,  strength,  and  weight. 
It  is  proposed  that  a  single  pattern  ot  wheel  Ix;  used 
hereafter  for  all  light  a'rtillery  carriages  except  those 
for  the  half-inch  mitrailleur. 

Referring  to  Fig.  1,  the  nomenclature  of  the  gun- 


»^^P 


Fio.  1. 

carriage  is  as  follows:  stock  (1),  of  squared  wood 
in  two  pieces;  it  serves  to  connect  the  gim-carriage 
with  the  limber  and  to  direct  the  piece;  it  includes 
tlie  /iead(i),  to  which  the  sponge-bucket  ring  is  attached; 
groove  (3);  trail  (4),  or  curved  part  of  the' stock  which 
rests  on  the  ground  when  the  piece  is  unlimbered; 
rounding  of  tlie  trail  (ij);  trail-plate  (6),  a  piece  of  iron 
fastened  to  the  end  of  the  trail  and  terminated  by  a  very 
strong  ring,  called  the  liuiHte  (7),  which  receives  the 
I)intle-hook  by  which  the  limber  is  attached;  pointing- 
rings,  large  (H)  and  small  (9),  which  receive  the  hand- 
spike; trail-hanillm  (10),  on  each  side  of  the  stock  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  it;  prolonge-hooks  (11),  on  which 
the  prolonge  is  coiled;  w/ml-giuird  jilafes  (12).  lAick 
chain  (13),  u.sed  to  keep  the  wheel  from  turning;  it  is 
on  the  side  of  the  carriage,  and  has  an  cjie-platf  and 
bolt;»ponge-aud-rammersiop(\i):  Hp<inge-rlta,in  and  hasj) 
(15);  ear-plttte  for  sponge-chain  and  hasp  (16);  ear-plfite 
to  sup|)ort  wonn  (17);  key-c/miii  and  kei/;  elerating- 
screw  (18);  it  has  a  handle  with  four  prongs;  eleraling- 
screwlMx;  ilernling-screw  bed  (19);  rondellis  (20),  which 
connect  cheeks  and  stock;  cheeks  (21),  two  pieces  of 
wood  Iwtween  which  the  gun  rests;  irashcrhooks  for 
handspike  (22):  im»her-hook  for  lock-chain  (23);  «n<i!cr- 
strap  (H);  right  sponge-liook  (25);  sponge  and  toorm  hook 


(26);  handspike^ngs  (27);  trunnion^lat.n  (OS),  into 
the  beds,  or  deprcs.sions,  of  which  the  trunnions  tit;  cap- 
gquares  (29);  cap-squan-  chain  (30);  kcy-ehain  and  key 
(31).  Axle,  including  axle-body  (32),  of  wo<xl;  axletree 
(33),  of  iron;  axle-arm  (34i,  the  rounded  extremities  of 
the  axlctree  on  which  the  wheels  revolve;  linch-pin 
(35);  linch-pin  washer  and  hook.  Wheels  (36);  each 
includes — nate  (37);  nace-bands  (38);  nate-box;  t/pokes 
(39);  felloes  (40);  tire  (41).  Cannoneers'  seats,  on  the 
axle  between  the  cheeks  and  wheels;  each  consisLs  of 
an  iron  chair  supported  on  a  rectangular  bar  inserted 
in  a  vertical  iron  aocket,  and  resting  on  a  strong  steel 
spring;  the  socket  is  sup])orted  by  two  l/rasn  braces 
fastened  to  the  axle  by  axle-straps;  to  an  iron  cross- 
piece  at  the  top  of  the  socket  arc  attached  two  iron 
braces  which  help  to  supjjort  the  iron  foot-rest  attached 
to  the  brass  braces.  The  chair  has  arms  and  faces  to 
the  trail. 

The  following  is  the  nomenclature  of  the  gun-car- 
riage for  mitrailleurs:  stock;  liead;  groove;  trail; 
rounding  of  trail;  trail-plate;  lunette;  point- 
ing -  ring;  pointing  -  socket;  trail  -  luindles; 
wheel-guard  plate ;  elevating-screw;  elevating- 
screw  box;  elevating-screw  bed;  rondelles; 
cheeks;  iras/KT-ZiooA^  for  handspike;  nndei'- 
straps;  handspike-rings;  cap-sr/uares;  cap- 
square  chains;  key-chains  and  keys;  trvn- 
nioti-beds;  trunnion-swivel;  trunnion-swivel 
friction-bed;  frame  for  traversing-apparatus, 
or  Iracersing-arm;  traversing-fork;  travel's- 
ing-fiirk  spring  (spiral);  traversing-fork  han- 
dle; tratersing-fork  clamp-screw;  traversing- 
fork  case,  with  slot  for  handle;  locking -bolt, 
connected  with  traversing-fork  by  a  locking- 
lever;  locking-boll  case;  stock-seat;  with  a 
liinge  and  prop;  drag-hooks;  elevating -screw 
nut;  elevating-nut  handle;  elevating-clamp 
screir;  rod-case  and  keys;  axle;  wJieels. 

All  limbers  (Fig.  2)  are  similar;  the  lim- 
ber-chests of  gim-carriages  and  caissons  con- 
tain ammunition  and  implements;  those  of 
forges  and  battery- wagons  contain  tools  and 
stores.  The  nomenclature  is  as  follows: 
pole  (1),  including  pole-pnd  (2);  jwle-straps 
(3),  by  which  the  pole  is  guided  when  the 
team  is  hitched;  pole-strap  iron  (4);  pole-yoke 
(5);  muff  and  collar  (6);  pole-yoke  branches 
(7),  to  which  are  attached  slidiug-rings  (8); 
splinter-bar  (9),  to  which  the  wheel-horses 
are  hitched,  by  four  trace-hooks  (10);  end- 
bands  (11);  middle-bands;  pile-prop  (12),  in- 
cluding socket,  ferrule,  and  chain;  hounds 
(13),  the  pieces  of  wood,  upon  which  the 
chests  rest,  connecting  the  axle-body  with 
the  splinter-bar;  forks  (14),  pieces  of  wood, 
between  the  hounds,  forming  an  opening  in  which 
the  pole  is  placed;  fork-strap  (15);  foot-lioards  (16); 
foot-board  bracketJi  (17);  chest  (18);  chest-handles  (19); 
rover  (20),  oi  wood;  cover-plate  (21),  of  copper;  turn- 
buckle  (22);  hasp  (23);  backstay  (24);  frmt-stay  (25); 
stay-pins  (26);  stay-pin  keys  (27);  binder-strap;  pintle- 
hook  (28),  on  rear  part  of  axletree,  which  attaches  the 
limber  to  the  carriage;  pintle-Jwok  key  (29);  axle; 
wheels.  The  four  trace-hookg  arc  sometimes  at- 
tached to  the  ends  of  the  splinter-bar  traces,  which 
are  strong  leather  straps,  parallel  to  the  splinter- 
bar;  each  works  over  two  pulleys,  attached  to  the  end 
and  middle  bands;  the  pulleys  are  wrought-iron  disks, 
turning  on  vertical  bolts,  passing  through  the  rounded 
ends  of  the  bands,  which  project  three  inches  beyond 
the  splinter-bar. 

All  caissons  have  the  same  external  form,  and,  ex- 
cept those  for  the  ^-inch  mitrailleur,  the  siime  dimen- 
sions. The  caisson  body  (Fig.  3)  consists  of  a  frame, 
mounted  on  wheels,  which  carries  two  chests,  a  spare 
wheel,  and  other  spare  parts,  tools,  etc.  The  nomen- 
clature of  the  caisson  body  is  as  follows:  stock  (1), 
or  middle-rail;  it  has  an  iron  lunette  on  its  front  end; 
side-rails  (^);  front  fool-board  (3);  rear  foot-board  (4); 
middle-chest  (5);  rear-chest  (6);  spare-wheel  axle  (7);  it 


FI£LD-CABBIAGES. 


637 


FIELD  CASKIAGES. 


has  a  fxxly,  two  riha.  and  chain  and  toggle  (8)  to  secure 
the  wheel;  there  are  also  two  stags  for  the  axle;  Im-k- 
chains  (9),  fastened  to  lock-chain  bridles  under  the 
front  ends  of  the  side-rails,  and  held  up  by  lack-chain 
hooks  fastened  to  tlie  outside  of  the  side  rails;  spare 
pole  (10);  spare-pole  key,  key-plate,  chain  and  pin  (11); 
the  key -plate  is  fastened  on  the  underside  of  the  lu- 
nette; the  key  is  attached  to  the  left  side  of  the  stock 
by  a  ctiain  and  eye-pin;  carriage-liook  (12),  for  attach- 
ing a  carriage  that  has  lost  its  limber;  wheel-guard 


the  12  pdr.  carriage  can  be  made  of  wrought-iron,  so 
as  to  be  little  if  any  heavier  than  the  wooden  carriage 
used  for  niountin;;  the  3-inch  ritle-gun,  but  one  carriage 
will  be  required  for  the  field-service.  In  this  case 
thimbles  or  washers  will  be  required  to  tit  the  trun- 
nions of  the  3-inch  gun  into  the  trunnion-beds  of  the 
12-p<lr.  carriage. 

The  very  large  stock  of  wooden  carriages  now  on 
hand  may  delay,  on  the  score  of  economy,  the  intro- 
duction of  wrought-iron  carriages  for  some  time  to 


~^ 


Fio.  2. 


plates  (13);  spare-pole  ring  (14),  held  by  the  axle-strap; 
ring-bolt  (15)  for  spare  luindspike;  key-plate  and  keg, 
on  the  right  side  of  the  middle-rail;  key-jdate,  chain, 
and  key  (16),  for  the  .shovel-handle,  or  the  inside  of  the 
right  side-rail;  middle  a^semhling-bar  (17),  of  iron;  it 
has  two  ears  in  the  middle  to  serve  as  stay-plates  for 
the  middle  chests,  and  a  slot  (18)  for  the  axe  on  the 
right  of  the  middle  rail;  rear  assembling -bar  (19);  it 
supports  the  spare-wheel  axle,  and  h;is  a  slut  (20)  for 
the  pickaxe  on  the  left  of  the  middle-rail.  Axle, 
the  aJ-k-lmdy  (21)  being  notched  to  receive  the  middle 
rail  and  tenoned  to  fit  into  the  notches  in  the  side-rails; 
staples  for  tool-handles  (22);  they  are  driven  into  tlie 
top  of  the  axle-body,  in  front  (>f  the  iron  axletree,  one 
for  the  slMveUiandlti  near  the  rifcht  side-rail,  the  other 
for  the  handle  of  the  pickaxe  on  the  left  of  the  mid- 
dle-rail.     Whci'ls. 

The  Ordnance  Department  has  recently  made  and 
tested  certain  wrought  iron  field  and  sieire  carriages. 
The  principal  iinprovcincnts  aimed  at  in  one  of  the 
patterns  of  field-carriages  on  the  wooden  carriages 


come;  but  that  such  carriages  can  he  made  superior 
to  wooden  ones  scarcely  admits  of  doubt. 

A  iistria.— The  3.42-inch  j^m-carriage  (Fig.  4)  is  com- 
posed of  two  cheeks  of  sheet-steel  .24  inch  thick,  re- 
enforced  around  the  edge  by  an  angle-iron  .275  inch 
thick,  the  flange  turned  inward.  The  cheek-plates  are 
parallel  for  a  short  distance  in  rear  of  the  axle;  from 
that  point  they  converge  to  the  end  of  the  trail,  where 
they  are  secured  to  the  lunette.  The  cheek  plates  are 
joiiiccl  by  two  sheet-iron  transoms  toward  the  front 
end,  and'  between  them  a  cylindrical  transom  under 
the  trunnion-beds;  near  the  middle  is  a  sheet-iron 
tran.som  forming  one  end  of  the  tool  chest;  and  the 
l)olt.s  passing  through  the  principal  irons.  In  order 
that  the  piece  niav  not  be  too  low,  and  to  a.ssurc  its 
having  a  sufficient'ly  wide  field  of  fire,  the  trunnion- 
beds  have  been  raised  considerably  above  the  axle, 
and  carried  well  forward. 

The  axle  is  cvlindrical,  of  steel,  with  shoulders  for 
the  cheeks,  to  which  it  is  secured  by  solid  bands  and 
understraps.     It  is  provided  with  two  seats,  like  the 


Fio.  S. 


now  in  use  are:  1.  Lightness  and  cheapness.  2.  Plac- 
ing the  pintle  about  two  feet  in  rear  of  the  limber 
axletree,  so  that  the  trail  of  the  gun-carriairc  sliall 
counterpoise  the  weight  of  the  pole,  and  thereby  re- 
lieve the  shoulders  of  the  wheel-horses  which  have 
now  to  support  it.  3.  Brindm:  the  Irunmon-bcds 
nearer  to  the  axletree,  thereby  diminisliini:  the  lialal- 
ity  of  overturning  the  carriage  in  traveling.  4.  Allow- 
ing no  part  of  the  carriage  to  project  Iwlow  the  plane 
of  the  axletrees.  This  is  found  necessary  to  prevent 
the  breaking  of  the  implement-fastenings  in  passim,' 
over  stumps,  stones,  etc.  5.  More  convenient  modes 
of  carrying  the  rammers  and  trail  handspike.    6 


As 


Prussian  carriage,  and  is  braced  to  the  trail  by  two 
rods  just  inside  of  the  shoulder-washer. 

The  elevating-screw  is  composed  of  two  screws, 
one  within  the  other.  The  outer  one,  which  works 
in  a  fixed  nut  between  the  cheeks,  has  a  rim-handle 
for  turning  it.  The  head  of  the  inner  screw  is  hinged 
to  two  iron  rods  secured  to  the  cheeks.  The  trail- 
handspike  is  secured  to  the  socket,  which  i.-;  hinged 
to  the  support,  so  that  the  himdspike  can  be  turned 
down  on  the  tniil  when  it  has  l)een  diseng-ajjed  from 
the  poinling-rin-r.  The  wheels  have  melalHc  naves, 
and  are  smaller  "than  those  in  the  United  States  ser- 
vice;  they  are  onlv  •'52.7.")  inches  in  diameter.     Two 


FIELD  CABBIAGES. 


638 


FIELD  CABBIAGES. 


shoes  are  used  for  looking  tbe  wheel,  and  for  check- 
ine  the  recoil  in  tiring. 

The  liniLer  biCOM)|>ose(l  of  two  trough-beams,  3.5 
iuchfs  by  3  iuches  by  .2  inch,  secured  ilirectly  to  the 
axle  by  "understnii)s,  and  bent  at  tlic  front  so  a.s  to 
form  the  fork;  a  transom  and  a  socket  for  the  pole 
joins  thcni  in  front;  they  arc  connected  in  rear  by  an 
iron  bar  phuwl  on  top,  which  supports  the  end  "of  a 
double  T-piece  of  iron,  2.75  inches  by  2.36  inches,  the 
web  1.57  inch;  this  piece  carries  the  pintle-hook. 
The  splinter-bar  is  round,  hollow,  fastened  under  the 
fork  by  understraps,  and  si'curcd  to  the  a.xle  by  iron 
rods.  The  distance  of  the  pintle-hook  from  the  axle 
is  considerably  greater  than  is  necessary  to  balance 
the  pole,  it  would  seem,  an4  increases  the  weight  of 
the  limber.  The  pt)lc  is  of  wood,  and  can  be  readily 
taken  out  or  put  in  place. 

The  ammunition-chests  are  of  sheet-steel  M4  inch 
thick,  and  arc  di\i<led  by  a  principal  vertical  parti- 
tion into  two  parts.  Each  part  is  in  turn  divided 
into  six  compartments  by  sheets  of  iron  joined 
together,  and  strengthened  by  angle-irons  at  tlieir 
junctions.  The  projectiles  are  packed  in  light 
wooden  boxes,  with  cleats  to  keep  tliem  in  place;  the 
cover  is  held  closed  by  a  simple  hook,  and  a  handle 
is  secured  to  it  for  withdrawing  the  box.  The  car- 
tridges are  placed  in  the  compartments  without  doors. 
The  chests  are  closed  by  two  doors,  which  swing 
down  around  horizontal  hinges  placed  on  the  lower 


with  64  cartridges  of  3.3  pounds,  and  32  cartridges 
of  1  pound  for  i)lunging  tire.  The  cover  of  the  chest 
is  i)rovided  with  a  netting  for  carrying  various  arti- 
cles. The  advantages  which  result  from  this  mode 
of  construction  of  the  chest  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  doors  arc  so  obvious  as  to  make  it  needless  to 
point  them  out. 
The  weights  of  the  pails  are  as  follows: 

Pounds. 

Carriage  with  the  g:im  and  implements  2,364 

Limber,  packed 1,990 

Caisson,  packed 2,740 

Gim  with  limber 4,255 

Caisson,  complete 4,731 

Eiiifltiiid. — The  cheeks  are  made  each  of  a  frame 
of  angle-iron  of  the  required  form,  re-enforced  l)y 
welding  to  it  at  the  place  where  the  trunnion-beti 
should  come  a  solid  piece  of  iron  of  a  thickness  equal 
to  the  width  of  the  angle-irons,  and  large  enough  to 
cut  out  of  it  the  semicircular  recess  for  the  trunnion- 
bed,  which  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  common 
band-saw.  To  the  inner  side  of  this  frame  a  plate  of 
boiler-iron  of  corresponding  form  is  riveted.  The 
cheeks  are  joined  by  two  iron  plate  transoms,  one  in 
front  and  the  other  in  rear  of  the  axle-body,  by  two 
bolts  passing  through  iron  pipes,  and  by  the  lunette. 
The  cap-squares  are  secured  by  a  chin-bolt  which 
does  not  pass  entirely  through  the  cap-squares,  and  a 


Fio.  4. 


edge  of  the  chest;  they  are  secured  by  means  of  a 
double  turn-buckle  attached  to  the  principal  ))artition, 
and  by  hooks  near  the  ends  of  the  chest.  The  han- 
dles or  the  chest  are  joined  by  a  leather  strap,  and 
the  rear  part  of  the  cover  has  a  network  for  holding 
knapsiicks.  Three  cannoneers  can  be  .seated  on  the 
front  part  of  the  chest.  The  limber-chest  carries  34 
rounds,  of  which  10  are  shrapnel  and  4  canisters. 

The  construction  of  the  cais-son  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  limber.  It  is  composed  essentially  of  a  stock 
formed  of  two  channel-beams  3.5  inches  hisliand  .2 
inch  thick,  and  two  side-rails,  also  chann<'l-beams, 
2.75  inches  high  and  .2  inch  thick,  bent  in  front  to 
meet  the  stock,  and  joined  at  the  rear  bv  an  iron  bar. 
Tbe  caisson  is  provided  with  a  brake,  the  cross-piece 
of  which  is  a  piece  of  round  pipe  suspended  by  a 
hinge  from  the  side-rails.  The  spare  wlieel  is  earned 
under  the  cais.son  in  a  horizontal  ]>osition.  The  spare 
wheel-axle  is  attached  to  the  slock  bv  a  hinge  a  little 
in  front  of  the  axle  of  the  rear  wheels;  the  wheel  is  ■ 
laslie<l  to  the  body  of  tlie  cais,son. 

The  ammunition-chest  is  constnicted  like  that  of 
the  limber,  but  has  doul)le  the  capacity.  It  is  made, 
we  may  sjiy,  like  two  limber-<licsts,  plaCed  one  in  rear 
of  the  other,  and  is  dosed  by  4  iloors,  2  in  front  and 
2  in  rear,  oiKjning  around  the  lower  horizontal  edge 
of  the  chest.  It  contiiins  60  projectiles,  35  of  which  i 
lire  double  shells,  20  shrapnel,  and  5  incendiarj-  shells, 


pin  which  rvms  through  the  cheek  and  a  hole  in  a  lug 
welded  to  the  under  side  of  the  cap-squares. 

The  elevating-apparatvis  (Tig.  5),  which  is  known  as 
the  Whitworth  pattern,  consists  of  a  long  screw  and 
bronze  female  screw  with  a  bevel-gear  cut  on  its 
lower  surface.  A  spindle  with  a  bevel-wheel  on  one 
end  pa.sscs  through  the  right  cheek  piece,  and  has  at- 
tached to  it  a  bronze  hand-wheel  by  which  the  screw 
is  workeil.  The  female  screw  and  bevel-whccl  are 
cont;iiiud  in  a  wrought  iron  box  having  trunnions 
which  sujtport  it  l)etween  the  sides  of  tlie  trail;  the 
journal-boxes  are  bf)lted  on  the  inside  of  the  trail- 
pieces.  The  elevalingscrew  admits  of  elevations  of 
21°  and  depressions  of  4°.  The  lOpounder  gun- 
carriage  has  a  trail-box  of  sheet  iron,  diWded  into 
two  compartments,  for  holding  the  small  tools.  Its 
cover  is  fastened  by  a  hasp  and  turn-buckle.  The 
axle  and  axle-body  are  of  iron,  and  constitute  a  beam, 
in  section  a  box-girder.  The  body  is  riveted  to  the 
axle;  and  also  to  the  cheeks,  by  means  of  angle-irons. 

Two  wooden  boxes,  strengthened  by  corner-irons 
and  provided  with  iron  handles,  are  secured  to  the 
axle  iHidy,  one  on  each  side  of  the  gun,  and  carry 
each  two  rounds  of  canister.  They  also  serve  as  seats 
for  two  gunners.  A  step  for  their  feel  is  fastened  to 
the  box,  and  when  not  in  \ise  slides  out  of  tlie  way. 
A  lock  shoe  is  used  to  check  tlie  motion  of  the  car- 
riage down  hill,  and  the  chain  is  arranged  so  as  to 


FIELD  CARRIAGES. 


639 


FIELD  CARRIAGES. 


allow  the  wheel,  when  it  is  desired  to  unlock  it,  to 
run  over  the  shoe,  which  is  then  picked  up  and  hung 
ou  the  carriage. 

The  wheels  have  bronze  naves,  which  are  in  three 
pieces,  the  pipe-bo.\  being  of  harder  metal  than  the 
two  flanges.  The  felloes,  of  a.-^h,  and  tlie  spokes,  of 
oak,  ai'e  made  by  machinery.  The  inner  ends  of  the 
*pokes  are  wedge-shaped,  "and  form  when  driven  a 
perfect  arch  around  the  pipebo.x.  The  tenons  are 
not  of  the  same  diameter  throughout  their  length. 


tionchests  are  the  same  as  the  side  chests  on  the 
limber,  except  in  some  of  the  leather  fittings.     A 
lock -shoe  is  used,  the  same  as  for  the  gun. 
The  principal  weights  are  as  follows: 

9-poun(Jer.  Jft-potinder 

Weight  of  Run-carriage,  empty I. .300  lbs.  1.480  lbs. 

Weight  of  gun-carriage,  packed 2,320  lbs.  2,957  lbs. 

Weijjbt  on  pintle-hook,  without  grunners.     140  lbs.  147  lbs. 

Weight  of  limber,  empty 1,235  lbs.  1,270  lbs. 

Weight  of  limber,  packed 1,731  lbs.  1,792  lbs. 

Weight  of  caisson,  empiy 2,725  lbs.    lbs. 

Weight  of  caisson,  packed 4,530  lbs.  4,6fi0  lbs. 


Fio.  5. 


but  are  larger  at  the  shoulder,  and  fit  into  the  felloes 
bored  with  two  bits  of  different  sizes. 

The  limber  is  formed  of  three  futcliclls,  an  angle- 
stay,  a  splinter-bar,  and  two  stays,  an  a.xlt*  a.\le-body, 
ami  pintle  hooks,  all  of  iron,  "with  foot-boards  and 
shafts  of  wood.  To  diminish  the  weight  thrown  on 
the  shaft-hor.se,  the  ammunition-chests  are  thrown 
well  to  the  rear,  and  held  by  four  knees  of  T-irou 
screwed  to  the  rear  side  of  the  a.\le-bed.  The  limber 
is  fitted  for  single,  double,  and  treble  draught,  and 
for  oxen.  Three  chests  are  carried  on  the  limber. 
Two  of  them  are  similar.  They  are  all  made  of 
wood,  strengthened  by  comer-pieces  of  iron.  The 
side  chests  are  partitioned  off  to  carrj'  18  rounds  of 
ammunition.  The  center  chest  ha-s  copper  partitions, 
and  carries  fuses,  friction-primers,  etc. 


Germany. — The  field-carriages  arc  provided  mainly 
by  contract.  Krupp  makes  the  largest  number.  In 
his  last  model  (Tig.  6)  the  cheek  and  trail-piece,  instead 
of  being  strengthened  by  angle-iron  riveted  around  the 
outer  edge,  is  made  of  steel,  and  has  this  flange  set 
up  in  a  die  while  the  metal  is  hot.  The  plates  are 
first  rolled  to  about  the  size  required,  then  cut  to  the 
exact  shape,  heated  to  redness,  and  forced  by  means 
of  hytkaulic  power  into  the  die  or  former,  which 
gives  them  Uie  required  form;  that  is,  about  H  inch 
of  the  edge  of  the  plate  all  around  is  turned  up  like 
an  angle-iron.  This  ncces.silates  the  provision  of  an 
expensive  former,  but  when  it  has  been  once  prepared 
the  expense  of  making  the  cheek  pieces  is  much 
diminished,  while  their  weight  for  a  given  strength  is 
considerably  less  than  when  the  flange  is  riveted  on. 


The  caisson  is  of  iron,  with  the  exception  of  the 
foot-boards.  The  stock  is  formed  of  two  channel- 
beams.  The  spare  wheel  is  carried  on  an  arm  se- 
cured to  two  plates  riveted  to  the  inner  sides  of  the 
beams  forming  the  stock,  the  plates  lieing  bolted 
together  with  bolts  having  pipes  over  them  between 
the  plates.  A  block  of  elm  to  act  as  a  stay  is  riveted 
to  the  stock.  The  cai.sson-body  carries  four  ammu- 
nition-chests and  four  under-boxes.    The  ammuni- 


The  cheeks  are  united  by  two  plate  transoms;  that 
near  the  head  of  the  cheeks  is  cut  out  so  as  to  allow 
the  gun  to  be  depressed.  The  trail  is  further 
slTcngthened  by  the  two  ends  of  the  trail-chest  and 
the  cover,  which  extends  from  the  elevating-screw  to 
the  lunette,  and  by  the  different  assembling-bolts. 
Each  cheek  is  re-enforced  by  a  system  of  braces 
secured  to  the  inner  faces  between  the  flanges,  and 
intended  to  prevent  the  trail  from  bending  in  firing. 


FI£LD-CABBIAOES. 


640 


FIELD  CABBIAGES. 


The  axle  is  of  tempered  steel,  and  is  cylinilrical  in 
the  body.  The  nmis  are  coniciil,  anil  for  a  ilisiancc 
arc  liartonetl  lo  linKl  the  preasf.  The  linch-pin  is 
elliptiral,  anil  has  a  tlut  head,  which  may  be  used  as 
a  step  The  wheels  have  bronze  naves,  twelve  spokes 
and  six  felloes,  of  wood;  their  diameter  is  it')  inches 
(4  inches  less  than  tlie  model  of  1864).  The  linch- 
washer  is  covered  by  a  molding  of  the  nave.  Leather 
shoulder-washers  aVe  used  to  lessen  the  noise  in 
marching.  Two  iron  connecting-rods  join  the  a.xles 
near  the  shoulder  with  the  trail,  strengthening  the 
former.  In  the  Scenlimeler  these  rods  carrv  two 
seats  for  two  gunners.  The  seats  are  providecl  with 
a  back  of  netting,  India-rublxT  springs  to  les.sen  the 
force  of  the  shock  going  over  rough  roads,  and  a  step 
for  the  convenience  of  the  gunners  taking  their  seals 
and  to  rest  their  feet  on  dunng  the  march.  The  car- 
riage is  provided  with  brakes,  which  are  operated 
during  the  march  by  the  gunners  mounted  on  the 
axle-seats.  The  figure  shows  how  these  brakes  arc 
arranged;  Ihey  may  be  also  used  to  check  the  recoil 
in  firing. 

The  elevating  apparatus  is  composed  of  a  double 
screw,  the  inner  one  having  a  flat  head  with  a  hole 
drilled  in  it.  The  breech  rests  on  a  bronze  block, 
which  is  embraced  by  the  two  rod -supports;  they 
turn  around  a  horizontal  bolt  passing  through  the 
cheeks  near  the  head  of  the  carriage.  The  head  of 
the  inner  screw  is  hinged  lo  the  rods  under  the  block. 
The  outer  screw  has  a  wheel-handle  for  giving  the 
elevation.  A  small  chain  attached  to  the  trail  chest 
cover  is  used  to  place  this  wheel  in  its  position,  and 


faces  the  gunner  who  is  distributing  the  ammunition) 
has  two  rectangular  openings,  each  provided  with  a 
dt)or,  which  opens  by  turning  down  toward  the  rear. 
The  doors  are  do.sed  by  means  of  hasps  turning 
around  the  edge  of  the  cover.  An  iron  arc  with  two 
support-notches  is  attached  to  the  right  end  of  the 
cover  and  serves  to  hold  it  open. 

E.\i)erimental  caisson.s  made  of  iron  are  now  being 
tcsle(l  with  a  view  to  their  adoption. 

The  principal  weights,  in  pounds,  are  as  follows: 

3.1  In.    3.lt4-in. 

Weight  of  the  enrriaee  with  trail-liandspike 1.080  1,167 

\Vei^)it  of  the  carriage  with  gun  nod  impleiueots  1,967  2,164 

Weight  of  the  trail  on  the  ground 165  IBS 

Weight  of  tlie  limber  not  loaded 1,153  1,157 

Weight  of  the  ainniuuition 562  64B 

Weight  of  the  tools,  implements,  etc 253  258 

Weight  of  the  guu  and  carriage  and  limber  with- 

outgimners 3,968  4,277 

Weight  for  each  hor.se  without  gunners 660  712 

Weight  of  the  caisson  loaded  for  the  batteries..  4,696  4,940 

Jiuma. — This  carriage  is  in  its  general  construction 
like  those  already  described.  The  cheeks  are  made 
of  boiler-plate,  .2')  inch  thick,  and  strengthened  by 
angle-irons  riveted  around  the  edge.  The  axle  is 
square  in  cro-ss-section,  3  inches,  ami  is  strengthened 
to  resist  the  recoil  of  the  gun  by  a  flat  bar  of  iron 
bolted  lo  it,  the  bolts  not  passing  through  the  axle, 
but  around  it,  and  secured  by  nuts. 

The  wheels  have  bronze  naves.  Each  felloe  is 
bolted  to  the  tire  by  a  bolt  near  each  end.  Under 
the  heads  of  each  pair  of  bolts  nearest  each  other  is 
an  iron  plate,  let  into  the  under  side  of  the  felloe,  and 


Fio. 


prevent  it  from  turning  during  the  march.  The  nut 
of  the  elevating-screw  has  trunnions  which  turn  in 
trunnion-holes  in  the  cheeks.  The  8-centimeter  nun- 
carriage  will  admit  of  elevations  from  1.5°  depression 
to  18°  of  elevation,  and  the  9-centinieter  carriage 
from  15°  depression  to  16°  of  elevation. 

Among  the  other  irons  of  the  carriiige  may  be 
mentioned  the  trunnion-beds  and  cap-squares.  These 
last  are  held  in  place  by  a  verlicjil  toll,  which  passes 
through  the  flange,  and  serves  as  a  handle  for  the 
man  sealed  on  the  axle.  The  iron  pointing-bar  on 
the  left  cheek  is  movable  around  one  of  the  lunette 
bolts;  it  can  be  turned  down  to  the  rear,  and  re-sLs  on 
an  iron  fork  on  the  cheeks.  A  ca.se  for  grapeshot, 
with  leather  and  felt  lining,  is  on  the  left  cheek,  and 
on  the  right  a  sponge-ring  near  the  axle-seat,  an<l  a 
sponge-socket  near  the  lunette.  A  short  rammer  is 
transported  in  the  trail-chest.  It  is  composed  of  a 
wofxlen  head  and  a  hollow  iron  stall.  It  is  used  in 
placing  the  projectile  and  carlridge  in  posilioii;  th(^ 
staff  has  a  mark  on  it  for  this  purpose.  The  staff 
may  l)e  also  used  to  open  the  breech  w  hen  it  sticks; 
it  is  engaged  in  the  handle  as  a  key. 

The  whi-elH  and  axles  of  the  limber  are  the  same  as 
for  the  C4irriage.  Two  parallel  hoiuids  embrace  the 
pole  at  Iheir  front  end,  and  are  joined  at  the  rear  by 
a  Inin.soni,  to  which  the  pintle-hook  Ls  fastened.  The 
latest  pallern  is  made  of  iron,  with  the  exception  of 
the  wheels  and  pole. 

The  ammunition-chest  is  of  sheet-iron,  and  has  on 
it  two  iron  supjiorls  for  a  leather  back-slrap  for  the 
gunners.     The  rear  side  (that  is  to  say,  that  which 


sendng  as  a  washer  to  the  bolt-heads,  thus  strengthen- 
ing the  wheel  at  the  junction  of  the  felloes. 

The  elevating-screw  is  a  double  one,  and  allows  of 
an  elevation  of  20  \  The  carriages  made  ten  years 
ago  were  conslnicled  with  a  top-carriage,  which  had 
a  lateral  motion  around  a  vertical  pintle  fa.stened  to 
the  axle  of  the  carriage.  Hy  this  means  the  gimner 
could  iHiint  the  gun  without  depending  upon  the  man 
at  the  trail-handspike  to  give  it  tlie  exact  direction. 
Experience  showed,  however,  that  the  compliaition 
of  the  part-s  and  the  weakening  of  the  carriage  were 
not  compensated  for  by  the  advantages  gained,  and 
this  feature  has  been  siqipressed  in  i he  carriages  of 
recent  construction.  The  lrail-hands]iike  is  of  wood, 
shod  with  iron,  and  made  fast  to  a  hinge  on  the  trail 
of  the  carriage,  .so  that  it  can  be,  when  not  in  use, 
folded  biick  on  the  trail. 

The  ammunition-cart  is  covered  with  sheet-iron, 
and  lined  on  the  inside  with  coarse  tow-doth,  glued 
to  the  wood.  More  recently  the  cjut  has  l)een  super- 
.seded  by  the  caisson  will!  four  wheels,  drawn  by 
horses  attached  for  draught  as  in  our  service. 

Among  the  regular  stores  assigned  to  each  battery 
is  a  bra.s.s  mold  for  casting  new  jackets  on  projectiles 
which  have  been  fired  and  recovered.  The  Kliivan 
campaign  developed  serious  objections  to  the  leaden 
coat,  some  of  the  pieces  having  been  rendered  tempo- 
rarily unserviceable  by  the  leading  of  the  bore.  To 
prevent  this  in  future,  the  lead-coaled  ])rojeclilcs  are 
covered  with  a  composition  made  of  i.">  parts  of  beef- 
tallow,  .'iO  parts  of  common  soap,  and  'ii>  parts  of 
parafllue,  applietl  with  a  brush.     New  projectiles  are 


FIELD-COLOES. 


641 


FIELD-FORTIFICATIOK. 


provided  '.vith  copper  bands  for  filliDc  the  grooves 
and  imparting  rotation. 

Instead  of  woolen  sponges  for  sponging  the  bore, 
brushes  are  used;  the  bristles  are  held  in  place  by 
pitch.  Brass-wire  brushes  have  been  tried,  but  their 
use  has  been  abandoned 

The  principal  weights  are  as  follows: 

Gun,   carriaee,  and    limber,  (  4,*W  pounds  for  the  9-pounder. 

loaded,  pioiieei-s'  tools  and-^  .J.UbO  pounds  for  the  4-pounder, 

men's  knapsacks  included:  /  3, CW  pounds  for  horse-artillerv 
Weight  for  each   horse,  in-  f     ^„  j    ,      .u    « 

eluding   five   cannoneers,       '•»  pounds  for  the  Opounder. 

mounted  on  the  carriage  1     »«"  pounds  f..r  the  4-pounder. 

and  Umber:  I     ^™  pounds  for  horse-artillery. 

France.— The  French  f]eld<'arriages  resemble  mucli 
the  latest  pattern  of  Krupp"s  carriage,  in  which  the 
cheek-piece  and  flange  are  one  piece." 

Sweden. — The  Swedish  carriage  (Fig.  7)  is  made  of 
boiler-plate  a  little  less  than  i  inch  thick,  strength- 
ened by  angle-iron,  both  on  the  lop  and  bottom  edges, 
the  angle-iron  being  turneii  inward. 

The  elevating-screw  is  operated  by  means  of  a 
second  screw,  which  turns  the  female  screw  of  the 
former,  thus  raising  or  lowering  the  elevating-screw. 

The  limber  has  the  jiintle  some  distance  in  rear  of 
the  axle,  thus  serving  to  balance  the  pole  and  relieve 
the  weight  from  the  horses'  necks. 

The  hounds  are  made  of  two  pieces  of  angle-iron 
riveted  together.     See  Emjkhardi  G^iin-eam'age. 


of  the  assailant  should  be  swept  not  only  by  the 
front  but  the  cross  tire  of  the  assailed.  5.  It  should 
olTer  no  obstructions  to  the  free  movements  of  the 
a.ssailed  either  for  the  offensive  or  defensive,  and 
aiford  facilities  for  active  offensive  movements  at  the 
opportune  moment.  6.  It  should  have  secure  natural ' 
points  of  support  both  on  its  Hanks  and  in  the  rear. 
7.  It  should  afford  every  convenience  for  encamping 
and  supplying  the  army.  8.  Its  lines  of  retreat  should 
be  ample  and  secure.  As  natural  defensive  positions, 
offering  all  or  even  the  most  essential  of  these  advan- 
tages, are  seldom  met  with,  their  defects  have  to 
be  remedied  by  artiticial  means.  These  means  from 
their  object  have  received  the  nmnc  (>{  JitrUJical ion, 
which  may  tJicrefore  be  delined  as  t/ie  art  of  so  ar- 
ranging a  ponition  selected  for  defeme  that  an  inferior 
force  shall  be  able  to  remt  with  advantage  the  assaults 
of  one  superior  to  it.  If  the  artificial  means  are  of  a 
durable  character,  and  the  position  is  to  be  perma- 
nently occupied,  the  works  receive  the  name  of  per- 
inanent  fortification  ;  but  when  the  position  is  to  be 
occupied  only  for  a  short  period,  or  during  the  oper- 
ations of  a  campaign,  perishable  materials,  as  earth 
and  wood,  are  mostly  used,  and  the  works  arc  de- 
nominated iemporary  or  field  furtifcalhn. 

Fortifications  should  be  regarded  only  as  an  acces- 
sory <lefensive  means,  but  still  a  very  important  one, 
and  they  will  conduce  to  the  end  proposed  the  more 


Profile  ot  Parapet  and  Ditch  of  Ordinary  Field-fortiflcation. 


A  B  C  D  E  F  the  profile  of  Par-    D  E,  the  Superior  Slope. 


G  HI  k,  is  the  Droflle  of  the 

Ditch. 
L  M  N,  the  profile  of  the  Glacis. 
A  B  is  the  Banquette  Slope. 
B  C,  the  Tread  of  Banquette. 
C  D,  the  Interior  Slope. 


E  F,  the  Blxterior  Slope. 
F  G,  the  Berm. 
G  H.  the  Scarp. 
II  1,  the  Hottom  of  the  Ditch. 
I  K,  the  Counterscarp. 
A,  the  Foot  ot  the  Banquette 
Slope. 


B,  the  Crest  of  the  Banquette.    H,  the  Foot  of  the  Scarp. 

C,  the  Foot  ot  the  Interior    I,   the  Foot  of  the  Counter- 


Slope. 

D,  the  Interior  Crest. 

E,  the  Exterior  Crest. 


scarp. 
K.  the  Crest  of  the  Counter- 
scarp. 


F.  the  Foot  of  the  Exterior    M,  the  Crest  of  the  Glacis. 


Slope. 
G,  the  Crest  of  the  Scarp. 


N,  the  Foot  of  the  Glacis. 


FIELD-COLORS.— Small  flags,  about  U  foot  square, 
carried  along  with  troops  for  marking  out  the  grotmil 
for  tlie  sqtiadrons  and  battalions;  camp-colors. 

FIELD-DAY. — A  term  employed  when  a  regiment 
is  taken  out  to  the  field  for  the  purpose  of  being  in- 
stnictetl  in  the  field-exercise  and  evolutions. 

FIELDED. — A  term  formerly  used  to  imply  in  the 
field  of  battle,  or  encamped.  The  word  is  now  obso- 
lete. 

FIELD-FORTIFICATION.— When  an  armed  force 
is  constrained  to  art  on  the  defensive,  either  from  in- 
feriority in  numerical  strength  or  discipline  to  its  ad- 
versary, it  should  endeavor  to  counterbalance  this 
disparity  against  it  by  selecting  a  position  on  which 
to  receive  battle,  which  will  afford  every  militarj- 
advantage  to  itself,  and  prove,  in  a  corresponding 
degree,  unfavorable  to  the  as.sjiilant.  A  defensive 
position  to  afford  these  advantages  should  satisfy  the 
following  conditions:  1.  It  should  present  natural 
obstructions  to  the  advance  of  the  assailed,  so  as  to 
deprive  him  of  the  advantage  which  his  superiority 
in  numbers  or  discipline  would  give  him  in  a  hand- 
to-hand  conflict.  2.  The  features  of  the  groimd 
should  screen  the  a.s.sailed  from  the  assttilanf's  view, 
and  offer  covers  from  the  a.s.siiilant's  fire,  whilst  their 
own  fire  can  be  u.sed  with  full  effect.  3.  It  should 
command  or  overlook  the  ground  over  which  the 
assailant  will  be  obliged  to  advance,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  its  surface  will  be  swept  by  the  fire  of  the 
assailed.    4.  In  like  manner  all  the  lines  of  approach 


nearly  they  are  made  to  satisfy  the  foregoing  condi- 
tions of  a  strong  defensive  position.  To  satisfy  the 
first  three  of  the.se  conditions — viz.,  to  offer  an  ob- 
struction to  a  hand-to-hand  conflict;  to  shelter  the 
assailed  from  the  view  and  fire  of  the  as.sailant;  and 
to  afford  the  assailed  a  commanding  view  and  a 
sweeping  fire  over  the  assjtilanfs  lines  of  approach, 
fortifications  must  consist  of  a  covering  mass  of 
earth,  stone,  wood,  or  iron  of  sufficient  height  and 
thickness  to  screen  the  men  behind  it  from  view,  and 
to  intercept  the  missiles  of  the  a.s.sjiilcd,  and  of  some 
obstruction  in  advanceof  it  which  will  prove  a  serious 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  as-siulant's  advance. 

The  covering  mass  is  termed  a  parapit  when  it  fvd- 
fills  the  last  two  of  these  conditions;  when  intended 
simply  as  a  screen,  as  in  the  case  of  a  cover  for  cav- 
alry when  waiting  to  be  brought  into  action,  it  is 
termed  an  epaiilement ;  and  when  used  to  cover  troops 
from  an  enfilading  fire  pn  the  flank  or  in  the  rear,  a 
trarer.ie. 

The  most  usual  obstruction  to  impede  the  enemy's 
advance  to  attack  with  the  bayonet  is  a  ditch  placed 
in  front  of  the  parapet.  AVhen  the  parapet  is  of 
earth,  the  ditch  furnishes  the  material  for  its  con- 
struction. The  drawing  shows  the  form  and  rela- 
tive dimensions  of  the  "profile  of  the  parapet  and 
ditch  of  an  ordinary  field-fortification.  When  the 
top  surface  of  the  platform,  termed  the  banquette 
tread  is  too  high  to  be  reached  from  the  givund 
by  an  ordinary  step,  a  ramp,  either  of  earth  or  tim- 


riELD-GLASS. 


642 


FIELD  OFFICER'S  COUET. 


ber,  is  plawd  in  the  rear  of  it,  Ijy  which  it  is  reached. 
This  ranip  is  called  the  banquette  sh>iH.  The  interior 
face  of  the  parapet,  when  arranged  for  musketry, 
is  termed  the  brttint/uii/fit  or  interior  sIojm- ;  wlien 
for  artillery,  the  geuouilllre.  The  top  of  the  paraiJet 
'  is  the  >iip< rior  shin.  The  exterior  face  is  termed  the 
exterior  fhpe.  Between  the  parajxjt  and  ditch  a  nar- 
row zone  is  usually  left  on  the  natund  surface  of  the 
f  round,  which  is  iernied  the  berm.  The  side  of  the 
itch  adjacent  to  the  parapet  is  termed  the  scarp;  the 
side  oi>posite  to  this,  the  counterscarp.  A  mound  of 
earth  placed  in  front  of  the  counterscarp,  with  a  gen 
tie  slope  outwards,  is  termed  the  glucix.  To  obtain 
speedy  coyer,  the  parapet  is  formed  from  a  ditch 
.  vrithiii,  termed  a  trench,  of  sufficient  depth,  ^yith  the 
height  of  the  parapet,  to  giye  shelter  to  the  troops 
when  standing  in  the  trench.  The  natural  ground 
serves  as  the  banquette  tread  in  this  ca.se. 

The  measures  taken  for  the  attack  and  defense  of 
fortifications  have  an  interdependence  so  intimate  that 
the  disposition*  made  by  the  one  party  naturally  con- 
trol those  that  the  other  may  make.  The  assailing 
force  naturally  seeks  to  advance  on  those  points  which 
offer  the  least  obstruction,  either  by  their  passive 
strength  or  by  the  fire  which  sweeps  the  ground  over 
which  the  advance  has  to  \k  made.  The  most  favor- 
able case  for  the  assailant  will  be  where  no  lire  from 
the  a.s.s;uled  sweeps  over  the  ground  along  which  he 
advances;  the  next  is  where,  although  the  missiles  of 
the  as.sailed  sweep  above  the  approach,  they  pas<5  so 
high  above  the  assailant  as  to  iutiict  no  in.iu'ry.  See 
Field-intrcnchments,  Field-works,  Flanked  Disposition, 
Fortification,  Inclosed  Works,  Line  of  Works,  Projil- 
in<],  aiul  Tracing. 

FIELD-GLASS.— The  double  or  binocular  telescope, 
constructed  ojitically  on  the  principle  invented  by 
Galileo,  and  designed  to  give  clear  and  distinct  views 
of  natural  scenery  by  sea  or  land.  Each  tube  of 
the  glass  contains  a  convex  or  magnifj-ing  achro- 
matic object  lens  and  a  concave  or  negative  eye- 
lens,  which  are  placed  at  nearly  the  distance  of  their 
focal  length  apart.  Thus,  if  the  object  lens  is  of 
five  inches  focus  and  the  eye-lens  of  one  inch  nega- 
tive focus,  the  length  of  the  bodies  will  be  about  four 
inches  and  the  power  will  l)e  about  five  times.  To 
obtain  a  greater  magnifying  power  with  glasses  con- 
structed on  the  Galilean  principle,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  object-  and  eye- lenses  must  be  inerea.sed 
until  the  limit  of  convenient  portability  is  reached, 
which  is  found  to  be  about  ciglit  times.  If  it  be  de- 
sired to  a)iply  the  principle  of  binocidarity  to  higher 
powers,  an  onlinaiy  refracting  telescope  nmst  be  em- 
ployed. The  field-  or 
marine-^lass  being  in- 
tended lor  all  out-door 
use,  and  being  necessa- 
rily employed  in  hazy 
weather  or  after  night- 
fall, is  constructed  with 
large  object-lenses  for 
the  light-gathering,  and 
with  shades  to  extend 
beyond  both  the  object- 
glasses,  to  shield  the 
Ci.-m  FielJ-glass.  i.„ter  from  sun  or  rain. 

Their  frames  arc  made  very  substantially,  to  endure 
the  rough  handling  to  which  they  may  be  subjected, 
and  they  are  earrieilin  strong  sole-leather  ca.ses,  with 
strai)S  tor  slinging  over  the  shoulders.  But  they  are 
bulky  and  heavy,  rendering  it  very  desirable  that  a 
gla.sscombining  "their  good  ((ualities  with  greater  port- 
ability and  lightness  should  be  procurable  for  many 
purposes.  Tiiese  desiderata  are  fully  realized  in  the 
Gem,  a  glass  manufactured  by  Walmsley  &  Co.,  and 
largely  issued  by  the  I'nited  States  Government  to  of- 
ficers serving  on  the  Plain.s. 

FIELD-GUN. — A  small  kind  of  gun  or  cannon  used 
on  the  battle-field.     Often  called  a  fleld-piece.     See 
Field-artilli  rt/. 
FIELD-HO'SPITAL,— The  Staff  and  apparatus  for 


the  surgical  treatment  of  the  wounded  in  the  field, 
and  the  locality  a.ssigned  for  the  resort  of  the  latter 
to  obtain  it.  In  the  United  States  there  is  a  hospital 
at  every  military  post,  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  Medical  Department.  In  the  Freiuh  army  the 
service  of  the  field-hospitals  forms  part  of  the  inten- 
dance  of  the  army,  the  Medical  Ollicers  in  charge 
being  under  the  s"upreme  control  of  the  Intendant 
General,     See  Jloxjiitnh. 

FIELD  INTRENCHMENTS.— When  positions  are  to 
be  taken  up  and  lines  ol  intrenchments  or  iletachcd 
works  are  to  be  construcled,  it  is  the  duty  of  artillery 
ollicers,  in  co-o)5eration  with  those  of  engineers,  to  se- 
lect positions  for  batteries  and  determine  the  kind  and 
amount  of  armament  therefor.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary that  they  shoidd  be  thoroughly  conversjmt  with 
the  i)rinciples  of  military  engineering,  and  especially 
those  ol  ficld-iulrenchinents.  The  object  of  every  for- 
tification is  to  shelter  the  troops  occupying  it  from  the 
view  and  fire  of  an  as.sailant,  and  at  the  sjimc  time  to 
all'ord  them  a  conunanding  view  and  sweeping  fire 
over  their  enemy.  Earth  is  the  principal  material 
employed  on  land  for  resisting  the  fire  of  artillery. 
Wood,  iron,  and  masonry  are  used  in  conjunction 
with  it,  principally  for  sustaining  purpo.ses.  As  a 
material  for  fortifications,  earth  po.ssesses  advantages 
over  all  other,  being  found  read}'  at  hand  in  almost 
all  localities  where  wanted  for  such  purposes,  being 
easily  handled,  and  possessing  unrivaled  properties 
of  resistance  as  a  covering  mass  against  projectiles. 

Field-iutrenchments  may  be  classified  as  follows: 
1.  Intrenched  camps;  3.  Intrenched  lines  of  battle; 
3.  Detached  works;  4.  Lines  of  works;  ,'5.  Works 
auxiliary  to  permanent  fortifications;  6.  Works  for 
siege-operatious.  So  far  as  artillery  is  concerned,  the 
first  object  to  be  con.sidered  is  position,  the  general 
principles  of  which  are  the  same  for  each  of  the  above 
classes,  and  which  may  be  briefiy  stated  as  follows: 
1.  Artillery  should,  if  possible,  overlook  all  the 
ground  within  range  over  which  an  enemy  might  ad- 
vance, and  the  pieces  be  .so  placed  as  to  sweep  the  en- 
tire surface  with  their  fire,  those  of  longest  range  oc- 
cupying the  most  commanding  positions.  2.  All  the 
lines  of  approach  of  the  assailant  should  be  swept  not 
only  by  the  frontal,  but  by  the  flank  or  cross  fire  of 
the  assailed.  3.  The  features  of  the  ground  should 
screen  the  a.ssailed  from  the  assailant's  view,  and  af- 
ford cover  from  his  fire  whilst  that  of  the  assailed 
can  be  delivered  with  full  effect.  4.  The  position 
should,  if  po.ssible,  present  natural  obstructions  to  the 
advance  of  the  assailant.  5.  It  should  offer  no  ob- 
structions to  the  free  movements  of  the  assailed,  either 
for  the  offensive  or  defensive,  and  should  afford  fa- 
cilities for  active  offensive  movements  at  the  oppor- 
tune moment.  6.  It  should  have  secure  supports, 
both  on  its  flanks  and  in  the  rear.  7.  It  should  af- 
ford every  convenience  for  encamping  and  being 
sujiplied.  See  Field-fortification,  Intrenched  Camps, 
and  Intreiichnifnt. 

FIELD  MARSHAL.— The  highest  rank  of  General 
OBicers  in  the  British  and  other  foreign  armies.  In 
the  former  it  is  a  special  honor  enjoyed  by  very  few 
oflicers,  and  only  conferred  by  selection,  either  on  the 
ground  of  distinguished  service  or  of  royal  birth. 
\Vheii  unemployed,  the  Field  Marshal  has  no  higher 
pay  than  any  other  General,  but  if  conunanding  an 
ariiiy  he  receives  i'16  Si.  »'/.  a  day  forstalT-i)ay,  while 
a  General  has  but  fi)  9«.  0(/.  Theequivalenl'rank  in 
the  Navy  is  that  of  Admiral  of  the  Fleet.  Formerly 
a  ('aptain  General  was  occasionally  appointed,  who 
had  rank  liisrher  even  than  a  Field  ^larshal. 

FIELD  OFFICER.—  An  officer  above  the  rank  of 
Captain  and  below  that  of  General.  Thus  a  JIajor, 
Lieutenant  Colonel,  or  Colonel,  whether  of  brevet  or 
regimental  rank,  is  a  Field  Ofiicer,  A  Field  Otticer 
in  the  English  army  in  conunand  of  his  regiment  re- 
tains the  command  for  five  years,  but  can  be  re- 
appointed at  the  will  of  the  Commander-in-Chief. 

FIELD  OFFICER'S  COURT.— In  the  United  States 
service,  a  Court-Martial  consisting  of  one  Field  Officer 


flELD  OF  IH£  CLOTH  OF  GOLD. 


643 


FIELD-BEMEDIES. 


empowered  to  try  all  cases,  subject  to  jurisdiction  of 
Garrison  and  Regimental  Courts.  It  takes  the  place 
of  the  latter  Courts  in  time  of  war,  but  cannot  be  held 
in  time  of  peace.     See  CourU-Mdrtial. 

FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  OF  GOLD.— A  plain  near 
Guisnes,  in  the  Department  of  Calais,  France,  where 
Henry  VIII.  of  England  and  Francis  I.  of  France 
held  a  conference  in  June,  1520.  The  Throne  of 
France  was  sought  for  by  Charles  I.  of  Spain  (after- 
wards Charles  V.),  and  Francis  sought  the  fricnd.ship 
of  the  English  King.  To  bring  about  such  a  result 
Francis  proposed  to  raise  Cardinal  AVolsey  to  the 
Papacy.  Wolsey  brought  about  and  conducted  the 
meeting,  which  was  attended  with  so  much  splendor 
of  pageantry  lus  to  give  the  peculiar  title  to  the  place. 
The  solemnities  occupied  nearly  three  weeks.  Ten 
days  were  spent  in  the  feats  of  arms  for  which  Wol- 
sey had  provided.  There  were  tilting  with  lances, 
and  tourneys  on  horseback  with  the  tjroadsword,  and 
fighting  on  foot  at  the  barriers.  The  Kings  were  al- 
ways victorious  against  all  comers.  On  Midsummer 
Day  the  gaudy  shows  were  over. 

FIELD-PARK. — The  spare  carriages,  re.served  sup- 
plies of  ammunition,  tools,  and  materials  for  exten- 
sive repairs  and  for  making  up  ammunition,  for  the 
ser\'ice  of  an  army  in  the  field,  form  the  field-park,  to 
which  should  be  attached  also  the  batteries  of  re- 
serve.    See  Park. 

FIELD-REMEDIES.— Peculiar  and  local  diseases 
prevail  in  nearly  every  section  of  countrj';  and 
wounds  from  gun-shot  and  weapons,  bruised  and 
broken  ijones,  are  casualties  that  may  befall  soldiers 
in  the  tield  at  iuiy  time.  It  is,  therefore.  Important 
for  all  to  have,  in  ca.ses  of  emergency,  a  sufficient 
knowledge  of  medicine  and  practical  surgery  to  en- 
able them  to  relieve  the  sick  and  wounded  until  pro- 
fessional aid  can  be  secured.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
provide  a  very  extensive  collection  of  medicines,  etc. 
The  list  detailed  for  the  weduine-chest  will  be  found 
suflicient.  Many  natural  remedies piesent  themselves 
in  all  localities,  and  very  .simjile  modes  of  treatment, 
if  understood,  will  relieve  much  sutfcring  The  fol- 
lowing remetlies  and  modes  of  procedure  should  be 
carefully  noted,  as  it  is  quite  impossible  to  experience 
even  a  brief  ser\ice  in  the  field,  without  the  necessity 
of  resorting  to  .some  of  them: 

Sciirrymay  be  prevented  by  employing  the  following 
antiscorbutics:  1.  Any  fresh  vegetables,  wild  onions, 
fresh  fruit,  and  even  unripe  fruit,  with  a  risk  of  di- 
arrhea. 2.  Dried  or  canned  vegetables,  es|x'cially 
potatoes  and  cauliflower.  3.  Vinegar,  citric  acid  or 
lemon-juice.  4.  Citrates,  malatcs,  tartrates  and  lac- 
tates of  potash,  used  in  food  or  drink.  !).  Pure  air, 
exercise,  and  cleanliness.  6.  Tincture  of  chloride  of 
iron,  taken  daily,  or  infusion  of  hemlock-leaves.  7. 
Raw  potatoes  and  fresh  raw  meat.  Mahiria  should 
be  promptly  checked.  Quinine  in  sufficient  doses  is 
the  remedy.  A  halt  to  the  leeward  of  a  marsh  or 
swamp  should  be  avoided.  A  camp  on  low  ground 
is  often  less  tiffected  by  malaria  than  the  low  hills 
that  overlook  it.  Violent  exertion,  resulting  in  ex- 
haustion and  perspiration,  often  averts  an  attack,  and 
any  simple  aperient  is  likewise  good.  Diarrheti  may 
bo  treated  with  an  ounce  of  castor-oil  and  fifteen  drops 
of  laudanum  suspended  in  water.  The  patient  should 
eat  neither  bread  nor  meat,  but  confine  liis  diet  to  a 
little  rice-broth,  thickened  milk,  and  the  like.  If  it 
is  accompanied  by  severe  cramps,  apply  hot  rocks  or 
pans  to  the  feet  and  hot  fomentations  to  the  stomach. 
PoiaoMd  persons  must  be  treated  with  the  greatest 
caution,  inasmuch  as  it  is  necessary  to  deal  with  dan- 
gerous remedies.  Some  poisons  are  best  ejected  by 
vonuting,  and  an  emetic  should  be  promptly  given; 
in  others,  the  action  on  the  stomach  may  be  dimin- 
ished by  oily  and  mucilaginous  drinks,  such  as  mag- 
nesia, milk  and  oil,  barley-water,  flour  and  water,  and 
raw  eggs.  For  poisonous  acids,  such  as  nitric,  ox- 
alic, muriatic,  or  sulphuric  acid,  avoid  emetics.  For 
nitrate  of  silver,  give  plenty  of  salt  water,  followed 
by  barley-water  or  gruel.     For  strychnine,  narcotic 


poi.sons,  opium,  mushrooms,  belladonna,  etc.,  give 
strong  emetics  at  once,  ix)ur  cold  water  on  the  head, 
neck,  and  shoulders,  place  mustard-iwultices  on  the 
feet,  and  keep  the  person  moving  about,  giving  strong 
coffee  as  a  stimulant.  Water  should  always  accon^ 
pany  the  emenc,  to  make  the  vomiting  easy,  and 
gieat  effort  made  to  i)re\ent  the  patient  from  becom- 
ing drowsy  and  stupid.  A  charge  of  gunpowder 
swallowed  in  water,  mustard  in  hot  water,  or  wann 
soapsuds  are  prompt  emetics.  In  the  ab.sence  of  ;dl 
these,  a  careful  tickling  of  the  throat  often  docs  the 
work.  The  following  are  good  poultices:  Muitard- 
jx/iiltice — two  ounces  powdered  mustard,  two  ounces 
linseed-meal,  eight  ounces  boiling  water;  Charcoal- 
poultice — one  third  ounce  charcoal,  two  ounces  bread, 
one  ounce  lin.seed-meal,  eight  ounces  lx)iling  water. 
For  suffucittioii  by  f/asee,  ttr.,  remove  the  patient  to 
pure  air,  ai)ply  cold  water  to  the  face  and  chest,  rub 
the  body  briskly,  give  hot  coffee  or  spirits,  and  eu- 
deavor  to  induce  artificial  respiration. 

For  sort-  and  blistereil  feet,  undiluted  whiskey  and 
melted  tallow  rubbed  on  the  foot,  which  is  afterwards 
covered  with  a  sock,  act  well.  Great  relief  is  found 
in  tepid  bathing,  a  small  quantity  of  alum  or  salt 
being  dissolved  in  the  water.  The  feet  should  Ije 
washed  daily,  while  on  the  march,  and  both  the  feet 
and  inside  of  the  stockings  should  be  well  soapetl. 
In  severe  cases  of  soreness,  a  raw  egg  broken  in  the 
boot  before  putting  it  on  is  a  splendid  antidote.  Blis- 
ters of  the  feet  should  not  be  opened,  but  a  thread 
should  be  drawn  through  them  and  the  liquid  allowed 
to  run  off.  If  the  foot-soreness  is  simply  owing  to 
bad  boots  or  .socks,  relief  mav  be  often  found  by 
changing  the  boots  and  socks  from  one  foot  to  the 
other,  and  turning  the  stockings  inside  out.  Chafing 
is  remedied  by  keeping  the  parts  clean  and  powdering 
with  fuller's  earth.  Sprains  are  relieved  by  hot  fo- 
mentations and  by  rugs  kept  saturated  with  cold 
water  and  bound  roimd  the  (larts.  Burns  and  scalds 
are  treated  by  keeping  tliem  from  exposure  to  the  air 
and  apjilying  carron-oil  (a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
oil  and  lime-water),  flour,  orscrajied  jiotatoes.  l<now- 
hliiidness  is  an  affection  to  be  met  with  in  all  locali- 
ties where  there  are  glaring  sheets  of  snow.  Some 
persons  are  simply  blind,  others  experience  great  pain, 
the  lips  chapping,  and  the  face  and  exposed  parts 
severely  blistering.  A  person  having  once  experi- 
enced snow-blindness  is  subject  to  frequent  attacks. 
Green  or  blue  glasses  and  a  green-lined  broad-brimmed 
hat  give  to  the  eyes  inotection.  In  the  absence  of 
ghisses,  wet  powder  and  grease,  or  charcoal,  smeared 
on  the  nose  and  alxiut  the  eves,  will  afford  much  re- 
lief. A  few  drops  of  opium,  in  tincture,  l)laced 
within  the  eyelitls  will  also  afford  relief.  Water  and 
weak  brandy  is  an  excellent  eye-wash.  For  sunstroke, 
remove  the  collar  and  stock,  loosen  the  shirt  and 
coat,  and  continue  to  throw  cold  water  on  the  head 
and  spine  until  consciousness  returns.  For  wasp  and 
scorpion  stings,  etc.,  extract  the  sting,  if  it  remains  in 
the  wound,  and  rub  acetic  acid,  the  nicotine  from  a 
pipe,  or  chewed  tobacco,  upon  the  wound. 

Rattlesnakes  and  venomous  reptiles  are  met  with 
in  most  localities,  and  their  bites  are  of  frequent  oc- 
currence. As  an  antidote  the  Western  mountaineers 
of  America  place  great  deiiendence  on  strong  wliis- 
kc}'.  The  action  of  the  i)oison  seems  to  counteract 
the  effects  of  the  whiskey,  and  a  very  large  quantity 
may  be  taken  without  causing  intoxication.  Ko  time 
should  be  lost  in  administering  the  spirits.  Harts- 
horn applied  externally  and  taken  internally,  in  small 
doses,  is  a  good  remedy.  Plaintainleaves  finely 
chewed  and  applied  to  the  wound,  after  sucking  out 
the  poison,  are  also  good.  Pulverized  indigo  made 
into  a  soft  poultice  will  draw  out  the  poison  when 
applied  to  the  wound.  The  poison  turns  the  indigo 
white.  When  the  indigo  ceases  to  change  color  it  is 
a  sign  that  the  poison  has  lieen  withdrawn.  In  the 
absence  of  antidotes,  lie  a  ligature  as  firndy  as  possi- 
ble above  the  wounded  part,  suck  the  wound,  if  the 
mouth  and  lips  be  free  from  sores,  and  caustic  it.    If 


FIELD  SERVICE. 


644 


FIELD  SERVICE. 


no  caustic  be  at  hand,  explode  gunpowder  into  the 
wound,  or  burn  it  out  with  the  end  of  a  luiyoiu't  or 
niinnxl  liealod  to  a  wliitc  heat,  avoidini;  the  arteries 
Vso  every  elTorl  to  prevent  the  patient  from  fallin;,' 
into  tlie  ielliarjry  an<l  drowsiness  that  always  follow. 
The  folhnvini;  eriiel  eourse  is  often  taken  by  the  In- 
dians of  the  Northwest  in  treating  a  poisonous  bile;  A 
bird  or  animal  with  a  (luiek  eireulation  of  the  blood 
is  secured,  an  ineision  is  made  into  the  tlesh  of  the 
creature  and  placed  in  coulael  with  the  wound.  The 
bird  or  animal  soon  dies.  This  is  repeated  several 
times  until  the  contact  jiroduces  no  cfTect,  when  the 
victim  is  consideritl  out  of  all  danger.  A  bandage  is 
generally  placed  between  the  wound  and  the  heart  to 
prevent  the  return  of  venous  bUxxl. 

The  following  is  the  proper  treatment  of  the  ap- 
parently dead  from  intense  cohl:  Hub  the  body  willi 
snow,  ice,  or  cold  water.  IJestore  wanulh  LfraiUially ; 
and  after  some  time,  if  M<cessary,  employ  llie  means 
recommended  for  the  drowned.  In  these  accidents 
it  is  very  dangerous  to  apply  heat  too  early.  In  order 
to  restore  the  natural  warmth  of  the  body,  move  a 
heated  warming  pan  over  the  back  and  sjiine,  and  rub 
the  body  briskly  willi  the  hands.  To  restore  breath- 
ing, place  the  i)ipe  of  a  conunon  bellows  (wlien  jiro- 
curable)  into  one  nostril,  carefully  closinir  the  olher 
and  the  mouth;  at  the  sanu-  time  push  gently  down- 
wanls  and  backwards  the  upjier  i>art  of  the  windpipe, 
so  as  to  allow  a  freer  adnussion  of  air;  bluw  the  bel- 
lows gently  to  inllate  the  lungs,  until  the  breast  be 
slightly  raised;  the  mouth  and  nostrils  should  then 
be  .set  free,  and  a  moderate  ]iressure  with  the  hand 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  chest.  Kepeat  this  process 
until  life  n)ipears.  Any  of  the  following  may  be 
useful  helps;  1.  The  application  of  sal-volatile  or 
hart.shorn  to  the  nostrils.  2.  The  early  employment 
of  electricity  by  a  skillful  person.  3.  The  injection 
of  half  a  jiint  of  warm  brandy  and  water,  or  wine 
and  water,  into  the  stomach.  See  Medicine-cJieiit,  Mil- 
iUini  Siiir/i  ri/,  Sirinitniiif/,  and  Wounds. 

FIELD-SERVICE.— In'  the  United  States,  the  forma- 
tion by  divisidns  is  the  basis  of  the  organization  and 
administnilion  «(  armies  in  the  field.  A  division  con- 
sists usually  of  two  or  three  brigades,  either  of  infantry 
or  cavalry,  and  troops  of  other  corps  in  the  necessary 
proportion.  A  brigaile  is  formed  of  tno  or  more  regi- 
ments. As  the  troops  arrive  at  the  rendezvous,  the 
General  Commanding-iu-C'hief  organizes  them  into 
brigades  and  divisions.  Brigades  in  divisions  and 
di\'isions  in  corps  receive  jxTinanen'  numerical  desig- 
nations, as  first,  second,  and  third.  In  a  single  army, 
corps  are  designated  in  like  manner.  It  Ihirc  be  more 
than  one  anny ,  corps  are  nund>eied  C()nscculi\ely  from 
the  tjrst  to  the  last  one  organized.  In  reports  of  mill 
tary  o|)crations,  brigades  and  divisions  are  designated 
by  the  name  of  the  Genend  commanding  them.  The 
Grcneral  C'ommanding-in-('hief  assigns  the  (Jcnerals  of 
diWsionsandof  brigades  to  I  lieir  respective  commands, 
when  the  assignment  is  not  made  by  the  Department 
of  War.  The  General  of  Brigade'  inspects  his  troops 
in  detail,  by  companies,  when  he  takes  the  command 
and  at  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  and  as  often  as 
may  be  necessiiry  to  ascertain  exactly  their  condition. 
The  General  of  Division  makes  similar  inspections 
whin  he  thinks  projjcr.  At  these  inspeelions  tjie 
Generals  examine  the  arms,  (-lolhing,  ecjuiinnents, 
harness,  horses,  etc.,  direct  the  necessary  repairs,  and 
designate  the  men  and  horses  to  remain  in  depot  or 
march  with  the  train.  Staff  OITicers,  and  Ollicers  of 
Engineers,  Ordnance,  and  Arlillerv,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  service,  are  a.ssigneil  to  the  head(|Uarlers 
of  armies  and  divisions,  and  ilelached  lirig;ides,  by 
order  of  the  General  C'onunanding-in-Chief,  when  the 
distribution  of  these  ollieers  has  not  been  reg\dated  by 
the  War  Department.  The  necessjiry  Staff  is  also 
a.s.signpd  to  Commanders  of  Brigades.  The  report  of 
the  Onicer  of  Engineers  embraces  plans  of  military 
works  executed  during  the  campaign,  and,  in  case 
of  siege,  a  journal  of  liie  attack  or  (lefen.st\ 

At  the  oixMiing  of  a  campaign,  the  Commander  of 


an  army  determines  and  announces  in  orders  the 
number  of  orderlies,  mounted  or  foot,  for  the  Gen- 
erals. Orderlies  for  Coips,  Division,  and  Brigade 
Conunanders  of  Infantry  are  detaileil  from  the  In- 
fantry, and  are  mounted;  for  Artillery  and  Cavalry 
Commanders,  from  their  commands.  In  marches, 
the  mouiUed  orderlies  follow  the  Gencnds,  and  per- 
form  the  duty  of  escorts,  or  march  with  orderlies  on 
foot  at  the  head  of  the  division  or  brigade.  The  Staff 
Officer  who  distributes  the  orderlies  to  their  posts 
sends  with  them  a  note  of  the  time  and  place  of  de- 
parture; those  relieved  receive  a  like  note  from  the 
Staff  Officer  at  the  headquarters. 

In  active  campaign,  troops  should  be  prepared  to 
bivouac  on  the  march,  the  allowance  of  tents  being 
linuted,  about  as  follows;  For  the  headquarters  of  an 
army  corps,  division,  or  brigade,  one  wall-tent  to  the 
Conunanding  General,  and  one  to  every  two  oflicers 
of  his  Staff.'  For  the  Colonel,  Field,  and  Staff  of  a 
full  regiment,  three  wall-tents;  and  for  eveiy  other 
commissioned  officer,  one  slielter-tcnt  each.  For 
every  two  non-commissioned  officers,  soldiers,  offi- 
cers' servants,  and  aiUhorized  camp-followers,  one 
shelter-tent.  One  hospital-tent  is  allowed  for  office 
jiurposes  at  corps  heaihiuarters,  and  one  wall-tent  at 
tho.se  of  a  division  or  a  lirigade.  Hospital-tents  are 
for  the  sick  and  wounded,  and,  except  tho.se  allowed 
for  army  ct)rps  headquartei-s.  should  not  be  diverted 
from  their  proper  use.  Officers'  baggjige  is  limited 
to  blankets,  one  small  valise  or  carpet-bag,  and  a 
moderate  mess  kit.  The  men  carry  their  own  blankets 
and  shelter  tents,  and  reduce  the  contents  of  their 
knapsacks  Jis  much  as  possible. 

Reconnoissances  should  precede  the  establishment 
of  a  camp.  For  a  camp  of  troops  on  the  march,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  look  to  the  health  and  comfort  of 
the  troops,  the  facility  of  the  communications,  the 
convenience  of  wood  and  water,  and  the  resources  in 
provisions  and  forage.  For  an  intrencheil  camp,  era 
camp  to  cover  a  country,  or  one  liesigned  to  deceive 
th<'  enemy  as  to  the  strength  of  the  army,  the  ground 
must  be  selected,  and  the  camp  arranged  for  the  ob- 
ject in  view.  The  camping-party  of  a  regiment  con- 
sists of  the  Regimental  Quartermaster  and  Quarter- 
ma.ster  Sergeant,  and  a  Corporal  and  'wo  men  per 
company.  The  General  decides  whether  the  regi- 
ments camp  separately  or  together,  and  whether  the 
liolice  guard  shall  accompany  the  camping-party,  or 
a  larger  escort  shall  be  sent.  The  watering-])laces  are 
examined,  and  signals  placed  at  those  that  are  dan- 
gerous. Any  work  required  to  niiikc  them  of  easier 
access  is  done  by  the  police  guard  or  Quartermas- 
ter's men.  Sentinels,  to  be  relieved  by  the  guards 
of  the  regiment  when  they  come  up,  arc  placed 
by  the  camping-party  over  the  water  if  it  is  scarce, 
and  over  the  houses  and  stores  of  provisions  and 
forage  in  the  vicinity.  If  the  eainping-iiarty  docs  not 
lirecede  llie  regiment,  the  QuarUnua.ster  attends  to 
these  things  as  .soon  as  the  regiment  reaches  the  camp. 
On  reaching  the  ground,  the  infantry  form  on  the 
color  front,  the  cavalry  in  rear  of  its  camp.  The 
number  of  men  to  be  furnishe<l  for  guards,  pickets, 
and  orderlies;  the  fatigue-parties  to  be  sent  for  sup- 
plies; the  work  to  be  done,  and  the  strength  of  the 
working  jiartics;  the  time  and  ])lace  for  issvies;  the 
hour  of  marching,  etc.,  are  then  annonncetl  by  the 
Brigadier  Generals  to  the  Colonels,  .ind  by  them  to 
the  Field  Officers.  The  artillery  is  parked  near 
the  troops  to  which  it  is  attached,  so  as  to  be  protected 
from  attack,  and  to  contribute  to  the  defense  of  the 
camp.  Sentinels  for  the  park  are  furnished  by  the 
artillery,  and,  when  neeessjiry,  by  the  other  troops. 
In  the  cavalry,  each  trooji  moves  a  little  in  rear  of 
the  point  at  which  its  horses  are  to  be  secured,  and 
forms  in  one  rank;  the  men  then  dismount;  a  detail 
is  made  to  hold  the  horses;  the  rest  stack  their  arms 
and  fix  the  pickcl-rope;  after  the  horses  arc  attended 
to,  the  tents  are  pitched,  and  each  horseman  places 
his  carbine  at  the  side  from  the  weather,  and  harigs 
his  saber  and  bridle  on  it.     The  standard  is  then  car- 


TIELD-SEEVICE. 


645 


FIXLD-SEEVICE. 


ried  to  the  tent  of  tbc  Colonel.  The  front  of  the 
camp  is  iisimlly  equal  to  the  front  of  the  troops.  The 
tent-sare  arranged  in  ranks  and  tiles.  The  number  of 
ranks  varies  with  the  .streuL'th  of  the  companies  and 
the  size  of  the  tents.  Thi'  Staff  Oflicer  ehurgcd  with 
establishing  the  camp  designates  the  place  for  the 
shambles. 

When  l)ivouackiug,  the  distance  from  the  enemy 
decides  the  manner  in  wliich  the  horses  are  to  be  fed 
and  led  to  water.  When  it  is  permitted  lo  unsaildle, 
the  saddles  are  placed  in  the  rear  of  the  horses.  For 
infantry,  the  tires  are  made  in  rear  of  the  color-line, 
on  the  groimd  that  woidd  Ih?  (x:eupied  by  the  tents  in 
camp.  The  companies  are  placed  around  tlicm.  and, 
if  possible,  shelters  are  made.  When  liable  to  sur- 
prise, the  infantry  should  stand  to  arms  at  daybreak, 
and  the  cavalry  mount  until  the  return  of  the  recon- 
noitering  parties.  If  the  arms  arc  to  be  tiiken  apart 
to  clean,  it  must  be  done  by  detachments,  successively. 
When  in  cantonment,  the  Hegimental  Commander 
indicates  the  place  where  the  command  shall  assem- 
ble in  case  of  alarm.  It  should  generally  be  outside 
the  cantonment:  the  egress  from  it  should  be  free;  the 
retreat  upon  the  other  positions  secure,  and  roads 
leading  to  it  on  the  side  of  the  enemy  obstructed. 
Near  the  enemy,  companies  or  platoons  shoidd  be 
collected,  as  much  as  possible,  in  the  same  houses.  If 
companies  must  be  separated,  they  should  be  di\ided 
by  platoons  or  squads.  When  cavalry  and  infantry 
canton  together,  the  latter  should  furnish  tlie  guards  by 
night,  anil  the  former  l)y  day.  Troops  cantoned  in 
presence  of  the  enemy  should  be  covered  by  advanced 
guards  and  l)y  natural  or  artiticial  obstacles.  Can- 
tonments taken  during  a  cessation  of  hostilities  shoidd 
be  established  in  rear  of  a  line  of  defen.se,  and  in  front 
of  the  point  on  which  the  troops  would  concentrate 
to  receive  an  attack.  The  General  Commanding-in- 
Chief  assigns  the  limits  of  their  cantonments  to  the 
divisions,  the  Commanders  of  Divisions  to  brigades, 
and  the  Commanders  of  Brigades  post  their  regiments. 
The  position  for  each  corps  in  case  of  attack  is  care- 
fully indicated  by  its  Conmianding  Officer. 

The  General  «ho  establishes  an  intrenched  post 
gives  to  its  Commander  detailed  instructions  in  re- 
gard to  its  defense,  and  to  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  defense  should  cease.  The  Commander 
reconnoiters  his  post;  distributes  the  troops;  posts  the 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers;  forms  a  re- 
serve; gives  orders  for  all  contingencies  he  can  fore- 
see, and  arranges  his  troops  so  as  to  prepare  them  for 
attack,  day  or  night. 

The  grand  dejiots  of  an  army  are  establtshed  where 
the  military  operations  would  not  expose  them  to  be 
broken  up.  Smaller  depots  are  organized  for  the 
divisions  and  for  the  several  amis.  They  are  com- 
manded by  officers  tcmporarih'  disabled  for  field- 
service  or  by  other  officers  if  necessarj',  and  com- 
prise, as  much  as  possible,  the  hospitals  and  depots 
for  convalescents.  When  conveniently  placed,  they 
serve  as  points  for  the  hailing  and  assembling  of  de- 
tachments. They  receive  the  disabled  from  the  corps 
on  the  march;  an<l  the  officers  in  command  of  the  dc- 
ix>ts  .send  with  the  detachments  to  the  army  those  at 
the  depots  who  have  liecome  fit  for  service.  In  the 
field  verbal  orders  and  important  sealed  orders  are 
carried  by  officers,  and,  if  possible,  by  Staff  Officers. 
When  orders  are  in  writing,  the  place  and  time  of 
departure  should  be  nuirked  on  them,  and  place  and 
time  of  delivery  on  the  receipt.  Dispatches,  particn- 
larly  for  distant  corps,  should  be  intrusted  only  to 
officers  to  whom  their  contents  can  he  confided.  In 
a  countrj-  occupied  by  the  enemy,  the  bearer  of  dis- 
patches should  be  accompanied  by  at  lea.st  two  of  the 
best  mounted  men;  should  avoid  "towns  and  villages, 
and  the  main  roads;  rest  as  little  as  possible,  and  only 
at  out-of-the-way  places.  Where  there  is  danger,  he 
should  send  one  of  the  men  in  advance,  and  Ix-  al- 
ways ready  to  destroy  his  dispatches.  He  should  be 
adroit  in  answering  questions  about  the  array,  and 
not  be  intimidated  by  threats.   The  precise  time  when 


the  dispatch  is  sent  off,  and  the  rate  at  which  it  is  to 
l)e  conveyed,  should  be  written  clearly  on  the  covers 
t>f  all  letters  Iransmitteil  by  a  mounted  orderly,  and 
the  nece-ssarj"  instructions  to  him,  and  the  rale  of 
travel  going  jmd  returning,  should  be  distinctly  ex- 
plained to  him.  The  parole  and  countersign  are  is- 
sued daily  from  the  principal  headquarters  of  the 
command.  The  countersign  is  given  to  the  sentinels 
and  non-eomtnissioned  ofliccrs  of  guards;  the  parole 
to  the  commissioned  officers  of  guards.  When  the 
parole  and  countersign  cannot  be  comniunicate<l  daily 
to  a  post  or  delachnient  which  ought  to  use  the  same 
as  the  main  body,  a  series  of  words  may  be  sent  for 
some  days  in  advance.  If  the  eoimlersign  is  lost  or 
one  of  the  guard  deserts  with  it,  the  Commander  on 
the  spot  substitutes  another,  and  reiK)rts  the  case  at 
once  to  the  proper  Superior,  that  immediate  notice  maj- 
be  given  to  headquarters. 

When  the  wants  of  the  army  absolutely  require  it, 
and  in  other  cases,  under  special  instructions  from 
the  War  Deparlment.  Ihe  General  Commanding  the 
Aimy  may  levy  contributions  in  money  or  kind  on 
the  enemy's  country-  occupied  by  the  troops.  No 
other  Commander  can  levy  such  contributions  with- 
out written  authority  from  the  (Jeneral  Commanding- 
in-Chief. 

AVhile  the  general  laws  and  necessity  of  war  may, 
in  certain  ca.ses,  justify  the  seizure  and  conversion  of 
private  property  for  the  subsistence,  transportation, 
and  other  public  uses  of  the  army,  yet  the  Rules 
and  Articles  of  War  denotmce  the  severest  penalties 
against  pillage,  and  the  taking  or  appropriation  of 
property  for  private  purposes,  whether  the  offense  be 
committed  wilhin  the  United  States  or  in  an  enemy's 
country.  All  property,  public  or  private,  lawfully 
taken  from  the  enemy,  or  from  the  inhabitants  of  an 
enemy's  country-,  by  the  forces  of  the  United  States, 
instantly  becomes  the  public  property  of  the  United 
States,  and  must  be  u.sed  and  accounted  for  as  such. 
It  is  forbidden  to  purchase  horses  without  ascertain- 
ing the  right  of  the  parly  to  sell.  Estrays,  in  the  ene- 
my's country,  when  Ihe  owner  is  not  discovered,  are 
taken  for  the  army.  Officers  are  held  strictly  respon- 
sible that  all  properly  taken  from  alleged  enemies  by 
them,  or  with  their  authority,  is  inventoried  and  duly 
accounted  for. 

A  police  guard  is  detailed  in  each  regiment  daily, 
consisting  of  two  Sergeants,  three  Corporals,  two 
drummers,  and  men  enough  to  furnish  the  required 
sentinels  and  patrols.  Ai\  advanced-post  is  detached 
!  from  the  police  guard,  composed  of  a  Sergeant,  a 
Corporal,  a  drummer,  ami  nine  men  to  furnish  senti- 
nels and  the  guard  over  the  prisoners.  The  men  are 
the  first  of  the  guard  roster  from  each  company. 
The  men  of  the  advanced-post  must  not  leave  it  un- 
der any  pretext.  Their  meals  are  sent  to  the  jwst. 
The  advanced  ]K)st  furnishes  three  sentinels— two  a 
few  paces  in  front  of  the  post,  opposite  the  right  and 
left  wing  of  the  regiment,  posted  so  as  to  see  as  far 
as  possible  to  the  front,  and  one  over  the  arms.  In 
the  cavalry,  dismounted  men  are  employed  in  prefer- 
ence on  the  police  guard.  The  mountetl  men  on 
guard  are  sent  in  succession,  a  portion  at  a  time,  to 
groom  their  horses.  The  advanced-post  is  always 
formed  of  mounted  men.  The  police  guard  and  the 
advanced-post  pay  the  sjune  honoi-s  as  other  guards. 
They  take  anns  w"hen  an  armed  IxKly  approaches. 

Deserters  from  the  enemy,  after  being  examined, 
are  secured  for  some  days,  as  they  may  be  spies  in 
disguise;  as  opportunities  offer  they  are  sent  to  the 
rear;  after  which,  if  they  are  found  lurking  about 
the  armv,  or  attempting  to  return  lo  the  enemy,  they 
are  treated  wiUi  severity.  The  arms  and  accouter- 
mcnts  of  deserters  are  turned  over  to  the  Ordnance 
Department,  and  their  horses  to  the  corps  in  want  of 
them,  after  being  bnuided.  The  enlistment  of  de- 
serters from  the  enemy,  without  express  permission 
from  Genend  Headquarters,  is  prohibiti-d.  Plunder- 
ing and  marauding,  at  all  times  disgraceful  to  stil- 
I  dieis,  when  committed  on  Ihe  persons  or  property  of 


TI£LD-S£BVIC£. 


646 


FIELD  SEEVICE, 


those  whom  it  is  the  duty  of  the  army  to  protect 
iKOome  crimes  of  such  enormity  as  to  admit  of  no  re- 
mis-sion  of  the  awful  ]niiiishinent  which  the  military 
law  awards  ainiiusl  otTinses  of  this  nature. 

The  picket^  is  detailed  daily  after  the  details  for 
duty  of  the  IJrst  class,  and  from  the  next  for  detail 
on  "the  roster  of  that  chiss.  It  is  designed  to  fur- 
nish detachments  and  guards  unexpectedly  called  for 
in  the  twenty-four  hours;  it  counts  as  a  tour  of  the 
first  class  to  ihiise  who  have  marched  on  detachment  or 
guard,  or  who  have  passed  tlic  nisht  in  bivouac.  The 
picket  of  a  regiment  is  compcxsed  of  a  Lieutenant,  two 
Serseants,  four  Corporals,  a  drummer,  and  about  forty 
privates.  For  a  smaller  force  the  picket  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  strength  of  the  detachment.  The 
picket  is  !i.sscmMcd  by  the  Adjutant  at  guard-mf)unt- 
ing;  it  is  posted  twelve  paces  in  rear  of  the  guard, 
anii  is  inspected  by  its  own  Commander.  'When  tlic 
guard  has  marched  in  revieiv,  the  Commandant  of  the 
picket  marches  it  to  the  left  of  the  police  guard, 
wliere  it  stacks  its  arms  and  is  dismissed.  The  officers, 
noncommissioned  officers,  and  soldiers  of  the  picket 
are  at  all  times  dressed  and  equipped;  the  horses  are 
B.uldled,  and  knapsacks  lUid  vali-ses  ready  to  be  put 
on.  The  picket  docs  not  assemble  at  night  except  in 
cases  of  alarm,  or  when  the  whole  or  a  part  is  to 
march;  then  the  Officer  of  the  Day  calls  the  officers, 
who  call  the  non-commissioned  otjicers,  and  the  lat- 
ter call  the  men;  for  this  purpose  each  ascertains  the 
tents  of  tliosc  he  is  to  call.  They  are  as.sembled 
without  beat  of  drum  or  other  noise.  At  night,  cav- 
alry pickets  assemble  mounted. 

The  grand  guards  sliould  cover  the  approaches  to 
a  camp  or  cantonments  Their  mmiber,  strength,  and 
position  are  regulated  by  the  Commanders  of  Bri- 
gades; in  detached  cori)s,"by  the  Commanding  Officer. 
When  possible,  the  grand  guards  of  cavalry  and  in- 
fantrj'  are  combined,  the  cavalry  furnishing  the  ad- 
vanced sentinels.  When  the  cavalry  is  weak,  the 
grand  guards  are  infantrj',  but  accompanied  by  a  few 
cavalni-  soldiers,  to  obtain  and  carry  intelligence  of 
the  enemy.  The  strength  of  the  grand  guard  of  a 
brigade  deiiends  on  its  object  and  the  .strength  of  the 
regiments,  the  nature  of  the  country,  the  position  of 
the  enemy,  and  the  disposition  of  the  inhabitants.  It 
is  usually  commanded  by  a  Captain.  Grand  guards 
usually  mount  at  the  same  time  as  the  other  guards, 
but  may  mount  before  daybreak  if  the  General  of 
Brig:ide  thinks  it  ne^essarj-  to  double  the  outposts  at 
that  time.  In  this  case  the)'  assemble  and  march 
without  noise,  and  during  "their  march  throw  otit 
scouts — a  preciiution  which  should  always  be  taken  in 
the  tirst  posting  of  a  grand  guard.  The  doubling  of 
guanls  weakens  the  corj's  and  fatigues  the  men,  and 
should  seldom  be  resorted  to,  never  when  preparing 
to  march  or  light.  The  Commander  of  a  grand 
guard  receives  detailed  instructions  from  the  General 
and  Field  Officer  of  the  Day  of  the  brigaile,  aiul  in- 
structs the  Commanders  of  ihe  small  posts  as  to  their 
duties  and  the  arrangements  for  defense  or  retreat. 
If  the  small  posts  are  to  change  their  positions  at 
night,  they  wait  until  the  grand  guard  is  in  position 
and  darkness  hides  their  movements  from  the  enemy; 
tlien  march  silently  and  rapidly  under  the  charge  of 
an  officer. 

In  war,  every  Commander  of  a  fortified  place  al- 
ways holds  himself  impared  with  his  plan  of  defense, 
as  if  at  any  time  lialile  to  attack.  He  arranges  this 
plan  according  to  the  probalile  mode  of  attack;  de-  ' 
termines  the  posts  of  the  troops  in  the  several  parts 
of  the  works,  the  reliefs,  the  reserves,  and  the  details 
of  service  in  all  the  corps.  He  draws  up  instructions 
for  a  ca.se  of  attack,  and  exercises  the  garri.son  accord- 
ing to  his  plan  of  defense.  In  sea<'oast  works,  he 
provides  the  instructions  for  the  different  batteries  on 
the  approach  of  ships.  In  framing  his  plan,  he 
studies  the  works  and  the  exterior  within  the  radius 
of  attack  and  investrrent,  the  strength  of  the  garri.son, 
the  artillery,  munitions  of  war,  subsistence  and  sup- 
plies of  all  kinds,  and  takes  immediate  measures  to  1 


procure  whatever  is  deficient  of  troops  or  supplifs, 
cither  by  requisition  on  the  Government  or  from  the 
means  put  at  his  disposal.  On  the  approach  of  an 
enemy,  he  removes  all  houses  and  other  objects, 
within  or  without  the  place,  that  cover  the  approaches, 
or  interrupt  the  tire  of  the  guns  or  the  movements  of 
the  troops.  He  a.ssures  himself  personally  that  all 
posterns,  outlets,  embrasures,  etc.,  are  in  proper  state 
of  .securitv.  He  should  he  furnished,  if  possible,  with 
a  plan  of  the  works,  showing  all  the  details  of  the 
fortifications  and  of  the  exterior  within  the  radius  of 
attack;  with  a  map  of  the  environs  within  the  radius 
of  investment ;  with  a  map  of  the  vicinity,  including 
the  neighboring  works,  roads,  water-channels,  coasts, 
etc.;  with  a  memoir  explaining  the  situation  and 
defense  of  the  place,  and  the  relations  and  bearings 
of  the  several  works  on  each  other,  and  on  the 
approaches  by  land  smd  water — all  which  he  carefully 
preserves,  ancl  commimicates  only  to  the  Council  of 
Defense. 

The  Commander  defends  in  succession  the  ad- 
vanced-works, the  covered-way  and  outworks,  the 
body  of  the  work,  and  the  interior  intrenchments. 
He  IS  not  content  with  clearing  away  the  foot  of  the 
breaches,  and  defending  them  by  abatis,  mines,  and 
all  the  means  used  in  sieges,  but  he  begins  in  good 
time,  behind  the  bastions  or  front  of  attack,  the  nec- 
essary intrenchments  to  resist  assaults  on  the  main 
work.  He  uses  his  means  of  defeiLse  in  such  manner 
as  always  to  have  a  reserve  of  fresh  troops,  chosen 
from  his  best  soldiers,  to  resist  assaults,  retake  the 
outworks,  and  especially  to  resist  the  a.s.saults  on  the 
body  of  the  jilace;  and  a  reserve  of  provisions  for  the 
last  period  of  the  siege,  and  of  ammunition  for  the 
last  attacks.  He  endeavors  in  every  case  to  compel 
the  besieging  force  to  approach  by  the  slow  and  suc- 
cessive works  of  siege,  and  sustains  at  least  one 
as.sault  on  a  practicable  breach  in  the  body  of  the 
place.  When  the  Commander  thinks  that  the  end  of 
the  defense  has  come,  he  consults  a  Council  of  De- 
fease on  the  means  that  may  remain  to  prolong  the 
siege.  But  in  all  cases  he  alone  decides  on  the  time, 
manner,  and  terms  of  the  surrender.  In  the  capitu- 
lation he  docs  not  seek  or  accept  better  terms  for 
himself  than  for  the  garrison,  but  shares  their  fate, 
and  exerts  his  best  endeavors  for  the  care  of  the 
troops,  and  especially  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  Near 
an  enemy,  daily  reconnoissances  are  made  to  observe 
the  ground  in  front,  and  to  discover  whether  the  ad- 
vanced-guards of  the  enemy  have  been  increased  or 
put  in  motion,  or  anj'  other  sign  of  his  preparation  for 
march  or  action.  Reconnoitering  parties  should  ob- 
serve the  following  precautions:  To  leave  small  posts 
or  sentinels  at  iiitervals,  to  transmit  intelligence  to 
the  advanced-posts  of  the  army,  unless  the  return  is 
to  be  by  a  different  route;  to  march  with  caution, 
to  avoid  fighting;  and  see,  if  possible,  without  lieing 
seen;  to  maintain  an  advanccd-gtiard;  to  send  well- 
mountecl  nun  ahead  of  the  advanced-gtiard,  and  on 
the  flanks  of  the  party;  to  instruct  the  scouts  that  no 
two  should  enter  a  defile  or  mount  a  hill  together, 
but  to  go  one  at  a  time,  while  one  watches  to  carry 
the  news  if  the  other  is  taken.  Special  reconnois- 
sances are  made  under  the  dircetioii  of  the  General 
Officer  in  command,  by  such  officers  and  with  such 
forces  as  he  may  direct.  Offensive  or  forced  recon- 
noissances are  to  ascertain  witli  certaintj'  points  in  the 
enemy's  position,  or  his  strength.  They  are  some- 
times preludes  to  real  actions,  and  sometimes  only 
demonstrations.  They  drive  back  his  outposts,  and 
sometimes  engage  special  corps  of  his  line.  They 
are  only  made  by  the  order  of  the  General  Com- 
mander-in-Chief, or  the  Commander  of  an  isolated 
corps. 

The  strength  and  composition  of  the  escort  of  a 
convoy  depend  on  the  country,  the  nature  and  value 
of  the  convoy,  and  the  dangers  it  may  incur.  A 
larger  escort  is  required  for  a  convoy  of  [lowder,  that 
the  defense  may  not  be  near  the  train.  The  advance- 
guard  precedes  the  convoy  far  enough  to  remove  all 


FIELD  STAFF. 


647 


FIELD-TELEGEAPHY. 


obstacles  to  its  advance.  It  examines  the  woods, 
defiles,  and  villages,  and  by  mounted  men  gives 
information  to  the  Commander,  anil  receives  bis 
orders.  It  reconnoitcrs  places  for  halts  and  parks. 
When  the  rear  is  threatened,  the  rear-guard  defends 
the  ground  and  retards  the  enemj'  by  breaking  the 
bridges  and  blocking  tlie  road.  If  the  flanks  are 
threatened,  and  the  ground  is  broken,  and  many 
defiles  are  to  be  passed,  the  defense  of  the  convoy 
becomes  more  ditlicult  ;  the  advance  and  rear  guarils 
•must  be  reduced,  the  flanks  strengthened,  and  i)osi- 
tions  which  will  cover  the  march  of  the  convoy  must 
be  occupied  by  the  main  body  of  the  troops  before  , 
the  head  of  the  convoy  reaches  them,  and  until  it  has  \ 
pas,sed.  If  the  convoy  is  large,  and  has  to  pass 
places  that  the  force  and  position  of  the  enemy  make 
dangerous,  the  loss  of  the  whole  convoy  must  not  be 
risked;  it  must  pa.ss  by  tlivisioas,  which  reunite  after 
the  passage.  In  this  case  the  greater  part  of  the 
troops  guard  the  first  division;  they  seize  the  impor- 
tant points,  and  cover  them  with  light  troops,  or,  if 
necessary,  with  small  posts,  and  hold  them  until  all 
the  divisions  have  passed.  On  the  appearance  of  the 
enemy  during  the  march,  the  Commander  closes  up 
the  wagons  and  continues  his  march  in  order  ;  he 
avoids  fighting ;  but  if  the  enemy  seizes  a  position 
that  commands  his  road,  he  attacks  vigorously  with 
the  mass  of  his  force,  but  does  not  continue  the  pur- 
suit far  from  the  convoy.  The  convoy  halts,  and 
resumes  the  march  when  the  position  is  carried. 
When  the  enemy  is  too  strong  to  be  attacked,  the 
convoy  is  parked  in  square  if  there  be  room;  if  not, 
closeil  up  in  double  file  ,  at  the  front  and  rear  the 
road  is  blocked  by  wagons  across  it.  The  drivers  are 
dismounted  at  the  heads  of  the  horses.  They  are  not 
perniitfed  to  make  their  escape.  The  light  troops 
keep  the  enemy  at  a  distance  as  long  as  possible,  and 
are  supported  when  necessary,  but  prudently,  as  the 
troops  must  be  kept  in  hand  to  resist  the  main 
attack.  When  a  whole  convoy  cannot  be  saved,  the 
most  valuable  part  may  .sometimes  be  by  abandoning 
the  rest.  If  all  efforts  fail,  and  there  is  no  hope  of 
succor,  the  convoj^  must  be  set  on  fire  and  the  horses 
killed  that  cannot  be  sjived  ;  the  e.scort  may  then  cut 
its  way  through.  If  the  convoy  be  of  prisoners  of 
war,  every  effort  .should  be  made  to  reach  a  village 
or  strong  building  where  they  may  be  confined  ;  if 
forced  to  fight  in  the  field,  the  prisoners  must  be 
secured  and  made  to  lie  down  until  the  action  is  over. 
The  wagons  or  pack-animals  allowed  to  a  regi- 
ment, battery,  or  squadron  should  carrj-  nothing  but 
forage  for  the  teams,  cooking-utensils  and  rations  for  ; 
the  troops,  hospital  stores,  and  baggage.  One  wagon,  I 
or  an  equivalent  of  pack-animals,  to  each  regiment 
shoulil  transport  exclu.sively  hospital  supplies,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Regimental  Surgeon;  the  one  for 
regimental  headquarters  should  carry  the  grain  for 
the  officers'  horses ;  and  the  three  allowed  for  each 
battery  or  squadron  should  be  loaded  with  rations 
and  forage  in  proper  proportions  for  the  same  num-  I 
ber  of  days'  supply  of  each.  Stores  in  bulk  and 
ammunition  should  be  carried  in  the  regular  or  in 
special  supply-trains.  In  large  conmiands  the  roads,  ; 
if  possible,  are  left  to  the  artillery  and  trains.  The 
order  of  march  should  state  whether  the  troops  or 
trains  have  the  right  of  way.  The  order  for  the 
movement  of  the  divisions,  brigades,  and  regiments 
contains  the  necessary  directions  in  regard  to  the 
assembling  and  marching  of  the  respective  trains. 
The  several  trains  march  in  an  order  analogous  to 
the  rank  of  the  Generals,  and  the  order  of  battle  of 
the  troops  to  which  they  belong.  Trains  are  not 
allowed  in  any  case  to  be  in  the  midst  of  the  troops, 
or  to  inijiede  the  march  of  the  troops.  Genend 
Officers  should  not  permit  any  General  or  Staff  Officer 
or  regiment  under  their  orders,  or  any  person  what- 
soever attached  to  their  command,  to  have  more  than 
the  a\ithorized  amount  or  means  of  transportation. 
For  this  inirpose  they  should  themselves  make,  and 
cause  to  be  made,  frequent  reviews  and  inspections 


of  the  trains.  They  should  see  that  no  trooper  is 
employed  to  lead  a  iirivate  horse,  no  soldier  to  drive 
a  private  vehicle,  and  that  no  trooper  is  put  on  foot 
to  lend  his  horse  to  an  officer.  They  should  not 
permit  the  wagons  of  the  artillery  or  of  the  train  to 
be  loaded  with  anything  foreign  to  their  proper  ser- 
vice, nor  any  public  horse,  for  any  occasion,  to  be 
harnessed  to  a  private  carriage.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
Jledical  Director,  or  Chief  Medical  OfTicer,  of  the 
army  corps,  previous  to  a  march,  and  previoas  to 
and  in  time  of  action,  or  whenever  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  use  the  ambulances,  to  issue  the  proper  orders 
for  the  distribution  and  management  of  the  same,  for 
collecting  the  sick  and  wounded  and  conveying  them 
to  their  destination.  And  it  is  the  duty  of  his  assist- 
ants faithfully  and  diligently  to  execute  such  orders. 

If  two  corps  meet  on  the  same  road,  they  pass  to 
the  right,  and  both  cf)ntinue  their  march,  if  the  road 
is  wide  enough;  if  it  is  not,  the  first  in  the  order  of 
baffle  takes  the  road,  the  other  halts.  A  corps  in 
march  must  not  be  cut  by  another.  If  two  corps 
meet  at  cross-roads,  that  which  arrives  last  halts  if  the 
other  is  in  motion.  A  corps  in  march  pas.ses  a  corps 
at  a  halt,  if  it  has  precedence  in  the  order  of  battle, 
or  if  the  halted  coi-ps  is  not  ready  to  move  at  once. 
A  column  that  halts  to  let  another  column  pass  re- 
sumes the  march  in  advance  of  the  train  of  this  col- 
umn. If  a  column  has  to  pass  a  train,  the  train  must 
halt,  if  necessary,  till  the  cohimn  pa.sses.  The  col- 
umn which  has  precedence  mu.st  jicld  it  if  the  Com- 
mander, on  .seeing  the  orders  of  the  other,  finds  it  for 
the  interest  of  the  service.  Dispositions  for  battle 
depend  on  the  immber,  the  kind,  and  quality  of  the 
troops  opposed,  on  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  on 
circumstances  which  if  is  impossible  to  anticipate; 
and  therefore  the  general  disposition  is  left  to  the 
judgment  and  discretion  of  Commanding  Officers. 
In  making  an  attack,  the  communications  to  the  rear 
and  for  retreat  should  be  secured,  and  the  General 
should  give  beforehand  all  neee.s.sary  orders  to  pro- 
vide for  that  event.  During  the  fight  the  officers  and 
non-commissioned  officers  keep  the  men  in  the  ranks, 
and  enforce  obedience  if  necessary.  Soldiers  should 
not  be  permitted  to  strip  or  rob  the  dead,  nor  even  to 
assist  tlie  wounded,  except  by  express  permission, 
which  is  only  to  be  given  after  the  action  is  decided. 
The  highest  "interest  and  most  pressing  duty  is  to  win 
the  victory,  by  winning  which  only  can  a  proper  care 
of  the  wounded  be  insured.  Before  the  action,  all 
the  necessary  aiTangements  are  made  for  the  trans- 
portation of  the  wounded.  Ambulance-depots  are 
established  in  the  rear,  and  necessary  instructions  are 
given  for  the  service  of  the  ambulance-wagons  and 
other  means  of  removing  the  wounded.  A  General 
Commanding  in  the  Field  or  a  Department  makes 
arrangements  for  the  safe-keeping  and  reasonable 
comfort  of  his  prisonei-s.  For  this  purpose  he  may 
appoint  a  Provosf  JIarshal  to  take  charge  of  them, 
and  place  them  vmder  a  guard  already  on  duty,  or 
detach  a  guard  for  the  sjiecial  service.  The  General 
gives  no  order  exchanging  prisoners,  or  releasing 
them,  except  under  instructions  from  the  Secretary  of 
War.  In  emergencies  admitting  of  no  delay  he  may 
act  upon  his  own  authority,  and  give  any  order  in  re- 
lation to  his  prisoners  the  public  interest  may  reiiuire, 
promptly  reporting  his  proceedings  to  the  ^\'ar  De- 
partment. 

FIELD-STAFF. — A  staff  formerly  canned  by  gun- 
ners in  the  field,  and  holding  lighted  matches  for  dis- 
charging cannon.     It  is  no  longer  used. 

FIELD  STATE. — A  statement  made  over  to  the 
Superior  or  Reviewing  Officer  on  parade,  showing  the 
number  of  officers  and  men  composing  the  troops, 
distinguishing  those  present  and  absent  (on  whatever 
accoimt  in  the  latter  case),  all  under  their  respective 
headimrs. 

FIELD-TELEGRAPHY.— The  electric  telegraph  is  a 
novel  element  of  war.  En^and  was  the  first  to  apply 
it  to  military  operations.  During  the  siege  of  Sebas 
topol  telegraphic  lines  were  established  by  the  allied 


FIELD-TELEGBAPHY. 


648 


FIELD  TELEGRAPHY. 


armies,  and  later,  during  the  Indian  Mutiny,  a  first 
attempt  was  made  to  orpmize  a  tield-tclegrapu,  which 
suceeetled  aelmirahly  under  tlie  direction  of  the  laic 
Captain  Stewart  of  the  Beniral  Enjiineers.  In  1859 
the  French  army  was  accompanied  liy  a  hirse  /xrnoii- 
11(1  iH-lonirini;  to  the  civil  teleirraphic  administnition, 
whose  duly  was  to  estahlish  a  service  during  the 
marches.  The  war  in  America,  and  that  between 
Austria  and  Prussia  in  18(i(i.  showed  convincingly  the 
imiHirtance  of  such  an  introduction  into  military  op- 
erations. Permanent  lines  on  a  large  e.\tent  were 
established  and  worked  l>y  Ihe  trotjps;  all  those  that 
e.xisted  in  the  zone  of  operations  of  tlie  armies  were 
seized.  Trains  of  a  special  tieldnniterial  followtni 
each  corps,  lo  Ix"  used  on  the  march,  in  cantonments, 
and  even  on  the  tield  of  battle.  In  1866  the  Prus- 
sian and  Austrian  armies  employed,  to  a  great  extent, 
telegraphic  lines  during  the  marches  and  maneuvers 
that  preceded  Sadowa.  The  war  of  1870-1871  is  an- 
other instance  of  the  immense  advantages  that  can  be 
derived  from  Ihe  use  of  llie  electric  telegraph  wlien 
Well  organized  and  employed.  During  the  latter  end 
of  the  war,  ManteulTel  and  Werder,  operating  in  the 
Ea.sl  separately  and  on  liitTerent  lines,  were  able  to 
combine  their  movements  and  to  receive  direct  in- 
structions from  the  headtpiarters  at  Versailles  by 
means  of  the  wire.  The  Telegraphic  Department  in 
time  of  war  may  txidirided  into  two  distinct  branches. 
The  lirst  comprehends  the  seizure  and  use  of  all  per- 
manent lines  existing  in  the  country  in  which  the  op- 
erations are  carried  on.  or,  in  Ihe  ab.sence  of  these,  the 
creation  of  new  lines  of  the  same  kind.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  telegraph  is  very  great,  as  it  enables  the 
General  in  Command,  as  long  as  llie  opposing  armies 
are  concentrated,  to  transmit  intelligence  and  direc- 
tions between  his  headquarters  and  the  rear  of  his 
army,  or  between  him.self  and  the  Generals  command- 
ing wings.  The  organization  and  working  of  such 
lines  should  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  transport  by 
rail  of  troops  and  supplies.  Whether  already  exist- 
ing or  newly  created,  it  is  considered  as  a  general  ride 
that  within  the  zone  of  operations  an  army  should  ex- 
clusively dispose  of  all  the  lines  indispensable  for  its 
correspondence,  and  that  tbe.se  should  be  carefully 
watched  over,  whilst  those  that  are  not  neces.sary  and 
might  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  should  be  de- 
stroyed. The  second  branch  of  this  Department  com- 
prehends the  transport,  Ihe  establishment,  and  the 
■working  of  mobile  lines,  known  as  Xhc  jield-telef/raph. 
These  arc  usi'd  when  the  oppo.sing  armies  are  in  pres- 
ence of  each  ^  ther,  and  on  an  extended  f ron  and  in 
cases  when  concentrated  action  is  essential  to  success. 
By  the  field-telegraph,  corps  d'armie  are  placed  in  in- 
timate communication  with  each  other,  and  are  con- 
nected with  their  base  of  oiieralions  liy  means  of  the 
permanent  lines.  On  the  march  Ihe  telegraph  can 
easily  be  laid  down  as  each  colimm  advances,  and 
thus  th:  Commander-in-Chief  be  placed  in  communi- 
cation with  the  whole  of  his  army.  In  certain  cases, 
•when  circumstances  permit  of  il,"the  field-telegraph, 
as  was  seen  during  the  Indim  Mutinv  and  later  wars, 
can  l)e  brought  on  the  baltle-field,  following  clost^lv 
the  combatants.  Lines  of  a  light  nature  can  move 
easily  with  armies  in  Ihe  field,  and  can  subsequently 
l)e  replaced  by  others  of  a  more  solid  material,  called 
Mtni-ptTtiinnent,  if  comnmnication  is  to  be  kept  up 
for.iny  length  of  timi'.  Field,  .semi-permanent,  and 
permanent  telegraphs  dilTcr  in  materials  and  manner 
of  laying.  The  JitUi-Mfgrnph  should  Iw  of  such  a 
nature  that  it  can  be  constructed  or  taken  up  at  the 
same  rate  as  an  infimtr>-  regiment  marches.  The 
S'ini-jk'rmiiiient  Ulegrnph  is  construcled  of  more  solid 
material  and  substantial  win-;  its  weight,  including 
the  |V)les,  should  not  exceed  one  ton  per  mile,  and  it 
.should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  lo  lie  laid  at  a  rale  of 
from  20  lo  30  miles  ix-r  day  for  every  100  men  em- 
ployed. The  wires  are  sus'iH-nded  from  ix)les,  trees, 
or  m  any  other  convenient  mode.  TJie  ptriii'inint 
ffleijraph  can  lie  cimslnicled  al  the  rale  of  10  miles  a 
<lay.     There  is  a  point  Ix'low  which  the  electric  tele- 


graph ceases  to  be  advantageous  over  other  modes  of 
communicating  intelligence,  such  as  is  carried  on  by 
signaling  and  by  mounted  orderlies.  The  handing- 
in,  the  Iransmitfing,  and  the  recei\'ing  of  a  telegram 
require  a  certain  amount  of  tine  which  may  be  longer 
than  that  necessjiry  for  a  mounled  orderly  to  cross  the 
distance  between  the  two  places.  The  electric  tele- 
graph, therefore,  should  only  be  made  iLsi'  of  for  dis- 
tances of  eight  miles  and  upwards.  In  England  the 
military  telegraph  is  worked  by  a  branch  of  the  Koyal 
Engint'crs,  of  which  there  is  one  troop.  Al  present 
this  troop  is  conqxised  of  three  officers  and  2-i!5  non- 
commissioned officers  and  men;  12  wagons,  each  car- 
rying 3  miles  of  insulated  wire,  rolled  on  6  drums  for 
paying-out,  and  iron  rods  for  carrying  over  roads. 
A  telegraph-troop  forms  3  sections  composed  of  3 
traveling  offices,  3  general-service  wagons,  and  3  ar- 
tificers' wagons.  In  time  of  war  this  branch  of  the 
service  would  be  placed,  in  each  army  cor]is,  under 
the  immedi.ite  control  of  a  Director  of  Telegraphs, 
with  an  assistant.  His  chief  duty  shoulil  lie  lo  keep 
up  the  communication  between  corps  and  divisions 
and  headquarters.  He  should  never  be  without  one 
or  two  alternative  lines,  in  case  of  accidents,  and  be 
always  prepared  to  alter  and  adapt  existing  Imcs. 
Betw'een  inqxirtant  points  there  should  be  two  or 
more  separate  lines,  remembering  that  the  sole  value 
of  telegraphs  lies  in  their  security.  Every  effort 
should  be  made  to  watch  over  the  telegraphic  lines 
u.sed  by  an  armv  in  the  field,  and  to  (Icstroy  those 
of  the  enemy.  Their  destruction  is  easily  executed; 
and  this  duty  generally  devolves  on  cavalrj".  It  is 
sufficient  to  pull  down  the  poles,  and  to  cut  them  in 
several  pieces,  or  carrj'  away  as  much  of  the  wire  as 
possible;  to  destroy  the  insulators  as  well  as  the  in- 
struments and  batteries  found  in  telegraphic  st;ilions. 
A  non-conducting  wire,  having  the  outward  appear- 
ance of  an  oriliuarv  wire,  can  be  used  also  for  destroy- 


Fio.  1. 

ing  communication  by  splicing  it  to  the  electric  wire 
in  one  or  two  places  along  the  line.  The  result  will 
be  that  all  galvanic  communication  will  lie  stopped, 
and  it  will  be  ditficult  to  discover  where  the  break  ex- 
ists. In  telegraphy,  as  well  as  in  the  other  branches 
of  military  art,  it  is  important  to  be  acquainted  with 
the  resources  of  the  countrj',  and  to  tjike  as  much  ad- 
vantage of  these  resovuces  as  is  possible.  These  are 
obtained  by  means  of  reconnaissiuices,  and  note  must 
be  taken  of  the  plan  and  direction  of  all  existing  lines, 
and  the  dvanlages  that  may  accrue  from  them  by 
connecting  them  with  other  stations;  tlie  number  and 
kind  of  instruments  used  in  the  stations;  whether  the 
roads  to  bo  traversed  by  the  anny  are  planted  with 
trees  or  posts  on  which  the  wires  can  be  .set  up;  and 
whether  the  neighboring  woods  can  furnish  timber 
for  the  posts. 

A.ssuining  that  the  reader  is  unacquainted  with  the 
iletjuls  of  telegraphy,  we  will  briefly  descrilH^  the  con- 
struction and  operation  of  a  field-telegraph.  It  is 
from  the  action  created  in  the  battery  that  is  first 
generated  the  electric  current,  which,  in  field-teleg- 
raphy, is  made  to  traver.se  long  or  short  distances 
through  the  conducting  medium  of  metallic  wires, 
and  this  current  of  eleelrieily,  so  generated  in  the 
battery,  and  so  conducted  through  the  wires,  is  then, 
by  means  of  the  proper  iastntments,  made  to  give  out 
tangible  signals,  which.  Ixniig  arranged  in  the  fonu 
of  an  alphabet,  enables  us  to  read  or  speak  as  it  were 


rrEID-TELEGKAPHT. 


649 


riELD-TELEGBAPHY. 


from  any  great  distance,  ami  tliis  instantaneously; 
for  the  electric  current  requires  but  a  small  fraction 
of  I  seconil's  time  to  travel  many  hundreds  of  miles 
through  the  wires. 

Where  currents  more  powerful  than  can  lie  pro- 
duced by  a  single  cell  are  required,  additional  cells 
are  added  by  connecting  either  the  copper  or  zinc 
pole  of  the  first  cell  to  tlie  opposite  pole  of  the  next, 
and  so  on  (Fijj.  1);  so  that  in  a  scries  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  cells,  it  the  unconnected  pole  of  the  cell  at 
one  end  \ierc  copper,  that  pole  wouKl  constitute  the 
copper  pol'j  if  the  entire  battery,  and  the  luiconuccted 
zinc  at  the  other  end  would  be  the  zinc  pole  of  the 
entire  battery.  By  connecting  the  end  of  a  wire  of 
any  length  to  the  zinc  or  oppi'r  pole  of  such  a  battery, 
and  its  opposite  end  to  th  •  remaining  pole,  a  much 
more  powerful  current  would  jiass  through  the  wire 
than  if  the  battery  consisted  of  but  one  cell.  Tele- 
STuph  Companies' on  their  long  lines  u.se  batteries  of 
from  twenty  to  one  hundred  cells  each.  To  i)ut  the 
battery  in  opera'ion,  fill  the  gla.ss  jar  about  two  thirds 
full  oi  water;  place  the  copper  in  the  bottom  so  that 
it  rests  \:  n  arlv  level  as  i)os.sil)le,  and  its  wire  pass- 
ing straight  up-.vard  at  one  side  of  the  jar.  Then 
drop  alxiut  half  a  pound  of  sulphate  of  cojiper  into 
the  jar  so  the  lumps  will  lie  evenly  on  the  bottom  or 
around  and  on  the  copper.    Then  "suspend  the  zinc  so 


this  battery  depends  very  much  upon  the  position  in 
which  the  zinc  is  placed  with  reference  to  the  cojiper. 
To  get  the  most  active  effect,  lower  the  zinc  to  within 
about  an  inch  of  the  copiXT,  taking  care  not  to  allow 
a  contact  Ix'tweeu  the  two.  To  decrea.se  the  ixjwer 
and  render  the  batterj'  more  constant  or  la.sling,  raise 
the  zinc  farther  tiway  from  the  copper.  Mention  is 
mad?  of  the  use  of  wire  as  the  means  of  conducting 
currents  of  electricity  from  one  pole  of  a  battery  to 
any  given  point,  and'thenee  back  to  the  opposite  jjole, 
making  the  "  circuit,"  as  it  is  called,  complete.  Cer- 
tain substances  are  found  to  conduct  electricity  with 
more  or  less  facility,  and  thesi'  substances  are  called 
comluctors,  while  lliroiigli  other  matter  no  currents 
whatever  will  pass.  The  latter  class  of  substances 
arc  called  non-conductors  or  insulating  mediums.  In 
telegraphy  there  are  used  as  comluctors,  princijially, 
copper,  iron,  bni.s.s,  and  platina.  .iVs  insulation,  giit- 
tapercha,  hard  and  soft  rubber,  glass,  silk  and  cot- 
ton fiber,  dry  wood,  bone  and  ivory.  Iron  in  the 
shape  of  wire  is  asually  employed  for  outside  con- 
ductors, iK'cause  of  its  durability,  cheapness,  and 
strength,  although  it  is  not  as  perfect  a  conductor  as 
copper,  which  latter  is  generally  u.sed  for  all  wires 
inside  of  buildings  and  offices.  "  In  conducting  cur- 
rents of  electricity  from  one  point  to  another,  as  in 
telegraphy,  it  is  found  necessary  to  use  non-conduct- 


Fig.  3. 


that  the  body  of  the  wheel  is  alxnit  two  inches  above 
the  copper.  As  the  battery  dix's  not  at  once  begin  to 
act  in  it.s  fullest  strength  when  newly  set  up.  it  is  well 
to  connect  the  copper  with  the  zinc  and  leave  it  so  for 
a  few  hours  before  using.  This  is  done  by  fjustening 
the  wire  from  the  copper  into  the  screw-post  of  the 
zinc  hanger,  and  will  soon  cause  the  battery  to  work 
up  sufficiently  to  be  ready  for  use.  The  battery  should 
be  kept  supplied  with  enough  sulphate  of  copper  so 
that  a  blue  color  can  always  Ik-  seen  in  the  li(|uiil  at 
the  bottom  of  the  jar,  rising  to  within  an  inch  of  the 
lower  surface  of  the  su.spended  zinc.  If  it  is  found 
that  the  blue  color  rises  higher  than  this,  it  is  thereby 
indicateil  too  much  su'.jjl'.ate  of  cnjiper  is  being  use<I, 
and  no  more  should  be  put  in  until  the  blue  has  re- 
ceded almost  to  the  veri'  bottom  of  the  jar.  The  lat- 
ter state  of  the  battery  indicates  that  more  sul|ihaleof 
copper  is  required.  Water  should  be  from  time  to 
time  added  to  that  in  the  jar  to  replace  the  lass  by 
evaporation.  Once  in  two  or  three  months  it  will  Ije 
neccssixry  to  thoroughly  clean  the  batteiT.  Take  out 
the  zinq  carefully;  then  the  copper  in  tiie  s;mie  man- 
ner; pour  the  liquid  into  a  separate  jar,  leaving  Ix'- 
hind  the  o.xiile  and  dirt  which  may  have  gjilliered  in 
the  bottom  of  the  jar.  Wa.sh  the  latter  out  com- 
pletely, and  return  to  it  the  clean  liquid  which  it  had 
in  it  before;  put  back  the  copper  to  its  place;  put  in 
a  few  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper;  clean  the  zinc 
thoroughly  by  scra|)ing  and  wiushing,  and  return  it 
also  to  its  place.  The  battery  will  then  be  in  g(X)d 
order,  and  should  not  be  disturbed  excepting  when 
necessary  to  clean  it  or  add  sulphate.     The  power  of 


ors  wherever  a  fastening  of  the  wire  is  made,  in  order 
to  prevent  an  escape  of  the  fluid  at  these  numcrotw 
points.  For  this  purpose  gla-ss  is  principally  used 
for  outside  wires,  the  glass  "  insulators  "  being  first 
made  fast  to  the  iH)le  or  building,  whereon  the  wire 
is  to  be  suspended  by  means  of  a  wooden  pin,  or 
"  bracket,"  after  which  the  wire  is  .strung  and  tied  to 
the  glass  with  a  short  piece  of  iron  "tie-wire."  In- 
side of  offices  hard  and  soft  rubber  tubes  are  u.sed 
where  the  wires  pass  through  the  windows,  and  the 
Clipper  conducting-wires  are  us\ially  covered  with  a 
coating  of  gutta-percha,  or  wnip|>ed  with  a  continu- 
ous covering  of  cotton  or  silk.  The  latter  is  princi- 
]ially  used  as  a  covering  for  the  wires  inside  the  finer 
instruments.  For  the  handles  or  knobs  to  the  various 
instruments  which  require  manipulation,  hard  rubl)er 
is  generally  used.  It  is  found  that  when  one  pole  of 
a  battery  is  connected  with  the  earth,  and  the  wire 
from  the  opposite  pole  carried  to  a  point  at  any  dis- 
tance away,  and  also  connected  with  the  earth,  the 
current  will  flow  as  readily  as  though  the  "circuit"' 
had  been  made  complete  by  the  use  of  a  return-wire. 
It  is  therefore  shown  that  the  earth  is  practically  one 
vast  conductor.  This  is  principally  ilue  to  the  fact  that 
moisture  is  cvenwhere  iireseni  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  anil  water  itself  is  known  to  be  a  very 
fair  conductor.  Telegraph  Companies  make  great 
practical  us<'  of  earth-conduction  by  using  it  in  all 
Ciises  for  their  numerous  lines,  lx)th  long  and  short, 
thus  saving  the  construction  of  a  si'parate  or  return 
wire  on  every  circuit.  .\  careftd  reading  of  the  fore- 
going will  have  enabled  the  soldier  to  understand  how 


FIELD  TELEGEAPHY. 


650 


FIELD  TELEGRAPHY. 


currents  of  electricity  are  generated  and  made  to 
travel  through  space.  The  next  feature  of  the  study 
will  1)0  the  niemis  which  are  employed  to  make  these 
cum'nts  transmit  sijrnals.  The  basis  of  the  entire 
telegraphic  apparatus  is  the  electro-magnet  and  the 
transmitting  ••key"  (Fig.  2).  The  electro-magnet  is 
constructed  as  follows:  Two  bars  of  s<ift  iron,  liaWng 
round  heads  of  rubber  or  wooil,  thus  making  spools 


contact  with  another  platina  point  set  into  an  insula- 
tion of  rubber  in  the  base  of  the  key,  so  that  there  can 
be  no  electrical  connection  between  them  unless  the 
key  is  pressed  down,  or  "  closed"  as  it  is  termed.  A. 
conducting  wire  being  separated  at  any  point,  and 
one  of  its  ends  connected  with  the  lever  or  base  of  the 
key,  and  the  other  end  with  the  metal  set  into  the 
ruF)ber  insulation,  would  convey  the  current  while 


Fig.  3. 


of  each,  are  fastened  together  by  means  of  a  short  I 
flat  bar  of  iron  similarly  soft.  The  round  bars  iu  the 
spools  of  the  magnet  are  called  the  "cores."  The 
flat  connecting-bar  at  the  back  is  called  the  "back 
armature,"  by  telegraphers,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
movable  piece  in  front,  which  is  to  be  attracted  to  the 
"  cores"  or  withdrawn  by  the  spring,  and  which  is 
called  the  armature.  A  silk-  or  cotton-covered  wire  is 
wound  in  continuous  turns  about  the  cores  until  a  di- 
ameter of  al)t)ut  an  inch  and  a  half  is  attained,  and 
each  core  or  spool  of  the  magnet  contains  a  great 
number  of  turns  of  the  wire  aroimd  it.  Now,  if  a 
current  of  electricity  be  sent  through  this  wire,  it  will, 
by  its  pa.ssing  through  the  numerous  turns,  cause  the 
iron  cores  within  to  become  magnetic  and  to  possess 
the  power  of  attracting  with  considerable  force  any 
piece  of  iron  brought  near  to  their  ends.  The  core.s, 
being  made  of  soft  iron,  will  lose  their  magnetism  and  ; 
cease  to  exert  any  attractive  power  the  moment  the 
current  ceases  to  flow.  The  actual  power  of  the  at- 
tractive force  thus  exerted  is  directly  dependent  upon  ' 


the  key  was  closed,  and  cease  to  do  so  the  moment 
it  was  "opened.  Platina  is  used  at  the  points  where 
the  electiical  contacts  are  made  and  broken  because 
it  does  not  readilj'  fuse  or  tarnish.  An  extra  lever  at 
the  side  of  the  kej' is  called  the  "circuit-breaker,  "and 
is  used  as  a  means  of  kee]iing  the  circuit  closed  when 
the  hand  of  the  operator  is  not  on  the  key.  When  the 
circuit-breaker  is  pushed  into  its  closed  position  it 
makes  contact  with  a  bra.ss  lip,  which  latter  is  fastened 
to  the  rubber  along  with  the  lower  platina  point. 
This,  then,  has  the  sjime  effect  as  though  the  key  was 
pressed  downward  and  contact  made  at  the  points. 
Fig.  2  represents  a  magnet  with  its  armature  suspend- 
ed from  a  spring,  and  connected  with  it  by  a  wire,  a 
battery,  and  a  key.  From  what  has  now  been  ex- 
plained it  may  be  seen  that  when  the  key  is  closed  a 
current  from  the  battery  will  pass  through  the  wire 
and  magnet,  and  cause  the  latter  to  attract  the  arma- 
ture, overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  spring,  and  that 
the  instant  the  key  is  opened  the  current  will  cease  to 
flow,  the  magnet  cease  to  attract,  and  the  sprii;g  will 


Fio,  4. 


the  power  of  the  battery  which  supplies  the  current, 
or,  more  projterly  speaking,  upon  the  power  of  the 
current  it.self.  Strong  currents  will  cause  the  magnets 
to  attract  with  a  power  of  several  pounds.  Keys  arc 
simply  a  contrivance  for  making  or  lireaking  the  con- 
tacts which  control  the  passiige  of  the  current— a 
brass  lever  .swung  on  a  pivot,  having  a  nibbcr  handle 
which  the  operator  grasps  lightly  with  the  thumb  and 
forelinger.  On  pressing  the  lever  downward,  a  plat- 
ina point  projecting  under  the  lever  is  brought  into 


instantly  dr.iw  the  armature  back  to  its  original  posi- 
tion. In  this  way  the  armature  is  made  to  follow  ex- 
actly the  movements  of  the  key.  no  matter  at  what 
distance  they  may  be  placed  froiii  each  other,  although 
in  practice  it  is  found  that  as  the  circuits  are  length- 
ened, more  batlerv-  power  and  more  delicate  instru- 
ments are  required  than  on  short  lines.  The  whole 
basis  of  the  telegraph  system  is  this  duiilieation  at  one 
'  point,  by  the  magnet  aiid  its  armature,  of  the  motions 
I  made  on  tie  key  by  the  hand  of  the  operator,  at 


FULD-TELEGEAPHY. 


651 


FIELDTELEGEAPffS . 


Teleokaph  Impu:ments.— 1.  Crow  and  Pipgine  Bar.  2.  Tamping  and  Digfrfng  Bar.  3.  Round-face  Tamplng-bar. 
4.  Pike  for  raising  telegraph-posts.  6.  Guarded  Pike.  6.  Earth-auser,  for  boring  holes  in  the  earth  for  telegraph-posts. 
T.  Telegraph  Shovel,  round  point.  S.  Telegraph  Spoon.  9,  Soldering-oopper.  10.  Eccentric  Clamj)  and  Strap.  11.  Section 
of  gla.ss  insulator,  and  manner  of  attaching  to  pole:  B  is  a  bracket,  spiked  to  the  pole.  P;  over  the  upper  part  of  the  bracket 
fits  the  glass.  G.  IJ.  Cliniliers.  13.  Brockton  Combination  Line-vise.  14.  Solder-pot.  15.  Line-tapping  Clamp,  for  use  in 
establishing  Temporary  Offices. 


TIELD-TRAIN. 


652 


FIELD-WOaSS. 


anotbcr  separate  and  distant  point.  Durinj;  the  first 
years  of  telegnii>hy,  the  Morsi-  ri'irister  was  the  only 
means  employed  to  put  into  lanj^iMeform  tlie  siirnals 
transmitted  over  the  "ires.  See  TtUyraph.  The  ar- 
mature of  the  magnet  is  attached  to  a  lever,  and  this 
lever,  which  swin~gs  on  a  pivot  in  the  middle,  is  i>ro- 
vided  at  the  end  with  a  [lointed  pin  or  .screw,  which 
is  caused  to  press  upwards  airainst  a  strip  of  pa|HT 
whenever  the  mairnel  attracts,  and  to  return  to  its  for- 
mer iwsition  when  the  reverse  is  the  case.  (Fi,!i.  3.) 
Meanwhile  the  paper  is  kept  moving  stcjulily  forward, 
so  that  if  the  lever-pin  Ls  jircs-scd  apunst  the  paper  for 
only  an  instant  of  time  a  short  mark  or  ilot  api>ears 
preksi-d  or  emiiossed  into  the  paper.  If  for  a  longer 
time,  the  mark  would  be  proportionately  longer,  or  a 
datJi.  If  alternately,  the  marks  would  come  consecu- 
tively, and  have  kjx'ici'ii  between  them.  As  the  Morse 
alphalx'l  consists  entirely  of  dots,  dashes,  spaces,  and 
e.xtni-long  dashes,  the  letters  and  nuniends  are  easily 
made  with  these  marks  and  their  lombinations.  So 
that  as  the  hand  of  the  oi)crator,  on  the  key  at  a  dis- 
tant point,  makes  short  or  long  strokes,  dots,  or  da.shes, 
or  spaces,  these'  same  marks  appear  on  the  paper  as  it 
comes  from  the  regist<'r,  and,  l^ing  based  on  the  for- 
mation given  bv  the  Morse  alphabet,  are  as  easily  \ni- 
derst<x>d  by  the  receiving  operator  as  though  they 
appeared  iii  the  well-known  Roman  chaniclers.  After 
the  telegraph  had  been  in  successful  operation  for 
several  ye;irs,  the  operators  beg-an  to  discover  that, 
with  practice,  they  could  more  easily  distinguish  the 
dots  an<l  dashes  by" the  clicking  sounds  that  came  from 
the  instrument,  when  the  lever  responded  to  the  sig- 
nals, than  they  coidd  read  them  from  the  paper. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  what  is  called  remfiiis  by 
souiifl.  At  the  presentlime  none  are  considered  good 
operators  who  cannot  read  by  sound,  and  there  are 
comparatively  few  registers  employed  in  the  United 
States. 

Having  set  up  the  Iiattery,  connect,  as  shown  in  the 
cut,  one  wire  from  the  copper  pole  of  the  battery  to 
one  of  the  brass  binding-posts  of  the  instrument,  and 
one  wire  from  the  zinc  pole  to  the  remaining  binding- 
post:  screw  down  the  instrument  firmly  to  the  table 
with  the  screw  in  the  ba.sc.  as  its  best  sound  is  there 
by  jiroduced.  See  that  none  of  the  screws  arc  loose 
iii  their  places,  and  that  the  armature  lever,  which  is 
the  speaking  tongue  of  the  telegraph,  plays  freely, 
with  a  movement  of  about  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch. 
The  spring,  which  dniws  the  armature-lever  upwards, 
and  Is  called  the  adjustment,  should  only  be  set  at 
sulTicient  tension  to  raise  the  lever  when  no  cm-rent 
is  passing  through  the  magnets.  If  drawn  too  tightly, 
the  spring  will  not  allow  the  armature  to  respond  to 
the  attractions  of  the  magnet.  When  the  instrument 
is  not  in  use,  leave  the  circuit  breaker  of  the  key  open 
so  that  the  battery  will  not  be  in  action,  and  its  power 
accordingly  economized.  See  that  the  platina  jioints 
of  the  key  are  kept  clean  from  dirt  or  dust,  thus  pre- 
venting imperfect  contact.s  from  being  made.  The 
key  is  provided  with  screws  for  the  puqiose  of  regidat- 
ing  its  play  to  suit  tlie  hand  of  the  ojKM-ator,  and  to 
regulate  also  the  pres.sure  of  the  spring  beneath  it,  for 
the  same  purjrose.  The  best  way  to  acquire  the  habit 
of  correct  Morse  writing  in  the  start  is  by  practicing 
with  another  .student  at  the  s;nne  instnunent,  one  at 
making  letters,  while  the  other  by  listening  endeavors 
to  naitie  them.  This  is  e.xcellenf  practice  for  both;  it 
is  the  Ix'ginning  of  .sound-reading  on  the  i)art  of  the 
one  who  names  the  letters,  while  the  one  who  writes  i 
on  the  key  iimtl  make  the  signals  distinctly  and  cor-  I 
rcctly  or  they  cannot  jiossibly  be  distinguished  by  the 
other.  Start  rightly,  and  practice  will  soon  make 
perfection  of  skill.  No  mental  elTort  whatever  is  re- 
<|uired  of  the  practical  operator  to  construct  a  Morse 
letter  the  moment  his  eyes  come  to  it.  An<i  in  trans, 
mitting  me.s.sagc8  he  transmits  the  right  siirnals  in  a 
continuous  stream  with  as  little  elTort  or  thought  as 
the  accomplished  penman  rapidly  writes  the  words  of 
a  manuscript.  Tlie  click  of  an  instrument  is  as  easily 
understood  by  a  "sound-operator"  who  has  had  an 


experience  of  a  year  or  two  as  his  own  language  .spoken 
in  the  clearest  of  accents.  After  two  or  three  weeks 
of  iiracticc  together  over  one  instrument,  two  i)ersons 
should  be  able  to  read  each  other's  writing  slowly,  and 
should  also  have  become  familiar  with  the  instruments, 
battery,  and  the  principles  of  their  operation.  Sepa- 
rate practice  ovcra  short  line  lielween  ilifferent  roonis 
or  buildings  may  then  with  advantage  iK'gin,  each 
student  having  an  instrument  connected  at  his  own 
end  of  the  wire,  and  all  communication  between  them 
necessarily  being  made  by  telegraph.  According  to 
the  Icngtli  of  line  between  the  two  iastruments,  two 
or  more  cells  of  battery,  arrangtnl  in  series,  will  lie 
required  to  operate  in  this  way.  Connect  instruments 
smd  battery  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  return-circuit 
may  be  made  either  by  a  continuous  wire,  lus  indicated, 
or  "bv  connection  with  the  earth  at  each  end,  G  G. 
For  wires  of  but  a  short  distance  in  length,  the  return- 
wire  is  best ;  for  out-door  lines  of  more  than  a  few- 
hundred  feet  in  length  use  ground-wires,  as  earth- 
connections  are  called.  To  make  a  ground-wire,  con- 
nect a  wire  to  a  plate  or  sheet  of  met;tl,  zinc,  iron,  or 
tin ;  bury  the  latter  in  moist  earth.  The  plate  of  metal 
should  present  not  less  than  three  square  feet  of  sur- 
face. Gas  and  water  pipes  are,  however,  the  bCst  for 
this  attachment,  and  whenever  they  are  within  reach 
should  be  used  instead  of  buried  plates  in  the  earth. 
In  running  an  out-door  wire  between  points  at  any 
distance  apart,  it  should  be  insulated  (by  using  glass 
or  rubber  insulators)  from  all  direct  contact  -Nvith  build- 
ings, posts,  or  trees.  This  prevents  "escape"  of  the 
current,  by  which  it  would  otherwise  lie  diverted  from 
its  proper  course  through  both  of  the  instruments, 
and  ivaching  the  earth  by  a  shorter  route,  w-ould  cir-. 
culate  to  its  opposite  pole  in  the  batterj-  without  hav- 
ing any  effect  whatever  on  the  distant  apparatus.  To 
make  "a  joint  or  splice  in  wire,  brighten  the  ends  by 
scraping  them,  and  twist  each  wire  around  the  other 
as  closely  and  tirml>  as  pos.sible,  so  that  no  strain  will 
(haw  them  apart.  In  running  wires  inside  of  a  build- 
ing, use  insulated  copper  wire  covereil  either  with 
(ottiin  or  g\ittapercha;  fasten  it  in  place  with  small 
staples  or  tacks,  but  in  doing  so  lie  careful  not  to  allow 
the  covering  to  be  opened  or  stripped  from  the  wire, 
nor  to  allow  the  latter  to  come  in  contact  with  gas  or 
water  pipes,  or  metal  ix)sts.  In  the  beginning,  when 
two  persons  are  first  practicing  over  a  short  wire,  ar- 
ranged as  de,scritx-d,  ordinary  conversation  carried  on 
by  telegraph  is  as  good  a  means  of  )iractice,  both  at 
sending  and  at  re-tding,  as  anything  else.  Then  pro- 
ceed with  alternately  sending  printed  matter  from 
newspapers  or  books  and  copjing  it  with  a  pen  -or 
pencil  from  the  instrument  by  sound  as  the  other 
sends  it.  As  each  improves,  both  in  reading  by  sound 
and  in  sending  plainly,  thisv\ill  become  verv  pleasant 
and  interesting  occupation.  The  more  Important 
telesrraph  implements,  as  manufactured  by  Messrs. 
L.  G.  Tillot.son  and  Company,  the  leading  Govern 
luent  Contractors  in  America",  are  shown  in  the  full- 
page  emiravintr.     See  Trlf graph. 

FIELD-TRAIN.— A  Department  of  the  Royal  Ar- 
tillery, consisting  of  Commis-saries  and  Conductors 
of  Stores,  responsible  for  the  siife  custody  of  the  am- 
munition, for  the  formation  of  proper  depots  of  shot, 
etc.,  between  the  front  and  the  base  of  operations, 
and  that  a  due  proportion  shall  be  constantly  at  the 
ser\-ice  of  each  srun  during  an  engagement. 

FIELD  WORKS.— Field-works  "may  be  enumerated 
imder  three  heads.  1st.  Those  whfch,  being  secure 
on  the  flanks  and  in  the  rear,  are  assailable  only  in 
front.  2d.  Tho.se  which  are  assailable  in  front  and 
on  the  flanks.  3d.  Thosi-  which  are  a.ssiiilable  on  all 
sides.  The  plan  of  the  works  of  the  first  cla.ss,  when 
the  front  to  be  defended  is  of  very  limited  extent, 
may  be  a  simple  ripht  line.  From  this  line  only  a 
front  or  direct  fire  can  be  brought  to  bear  on  thf  ivs- 
sinlant  in  his  advance,  and  when  he  attains  the  ditch, 
the  fire  of  the  parapet  passing  over  his  head,  he  is  in 
a  sheltered  dead  space  where  he  can  leisurely  tiike 
his  measures  to  assault  the  parapet.     For  extended 


FIFE. 


653 


FIFTEEN-INCH  GUN. 


fronts  ri  flanked  disposition  more  or  less  perfect  can 
be  obtained,  from  wbich  cross  as  well  as  direct  lire 
can  I)e  brought  to  bear  on  the  advance  of  the  assail- 
ant. The  most  simple  combination  for  this  object  is 
the  cn'maillire  or  serraUd  lim-,  which  consists  of  a 
broken  line  formed  of  long  and  short  liranches  pcr- 
pendicidar  to  each  other.  The  salient  angles  are 
protected  by  a  cross-lire,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the 
ditch  in  front  of  the  .Siilients;  but  the  portion  of  the 
ditch  at  each  reentering  angle  is  a  dead-space,  not 
being  reached  by  the  tire  of  the  parapet.  The  plan 
of  works  of  the  second  class  admits  of  great  variety, 
dejK'nding  on  the  extent  of  the  position.  The  most 
simple  is  that  of  a  work  of  only  two  faces,  the  salient 
being  towards  the  a.s.sjiilant's  line  of  approach.  This 
work  is  termed  a  rxltin.  The  faces  should  receive 
such  direction  as  to  sweep  the  approaches  to  the 
flanks  of  the  position.  As  many  pieces  as  possible 
are  placed  in  the  salient,  and  others  disposed  along 
the  faces  in  the  most  commanding  positions  for 
sweeping  the  ground  in  their  front.  The  angle 
formed  at  the  salient  by  llie  faces  should  never  be 
less  than  60  .  When  the  flank  approaches  extend 
somewhat  to  the  rear,  a  flank  is  added  to  each  face 
of  the  redan;  it  then  tiecomes  a  lunetU'.  The  flanks 
receive  such  directions  as  will  sweep  by  their  fire  that 
portion  of  the  flank-approaches  which  cannot  be 
reached  from  the  faces  except  by  a  verj-  oblique  tire. 
The  artillery  is  placed  in  position  at  the  -salienfs,  in 
each  of  which  is  a  pan-coupec.  The  works  com- 
prised in  this  class  are  termed  inclosed  works,  as, 
))eing  assailable  on  all  sides,  they  must,  for  securitj', 
present  a  complete  line  tliroiighout  to  any  assault. 
These  works  may  be  di\ided  into  three  orders:  1st. 
Polygnnal  works, 'or  redonbU ;  2d.  TenaUled  morks,  or 
slarforlx  ;  3d.  lia/itioned  works. 

The  defense  of  inclosed  works  demands  that  every 
point  of  the  parapet  .should  be  guarded,  at  the  mo- 
ment of  a.s.sault,  either  by  cannon  or  musketry.  The 
troops  may  be  drawn  uji  for  the  defense  either  in  one, 
two,  or  three  ranks;  and  there  should,  moreover,  be 
a  reserve  proportioned  to  the  importance  attached  to 
the  work.  The  free  interior  space,  denominated  the 
ttrre-plfi'n,  or  pariulc,  should  be  sufficiently  great  to 
lodge  tlie  troops,  with  the  cannon  and  its  acces.sories, 
and  will  therefore  dejiend  on  the  nature  of  the  de- 
fense. The  following  data  will  aid  to  regulate  this 
point.  Each  man  will  occupy  one  yard,  linear  nieas- 
m-e,  along  the  interior  crest,  and  each  cannon  from 
five  to  si.x  yards.  The  space  requisite  to  lodge  each 
man  is  one  and  a  half  square  yards;  and  about  sixty 
square  yards  should  be  jdlowed  for  each  gun.  Be- 
sides this  space  an  allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
trarersts,  to  cover  an  outlet,  to  screen  the  troops  from 
a  reverse  or  an  enfilading  fire,  etc.;  and  for  powder- 
magazines  when  they  are  not  placed  in  the  traverses. 
The  area  occupied  by  a  traverse  will  depend  on  its 
dimensions,  and  cannot  be  fixed  beforehand;  that 
allowed  for  a  magazine  for  three  or  four  cannon  may 
be  estimated  at  fifteen  or  twenty  square  yards.  As  a 
fieUl-fort  must  rely  entirely  on  it.s  own  strength,  it 
shoidd  he  constructed  with  such  aire  that  the  enemy 
will  be  forced  to  abandon  an  attempt  to  storm  it,  and 
be  obliged  to  resort  to  the  method  of  regular  ap- 
proaches used  in  the  attack  of  pernianent  works. 
To  effect  this,  all  the  ground  around  the  fort,  within 
file  range  of  cannon,  should  offer  no  shelter  to  the 
enemy  from  its  fire;  the  ditches  .should  be  flanked 
throughout;  and  the  relief  be  .so  great  as  to  preclude 
every  attempt  at  scaling  the  work.  See  Bastinned 
Fnri»,  Fieldfortifirntion,  Inelnned  Work»,  Lunette, 
Prifiit<ap,  Redan,  Redoubt,  Star-fort*,  and  Swalloie- 
tuil. 

FIFE. — An  ancient  wind-instniment  of  militarj' 
music,  in  which  the  melody  is  produced  by  blowing 
through  a  hole  in  a  reed  or  tube,  while  the  escape  of 
air  is  regidated  by  tlie  fingers  stopping  or  opening  a 
numl)er  of  other  holes  in  different  parts  of  the  pipe. 
It  has  a  compass  of  two  octaves,  from  V>  on  the  fourth 
line  of  the  treble  clef  to  D  above  in  altissimo.     The 


fife  figures  in  the  sculptured  memorials  of  the 
Argonauticexpedition,  and  from  that  time 
to  this  has  maintained  its  jjlace  as  a  simple 
yet  effective  instrument  for  martial  i)ur- 
poscs.  It  was  common  with  English  troops 
till  the  reign  of  James  1.,  but  wtts  then  dis- 
continued, lobe  reintroduced  by  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland  at  the  siege  of  Maestricht 
in  1747.  It  is  a  universid  favorite  in  the 
Na\y,  and  many  a  stirring  air  on  drums 
and  fifes  has  cheered  the  sailor  to  deeds  of 
darinir. 

FIFE  MAJOR.— The  chief  or  superin- 
tendent of  the  tifers  of  a  regiment.  In  the 
English  infantry  there  is  a  fifer  to  each 
company,  and  a  Fife  iMajorto  each  bat- 
talion, the  former  receiving  the  daily  paj- 
of  l.«.  \d.,  the  latter,  who  is  a  non-coiumis- 
sioncd  (iflicer,  Ix.  llrf. 

FIFEE.— One  who  plays  the  fife.  In 
the  United  States  army  there  is  one  fifer 
allowed  to  each  company  of  the  infantrj'. 
Fifers  are  idso  employed  aboard  men-of- 
war  and  in  the  MarineC'orps. 

FIFTEEN  INCH  GUN.— A  smooth-bore, 
muzzle-loading  cast  iron  gim,  mounted  on 
a  front-  or  center-pintle  carriage,  u.sed  in 
the  United  States  sea-coast  service.  The 
following  tables  exhibit  the  principal  weights,  dimen 
sions,  and  ranges  of  the  gun: 


Desiokation, 

Lbs. 

Inch. 

Caliber 

49,66o 
00 

15 

Weight 

Length  of  piece 
Length  of  bore 

m 

(calibers) 

Maximum  diameter 

48 

Wiiitiage 

0  18 

Charge  ( mammoth  or  hexagonal  powder)  for 

shot 

100 

60 

450 

330 

(t 

for  shel 

Solid  si 

Shell  (unfilled) 

Initial  veUx-ity  (feet) 

W'eight  of  top-carriage 

5,800 
15,450 

Carriage— wrought-iron   (chissis  with 

two 

air-cyliuders  to  check  recoil)  . 

Ranges  in 

Yards. 

Shot. 

Shell. 

d 
o 

c 
o 

. 

_    J= 

% 

a 

% 

?f 

s;a 

Charge. 

a 

® 

s 

Degs. 

Yards. 

Degs. 

Yards. 

Sees. 

100    lbs.    of    mam- 

1 

769 

1 

600 

1.44 

moth    powder  for 

2 

1.3S2 

2 

1.073 

2.79 

solid  shot,  and  60 

8 

1.819 

3 

1.467 

4.1 

lbs.,  for  shell. 

4 

2.2.35 

4 

1.800 

5.28 

To  fill  shell:  13  lbs. 

5 
6 

2.601 
2.926 

6 
6 

2.094 
2,335 

6.44 
7.68 

of  mortar-powder. 

7 

:i.281 

7 

2,590 

8.67 

Pressure  per  square 

8 

3.491 

8 

2.601 

9.68 

inch,  average  19.- 

9 

3.7S5 

9 

8,000 

10.89 

500  lbs. 

10 

3.959 

10 

3.171 

11.63 

I.*ngth  of  cartridge 

15 

4.890 

15 

3.916 

16.30 

I(i0  1bs.=.3n  inches. 

80 

5,579 

20 

4,458 

30.52 

60  lbs.= 18  inches. 

The  piece  admits  of  2.5  degrees  elevation  and  6  de- 
grees depression.  The  platform  is  a  permanent  por- 
tion of  the  work.  The  top-carriage  is  the  same:  the 
chassis  alone  diffeis  in  the  front-pintle  and  center- 
pintle  carriages.  The  weight  of  the  front-pintle  chas- 
sis, including geareii  travers<^-whcels  is,  17,000  pounds. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  geared  traverse- wheels,  differing 
however  only  in  height  and  weight.  The  axis  of  the 
trunnions  of  the  gmi  mounted  on  the  higher  is  8  feet 
.5.25  inches  above  the  pintle  block,  and  10  feet  11.35 


WOHT. 


654 


FILE. 


inches  above  the  terre-pleiii.  Upon  the  other  carriage 
it  is  7  feet  2.25  inches  al)ove  the  pintle-block,  nnd  9 
feet  5.25  ir.clics ntove  the  terreplein.  The  front  axle 
of  the  topcarriajre  is  not  eccentric;  the  rear  one  is. 
The  front  pari  of  the  sole  of  each  sh(X'  is  cut  away  to 
a  point  a  few  inches  in  rear  of  the  trtmi  a.xle,  and  to  a 
depth  of  about  half  an  inch.  When  the  rear  wheels 
are  out  of  gear,  the  frout  wheels  do  not  touch  the 
chassis-rails;  but  when  the  rear  wheels  arc  thrown 
into  gear,  the  rear  part  of  the  carriage  is  slightly 
raist'il,  and  the  front  part  of  the  carnage  is,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  soles  being  cut  away,  lowered;  the  front 
wheels  then  touch  the  chassis-rails  and  support  the 
weight  of  the  front  part  of  the  carriage,  and  the  whole 
moves  with  rolling  friction  upon  the  front  jxnd  rear 
truck-wheels.  The  wheels  are  out  of  gear  when  the 
gun  is  tired;  the  recoil  is  then  on  sliding  friction.  The 
front  axle  is  furnished  at  each  end  with  a  brass  sleeve, 
to  which  the  counterpoise  handspikeistinnly  attached. 
A  pawl  is  attached  to  the  handspike,  and  engages  into 
ratchets  in  the  truck-wheels.  Bearing  dowii  upon 
the  handspikes  forces  the  wheels  to  turn,  and  com- 
municates motion  to  the  carriage.  The  handspike 
pawls  are  engaged  in  the  ratchet  of  the  truck-wheels 
only  when  it  is  ilesired  to  give  motion  to  the  carriage; 
at  all  other  times  they  must  Ije  kept  clear  of  tlie 
ratchets.  To  prevent  "the  rear  truck-wheels  of  the 
carriage  from  working  out  of  gear  while  the  gun  is 
bein^  run  from  battery,  or  jumjiing  in  gear  when  the 
gun  is  tired,  ])awls  are  provided  for  locking  the  rear 
axle.  The  elevation  is  given  bv  means  of  the  elevating 
arc.  With  a  well-instrlicled  iletachment.  the  15  inch 
gun  can  be  tired  twelve  times  in  an  hour,  allowing 
time  for  deliberate  pointing.  The  carriage  and  chassis 
for  the  front  and  center  pintle  have  the  same  dimen- 
sions, viz.: 

Length  of  chassis 19  feet  7  inches. 

Width  of  chassis 5  feet  3  inches. 

Depth  of  chassis-rail 1  foot  8  inches. 

Length  of  carriage 8  feet  8  inches. 

Inclination  of  chassis-rails. .    3  degrees. 
See  Cast-iron  Guns  and  Ordnnnce. 

FIGHT. — A  struggle  for  victory,  either  between  in- 
dividuals or  between  armies,  ships  or  nartes.  A  duel 
is  called  a  single  tight  or  combat.  A  running  light 
is  one  in  which  the  enemy  is  continually  chased.  To 
/(//(<  rtoi/^  is  to  continue  the  contest  until  one  side  or 
the  other  gets  the  better.  The  French  express  it  by 
se  btittre  <i  oiitranee.     See  Battlt. 

FIGUEE.— In  fortiliciition,  the  plan  of  any  fortified 
place,  or  the  interior  polygon.  Of  this  there  are  two 
sorts,  regular  and  irregular.     See  Field- irorks. 

FIGURE  OF  MEEIt.— The  figure  denoting  the  ef- 
ficiency of  the  shooting  of  a  .squad,  a  company,  or 
battalion.  The  tigure  of  merit  is  formed  as  follows: 
Average  points  obtained  in  the  tirst  and  second  peri- 
ods. The  uggregate points  to  he  diridtd  by  the  nmnber 
of  men  who  cominenctd  tlwjint  period.  Average  point.s 
obtiiined  in  the  volley-firing.  Jlinus  percentage  of 
third-class  shots  at  final  classification. 

Infantry. 


Very 
good. 

Good. 

Moder- 
ate. 

When 
under. 

AveraRe  points  obtained 
in  first  and  second 
periofls  toj-etlier 

Avera>ce  pointsobtained 
in  vollef-flrlng 

Percentage  of  tliird- 
clas.s  Bliots  at  Hnal 
cla.isiflcation  (miniM). 

Fiyure  of  merit   

Averaiif  iwints  In  inde- 
pfMilcnt  flrliijjr  

Average  points  in  the 
slcinhi&hing 

75 

17 

8 
8S 

18 

» 

70 
15 

12 
75 

16 

6 

SS 
14 

16 

es 

15 
0 

65 

14 

When  over. 

1« 
65 

15 

S 

FILE. — 1.  File,  in  a  militar)-  sense,  is  used  to  sig- 
nify any  line  of  men  standing  directly  behind  each 


other,  as  rank  refers  to  men  standing  beside  one 
another.  In  ordinary  formations  of  the  present  day 
a  battalion  stands  two  deep,  or  in  two  ranks — front 
and  rear — wherefore  a  file  consists  of  two  men. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  battalion  may  be  formed 
much  more  solidly,  as  in  a  square,  when  the  file  com- 
prises a  far  larger  number.  The  number  of  files  in 
a  company  describes  its  width,  as  the  numl)er  of 
ranks  does  its  depth;  thus.  100  men  in  "fours  deep" 
woidd  be  spoken  of  as  25  files  in  4  ranks. 

2.  The  (jrdnance  Department  employs  one  .skilled 
file-cutter  at  the  National  Armory,  who  is  kept  con- 
stantly employed  in  recutting  worn-out  files  and  in 
making  special  files  for  certain  classes  of  work  re- 
quired in  the  fabrication  of  small-arms.  All  the 
rotary  files  used  in  the  establishment  are  also  cut 
I  there.  Since  the  introduction  of  "  gun-steel"  or  Bcs- 
I  senier  steel  as  the  material  for  many  of  the  com]io- 
nents  of  arms,  a  good  many  files  are  used  which  are 
"new  cut"  or  "skew cut.'"'  This  " new"  or  " skew" 
I  cu.  is  one  in  which  the  first  course,  or  oter-ctit,  is  a 
[  light  cut  with  small  horizontal  obliquity,  while  the 
second  course,  or  up-cut,  is  coarser,  v\ith  great  hori- 
zontal obliquity.  This  method  of  cuttin"  is  excel- 
lent for  a  finishing-file,  jmd  is  very  popular  among 
armorers  on  account  of  the  ease  of  manipulation  ana 
freedom  from  clogging,  as  well  as  the  smoothness  of 
the  surface  produced. "  But,  unless  the  {juality  of  the 
:  milling  be  excellent,  these  files  do  not  produ"ce  good 
results  except  with  a  great  expenditure  of  time,  a 
thing  piece-workmen  especially  desire  to  avoid.  Files 
are  used  upon  surfaces  of  all  kinds.  Rasps  are  used 
upon  those  materials  who.se  particles  possess  less  re- 
sisting power,  and  are  chiefly  cniiiloyed  for  rajiid 
work.  They  are  more  used  by  workers  in  wood, 
soft  metals,  and  leather  than  are  files.  The  general 
effects  of  rubbing  a  file  or  rasp  upon  the  surface  of 
metal,  wood,  ivorj-,  leather,  or  other  material  is  to 
smooth  it  and  change  its  form  and  dimensions.  The 
abrasive  effect  consists  in  cutting  from  the  surface 
small  shavings  or  particles  and  in  gradually  reducing 
the  mass.  "Therefore  files  arc  only  usetl  for  shajTing 
and  smoothing  small  pieces,  or  iii  finishing  surfaces 
that  are  already  of  appro^dmate  figure."  The  file 
usually  follows  "the  work  of  the  lathe,  the  planer,  the 
milling-machine,  or  the  profiling-niachine.  In  the 
natural  motion  of  filing,  the  tenderrcy  is  to  impart  to 
the  file  a  somewhat  circular  motion,"  the  articulation 
or  joints  of  the  arms  and  bands  acting  as  centers  of 
motion.  It  would  seem  that  this  kimrof  motion  with 
a  convex  file  should  produce  concavities  in  the  work, 
whereas  the  real  effect  is  to  give  a  slight  convexity  to 
the  work,  due  to  the  rocking  motion  caused  by'the 
work  acting  as  a  kind  of  fuk-ram,  except  where  the 
file  is  handled  by  a  skillful  manipulator.  Everv* filer 
should  aim  to  have  his  file,  during  the  stroke,  depart 
from  a  strait  line  just  enough  to  bring  it  into  contact 
with  the  desired  portion  of  the  work.  The  filing  of 
round  or  curved  surfaces  requires  that  the  strokes 
should  be  so  blended  as  to  i)roduce  the  best  effect. 
This  class  of  filing  depends  a  good  deal  upon  the  ex- 
perience and  eye  of  the  workman,  but  is  not  so  diffi- 
cult as  absolutely  Jtat  filing. 

To  the  uninitiated  the  operation  of  filing  seems  to 
be  a  very  simple  matter,  and  one  that  can  easily  be 
attaineil  by  any  person.  On  the  contrary,  the  art  of 
filiiifi  irell  is  one  which  requires  a  great  deal  of  skill 
and  long-contiiuied  practice,  as  well  as  thought  and 
judgment.  It  is  ti-ue  that  in  many  shops  there  can 
be  found  filers  w  ho  possess  neither  skill  nor  judg- 
ment, but  who,  from  long  practice  on  some  special 
cla.s.ses  of  work,  have  become  known  as  filers.  Such 
persons,  however,  are  not,  and  do  not  deserve  to  be, 
called  "good  filers."  It  is  also  tnie  that  this  same 
cla.ss  of  inferior  workmen  generally  claim  to  be,  and 
doubtless  believe  that  they  are,  excellent  filers.  A 
rigid  .system  of  inspection  and  a  persistency  in  point- 
ing out  the  multitudinous  defects  of  their  "  finished 
work"  (so  called)  would  result  in  instilling  into  Uieir 
minds  a  belief  that  they  were  being  persecuted,  and 


FILE. 


655 


FItE 


FLOAT  CUT. 


DOUBLE  CUT. 


KASP  CUT. 


w 


k-.  -.   ri    -V->  -V  ^.  -1.  -^  —J  --  ^d  -fli 
E   li   -^    rO  -^.^r^  -->  -4  -t   'i.-v  t-aij 

r-^"-!  --U  -'  -v^v"-^  ^  ^  '-.  •-,  -Vjj 

'    "      -     -.    "..  'a  -O   -v  ^v  '.  '-*  -S-^V^" 

■     ■--  -^  d.  -*^  -'-  -%  '^  ■<.  O.  -". 

i   rt  -V  -V>  -^   'V  f-  — -  -^ 

.-     ^,-T,  .-«    O    ^V   -^    ''-    'V -V 
,    <•-  •*  -1.-^  <y.tM  "-^J  -^  T 

r-     .      .  -;  ,--.-*  -^  -i.  -C_r<_--i_*--  -^ 

feS   ^   -5,   ^   '-,   ^-  .--  .-.  ^..rV  -^  -(UK 
feC""^  i^a  •%  -V  -^   --V  --,-".  't  -^  ^  ^ 

^.  ■ .        ,       .  ■    ^  -.  -i 


l)r;i,l  Si, th. 


Dead  ^ 


SmooUu 


^^# 


i^* 


Smooth. 


A  ^  >,  ^  >>  ^  .iJ«"*| 
-^  --C    <  -C    'C  ^^.  <4  *s 

-<  -';   -^    -5  "S^-^   -^  fj   -. 

-^  -^  -r;  -^  -^  -^_-5  -rt 

-<  -c  ^<--^  -5  -c  ^  ^ 
^  --;  t5--<'  ^  -C'  -0  -^  -f 

■5)  --;  >c^^  -^  -^  -!^  -^  -• 

r-)  -'j  -fl  -O  O  -^  ■^;_-<  -< 
=*C  .O  -<  --C  -->  ^  -^_  -4 
ep^^  -f,  <  ^  .<  ^  -<r  -■ 
^^  -^  -^  -'.  <  <>  — O  '* 
!;*z-5    -^    <    ^J    --0   ^   -?0  <■ 

s!«  -c  -;  --;  --t  --3  <(  <s 


Second  Cut. 


t^  "^    -IJ:  -J    -"J   -^3 

S>  -O  ^  -*j  <i  o— 

a5>  -o  -o-  --0  --:)  --J; 

g^O  -0  --i  ^J  -'J  -■ 

fi-a  -^w  ^j  -i  --^  -i; 

IMS!  ^^IS*  --fy''  ^  ti; ; 

^^*^^^   ^^^^^— ^^^—      ^^^        ^^^        ^ 


Second  Cut. 


Second  Cut. 


Bastard. 


P^ 


bsJ-SJH 


g©S5j5L-'??f3'^ 


Bastard. 


BastaixL 


Middle  Cut. 


;f^LC^^/^^^^ 

5^  ^  ^  ^  ^ 

gi^^^^^ 

^^^:-?^?^ 

£^iL::15^^-^ 

K;^^.f^^.^ 

Float  Rough. 


lui.-.p  I.uUeh. 


vy^v^ 


Bone  Float. 


BoDgia. 


New  Cut. 


FILE  LEADER. 


656 


FINDING. 


that  till- Foreman  or  Siiinrimcmlcnt  was  " down  on 
tliom.  anil  wa.<  scfkini:  o])|)i>rtiinily  to  find  fault  with 
tlitir  work."  Virv  ijrnoniut  filers,  as  well  as  oilier 
ila.sst's  of  nieehanies,  arlisaus.  and  even  profe-ssional 
men,  are  often  as  l>ii.'oted  and  sel f -conceited  as  they 
are  unskillful  and  opinionateil.  With  nian_v  of  them 
it  is  an  almost  ho|H'less  task  to  attempt  to  eradicate 
slovenliness  in  their  manner  of  filing,  especially  after 
years  of  practice  in  such  melhoils.  E.xaniples  are 
numerous  where  men  who  have  been  filinj:  for  years 
do  not  even  "know  how  to  hold  their  files."  Gun- 
makers,  Master-mechanics,  and  Superintendents  of 
manufacturing  estalilishments  where  a  great  ileal  of 
tiling  is  requiri'd,  all  know  the  ilitficulty  of  obtaining 
gooil  filers.  The  supply  is  not  equal  to  the  demanil, 
and  the  iiieiiuality  increases  yearly,  and  has  done  so 
since  the  practical  almlition  of  the  apprentice  system 
in  this  country.  The  advent  of  i^aners,  .shaping-ma- 
chines, trimming-niaihines,  sliaN-ing-machiues,  and 
milling-machines  has  greatly  iliminished  the  amount 
of  tiling  formerly  required  in  the  machine  and  gun 
shops;  and  filing,  in  its  widest  sen.sc,  is  apparently 
alwut  to  be  remanded  to  the  category  of  the  "lost 
arts."  Bojs  and  young  men  go  to  work  on  a  ma- 
chine, and  find  that  in  a  few  weeks  or  months  they 
can  earn  fair  pay  without  any  previous  study  or  ap- 
prenticeship; consequently  it  is  not  strange  that  they 
are  loth  to  spend  .several  years  of  apprentieesliip  iu 
endeavoring  to  learn  a  trade  which,  when  obtained, 
■will  bring  little  or  no  advance  of  a  remuneration. 
Again,  I'roprietors  of  machine-shops  are  in  such  haste 
to  get  rich  that  they  do  not  wish  to  employ  any  but 
skilled  workmen,  hence  they  refuse  to  be  "  botliercd" 
■with  teaching  boys  who  will  probably  leave  their 
shops  as  soon  as  lliey  have  learned  their  trade.  The 
olfl  filers  who  have  learned  the  trade  regularly  by  a 
toilsome  apprenticeship  are  gradually  dying  on,  lind 
no  new  brood  is  now  being  educated  to  supply  their 
places.  Hence  the  complaint  is  constantly  heard  that 
■we  cannot  find  enough  good  filers.  How"  this  evil  is 
to  be  remedied  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  arti- 
cle, and  the  writers  merely  call  attention  to  the  fact. 
There  arc  very  few  mechanical  operations  that 
present  greater  difficulties  than  that  of  filing  well.  If 
a  planer  Ik?  used,  the  work  is  finnly  fastened  to  the 
movable  bed-plate,  which  hiis  a  motion  of  translation 
along  fixed  guide-rails,  and  passes  under  a  tool  at- 
tached to  a  tool-post  with  an  automatic  transverse 
feed-motion.  If  a  shaper  be  employed,  the  work  is 
keyed  to  the  immovable  bed  and  the  tool  has  a  mo- 
tion of  translation  and  rotation,  the  former  governed 
by  fi.xed  gtii<les  and  the  latter  by  a  screw.  In  neither 
of  the  eases  alx>ve  cited  doi-s  the  accuracy  of  the  work 
depend  upon  the  workman's  skill  after'thc  machine 
has  l)een  set  and  put  in  motion.  But  in  filing,  the 
"guiding  principle" of  the  machine  is  absent,  and  the 
accuracy  of  the  work  depends  upon  the  constant 
care,  skill,  and  judgment  of  the  man.  To  produce  a 
"  true  flat  surfaci"  upon  narrow  work  is  an  excellent 
test  in  filing.  One  would  naturally  sujipose  that  a 
file  the  points  of  wiiose  teeth  lie  in  the  surface  of  a 
single  plane  is  all  that  is  required  to  do  the  work. 
Even  if  the  side  of  the  file  was  a  jierfeetly  plane  sur- 
face— which  it  nc\er  is— it  would  "be  neces-sary  to 
move  it  in  parallel  stndght  lines  across  the  work  to 
produce  the  required  effect.  Supposing  this  opera- 
tion ix)ssible,  the  pressure  applied  at  the  ends  of  the 
file,  as  is  usual,  would  spring  the  file  and  produce  a 
concavity  on  its  under  surface,  which  in  turn  would 
naturally  round  the  work.  To  obviate  this  ilefect  the 
file  should  have  its  .sides  slightly  convex.  The  greater 
the  convexity  of  the  file  the  fewer  teeth  that  come  in 
contact  with  tlie  surface  and  the  better  will  the  file 
cut  or  bite,  provided  the  pressure  remains  ((instant. 
The  cimvexity  is  sometimes  given  by  slightly  curving 
or  tapering  the  sides  from  alxiut  the  middle  to  the 
point.  A  better  way,  perhaps,  is  to  have  the  gradual 
curvature  extend  from  the  heel  to  the  point.  The  ad- 
vantages of  the  convexitv  are  plainly  seen  when  the 
attempt  is  made  to  produce  an  api>roximately  true 


plane  surface.  The  straight-edge  or  stirface-plate 
will  show  the  points  on  the  surface,  which  are  a  little 
higher  than  the  rest,  and  without  a  file  with  convex- 
ity it  is  imixtssible  to  touch  the  exact  spot  desinil  and 
no  other.  The  full-page  engraving  represents  the 
Xew  American  File  Company's  cuts  of  files  and  rasps. 
This  Company  use  the  Bernot  machines  for  cutting, 
and  the  accuracy  and  uniformity  of  cut  in  all  their 
product  is  imequaled  by  that  produced  by  any  other 
methods,  either  by  hand  or  otherwise.     See  liirp. 

FILE  LEADER."— The  soldier  placed  in  front  of  any 
file,  or  the  man  who  is  to  cover  all  those  who  stand 
directly  in  the  rear  of  him,  and  by  whom  they  are  to 
be  guided  in  all  their  niovenunts. 

FILEY  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In  this  sys- 
tem the  curtain  is  replaceil  by  a  bastion  or  mezalec- 
tre,  whose  flanks  defend  the  collateral  works.  There 
are  cavaliers  on  the  curtains,  retrenchments  in  the 
bastions,  tenailles  lielween  the  bastions  and  meziilec- 
tre,  ravelins,  counter-guards,  and  covered  way.  The 
great  defect  of  this  system  is  that  the  enemy  can  at- 
tack the  mezalectre  instead  of  the  bastions. 

FILIBEG— FILLIBEG.— A  little  plaid;  a  kilt  or  a 
dress  reaching  nearly  to  the  knees,  worn  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  and  by  the  soldiers  of  Highland 
regiments  in  the  Bvili-^h  service. 

FILIBUSTERS— FILLIBUSTERS.  —  Another  name 
for  i)iratical  adventurers.  Recently  it  has  become 
familiar  to  English  ears  as  the  designation  of  certain 
lawless  adventurers  belonging  to  the  United  States, 
who  have  attempted  violently  to  possess  themselves 
of  various  coimtries  in  Xorth  America.  The  plea 
urged  by  these  persons  has  generally  been  that  such 
countries  were  a  prey  to  anarchy  and  oppression,  and 
could  only  attain  to  prosperity  by  annexation  to  the 
United  States,  and  the  introduction  of  demcK-ratic 
institutions — among  which,  strange  to  sjiy,  slavery 
stands  prominent.  The  most  notorious  of  these  fili- 
busters was  tlie  late  William  Walker,  whose  expedi- 
tion against  Xiearagua  in  18.5.5  was  so  far  successful 
that  he  kept  his  ground  in  that  country  for  nearly  two 
years.  At  last  he  was  driven  out  by  a  combination 
of  the  various  States  of  Central  America.  He  was 
subsequently  captured  and  shot,  SeptemlH-r  12,  1860, 
at  Truxillo,  in  Central  America,  in  the  course  of  an- 
other piratical  expedition. 

FILINGS. — In  tactics,  the  numerous  movements  to 
the  front,  to  the  rear,  or  to  the  flanks,  by  files. 

FILLET. — 1.  A  molding  wed  on  cannon  of  old 
fonn.  2.  In  Heraldry,  an  ordinary  which,  accord- 
ing to  Guillim,  contains  the  fourth  part  of  the  chief. 
3.  A  head-covering  that  freipuntly  replaced  the  hel- 
met among  the  Assyrio-Babvloniau  archers. 

FIMBRIATED.—" A  term  "in  Heraldry,  sjud  of  any 
ordinary  having  a  narrow  border  or  edging  of  another 
tincture. 

FINAL  VELOCITY.— In  gunnerv-,  the  technical  term 
for  the  uniform  velocity  which  a  projectile  ■would  ac- 
quire in  falling  through  an  indefinite  height  in  the 
air.  A  body  falling  in  rnetm  is  unifonnly  accelerated, 
its  velocity  being  continually  increased.  In  the  at- 
mosphere the  case  is  difl'crent.  Since  the  resistance 
of  the  air  incre;ises  with  some  power  of  the  velocity 
greater  than  the  square,  it  follows  that  at  some  f)oint 
in  the  descent  the  retardation  becomes  equal  to  the 
acceleration,  and  the  body  will  move  with  uniform 
velocity.  This  is  calleil  fnnl  rilorily.  and  is  one  of 
the  most  important  elements  in  the  theory  of  projec- 
tiles. Other  things  being  equal,  that  projectile  is  best 
which  has  the  greatest  final  velocity.  See  Form  of 
Projirti/i .  Pr"ji  cti/es,  and  Velocity. 

FINDING. — Before  a  Court-Martial  deliberates  upon 
tlie  judgment,  the  Judge  Advocate  reads  over  the 
whole  proceedings  of  the  Court;  he  then  collects  the 
votes  of  each  member,  beginning  with  the  youngest. 
The  best  mode  of  doing  so  is  by  slips  of  paper.  The 
Articles  of  War  require  a  majority  in  all  cases,  and 
in  Ciuse  of  sentence  of  death  two  thirds.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  find  nycnenil  verdict  of  guilt  or  acquittal 
upon  the  whole  of  every  charge.     The  Court  may 


FIWINGFOEGE. 


657 


FINI8HIK0. 


fintl  a  pi-isoner  guilty  of  part  of  a  charge,  and  acquit 
him  of  the  remainder,  and  render  sentence  according 
to  their  tindinir.     This  is  a  special  verdict. 

FINING  FORGE.— An  open  Iicarth  with  a  blast  by 
which  iron  is  freed  of  impiuilies  or  foreign  matters. 
Cast-iron  is  thu.s  rendered  malleable  by  the  removal 
of  carbon,  etc. 

FINISHING.— Tlie  tinal  operation  in  the  fabrication 
of  cast  guns.  When  tlie  casting  has  become  cool  it  is 
hoisted  out  from  the  pit,  the  tias'k  being  first  taken  off. 
The  molding  composition  adhering  to  the  interior  or 
exterior  is  removed  as  far  as  practicable  by  scrapers 
and  chisels.  The  casting  is  then  placed  in  u  machine 
called  a  heading-lathe,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  where  the 
greater  part  of  the  surjdus  metal  of  the  chase  is  re- 
moved and  the  sinking-heail  is  cut  olf.  From  the 
latter  a  ring  is  also  cut  off  next  to  the  muzzle  of  the 
gun  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  initial  strain,  and 
from  which  .specimens  are  afterwanls  taken  for  te- 
nacity and  ilensity.  To  place  the  gun  in  the  lathe,  the 
square  knob  of  the  cascahel  is  fitted  into  the  chuck 
atUiched  to  the  machinery,  which  revohes  the  gun, 
while  Uie  sinking-head  is  introduced  into  the  "bonnet" 
which  revolves  iu  its  bearing  at  the  other  extremity  of 
the  lathe.  Both  of  these  supports  are  provided  with 
adjustable  screws  by  means  of  which  the  gun  is  ceu- 


bo  centered  from  the  bore,  a3  it  .sometiines  happens 
that  the  axis  of  the  bore  and  casting  do  not  coincide. 
The  gun  being  centered,  all  the  measurements  neces- 
sary for  a  proper  commencement  of  the  turning  are 
made. 

The  turning  of  the  gun  commences  near  the  muzzle. 
The  rest  in  which  the  turning-tool  is  placed  is  so 
constructed  that  it  can  be  moved  either  parallel  to  or 
at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  gun.  The  tool  is 
brought  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  gun  at  the 
desired  itoint,  the  metal  being  turned  off  as  the  gun 
revolves.  In  this  way  a  series  of  narrow  cuts  are  made 
in  the  chase  at  short  intervals,  extending  in  depth  to 
within  about  two  inches  of  the  required  exterior  di- 
ameter of  the  gun.  The  intervening  rings  are  thea 
broken  out  with  wedges,  and  the  portion  of  the  cha.se 
next  the  muzzle  is  turned  down  to  the  finished  dimen- 
sions. Meanwhile  the  cylindrical  part  of  thee^iscabel 
is  turned  down  slightly  to  fonn,  with  tJic  finished  part 
of  the  chiuse,  Iwarings  for  the  gun  when  transfeiTcd  to 
the  boring-lathe.  The  cuts  at  the  muzzle  for  removing 
the  sinking-head  and  test-ring  are  next  made.  When 
these  cuts  have  reached  a  sulticient  tlepth  to  admit  of 
the  separation,  the  gim  is  taken  out  of  the  lathe  and 
placed  upon  skids  and  tlic  bonnet  is  removed  fronx 
the  sinking-head.     The  ring  and  head  together  are 


Fio.  1. 


tered  and  held  firmly  in  place.  The  breech  is  ad- 
justed by  placing  a  sharp-pointed  instrument  in  the 
tool-re.st  and  bringing  it  in  contact  with  the  surface 
of  the  casting  near  the  maxinuun  diameter,  and,  while 
turning  the  gun,  the  screws  in  the  chuck  arc  moved 
until  coincidence  of  the  line  around  the  gim  is  obtained. 
At  the  muzzle  a  bar  of  iron  is  laid  upon  blocks  .so  that 
it  .shall  be  just  inside  the  bore  antl  nearly  in  contact 
with  the  interior  surface.  As  the  gun  turns,  the  dis- 
tance between  this  point  and  the  metal  of  the  bore  is 
observed  and  equalized  appro-vimately  by  the  screws 
in  the  tonnet. 

A  wooden  di.sk,  turned  to  fit  the  bore  accurately, 
bearing  a  string  attached  to  its  center,  is  then  pushed 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bore  and  made  to  assume  a  posi- 
tion in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  its  axis.  The  string 
from  the  center  of  the  disk  is  long  enough  to  reach 
some  distance  outside  the  muzzle,  tlie  outer  end  being 
made  fast  to  an  upright  at  the  same  height  as  the  inner 
end  or  center  of  the  disk.  The  string  is  now  stretched 
perfectly  taut  and  the  gim  again  turned,  a  square 
being  placed  upon  blocks  about  one  foot  in  front  of 
the  muzzle  clo.se  to  the  string,  and,  as  the  gun  revolves, 
the  distance,  if  any,  which  the  string  deviates  from 
the  square  is  observed  and  corrected  by  again  moving 
the  screws  in  the  bonnet.  When  properly  centered, 
the  string  will  remain  in  the  same  position  in  the 
square  and  be  the  same  distance  from  the  interior  sur- 
face of  the  gim  throughout  an  entire  revolution, 
showing  that  the  axes  oif  the  gun  and  lathe  coincide. 
With  the  hollow-cast  gun  it  is  necessary  that  it  should 


then  separated  from  the  gun  by  iiwerting  wedges  at 
the  muzzle,  and  the  ring  is  afterwards  wedged  oflE 
from  the  head.  The  gun  is  next  placed  in  the  bor- 
ing-lalhc,  in  which  it  is  supported  by  bearings  at  the 
chase  and  neck  of  cascabel.  Its  rotation  in  the  lathe 
is  effected  by  securing  the  square  knob  of  the  cascabel 
in  the  chuck  attached  to  the  revolving  machinery,  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  heading-lathe. 

To  adjust  the  gun  the  boring-rod  is  first  introduced 
a  short  distance  Into  the  bore,  and  the  space  between 
its  exterior  surfaces  and  the  gun  at  the  muzzle  is  ob- 
served. For  this  purpose  a  thin  wooden  gauge  is  used, 
pointed  at  one  end  imd  ha%'ing  a  notch  at  the  other, 
which  takes  the  outer  surface  of  the  gun  at  the  muzzle 
— the  gauge  being  laid  on  the  face  of  the  muzzle  and 
therefore  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  bore.  \s 
the  gun  revolves  the  distance  above,  below,  and  on 
either  side  is  observed,  verifying  the  concentricity  of 
the  axis  of  the  gun  at  the  muzzle.  The  adjustment  is 
completed  at  the  breech  by  slackening  the  bolts  of  the 
cascabel  bearing,  leaving  it  free  to  move  on  the  ways; 
and  shoidd  any  lateral  motion  be  perceptible,  it  is 
corrected  by  adjusting  the  screws  in  the  chuck,  after 
which  the  concentricity  is  complete  from  breech  to 
muzzle. 

In  lK)ring,  the  tools  or  cutters  are  fitted  into  a  cylin- 
drical block  called  a  "head,"  which  is  secured  to  the 
end  of  the  boring-rod.  As  the  gim  revolves  in  the 
lathe,  the  boring-rod  is  made  to  advani-e  by  machin- 
ery until  the  cutters  reach  the  bottom  of  the  cylindri- 
cal part  of  the  bore.     From  three  to  five  cuts  are 


FINISHING  FSESS. 


658 


FIRE. 


usually  required  to  secure  a  perfectly  straiu'ht  tore 
anil  enlarge  It  to  its  re(|uire(l  iliameter;  tlie  last  one 
lieing  made  with  a  liiiishinir-tool  or  reamer.  Tbc  lx>t- 
tomOf  the  tore  is  tlieu  finished  with  tools  of  the  re- 
quireil  shape. 

Diirins;  the  proce.^v*  of  toring  the  turning  continues, 
and  the  e.xlerior  is  tiuished  e.\cept  the  trunnion  section 
and  the  extremity  of  the  l)reech  where  the  cascabel 
attaches.  The  ea.scabel  is  turned  down  in  front  of  the 
btsaring  so  that  it  can  l)e  broken  off  when  no  longer 
required.  Tt)  insure  a  smooth  surface  in  the  bore,  the 
work  upon  the  ex»rior  of  the  gim  is  suspended  while 
the  tinishing  tt>ols  are  being  used. 

The  toring  toiug  completed,  the  dimensions  of  the 
Ihir'  of  the  gun  are  verilied  before  removing  it  from  the 
lathe.  If  found  t<i  be  correct,  the  gun  is  renjoved  and 
placed  in  the  trunnion-latlie,  where  the  trunnions  are 
turned  ilown  to  the  tiuished  dimensions.  When  ad- 
justed in  this  lathe  the  axis  of  the  gun  is  in  a  horizontal 
plane,  the  cascabel  being  supported  by  the  breech-cen- 
ter, and  the  cha.se  by  the  muzzle-bearing.  The  trun- 
nion-head consists  of  a  hollow  shaft  in  which  are 
located  the  cuttei-s  for  turning  the  trunnions.  It  is 
supported  upon  bearings  which  rest  upon  ways  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  gun.  These  bearings 
are  of  such  a  height  as  to  bring  the  axes  of  the  truu- 
nion-heail  and  gun  in  the  same  horizontal  plane. 

In  turning  the  trunnions  the  gun  remains  stationary 
while  the  trunnion-head  revolves  about  the  trunnion. 
The  cylindrical  surface  is  first  finished,  the  .shaft 
mo\'ing  towards  the  gun  and  its  speed  being  regulated 
as  circumstances  require.  To  finish  the  face  a  broad 
cutter  is  used  which  removes  a  thin  chip  nearly  equal 
in  width  to  the  semi-diameter  of  the  trunnion.  A 
small  spur  is  left  by  this  tool  at  the  center  of  the  trun- 
nion which  is  afterward  chipped  off  by  hand.  When 
one  trunnion  is  finished,  the  gun  is  turned  over  and 
the  other  is  finished  in  tlie  same  manner. 

The  metal  in  excess  between  the  trunnions  is  re- 
moved by  the  planing-machine  (Fig.  2),  which  is  placed 
on  the  side  of  the  lathe  opposite  the  trunnion-head. 
This  machine  is  so  arranged  that  the  bar  in  which  the 
cutter  is  secured  moves  forward  and  back  in  a  horizon- 
tal plane,  carrying  the  cutter  over  that  portion  of  the 
gun  totween  the  trunnions  wliich  has  not  been  turned 
down.  The  cutter  works  upon  a  pivot  in  the  bar,  by 
means  of  which  it  cuts  only  while  moving  to  the  rear, 
the  gun  toing  turned  the  width  of  the  cut  after  each 
passage  of  the  planing-bar.  The  proper  direction  is 
given  to  the  culler  liy  means  of  a  guide  attached  to  the 
planing-bar  which  moves  in  a  groove  of  the  required 
curvature. 

After  the  planing  is  finished,  the  gun  is  removed 


from  the  lathe,  placed  upon  skids,  and  the  cascabel 
is  broken  off.  The  breech,  riml>ases,  and  sight-ma.ss 
are  then  finished  by  chipping  off  the  surplus  metal  by 
hand.  The  vent  'is  usually  drilled  by  means  of  a 
hand  drill  arranged  to  work  in  an  iron  frame  firmly 


secured  to  the  gun.     See  Lathe,  Ordnaiia,  Bodman 
Gun,  and  Tuniiii'i. 

FINISHING  PRESS.— This  machine,  employed  in 
the  fabrication  of  iirojectiles,  as  shown  in  tlie  dniwing, 
consists  of  a  steel  die,  supported  on  a  hollow  iron 
platform  resting  upon  the  head  of  an  hytlraulie  ram 
which  is  worked  by  a  steam  pimip.  On  the  left  of 
the  i)ress  is  a  handle  for  opening  the  valve  to  allow 
tlie  admission  of  the  water  to  the  cj'linder,  ami  an 
automatic  device  for  closing  it  and  opening  the  valve 
for  the  escaix',  when  tlie  ram  has  reached  its  proper 
stroke.  There  are  four  iron  guides  for  the  hollow 
platform,  coimecled  at  the  top  by  an  iron  cross-head, 
through  the  center  of 
which  pas.ses  a  heavy 
screw  ;  the  end  of  the 
screw  is  hollow  ed  out  to 
the  shape  of  the  head  of 
the  shot,  for  which  it 
forms  a  suppt)rt.  Iron 
tongs  are  used  for  raising 
the  shot  from  the  floor 
to  its  seat,  and  these  are 
raised  and  lowered  by 
the  movement  of  the 
machine  it.sclf.  Two 
workmen  are  required 
for  the  machine,  and 
two  cuts  are  tiiken  on 
each  shot ;  the  smaller 
die  being  the  true  size  of 
the  shot,  and  the  other 
slightly  larger.  Suppos- 
ing one  shot  to  have 
been  fitted  into  the  die 
for  tlie  short  length 
turned  down  in  the  lathe 
and  its  head  inserted  in 
the  end  of  the  screw, 
another  is  stood  upright 
on  the  Hoor.  One  work- 
man quickly  opens  the 
valve,  while  the  other 
guides  the  descending 
tongs  over  the  head  of 
the  shot  below,  as  the 
hollow  platform  and  die 
move  upward.  When  the 

tongs  have  reached  the  center  of  the  shot  below  they 
are  clamped.  As  soon  as  the  die  has  passed  over  the 
cylindrical  part  of  the  shot,  the  latter  falls  through 
the  hollow  platform  into  sawdust  below;  the  auto- 
matic device  then  releases  the  ram,  which  descends, 
and  rai.ses  the  tongs  with  the 
shot  which  is  attached,  and 
which  is  guitled  into  il.s  seat 
by  the  workmen.  With  this 
machine  a  thousand  shot  can 
be  turned  out  iier  day.  The 
dies,  which  arc  made  of  Am- 
erican steel,  will  last  for  about 
101)0  shot  without  resetting. 
The  .same  operation  is  often- 
times ]ierformed  in  part  or 
entirely  in  the  lathe,  but  is  very 
much  less  rapid  than  that  just 
described.  See  Fithrication  of 
Pri>j(  rtiles. 

FIRE.— 1.  Artillery -fires  are 
rlistinguished  by  the  manner 
in  which  the  projectile  strikes 
the  object,  as  direct,  ricochet, 
rollin;!,  and  jilu/iffiiif/  fires;  by 
the  nature  of  the  projectile, 
as  ml  ill  x/iiil,  nhell.  shrapnel, 
grape,  and  canister  fires;  and  liy  the  angle  of  elevation, 
as  horizoiitid  fire,  or  the  lire  of  guns  and  howitzers 
under  low  angles  of  elevation,  and  rerticiil  fires,  or  the 
fire  of  mortars  under  high  angles  of  elevation.  A 
fire  is  said  to  be  direct  when  the  projectile  hits  its  ob- 


FIBE. 


659 


FIBE. 


ject  before  striking  any  intemiecliale  object,  as  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  or  water.  This  species  of  lire 
is  emploj'ecl  where  great  penetration  is  required,  as 
tlie  force  of  the  projectile  is  not  diminished  by  pre- 
vious impact;  it  is  necessarily  employed  for  spherical- 
case  shot,  and  for  riHe-cannon  projectiles,  which, 
from  their  form,  are  liable  to  be  detiected  by  previously 
striking  a  resisting  substance;  it  is  also  used  for  all 
field-cannon  projectiles,  when  the  nature  of  the  ground 
does  not  insure  a  regular  rel)ound.  To  point  a  piece 
in  direct  tire,  bring  the  line  of  sight  to  bear  upon  the 
object,  and  then  elevate  the  piece  according  to  the  dis- 
tance. When  a  projectile  strikes  the  ground  or  water 
under  a  small  angle  or  fall,  it  penetrates  obliquely  to 
a  certain  distance,  and  is  then  reflected  at  an  angle 
greater  than  the  angle  of  fall ;  the  rea.son  for  this  is 
that  the  projectile  in  forming  the  furrow  loses  a  por- 
tion of  its  velocity,  making  the  distance  from  A  (Fig. 
1),  the  point  at  which  it  enters  the  groimd,  to  C,  or 


plain  as  near  the  foot  of  tlie  interior  slope  as  possible; 
the  distance  of  the  crest,  and  its  height  alwve  the 
terrc-plein  imd  batter}-,  should  therefore  l)c  known. 

IMUiiij  fire  is  a  particular  csise  of  ricochet-fire,  pro- 
duced by  placing  the  a.vi.s  of  the  piece  parallel,  or 
neary  so,  with  the  groimd.  It  is  generallj'  used  in 
field- service.  When  the  ground  is  favorable  for  rico- 
chet, the  projectile,  in  rolling  fire,  has  a  veiy  long 
range,  and  never  passes  at  a  greater  di.stance  above 
the  ground  than  the  muz/lc  ol  the  piece;  it  is  there- 
fore more  efiective  than  direct  fire,  as  may  be  seen  by 
inspecting  Fig.  3.  To  point  a  piece  in  rolling  fire, 
direct  it  at  the  object,  and  depress  the  natural  line  of 
sight  so  as  to  pierce  the  surface  of  the  ground  about 
80 yards  in  front  of  the  muz/.le;  if  the  piece  be  sighted 
for  the  pendulum  haus,"e,  aim  directly  at  the  object 
with  the  lowest  line  of  sight,  or  with  the  slider  fixed 
at  the  zero-point  of  the  scale.  A  fire  Is  said  to  be 
plunging  when  the  object  is  situated  below  the  piece. 


^ 

^y 

;      ^^~^v,.rf 

jLy 

Fig.  I, 

the  vertical  drawn  through  the  deepest  point,  greater 
than  the  distance  from  C  to  T),  tlie  point  where  it 
leaves  the  ground.  As  this  recurs  every  time  the  pro- 
jectile strikes  the  groimd,  it  follows  that  the  trajectorj' 
IS  made  up  of  a  seiies  of  rcboimds,  or  riror/iets,  each 
one  shorter  and  more  curved  than  the  preceding  one. 
The  mimljer.  shape,  and  extent  of  the  ricochets  depend 
on  the  nature  of  the  surface  struck,  the  initial  velocity, 
shape,  size,  and  density  of  the  projectile,  and  on  the 
angle  of  fall.  A  spherical  projectile  ricochets  well  on 
smooth  water,  when  the  angle  of  fall  is  less  than  8°; 
but  if  the  surface  of  the  water  be  rough  very  little 
dependence  can  be  placed  on  the  extent  of  the  ricochet. 
In  general,  those  projectiles  which  present  a  uniform 
surface  and  have  the  least  penetrating  power  are 
most  suitable  for  ricochet-firing  ;  hence  large  shells 
fired  with  small  charges  are  more  .suitable  than  solid 
shot,  and  round  projectiles  more  suitable  than  those 
of  an  oblong  form.  The  distance  at  which  the  larger- 
size  shells  will  ricochet  on  water  is  about  3000  yards, 
the  axis  of  the  piece  being  horizontal  and  near  the 
water.  Ricochet-tire  is  employed 
in  siege-operations  to  attain  the 
face  of  a  work  in  flank,  or  in 
reverse  (Fig.  2),  and  on  the  field 
or  on  water  when  the  object  is 
large  and  its  distance  is  not  ac- 
curately known.  The  character  of 
ricochet-fire  is  determined  by  the 
angle  of  fall,  or  the  angle  included  between  the  tan- 
gent of  the  trajectory  and  horizon  at  the  point  of  fall. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  ricochet-fire — \\\c  flattened,  in 
which  the  angle  of  fall  is  between  2  and  i';  and  the 
curtatfd,  in  which  the  angle  of  fall  is  between  6'  and 
15°.  The  principal  pieces  employed  in  ricochet-fire 
in  siege  operations  arc  the  8-inch  howitzer  and  the  8- 
and  10-inch  common  mortars;  the  first  two  may  be 
used  when  the  angle  of  fall  is  less  than  10°,  and  the 
10-inch  mortar  when  the  angle  of  fall  is  le.ss  than  l.i'. 
AVith  these  pieces  the  limit  of  ricochet  is  about  600 
yards.  Solid  shot  should  not  be  used  in  ricochet  fire 
"for  any  distance  less  than  200  yards,  as  it  would  then 
be  necessary  to  diminish  its  velocity  so  much  a.s  to 
destroy  its  percussive  effect.  In  ricochet-firing  against 
troops  in  the  open  field  the  angle  of  fall  should  not 
exceed  3°.  Inenfilaijing  the  face  of  a  work,  the  form 
of  the  trajectorj-  and  point  of  fall  should  be  such  that 
the  projectile  will  strike  the  surface  of  the  terrc-plein 
the  greatest  nunilx;r  of  times;  the  object  being  to  de- 
stroy the  men,  carriages,  and  traverses  situated  upon 
it.  To  do  this  the  projectile  should  be  made  to  graze 
the  crest  of  the  adjacent  parapet,  and  strike  the  terre- 


Fio.  .2. 

This  fire  is  particularly  effective  against  the  decks  of 
vessels. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  the  fires  of  different 
kinds  of  projectiles,  it  may  be  proper  to  explain  what 
is  meant  by  accuracy  of  tire,  and  to  determine  a  suit- 
able measure  for  it.  It  has  been  seen  that  there  are 
causes  constantly  at  work  to  deviate  nearly  every 
projectile  from  its  true  path.  As  the  effect  of  these 
deviating  forces  cannot  be  accurately  foretold,  there 
is  only  a  probability  that  the  projectile  will  strike  th& 
object  against  which  the  piece  is  pointed.  The  de- 
gree of  probability  is  called  accuracy  of  fire.  For  all 
projectiles  of  the  same  nature,  the  chance  of  hitting 
an  object  increases  with  the  velocity  and  weight  of 
the  projectile,  whereby  the  effects  of  the  de^^ating 
forces  are  diminished;  it  also  increases  as  the  size  of 
the  object  is  equal  to,  or  greater  than,  the  mean  devi- 
ations, and  as  the  trajectory  more  nearly  coincides 
with  the  line  of  sight.  If  the  size  of  the  object  be 
greater  than  the  extreme  deviation,  and  the  trajectory 
coincide  with  the  line  of  sight,  the  projectile  will  be 


Fio.  3. 

certain  to  hit  the  object  at  all  distances.  For  the  same 
trajectory,  therefore,  the  mean  deviation  of  a  projec- 
tile at  a  given  distance  may  be  taken  as  an  indirect 
measure  of  its  accuracy  at  "this  distance.  To  obtain 
this  mean  deviation,  let  the  piece  be  pointed  at  the 
center  of  a  target,  stationed  at  the  required  distjince, 
and  tired  a  certain  number  of  times — .saj'  ten — and  let 
the  positions  of  the  shot-holes,  me.a.sured  in  vertical 
and  horizontal  directions,  be  arranged  as  follows: 


o 

Distances  from  Center  of 
Target,  in  Feet. 

Distances  prok  Center  or 
Impact,  in  Feet. 

d 

Vertical. 

Horizontal. 

Vertical. 

Horizontal. 

Above. 

Below. 

Right. 

Lett. 

Alwve. 

Below. 

RiRht. 

Left. 

I 
2 
3 

3 

6 

1 

4 

2 

i 

4.33 
.33 

4.66 

2.66 
.66 

3.33 

3 

7 

6 

2 

4.66 

4.66 

8.38 

3.33 

4-^8  =  1.88 

4-1.3  =  1.88 

».82-t-3  =  3  11 

6.66+3=2.28 

FIRE. 


660 


FIRE. 


The  alijpbniic  sum  of  llio  liistances  in  each  direction, 
(lividi-d  by  Ihr  imnibtr  of  sliols,  pves  the  position  of 
the  center  of  impact  in  this  direction.  In  the  above 
table  the  |)Osilion  of  tlie  center  of  impact  is  found  to 
be  1.33  feet  below,  and  1.33  feel  to  the  right,  of  the 
center  of  the  target.  To  obtain  the  mean  <lcviuliou, 
it  is  neces-sarv  to" refer  each  shot-bole  to  the  center  of 
impact  as  a  new  origin  of  coordinates;  and  this  is 
done  by  subtnicting  the  tabular  distance  from  the  dis- 
tance of  the  center  of  impact  if  l)olli  be  on  the  same 
side  of  the  center  of  tlie  target,  and  adding  them  if 
on  different  sides.  The  sum  of  all  the  distances  thus 
obtained  in  one  direction,  divided  by  the  number  of 
shots,  gives  the  mean  deviation  in  that  direction; 
which  ill  the  present  case  is  3.11  feet  vertically  and 
2.25  hdrizontally.  The  vertical  deviation  of  a  pro- 
jectile is  generally  greater  than  its  corresponding  hori- 
zontal deviation,  and  this  ililference  increases  with  the 
range.  As  objects  against  which  military  projectiles 
are  directed  itresont  a  greater  extent  of  surface  in  a 
horizontal  than  in  a  vertical  direction,  it  becomes 
neccssiirj'  to  exercise  great  care  in  the  selection  of  the 
proper  angle  of  lire.  If  the  ground  or  water  in  front 
of  the  object  be  favorable  to  ricochet,  the  difficulty 
will  Iw  diminished  by  aiming  so  that  the  jirojectile 
will  strike  the  ol)jeel  after  one  or  more  reljounds. 

Solid  shot  are  generally  used  for  percussion  and 
penetration,  and,  when  heated  to  a  red  heal,  for  the 
purpose  of  setting  fire  to  wootlen  vessels  or  buildings. 
From  their  great  sirength,  they  can  be  fired  with  a 
hirge  charge  of  powder,  which  gives  them  great  ini- 
tial velocity,  anil  having  great  density,  which  dhnin- 
ishes  the  effect  of  the  resistance  of  the  air,  they  have 
great  range  and  accuracy.  In  tiring  hot  shot,  the 
charge  shoidd  be  reduced,  to  prevent  too  great  pene- 
tration, which  would  exclude  the  mr  and  rend<T  com- 
bustion impossible.  The  extreme  range  of  tield-ar- 
tillery  is  about  3000  yards;  it  is  not  very  etlective, 
however,  beyond  1700  yards  for  the  6  jxiumler  and 
2100  yards  for  the  12  pounder.  At  liOO  yards  Ihc  hori- 
zontal deviation  of  the  12  pounder  is  about  3  feet,  and 
al  1200  yards  it  is  about  12  feet.  For  the  tj-pounder 
the  derations  are  somewhat  greater  at  both  distances. 
The  ser\ice  of  solid  shot  demanils  less  skill  than  that 
of  shells  and  spherical  case-shot,  and  they  are  often 
effective  when  the  latter  are  rendered  non-effective  by 
untimelv  explosion. 

The  diameter  and  velocity  of  two  projectiles  l)eing 
the  s;ime,  the  retarding  effect  of  the  air  is  inverse!)' 
proportional  to  their  weight;  hence  we  see  that  a 
shell  has  less  accunicy  and  range  than  a  solid  shot 
of  the  Siime  size,  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  2 — these 
nvimbei-s  representing  the  weights  of  a  solid  shot 
and  shell  respectively.  As  shells  act  both  by  percus- 
sion and  explosion,  they  are  particularly "etfective 
against  animate  ol)jecls,  earthworks,  buildings,  block- 
houses and  shipping,  posts  and  villages  occupied  by 
troops,  and  against  troops  sheltered  by  accidents  of 
the  ground;  but  against  good  masonry  they  have  but 
little  effect,  a.s  they  break  on  striking.  Against  troops, 
especially  cavalry,  they  pos.sess  a  certain 
moral  effect  which  solid  shot  do  not 
pos.sess.  They  are  used  to  form  breaches 
in  intrenchments,  in  which  case  they 
act  as  small  mines.  The  32-pounder 
.sliell  is  the  most  effective  field-projectile 
for  this  puri>os<';  and,  when  fired  with  a  large  charge, 
has  a  penetration  of  from  .'5  to  «  feet  in  fresh  earth" 

The  exirenie  range  of  tield-shdls  is  from  2r)00  to 
3000  yards.  The24^and  32-ponnder  .shells  bui-sl  into 
about  eighteen  effective  fragments,  some  of  which  are 
thrown  to  a  distance  of  600  yards.  AH  tield-shells 
have  considerable  lateral  deviation;  it  is  stated  that 
the  24-iK)under  shell  is  sometimes  deviated  as  much  as 
30 yards  in  12fK).  The  extreme  range  of  the  mountain- 
howitzer  is  about  1200  yards,  after  three  or  four  re- 
bounds. The  12-pounder.shell  employed  in  this  service 
bursts  into  twelve  or  tiflei'n  fragments,  .some  of  which 
are  thrown  lo  a  distance  of  300  yards.  The  great 
weight  of  an  8-inch  shell,  and  the  large  quantity  of 


|X)wdcr  which  it  contains,  render  it  a  very  formidable 
projectile  aginnst  the  traverses  and  epaulemenis  of 
siege-works.  In  sea-coast  defense,  the  8-,  10-,  and  15- 
inch  shells  arc  very  destructive  to  vessels  built  of  tim- 
ber. They  range  from  3  to  3i  miles;  but  the  angle 
which  the  trajectory  makes  with  the  line  of  sight  at 
this  distance  (about-tO  )  renders  their  lire  very  uncer- 
tain against  individual  objects  of  the  size  of  a  ship: 
but  it  is  presumed  that  they  woidil  have  the  effect  to 
prevent  a  l)lockading  tleet  from  lying  at  anchor  within 
their  range,  as  it  is  well  known  that  a  single  lO-inch 
shell,  striking  on  the  deck  of  a  \essel,  has  sufficient 
force  to  penetrate  to  the  liottora  and  sink  her.  The 
8-inch  shell  bursts  into  28  or  30  fragments;  and  from 
the  experiments  made  at  Brest,  some  years  ago,  it  wsis 
inferred  thai  Ihree  or  four  of  these  shells,  properly 
timeti  and  directed,  were  capable  of  disjibling  a  ship 
of  war. 

.Vortar-skells  are  employed  to  break  through  the 
roofs  of  magazines,  etc.,  and  to  blow  them  up;  to 
destroy  the  surface  of  the  terre-pleins,  ditches,  etc., 
bj-  forming  deep  hollows,  which  are  produced  by  ex- 
]>losion,  and  to  interrupt  the  communications  from 
one  part  of  a  work  to  another.  The  great  depth  to 
which  mortar-shells  penelrale  inearth  almost  entirely 
destroys  the  effect  of  their  fragments;  some  remain 
buried  in  the  ground,  and  the  others  are  thrown  out 
at  too  high  an  angle  to  l)e  dangerous.  One  of  the 
principal  objects  of  traverses,  on  a  terre-plein,  is  to 
confine  the  bursting-effects  of  shells  within  narrow 
limits.  Mortar-shells  penetrate  from  half  a  yard  to 
one  yard  in  earth;  and  the  amount  of  earth  thrown 
up  by  explosion  is  about  one  cubic  yard  for  each 
pound  of  the  bursting-charge.  Ordinarily  the  diam- 
eter of  the  crater  at  the  top  is  two  or  three  limes 
the  ilepth.  The  13-iuch  shell  will  often  break  in  fall- 
ing on  a  pavement.  Roofs  of  good  masonry,  little 
more  than  a  yard  thick,  are  s\illicient  to  resist  the 
penetration  of  mortar-shclIs.  The  elVect  of  mortar- 
tiring  is  generally  in  favor  of  the  besiegers,  as  the 
works  of  the  besieged  present  a  larger  and  more  favor- 
able surface  for  the  action  of  shells.  The  charge  of 
a  stone  mortar  should  be  small,  to  prevent  the  stones 
and  grenades  from  being  too  much  .scattered.  A  charge 
of  stones  is  generally  scaltcred  over  a  space  varjang 
from  30  to  50  yards  l)road,  and  from  60  to  100  yards 
long.  The  dispersion  of  grenades  is  .somewhat  less 
than  this;  the  larger  jiortion,  however,  are  found 
within  a  radius  of  13  or  15  yards. 

When  a  shra])nel  or  case-shot  bursts  in  its  flight, 
the  fragment.s  of  the  case  and  the  contained  jirojec- 
tiles  arc  influenced  by  two  forces,  viz.,  the  force  of 
proindsiou,  which  moves  each  piece  in  the  direction 
of  the  trajectory,  and  the  force  of  rupture,  which 
moves  it  in  the  (lirection  of  a  normal  to  the  surface  of 
the  ca.se.  The  path  described  by  each  fragment  and 
projectile  dejicnds  on  the  angle  which  the  normal 
makes  with  the  trajectory,  and  on  the  relative  velo- 
cities generated  by  the  two  forces;  and,  when  taken 
together,  these  paths  form  a  species  of  cone,  called  the 


cone  of  dispersion,  the  apex  of  which  coincides  with 
the  point  of  nipture,  and  the  axis  is  the  trajectory, 
jirolonged.  (Fig.  4.)  The  velocity  of  a  projectile  di- 
minishes from  the  time  it  leaves  its  piece,  while  the 
velocity  generated  by  the  rupturing  force  remains 
constant.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  dispersion' 
of  a  spherical  case-shot  increases  with  the  distance, 
while  the  force  of  impact  is  diminished.  The  distance 
at  which  a  spherical  case-shot  ceases  to  lie  effective 
depends  on  the  relation  between  the  remaining  velo- 
city and  the  velocity  generated  by  the  force  of  rupture. 
The  improvements  which  have  lately  been  introduced 
into  this  species  of  projectile  have  for  their  objects 
to  increase  the  remaining  velocity  at  any  point  by  in- 


FIBE. 


661 


FISE. 


creasing  the  propelling  charge,  and  to  diminish  the 
force  of  rupture,  and  at  the  same  time  increase  the 
number  of  contained  projectiles,  by  diminishing  the 
bursting-charge.  By  tilling  the  interstices  of  the 
bullets  with  sulphur  or  rosin,  the  propelling  charge 
of  a  spherical  c;ise-sbot  can  be  made  the  stime  as  that 
of  a  solid  shot. 

It  is  considered  that  a  spherical  ca.se-shot  is  effective 
■when  a  large  portion  of  the  projectiles  have  sufficient 
force  to  penetrate  1  inch  of  soft  pine.  The  present 
12-pounder  spherical  case-shot,  tired  with  a  charge  of 
2i  pounds  of  powder,  has  a  remaining  velocity  of 
about  500  feet  at  a  distance  of  1500  yards,  which 
renders  it  effective  at  this  distance.  The  principal 
difficulty  experienced  in  tiring  a  spherical  ca.se-shot 
is  to  burst  it  at  the  proper  distance  in  front  of  the  ob- 
ject. This  arises  from  the  difficulty  of  eslimating  the 
correct  distance  of  the  object,  the  rapid  flight  of  the 
projectile,  and  the  difficulty  of  ob.ser\-ing  the  effect  of 
a  shot  in  order  that  correction  maj'  be  made  for  the 
succeeding  one  if  nccessarj-.  To  overcome  these 
difficulties  requires  skill  and  judgment  on  the  part  of 
the  gunner,  and  great  accuracy  and  delicacy  in  the 
operation  of  the  fase.  The  proper  position  of  the 
point  of  rupture  varies  from  30  to  130  yards  in  front 
of,  and  from  15  to  20  feet  above,  the  object.  The 
weight  of  a  spherical  case-shot  is  about  the  same  as  a 
solid  shot  of  the  same  size,  and,  being  fired  with  the 
same  charge  of  powder,  it  can  be  used  for  attaining 
long  ranges  in  the  absence  of  solid  shot.  For  this 
purpose  the  fuse  should  not  be  cut.  Spherical  case- 
shot  should  not  Ik-  used  for  a  less  distance  than  500' 
yards;  although  in  cases  of  emergency  the  fuse  maj- 
he  cut  so  short  that  the  projectile  will  burst  at  the 
muzzle  of  the  piece,  in  which  case  it  will  act  like 
grape  or  canister  shot. 

In  grape  and  canister  firing,  theape.v  of  the  cone  of 
dispersion  is  situated  in  the  muzzle  of  the  piece,  and 
the  destructive  effect  is  confined  to  short  distances. 
The  shape  of  this  cone  is  the  same  as  in  spherical 
case-shot;  its  intersection  by  a  vertical  plane  is  circu- 
lar, while  that  of  a  horizontal  plane,  as  the  ground, 
is  an  oval,  with  its  greatest  diameter  in  the  plane  of 
fire.  The  greatest  number  of  projectiles  are  found 
around  the  axis  of  the  cone,  while  the  extreme  devia- 
tions amoiuit  to  nearly  one  tenth  of  the  range.  The 
most  suitable  distance  for  field  canister-shot  is  from 
3.50  to  500  yards;  if  the  giound  "be  hard  and  the  sur- 
face be  uniform,  the  effect  may  extend  as  far  as 
800  yards.  In  eases  of  great  emergencj'  a  double 
charge  of  canister,  fired  with  a  single  cartridge,  may 
be  used  for  distances  between  150  and  200  yards. 
Under  favorable  circumstances,  one  third  of  the 
whole  number  of  contained  projectiles  will  strike  the 
size  of  a  half-battalion  front  of  infantry,  and  one  half 
the  front  of  a  .squadron  of  cavalry.  Grape  and  can- 
ister shot  are  emijioyed  in  siege  and  sea-coast  opera- 
tions; in  tlie  latter  they  are  effective  against  boats 
im<\  the  rigging,  etc.,  of  vessels.  Grape-shot,  being 
larger  than  canister-shot,  are  effective  at  greater  dis- 
tances. Canister-shot  for  the  mountain-service  are 
not  effective  lieyond  250  and  300  vards. 

Beyond  200  "yards  llie  fire  of  tlie  smooth-bored 
musket  becomes  verv  uncertain  against  indiridual  ob- 
jects, as  the  lateral  deviations  often  exceed  four  feet; 
but  by  aiming  hish  it  may  lx>  made  effective  against 
troops  in  massat  400 yards.  The  fire  of  the  rifle-mus- 
ket is  effective  at  1(K)0  yards;  the  angle  of  fall,  how- 
ever, is  so  great  (about  5  )  that  great  care  must  be  exer- 
ci.sed  in  determining  the  exact  distance  of  the  object. 
If  the  ground  be  favorable,  the  projectile  will  ricochet 
at  1000  yards,  which  increases  the  daiigeroiin  apare, 
and  therefore  the  chances  of  hitting  the  object.  The 
limit  of  any  fire  is  determined  by  the  distinctness  of 
\nsion.  The  limit  of  distinct  \-ision  for  a  foot  soldier 
is  about  1100  yards;  that  fora  mounted  .soldier  is  about 
1300  yards.  The  effect  of  small-arm  firing  depends 
much  on  the  .skill  and  self-pos.se,ssion  of  the  soldier  in 
action,  for  without  these  qualities  the  most  powerful 
and  accurate  arms  will  be  of  little  avail.     The  num- 


ber of  cartridges  expended  for  each  person  disabled  in 
previous  European  wars  has  been  variously  stated 
to  be  from  3000  to  10,000.  In  the  late  ilexican 
war,  where  an  unusually  lar^e  proportion  of  the 
American  troops  were  armed  with  rifles,  this  number 
has  been  estimated  to  be  from  300  to  400.  Where  a 
soldier  discharges  his  piece  from  the  back  of  a  horse, 
as  in  the  cavalry  service,  the  effect  of  fire  is  much 

j  less  than  in  the  dragoon  and  mounted-rifle  services, 
where  he  rides  from  i<oint  to  point,  but  discharges 
his  piece  on  foot.  At  short  distances,  and  against 
troops  in  ma.ss,  two  or  three  round  bullets  may  be 
employed  with  good  effect.  See  Cannon,  Firing  and 
Pointinf/. 

2.  Wliether  a  tribe  of  men  ignorant  of  fire  and  its 
uses  has  ever  existed,  is  a  question  in  dispute  among 
historians  and  travelers.  It  will  be  enough  to  say  that 
absolute  proof  of  the  existence  of  such  a  trilie  has 
not  been  presented,  though  there  are  many  well  au- 
thenticated facts  and  circumstances  that  suggest  its 
possibility.  The  uses  and  dangers  of  fire,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  the  means  of  controlling  it,  must  have 
been  generally  understood  at  a  very  early  age.  At 
first  it  may  have  been  simply  an  object  of  "terror,  but 
proljably  men  soon  discovered  that  it  was  a  friend  no 

I  less  than  an  enemir.  Concussion  or  friction  was  un- 
doubtedly the  earliest  method  employed  for  produc- 
ing fire.  In  the  process  of  chipping  stone,  sparks 
were  elicited,  which,  falling  upon  combustible  sub- 
stances, may  have  taught  men  how  to  produce  a  blaze 
at  pleasure.  The  concussion  of  flint  and  steel  was  for 
ages  doubtless  the  common  method  of  kindling  a  fire, 
and  it  has  not  yet  Ix-en  entirely  superseded"  The 
Alaskans  strike  together  two  pieces  of  quartz,  rubbed 
with  sulphur,  thereby  .setting  the  sulphur  on  fire,  antl 
then  transfer  the  flame  to  a  heap  of  diy  grass.  The 
Esquimaux  use  quartz  and  iron  pyrites.  In  some 
countries  sparks  are  produced  by  striking  a  piece  of 
broken  china  upon  bamboo;  in  Cochin  China  two 
pieces  of  bamboo  are  used,  the  silieious  character  of 
the  ouLside  layer  of  this  wood  rendering  it  as  good  as 
native  flint.  Numerous  mechanical  devices  for  in- 
crciwing  by  rapidity  of  motion  the  friction  of  differ- 
ent wootls  were  resorted  to.  In  some  cases  a  stick 
was  rubbed  backward  and  forward;  in  others  it  was 
made  to  rotate  rapidly  in  a  round  hole  in  a  station- 
arj'  piece  of  wood.  This  method  was  used  by  the 
North  American  Indians,  who  improved  it  by  ap- 
l>lyiug  the  piinciple  of  the  bow-drill.  The  Iroquois 
u.sed  the  still  more  ingenious  pump-drill.  The  pro- 
duction of  fire  by  concentrating  the  rays  of  the  sun 
by  means  of  a  burning-glass  was  well  "known  to  the 
ancients.  North  American  legends  narrate  how  the 
great  buffalo,  careering  through  the  plains,  makes 
sparks  flit  in  the  night,  and  .sets  the  prairie  ablaze  by 
his  hoofs  hitting  the  rocks.  The  sjime  idea  apix'ars 
in  the  Hindu  mythology.  To  sjive  the  labor  required 
in  these  initial  processes  of  procuring  light,  and  to 
avoid  the  inconvenience  of  carrjing  it  about  continu- 
ally, primitive  men  hit  on  the  expedient  of  a  tire 
which  should  bum  night  and  day  in  a  public  build- 
ing. The  Egyptians  had  one  in  everj-  temple,  the 
Greeks,  Latins,  and  Persians  in  all  towns  and  villages. 
Of  these  the  "eternal  lamps"  in  the  Byzantine  and 
Catholic  churches  may  l>e  the  sur\'ival.  Even  the 
functions  of  the  State  itself,  according  to  some  emi- 
nent wTiters,  appear  to  have  grown  out  of  the  care 
l>estowed  on  the  tribal  fire.  The  first  guardians  of 
this  fire,  it  is  said,  were  the  earliest  public  servants, 
who  by  degrees  appropriated  all  important  offices,  as 
the  Stale  it.self  developed  into  a  vast  aggregation  of 
interests.  The  men  who  in  the  Roman  Empire  took 
charge  of  the  tribal  tire  were  called  the  Prytanes. 
They  were  fed  at  the  public  expense,  and  they  be- 
came Magistrates,  in  whom  were  combined  tlie  "pow- 
ers of  Captain,  Priest,  and  King.  When  Augustus 
usurped  the  authority  of  Impcrator,  he  assumed  the 
powers  which  belonged  to  a  Boani  of  Flamens,  or 
of  Prytanes.  He  made  himself  Pontifex  Slaximus, 
and  assumed   the  charge  of  the  public  fire.     The 


FI&EALAKH. 


662 


FISE-AKUS. 


Hellenic  nations,  as  well  as  the  Aztecs,  received  their 
AinbassjHlors  in  their  lemples  of  tire,  where,  as  at  the 
imtionul  hearth,  they  feasted  the  foreign  guests.  The 
Prvtaueicn  and  the  State  were  coiiverlible  terms. 
If  "by  chance  the  tire  in  llie  Koman  Temple  of  ^■esta 
was  extinguished,  all  tribunals,  all  public  or  private 
business,  had  to  stop  immediately.  No  Greek  or 
lioinan  army  crossed  the  frontier  without  carrying 
an  altar  where  the  tire  taken  from  the  Prytaneion 
burned  night  and  ilay.  Greek  Colonies  went  iiot 
forth  without  living  coals  from  the  altar  of  llestia, 
to  light  in  llicir  new  country  a  lire  like  that  burning 
at  tlic  old  home.  Architecture,  it  is  supposed,  began 
with  the  creation  of  sacred  sheds  to  protect  the 
sacreii  lire,  which  was  Uxjkcd  upon  as  a  divinity. 
The  tin'  that  burned  in  the  Temple  of  Vesta  was  re- 
garded as  the  very'  got^idcss  herself.  The  hearth-lire 
was  kept  holy,  it's  llame  was  to  remain  bright  and 
pure.  According  to  the  Zend  Avesta  nothiui^  un- 
clean was  to  l)e  thrown  into  the  fire,  and  no  in(recent 
actions  were  to  be  conmiitled  before  it.  To  spit  in 
one's  fire  wotdd  be  considered  in  some  places  an  im- 
pardonable  offense.  Some  people  were  so  reverent 
that  they  would  not  blow  out  a  light  lest  they  should 
render  the  flame  impure  with  their  bre^dh.  In  the 
course  of  time  the  sjimc  reasons  which  led  to  the 
provision  for  a  tribal  fire  induced  every  family  to 
have  its  hearth.  The  family  developeil  iUself  only 
after  the  married  pair  and  their  offspring  had  their 
own  fireplace.  This  family  tire  was  at  first  the 
privilege  of  only  the  aristocracy.  The  hearth  was 
the  very  center  of  the  house,  as  the  regia  was  the 
sacred  center  of  Rome  and  the  Roman  Common- 
wealth; aroimd  the  regia  the  civic  and  politic  iusti- 
tution.s  developed  themselves;  and  around  the  hearth 
the  family  grew  slowly  into  shape  and  power.  Let 
as  hope  it  may  not  decline  under  the  influence  of 
those  "modern  improvements"  which  have  super- 
seded the  hearth-stone  and  banished  from  sight  the 
household  fire.  The  Gentile  hearth  gave  a  recognized 
a.sylum — a  right  still  in  full  vigor  in  some  countries. 
Tile  i>roud  saying  of  the  Englishman  that  his  home 
is  his  castle  is  a  remnant  of  this  old  feeling. 

3.  In  annorial  bearings  the  fire  is  iLscd  to  denote 
those  who,  being  ambitious  of  honor,  perform  brave 
actions  with  an  ardent  courage,  their  thoughts  always 
aspiring  as  the  tire  tends  upwards.  A  flame  of  fire  is 
more  frequently  used  as  a  charge  in  France  and  Ger- 
many than  in  England,  where,  however,  there  are 
fire-balls  or  bombs,  fire-beacons,  firebrands,  and  fire- 
buckels,  etc.,  in  abundance. 

FIBE-ALAKM. — An  alann  given  of  a  fire  or  con- 
flagration. In  barracks  or  camp  it  is  sounded  on  the 
drum  or  bugle,  or  by  the  discharge  of  fire-anns  tiy  the 
guard.  As  soon  as  the  fire  is  observed,  the  sentinel 
on  ix)st  cries  "  Fire!"  adding  the  number  of  his  post. 
If  the  danger  appears  great,  he  discharges  his  piece 
before  calling  out.  'When  a  fire  breaks  out,  or  any 
alarm  is  raised  in  a  garrison,  all  guards  are  immc- 
diatclv  midtr  arms. 

FIRE  AND  SWORD.— By  the  law  of  Scotland,  al 
though  decree  may  be  given  in  a  civil  action  agidnst 
an  absent  defender,  no  criminal  sentence  can  be  pro- 
nounced unless  the  accu.sed  be  i)resent.  But  to  resist 
a  criminal  citation  is  to  reliel  against  the  law  of  the 
land,  and  in  fomier  times  might  iKr  treated  as  trea.son. 
In  this  view,  litters  of  fin  mid  Kiroril  were  occiision- 
ally  i.ssucd  by  the  Privy  Council.  These  letters  were 
directed  to  the  Sheriff  of  the  county,  autliorizing  him 
to  call  in  the  a.ssistance  of  the  country,  and  to  pro- 
cee<l  to  the  e.xtrendlies  which  the  terrible  words  tire 
and  sword  indicate,  should  sucli  proceedings  be  nec- 
essary for  apprehending  the  accused  party.  Lord 
Stair  describes  this  remedy  as  the  "  last  legal  execu- 
tion, warranting  all  manner  of  force  of  arms  that  is 
competent  in  war."  The  same  course  might  lie  re- 
.sorted  to  where  the  decree  of  a  Court  was  resisted; 
and  the  object  with  which  letters  of  fire  and  sword 
were  more  frequently  issued  than  any  other  was  to 
enable  the  Sheriff  to  dislodge  refractory  tenants  who 


retained  possession  contrarj-  to  the  order  of  the  Judge 
or  the  diligence  of  the  law.  By  the  modern  practice 
the  Ju<lge  may,  of  course,  always  call  in  the  aid  of 
the  military  to"  apprehend  an  accused  party,  or  to  en- 
force a  decree  where  the  ordinary  means  have  proved 
unavailing. 

FIRE-ARMS. — Firearms  may  be  defined  as  vessels, 
of  whatever  form,  usi'd  in  the  propulsion  of  shot, 
shell,  or  bullets  to  a  greater  or  less  distance  by  the 
action  of  gunpowder  exploded  within  them.  They 
have  played  so  great  a  part  in  the  world's  story  that 
their  invention,  develo|>ment,  and  science  deserve 
careful  analysis.  At  a  more  advanced  period,  an 
obvious  division  of  the  subject  into  cannon,  mortars, 
and  snuiU-arms  presents  itself;  but  in  the  infancy  of 
the  invention,  and  amid  the  obscurity  enshrouding  it, 
we  can  only  seek  to  inqiure  into  the  origin  of  tire- 
arms  generally.  The  invention  of  gimpowder  bears 
.so  directly  upon  the  gradual  introduction  of  tire-arms 
that  it  will  be  well  to  consider  the  two  discoveries 
concuiTently.  The  widely  prevalent  notion  that  gun- 
powder was  the  i/ireiition  of  Friar  Bacon,  and  that 
cannon  were  first  use<l  by  Edwartl  III.  of  England, 
must  be  at  once  discstrded.  It  is  certain  that  gun- 
powder differed  in  no  conspicuous  degree  from  the 
Gretk- fire  oi  the  Byzantine  Emjierors,  nor  from  the 
temsirial  thunder  of  China  and  India,  where  it  had 
been  known  for  many  centuries  before  the  chivalry 
of  Europe  began  to  fall  beneath  its  leveling  power. 
"Niter,"  says  Sir  Gfcorge  Staunton,  "is  the  natural 
and  daily  produce  of  China  and  India;  and  there,  ac- 
cordingly, the  knowledge  of  gunpowder  seems  to  be 
coeval  with  that  of  thelnost  dist<uit  historic  events." 
The  earlier  Arab  historians  call  saltpeter  "  Chinese 
snow"  and  "Chinese  salt;"  and  the  most  ancient 
records  of  China  itself  show  that,  when  they  were 
written,  fire-works  were  well  known  several  hundred 
}"ears  before  the  Christian  era.  From  these  and 
other  circumstances,  it  is  indubitable  that  gunpowder 
was  used  by  the  Chine.se  as  an  explosive  compound 
in  prehistoric  times;  when  they  first  discovered  or 
applied  its  power  as  a  propellant  is  less  easily  deter- 
mined. There  is  an  account  of  a  bamboo  tube  bein^ 
used,  from  which  the  "impetuous  dart  "  was  hurled 
a  distance  of  100  feet;  this  was  at  a  very  early  period, 
but  it  is  diflicult  to  say  precisely  when.  It  is  re- 
corded, however,  that  in  618  B.C.,"  during  the  Taing- 
off  dynasty,  a  cannon  was  employed  bearing  the  in- 
scription: "I  hurl  death  to  the  traitor,  and  extermi- 
nation to  the  rebel."  This  must  almost  necessarily 
have  been  of  metal.  We  have  also  curious  evidence 
in  regard  to  the  armament  of  the  great  wall;  for  Cap- 
tain Parisli,  who  acconiiianiid  Lord  Macartney's  mis- 
sion, reiKirled  that  "  the  soles  of  tlie  embrasures  were 
pierced  with  small  holes,  similar  to  those  used  in 
Europe  for  the  reception  of  the  swivels  of  wall-pieces. 
The  holes  appear  to  be  part  of  the  original  consti-uc- 
tion  of  the  wall,  and  it  seems  difficult  to  assign  to 
them  any  other  iiurpose  than  that  of  resistance  to  the 
recoil  of  fireanns.  "  If  this  sunnise  be  correct,  the 
use  of  jingalls  would  be  carried  back  to  three  cen- 
turies at  le.'ist  before  the  Christian  era.  Stone  mor- 
tars, throwing  nussiles  of  12  lbs.  to  a  distance  of  300 
paces,  are  particularly  mentioned  as  having  btrn  em- 
ployed in  757  \.T>.  by  Thang's  army;  and  in  1233 
a.d".  it  is  incontestable  that  the  Chinese  besieged  in 
CaVfong-fou  used  caimon  against  tlieir  Jlongol  ene- 
mies. Thus,  the  Chinese  must  be  allowed  to  have 
established  their  claim  to  an  early  practical  knowl- 
edge of  gimpowder  and  its  effects. 

It  seems  likelv,  however,  that  the  principles  of 
fire-arms  reached  Europe  from  India  rather  than 
China,  and  that  countrj'  has  ccpial,  if  not  suixrior, 
claims  to  the  iii-st  acquaintance  with  the  art.  The 
ancient  Sanscrit  writings  appear  to  point  very  plainly 
to  the  oiienilion  of  some  primitive  sort  of  cannon, 
when,  in  recording  the  wars  of  the  EgJ^)tian  Hercules 
in  India,  it  is  staled  that  llie  sjiges  remained  uncon- 
cerned as  spectators  of  the  attack  on  their  strong- 
hold, till  an  assiuUt  was  attempted,  when  they  re- 


FIR£ABUS. 


663 


FIBEASMS. 


pulsed  it  with  whirlwinds  and  thundi-rs,  Imrlingr 
distraction  on  the  invaders;  and  a  Greek  historian  of 
Alexauder's  campaign  testifies  that  the  Hindus  had 
the  means  of  discharging  flames  and  missiles  on  their 
enemies  from  a  dLstance.  These  Indian  philosophers 
seem,  from  the  writings  of  Ctesias  and  -Elian,  to 
have  also  jxisscssed  an  unquenchable  tire  similar  to 
that  employed  later  by  the  Greeks.  Passing  from 
these  very  early  times,  in  which  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  some  sort  of  great-gun  was  employed,  we 
come  to  the  comparatively  recent  date.  1200  a.d., 
when  their  use  is  established  beyond  a  doubt,  for 
Chased,  the  Hindu  bard,  writes  (in  stjmza  257)  that 
the  culivers  and  cannons  made  a  loud  report  when 
they  were  tired  off,  and  that  the  noise  of  the  ball  was 
heard  at  the  distance  of  about  ten  coss,  which  is  more 
than  three  quarters  of  a  mile.  In  12oS  the  vizier  of 
the  King  of  Delhi  went  forth  to  meet  the  Ambassjidor 
of  Hulaku,  the  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan,  with 
3000  carriages  of  tireworks  (in  the  sense  of  weapons, 
probably  a  sort  of  rude  muskets).  In  1368.  300  gun- 
carriages  were  captured  by  Muhammed  Shah  Bah- 
miani.  The  use  of  c:umon  had  so  far  advanced  in 
India  by  1482  that  they  were  even  used  for  naval 
purposes;  shells  having  been  employed  two  yeai-s 
earlier  by  the  Sovereign  of  Guzerat.  In  1500  the 
Portuguese  had  matchlockmen  to  contend  with,  as 
well  as  heavy  ordnance.  Pigafetta,  in  1511,  found 
the  town  of  Borneo  defended  by  62  pieces  of  cannon 
mounted  on  the  walls.  So  much  for  the  antiquity 
and  apparently  common  use  of  fire-anns  in  China 
and  India,  at  times  long  antecedent  to  any  knowledge 
of  them  in  Europe,  and  during  the  period  at  which 
they  were  scarcely  developed  in  an  effectual  degree. 
Most  of  the  pieces  discovered  in  India,  and  supposed 
to  be  of  early  manufacture,  are  composed  of  parallel 
iron  bars  welded  together,  and  very  often  they  had  a 
movable  breech-piece.  The  knowledge  of  gunpow- 
der and  fire-arms  may  be  presumed  to  have  extended 
■  in  a  westerly  direction  through  the  Arabs,  whom  we 
find  using  them  possibly  in  711  A.D.,  under  the  name 
of  iiuiiijaii i/iS,  and  certainly  very  early  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  Byzantine  Emperor  Leo  introduced 
"  fire-tubes"  between  890  and  911,  for  use  in  connec- 
tion with  Greek  fire;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  these  were  a  species  of  cannon,  probably  of  small 
bore.  In  Spain,  both  the  Moors  and  Christians  used 
'    artillery  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century. 

Friar  Bacon  was  conspicuous  among  his  contem- 
poraries for  his  genenU  learning,  and  we  have  no  evi- 
dence to  show  whether  he  discovered  the  ingredients 
of  gimpowder  independently  of  all  foreign  aid,  or 
whether  he  derived  the  knowledge  from  some  an- 
cient MSS.;  the  latter,  however,  seems  the  more 
likely  conclusion,  as  Sir  F.  Palgrave  brought  to  light 
in  the  Bodleian  Librarj-  a  letter  from  a  Spanish  friar. 
Brother  Ferrarius,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Ba- 
con, in  which  the  materials  of  Greek  lire  arc  detailed, 
differing  only  in  proportions,  and  in  these  but  Slightly, 
from  real  gunpowder.  That  the  latter  was  identified 
of  old  with  Greek  fire  is  shown  by  the  name  "  Crake," 
applied  t(j  the  first  cannon  used.  This  word,  which 
still  survives  in  "cracker,"  is  pointed  out  by  Sir  F. 
Palgrave  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  Norman  corrup- 
tion of  "  Grec. "  Bacon's  announcement  dates  from 
1216;  but  the  powder  of  his  time,  as  made  in  the 
West,  was  not  readily  explosive,  since  the  materials 
were  but  roughly  cleared  of  impurities,  and  then 
mixed  together  on  a  slab,  and  probably  little  use 
could  be  made  of  it  as  a  propellant  luitil  the  process 
of  granulating  had  been  introduced  by  Bcrtholdus 
Schwartz  iu  1320.  Immediately  after  this  discovery, 
cannon  of  small  size  appeared  in  the  annory  of  almost 
every  State,  as  if  their  use  had  been  known  pre- 
\nously,  although  no  practical  effect  had  been  given 
to  the  knowledge,  on  account  of  the  badness  of  the 
powder  manufactured.  These  cannon  generally  con- 
sisted of  a  smaller  barrel  or  chamber  to  receive  the 
charge,  which  fitted  into  a  larger  one  containing  the 
projectile.      It  may   be  safely  assumed   that  these 


weapoas,  if  terrifying  from  their  noise,  were  tolerably 
harmless — at  least  to  the  enemy — in  their  i)ractice. 
In  1326  the  Florentine  Republic  ordered  the  making 
of  iron  shot  and  cannon  for  the  defense  of  its  til- 
lages. In  1327  Edward  III.  used  "  crakeys  of  war" 
a.gainst  the  Scotch;  in  1339,  ten  cannons  were  em- 
ployed in  the  siege  of  Cambray.  By  1346,  various 
improvements  had  been  made  ;'  and  we  find  in  the 
same  year  the  Consuls  of  Bruges  witnessing  experi- 
ments by  one  Peter,  a  tinman,  who  had  coiistruct«d 
a  cannon  with  a  stpiare  bore,  to  throw  a  cubical  shot 
of  about  11  lbs.;  his  l)olt  passed  both  walls  of  the 
town,  and  imfortuuately  killed  a  man  on  the  other 
side.  We  have  the  authority  of  Villani  for  believing 
that  Edward  III.  had  three  "cannon  at  Crecy;  but  the 
cannon  then  made  were,  from  the  little  knowledge  of 
casting,  limited  to  alxmt  the  size  of  modern  duck- 
guns,  and,  as  has  been  remarked,  three  very  inferior 
muskets  could  have  had  but  little  to  do  with  i)utting 
50,000  men  to  flight.  Up  to  this  time  European  ord- 
nance had  been  kept  back  by  the  rarity  and  high 
prices  of  sulphur,  saltpeter,  and  iron,  the  last  having 
been  so  scarce  in  England  that  it  was  thought  neces- 
siiry  to  forbid  its  exportation  by  a  statute.  Still, 
crude  as  was  their  form,  and  small  their  number,  fire- 
arms had  established  a  firm  footing  in  Christendom; 
their  mission  of  civilization,  and,  paradoxical  as  it 
may  appear,  of  humanity,  had  begun.  With  the 
first  killing  discharge,  tlie  doom  of  feudalism  had 
gone  forth.  Plated  armor  no  longer  availed  against 
the  weapon  of  the  peasant;  and  the  mailed  chivalry, 
the  sinews  of  pre\ious  battles,  who  had  trampled 
with  their  iron  heels  upon  popular  rights,  no  longer 
could  carry  all  before  them,  but,  like  other  soldiers, 
were  now  as  loath  to  be  slain  by  unseen  foes  as  the 
veriest  villain  in  the  host.  The  people  discovered 
their  powers  of  contending  with  the  nobIe.s.se;  by  de- 
grees they  rose  for  liberty  and  suppressed  the  tyran- 
nies of  the  petty  lords  who  had  long  held  them  as* 
mere  bondsmen.  In  war,  again,  as  artillery  became 
more  general,  so  the  slaughter  of  battles  diminished, 
for  an  army  outmancuvered  was  an  army  at  the 
enemy's  mercy,  and  therefore  beaten;  whereas  pre- 
viously, in  the  hand-to-hand  fight.s  where  victors  and 
vanquished  mixed  pell-mell  in  single  combat,  a  vic- 
tory could  only  be  really  won  when  there  were  no 
foes  left  to  slay.  A  battle  as  great  as  that  at  Crecy 
might  now  be  gained  with  a  loss  to  the  vanquishca 
of  not  more  than  1000  men,  instead  of  the  30.000  who 
are  said  to  have  fallen  victims  to  the  English  sword 
or  bow. 

Dating  from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  the  employ- 
ment of  cannon  and  bombards  in  siege-operations  be- 
came more  or  less  general.  Froissart  records  that 
the  Black  Prince  took  bombards,  cannon,  and  Greek 
fire  to  the  reduction  of  the  castle  of  Komozantin  in 
1356,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  he  availed  himself 
of  fire-arms  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers  in  the  same  year. 
The  bombards  seem  to  have  been  short,  capacious 
vessels,  from  which  stone  balls  were  shot  with  small 
charges  to  a  short  distance,  and  at  considerable  eleva- 
tion; they  were  essentially  the  parents  of  the  present 
bombs  or  mortars.  The  cannon,  on  the  other  hand, 
were,  for  some  time  at  least,  of  extremely  small 
bore,  scarcely  larger  than  muskets  of  the  eighteenth 
century;  they  discharged  leaden  bullets,  and  would 
have  probably  been  used  as  hand-weapons  but  for 
their  cumbrous  and  heavy  workmanship,  which  neces- 
sitated small  carriages.  Arms  of  this  description  are 
doubtless  those  referred  to  as  having  been  brought  by 
Ricliard  II.  to  the  siege  of  St.  Malo"^  to  the  number  of 
400  pieces,  where  they  are  said  to  have  kept  up  an 
incessant  fire  day  and" night  on  the  town  icit/iout  suc- 
cess. In  the  fifteenth  century,  armies  for  siege-opera- 
tions were  usually  accompanied  by  great  and  small 
gtins,  the  latter  being  intended  to  keep  down  the  fire 
of  the  besieged  while  the  large  bombard.s  were  being 
loaded,  an  operation  requiring  no  small  time.  These 
guns  were  eraduallv  improved,  but  it  was  not  until 
the  reign  of  Hemv  'VIII.  that  the  founders  succeeded 


FIS£-ABEOW. 


664 


FIREBALL. 


in  casting  iron  ordnance,  to  the  entire  exclusion,  until 
(|uile  the  present  ilny,  of  cannon  formed  of  square  or 
rounded  bars  welded  tocellier.  En^hind  had  even 
then  lx!Come  famous  for  the  workmanship  of  its 
ordnance.  A  gun  found  in  the  wrrck  of  tlie  Mary 
liim-,  which  sunk  at  .Spitliead  in  the  above  kini^'s 
reijrn.  shows  that  a  ilcj^rce  of  excellence  had  Ix-en  at- 
tained in  the  nianufacuire  of  artillery  little  inferior  to 
that  which  has  lasted  till  our  own  day,  when  ritletl 
oninance  are  rjipiilly  superseding  camion  of  smooth 
bores.  Still,  so  late  as  Henry's  reign,  although  great- 
guns  were  found  very  serviceable  in  siege  and  naval 
operations,  where  the  defenses  of  those  days  ofTered 
hut  a  tritling  resistance  to  their  i)owcr,  they  appear  to 
have  been  looked  upon  rather  as  an  ineumhrance 
than  an  advantage  with  armies  in  the  field.  This  is 
attributed  partly  to  the  heavy  character  of  the  guns 
themselves,  andespecially  of  their  carriages,  but  more  | 
particularly  to  the  badness,  or  rather  absence,  of  the 
necessary  roads  for  tlieir  transport.  In  ITi.jS  it  is  re- 
corded in  the  iState-jiapers  that  the  "  kingesordonauns 
[were]  unable  to  pii-ss  over  Stancs  More  towards 
Carlile."  As  lime  pas.sed  on,  the  details  of  the  manu- 
facture were  improved,  the  general  principles  remain- 
ing the  same;  the  size  of  the  guns  increased,  while 
the  proportionate  weight  of  the  carriages  diminished; 
limbers  were  added,  and  the  eqtiipa.je  of  a  gun 
gnidually  perfected  and  lightened.  ^\  ith  increiLsed 
caliber,  to  which  augmented  range  was  usually  added, 
the  numlK'r  of  camion— at  one  period  enormous — 
taken  with  an  armv  was  by  degrees  reduced,  until 
now  a  certain  standard  proportion  between  artillery 
and  infantry  is  ordinarily  maintained.  Three  guns  to 
a  thousand  infantry  is  the  proportion  now  considered 
best.  Of  course  this  proportion  differs  with  the  opin- 
ions of  various  Commanders;  but  the  greatest  modern 
Generals  have  always  acted  on  the  maxim  that  it  is 
wasteful  to  .send  a  soldier  on  any  duly  of  danger  which 
a  ball  can  be  made  to  perforin.  As  a  weapon  of  of- 
fen.se,  Vauban  doubled  the  utility  of  hea\y  ordnance 
when  he  applied  the  ricochet  system  of  firing.  Napo- 
leon may  almo.st  Ix;  .s,iid  to  have  won  his  battles  by 
artillerj-,  for  he  rarely,  if  ever,  brought  his  infantry 
into  action  except  as  supports,  until  a  way  had  been 
opened  for  them,  or  a  panic  caused,  by  the  massed  lire 
of  large  batteries  of  guns.  The  Dulic  of  'Wellington 
also  devoted  the  greatest  attention  to  his  ordnance- 
train;  while,  referring  to  recent  events,  the  campaigns 
of  Lord  Clyde  in  India  were  remarkable  instances  of 
the  use  of  artillery  Ijeing  pushed  with  abundant  suc- 
cess to  its  greatest  limit.  During  the  Franco  German 
'War  of  1870-71  the  Prussians  were  considered  some- 
what behind  the  age  in  their  use  of  artillerj'. 

Cannon  of  widelj'  varvnng  bores  have  at  different 
periods  been  cast,  and  the  various  sorts  became  so 
numerous  in  Continent;d  armies  as  at  one  time  to 
cause  much  inconvenience  from  the  large  quantities 
of  nmnnmition  which  it  was  nec'cssary  to  carry.  Gus- 
taviis  Adolphus  set  the  example  of  reducing  his  guns 
to  a  few  standard  calibers,  and  the  sjime  improvement 
■was  immediately  adopted  systematicidly  in  the  French 
and  other  armies.  The  mortar  differs  from  all  otlicr 
gvins  in  its  solidity  of  fonn,  its  shortness,  and  its  large 
iwre.  The  object  is  the  projection  of  .shells  by  a  more 
or  k-ss  vertical  fire,  with  the  intention  of  breaking 
through  and  destroying,  by  weight  and  explosion  to- 
gether, roofs  of  magazines,  public  buildings,  and  so 
on,  or  of  sinking  a  shell  deep  into  earthworks  of  a 
fortress,  in  which  it  shall  explo<le  as  a  most  deadly 
mine.  The  mortar  arose  natundly  out  of  the  old  bom- 
bard, and  doubtless  deviated  by  degrees  more  ftnd 
more  from  the  cannon.  In  very  early  days,  we  read 
in  Arabian  authors  of  a  cylinder  hewn  in  the  rock  at 
Alexandria,  and  us<'d  as  a  mortar.  Such  a  cylinder, 
and  of  large  size,  is  still  to  be  seen  at  Gibraltar,  where 
it  was  employed  in  the  last  siege  against  the  Spanish, 
when  it  was  nuule  to  discharge  volleys  (jf  large  stones, 
which,  spreading  at  times  to  a  distance  of  500  j-ards, 
constituted  a  fonnidable  means  of  defease.  In  recent 
years  nearly  all  guns  fire  shells,  wj  that  the  sjiecilic 


necessity  for  mortars  has  greatly  diminished.  A  gun 
is  a  frustum  of  a  right  cone,  with  a  cylinder  (bore) 
removed  around  the  axis;  from  whiih  it  follows  that 
the  thickness  of  metal  is  greatest  at  the  breech,  where 
it  has  to  withstand  the  effect  of  ignited  powder  in  its 
most  condcnseil  and  therefore  most  powerful  state. 
Guns  are  first  cast  in  loam  or  dry  sand,  then  turned 
to  the  re(iuin'<l  shape,  suid  lastly  bored  with  the  min- 
utest accuracy.  Fonnerly  they  were  cast  with  the 
bore  already  formed;  but  the  direction  was  rarely 
correct,  and  the  surface  scarcely  ever  strictly  even. 

An  article  on  fire-arms  would  be  incomplete  with- 
out some  allusion  to  the  progress  attained  in  small- 
arms.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  smallest  sort  of  can- 
non were  probably  at  times  mounted  and  u.sed  its  hand- 
guns. From  this  the  step  to  the  arquebus  was  rapid; 
that  weajion  developed  as  years  jtassed  into  the  clumsy 
matchlock;  that  into  the  firelock  and  fiint-musket; 
then  the  percu.ssion-musket ;  and  lastly  into  the  beau- 
tiful rifles  of  our  own  day,  which  have  culminated 
in  the  central-fire  breech-loaders.  For  diminutives, 
small  arciuebuscs  were  made  to  do  duty  as  horse- 
pistols;  gemiine  pistols  succeeded  them:  these  were 
gradually  improved  and  reduced  in  size  till  they  have 
culminated  in  the  saloon-pistol,  available  for  a  waist- 
coat pocket,  and  the  deadly  revolver,  with  its  multi- 
plied shooting  power.  AH  these  weapons  are  described 
tmder  their  respective  beads.  See  Cannon,  Ordnance, 
and  Small  a  niis. 

FIRE  AERO'W.— An  arrow  or  dart  furnished  with 
a  match  impregnated  with  powder  and  sulphur,  and 
used  for  incendiary  piu-poses. 

FIRE-BALL. — Fire-balls  are  projectiles  of  an  oval 
shape,  formed  of  sacks  of  canvas  filled  with  combus- 
tible composition.  They  are  used  to  light  up  the 
enemy's  works,  and  are  loaded  with  .shells  to  prevent 
them  from  being  approached.  The  materials  need- 
ed in  their  manufacture  are  strong,  close  canvas 
(sail-cloth);  rope;  cartridge-thread;  red  chalk;  slow- 
match;  loaded  shells;  and  pitch.  A  composition  of  8 
parts  of  sjiltpeter,  as  it  comes  from  the  refinery;  2  of 
pulverized  sulphur,  and  1  of  antimony  are  passed 
through  sieve  No.  2.  These  materials  are  mixed  in 
the  hands,  pas.sed  through  sieve  No.  4,  moistened 
with  jV  their  weight  of  water,  and  pa.ssed  again 
through  the  same  sieve.  The  following  utensils  are 
reqtiired  besides  tho.se  necessjiry  for  grinding  and 
preparing  the  composition:  a  wooden  pattern;  red 
chalk  ;  one  pair  shears;  collar-needles;  mallet;  .small 
giiuge,  of  the  caliber  of  the  fire-balls;  scoop;  tarred 
links;  one  wooden  mold;  two  wooden  drifts  20 
inches  long,  one  of  them  Ij-  inch  and  the  other  3*  to 
4  inches  in  diameter;  and  two  wooden  pins  4i  inches  ■ 
long,  the  small  end  the  size  of  a  paper  fuse. 

To  make  the  sack,  mark  out  the  pieces  by  means 
of  the  pattern,  and  cut  them  with  the  shears;  ba-ste 
two  or  three  thicknesses  together,  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  canvas;  sew  three  or  more  together, 
enough  to  make  the  sack;  leave  one  end  open,  form- 
ing a  mouth  for  charging;  turn  the  bag  to  bring  the 
seams  on  the  inside.  The  mouth  may  be  made  fast 
to  an  iron  hof)p,  large  enough  to  admit  the  shell,  with 
which  the  fire-ball  is  loaded.  Charge  the  shell  with 
powder  and  put  in  a  slow  fuse.  Dip  the  tarred  link 
into  the  melted  rosin,  pitch,  and  tallow,  and  fasten  it 
with  twine  to  the  shell  around  the  fuse-hole.  Place 
the  sack  in  the  mold  and  secure  the  mouth  to  it.  Put 
the  shell  with  the  tarred  link  in  the  bottom  of  the 
sack,  the  fuse-liole  downward,  and  fasten  the  shell 
down  with  twine  pas.sed  through  the  sides  of  the 
.sack,  or  with  a  )iiece  of  canvas  secured  to  the  sides; 
put  in  the  com]>osition  with  a  scoop  and  ram  it,  first 
with  the  small  drift,  and  when  it  is  half  the  height  of 
the  projectile,  with  the  large  drift,  driving  it  with 
the  mallet.  Continue  in  this  way  until  the  .sack  is 
filled  to  the  top.  Close  the  mouth  of  the  sack,  sew- 
ing the  pieces  together. 

The  ball  is  furnished  with  an  iron  bottom  to  pre- 
vent it  from  being  broken  by  the  force  of  the  charge 
in  the  mortar.     To  make  the    bottom,  the  iron,  .2 


FIEE  BAVIH. 


665 


FIBE  WOfiES. 


inch  thick,  is  cut  in  a  circular  form,  heated  and 
partly  shaped  with  a  set-hamnier  in  a  concave  wooden 
former;  it  is  again  heated  and  finished  in  an  iron 
former.  It  is  then  put  into  a  lathe  where  the  outer 
edge  is  trimmed  and  chamfered  to  the  thickness  of 
one  eighth  inch.  The  iron  bottom  is  attached  to  the 
hall  with  cement;  the  bottom  is  tilled  about  one  third 
full  with  the  cement,  and  the  loaded  end  of  the  tirc- 
hall  is  inserted  in  it  and  left  to  cool.  The  hall  is 
nest  covered  and  strengthened  with  a  network  made 
of  spun  yarn  or  cord  from  .25  to  .5  inch  thick  ac 
cording  to  the  size  of  the  ball.  This  network  is 
commenced  at  the  bottom  of  the  sack  and  terminates 
at  the  top  in  a  strong  loop  which  forms  a  handle  for 
carrying  tlie  ball.  Fire  balls  are  dipped  in  a  com- 
position of  equal  parts  of  pilch  and  rosin  made 
warm.  The  ball  when  finished  should  pass  through 
the  large  shellgiiuge. 

To  prime  the  balls,  make  four  holes  about  3  inches 
below  the  top  by  driving  in  the  greased  wooden  pins 
2  inche.*deep.  When  the  ball  is  to  be  primed,  take 
out  these  pins  and  til!  the  holes  with  fuses  and  with 
two  strands  of  quick  match,  held  fast  by  the  com- 
position; leave  room  in  the  priming-hole  for  coiling 
the  quick  match  and  cover  it  with  a  piece  of  canvas 
fastened  with  four  nails.  The  halls  are  not  primed 
until  they  are  to  be  tired.     See  Fire-works. 

FIEE  BAVIN.— A  bundle  of  brushwood  employed 
in  tire-ships,  and  for  other  incendiary  purposes. 

FIEEBEAND  MINE.— A  variety  of  mine  that  pre- 
ceded the  purdir-rniiic  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

FIEE-BTJCKET.— A  bucket  to  convey  water  for  ex- 
tinguishing tires.  To  each  set  of  quarters  in  a  Garri- 
soiT  there  are  allotted  a  certain  number  of  tire-buckets. 

FIEE-CEOSS.— An  ancient  token  used  in  Scotland 
for  the  nation  to  take  up  arms. 

FIBE-EATEE. — A  name  applied  to  a  soldier  who  is 
notoriously  fond  of  being  in  action. 

FIEE-HOOPS.  —  A  combustible  invented  by  the 
Knights  of  Malta  to  throw  among  their  be.siegers,  and 
afterwards  used  in  Iwanling  Turkish  galleys. 

FXKELOCK. — The  name  applied  on  its  introduction, 
ill  1690,  to  the  old  musket,  which  produced  tire  by  the 
concussion  of  flint  and  steel,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  matchlock  previously  in  u.se,  which  had  been  fired 
by  the  insertion  of  a  lighted  match  at  the  powder-pan. 
Writers  of  the  earliest  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury called  firelocks  "asnaphans,"  a  word  obviously 
corrupted  from  the  Dutch  sinnphaan,  and  leading  to 
the  inference  that  they  were  brought  to  England  l)y 
William  III.  and  his" Dutch  au.viliaries.  Their  first 
invention  is,  however,  involved  in  obscurity.  The 
weapon  was  superseded  before  1830  by  the  percus 
sion-musket;  which,  in  its  turn,  has  now  jielded  to 
the  rifle.     See  Matchhxk. 

FIEE-MASTEE.— In  the  artillery,  a  Commissioned 
Officer  who  formerly  gave  the  directions  and  propor- 
tions of  all  ingredients  for  each  composition  required 
in  fire-works,  whether  for  the  service  of  war  or  for 
rejoicings  and  recreation. 

FIEE  MASTEE'S  MATE.— In  the  artillery,  a  Com- 
missioned Otticer  whose  duty  it  was  to  aid  and  as.sist 
the  Chief  Fire-master;  he  was  required  to  Ix'  skilled 
in  everv  kind  of  laborator\'  works. 

FIEE  OF  GEEATEST  EANGE.— The  fire  obtained 
by  gi\ing  the  piece  the  greatest  elevation  it  can  take 
on  its  carriaire,  and  employing  the  largest  charge  used 
for  that  caliber.  This  kind  of  fire  is  very  injurious 
to  the  carriage,  and  is  employed  only  in  testing. 

FIEE-PAN.— A  pan  for  holding  or  convenng  fire: 
especially,  the  receptacle  for  the  priming  in  a  gim. 

FIEE-SHIP.— A  ves.sel,  usually  an  old  one.  filled 
with  combustibles,  sent  in  among  a  hostile  squadron, 
and  there  fired,  in  the  hope  of  destroying  some  of  the 
ships,  or  at  least  of  producing  great  confu.sion.  Li\'y 
mentions  the  use  of  such  by  the  Rhodians,  B.C.  190; 
but  among  the  first  occasions  in  modern  times  when 
they  are  known  to  have  lieen  employed  were  by  the 
Dutch  in  the  Scheldt  during  the  War  of  Independence 
in  the  Netherlands,  and.sh"ortlv  after  by  the  English, 


in  1588,  against  the  Spanish  Armada.  The  Chinese 
tried  them  against  the  British  fleet  Ijefore  Catiton  in 
1857,  but  unsuccessfully.  The  service  of  na%igating 
one  of  these  ships  into  the  midst  of  an  enemy,  there 
firing  it,  and  then  attempting  to  escape,  is  always 
fraught  with  great  risk  of  failure  and  disaster. 

FIEE-STEEL— A  steel  used  in  connection  with  a 
flint  for  striking  fire.     Now  little  used. 

FIEE-STONE;— A  composition  placed  in  a  shell 
with  the  bursting  charge  to  set  fire  to  .ships,  buildings, 
etc.  It  is  made  by  stirring  niter,  sulphur,  antimony, 
and  rosin  in  a  mi.xture  of  melted  tallow  and  turpen- 
tine. It  is  cast  in  molds  made  of  rocket-paper.  A 
priming  of  fuse-composition  is  driven  in  a  hole  to  in- 
sure its  ignition. 

FIEE-SWAB. — The  bunch  of  rope-yams  sometimes 
secured  to  the  tampion,  saturated  with  water  to  cool 
the  gun  in  action,  and  to  swab  up  any  grains  of  pow- 
der. 

FIEE-WOEKEE.— Formerly  an  assistant  to  the  Fire- 
master.  In  the  early  organization  of  the  British  ar- 
tillery, this  title  was  given  to  the  junior  subaltern 
grade,  the  designation  of  tht"  officer  i)eing  Lieutenant 
Fire-worker.     See  Fire-master. 

FIEE-WOEKS. — Militarj-  fireworks  comprise  prepa- 
rations for  the  .scrrtceof  c'anrutn  ammunition,  and  for 
signal,  light,  incendiary,  and  defentire  and  offensive 
purposes. 

Prep.\rations  for  the  Service  op  Ammitni- 
TioN. — The  preparations  for  the  sernc»of  ammuni- 
tion are  stotr-match,  quick-match,  port-fins,  friction- 
tubes,  and  fi/ses.  Slow-match  is  used  to  preserve 
fire.  It  may  be  made  of  hemp  or  cotton  rope;  if 
made  of  hemp,  the  rope  is  saturated  with  acetate  of 
lead,  or  the  lye  of  wood-ashes;  if  made  of  cotton,  it 
is  only  necessary  that  the  strands  be  well  twisted. 
Slow-match  bums  from  four  to  five  inches  in  an  hour. 
QncK-MATCH  is  made  of  cotton-yarn  (candle-wick) 
saturated  with  a  composition  of  mealed  powder  and 
gummed  spirits;  after  saturation  the  yam  is  wound 
on  a  reel,  sprinkled  (dredged)  with  mealed  powder, 
and  left  to  di-j-.  It  is  used  to  communicate  fire,  and 
burns  at  the  rate  of  one  yard  in  thirteen  seconds.  The 
rate  of  burning  may  be  much  increased  bj'  inclosing 
it  in  a  thin  paper  tube  called  a  leader.  Port-fires 
are  paper  cases  containing  a  composition,  the  flame  of 
which  is  capable  of  quickly  igniting  primers,  quick- 
match,  etc.  The  composition  consists  of  niter,  sul- 
phur, and  mealed  powder.  A  portfire  is  about  22 
inches  long,  and  bums  with  an  intense  flame  for  ten 
minutes.  FRiCTiox-TrBES  are  at  present  the  princi- 
pal preparations  for  firing  cannon;  the  advantages  are 
portability  and  certainty  of  fire.  They  also  jvfford  the 
means  of  firing  a  piece  situated  at  a  distance,  and  do 
not  attract  the  notice  of  the  enemy's  marksmen  at 
night.  They  are  made  of  two  brass  tulx's  soldered  at 
right  angles.  The  upper  or  short  tulje  contjiins  a 
charge  oif  friction-powder  and  the  roughed  extremity 
of  a  wire  loop;  the  long  tuljc  is  filled  with  rifle  pow- 
der, and  is  inserted  in  the  vent  of  the  piece.  When 
the  extremity  of  the  loop  is  violently  pulled,  by  means 
of  a  lanyard,  through  its  hole  in  the  long  tube,  suffi- 
cient heat  is  generated  to  ignite  the  friction-powder 
which  surrounds  it,  and  this  communicates  with  the 
grain-powder  in  the  longer  tube.  The  charge  of 
grained  powder  has  sufficient  force  to  pa.ss  through 
the  longest  vent  and  penetrate  several  thicknc.s.ses  of 
cartridge-cloth.  The  composition  of  friction-powder 
is  one  part  of  chlorate  of  pot)»s.sa  and  two  parts  of 
sulphuret  of  antimony.  FrsES  are  the  means  used 
to  ignite  the  burstingK'harge  of  a  hollow  projectile  at 
any  desired  moment  of  its  flight ;  they  may  be  classi- 
fied according  to  their  mode  of  oiK-ration,  as  time- 
fuses, percu.ssion-fuses,  and  combination-fuses. 

Fireworks  for  Signals. — Rockets  for  signals 
are  composed  of  a  paper  case  charged  with  composi- 
tion, a  pot  filled  with  ornaments,  anil  a  light  .stick  to 
give  direction.  Rockets  are  denominated  liy  the  in- 
terior diameter  of  the  case.  The  most  common  sizes 
are  the  .75-inch,  1-inch,  and  1.5-inch.     The  decora- 


FIKE-WORKS. 


666 


FIRE-WORKS. 


tions  of  rockets  are  stars,  serpents,  marrons,  gold-rain,  [ 
nin  of  tire,  etc.  Stars  arc  formeil  by  driving  the 
itmijiosition,  moistened  with  alcohol  and  guni-anibic 
in  solution,  in  port-lire  molds.  It  is  then  cut  into 
lengths  about  }  inch,  and  tlreilged  with  mealed  pow- 
der. The  ca.se  of  a  sehpent  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
ro<.-ket,  but  the  interior  diameter  is  only  .4  inch. 
The  composition  is  driven  in,  and  the  top  is  closed 
■with  moist  plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  primed  by  insert- 
ing a  small  piece  of  tiuickinatch  through  the  vent;  it 
may  be  made  to  explode  by  driving  mealed  powder 
over  the  composition.  The  composition  is  ;i  ])ai1.s  of 
niter,  3  parts  of  sulphur,  16  parts  of  mealed  powder, 
and  i  part  of  charcoal.  Marrons  are  small  paper 
shells,  or  cubes,  tilled  with  grained  powder,  and 
primed  with  a  short  piece  of  quick-match,  which  is  ' 
inserted  in  a  hole  punctured  in  one  of  the  corners. 
To  increase  the  resistance  of  the  shell  it  is  wrapped 
with  twine,  and  dipped  in  kit  composition.  The 
stick  is  a  taix;ring  piece  of  pine  about  nine  times  the 
length  of  the  case,  and  is  tied  to  the  side  of  the  case 
to  guide  the  rocket  in  its  flight.  The  position  of  the 
center  of  gravity  depends  on  the  diameter  of  the  case; 
for  a  2-ineh  rocket  it  should  be  2\  inches  in  rear  of 
the  vent;  and  it  is  verified  by  balancing  on  a  knife- 
edge.  The  prescribed  dimensions  of  the  stick  should 
be  obscrveil,  for  if  the  slick  Ix-  too  heavy  the  rocket 
will  not  rise  to  a  proper  height;  if  it  be  too  light  it 
will  not  rise  vertically.  A  very  brilliant  blue-light 
maybe  made  of  the  following  ingredients,  viz.:  14 
parts  of  niter,  3.7  parts  of  sulphur,  1  part  of  realgar, 
and  1  part  of  mealed  powder.  The  brillianc}'  de- 
pends on  the  purity  and  thorough  incorporation  of 
the  icgre<lients.  The  composition  may  be  driven  in  a 
paper  aise,  and  afterw.trd  cut  off  to  suit  the  required 
time  of  burning.  Both  ends  of  the  case  are  closed 
with  paper  aips,  and  primed  with  (luiek-match,  in 
order  that  one  or  both  ends  may  l)e  lighted  at  pleas- 
ure. A  light  in  which  the  composition  is  !..">  inches 
diameter  can  be  easily  distinguished  at  the  distance 
of  15  miles. 

Incendiary  Fire-wouks. — The  incendiary  prepara- 
tions are  Jire-etone,  caretissf/t,  intendiarn-maMi ,  and 
hots/lot.  Fire-stone  is  a  t-omposition  that  burns 
slowly  but  intensely;  it  is  placed  in  a  shell,  along  with  j 
the  bursting  charge,  for  the  ptn-pose  of  setting  tire  to  i 
ships,  buihlings,  et(-.  It  is  composed  of  10  parts  of  [ 
niter,  4  parts  of  sulphur,  1  part  of  antimony,  and  3 
parts  of  rosin.  The  composilinn  having  been  prop- 
erly pulverized  and  mi.xed  is  adiled  to  melted  tallow 
and  turpentine  in  small  quaiililies.  Kach  portion  of 
the  composition  should  be  well  stined  with  long 
wooden  spatulas  to  prevent  it  from  taking  tire,  and 
each  portion  should  be  melted  before  another  is 
added.  When  tire-stone  is  to  be  used  in  shells  it  is 
cast  into  cylindrical  molds  made  by  rolling  rocket- 
paper  around  a  former,  and  securing  it  with  glue.  A  I 
small  hole  is  forn\ed  in  the  composition  liy  placing  a 
pai«.T  tube  in  the  center  of  each  mold.  Wlien  the 
melted  composition  has  become  hard,  this  hole  is 
tilled  with  a  priming  of  fuse  composition,  driven  as 
in  the  case  of  a  fuse.  The  object  of  this  priming  is 
to  insure  the  ignition  of  the  fire-stone  by  the  flame  of 
the  bursting-charge.  There  are  two  sizes  of  molds, 
the  lamer  for  shells  above  the  8-inch,  and  the  other 
for  the  .H-inch  and  all  below  it.  A  carcass  is  a  hol- 
low cast  iron  pio.jeelile  tilled  with  burning  composi- 
tion, the  flame  of  which  issues  through  four  fuse- 
holes  to  set  fire  to  combustible  objects.  The  compo- 
silion  is  the  same  as  for  por^fires,  mixed  with  a  small 
quanlily  of  finely-chopped  li/ir,  and  as  much  ir/ii(t: 
tiir/ieiili/ir  and  gpin'lx  nf  tiirpmtiin;  as  will  give  it  a 
compressible  consistency.  The  composition  is  com- 
paelly  pres.scd  into  the  carcass  with  a  diift,  so  as  to 
fill  it  entirely.  Sticks  of  wood..")  inch  diameter  arc 
then  ins»!rtcd  into  each  fuse-hole,  with  the  points 
touching  at  the  center,  so  that  when  withdrawn  cor 
responding  holes  .shall  remain  in  the  composition. 
In  each  bole  Ibusfoniied  thncslrandsof  (luick-match 
are  inserteil,  and  held  in  i)lace  by  dry  port  fire  com- 


position, which  is  pressed  around  them.  About  three 
inches  of  the  quick-match  hangs  out  when  the  carcass 
Ls  inserted  in  the  piece;  previously  to  that  it  is  coiled 
up  in  the  fuse  hole,  and  closed  with  a  patch  of  cloth 
dipped  in  melteti  kit.  A  common  sttHl  may  be  loaded 
!is  a  carcitss  by  placing  the  bursting-charge  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cavity,  and  covering  it  with  carcjiss-compo- 
sition  driven  in  until  the  shell  is  nearly  full,  imd 
then  inserting  four  or  five  strands  of  (piick-match, 
secured  by  driving  more  composition.  This  projec- 
tile, after  burning  as  a  carca.ss,  explodes  as  a  shell. 
Ince.ndiakv-matcu  is  made  by  boiling  slow-match  in 
a  saturated  solution  of  niter,  drying  it,  cutting  it  into 
pieces,  and  plunging  it  into  melted  fire- stone.  It  is 
principally  used  in  loaded  shells.  Hot  shot  may 
be  fired  for  the  ])urpose  of  setting  fire  to  wooden  ves- 
sels, laiildings,  etc.  Solid  shot  are  healed  in  a  furnace 
before  firing,  to  a  red  heat.  The  time  required  to 
heal  a  42  jiounder  shot  to  a  red  heat  is  aliout  half  an 
hour.  The  jjrecautions  to  be  observed  in  loading 
hot  shot  are  that  the  cartridge  be  perfectly  light,  so 
that  the  powder  shall  not  scatter  along  the  bore,  and 
that  a  wad  of  pure  clay,  or  hay  soaked  in  water,  be 
interposed  between  the  cartridge  and  the  shot.  When 
properly  loaded  the  shot  may  be  allowed  to  cool 
without  igniting  the  charge.  In  the  British  sea-coast 
service  shells  are  used  for  incendiary  iiurposes  by  fill- 
ing them  with  molten  iron  drawn  from  a  small  cupola- 
furnace.  If  the  shell  be  broken  on  striking,  the  hot 
iron  is  scattered  about;  if  it  be  not  broken,  the  heat 
penetrates  through  the  .sheU  with  sufficient  intensity 
to  set  wood  on  tire. 

Fireworks  for  Light. — The  preparations  for  pro- 
ducing light  are  fire-balls,  light-balls,  tjirred  links, 
pitched  fascines,  and  torches.  A  kire-ball  is  an 
oval-sha])ed  canvas  sjick  filled  with  combtLstible  com- 
position. It  is  intended  to  be  thrown  from  a  mortar 
to  light  up  the  works  of  an  enemy,  and  is  loaded  with 
a  shell  to  prevent  it  from  being  approached  and  ex- 
tinguished. Tlie  sack  is  made  of  sail-cloth,  cut  into 
three  oval  pieces  or  gores,  and  sewed  together  at  their 
edges.  Several  thicknesses  of  cloth  niiiy  be  used  if 
neces-sary.  One  end  of  the  sack  is  left  open,  and, 
after  being  sewed,  it  is  turned  to  bring  the  .seam  on 
the  inside.  The  composition  for  a  tire-ball  consists  of 
8  parts  of  niter,  2  parts  of  sulphur,  and  1  part  of  an- 
timony. After  having  been  pulverized,  mixed,  tmd 
sifted,  the  composition  is  moistened  with  one  thirtieth 
of  its  weight  of  water,  and  again  passed  through  a 
coarse  sieve.  The  ball  is  tilled  by  pouring  a  layer  of 
composition  into  the  sack,  and  placing  the  shell  (fuse 
down)  upon  it;  after  this,  the  com|X)siti(m  is  well 
rammed  around  and  above  the  shell,  and  the  sack  is 
closed  at  the  toji.  The  Ijottom  of  the  sack  is  pro- 
tected from  the  force  of  the  charge  by  an  iron  cup 
called  a  oiht.  and  the  whole  is  covered  and  strength- 
ened with  a  network  of  spun-yarn,  or  wire,  and  then 
overlaid  w  ilb  a  composition  of  pitch,  rosin,  etc.  A 
fire-ball  is  primed  by  driving  into  the  top  of  the  com- 
position a  greased  wooden  pin  alwul  three  inches  deep- 
and  tilling  the  bole  thus  formed  with  fuse-composition, 
driven  as  in  a  fuse;  space  is  left  at  the  top  of  each  hole 
for  two  strands  of  quick-match,  which  are  fastened 
by  driving  the  composition  upon  them.  The  fuse-hole 
is  covered  w  ith  a  patch  saturated  with  kil-coniposilion, 
which  is  a  ini.xture  of  rosin,  Iweswax,  pitch,  and  tal- 
low. LiOHT-BAi.LS  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as 
fire  balls,  except  that,  being  used  to  light  up  our  own 
works,  the  shell  is  omitted.  Tarred  links  are  used 
for  ligliting  up  a  ram|)arl,  detile,  etc.,  or  for  incendiary 
pinposes.  Tliey  consist  of  coils  of  soft  rope,  placed 
on  top  of  each  other,  and  loosely  tied  together;  the 
exterior  diameter  of  the  coil  is  6  inches,  and  the  inte- 
rior 3  inches.  Thevare  immersed  for  about  ten  min- 
utes in  a  composition  of  20  parts  of  pitdi  and  1  of 
Utllotr,  and  then  shaiied  under  water;  when  drv,  they 
are  plunged  in  a  eomi)osition  of  equal  parts  oi  pitch 
and  ro/)in,  and  rolled  in  tow  or  sjiwdust.  To  prevent 
the  compositi(m  from  sticking  to  the  hands,  they 
should  be  previously  covered  with  linseed-oil.     Two 


FISE  WORKS. 


667 


FIEE-WOEKS. 


links  are  put  into  a  rampart-grate,  separated  by  shav- 
ings. They  bum  one  hour  in  calm  weather,  and  half 
an  hour  in  a  high  wind,  and  are  not  extinguished  by 
raiu.  To  light  up  a  detile,  the  links  are  placed  about 
250  feet  apart;  to  light  up  a  march,  the  men  who  carry 
the  grates  should  be  jilaced  to  the  leeward  of  the  col- 
umn, and  about  300  feet  apart.  Fagots  of  vine-twigs, 
or  other  very  combustible  wood,  about  20  inches  long 
and  4  iuches  diameter,  tied  in  three  places  with  iron 
wire,  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  used 
for  the  same  purposes  as  lints.  The  incendiary  prop- 
erties of  PITCHED  FASCDTEs  may  be  increased  by  dip- 
ping the  ends  in  melted  rock-tire;  when  used  for  this 
purpose,  they  are  placed  in  piles  intermingled  with 
shavings,  quick-match,  bits  of  port-lires,  etc.,  in  order 
that  the  whole  may  take  tire  at  once.  A  touch  is  a 
ball  of  rope  impregnated  with  an  inflammable  com- 
position, and  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  stick,  which 
is  carried  in  the  hand.  OKI  rope,  or  slow-match,  well 
beaten  and  untwisted,  is  boiled  in  a  solution  of  equal 
parts  of  water  and  niter;  after  it  is  dry,  tie  three  or 
four  pieces  (each  4  feet  long)  around  the  end  of  a 
pine  stick,  about  2  inches  in  diameter  and  4  feet 
long;  cover  the  whole  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  sulphur  and  mealed  powder,  moistened  with 
brandy,  and  till  the  intervals  between  the  cords  with 
a  paste  of  3  parts  of  sulphur  and  1  of  quicklime. 
AVhen  it  is  drj-,  cover  the  whole  with  the  following 
composition:  3  parts  of  pitch,  3  parts  of  Venice  tur- 
pentine, and  i  part  of  turpentine.  Torches  are  lighted 
at  the  top,  which  is  cracked  with  a  mallet;  they  burn 
from  one  and  a  quarter  to  two  hours.  In  lighting  the 
march  of  a  column,  the  men  who  carry  torches  should 
be  about  100  feet  apart. 

Offexsite  .\nd  Defensive  Fireworks. — The 
principal  preparations  of  this  class,  employed  in  mod- 
ern warfare,  are  bags  of  poirder  and  the  Ughi-bamU. 
Bags  op  powder  may  be  used  to  blow  down  gates, 
stockades,  or  to  form  breaches  in  thin  walls.  The 
petard  was  formerly  employed  for  these  purposes, 
but  it  is  now  generally  thrown  aside.  From  trials 
made  in  England,  it  has  been  shown  that  a  sand-bag 
(covered  with  tar,  and  sanded  to  prevent  it  from 
sticking)  containing  .50  pounds  of  powder,  has  suffi- 
cient force  to  blow  down  a  gate  formed  of  4-inch  oak 
scantling,  and  supported  by  posts  10  inches  in  dia- 
meter and  8  feet  apart ;  and  a  bag  containing  60  pounds 
of  powder,  anil  weighted  with  two  or  three  bags  of 
earth,  has  sufficient  force  to  make  a  large  hole  in  a 
14inch  brick  wall.  The  effect  of  the  explosion  may 
be  much  increased  by  making  three  sides  of  the  bag 
of  leather,  and  the  fourth  of  canvas,  which  should 
rest  against  the  object.  A  suitable  means  of  exploding 
bags  of  powder  is  a  time-fuse,  or  the  ordinary  safety- 
fuse  for  blasting  rocks.  A  light-barrel  is  a  com- 
mon powder-barrel  pierced  with  numerous  holes,  and 
filled  with  shavings  that  have  been  .«oaked  in  a  com- 
position of  "pitch  and  rosin;  it  serves  to  light  up  a 
breach,  or  the  bottom  of  a  ditch. 

Ornamental  Fireworks.— Ornamental  fireworks 
are  employed  to  celebrate  great  events,  as  victories, 
treaties  of  peace,  funerals,  etc.  •  They  are  divided 
into  Jix/;d  pieces,  movable  pieces,  decoratice  pieces,  and 
preparations  for  communic/tting  fire  frompne  part  of 
a  piece  to  another.  The  different  effects  are  produced 
by  modifying  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients  of  the 
burning  composition  so  as  to  quicken  or  retard  com- 
bustion, or  by  introducing  substances  that  give  color 
and  brilliancy  to  the  flame.  The  fixed  pieces  are 
lances,  ptards,  gerhes,  flames,  etc.  Lances  are  small 
paper  tubes  from  .2  to  .4  inch  diameter,  filled  with 
a  composition  which  emit.s  a  brilliant  light  in  burn- 
ing. Instead  of  a  single  composition,  each  lance  maj' 
contain  two  or  more  compositions,  which  in  turn 
emit  different-colored  flames.  The  ca.se  should  be  as 
thin  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  color  of  the  flame 
of  the  composition  may  not  be  affected  by  that  of  the 
paper.  Lances  are  generally  employed  to  form  fig- 
ures; this  is  done  by  dipping  one  end  in  glue,  and 
sticking  them  in  holes  arranged  after  a  certain  design. 


in  a  piece  of  wood-work.  Petards  are  small  paper 
cartridges  filled  with  powder.  One  end  is  entirely 
j  choked,  and  the  other  is  lefl  partially  open  for  the 
passage  of  a  strand  of  quick-match,  designed  to  set 
I  fire  to  the  powder.  A  petard  is  usually  placed  at  the 
i  fi.xed  end  of  a  lance,  that  the  flame  may  terminate 
with  an  explosion;  they  are  also  u.sed  to  imitate  the 
fire  of  nuisketry.  Gerbes  are  strong  paper  tubes  or 
cases  tilled  with  a  biu-ning  composition.  The  ends 
are  tamped  with  moist  plaster  of  Paris  or  with  clay; 
through  one  a  hole  is  bored  extending  a  short  distance 
into  the  composition,  that  it  may  emit  a  long  sheaf  or 
gerbe  of  brilliant  sparks.  The  diameter  of  'the  case  is 
about  one  inch,  and  the  length  depends  upon  the  re- 
quired time  of  burning.  The  number  of  blows  to  each 
ladleful  of  composition  is  ten,  Gerbes  are  secured  to 
the  frame  of  the  piece  with  wire  or  strong  twine,  and 
pointed  in  the  direction  that  the  flame  is  to  take. 
Flames  consist  of  lance  or  star  composition,  driven 
into  paper  cases  or  earthen  vases.  The  diameter  of 
the  burning  siuface  should  be  hirge,  to  give  intensity 
to  the  flame.  Lance<'omposilion  is  driven  dry,  and 
with  a  slight  pressure.  Star-composition  should  be 
moistened,  and  driven  with  greater  pressure  than  the 
preceding. 

The  movable  pieces  are  the  sky-rockets,  tovrbillions, 
saxons,  jets,  Boman  candles,  paper  shells,  etc.  Sky- 
rockets are  the  same  as  the  signal-rockets,  except 
that  the  composition  is  arranged  to  give  out  a  more 
brilliant  train  of  fire.  The  toukbillion  is  a  case 
filled  with  sky-rocket  comjwsition,  and  which  moves 
with  an  upward  spiral  motion.  The  spiral  motion  is 
produced  by  six  holes— two  lateral  holes  (one  on  each 
side),  for  the  rotary  motion,  and  four  on  the  imder 
side,  for  the  upward  motion.  It  is  steadied  by  two 
wings  fonned  by  attaching  a  piece  of  a  hoop  to  the 
middle  of  the  case,  and  at  right  angles  to  its  length. 
To  give  it  a  proper  initial  direction,  a  hole  is  made 
through  the  center  of  the  case  to  fit  on  a  vertical 
spindle,  which  is  fastened  to  an  upright  post.  The 
SAXON  is  the  s;)me  as  the  tourbillion,  except  that  it  is 
only  pierced  with  the  central  and  two  lateral  holes, 
and  has  no  wings.  The  central  hole  is  placed  on  a 
horizontid  spindle,  and  the  piece  has  the  api^arance 
of  a  revolving  sun.  Jets  are  rocket-cases  tilled  with 
a  burning  composition;  they  are  attached  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  wheel,  or  tlie  end  of  a  movable  aiTn, 
to  set  it  in  motion.  They  also  produce  the  effect  of 
gerbes;  and  to  increase  the  circle  of  fire,  they  are  in- 
clined to  the  radius  at  an  angle  of  20'  or  30°.  A 
Roman  candle  is  a  strong  paper  tube  containing 
stars,  which  are  successively  thrown  out  bj-  a  small 
charge  of  powder  placed  under  each  star.  "  A  slow- 
burning  composition  is  placed  over  each  star  to  pre- 
vent all  of  them  from  taking  fire  at  once.  Paper 
SHELLS  are  filled  with  decorative  pieces,  and  fired 
from  a  common  mortar.  It  contains  a  small  bursting- 
charge  of  powder,  and  has  a  fuse  regulated  to  ignite 
it  when  the  shell  reaches  the  summit  of  its  trajectory. 
The  shell  is  made  by  pasting  .several  layers  of  thick 
paper  over  a  sphere  of  wood,  cutting  the  covering 
thus  formed  in  halves,  so  as  to  remove  the  sphere, 
joining  the  halves  again,  and  pa-stiiig  paper  over  them 
until  the  thickness  is  sufficient  to  resist  the  charge  of 
the  mortar.  Decorative  pieces  arc  the  stars,  serpents, 
marrons,  etc.,  desciibed  under  the  head  of  Rockets. 

Preparations  for  communicating  fire  from  one  piece 
to  another  arc  the  qnick-riuitch ,  leaders,  port-fires,  and 
mortar-fuses.  The  leader  is  a  thin  [laper  tube  contain- 
ing a  strand  of  quick-malch.  an(l  it  is  united  to  a 
piece  by  pasting  pieces  of  paper  over  the  joint.  If 
the  piece  is  to  be  fired  at  once,  the  leader  may  be 
omitted,  and  strands  of  quick-match  tied  together 
used  in  its  place. 

The  foregoing  pieces  are  generally  mounted  on 
pieces  or  frames  of  light  wood,  and  are  susceptible  of 
being  combined  so  as  to  produce  a  great  variety  of 
striking  effects.  See  Blue-light,  Carcass-composi- 
tions, Colored  Fires,  Fire -ball.  tTiction-primers,  Fuse, 
Gold  Bain,  Uot-shot,  Incendiary  match.  Lances,  Lea: 


imrsQ. 


668 


FIRING-BATTERY. 


dfrs,  Lighl-balU,  Light-barrel,  Lightt,  Marrons,  Pe- 
tards, Pitehed  Fa»eiii(»,  Port-firen,  I'limtteliny,  Quick- 
■match,  Pock-Jtrc,  Iloinnn  Candle,  Seriteiits,  t<igiial- 
roekft,  Sloic-malfh ,  Stam.  Streamers,  Sun-cage»,  Tarred 
Links,  Torches,  Tuurbiltiim,  Wheel-cases,  and  M'ooden  , 
Shells. 

FIEINO.— Tho  act  of  discliarging  fire-arms.  Fir- 
insrs  are  lillicr  direct  or  oblique,  and  are  executed  as 
follows: 

The  Direct  Fire. — The  Instructor  commands:  1. 
FSre  by  squad,  2.  Squad,  3.  Ready,  4.  Aim,  5.  FrRE, 
6.  Load.  The  commands  ready,  aim,  Jin,  and  had 
are  given  with  suHicient  intervals  to  allow  them  to  be 
executed  as  officially  stated.  The  rear-nmk  men 
ineline  the  uppiT  part  of  the  body  forward,  so  that 
Uieir  pieces  may  reach  as  far  as  possible  beyond  the 
front  rank,  l^pon  the  completion  of  the  load,  the 
Instructor  continues  the  tirin,:!  by  the  commands;  1. 
^uad,  2.  Aim,  3.  Kiue,  4.  to.Co.  To  cease  tiring, 
the  In.structor  commands:  1.  Ciase,  2.  Fiuixo.  At 
this  command,  the  nun  cease  tiring,  reload  their 
pieces  if  unloiukd,  and  afterward  bring  them  to  a 
carry.     This  rule  is  general. 

Oblique  Firings.— The  oblique  firings  are  executed 
to  the  right  and  left  by  the  same  commands  as  the 
direct  fire,  except  that  the  command  aim  is  preceded 
by  the  command  right  (or  kft)  oblique.  At  the  com- 
mand right  iMifjue,  the  men  of  both  ranks  cast  their 
eyes  to  the  right  and  look  steadily  at  theobject.  At  the 
command  aim,  the  front-rank  men  aim  obliquely  to 
the  right,  without  deranging  the  feet;  each  rear-rank 
man  aims  obliquely  to  the  right,  keepmg  the  right 
foot  in  its  place,  at  the  same  time  advancing  the  left 
foot  about  eight  inches  to  the  right  and  fiont,  the  toe 
pointing  in  the  direction  he  is  to  tire,  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  inclining  forward,  the  left  knee  slightly 
bent.  If  the  command  l^e  hft  uMicjue,  the  men  of 
both  ranks  cast  their  eyes  to  the  left;  the  rear-rank 
men  at  the  same  time  raise  their  pieces  to  a  vertical 
position.  At  the  command  aim,  the  front-rank  nun 
aim  oblitiuely  to  the  left,  without  deranging  the  feet; 
each  rear-rank  man,  keeping  the  right  foot  in  its 
place,  brings  down  his  piece  to  the  left  of  his  front- 
rank  man,  at  the  .same  time  advancing  his  left  foot 
about  eight  inches  to  the  left  and  front,  the  toe  point- 
ing in  the  direction  he  is  to  tire,  inclining  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  forward,  the  left  knee  slightly  bent. 
In  recovering  arms  from  the  left  oblique,  each  rear- 
rank  man,  at  the  command  recover,  raises  his  piece  to 
a  vertical  position,  and,  at  the  command  arms,  comes 
to  the  position  of  ready.  In  both  cases  at  the  com- 
mand load,  the  men  of  each  rank  come  to  the  position 
of  load,  as  prescrilwd  in  the  direct  fire,  the  rcar-riuik 
men  bringing  back  the  foot  in  advance  to  the  proper 
position  in  loading,  and  bringing  back  their  pieces  as 
in  recovering  arms. 

To  Fire  by  File. — The  Instructor  commands:  1. 
Fire  by  file,  2.  Squad,  3.  Ready,  4.  Commence  fir- 
ing. At  the  fourth  command,  the  file  on  the  right 
aim  and  fire,  reload,  fire  again,  and  so  on.  The 
second  file  aim  at  the  instant  the  first  lower  their 
pieces  to  the  position  of  the  first  motion  of  load,  fire, 
and  conform  to  what  has  been  pre.scril)ed  for  the  first 
file,  and  so  on  to  the  left.  After  the  first  fire  each 
man  loads  and  fires  imlcpendently  of  the  others. 

To  Fire  by  /lank. — The  Instructor  commands:  1. 
Mre  by  rank,  2.  Sr/uad,  3.  1{eadv,  4.  Uear-rank,  .5. 
Aim,  6.  FiiiE,  7.  Load.  The  rear  rank  aims,  fires, 
and  loads,  as  already  explainc<l.  As  soon  as  the  In- 
structor sees  several  pieces  of  the  rear  rank  in  the 
position  of  ready,  he  commands:  1.  Front  rank,  2. 
Aim,  3.  Fiue,  4.  Load.  The  Instructor  causes  the 
rmks  to  alternate  in  firing,  until  he  commands:  1. 
(.'ease,  2.  FluiNo. 

To  Fire  Kneeling. — The  pieces  being  loaded,  and 
at  a  carry,  the  Instructor  commands:  1.  Fire  kneel 
ing,  2.  Rneei..  Bring  the  left  toe  wpiarely  to  the 
front,  and  plant  the  right  foot  so  that  the  toe  shall  be 
almut  twelve  iix-hes  to  the  rear  and  twelve  inches  to 
the  left  of  the  left  heel,  the  feet  at  right  angles;  kneel 


on  the  right  knee,  bending  the  left;  drop  the  nuizzle 
to  Uie  front,  supiwrt  the  piece  with  the  left  hand  at 
the  lower  band,  the  forearm  resting  on  the  left  knee, 
the  right  hand  grasping  the  small  of  the  stock,  muz- 
zle at  the  height  of  the  chin.  If  formed  in  two  ranks, 
at  the  first  command  for  kneeling,  the  rear-rank  men 
take  a  side-step  to  the  right.  After  rising  they  take 
a  side-step  to  the  left  and  cover  their  front-rank  men. 
The  firings  are  executed  by  the  .same  commands  as 
when  standing.  The  i>iecc  is  brought  to  a  ready  by 
simply  cocking  it,  and  is  supported  in  aiming  by  the 
left  elbow,  resting  on  the  left  knee.  To  k)ad,  lower 
the  piece,  support  il  with  the  left  hand  at  the  lower 


Fire  Kneeling. 

band,  the  left  forearm  resting  on  the  left  knee,  the 
barrel  sloping  downward.  In  firing  obliquely,  the 
rear-rank  men  aim  through  the  same  intervals  as 
when  stiinding,  and  do  not  support  the  left  elbow  on 
the  left  knee. 

To  Fire  Lying  Down. — The  squad  being  in  one 
rank,  pieces  loaded  and  at  an  order,  the  Instructor 
commands:  1.  Fire  lying  down,  2.  Lie  down.  At 
the  second  command,  each  man  drops  on  his  knees, 
places  his  left  hand,  well  forward,  on  the  ground, 
and  lies  flat  on  his  belly;  the  piece  is  lowered  at  the 
same  time  with  the  right  hand,  the  toe  and  muzzle 
resting  ou  the  ground,  the  barrel  up,  the  left  hand  at 
the  lower  band,  the  left  elbow  on  the  ground,  the  right 
hand  at  the  small  of  the  stock,  opposite  the  neck.  At 
the  command  commence  firing,  cock  the  piece;  raise 
it  with  both  hands,  press  the  butt  against  the  shoulder, 
and,  resting  on  both  elbows,  aim  and  fire.  To  load 
the  piece,  steady  it  at  the  lower  band  with  the  left 
hand,  the  toe  and  muzzle  resting  on  the  ground,  in- 
sert the  cartridge  with  the  right  hand.  To  rise,  the 
Instructor  commands :  1.  Squad,  2.  Rise.  Draw 
back  the  piece  slightly;  grasp  it  at  the  lower  band 
with  the  right  hand,  and  bring  it  to  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, barrel  to  the  rear,  the  butt  opposite  the  neck; 
with  the  aid  of  both  hands  raise  the  body  to  a  vertical 
position,  on  the  knees;  bring  back  the  jiiece,  the  toe 
in  a  line  with  the  right  knee;  throw  the  weight  of  the 
body  backward,  rise  on  the  balls  of  both  feet,  and 
return  to  the  position  of  order  anns.  Troops  will 
never  be  permitted  to  fire  lying  down '  when  the 
enemy,  advancing  to  the  attack,  arrives  within  effec- 
tive raiiffc.     8of  Fire. 

FIRlifG-BATTERY.— The  efficiency  of  a  mine  or 
system  of  mines  depends  upon  the  accuracy  and  cer- 
tainty with  whirh  they  may  be  discharged  at  the 
right  momckiit,  this  moment  being  when  the  hostile 
vessel  is  directly  over  any  particular  mine  of  the 
group.  This  may  be  done  at  will,  the  position  of  the 
ship  having  lieen  determined  by  intersection,  or  the 
vessel  herself  may  l)e  made  to  complete  the  circuit  by 
striking  a  circuit -closer. 

The  testing-room  should  l)e  in  the  most  secure  part 
of  the  work.  It  should  be  ;ibout  If!  feet  square,  with 
a  suitable  store-room  attached.  From  the  testing- 
room  a  gallery,  about  4  feet  wide  by  .'>  high,  passes 
out  through  or  under  the  fort.  In  this  gsiUery  are 
placed  frames  for  supporting  the  cables,  so  arranged 
that  tliere  will  be  no  confusion  as  to  the  identitj'  of 
the  cables.  The  frames  .should  l)e  of  bronze;  iron  is 
apt  to  oxidize,  and  wood  is  liable  to  decay  and  render 
constant  repairs  necessary.  The  frames  occupy  half 
the  breadth  of  the  gallery,  leaving  the  other  half  for 


FIEING  PARTY. 


669 


FISCAL  TEAK, 


access  and  examination  of  the  cables.     Each  cable  is 
attached  to  a  binding-screw  of  the  testinif-table,  the 
binding-screws  being  numbered  to  correspond  with  i 
the  mines.  I 

In  the  testing-room  is  the  apparatus  for  producing  I 
the  agent  by  which  the  mines  are  to  be  exploded.  ; 
This  may  be  frictional  electricity,  a  magnet  current 
generated  by  a  dynamo-electrical  "muchine,  but  usually 
it  is  a  galvanic  current  similar  to  tlial  for  electric- 
telegraph  purposes.  The  main  conditions  for  such  a 
battery  are  that  it  shoukl  remain  constant — that  is, 
that  it  should  be  cajialde  of  being  allowed  to  remain 
mounted  and  ready  for  use  for  say  one  mouth — and 
that  it  shall  generate  a  sufficient"  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity to  allow  of  a  certain  amount  of  leak  or  fault  in 
a  cable  and  yet  tire  a  fuse  beyond  the  leak. 

The  Leclanche  battery  is  the  one  best  adapted  and 
niost  generally  used.  The  advantages  possessed  by 
it  are  the  absence  of  chemical  action  when  the  bat- 
tcrycircuit  is  not  complete,  and  consequently  there 
is  no  waste  of  material;  it  requires  but  little  looking 
after;  it  may  be  kept  ready  for  action  in  store  with- 


only  necessary  to  take  off  the  prisms,  soak  the  carbon 
(below  the  head)  in  hot  water,  attach  new  prisms,  and 
set  up  as  before,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  new 
zinc  and  sal-ammoniac. 

The  firing-battery  should  be  suited  to  the  nature  of 
the  fuses  employed,  and  should  possess  considerable 
excess  of  power  in  order  to  overcome  accidental  de- 
fects, such  as  inerea.sed  resistance  in  the  communica- 
tions, or  defective  insulation  in  the  electric  cable  in 
connection  with  the  mine.  A  battery  ju.st  sutliciently 
powerful  to  tire  a  fuse  on  the  shore,  with  the  electric 
cable,  etc.,  in  circuit,  Ijut  not  submerged,  wo\dd  not 
be  unlikely  to  fail  after  the  cable  has  been  sub- 
merged in  sea-water.  In  such  a  case  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  battery-power  determined  by  such 
an  experinieiU  on  shore  be  doubled  for  actual  work. 
For  all  practical  purposes  this  test  can  be  made  by 
firing  a  fuse  of  known  quality  through  a  resistance 
equivalent  to  that  of  the  cable.  Double  the  number 
of  cells  necessary  to  effect  this  would  be  required  for 
the  submerged  cables,  etc.     See  Galvanism. 

FIRING  PARTY.  — Those  who  are  selected  or  de- 


Fio.  1. 

out  in  any  way  deteriorating;  and,  finally,  it  is  com- 
paratively inexpensive. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  old  form  or  drnpie  battery,  so  suc- 
cessfully employed  in  extensive  mining  operations. 
Fig.  2  shows  the  improved  fonn,  or  the  Leclanche 
prism-battery.  In  this  battery  the  porous  cup  is  dis- 
pensed with,  and  in  its  place  is  substituted  a  pair 
of  comprcs.sed  "  prisms"  or  plaques  which  are  simply 
attached  to  the  carbons  by  means  of  two  strong  rub- 
ber bands.  The  prisms  contain  all  of  the  materials 
heretofore  employed  in  the  porous  cup,  combined 
with  others  not  before  used,  compressed  into  this 
compact  and  convenient  fonn  by  powerful  hydraulic 
machinery. 

The  ])ositive  pole  is  composed  of  a  plate  of  carbon 
inserted  between  and  in  coimection  with  two  com- 
pressed prisms  of  peroxide  of  manganese  and  carbon, 
combined  with  other  materials,  the  three  being  held 
firmly  together  by  rubber  bands.  The  negative  ])ole 
is  composed  of  a  pi  iicil  of  amalgamated  zinc.  The 
two  poles  are  placed  in  a  solution  of  sjil-ammoniac 
and  water,  contained  in  a  glass  jar  with  a  cover, 
through  which  the  carbon  head  and  the  zinc  pro.iect. 
When  the  elements  have  become  exhausted  from  long 
service,  or  other  cause,  to  renew   the  battery  it  is 


Fio.  2. 

tailed  to  fire  over  the  grave  of  any  one  buried  with 
militars'  honors. 

FIRING  PIN.— That  part  of  the  breech-mechanism 
w  hose  function  is  to  explode  the  cartridge.  It  ordi- 
narily has  a  slot  cut  in  it  near  the  head  for  the  end 
of  a  screw  which,  projecting  into  it,  prevents  it  from 
coming  out  of  place.  The  hammer  having  been 
drawn  back  to  ftdl-coek,  and  llie  trigger  pulled,  the 
head  of  the/nnf/-/)TO  is  thrown  forward,  strikes  the 
head  of  the  cartridge  and  explodes  it.  See  Hadley 
Firing -pin  and  Springjidd  Riffe. 

FIRST  SERGEANT.— The  ranking  Non-commis- 
sioned Officer  in  a  company.  He  has  immediate 
charg<'  of  all  enlisted  men  of  the  company  and  com- 
pany property;  has  command  of  it  during  i'oniiations, 
and  calls  the  roll.  He  also  makes  all  details,  keeps 
the  roster,  etc.     See  Ordtrlji  Strgeant. 

FISCAL  YEAR.— In  the  United  States  army,  funds 
appropriated  for  any  given  fiscal  year  cannot  be  used 
to  liquidate  liabilities  incurred  in  any  other  fiscal  year, 
nor  can  fimds  \ie  used  for  anv  other  class  of  expendi- 
ture than  that  to  which  they  were  appropriated.  At 
the  termination  of  each  fiscal  year  all  amoimts  of 
moneys  that  are  represented  by  certificates,  drafts,  or 
checks,  issued  by  the  Treasurer,  or  by  any  Disbursing 


FISHERMAN'S  KNOT. 


670 


FIXED  AMMUNITIOK. 


Officer  of  any  Department  of  the  Government  nix>n  the 
Treiusurcr  or  any  Au-iislaiil  Treasurer,  or  ilf^iu'nated 
(lepiisitary  of  the  rniled  Stales,  or  upon  any  national 
Imnk  (Icsiirnated  as  a  (li'])ositary  of  the  United  States, 
ami  wliieh  shall  he  represented  on  the  hooks  of  either 
of  such  otliees  as  standinj,'  to  the  eredit  of  any  Disburs- 
ing Ottieer,  and  which  were  issued  to  facilitate  the 
paynuut  of  warrants,  or  for  any  other  purpose  in 
li<l"uidatiou  of  a  debt  due  from  the  United  States,  and 
which  have  for  three  years  or  more  remained  outstand- 
ing, unsiilistied,  and  unpaid,  are  deijositcd  by  the 
Treasurer,  to  be  covered  into  the  Treasury  by  war- 
rant, ami  to  be  carried  to  the  eredit  of  the  parties  in 
whose  favor  such  certiticates,  drafts,  or  checks  were 
respectively  issued,  or  to  the  persons  who  are  entitled 
to  receive  pay  therefor,  and  into  an  approiiriation  ac- 
count to  be'denominaled  "outstiinding  liabilities." 
The  payee  or  the  Ixiiui-jiili'  holder  of  any  draft  or 
check  tlie  amount  of  wliitli  has  been  deijosited  and 
covered  into  the  Treiusury  pursuant  to  the  al)ovc  para- 
graph, on  presenting  the  "same  to  the  proper  (Jfflcer  of 
the  Treasury,  is  entitled  to  have  it  paid  by  the  settle- 
ment of  an  account  and  the  issuing  of  a  warrant  in 
his  favor,  according  to  the  practice  in  other  cases  of 
authorized  and  liquidated  claims  against  the  United 
States. 

The  following  well-known  Treasury  regulations 
bear  on  this  subject : 

1.  Any  Treasury  draft  or  any  check  drawn  by  a 
public  Disbursing  Oflicer  still  in  service,  which  shall 
be  presented  for  payment  before  it  shall  have  been  is- 
sued three  full  fiscal  years,  will  be  paid  in  the  usual 
manner  by  the  office  "or  bank  on  which  it  is  drawn, 
and  from"  funds  to  the  credit  of  the  drawer.  Thus 
any  such  draft  or  check  issued  on  or  after  July  1 , 1 873, 
will  be  paid  as  above  slated  until  June  30,  1877,  and 
the  same  rule  will  apply  for  subsequent  years. 

Any  such  draft  or  check  which  has  been  issued  for 
a  longer  period  than  three  full  fiscal  years  will  be  paid 
only  by  the  setll(;mcnt  of  an  account  as  provided  l)y 
law;  and  for  this  purjiose  the  draft  or  check  will  be 
transmitted  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Trejisury  for  the 
necessary  action. 

2.  The  reports  of  independent  Treasury  Officers, 
national-bank  depositjiries,  and  public  Disbursing  Offi- 
cers will  be  rendered  promptly  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  at  the  close  of  each  flscid  year. 

3.  Whenever  any  Disbursing  Officer  of  the  United 
States  shall  cease  to  act  in  that  capacity,  he  will  at 
once  inform  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  whether  he 
has  any  pulilic  funds  to  his  credit  in  any  office  or 
bank,  and,  if  so,  what  checks,  if  any,  he  has  drawn 
against  the  same  which  are  still  outstanding  and  un- 
paid. Until  satisfactory  information  of  this  character 
shall  have  been  furnislied,  the  whole  amount  of  such 
moneys  will  be  held  to  meet  the  payment  of  his  checks 
properly  payable  therefrom. 

4.  At  the  close  of  each  fiscal  year  the  Treasurer, 
the  several  Assistant  Treasurers,  and  designated  and 
national-bank  d(,"positaries,  will  also  render  to  the 
Secretjiry  of  the  Treasury  a  list  of  all  Disbursing  Offi- 
cers' accounts  still  unclosed  which  have  been  opened 
on  the  books  of  their  respective  offices  or  banks  more 
than  three  fiscal  years,  giving  in  each  case  the  name 
and  official  desi'.rnution  of  the  officer,  the  date  when 
the  account  with  him  was  opened,  and  the  balance 
remaining  to  his  eredit. 

5.  In  case  of  the  death,  resignation,  or  the  removal 
of  a  public  Disbursing  Officer,  any  check  previously 
drawn  by  him  and  not  presented  for  ])ayment  within 
four  months  of  its  date  will  not  be  paid' until  its  cor- 
rectness shall  have  been  attested  by  the  Secretary  or 
Assistant  Sccrclarv  of  the  Treasury. 

FISHERMAN'S  'knot.— A  knot  used  in  pontoning 
to  fastiM  ihc  ial)l(s  to  the  rings  of  the  anchors.  See 
Kii'itj<. 

FISHING-SPAKS.— In  artillery  material,  the  spars 
of  wood  placed  parallel  to  the  spars  to  be  strength- 
ened, by  lashing  them  to  one  another. 

FISHTAIL    'WIND.— An  expression   employed   in 


target- practice  with  small-arms  for  a  rear  wind  which 
is  varial)le  in  direction. 
FISSURE. — A  small  chasm  where  a  small  breach 

has  been  made,  as  in  a  fort,  citadel,  etc. 

FISTULA. — In  farriery,  the  name  given  to  an  abscess 
usually  siluated  on  the  withers  of  a  horse,  and  dis- 
charging i)us.  Sometimes  it  appears  on  the  head, 
when  it  is  called  poll  evil. 

FITCHY. — t'rosses  arc  said,  in  Heraldry,  to  bcfltchy 
when  the  lower  branch  ends  in  a  sliarji  point,  t'ro.sses 
are  supposed  to  have  been  so  sharpened  to  enable  the 
primitive  Christians  to  stick  them  into  the  ground  for 
devotional  purposes.     Also  written  Fitefie. 

FITTINGS. — The  name  given  to  certain  fi.xturcs  in 
a  barrack  or  on  board  a  military  transport  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  vip  a  current  of  pure  air,  and  for 
recei\ing  the  e(|uii)menls  and  arms. 

FITZROY  DEFLECTOR.— An  instrument  designed 
to  prevent  the  need  of  making  a  correction  for  the 
inclination  of  the  trunnions.  It  consists  of  a  block 
(capable  of  movement  round  a  pin  li.xed  on  the  breech 
of  the  gun)  containing  the  sight-slot,  which  is  kept 
makmg  the  same  pennanent  angle  of  deflection  with 
the  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  trunnions  by 
means  of  a  heavy  bob  underneath,  however  much  the 
inclination  of  the  trunnions  may  alter.  A  spiiit-level 
is  also  added. 

FIX  BAYONET.— A  command  in  the  Manual  of 
Arms,  executed  as  follows:  The  Instructor  commands, 
1.  Jftr,  2.  Bayonet.  Grasp  the  piece  with  the  left 
hand,  forearm  horizontal;  carry  it  to  the  left  side,  the 
butt  striking  the  ground  about  eight  inches  to  the 
rear  of  the  left  toe,  the  piece  inclined  to  the  front, 
the  left  wrist  resting  against  the  thigh;  carry  the  right 
hand  to  the  shank  of  the  bayonet.  (Two.)  Draw 
the  bayonet  from  the  scabbard,  and  fix  it  on  the  end 
of  the  barrel;  drop  the  right  hand  by  the  side. 

1.  Carry,  2.  Arms.  Raise  the  piece  with  the  left 
hand  and  place  it  against  the  right  sho\dder;  resume 
the  carry  with  the  right  hand.  (Two.l  Drop  the 
left  hand  by  the  side.     See  Manual  of  Arms,  Fig.  6. 

FIXED  AMMUNITION.— When  the  cartridge  is  at- 
tached to  the  i)rojectile,  the  two  together  are  tei-med 
Jij^ed  ainmimition :  this  is  employed  for  the  service 
with  boat-howitzers.  It  has  the  advantage  of  great 
convenience  in  the  hurried  preparations  that  fre- 
quently precede  boat-operations,  and  the  guns  can  be 
served  the  more  rapidly  with  fixed  anmiunition;  si- 
multaneous loading  is  more  simple,  and  the  cartridge 
is  sure  to  be  placed  correctly  in  the  bore,  and  not 
with  the  choked  end  first,  as  is  sometimes  the  case 
when  the  projectile  and  the  cartridge  are  .separate. 
Fixed  ammunition  has,  however,  the  great  disadvan- 
tage that  in  packing  or  stowing  much  greater  space 
is  required,  and  it  is  more  difficult  to  arrange  and  to 
preserve. 

The  following  implements  are  required  in  fixing 
ammunition: 

Barrels  for  powder;  \  funrtfl;  \  set  of  powder-mea- 
sures;  1  straight-edfie ,  to  strike  the  measures  with; 
barrels;  tills,  formed  of  barrels  sawed  in  two,  or 
bores,  for  the  cartridge-bags;  2  pavlins;  2  benches;  12 
choking-sticks,  6  with  holes  in  tluni  and  6  slit;  6 
kniees;  6  handharrdirs  with  4  legs  and  a  box,  and 
patiVms  to  cover  them;  caliber-gauges  for  the  car- 
tridge-bags and  for  fixed  amnuinilion  (they  may  be 
made  of  wood);  (i  stiiols;  1  irheel-barrow ;  1  malUt;  1 
copper  chisel;  1  copper  drift,  or  a  irrench,  to  open  the 
powder-barrels. 

In  fixing  shot  or  case  for  smooth-bore  field-guns, 
the  bags  should  be  filled  in  the  small  magazine  or 
filling-room.  The  assistant  holds  the  pipe  of  the 
funnel  in  the  mouth  of  the  bag  with  both  hands,  the 
bag  pressed  close  against  the  pipe.  The  gauger  heaps 
up  the  measure  with  powder,  strikes  it  level  with  the 
straight-edge,  and  pours  it  into  the  funnel.  'W^hen 
about  S.')  bags  are  filled  the  gauger  takes  a  filled  bag 
with  one  hand,  squeezing  the  bag  upon  the  powder; 
he  gives  it  a  blow  with  the  other  hand  on  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  bag,  twisting  the  mouth  of   the  bag 


TIXED  BATTEEY. 


671 


FLAG  OF  THE  PROPHET. 


down  upon  the  powder  at  the  same  time;  he  then 
tries  it  with  the  small  gauge  through  which  it  should 
pass  with  not  more  than  .25  inch  play;  should  it  not 
do  this,  (he  bag  is  emptied  and  rejected.  These  hags, 
tilled  and  gauged,  are  placed  upright  in  a  tub  or  box 
and  carried  by  the  gaugers  into  the  finishing-room, 
where  the  men  are  placed  in  pairs,  sitting  a.slri(le  on 
a  bench  facing  each  other.  One  of  them  opens  a  bag 
and  levels  the  powder,  the  other  inserts  the  sabot  of 
a  strapped  shot  square  ujx)n  the  powder  and  draws 
up  the  end  of  the  bag  over  the  shot;  the  fir.st  man 
passes  about  4  feet  of  twine  through  the  pierced  stick 
and  makes  two  turns  and  a  double  hitch  with  the  end 
at  the  top  of  the  sabot;  he  makes  a  knot  in  the  end 
of  the  twine,  inserts  it  into  the  slit  in  the  other  chok- 
ing-stick,  and  tightens  the  double  hitch  by  rolling  the 
twine  on  the  sticks  and  bearing  upon  tiie  sabot;  he 
then  takes  out  the  end  of  the  twine  from  the  slit,  ties 
it  in  a  hard  knot,  which  he  tightens  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  choking-stick,  and  cuts  the  twine  off  near 
the  knot.  The  second  man  turns  down  the  mouth 
of  the  bag  over  the  sabot,  and  the  tirst  makes  a  similar 
tie  in  the  groove;  he  makes  another  tie  below  the 
sabot,  the  twine  being  lodged  between  if  and  the 
powder  to  prevent  the  latter  from  sifting  in  between 
the  bag  and  the  salxjt;  he  then  runs  the  paper  cylin- 
der over  the  cartridge  and  sabot,  leaWng  about  two 
inches  of  the  end  of  the  cartridge  uncovered,  and  he 
makes  a  tie  similar  to  the  others  in  the  groove  of  the 
Siibot.  He  now  holds  the  shot  in  the  left  hand  and 
e.xamines  it,  striking  the  .sabot  with  the  right  hand, 
if  necessary,  to  bring  it  straight;  if  the  shot  be  prop- 
erly tixed,  the  .sabot  and  the  bag  will  have  the  .siime 
axis;  the  seams  should  be  between  two  straps,  and 
the  knots  should  lie  neither  on  the  scams  nor  on  the 
straps.  The  assistants  pa.ss  the  cartridges  through 
the  large  gauge,  which  is  .04  inch  larger  than  the 
large  gauge  for  the  shot.  If  the  size  be  correct,  they 
put  on  the  paper  cap,  lay  the  cartridges  on  their  sides 
in  the  box  of  the  hand  barrow,  and  carry  them  to  the 
magazine.  Those  which  will  not  pass  through  the 
gauge  are  handed  back  to  the  tixers,  who  sever  the 
strings  and  put  them  up  anew. 

Canisters  for  smmth-bore  field-gvns  are  fixed  in  the 
same  manner  as  shot,  except  that  the  first  tie  is  made 
in  the  upper  groove  of  the  sabot;  the  cylinder  is  tied 
in  the  lower  groove.  The  caps  must  be  cut  some- 
what shorter  than  those  for  shot-cartridges.  For 
inountain-hmritzers  the  sabots  have  but  one  groove, 
the  first  tie  is  omitted,  and  the  cartridge  is  covered 
with  a  cap  only.  When  the  shot  is  attached  to  the 
sabot  by  a  single  band  of  canvas,  or  when  it  is  placed 
in  the  sabot  without  any  strap,  the  cartridge-bag  is 
drawn  over  it  and  tied  on  top;  for  this  purpose  the 
bag  should  have  an  additional  length  of  from  2^  to 
3  inches.  When  sabots  cannot  be  obtained,  place 
upon  the  powder  one  layer  of  tow  about  .2  inch 
thick,  forming  a  bed  for  the  shot;  tie  the  bag  over 
the  shot  and  around  the  tow;  the  bag  requires  to  be 
1  inch  longer  than  for  strapped  shot.  Sec  Amtuuni- 
tiiin  and  Fidd  and  Mountain  Ammunition. 

FIXED  BATTERY.— The  batteiies  used  during  the 
second  period  of  siege-operations  are  both  fixed  and 
movable.  The  fixed  batteries  contain  the  siege-guns 
and  mortars  of  the  heaviest  caliber  and  longest  range; 
whilst  the  movable  batteries  will  consist  of  field-guns 
and  small  mortars  which  can  take  up  temporarily 
anj'  favorable  positions  for  damaging  the  defenses. 
As  a  general  rule  the  fixed  gim-batteries  should  be 
placed  in  enfilading  positions  whenever  such  can  be 
found  for  them,  delivering  their  fire  always  within 
the  interior  slope  of  the  face  enfiladed,  and  in  prefer- 
ence taking  a  .slant  reverse  direction  on  the  terre-plein 
of  the  face.  Parts  of  the  defenses  which  cannot  be 
reached  by  enfilade  must  be  counter-battered  by  bat- 
teries which  can  obtain  a  full-front  or  a  slant-front 
view  vipon  them.  The  mortar-batteries  will  receive 
such  positions  as  are  most  favorable  for  reaching  the 
interior  of  the  defenses;  preference  being  given  to 
those  in  which  the  longest  lines  of  the  defenses  can 


be  brought  within  the  range  and  direction  of  the 
shells;  avoiding,  whenever  practicable,  throwing  them 
across  the  positions  occupied  by  the  approaches,  so  as 
to  insure  a  shell  being  lauded  within  some  point  of 
the  defenses,  and  to  avoid  the  accidents  from  .shells 
falling  short  of  their  butt  or  bursting  prematurely. 
The  positions  of  the  fixed  batteries  of  rilied  guns  arid 
heav-y  mortars  will  be  usually  along  the  position  of 
the  first  parallel  and  some  30  or  40  yards  in  advance 
of  it,  so  that  its  service  shall  not  interfcTC  with  that 
of  the  parallel,  nor  the  service  of  the  latter  w  ith  it — a 
Ijoint  of  great  importance  for  the  etiicient  service  of 
each;  and  being  in  advance  of  the  pan;llel,  the  troops 
in  the  latter  will  not  be  annoyed  by  the  dischaige  of 
the  guns,  which  they  might  be  w  ere  they  in  their  rear. 
As  the  ricochet  of  rifled  guns  w  ith  the  elongated  shot 
is  uncertain,  and,  from  the  great  range  at  which  the 
guns  fire,  the  plunge  of  the  projectile  would  be  neces- 
sarily great  and  unfavorable  to  ricochet,  positions  for 
tixed  enfilading  batteries  of  smooth-bore  siege-guns 
may  be  taken  either  in  advance  of  the  second  parallel 
or,  better,  in  some  of  the  demi-parallels,  so  as  to  bring 
them  within  some  500  yards  of  the  line  to  be  enfiladed, 
as  the  range  very  favorable  for  the  ricochet  of  these 
pieces. 

The  number  of  guns  in  each  enfilading  battery  will 
depend  upon  the  extent  of  terre-plein  within  the 
works  upon  which  an  enfilade  or  a  slant  reverse  fire 
can  be  obtained.  Usually  the  number  of  guns  should 
not  exceed  seven,  nor  be  less  than  three;  the  number 
being  regulated  by  the  importance  to  the  besieged  of 
the  line  enfiladed.  In  each  counter-battery  there 
should  be  at  least  as  many  guns  as  the  defenses  can 
bring  to  bear  upon  it;  always  enough  to  completely 
control  the  fire  of  the  point  cbimter-battered.  Whilst 
batteries  containing  a  large  number  of  guns  are  ex- 
posed to  greater  casualties  than  smaller  ones,  weak 
batteries  are  liable  to  be  silenced  by  a  concentrated 
fire  upon  them  from  the  defenses.  As  a  general  rule, 
batteries  at  different  distances  should  be  .so  placed 
that  the  more  advanced  should  not  be  in  the  line  of 
fire  of  those  in  the  rear.  The  danger  from  accidents 
from  a  violation  of  this  rule  is  not  very  gi-eat  if  the 
batteries  are  several  hundred  j'ards  apart,  and  the 
point  fired  at  distant;  or  until  the  trenches  get  near 
the  position  of  the  third  parallel.  At  this  .stage  great 
precaution  is  necessary  in  regulating  the  fire  so  that 
the  shot  may  not  fall  into  or  explode  too  near  the 
trenches.     See  Batteries  and  Movable  Battery. 

FIXED  PIVOT.— The  fixed  point  about  which  any 
line  of  troops  wheels.  This  point  is  marked  bj-  a  sol- 
dier or  guide  who  stands  fast  or  marks  time  while  the 
line  wheels. 

FLAG  OF  PROTECTION.— It  is  customary  to  desig- 
nate by  certain  flags  (usually  yellow)  the  hospitals  in 
places  which  are  shelled,  so  that  the  besieging  enemy 
may  avoid  firing  on  them.  The  same  has  been  done 
in  battles,  when  hospitals  are  situated  within  the  field 
of  the  engagement.  Honorable  belligerents  often  re- 
quest that  the  hospitals  w ithin  the  territory  of  the 
enemy  may  be  thus  designated,  so  that  they  may  be 
spared.  An  honorable  belligerent  allows  himself  to 
be  guided  by  flags  or  signals  of  protection  as  much  as 
the  contingencies  and  the  necessities  of  the  fight  will 
permit.  It  is  justly  considered  an  act  of  bad  ?aith,  of 
infamj'  or  flendishness,  to  deceive  the  enemy  by  flags 
of  protection.  Such  an  act  of  bad  faith  may  be  good 
cause  for  refusing  to  respect  such  flags.  The  l>esieg- 
ing  belligerent  has  sometimes  reque.stetl  the  besieged 
to  designate  the  buildings  containing  collections  of 
works  of  art,  scientific  museulns,  astronomical  obser- 
vatories, or  precious  libraries,  so  that  their  destruction 
may  lie  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

FLAG  OF  THE  PROPHET  (Sanjak-Sherif).— The 
sacred  banner  of  the  Mohammedans.  It  was  origi- 
nally of  a  white  color,  and  was  composed  of  the  tur- 
ban of  the  Koreish,  captured  by  Mohammed.  A 
black  flag  was,  however,  soon  substituted  in  its  place, 
consisting  of  the  curtain  that  Innig  before  the  door  of 
Ayeshah,  one  of  the  Prophet's  wives.     This  flag,  re- 


FLAG  OF  TKUCE. 


672 


FLAIL. 


garded  by  the  Mohammedans  as  Uicir  most  sacred 
relic,  tirst  came  into  the  possession  of  the  followers  of 
Omar  at  Dimiascus;  it  afterwards  fell  into  the  liaiuls 
of  the  Alibjisi;  then  passed  into  those  of  the  Caliphs 
of  Bagilad  and  Kahini;  jmd,  at  a  later  period,  was 
brouiiht  into  Euixjpe  by  Ainur.ith  III.  It  was  covered 
with  forty-two  wrappings  of  silk,  de|X)sited  in  a  costly 
casket,  aiid  presj>rved  in  a  chapel  in  the  interior  of  the 
seraglio,  where  it  is  jruarded  by  several  Emirs,  with 
constant  prayers.  Th^  banner  unfolded  at  tlie  com- 
mencement of  a  war,  and  likewise  carefully  preserved, 
is  not  the  same,  although  it  is  believed  by  the  people 
to  be  so. 

FLAG  OF  TRUCE.— A  white  flag  carried  by  an  offi- 
cer sent  to  comnmnicate  with  the  enemy.  The  bearer 
cannot  insist  upon  being  admitted.  He  must  always 
be  admitted  with  great  caution.  Unnecessary  fre- 
quency is  carefully  to  be  avoided.  If  the  bearer  of  a 
flag  of  truce  offer  himself  during  an  engagement, 
he'can  be  admitted  as  a  verj-  rare  exception  oidy.  It 
is  no  breach  of  good  faith  to  retain  such  a  flag  of 
truce,  if  admitted  during  the  eiigagenient.  Firing  is 
not  required  to  cease  on  the  appearance  of  a  flag  of 
truce  in  battle.  If  he,  presenting  himself  during  an 
engagement,  is  killed  or  wounded,  it  furnishes  no 
ground  of  complaint  whatever.  If  it  be  discovered, 
and  fairly  proved,  that  a  flag  of  truce  has  been 
abused  for  surreptitiously  obtaining  military  knowl- 
edge, the  bearer  of  the  flag  thus  abusing  bis  sacred 
character  is  deemed  a  spy.  So  .sjicred  is  the  character 
of  a  flag  of  truce,  and  so  necessary  is  its  siicredness, 
that  while  its  abuse  is  an  especially  heinous  oiTense, 
great  caution  is  requisite,  on  the  other  hand,  in  con- 
victing the  bearer  as  a  spy.     See  Triire. 

FLAGS.— Cloths  of  light  materials,  capable  of  being 
estcnded  by  the  wind,  and  designed  to  make  known 
some  facts  or  wants  to  spectators.  In  the  Army  a  flag 
is  the  ensign  carried  as  its  distinguishing  mark  by 
each  regiment ;  and  also  a  small  banner,  with  which  the 
ground  to  be  occupied  is  marked  out.  In  the  Navy 
the  flag  is  of  more  importance,  often  constituting  the 
only  means  ves.sels  have  of  communicating  with  each 
other  or  with  the  shore.  For  this  purpose  devices  of 
conspicuous  colors  (usually  black,  w  liite,  red,  yellow, 
or  blue)  are  hoisted  at  the  nutst-heatl  oral  the  gaff.  The 
flags  having  three  forms,  a  very  few  patterns  in  each 
shape  give  sullicienl  combinations  of  three  or  four 
flags  to  express  any  letter  or  word  in  the  language. 
The  flag  is  also  a  sign  of  the  rank  of  the  principal 
person  on  boardaves.sel.asthe  "  Royal  Standard,"  con- 
taining the  Arms  of  the  United  Kingdom,  w inch  isonly 
hoisted  when  a  member  of  the  Koyal  Family  is  on 
Ixjard;  the  '•Anchor  of  Hope,"  on  a  red  grovuid,  denot- 
ing the  Admiralty;  the  Pennant,  which  specifics  the 
ship  of  war;  and  the  Ensign,  which  denotes  the  nation. 
Naturally  the  regtdar  English  flag  was  used  by  the 
Colonies  in  their  early  days,  and  that  was  commonly 
the  cross  of  St.  George.  The  Puritan  s^)irit  was 
shown  wiien  Endicott,  the  Governor  of  3Iass;ichusctts, 
cut  the  cross  from  the  flag  because  it  was  a  Romanist 
emblem.  The  Colonial  flags  varied  in  color,  it  being 
suiUcient  if  ground  and  cross  differed.  Now  and  then 
a  pine-tree  was  figured  in  the  upper  left-hand  quarter 
of  the  cross,  an(l  one  flag  hiid  only  this  tree  for  a 
symbol.  When  Sir  Edmund  Andros  was  Governor 
he  established  a  special  flag  for  New  England,  a 
wiiite  field  with  a  St.  George  cross,  and  in  the  center 
"J.  R.,"  JnrolniK  /^<'j- (.Tames,  King),  surmounted  l)y  a 
crown.  The  Revolution  brought  in  all  manner  of  de- 
vices for  flags  and  banners,  the  larger  portion  bear- 
ing mottoes  more  or  U'ss  defiant  of  the  Foreign  Gov- 
ernment. Soon  after  the  engagement  at  Lexington 
the  volunteers  from  Connecticut  put  on  their  flag  the 
Arms  of  the  Colony,  with  the  legend  "  ()iii  transtu- 
lit,  simti'ittt"  (He  wiio  brought  us  over  will  sustain 
us).  The  Colonial  flag  of  New  Amsterdam  (.sub- 
stantially the  present  Arms  of  New  York  City)  was 
carried  by  armed  ve,s.sels  sailing  out  of  New  York — 
a  beaver  being  the  principal  figure,  indicative  of 
both  the  industry  of  the  Dutch  people  and  the  wealth 


of  the  fur  trade.  The  day  after  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,  Putnam  displayed  a  flag  with  a  red  ground, 
having  on  one  side  the  Coiuiecticut  motto,  and  on 
the  other  the  words  "An  appeal  to  Heaven."  The 
earliest  vessels  sidling  under  Washington's  authority 
displayed  the  Pine-tree  flag.  An  early  flag  in  the 
Southern  States  was  designe*!  by  Colonel  Moultrie  and 
displayed  at  Charleston  in  September,  ITT'i.  It  was 
blue,  with  a  w  hite  crescent  in  the  tipper  corner  next 
the  stall;  afterwards  the  word  "  Libertj'"  was  added. 
At  Cambridge,  Mass.,  January  2,  1770.  'Washington 
displayed  the  original  of  the  present  United  Stales 
flag,  consisting  of  thirteen  stripes  of  red  and  white, 
with  a  St.  Andrew  cross  in  place  of  the  stars.  The 
Rjittlesnake  flag  was  used  to  some  extent  in  two 
forms :  in  one  the  snake  was  intact,  and  under  the 
figure  the  words  "Don't  Tread  on  Me;"  in  the  other 
form  the  snake  was  in  thirteen  pieces,  and  the  legend 
was  "Join  or  Die;"  and  in  some  cases  the  snake  had 
thirteen  rattles.  Ten  days  after  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  Congress  directed  the  style  of  tbe 
flag  of  the  United  Stjites,  as  heretofore  described, 
with  its  later  modifications.  By  the  War  Depart- 
ment the  stars  in  the  imion  are  usually  so  placed 
as  to  form  one  large  star.  In  the  Navy  the  stars  are 
in  straight  lines,  ]K'rpcudicidar  and  horizontal.  The 
Union  Jack  is  a  blue  ground  with  all  the  stars  but  no 
stripes.  During  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  the  Seced- 
ing States  had  a  number  of  ilistinct  flags.  Early  in 
1861,  however,  their  Congress  decided  upon  what  was 
popidaiiy  called  the  "Stars  and  Bars,"  which  was 
composed  of  three  broad  horizontal  bars,  the  two 
outer  ones  red  and  the  nnddle  one  white,  with  a  blue 
"  union"  containing  nine  stars  in  a  circle.  Some  varia- 
tions were  afterwards  made,  but  they  need  not  be  no- 
ticed. There  arc  many  flags  which  designate  special 
or  personal  iiosilion  or  authority.  Among  such  are 
Royal  Standards,  Flag  Ofticcrs'  flags,  etc.  An  Ad- 
miral's flag  is  usually  the  flag  of  the  country  which 
such  an  Admiral  serves,  with  the  exception  of  the 
"  union."  The  flag  of  the  Admirals,  Vice  Admirals, 
and  Rear  Ailnurals  of  the  United  States  is  rectangular, 
and  consists  of  thirteen  alternate  red  and  w  hite  stripes. 
The  Admiral  hoists  Ihisat  the  main;  the  Vice  Admiral 
at  the  fore;  the  Rear  Adiidral  at  the  mizzen.  Should 
there  be  two  Rear  Admirals  present,  the  Junior  hoists 
at  the  mizzen  a  flag  similar  to  the  one  descrilied,  with 
the  addition  of  two  stars  in  the  left-hand  corner.  The 
('onunodore's  flag  differs  from  that  of  the  Admiral 
in  form  alone,  being  swallow-tall  instead  of  rectan- 
gular. Should  the  President  go  afloat,  the  American 
Hag  is  carried  in  the  bow  of  his  barge  or  hoisted  at 
the  main  of  the  vessel  on  board  of  which  he  may  lie. 
In  foreign  countries  the  Royal  St;uulard  is  displayed 
at  ceremonies  in  honor  of  "the  Sovereign  or  at  which 
the  Sovereign  may  be  present.  A  flag  placed  nud- 
way  on  the  stafl',  or  "  half-mast,"  is  a  sign  of  mourn- 
ing. A  flag  reversed  or  ujiside  down  indicates  dis- 
tress. Salutes  are  made  by  dipjiing  the  flag  by  haul- 
ing it  down  a  short  distance  and  immediately  raising 
it  several  times  in  succession.  See  Aimrican  Flag, 
TIanner,  EtDdriji,  Garrisoii-ftrri,  Pennon,  Post-flag, 
Red  FliKj,  St(ii,<laril,  Slonn-jiag,  and  Uiiitm  Jack. 

FLAG-STAFF.— A  ma.st  or  pole  on  which  a  flag  or 
standard  is  lumg.  One  is  allowed  to  each  fort  or 
fortress,  and  to  the  Governors  of  the  several  English 
Dependencies,  to  Commanders-in-Chief,  and  to  offi- 
cers commanding  di\  isions  or  districts  of  the  army. 

FLAIL. — An  ancient  weapon  composed  of  a  shaft 
and  several  whips,  the  latter  either  with  or  without 
iron  points;  or  else  of  the  shaft,  to  which  was  fa.stened 
a  cliain  ending  in  an  iron  ball,  or  a  wooden  one  stud- 
ded with  iron.  The  flail,  which  was  well  known  in 
I  Switzerland  and  Germany  during  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, was  also  used  in  JIngland  since  the  period  of  the 
Norman  Conquest,  and  existed  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  though  then  but  little  used,  and  only  in 
the  trenches  and  on  board  ships.  The  nnlitary  flail 
with  a  short  handle  belonged  more  particularly  to 
Rus.sia  and  Japan. 


FLAU. 


673 


FLANKED  DISFOSITIOK. 


FLAM. — A  beat  or  tap  iipon  the  drum  which  was 
formerly  used  lii  the  British  army  when  re^nmcnts 
were  going  through  their  drill  or  exercise,  every  for- 
mation being  done  by  tap  or  Ijeat  upon  the  druni.  It 
was  likewise  beaten  in  tiring-practice  whenever  the 
target  was  struck. 

FLAMBEAU.— A  variety  of  torch  made  of  thick 
wicks,  covered  with  wa.\,  and  used  in  the  streets  at 
night,  at  illuminations,  and  in  proccs,sions. 

FLAME-SWORD.— A  weapon  intended  to  be  used 
with  both  hands,  and  employed  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. This  sword  should  not  be  mistaken  for  the 
Jl<i)iibejy. 

FLANCH— FLANGE.— The  projecting  rim  of  metal 
on  the  circumference  of  a  wheel  or  cylinder  to  serve  as 
a  bearing;  for  example,  the  rim  on  the  tire  of  railway- 
wheels.  The  rim  of  metal  round  the  mouth  of  gun- 
caps  used  with  percassion-muskets  is  called  a  flange. 

FLANCHAEDS.— The  side-pieces  of  ancient  horse- 
armor,  which  joined  the  front-plate  or  the  breast- 
piece  to  the  thigh-pieces  and  croupiere. 

FLANCHES.— In  Heraldry,  tlanches  are  composed 
of  arched  lines  drawn  from  the  upper  angles  of  the 
escutcheon  to  the  base-points.  The  arches  of  the 
flanches  almost  meet  in  the  center  of  the  shield.  The 
tlanches  are  an  ordinar)'  little  used  in  Scolich  Herald- 
rj-.     Also  written  Hauques. 

.     FLAKCHIEEE. — A  part  of  horse-armor  which  cov- 
ered the  tiauks  and  croup  as  far  as  the  houghs. 

FLANCONADE. — In  fencing,  a  term  commonly  ap- 
plied to  a  thrust  in  the  side.     See  Fencing. 

FLANGED  SYSTEM  OF  RIFLING.— This  system 
embraces  all  projectiles  upon  the  cylindrical  portion 
of  which  are  projections  which  in  loading  are  in- 
tended to  be  inserted  into  corresponding  grooves  in 
the  bore  of  the  gun.  Under  this  system  maj'  be 
classed  all  those  projectiles  which  have  projections  in 
the  form  of  studs,  ribs,  or  flanges  on  their  surfaces 
intended  to  take  the  grooves  in  loading.  And  it  may 
also  be  said  to  comprise  all  mechanically  fitted  pro- 
jectiles like  the  Whitworth;  for  the  salient  departures 
from  a  circle,  in  cross-section  of  the  projectile,  may 
be  regarded  as  flanges,  while  the  corresponding  angles 
in  cross-section  of  the  bore,  and  into  which  these 
flanges  fit,  constitute  the  grooves.  The  various  modi- 
fications of  this  common  system  are  very  great,  and 
none  of  them  can  be  said  to  have  given  entire  satis- 
faction, while  all  of  them  have  revealed  serious  faults 
and  shortcomings. 

The  evident  advantages  of  this  system  are  econo- 
my, simplicity,  and  durability  of  the  projectile.  The 
rifle-motion  i.s  commtmicated  with  great  certainty  and 
regularity.  The  projectile  does  not  expand  by  the 
explosion,  and  hence  gets  more  windage  as  the  bore 
wanns.  As  the  gun  expands  and  gets  weaker,  its 
safety-valve  gets  larger. 

Tlie  chief  objections  are,  that  both  projectile  and 
bore  lieing  hard,  fracture  of  one  or  the  other  is  liable 
to  occur  from  a  projectile  jamming;  and  that  imles.s 
the  bore  be  made  of  vco'  hard  material,  it  will  be 
rapidly  worn  by  the  friction  of  the  projectile.  See 
System  of  Rifling. 

"flank.— The  right  or  left  side  of  a  body  of  men 
or  a  place.  Flank  presujiposes  a  formation  more  or 
less  deep.  A  flank-march  is  upon  the  prolongation 
of  the  line  to  which  a  body  faces.  Thus,  when  we 
say  the  enemy,  by  a  flank-march,  o\itflanked  our 
right  wing,  it  is  "understood  that  the  enemy,  by 
marching  parallel  to  our  line  of  battle,  put  himself  in 
position  upon  our  extreme  right.  To  disturb  the 
flanks  of  a  column  or  army  is  to  throw  an  opposing 
force  upon  either  side  of  the  route  that  it  follows.  By 
this  maneuver  the  march  of  the  column  is  retarded, 
or  it  is  forced  to  a  halt;  its  baggage  is  sometimes 
seized,  and  terror  and  disorder  fall  upon  the  ma.sses. 
To  flank  is  to  cover  and  defend  the  flanks.  We  flank 
a  c;imp  bv  posts  placed  on  the  right  and  left;  a  corps 
d'armee  is  flanked  bv  detachments  which  take  roads 
parallel  to  the  r(iute"s  followed  by  the  larger  body; 
smaller  columns  are  flanked  by  flankers  on  the  right 


and  left,  who  keep  in  view  the  columns,  warn  them 
of  the  approach  of  an  enemy,  discover  ambuscades, 
skirmish  with  them,  and  fall  back  when  needed  upon 
the  nia.ss  of  the  troops. 

FLANK-ATTACK.— In  warfare,  one  of  the  modes 
of  attack  whereliy  the  side  or  flank  of  im  army  or 
body  of  troops  Ls  attacked.  Before  the  introduction 
of  nfleil  guns  and  arms,  the  attack  in  front,  bj-  heavy 
columns  of  infantry  covered  by  skirmishers  and  guns, 
was  the  usual  mode  of  attack;  but  since  then  it  has 
been  found,  in  consequence  of  the  withering  and 
rapid  fire  of  rifles,  that,  depending  alone  upon  such 
an  attack,  a  front  advance  is  attended  with  extreme 
danger.  Troops  advancing  in  column  under  such 
circumstances  nece.ssjirily  break  up  into  skirmishers, 
the  column-form  becomes. somewhat  abandoned,  both 
in  the  leading  columns,  supports,  and  reserves,  as  each 
moves  up  into  action.  To  remedy  this,  attack  in 
flank  or  rear  is  come  to  be  received  as  the  best  mode 
of  attack;  not  that  the  front-attack  is  to  be  altogether 
given  up,  for  to  insure  success  such  an  attack  is  still 
neeessarj',  though  modified;  otherwise  the  enemy 
would  be  free  to  meet  and  frustrate  the  flank  move- 
ments: so  that  really  the  attack  of  the  present  day  is  a 
combination  of  front  and  flank. 

FLANK-CASEMATE  CARRIAGE.— A  carriage  con- 
sisting of  two  cheeks  of  wood  united  by  two  iron 
transoms.  The  chassis  consists  of  two  wootleii  rails 
three  inches  apart,  and  joined  by  four  transoms  and 
a.sscmbling-bolts.  To  the  rear  end  of  the  top  carriage 
is  attached  an  eccentric  roller,  and  to  each  check,  in 
front,  a  roller  which,  when  the  eccentric  roller  Is  in 
gear,  rests  on  the  chassis-rails,  giving  to  the  carriage 
rolling  friction.  The  piece  is  then  easily  run  in  and 
out  of  batten,',  the  cannoneers  applying  themselves  to 
rings  and  handles  on  the  sides  of  the  cheeks.  The 
front  end  of  the  chassis  rests  on  the  sole  of  the  em- 
brasure, and  is  provided  with  a  lunette,  through  which 
a  pintle  drops  into  the  ma.sonry  beneath.  The  rear  of 
the  chassis  is  .sujjported  by  an  iron  fork,  to  the  lower 
extremity  of  each  prong  of  which  is  attached  a  small 
traverse- wheel.     See  Carriage. 

FLANK-COMPANY.— A  certain  number  of  troops 
drawn  up  on  the  right  or  left  of  a  battalion.  Thus, 
when  there  are  grenadiers,  Ihey  compose  the  right, 
and  the  light  infantrj'  the  left,  flimk-eompany.  Gren- 
adiers and  light  infantry  are  generally  called  flimk- 
companies  whether  attached  or  not  to  their  battalions; 
rifle  corps  are  ah\  ays  flankers. 

FLANK-DEFENSE.  —  In  fortification,  the  means 
adopted  in  the  trace  of  a  work  to  preserve  all  pails  of 
it  from  being  imduly  exposed  to  the  direct  tire  of  the 
enemy,  such  as  would  be  the  case  if  a  parapet  had 
alone  to  protect  it.self  in  a  direct  line  upon  the  besieg- 
ers. Again,  the  face  of  a  work  is  said  to  receive  flank- 
d(fenae,OT  to  he  flanked,  v;hn\  the  fire  of  another  work 
Is  directed  parallel  or  nearly  so  to  its  escarp,  so  as  to 
defend  its  ditch  or  the  ground  in  front  of  it.  AiLy 
work  not  so  provided  would  be  liable  to  be  captured 
without  difficulty.  Take  for  instance  a  faultily-con- 
structed work,  permitting  of  the  as-sailants  getting 
close  up  under  the  rampart  without  the  defenders  see- 
ing them:  in  this  position  a  few  bold,  resolute  men, 
with  crowbarsand  a  bag  of  powder,  might,  by  making 
a  cavity  in  the  escarp,  destroy  a  portion  of  the  ram- 
part. To  prevent,  however,  such  a  possibility,  three 
systems  have  been  devised  for  giving  flanking  defense 
to  a  permanent  work;  they  are  the  tcnaille  system, 
the  bastinned  svstem,  and  the  polvgonal  system. 

FLANKED  ANGLE.  —  In  fortification,  the  Jingle 
formed  bv  the  flank  of  the  bastion  and  curtain,  or,  in 
other  wo"rds,  that  formed  by  two  lines  of  defense. 
See  Angle. 

FLANKED  DISPOSITION.— In  planning  or  dispos- 
ing fortifications  in  relation  to  the  position  to  be  de- 
fended, it  is  very  important  that  the  parts  shall  be  s<j 
distributed  as  to  obviate  certain  defects,  besides  sat- 
isfying some  other  well-known  general  conditions, 
such  as  to  bring  a  front,  flunk,  and  croM  fln  up<in 
the  assailant's  columns  of"  attack;   or,  what  is  the 


FLANK  EN  POTENCE. 


674 


FLANEEB. 


same,  one  sheet  of  fire  tbat  will  sweep  tlie  column 
from  front  to  n-ar,  auotbcr  lo  l>i';u'  mxin  each  of  its 
tlaukii  so  as  lo  cross  their  lire  with  each  other  anil  with 
the  one  from  the  front.  In  thi'^  \v;iy  mutual  defensive 
relations  are  soujrht  to  Ix'  established  hetwecn  all  the 
part*.  To  etieet  this,  certain  part.-  are  thrown  forward 
towards  the  enemy  to  receive  his  allaek;  they  are  de- 
nominated lulraiirtd  )mrU;  other  portions,  denomi- 
natc<l  relint/  ptirtji,  are  withdrawn  from  the  enemy, 
and  protect  by  their  tire  the  advanced  parts.  Tliis 
arrangement  naturally  imlicatcs  tbat  the  i;eneral  out- 
line of  the  l)lan  must  present  an  angular  system;  some 
of  the  angular  i)i)ints,  denominated  militntn,  being 
towards  tlie  enemy;  and  others,  denominated  re-inUr- 
ing>,  towards  the  a.ssiiiled.  'When  such  a  disjwsition 
is  made  it  isdenomiuatetl  i\  flanked  digpntUlnn,  because 
the  enemy's  tiaidv  is  attained  by  the  tire  of  the  retired 
parts  when  he  is  advancing  uix)n  the  sjdicnts.  The  ad- 
vanced parts  arc  denominated /((f(«;  the  retired  parts, 
which  protect  the  faces,  tho flunks;  the  retired  part  con- 
necting the  tlauks  is  the  nn-Uiin.  The  angle  formed  by 
two  faces  is  denominated  a  mlit  nt  angle;  that  formcci 
by  two  retired  parts,  a  re-entering  anyle;  and  one 
made  by  a  face  and  tlie  opposite  tlank,  an  angle  of  de- 
fense. The  line  bisecting  a  siilient  angle  is  denomi- 
nated the  eitpital;  the  distance  from  a  siUient  to  its  op- 
posite Hank  is  a  line  of  defense. 

In  planning  a  work,  the  interior  crest  is  regarded  as 
the  ilirecting  line  in  regulating  the  dimensions  of  the 
faces,  tlanks,  etc.,  because  this  line  shows  the  column 
of  fire  for  the  defense.  There  exists  a  necessary  sub- 
ordination between  the  plan,  relief,  and  command  of 
works,  which  prevents  the  dimcasions  of  the  one  being 
regulated  independently  of  the  others;  but,  without 
entering  into  a  close  examination  of  this  necessarv  co- 
rclation  of  the  parts,  it  may  Ix'  stated  generally" that 
faces  should  vary  between  thirty  and  eighty  yards, 
flanks  between  twenty  and  forty  yards,  and  curtains 
shoidd  not  be  less  than  twelve  times  the  relief.  In 
establishing  the  co-relations  between  the  different  parts 
of  any  isolated  works  or  combination  of  the  elements 
of  fielil  fortification,  the  following  facts  should,  as  far 
as  practicable,  be  observed:  1.  The  flanks  sweep  with 
their  tire  the  ground  in  front  of  the  faces;  remove  sec- 
tors without  fire  and  dead  angles;  cross  their  fire  in 
front  of  the  salients;  and  take  the  enemy's  column  in 
flank.  3.  An  acute  angle  of  defense  exposes  the  faces 
to  the  fire  of  the  flanks;  a  too  obtuse  angle  leaves  a 

fortioi)  of  the  ground  in  front  of  the  face  undefended, 
n  the  heat  of  action,  the  soldier,  from  his  position  be- 
hind the  parapet,  naturally  brings  down  his  piece,  in 
the  act  of  firing,  in  a  position  sensibly  perpendicular 
to  that  of  the  interior  crest.  If  everj'  bullet,  therefore, 
took  this  direction,  those  delivered  "just  exterior  to  the 
paraiJet  flanked  would  barely  clear  the  men  drawn  up 
along  it.  On  this  account,  and  from  the  fact  that  un- 
less checked  before  reaching  the  ditch  the  success  of 
the  assiudling  column  is  greatly  assured,  it  is  better 
in  field-works  to  make  the  angles  of  defense  so  open 
that  all  the  fire  of  the  general  defense  from  the  flanks 
shall  be  thrown  froni  just  within  the  counterscarp 
outwards;  and  to  insure  the  flanking  of  the  ditches 
by  cannon,  or  a  body  of  infantry  speciallv  detailed 
fortius  duty.  3.  Thelinesof  defcn.se  shoul(l  be  based 
upon  the  skill  in  handling  their  weapons  of  infantry 
in  an  ordinary  stale  of  efiieiency,  and  allowance  must 
also  be  made  for  the  ordinan'  range  of  distinct  vi.sion 
of  such  men.  The  fire  of  the  .smooth-lwre,  with 
trcKjps  in  this  stale,  is  very  efl'cetive  at  KiU  yards;  and 
with  the  best  weapons  thefireof  none  but  w"ell-f  rained 
and  special  troops  can  be  depended  upim  much  over 
300  yards.  Particular  cases  nijiy  require  the  lines  of 
defense  to  exceed  this  limit.  \<'lK'n  Ihey  arise  they 
.should  be  specially  i)rovide<l  for.  The  .shorter  the 
lines  of  defense,  where  the  flanking  dispositions  are 
good,  the  longer  will  the  a.ssailaiil  be  exposed  to  the 
fire  of  thea.s,sailedbefore  he  can  attain  the  works,  luid 
the  greater  the  chances  of  checking  him.  4.  A  salient 
less  than  00  is  too  weak  to  withstand  the  effects  of 
weather;  the  interior  space  which  it  incloses  is  too  con- 


fined for  the  maneuvers  of  the  tn)ops;  when  its  faces  are 
not  flanked  there  will  be  a  large  .sector  without  fire  in 
front  of  it.  The  positions  which  the  assjiiled  can  take  up 
lo  enfilade  either  face  of  an  acute  sjilieni  are  more  fa- 
vorable to  him  than  in  that  of  an  obtuse  one,  as  his  guns 
an'  thrown  farther  from  and  are  exix)sed  lo  a  less  di- 
rect fire  of  the  adjacent  face  of  the  salient,  and  of  any 
other  parts  of  the  fortiticaliou  adjacent  to  this  face. 
This  rule,  however,  .should  not  bi-  taken  as  ab.solule, 
as  many  cases  may  arise  where  more  acute  sjdients 
can  alone  be  obtained,  and  in  which  the  tr<x)ps,  being 
restricted  lo  a  passive  defense,  will  require  only  room 
enough  to  load  and  tire  either  cannon  or  muskets. 
As  such  sidients  are  necessarily  very  weak,  the  ap- 
proaches to  them  should  beobstnicled  by  every  means 
at  hand.  5.  The  rajiidily  with  wliich  a  column  of 
attack  approaches,  and  the  .short  time  it  remains  e.\- 
po.sed  to  the  Art  of  the  work  unless  detained  by  ol>- 
stacles  in  front  of  the  ditch,  render  its  loss,  gener.illy, 
.so  trifling  as  not  lo  check  its  march  until  it  arrives  at 
the  crest  of  the  counterscarp.  Here,  if  the  ditch  is 
deep,  some  delay  ensues  in  entering  it,  during  which 
the  column  is  expo.sed  lo  a  warm  fire  within  short 
range.  When  the  ditch  is  entered,  a  more  serious  ob- 
stacle remains  to  be  encountered  in  the  additional 
height  of  the  parapet  and  scarp;  and  when  this  ob- 
stacle is  overcome  the  enemy  presents  himself  in  a 
fatigued  and  exhausted  slate  lo  the  bayonets  of  the 
assiiiled,  who  have  mounted  on  the  lop  of  their 
ixuapet  to  meet  and  drive  him  back  into  the  ditch. 
This  rule  is  essential  in  all  isolated  works  where, 
from  the  small  size  of  the  garrison,  the  defense  must 
necessarily  be  of  a  passive  character,  being  restricted 
lo  a  simple  repulse  of  the  assailant.  6.  Unless  the 
a.ssailed  are  determined  lomeet  theenemy  ,at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet,  they  miist  evacuate  their  work  so  goon 
as  he  has  entered  the  ditch;  a  longer  delay  to  retreat 
would  be  followed  by  the  most  disastrous  consequen- 
ces. The  results  of  innumerable  actions  prove  that  the 
defense  with  the  bayonet  is  the  surest  method  of  re- 
pelling the  enemy.  The  nssjiiled,  having  now  become 
the  as.sailant,  are  assisted  by  that  moral  effect  which 
is  ])rodueed  by  a  change  from  a  defensive  to  an  offen- 
sive altitude.  They  have,  moreover,  the  advantages 
of  position  and  freshness  over  a  clunbing  and  exhaust- 
ed eiieniv.     See  Fuld-fortificatiim. 

FLANK  EN  POTENCE.— Any  part  of  the  right  or 
left  wing  formed  at  a  projecting  angle  with  the  line. 
See  Poti'nce. 

FLANKER. — 1.  A  fortification  jutting  out  so  as  to 
command  the  side  or  flank  of  an  enemy  marching  to 
the  a.ssault  or  attack.  3.  The  disiiosilions  of  mova- 
ble advanced-posts  in  the  directions  of  the  flanks, 
keeping  pace  with  the  progress  of  the  main  Iwdy,  and 
far  enough  from  it  to  give  it  timely  warning  of  a 
threatened  attack,  are  termed  t\u!  fltmkers.  Generally 
the  head  or  leading  detachment  of  some  force,  com- 
posed usuall)-  of  both  cavalry  and  infantry,  and  if 
re(iuisite  .some  iiioncers,  forms  the  advance  of  the 
main  body  of  the  advanced-guard,  for  the  purpose  of 
.searching  all  the  ground  within  a  dangerous  pro.xim- 
ity,  and  of  clearing  the  way  for  the  advancing  col- 
uiims.  Through  this  delachmenl  a  conununicalion 
is  kept  up  with  the  flankers,  and  all  the  ground  is 
thus  hemmed  in  around  the  advancing  column  by 
which  an  enemy  might  apjiroach  it.  The  strength 
of  the  leading  ilelachment  will  dciiend  greatly  upon 
the  character  of  the  country,  and  upon  the  slate  of 
the  weather  and  .season  being  more  or  less  favorable 
to  ihe  unobserved  ai)proach  of  an  iiicmy.  A  leading 
detachment  of  one  fourth  Ihe  total  strength  of  the 
advanced-guard;  two  flank-detachments,  to  act  as 
flankers,  of  one  eighth;  and  a  rear  detachment,  act- 
ing as  a  rear-guard,  also  of  one  eighth, — taking,  in  all, 
one  half  the  total  strenglli  of  Ihe  advanccdgu.ard, — 
is  consiilered,  luulcr  onlinarv  cireum.staiices.  a  good 
distribution  for  the  duties  to  "be  performed.  All  the 
ground  within  llie  proximity  of  the  advanced-guard 
must  be  carefully  searched  liy  it.  No  invariable  rule 
can  be  laid  down  on  this  subject,  everything  depend- 


TLANKFIIES. 


675 


FLANK  FATSOLS. 


ing  on  the  character  of  the  country ;  the  state  of  the 
weather;  and  the  march  being  by  tlay  or  night,  as  to 
the  more  or  less  dispersed  order  that  "can  be  adopted 
for  examining  the  ground.  The  leading  detachment, 
and  those  on  the  flanks,  should  keep  in  a  position, 
with  respect  to  each  other,  that  will  admit  of  prompt 
mutual  support,  and  guarding  against  the  approach 
of  an  enemy  unperceived;  the  flank-detachments, 
for  this  purpose,  keeping  somewhat  to  the  rear  of  the 
leading  one.  The  most  advanced  portions  of  these 
troops  should  be  of  cavalry,  unless  the  country  be 
mountainous  or  very  thickly  wooded,  in  which  cases 
infantry  is  the  best  arm  for  the  duty. 

FLANK-FILES.— The  first  men  on  the  right  and 
the  last  men  on  the  left  of  a  battalion,  com|)any,  etc. 
When  a  battalion  is  drawn  up  three  deep,  its  "flank- 
flics  consist  of  three  men,  or,  as  the  French  call  it, 
file  and  demi-filc.  When  four  deep,  the  flank-tiles 
are  termed  double  files;  so  that  a  column  fonned  from 
any  of  these  alignments  will  have  all  its  relative 
flank  files,  be  the  depth  of  the  formation  what  it  may. 

FLANK-MARCHES.— Marches  made  parallel  or  o"b- 
liquely  to  the  enemy's  fwsition,  with  a  view  to  turn- 
ing it  or  attacking  him  on  the  flank.  Flank-marches 
are  risky,  but  there  are  times  when  an  army  must 
make  them  and  run  the  risk  of  exposing  its  tlank  in 
order  to  gain  great  advantages.  As  the  greatest 
danger  to  which  the  column  is  exposed  is  that  of  be- 
ing attacked  in  flank  during  the  march,  a  strong  de- 
tachment should  he  thrown  out  on  the  side  next  the 
enemy,  to  move  along  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the 
coliniin,  and  sutficii-ntly  near  to  keep  up  a  constant 
communication  with  it.  The  advanced-guard  usually 
becomes  the  flank-detachment  on  a  flank-march;  but 
it  will  be  well,  since  the  chances  of  attack  arc  greater, 
to  increase  its  strength,  so  that  it  should  be  able  to 
hold  its  ground  against  any  serinus  effort  of  the 
enemy.  This  detachment  should  be  careful  to  oc- 
cupy all  defiles,  and  watch  all  the  roads  by  which  the 
enemy  might  appear,  until  the  main  liod)-  has  passed. 
The  baggage  becomes,  in  a  case  like  this,  more  of  an 
encumbrance  th m  usual.  It  may  be  sent  to  join  the 
army  by  a  circuitotis  route,  at  a  distance  from  the 
enemy,  or  inay  move  on  that  flank  of  its  own  column 
which  is  the  safer  against  attack. 

If  possible,  the  march  should  be  concealed  from  the 
enemy,  keeping  him  in  ignorance  of  the  movement 
until  completed.  This  cannot  always  be  done,  as  he 
is  on  the  alert  to  observe  any  movements  which  may 
be  made.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  flank- 
detachment  be  omitted,  as  by  its  skillful  vise  the 
enemy  may  be  kept  in  doubt  for  some  time  as  to  the 
particular  cliaracter  of  the  march,  whether  it  is  to  the 
front,  to  the  rear,  or  to  a  flank.  If  this  detachment 
meets  the  enemy,  it  makes  a  show  of  resistance  and 
develops  (he  strength  of  the  opposing  force.  In  the 
mean  time  the  main  body  moves  steadily  forward, 
and,  when  it  has  passed  sufficiently  far,  the  detach- 
ment leaves  the  position  it  had  held,  and  retires  rap- 
idly, taking,  if  necessary,  a  direction  different  from 
that  of  the  main  body,  and  subsequently  rejoining  it 
by  a  detour.  The  enemy  will  not  follow  it  very  far, 
as  he  exiwses  his  own  flank  to  the  troops  which  have 
already  passed.  When  the  body  of  troops  making 
the  flank  march  is  large,  as  a  corjas  composed  of  sev- 
eral divisions,  there  should  be  several  columns,  if  the 
nature  of  the  country  will  admit  of  it.  These  columns 
should  he  in  supporting  distance  of  each  other,  as  re- 
quired in  a  march  to  the  front. 

FlanTv  tactical  marches  were  frequently  made  by 
Frederick  the  Great  to  gain  a  position  favorable  for 
an  attack  on  an  enemy's  wing.  On  such  occasions  he 
formed  his  army  in  two  columns  of  companies  at  full 
distance,  .so  that  by  wheeling  the  companies  to  the 
right  or  left  he  formed  at  once  a  line  of  battle  fac- 
ing the  enemy.  Approaching  the  enemy  with  this 
formation,  and  when  near  him,  he  changed  the  direc- 
tion of  his  march,  making  the  flank-movement,  pro- 
tected by  the  advanced  guard  and  hidden  from  view 
by  some  inequality  of  the  ground.     Then  bj'  a  simple 


wheel  of  the  companies  his  line  of  battle  was  formed, 
and  was  oblique  to  the  general  line  occupied  hj-  the 
enemy.  We  find  numerous  instimces  of  this  maneuver 
recorded.  At  the  battle  of  Leuthen  he  moved  for- 
ward in  four  columns,  the  two  interior  ones  being 
composed  of  infantry,  and  the  exterior  ones  of  cavalry. 
When  he  changed  "direction  to  make  a  flank-marcb, 
the  four  colunms  formed  two,  which  by  a  wheel  of 
the  companies  formed  into  two  lines  of  battle.  See 
Flaiih-iii'irtiiitut  and  March. 

FLANK-MO'VEMENT.- This  term  has  reference  to 
the  change  of  march  of  an  army,  or  a  portion  of 
an  army,  which  circtmistances  may  necessitate,  and 
which  may  occur  when  a  battle  i-s  being  fought,  with 
the  view  to  turning  either  one  or  both  wings  of  the 
enemy,  or  a  better  position  being  taken  up.  ^In  mak- 
ing a  flank-movement  before  the  enemy,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  carry  out  the  usual  order  of  march  as  laid 
down  for  the  march  of  an  army  to  the  front.  Such 
a  formation  would  be  inconvenient  to  a  large  body  of 
troops,  if  the  groiuid  or  country  were  circumscribed 
or  inclosed,  having  to  march  in  one  direction  and  to 
fight  a  battle  in  another,  thus  neces-sitating  a  long 
wheel  of  its  columns  before  coming  into  action.  To 
avoid  this,  a  new  order  of  march  niust  be  pursued. 

On  perfectly  open  ground  such  a  movement  might  be 
accomplished  by  marching  to  a  flank  in  order  of  bat- 
tle; that  is,  in  three  columns  formed  of  the  two  lines 
and  the  reserve,  with  an  advanced-guard  protecting 
the  flank  towards  the  enemy.  But  the  question  is  of 
making  a  march  of  this  kuid  in  an  average  broken  or 
inclosed  country,  where  very  lengthened  columns, 
especially  of  cavalry  and  arlillerj-,  could  not  without 
great  risk  offer  their  flank  to  the  enemy.     When  a 

I  corps  is  moving  thus  to  a  flank,  it  will  be  of  immense 
importance  to  decide  whether  it  is  to  form  line  of 
battle  to  a  front  or  a  flank,  relatively  to  the  rest  of 

1  the  army  and  to  the  enemy.     Thus  Btdow's  march 

t  to  the  field  of  Waterloo  was  a  flank-mnrfh;  but  for 
the  attack  on  the  French  flank,  the  order  of  march  to 
a.  front  was  the  projier  formation  for  his  colimins. 

The  turning  of  the  flank  of  a  line  of  battle  maj-  be 
effected  either  by  originally  directing  part  of  the 
army  beyond  that  flank  or  by  reinforcing  one  wing 
of  a  direct  attack  and  deploj'ing  the  addid  troops 

'  beyond  the  menaced  flank  during  the  engagement. 
The  Prussians  always  seem  to  have  operated  in  the 
latter  way,  engaging  at  the  same  time  throughotit  the 
front.  The  history  of  the  \nctories  of  the  summer  of 
1870  is  that  the  Geminn  corps  march  straight  for  the 
enemy,  that  the  leading  troops  at  once  attack,  that 
the  rest  huny  up  to  their  support,  extending  and 
deepening  the  skirmishing  line,  and  that,  after  a  se- 

'  vere  eng.igement,  an  extension  beyond  a  flank  renders 
the  position  untenable.     See  F(ank-tiiorrhei. 

FLANK  OF  A  BASTION.— In  fortification,  that  part 
which  unites  the  face  to  the  curtain,  comprehended 
between  the  angle  of  the  curtain  and  that  of  the 
shoulder,  and  which  is  the  principal  defense  of  a 
place.  Its  use  is  to  defend  the  curtain,  the  flank,  and 
the  face  of  the  opposite  bastion,  as  well  as  the  pas- 
sage of  the  ditch;  and  to  batter  the  salient  angles  of 
the  counterscarp  and  glacis,  from  whence  the  besieg- 
ers generally  ruin  the  flanks  with  their  artillerj'. 

FLANK-PATROLS.— Besides  the  flankers  proper, 
which  constitute  a  portion  of  the  movable  advanced- 
posts,  detachments  of  an  independent  character  are 
sent  out  to  patrol  along  the  flanks  of  the  main  col- 

j  umn.      These  should  keep  themselves  in  coininuni- 

i  cation,  by  the  suitable  dispositions  of  vedettes,  with 
the  flankers.  As  the  flank-patrols  are  frequently  be- 
yond direct  supporting  distai:ce,  they  must  adopt  all 
the  necessary  dispositions  asraiast  sur[;rise  of  any 
other  body  marching  independently;  having  their 
advanced-guard,  etc.,  etc.  These  p:itrols  keep  on  a 
level  with  their  column;  and  particularly  secure  all 
lateral  roads,  or  defiles,  by  which  it  might  be  sud- 

I  denly  attacked,  imtil  the  column  is  beyond  danger. 
A  great  activity,  watchfulness,  and  caution  should 

I  characterize  this  service.    The  officer  in  command  of 


FLAireS  OF  A  FRONTIER. 


G70 


FLEDRY. 


n  flankpntrol  must  use  bis  discretion  in  meeting  an 
enemy,  whellier  to  iitlaek  bim  or  to  let  him  pass,  if 
be  luei  not  biniself  iKen  oliserveil. 

FLANKS  OF  A  FRONTIER.— Certain  snlicnt  point.-j 
ill  a  niiiidiial  lumniliirv,  slronj;  by  nalure  and  art, 
and  ordinarily  projectiui:  son\e\vliat  lieyond  Uie  jren- 
enil  line.  The  elVect  of  lhe.-;e  tlanks  is  to  protect  the 
whole  frontier  aiiainsi  an  eniiny,  a.<  lie  dare  not  iiene- 
trate  between,  with  the  risk  of  their  ;rarnsons.  rein- 
forced from  their  own  territories,  attacking  his  rear, 
and  cutting  off  commumcation  between  bim  and  bis 
base. 

FLASH. — The  Hamc  which  issues  from  any  fire-anii 
or  piece  of  ordnance  on  its  beinir  tired.  Flash  in  the 
jHin  is  an  expression  for  the  exi>losion  of  jjuupowder 
without  any  communication  beyond  the  vent. 

FLASHING.^The  proper  incorporation  of  the  in- 
crre<lienls  of  jjiinixivvder  is  tested  hy  Jlaxhiitg;  that  is, 
by  burning  a  small  quantity  of  the  iiowdcr  on  a  glass 
or  porcehun  plate.  H  any  tine-gjained  jiowder,  the 
quantity  to  be  Hashed  is  i>laceil  in  a  small  copper 
measure,  which  is  inverted  over  the  flashing-plate. 
This  pro\-ides  for  the  granules  being  arranged  in 
nearly  the  .siime  kind  of  heap  each  time,  which  is  im- 
portant. The  decomposition  of  the  powder  will  be 
more  thorough  if  the  powder  be  thrown  together  in 
a  small  conical  pile  than  if  it  be  sjiread  out  in  a  thin 
layer  on  the  i)lale;  hence,  for  comparison  of  ilifferent 
powdei's,  they  should  be  placed  on  the  plates  as 
nearly  as  pos.sible  under  the  siime  conditions.  If  the 
]io\V(ier  has  been  thoroughly  incorporated,  the  sm.-iU 
<'liarge  placed  on  the  plate  will  flash  otT  when  touched 
with  a  hot  iron,  leaving  only  smoke-marks  on  the 
plate.  A  badly  incorporated  powder  will  leave 
specks  of  undecomposed  siiltpeterand  sulphur,  form- 
ing a  dirty  residue.  The  fla.shing-test,  though  sim- 
ple, requires  experience  and  care  to  enable  the  ob 
server  to  form  an  accurate  judgment.  A  badly 
incorporated  powder  is  easily  detected;  but  to  deter 
mine  between  two  nearly  alike,  and  both  tolerably 
jjood,  is  vastly  more  dillicult.  Flashing  .should  there- 
fore be  conslanlly  practiced  with  all  classes  of  pow- 
ders, and  it  is  advisable  to  keep  .sample-s  of  iin|)er- 
fectly  incorporated  grains  to  be  flashed  occasionally 
for  comijarison. 

FLASK. — When  casting  a  gun,  the  mold  is  formed 
in  a  case  of  cast-iron,  called  a  flash,  consisting  of 
several  pieces,  each  of  which  has  flanges  perforated 
with  holes  for  screw-bolts  and  nuts,  to  unite  the  parts 
flrmly.  In  casting  the  tifteen-inch  gun,  a  circular 
flask  is  used,  consisting  of  five  upriglit  sections, 
secured  together  by  elami)s  tilting  over  flanges  at 
either  end  of  the  .sections;  its  thickness  is  one  inch, 
and  it  is  pierced  with  holes.  The  breech,  or  lower  .sec- 
lion,  is  made  of  siiflicient  length  to  cast  the  ba.se  of 
breech,  ca.scabel,  and  square  knob;  the  next  above  is 
twenty-five  inches  in  length  and  cylh.drical,  being 
the  part  which  embraces  the  cylinder  of  the  gun;  the 
next  is  the  trunnion-section,  filled  with  trunnion- 
boxes  ha\ing  movable  plates  on  their  ends,  that  the 
trunnion  paitern  may  be  placed  and  removed  after 
the  mold  is  tinislied;  then  there  are  two  sections 
above  this,  the  upper  being  about  three  feet  longer 
than  the  required  length  of  the  gun,  to  admit  of  a 
"sinking-head."  The  entire  length  of  the  flask  is 
twenlv  feel.     See  Moltlinr/ 

FLAT  BASTION.— A  biistion  having  its demi-gorges 
in  Ihe  same  straight  line.     See  Bastion. 

FLATS.  — In  ordiianee,  two  vertical  plane  surfaces 
situated  at  equal  distances  from  Ihe  axis  of  the  bore. 
They  serve  to  preveni  the  barrel  from  tuniing  in  Ihe 
jaws  of  the  vise  when  the  breech-screw  is  taken  out. 
See  Hnrrcl. 

FLAW.— In  casting  or  forging,  any  crack  or  open- 
ing which  may  be  ol)Served.  In  forging,  it  frequently 
occurs  from  bad  welding.     See  Castimj. 

FLEAU  D'ARHES.— An  ancient  ofTensive  weapon; 
the  i)art  used  for  striking  was  armed  with  sharp  iron 
spikes. 

FLECHE.- In  fortiflcution,  tbc  most  simple  species 


of  field-works;  it  is  quickly  and  easily  constructed, 
and  therefore  frequently  used  in  the  field.  It  usually 
consists  of  two  faces  forming  a  sjilient  angle  towards 
some  object,  from  whence  it  cannot  be  approached 
on  the  prolongation  of  its  capital.  One  simple  rule 
for  the  construction  of  a  fleche  is  to  .select  a  s|)ot  for 
the  salient,  and  to  throw  up  a  breastwork  on  either 
side  forming  an  angle  of  not  less  than  60  degrees,  and 
allowing  a  <lislan(e  of  a  yard  to  each  file. 

FLETCHER. — The  naiiie  anciently  applied  to  the 
man  who  made  or  repaired  the  military  bows.  He 
was  also  called  Buu-ytr. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS.— Authorities  are  undecided  as  to 
whether  this  celelinited  emblem  is  derived  from  the 
white  lily  (if  Ihe  garden,  or  from  the  flag  or  iris,  which, 
as  generally  rein'eseiited,  it  more  resembles  both  in 
form  and  color.  "  Ancient  heralds,"  .says  Newton, 
"  tell  us  that  the  Franks  of  old  had  a  custom,  at  the 
proclamation  of  their  king,  to  elevate  him  upon  a 
shield  or  target,  and  place  in  his  hand  a  reed  or  flag 
in  blos.som,  instead  of  a  scepter;  and  from  thence  the 
kings  of  the  first  and  second  race  in  France  are  repre- 
.sentcd  with  scepters  in  their  hands  like  the  flag  with 
its  flower,  and  which  flowers  became  the  armorial  fig- 
ures of  France."  However  this  may  be,  or  whatever 
may  be  the  value  of  the  other  legendary  tales,  such  as 
that  a  blue  banner,  embroidered  with  golden  fleur-de- 
lis,  came  down  from  heaven;  that  an  angel  gave  it  to 
King  C'lovis  at  bis  baptism,  and  the  like;  there  can 
lie  little  doubt  that,  from  C'lovis  downwards,  the 
kings  of  France  bore  as  their  arms  first  an  indefinite 
number,  and  lallerly  three  golden  lilies  on  a  blue 
field,  or,  as  herahls  would  say,  azure,  three  fleur-de- 
lis,  or.  It  was  Charles  VI.  who  reduced  what  had 
hitherto  been  the  indefinite  numlxT  of  fleur-de-lis  to 
three,  disposed  two  and  one;  "  some  conjecture  upon 
account  of  the  Trinity,  others  .say  to  represent  the 
three  different  races  of  the  kings  of  France."  !Many 
English  and  Scotch  families  bear  Ihe  fleur-de  lis  in 
.some  portion  of  their  shield,  and  generally  with  some 
reference  to  France. 

FLEURY— FLORY.— In  Heraldry,  signifying  that 
the  object  is  adorned  with  fleurs-de-lis;  a  cro.ss-fieurj', 
for  an  example,  is  a  cross  the  ends  of  which  arc  m 
the  form  of  fleurs-de-lis.  There  are  .several  varie- 
ties in  the  modes  of  representing  these  cros.ses  wbicb 
lias  led  to  distinctions  being  made  between  them  by 
heralds  too  trivial  to  be  mentioned;  but  they  are  ail 
dislinguishable  from  the  cross-potance,  or  potancce, 
incorrectly  spelled  patonce  by  English  heralds.  In  the 
latter  the  limbs  are  in  the  form  of  Ihe  segments  of  a 
circle,  and  the  foliation  is  a  mere  bud;  whereas  the 
cross-fleury  has  the  limbs  straight  and  the  termina- 
tions distinctly  floriated.     Perhaps  the  most   cele- 


Cross-fleury.       Cross-potance. 

brated  in.stance  of  this  bearing  is  in  the  case  of  the 
double  prepuce  flowery  and  counter-flowery  gules 
which  surrounds  llie  red  lion  in  Ihe  Royal  Arms  of 
Scotland,  and  which  Charlemagne  is  said  to  have 
conferred  on  A<haius,  King  of  Scotland,  for  a.ssistance 
in  bis  wars.  The  object,  according  to  Nisbet,  was  to 
show  that,  as  the  lion  had  defended  Ihe  lilies  of 
France,  these  '•hereafter  shall  continue  a  defense  for 
the  Scots  lion,  and  as  a  badge  of  friendship,  which 
has  still  conlimieil."  Thai  the  lilies  were  assumed  in 
consequence  of  Ihe  inlimale  relation  whieh  prevailed 
between  France  and  Scotland  for  .so  many  genera- 
tions will  not  be  doubted;  but  the  special  occasion 
of  the  assuin|)lion  may  not  be  admitted  in  our  day  to 
be  quite  beyond  Ihe  reach  of  skepticism,  nolwilhsland- 
ing  Nisbcl's  assertion  that  il  is  so  fully  instructed  by 
ancient  and  mo<lerii  writers  that  he  need  not  trouble 
his  readers  with  any  long  catalogue  of  them.  Also 
written  Floitry  and  'Flcurdk. 


FLEXIBLE  SHAFT. 


677 


FLEXIBLE  SHAFT. 


FLEXIBLE  SHAFT.— An  apparatus  for  transmitting 
rotary  motion  to  any  desired  distance  from  the  power 
source  through  any  number  of  cunes  ;  thus  allowing 
tlie  power  to  he  carried  to  the  work,  instead  of  the 
■work  to  the  power.  The  uses  of  the  shaft  in  the  ar- 
senal and  in  engineering  are  almost  unlimited,  and  as 
it  is  reaflily  handled,  easily  cared  for,  and  durable,  it 
is  rapidly  Iiecoming  a  staple  article  where  work  is  to 
be  done  by  power.  The  construction  of  the  tiexible 
shaft  is  peculiar  to  it.self ,  and  it  is  in  this  peculiar  con- 
struction that  its  utility  consists.     It  is  made  up  of  a 


The  drawings  show  all  the  details  of  construction. 
Fig.  1  represents  the  complete  shaft  with  the  auger 
screwed  into  the  end.  Fig.  2  shows  the  manner  of 
"  lajTng  up"  the  shaft,  and  the  construction  of  the 
ca.se.  Fig.  3  is  a  section  showing  the  hand-piece, 
shaft-case,  and  endnut  to  which  are  attached  the  tools 
to  he  used.  Fig.  4  is  a  section  at  the  pulley  end. 
Letter  references^  AA,  shaft-ca.se;  B,  sections  of  shaft 
and  case;  C,  cord  lo  draw  pulley  to  any  desired  di- 
rection; D,  driving-lielt.  This  mode  of  construction 
insures  stability,  durability,  and  very  great  torsional 


Eound-about  Transfer.  combiDed  with  Countershaft,  Flexible  Shaft,  Drill-press,  etc. 


series  of  coils  of  steel  wire,  wound  hard  upon  each 
other,  each  alternate  layer  running  in  an  opposite  di- 
rection, and  the  numlwi- of  wires  in  the  different  layers 
varying  according  to  the  work  the  shaft  is  adapted  to; 
on  being  brouglit  to  size,  about  one  incli  at  eadi  end 
of  the  shaft  is  brazed  .solid,  and  to  the.se  solid  ends  the 
fittings  are  attached,  the  one  to  receive  the  tools  to  be 
operated,  the  other  to  receive  the  power  from  the  pul- 
ley inclosing  it,  which  in  turn  receives  its  power  from 
a  belt.  Next  a  ca.se  is  prepared  consisting  first  of  a 
single  coil  of  steel  wire,  its  internal  diameter  being  a 
loose  fit  for  the  outside  of  shaft;  this  is  covered  with 
some  flexible  material,  leather  preferably,  over  which 
at  either  end  a  fernile  is  fa.stened;  into  this  ferrtJe  at 
one  end  is  screwed  the  handpiece;  at  the  opposite  end 
the  frame  which  carries  the  pulley. 


strength;  and  at  the  same  time  perfect  flexibility  at 
rirfit  angles  to  the  axis. 

In  the  above  drawing  is  shown  the  round-about 
transfer,  in  connection  with  the  countershaft,  flexible 
shaft,  drill-press,  etc.  The  lower  pulley  takes  up  the 
slack  of  the  driving-rope,  and  the  swiveled  pulleys  at 
the  top  allow  the  shaft  to  be  carried  in  any  direction. 
A  peculiar  feature  of  this  device,  distinguishing  it 
from  all  others  of  its  class,  is  the  fact  that  the  rise  of 
the  lower  pulleys  is  only  one  half  the  extension  of 
the  driving-rope,  a  matter  of  great  importjuice  in  a 
low-studded  room.  With  the  roundalwut  work  may 
l)e  performed  at  varjing  distances  from  the  fixed 
countershaft  and  in  any  desired  direction.  Besides 
metal  drilling,  the  shaft  is  admirably  adapted  to  the 
kindred  work  of  tapping,  reaming,  and  boring.    The 


FLIQHI. 


678 


FLINT  IMPLEUENIS  AND  WEAPONS. 


convenience  of  the  flexible  shaft  is  wonderfully  showii 
ill  liri(lj.'e-«'(irk.  There  are  always  mullituiles  of  holes 
to  be  ilrilkti  alxiut  bridges  when  in  construction,  and 
the  shaft  will  allow  of  inan}°  limes  the  amount  of  work 
in  the  same  period  of  time.  Kngineers  are  now  begin- 
ning to  specify  in  their  specifications  that  all  rivet-holes 
must  be  punched  smaller  and  reameil  out  to  a  perfect 
circle,  thus  insuring  a  round  bolt  where  it  is  intended 
to  be.  Some  bridge-works  are  already  using  thesi' 
shafts  with  marked  success.  In  building  carriages  and 
wagons  there  are  always  great  quantities  of  holes  to 
be  bored  and  drilled  Imth  In  the  wood  and  iron  al)out 
the  shafts  and  carriagebotly;  and  this  is  a  place  where 
the  utility  of  the  tlexible  shaft  is  admirably  shown. 


Details  of  Flexible  Shaft. 

One  man  with  a  shaft  and  chuck  with  drill  can  do 
aa  much  in  an  hour  as  hius  heretofore  been  done  by 
hand  in  three  or  four  hours.  For  the  purpose  of  hor.se 
and  cattle  Ijrushing  the  shaft  is  frequently  u.sed, 
driven  by  steam  or  other  power.  The  brush  is  made 
in  the  most  thorough  and  careful  manner,  and  is  so 
guarded  that  it  cannot  catch  in  the  tail  or  mane  of  the 
animal.  Not  only  is  the  tedious  operation  of  cleaning 
horses  greatly  expedited  by  this  machine,  but  the 
work  is  more  thorougldy  done  than  is  possible  in  the 
most  careful  hand -grooming.  The  expense  of  linish- 
ing  irregular  metal  dies  forstjimping,  also  the  various 
molds,  may  be  greatly  lessened  by  using  the  shaft. 
Hoimd  and  pear-shaped  tiles  of  various  sizes  are  used, 
also  small  emery-wheels  of  appropriate  pattern.  See 
DrilUiniiitaeliiiie. 

FLIGHT. — 1.  A  word  employed  figuratively  for  the 
swift  retreat  of  an  army  or  any  iiarty  from  a  victori- 
ous enemy.  It  is  likewise  ai)i>lical)le  to  missile  wea- 
pons or  shot;  as  a  flight  of  arrows,  a  flight  of  bombs, 
etc.  2.  In  gunnery,  the  flight  of  a  shot  or  shell  is 
the  lime  during  which  it  is  passing  through  the  air 
from  the  piece  to  the  first  graze. 

FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  AND  WEAPONS.— Weapons, 
believed  to  have  Ihcii  used  by  the  primitive  inhabi- 
tants, have  from  time  to  lime,  in  more  or  less  num- 
ber, been  turned  up  by  the  plow  and  the  spade,  dug 


out  from  ancient  graves,  fortifications,  and  dwelling- 
places,  or  fished  up  from  llic  beds  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
in  almost  every  country  of  Europe.  They  do  not 
difl'er,  in  any  material  respect,  from  the  flint  imple- 
ments and  weapons  still  in  use  among  uncivilized 
tribes  in  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  the  Islands  of 
the  Pacific  Oeeiui.  The  weajKins  of  most  frequent 
occurrence  are  arrow-heads,  spear-points,  dagger- 
liliules,  and  axe-heads  or  celLs.  The  more  common 
implements  are  knives,  chisels,  rasps,  wedges,  and 
thin  curved  or  semicircular  plates,  to  which  the 
name  of  "  scrapers"  has  been  given.  There  is  great 
variety  as  well  in  the  size  as  in  the  shape,  even  of 
articles  of  the  same  kind.  There  is  equal  variety  ia 
the  amount  of  skill  or  lalwr  expended  in  their  manu- 
facUire.  In  .some  instances  the  flint  has  been  roughly 
fashioned  into  something  like  the  required  form  by 
two  or  tliree  blows;  in  others  it  has  Ix'en  laboriously 
cliii»ped  into  the  wished-for  shape,  which  is  often  one 
of  no  little  elegance.  In  yet  another  cla.ss  of  cases, 
the  flint,  after  being  iluly  shaped,  has  been  ground 
smooth,  or  has  even  received  as  high  a  jwlish  as  could 
be  given  by  a  modern  lapidarj-.  Examples  of  all  the 
varielies  of  flint  weapons  and  implements  will  Ije 
found  in  the  British  Museum,  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Koyal  Irish  Academy  at  Dublin,  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  above  all  in  the  Museum  of  the  Koyal 
Society  of  Antiquaries  at  Copenhagen,  which  is  espe- 
cially rich  in  this  class  of  remains. 

Geological  discoveries  have  recently  invested  flint 
implements  with  a  new  interest.  At  Abbeville,  at 
Amiens,  at  Paris,  and  elsewhere  on  the  Continent, 
flint  weapons,  fashioned  by  the  band  of  man,  have 
been  found  along  with  remains  of  extinct  species  of 
the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  other  mammals,  in 
undisturbed  beds  of  those  deposits  of  sand,  gravel, 
and  clay  to  which  geologists  have  given  the  name  of 
'■  the  drift."  They  .so  far  resemble  the  flint  imple- 
ments and  weapons  found  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  but  are  generally  of  a  larger  size,  of  ruder 
workmanship,  and  less  varied  in  shape.  The}'  have 
been  divided  into  three  cla.sses — round-pointed;  .sharp- 
pointed;  both  being  chipped  to  a  sharp  edge,  so  as  to 
cut  or  pierce  only  at  the  pointed  end;  and  oval-shaped, 
with  a  cutting  edge  all  round.  The  first  and  second 
classes  vary  in  length  from  about  4  inches  to  8  or  9 
inches;  the  third  cla.ss  is  generally  about  4or  5  inches 
long,  but  examples  have  been  found  of  no  more  than 
2  inches,  and  of  as  much  as  8  or  9  inches.  In  no  in- 
stance has  a  Hint  implement  yet  discovered  in  the 
drift  been  found  either  polished  or  ground.  The 
French  antiquary,  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes,  was  the 
first  to  call  attention  to  these  very  interesting  remains, 
in  his  Aiiti(jiiiti'K  Celtiqnen  et  Aiit/diliifuniies.  But 
it  has  since  been  remembered  Ibat  implements  of  the 
sjime  kind  were  found  in  a  similar  posiiidnat  Hoxne, 
in  Sufl'olk,  along  with  remains  of  some  gigantic  ani- 
mal, in  1797,  and  at  Gray's  Inn  Lane,  in  London, 
along  with  remains  of  an  elephant,  in  1715.  Both 
these  Englisli  examples  are  still  jmserved, — the  first 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  at  Lon- 
don, the  second  in  the  British  Museum, — and  they  are 
])recisely  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  examples 
more  recently  found  in  France. 

To  what  age  tliese  remains  should  be  a.ssigned  is  a 
question  on  which  Geology  seems  scarcely  yet  pre- 
pared to  si)eak  with  authority.  But.  in  the  words  of 
Mr.  John  Evans  in  Ids  es.say  on  "  Flint  Implements 
in  the  Drift,"  in  flic  Arrhtrologia,  "  thus  much  ap- 
pears to  be  established  beyond  a  doubt,  that  in  a 
IX'riod  of  antiquity  remote  beyond  any  of  which  we 
liave  hitlierfo  found  traces,  this  portion  of  the  globe 
was  peopled  by  man;  and  that  mankind  has  here 
witnc.s,sed  sdine  of  those  geological  changes  by  which 
the  so-called  diluvial  beds  were  deposited.  Whether 
these  were  the  result  of  some  violent  rush  of  wafers, 
such  as  may  have  taken  place  when  "  the  fountains 
of  the  great  deej)  were  broken  tip,  and  the  windows 
of  heaven  were  opened,"  or  whether  of  a  more  grad- 


FLIITT-LOCK. 


679 


FLOATING  TARGET. 


ual  action,  similar  in  character  to  some  of  those  now 
in  operation  along  the  courses  of  brooks,  streams, 
and  rivers,  may  be  matter  of  dispute.  Under  anj- 
circumstances,  this  great  fact  remains  indisputable, 
that  at  Amiens,  land  which  is  now  160  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  90  feet  above  the  Somme,  lias,  since  the  ex- 
istence of  man,  been  submerged  under  fresh  water, 
and  an  aqueous  deposit  from  20  to  30  feet  in  thick- 
ness, a  portion  of  which,  at  all  events,  must  have  sub- 
sided from  tranquil  water,  has  been  formed  upon  it ; 
and  this,  too,  has  takeu  place  in  a  country  the  level 
of  which  is  now  .stationary,  and  the  face  of  which 
has  been  little  altered  since  the  days  when  the  Gauls 
and  the  Romans  constructed  their  sepulchers  in  the 
soil  overlying  the  drift  which  contains  these  relics  of 
a  far  earlier  race  of  men."     See  Elf-arroir-lwadg. 

FLINT-LOCK. —A  very  modern "lirelock,  invented 
about  1635.  It  was  suggested,  no  doubt,  from  the 
snaphaunce,  and  from  which  it  only  differed  by  the 
cover  of  the  pan  forming  part  of  the  steel  or  hammer, 
which  retained  its  furrows  until  the  eighteenth  cen- 
turj'.  Before  the  invention  of  the  flint-luck-,  the  wheel- 
lock  was  frequently  called  the  firelock.  It  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  employed  in  England  \m\\\  1677. 

FLISSA. — An  Oriental  sword  without  a  hilt  or  cross- 
guard.  The  handle  is  straight  and  forms  with  the 
blade  a  Latin  cross. 

FLO. — An  ancient  name  for  an  arrow  used  in  war. 
Seldom  used  at  present. 

FLOAT. — The  wooden  cover  of  the  sponge  or  tar- 
bucket  used  with  tield-gun  carriages. 

FLOATING  BATTERY.— A  hulk  verj'  headly  arm- 
ed, made  as  invulnerable  as  possible,  used  in  defend- 
ing harbors,  or  in  attacks  on  marine  fortresses.  The 
most  remarkable  instance  of  their  employment  was 
by  the  French  and  Spaniards  against  Gibraltar,  in 
the  memorable  siege  which  lasted  from  July,  1779,  to 
February,  1783,  when  ten  of  these  vessels,  carrying 
212  large  guns,  were  brought  to  bear  on  the  fortress^; 
they  had  sides  of  great  thickness,  and  were  covered 
with  sloping  roofs,  to  cause  the  shot  striking  them  to 
glance  off  innocuously.  But  their  solidity  and 
strength  were  unavailing  against  the  coinage  and 
adroitness  of  the  defeniiers,  under  the  gallant  Gen- 
eral Elliot,  who  succeeded  in  destrojnng  them  with 
red-hot  cannon-balls.  Steam  floating  batteries  of  iron 
were  constructed  for  the  war  with  Russia  in  18.54, 
both  by  the  British  and  French  governments;  but, 
notwithstanding  that  they  rendered  good  service  be- 
fore Kinburn,  they  have  since  been  generally  dis- 
carded for  other  than  purely  defensive  purposes,  as 
too  cumbrous  for  navigation,  and  too  suffocating  from 
the  smoke  that  collected  between  their  decks  during 
action.  Indeed,  vessels  of  this  class  maj'be  regarded 
as  having  been  superseded  for  all  purposes  both  of 
attack  and  defense  by  the  newer  kinds  of  gunboats 
and  armorclad  frigates,  as  well  as  by  the  turret-ships, 
which  are  among  the  more  recent  contrivances  of  skill 
in  nav.il  ensrineering. 

FLOATING  BRIDGE.— A  variety  of  double  bridge, 
the  ujiper  one  i)rojecting  beyond  the  lower  one,  and 
capable  of  being  moved  forward  by  pulleys,  used  for 
carrj'ing  troops  over  narrow  moats  in  attacking  the 
outworks  of  a  fort.     See  F/>/i)if/  Bridge. 

FLOATING  DERRICK. — A  mechanical  contrivance 
used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  crane,  but  recently 
so  improved  in  size,  strength,  and  mechanism  as  to 
be  able  not  only  to  raise  a  body  of  1000  tons  in  weight, 
but  to  transpoii  it  from  one  "place  to  another.  The 
following  description  of  the  Oretit  Flfinting  Derrick, 
built  in  1859,  will  convey  an  idea  of  the  powers  of 
this  machine,  and  of  the  principles  upon  which  it 
■works.  This  derrick  w-as  built  by  the  Thames  Iron 
Ship-building  Company,  at  Blackwall.  It  consists  of 
a  flat-bottomed  vessel,  270  feet  long,  and  90  feet  across 
the  beam,  and  is  divided  throughout  into  a  number 
of  water  tight  compartments,  which  can  be  filled  so 
as  to  counterbalance  any  weight  on  an  opposite  side. 
From  the  deck  of  thisflrtating  steam  crane  rises  an 
iron  tripod  80  feet  high,  on  the  top  of  which  revolves 


a  gigantic  boom,  120  feet  long,  and  above  the  boom 
the  "  kingpost,"  a  continuation  of  the  tripod,  rises  to 
the  height  of  .50  feet.  One  arm  of  the  boom  is  fur- 
nished with  ten  fourfold  blocks;  the  chains  attached 
to  these  blocks  are  all  passed  across  the  king-post, 
i  brought  over  the  other  ann  of  the  boom,  imd  so  de- 
j  scene!  to  the  oth(;r  side  of  the  vessel,  where  they  are 
connected  with  two  powerful  steam  engines,  b}-  means 
of  which  the  weights  arc  raised.  This  denick  is 
capable  of  being  propelled  by  means  of  a  series  of 
bucket-paddle  floats  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  an  hour. 
It  is  the  invention  of  Jlr.  Bishop,  an  American.  Der- 
ricks have  been  long  in  use  in  America,  and  have 
proved  much  more  expeditious  and  economical  than 
any  other  species  of  lifting-power.  They  are  chiefly 
used  for  lifting  machineiy  or  other  great  "weights,  ancl 
for  raising  wrecks      See "(';•«»<«. 

FLOATING  RATES.— A  light  open  frame  of  hori- 
zontal bars,  attached  along  the  top  of  the  sides  of 
wagons,  and  sloping  upwards  and  outwards  from 
them.  They  are  very  convenient  for  supporting  and 
securing  light  bulkv  loads. 

FLOATING  TARGET.— The  best  and  most  readily 
constructed  target  is  comjio.sed  of  three  stout  boards 
twelve  feet  long  and  a  foot  broad,  forming  a  triangle. 
A  fourth  board  extendt;  from  one  of  the  angles  tothe 
middle  of  the  opposite  side.  The  whole  is  fastened 
together  with  spikes,  or,  better,  with  screw-bolts.  At 
the  center  of  the  triangle,  a  hole  is  cut  in  the  last- 
mentioned  board;  Ibis  hole  is  about  four  inches  in 
diameter;  throvigh  it  passes  a  pole  projecting  about 
twelve  feet  above  and  three  feet  below.  A  10-ineh 
shot,  or  equivalent  weight,  is  secured  to  the  lower  end 
of  the  pole,  and  rope  guys  are  led  from  the  top  to  the 
angles  of  the  platform  to  keep  the  pole  upright.  To 
these  ropes  are  fastened  triangular  pieces  of  canvas. 
A  bidl's-eye  four  feet  in  diameter  is  painted  on  the 
middle  of  this  screen,  upon  each  side.  On  each  side 
of  the  pole,  underneath  the  platform,  an  empty  water- 


tight barrel  is  lashed  to  the  athwart-board,  and  a  .small 
red  flag  is  jilaced  on  the  top  of  the  pole.  This  target 
is  suitable  for  even  the  roughest  water.  To  hold  it, 
under  such  circumstances,  requires  an  anchor  weigh- 
ing not  less  than  two  hundred  pounds.  This  is  at- 
tached to  the  target  by  a  chain  or  heavy  rope,  .secured 
to  one  angle  of  the  base  b.v  an  eye  on  the  under  end 
of  the  bolt  holding  the  planks  together.  When  a 
single  anchor  is  used,  the  chain  or  rope  is  liable  to 
w  ind  itself  around  and  trip  the  anchor,  causing  it  to 
drag.  To  obviate  this,  it  isadvi.sable  to  moor  the  tar- 
get with  two  anchors,  ]ilaced  in  the  direction  of  the 
current.  The  distance  of  the  anchors  apart  uuist  de- 
pend upon  the  depth  of  the  water,  and  should  be 
such  as  to  form,  with  the  mooring-chains,  about  an 
equilateral  triangle. 

An  empty  water-tight  barrel,  painted  some  dark 
color,  forms  a  good  target  or  point  at  which  to  aim. 
The  cask  is  seemed  in  position  by  means  of  a  small 
anchor  or  a  kedge  attached  to  it  by  a  stout  rope 
fastened  to  .secure  lashings  on  the  cask.  Instead  of 
an  anchor,  anj-  heavv  body,  such  as  a  stone  or  bars  of 
iron,  may  be  used.  \i  the  current  is  swift,  the  weight 
should  never  be  less  than  the  flotation  of  the  cask. 
This  latter  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  number  of 
gallons  contained  in  tlic  cask  l)y  ten — the  approxi- 
mate weight  of  a  gallon  of  water.     A  spar,  similar  to 


FLOATING  WAREHOUSES. 


680 


FLTTGELHOBH. 


the  spar-buoys  to  be  seen  al)oiit  harbors,  forms  a  good 
target  and  one  of  easy  construction.  When  a  spar  or 
ca.sk  is  used,  a  small  ilag  of  some  brijrht-colored  stutT, 
attachitl  to  the  target,  makes  it  more  conspicuous  and 
easy  to  aim  at.  The  target  is  moored  in  position  at 
the' commencement  of  the  season's  tirinj:,  and  is  lift 
out  until  the  tiring  is  conipletetl.  Its  distance  from 
the  two  stiitionn  and  from  the  guu  is  deternuncd  by 
ordinary  trigonometrical  methods,  or  by  plotting  from 
plane-table  observations.  After  the  table  is  si't  up  at 
its  station  and  atljusled,  the  ollicer  in  charge  marks 
ui>ou  it  the  line  to  the  target,  to  the  gun,  and  to  the 
other  station.  These  lines  form  the  basis  for  the  sub- 
sequent plotting  of  the  shots.  The  officer  at  each 
station  is  accompanied  by  a  llagman  to  signal  to  the 
piece  whether  the  shots"  are  short  or  oti  r.  By  this 
means  the  error,  for  all  subsequent  shots,  is  approxi-  j 
matelv  corrected.  [ 

The  officer  in  charge  of  the  firing  attends  to  the 
loading  and  aiming,  sees  that  the  charges  and  pro- 
jectiles su-e  weighed,  and  that  the  pres.sure-plug  (when 
used)  is  proix?rly  attached  to  the  cartridge;  also  that 
the  fuses  for  tlie"shells  are  of  the  projier  length.  When 
everything  is  in  readiness,  he  directs  his  signal-fiag  to 
be  raised  to  inform  the  observers  at  the  stations  that 
he  is  about  to  tire.  The  piece  is  then  discharged. 
The  other  officers  at  the  battery  attend  to  the  stop- 
watch and  telemeter.  When  the  gun  is  tired,  the 
officer  at  each  station,  sighting  through  the  alidade, 
catches  the  point  on  the  water  where  the  shot  strikes, 
or,  in  ca.se  of  a  shell,  the  point  in  the  air  where  it  ex- 
plodes, lie  then  draws  a  line  line  to  mark  the  (iirec- 
tion,  and  gives  it  a  number  corresponding  with  the 
number  of  the  shot.  The  observations  thus  obtained 
arc  plotted.  A  suitable  scale  is  a.ssumed  (one  of  1 
inch  to  100  yards  is  convenient),  and  the  line  joining 
the  two  stations  is  laid  ofl  on  the  plotting-sheet  ac- 
cording to  the  scale.  From  this  all  the  other  lines 
are  laid  off,  usually  by  the  method  of  chords.  The 
intersection  of  the  lines  to  the  target  establishes  its 
position,  and  those  to  the  gun  its  position  also.  The 
distance  from  the  gun  to  the  target  is  ascertjuned 
from  the  scale.  The  lines  of  observation  to  each  .shot 
having  been  cjircfully  numbered  by  the  observers  at  ] 
the  plane-tables,  the  intersection  of  corresponding 
numbers  on  the  plot  gives  the  striking-points  of  the  i 
shots  or  bursting-points  of  the  shells.  See  Artilhi-y- 
pnii-tice  and   Tarqit. 

FLOATING  WAREHOUSES.— The  danger  that  at 
tends  the  storing  of  petroleum  and  other  infiammablc 
and  explosive  chemicals  has  led  in  France  to  the  con- 
struction of  warehouses,  storehouses,  or  magazines 
that  will  tloat  in  a  dock  or  basin,  and  can  be  moored 
at  a  distance  f  roni  buildings  on  land.  So  far  as  con- 
cerns England,  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  in 
lHti6  relating  to  the  carriage  and  storing  of  danger- 
ous substances;  this  law  was  amended  and  considera- 
bly extended  by  an  Act  passed  in  1875,  applying  to 
gunpowder  and  other  e-vjilosivc  substances  (including 
nitroglycerine,  dynamite,  gun-cotton,  blasting-pow- 
ders, fulminate  of  mercmy,  fire-work.s,  percussion- 
caps,  etc.).  This  Act  requires  such  substances  to  be 
marked  "gunpowder"  or  "explosive,"  and  to  be 
conveyed  or  stored  with  special  precaution;  it  leaves 
much  power  to  the  Secretary  of  Slate  to  intervene  in 
s|>ecial  cases  and  arninge  the  precise  conditions.  The 
storing  of  petroleum  is  regulated  by  the  Act  of  18T1. 
In  France,  as  we  have  said,  floating  warehouses  have 
been  eonstnicted,  two  l)eing  finished  in  1864,  and 
others  added  in  later  years.  The  construction  of  the 
floating  fabrics  is  remarkable.  Kacli  warehouse  or 
magazine  consists  es-ientially  of  one  hundred  hollow 
iron  cylinders,  arranged  in  four  rows  of  S.")  each, 
firmly  la.shed  or  strapped  together  to  form  a  kind  of 
raft.  Each  cylinder,  16  feet  long  by  6  or  7  in  diame- 
ter, has  hemispherical  ends,  with  a  man-hole  at  one 
end.  They  are  placed  u|>right  wlien  in  position,  so 
as  to  t)e  tilled  with  petroleum,  dycerine.  gunpowder, 
or  any  other  substance,  through  the  man-hole.  As 
they  will  hold  "J.")  Ions  each,  their  united  capacity  is 


2500  tons.  There  is  a  wooden  covering  to  the  top  of 
the  collected  mass  of  cylinders,  and  round  the  sides 
as  far  down  as  the  line  of  flotation,  to  shield  the  iron 
from  rtuctuations  of  temperature.  This  covering  is 
made  of  thick  pltuiking,  fastened  to  the  cylinders  by 
angle-irons  which  have  been  riveted  to  the  latter.  At 
the  head  and  stern  are  large  hawser-holes,  to  admit 
liawsers  for  towing  and  mooring  the  floating  fabric, 
bringing  it  into  and  taking  it  out  of  a  basin  or  dock, 
and  warping  it  to  a  quay  or  dock  wall:  or,  when  the 
vessel  is  moored  in  the  middle  of  a  basin,  faraway 
from  buililings,  a  barge  may  tieliver  or  receive  the 
dangeroiLs  cargo,  antl  thus  the  vessel  may  be  kept 
altogether  away  from  quays  anil  w  harvcs. 

FLOGGING.— Corporal  punishment  has  existed  from 
time  inunemorial  in  the  British  army  and  navy;  for- 
merly having  been  inflicted  upon  slight  occjusion,  and 
often  with  i)arbarous  si'verily.  In  deference,  how- 
ever, to  public  opinion,  it  has  been  nuich  less  resorted 
to  during  recent  years,  and  promises  almost  to  disap- 
pear under  a  regulation  of  1860.  A  man  must  now 
be  con\icted  of  one  disgraceful  offense  against  disci- 
pline Ix'fore  he  can  be  liable  to  flogging  for  the  next 
such  offense;  and  even  after  one  such  degradation, 
he  may  l)e  restoivd  to  the  non-liable  class  by  a  }ear"s 
good  conduct.  The  punishment  of  flogging,  which 
is  generally  administered  with  a  whip  or  a  "cat"  of 
nine  tails  on  the  bare  back,  cannot,  under  existing 
rules,  exceed  fifty  lashes. 

Corporal  punishment  is  never  recognized  in  the 
French  army;  but  then  the  soldiers  in  that  countrj- 
are  drawn  l)y  conscription  from  all  ranks  of  society, 
and  have,  on  an  average,  a  higher  moral  tone  than 
the  British  recruits,  who.  attracted  by  a  bounty,  \o\- 
unteer  usually  from  the  lowest  orders.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  discipline  in  the  French  army,  and  espe- 
cially during  war  on  a  foreign  soil,  is  universidly  ad. 
milled  to  lie  inferior  to  the  strict  rule  preserved  among 
British  troops.  Soldiers  and  sjiilors  being  men  unac- 
customed to  control  their  jiassions,  and  any  breach  of 
insubordination  being  fatal  to  the  esprit  of  a  force 
imless  siunmarily  repre.s.sed,  it  is  considered  necessary 
to  retain  the  power — however  rarely  exercised — of  in- 
flicting the  painful  and  humiliating  punishment  of 
flogging.  The  French  soldier,  though  escaping  the 
ignominy  of  personal  chastisement,  is  governed  by  a 
code  hai-sher  than  our  Articles  of  War  as  actually  ad- 
ministered; and  the  punishment  of  death,  scarcely 
known  during  peace,  is  not  unfrequently  visited  in 
France  upon  offenders  against  discipline. 

The  practice  of  flogging  was  long  ago  discontinued 
by  the  United  States'Government.  It  may  be  noted, 
however,  that  under  the  statutes  of  one  State  (Dela- 
ware) it  exists  as  a  punishment  for  petty  crimes. 

FLOODGATE.— In  fortified  towns,  a  structure  com- 
jioseil  of  two  or  four  gales,  so  that  the  besieged  by 
opening  the  gates  may  inundate  the  en\irons  so  as  to 
keep  th<'  enemy  out  of  gun-shot. 

FLOTANT.— A  term  "employed  in  Heraldry  to  ex- 
press that  the  object  is  flying  in  the  air  as,  for  exam- 
ple, a  baimer-flotant.     See  Utraldry. 

FLOURISH. — 1 .  To  execute  an  irregular  or  fancifid 
strain  of  music,  by  way  of  ornament  or  prelude;  as, 
a  flourish  iiftni  111)11  tx.  'J,  The  wa\iug  or  brandishing 
of  a  weapon. 

FLOURISH  OF  TRUMPETS.— The  soundin"  used 
by  regiments  having  no  bands  in  receiving  a  General 
Officer  on  parade,  viz..  by  the  trumpets  or  bugles    ' 
soundluL'  the  "  flourish." 

FLUGELHORN.— The  introduction  of  the  flUgel- 
horn  into  liands  in  this  country  is  of  comparatively 
recent  date,  though  in  the  larger  bands  of  Euroiw  the 
very  pli-asing  effect  of  this  instrument  is  generalli'  re- 
cognized, and  is  in  consequence  commonly  used.  Its 
key  is  B  flat,  and  in  size  it  is  between  the  B6  cornet 
and  Ei  alto.  If  usually  takes  the  parts  given  the  3d 
and  4th  B6  cornets,  perfecting  the  harmony  at  this 
point  where  it  is  often  weak.  It  can  also  be  used 
willi  very  |ileasing  results  in  certain  solo  parts  and 
cadenzas,  or  in  duos  with  the  cornets.     In  fact,  the 


FLTT6ELUAK. 


681 


FLYING  BRIDGE. 


flQgelhorn  to  a  band  is  what  a  French  horn  is  to  the 
orchestra.     A  baud  of  13  or  14  pieces  should  include 


at  least  one,  and  of  15  to  20  pieces  two  of  these  horns. 
The  drawing  shows  the  Kb  alto,  bell  front. 

FLU6ELMAN.— The  leader  of  a  tile;  the  one  who 
.stands  in  front  of  a  body  of  soldiers,  and  whose  mo- 
tions in  manual  exercise  they  all  simultaneously  fol- 
low.    Also  written  Fvgeliiiuii. 

FLUSHED. — A  term  frequently  applied  when  men 
have  been  successful,  as  in  the  e.vpression /««/(f(i  irith 
victory. 

FLUTE. — This  wind-instrument,  so  frequentlj'  u.sed 
in  military  bands  and  so  well  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks,  has  a  soft  and  pleasant  quality  of  tone.  It 
Is  commonly  made  of  bo.xwood  or  eboiiy,  but  some- 
tunes  of  ivory  or  silver.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  taper 
tube,  firmed  in  four  pieces,  with  six  holes  for  the 
Angel's,  and  with  from  one  to  fourteen  keys,  which 
cover  or  open  other  holes.  The  sound  is  produced  by 
blowing  from  the  mouth  into  the  emlx)uehure,  an 
oval  kind  of  hole  at  one  side  of  the  thick  end,  which 
is  done  by  the  lips  covering  a  part  of  the  hole,  so  that 
the  air  in  it.s  passage  from  the  mouth  is  broken 
against  the  opposite  edge  of  the  hole,  which  causes 
the  column  of  air  inside  the  tube  to  vibrate.  The 
notes  of  the  gamut  are  produced  by  the  ojicning  or 
shutting  of  the  holes  by  the  lingers  of  both  hands. 
The  compa.ss  of  the  flute  is  from  D  to  A  sharp,  nine- 
teen diatonic  intervals.  For  solo-jilaying,  the  flute 
^vith  a  compass  from  G  to  C  is  sometimes  used.  For 
orchestral  i)urposes  there  are  also  the  tierce  flute, 
the  octave  flute,  the  E  flat  and  F  piccolo  flute;  and 
the  highest  of  all,  the  C  piccolo  Improvements  on 
the  flute  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by 
Quantz,  Ribock,  Trommlitz,  and  especially  by  BiJhm 
in  Germany,  and  by  Rudell  and  Rose  in  London. 

FLUX.— The  tenii  given  to  the  substances  employed 
in  the  arts  which  cause  or  facilitate  the  reduction  of 
a  metallic  ore  and  the  fusion  of  the  metal,  ^\'llit<• 
fiuj-  is  an  intimate  mixtme  of  10  parts  of  dry  carbonate 
of  soda  and  13  parts  of  dry  carlionate  of  potash,  and 
is  mainly  instrumental  inwilhdrawing  the  silica  or 
combined  sand  from  mineral  substances;  Mark  flii.r  is 
prepared  by  heating  in  close  ve.s.sels  ordinary  cream 
of  tartar  (bitarlrale  of  pot;ish),  when  an  intimate  mix- 
ture of  finely  divided  charcoal  and  carbonate  of  pot- 
ash is  obtained.  The  latter  flux,  when  mixed  with 
linely  divided  metallic  ores,  and  the  whole  raised  to 
a  high  temperature  in  a  furnace,  is  not  only  useful  in 
removing  the  silica,  w  hich  the  carbonate  of  potash  it 
contains  enables  it  to  do.  but  the  charcoal  withdraws 
the  oxygen  from  the  metallic  oxide  ;ind  causes  the 
separation  of  the  pure  metal.  Limestone  is  employed 
as  the  flux  in  >he  smelting  of  iron  ores.  The  other 
fluxes  are  fluor  spar,  borax,  protoxide  of  lead,  etc. 
See  Iron. 

FLUXIONS.— The  method  of  fluxions  mventcd  by 
Newton  was  intimately  coimected  with  the  notion  of 
velocity  uniform  and  variable;  and  extended  that  no- 
tion, derived  from  the  consideration  of  a  moving 
point,  to  every  species  of  magnitude  and  quantity. 
It  proposed  to" determine  in  all  cases  the  rate  of  in- 
crease or  decresLse  of  a  magnitude  or  quantity  whose 
value  depends  on  that  of  another,  which  itself  varies 
in  value  at  a  uniform  and  given  rate.  If  x  and  y  rep- 
resent two  such  quantities,  and  .v  =  F  (x)  represent  the 
law  of  their  dependence,  and  if  j  be  suppo.sed  to  be 
the  velocity  with  which  t  increases,  and  y  that  with 


which  y  changes  value.  Newton  undertook  by  his 
method  to  express  y  in  tenns  of  x  and  of  x,  or  to  find 
y  —  ¥i  (.(•).  X.  The  quantities  x  and  y,  which  in  mod- 
em hmguage  we  call  the  variables,  he  called  Jtoiri/ig 
quantities  or  fliientx,  and  x,  y,  which  wc  should  rep- 
resent by  (f.r  and  rfy,  and  call  differentials,  he  called 
the  fli/xion  of  x  and  (/.  See  Cai-cii.us.  To  illustrate 
his  notation:  Suppose  y  =  x",  it  may  be  shown  that 
y=na"-'j-.  Regarding  now  ^  as  a  quantity  depend- 
ing on  x  and  x,  and  supposing  x  to  increase  uni- 

formly,  in  which  case  x  is  constant,  and  (r)  its  fluxion 
zero,  we  observe  that  y  may  have  a  fluxion,  for  it  de- 
pends on  the  value  assumed  by  nx"-'  .x,  when  x 

further  changes.     We  find  (y)  =  n.{n  —  \). x^--. (xf. 

Thus,  second  fluxion  or  velocity  of  y,  or  (y),  Newton 
wrote  y.  If  .;•  had  a  second  fluxion,  or  did  not 
change  uniformly,  then  that  fluxion  he  wix)te  x.     The 

third  fluxion  of  y  he  wrote,!/;  and  soon,  pointing  as 
many  jioints  over  the  fluent  as  there  are  units  in  the 
order  of  the  fluxion.  For  the  fluent  he  had  no 
special  symbol.     Instead  of /«.i° -'  dx  =  r\  according 

to  the  modern  notation,  he  wrote  in^-'.^-',  putting 

the  cxjiression  in  an  inclosurc.  Imagine  a  point  to 
move  uniformly  in  the  direction  of  a  fixed  line,  and, 
at  the  s;ime  time,  to  have  a  variable  transvei'se  motion 
depending  upon  a  law  which  determines  the  charac- 
ter of  the  cune  or  line  thus  generated.  The  indefi- 
nite jiart  of  the  curve  up  to  any  point  is  the  Jl>i>  nt, 
and  the  exceedingly  small  element  of  the  curve  that  is 
generated  in  the  next  infinitesimal ,  but  constant,  period 
of  time  is  the  fluxion.  These  are  Imth  variable  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  straight  lines.  Pas.sing  from  the 
consideration  of  the  motion  of  a  point  in  a  plane  to 
that  of  a  ]>oint  in  space,  it  is  evident  that  llie  generat- 
ing point  will  describe  a  straight  line,  or  a  curve  of 
single  or  double  curvature.  Equations  can  be  con- 
stnicted  formulating  law  s  of  motion  w  hich  will  cause 
the  general  point  to  trace  any  curve  whatever,  and 
from  these  equations  the  natures  of  the  curves  can  be 
discovered.  The  .science  of  fl\U'nts  and  tluxioijs  is 
based  upon  the  ahove  principles.  Any  plane  figure 
can  be  generated  liy  the  motion  of  a  straight  line,  and 
any  volume  by  the  motion  of  a  plane  figure.  In  all 
cases,  the  portion  of  a  plane  figure  or  voliune  gener- 
ated in  the  time  /  is  the  fluent,  while  that  generated 
in  the  time  dt  is  the  fluxion.  In  practice,  the  method 
of  inti'grals  imd  differentials  has  superseded  the  sys- 
tem oftluents  and  fluxions,  chiefly  because  the  nota- 
tion of  the  latter  is  too  cvunljersome. 

FLY. — The  length  of  any  flag.  The  dimension  at 
right  angles  to  tlie  st;iff,  the  other  dimension  being 
th^^  hoitt.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  outer  can- 
vas of  a  tent.     Sec  Tent. 

FLYING  ARMY. — A  strong  body  of  cavalry  and 
infantry  w  hich  is  always  in  motion,  both  to  cover  its 
own  garrisons  and  to  keep  the  enemy  in  continual 
alarm"  The  flyii'g  artillery  is  also  trained  to  very 
rapid  evolutions. 

FLYING  BRIDGE.— A  flying  bridge  is  an  arrange- 
ment by  which  a  stream  with  a  good  current  may  l)e 
crossed  when,  from  a  want  of  time  or  a  deficiency  of 
materials,  it  may  not  be  possible  to  fonn  a  bridge.  Il 
consists  of  a  large  boat  or  raft  firndy  attached  by  a 
long  cable  to  a  mo<5ring  in  the  center  of  th(>  stream,  if 
the  channel  be  straight,  or  on  the  hank,  if  the  channel 
be  curved.  By  hauling  the  lioal  or  raft  into  jirojX'r 
positions,  it  will  be  driven  across  the  stream  iii  either 
direction  as  may  be  desired.  The  bridge  is  made 
usually  of  two,  three,  and  sometimes  six  boats,  con- 
nected together  and  very  solidly  floored  over,  the 
beams  being  fastened  to  the  giuiwatcs  of  the  boats 
with  iron  bolts  or  bands,  and  the  flooring-planks 
nailed  down  upon  them.  The  floor  is  sometimes  sur- 
rounded with  a  guard-rail.     The  most  suitable  boats 


FLYIHG  CAMP. 


682 


FXY-WHEIL. 


arc  long,  uarrow,  and  deep,  with  their  sides  nearly 
vertiml,  in  onler  to  offer  greater  resistance  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  current.  At  the  end  of  the  rope  is  fixed  an 
anchor  which  is  moored  in  the  channel,  it  this  is  in 
the  middle  of  the  stream.  If  the  channel  is  not  in  the 
iniildle,  the  anchor  is  placed  a  little  on  one  side  of  it 
towanis  the  more  distant  shore.  By  means  of  the 
rudder,  the  bridge  is  turned  in  such  "a  direction  that 
it  is  struck  obliquely  by  the  current,  and  the  force  re- 
sulting from  the  deconiiX)sition  of  the  action  of  the 
current  maiics  it  describe  an  are  of  a  circle  arouml  the 
anchor  as  a  center,  and  this  force  acquires  its  ma.\inuim 
elTect  when  the  sides  of  the  boats  make  an  angle  of 
about  .55'  with  the  direction  of  the  current.  See 
Bri(l;/iK  and  Tinilhrkhje. 

FLYING  CAMP.— A  camp  or  body  of  troops  formed 
for  rapid  motion  from  one  place  to  another. 

FLYING  COLORS.— Colors  unfurled  and  left  to  wave 
in  the  air.  Uence,  to  return  or  come  off  icit/i  Jtjliitg 
colore  is  to  he  victorious,  or  to  succeed  in  any  imder- 
taking. 

FLYING  PARTY. — A  detachment  of  men  employed 
to  hover  about  an  enemy  and  observe  his  mo\  cmeuts. 

FLYING  SAP.  —  In  all  siege-operations,  when  the 
trenches  have  been  pushed  forward  to  within  de- 
structive range  of  case-shot,  the  construction  by  the 
simple  trench  has  to  be  abandoned,  and  one  which 
will  afford  more  speedy  shelter  resorted  to.  This  is 
effected  by  placing  a  row  of  oriliuaiy  gabions  in  jux- 
taposition along  the  direction  of  the  trench;  these 
being  tilled  with  the  earth  from  the  trench,  the  para- 
pet is  completed  by  throwing  the  remaining  earth 
over  and  beyond  them.  This  proce.ss  is  termed  the 
flying  sap,  from  the  rapidity  with  which  the  work  is 


Section  of  Parallel  with  Flying  Sap. 

done.  It  is  also  executed  by  troops  of  the  line,  each 
man  bringing  twogaliions  on  the  ground,  which  he  is 
required  to  till,  and  also  to  complete  the  portion  of 
the  trench,  in  the  rear  of  them,  assigned  to  the  relief 
to  which  he  l>elongs.  The  requisite  lieiglit  is  given  to 
the  i>araiiet  either  by  heaping  ny>  the  earth  above  the 
top  of  the  gabions,  or  by  placing  three  ordinary  fas- 
cines upon  the  gabions,  two  being  in  the  liottom  course 
and  the  other  on  top,  and  throwing  up  the  earth  at 
least  as  liigh  as  the  top  fascine.  In  jiositions  where 
the  earth  cannot  be  obtained  in  suthcient  quantity  to 
afford  a  speedy  cover,  as  in  a  shallow  stratum  of  "soil 
on  rock,  etc.,  two  rows  of  gabions,  placed  in  juxtapo- 
sition, may  he  used  for  the  flying  sap.  The  troojis 
for  constructing  both  this  and  the  simple  trench  arc 
divided  into  three  parties  or  reliefs.  The  first  digs 
the  trench  to  the  requisite  depth  and  to  the  width 
of  .")  feet.  The  second  widens  it  4  feet  6  inches.  The 
third  finishes  what  remains,  gi\ing  the  requisite  slopes 
to  the  front  ami  rear.     See  Sap. 

FLYINGSHOT.— A  shot  fired  at  any  object  in  mo- 
tion, as  a  horseman,  or  a  ship  under  sail,  etc.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  marksman  who  fires  thus. 

FLYING-TORCH.- An  important  article  of  signal- 
( (luipment.  This  torch  is  attached  to  a  long  stidi,  and 
is  iisiil  in  niirht-signaling. 

FLY-WHEEL.— A  heavy  wheel  attached  to  ma- 
chinery to  ((pialize  the  movement.  By  its  inertia  it 
opposes  any  sudden  acceleration  of  speed,  and  by  its 
momentum  it  prevents  sudden  diminution  of  speed; 
in  the  latter  case  it  acts  as  a  store  of  power  to  con- 
tinue the  movement  wlun  the  motor  temporarily 
flags,  or  in  passing  dead-centers  when  the  motor  is 
inoperative.  In  the  Cummer  engine,  when  the  fly- 
wheel is  used,  instead  of  having  heavy  weights  mov- 
ing back  and  forth  with  a  variable  velocity,  there  is 
a  wheel  with  a  heavy  rim  revolving  continuously  in 


the  same  direction  with  groat  velocilv  and  thus  stor- 
ing up  a  large  amount  of  energy.  The  work  done 
by  the  steam  at  the  commencement  of  a  stroke,  in 
excess  of  the  mesm  work,  is  so  small  compared  with 
the  energy  stored  in  the  fly-wheel,  that  no  great  in- 
creiuse  in  velocity  can  take  place  ;  the  fly-wheel  sim- 
ply absorbs  the  excess  without  a  perceptible  increase 
of" speed.  A  similar  state  of  things  exists  at  the  latter 
part  of  a  stroke,  when  the  steam-pressure  has  rapidly 
fallen  and  less  work  is  done  ;  the  fly-wheel  then 
yields  up  a  part  of  its  energy  to  supply  the  deficiency 
iuid  still  does  not  visibly  retard  its  speed.  The  vary- 
ing effort  of  the  crank-pin  anil  the  varying  resistance 
of  the  load  are  also  met  in  the  Siime  way,  and  the  re- 
sult is  to  approximate  very  clo.sely  to  a  uniform  tan- 
gential pressure  upon  the  crank-pin,  with  onl3-  very 
slight  variations  in  the  velocity  of  the  fly-wheel. 
Just  at  this  point  comes  in  the  office  of  the  governor, 
for  the  slightest  change  of  speed  is  instantly  met  by 
a  change  in  the  point  of  cut-off  and  standard  speed 
restored.  But  it  is  important  to  have  a  fly-wheel  so 
Iiroportioned  that  it  does  not  admit  of  any  sudden  or 
a  great  cliange  of  speed.  If  the  rim  is  not  hwivy 
enough,  any  slight  change  of  pressure  or  load  causes 
considerable  ch:iuge  of  speed,  and  when  the  governor 
acts  to  correct  this  there  is  caused  a  variation  in  the 
other  direction ;  thus  with  a  sensitive  governor  and 
a  light  fly-wheel  there  is  a  continual  and  quite  im- 
necessary  fluctuation  of  speed.  This  does  not  occur 
with  such  a  weight  of  rim  as  the  fly-wheels  of  the 
Cummer  engine  have ;  with  them  the  permissible 
variation  from  standard  speed  is  very  small,  and  the 
governor  is  depended  upon  for  the  rest  of  the  regu- 
lation. 

As  a  matter  of  interest  in  connection  with 
fly-wheels,  we  have  made  a  diagram  which 
shows  the  variations  of  power,  above  and 
below  the  mean  work  done  in  a  revolution, 
with  a  steam-pressure  of  90  lbs.  and  a  cut-off 
of  I  stroke.  The  mode  of  constructing  this 
diagram  is  very  simple  and  it  may  be  briefly 
explained  : 

We  constructed  an  ideal  diagram,  such  as 
Fig.  1,  forsteam  at  90  lbs.,  cut-off  at  I  stroke,  and  then 
expanded  to  the  end.  The  length  of  the  diagram  rep- 
resenting the  stroke,  we  ma}'  construct  a  semicircle 
upon  this  line  and  divide  the  half-circumference  into 
equal  parts,  representing  successive  positions  of  the 
crank  ;  if  the  connecting-rod  be  infinitely  long,  lines 
drawn  from  these  points,  at  right  angles  to  the  ba.se- 
line,  will  give  the  corresponding  positions  of  the  pis- 
ton, and,  being  ordinates  of  an  indicator-diagram, 
will  show  by  their  length  the  pressure  upon  the  pis- 
ton for  each  of  these  positions  of  the  crank.     These 


Fio.  1. 


pressures,  however,  are  not  just  those  which  pVopcl 
the  crank  ;  it  is  the  tangential  pressures  upon  the 
crank  which  we  desire  to  have  ;  these  are  difTerent 
for  each  angle  of  the  crank  with  the  line  of  centers  ; 
and,  since  in  practice  tlie  connecting-rod  has  a  defi- 
nite length,  its  modifving  influence  must  be  allowed 
for.  We  made  then"a  table  of  tangential  pres,sure9 
for  forty  equal  divisions  of  the  circle,  supposing  the 
radius  to  represent  a  pressure  of  one  pound  per  stjuare 
inch  on  the  piston,  and  allowed  for  a  connecting-rod 
of  six  cranks'  length.  Then  from  the  diagram  were 
found  file  effectixe  .stcam-prcssures  corresponding  to 
each  crank-position,  which,  multiplied  by   the  tan- 


FOCUS  OF  EZFLOSIOK. 


688 


FOILING  MACHIKE. 


gential  crank-pressures  for  one  pound  pressure  on  the 
piston,  gives  the  tangential  pressure  for  each  di\-ision, 
with  90  lbs.  Initial  steam-pressure,  and  the  various 
effective  pressures  for  successive  points  as  taken  from 
the  diagram.  Referring  to  Fig.  2,  the  inner  circle 
has  a  diameter  equal  to  the  length  of  the  diagram, 
and  it  is  subdivided  into  a  number  of  equal  parts, 
and  radial  lines  are  drawn  extending  beyond  the  cu-- 


FlG.  2. 

cle  ;  upon  each  line  is  laid  off  the  corresponding  tan- 
gential pressure,  and  the  extremities  joined  by  a  line 
makes  the  curve  (i  h  c,  starting  from  a,  where  the 
pressure  is  0,  and  ending  at  c ,  where  the  pressure  is 
also  0.  The  return-stroke  gives  a  corresonding  curve, 
cda.  We  now  find  the  mean  tangential  pressure, 
which  is,  of  course,  the  average  of  all  these  other 
pressures,  and  represent  it  by  the  outer  circle.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  area  inclosed  between  the  two  circles 
represents  the  work  done  in  a  revolution  :  also  that  the 
sum  of  the  areas  included  between  the  two  curves 
ahc.  cda  and  the  inner  cucle  represents  the  same 
work.  These  two  curves  cross  the  circle  of  mean 
pressure,  a  part  of  the  curve  being  above  and  a  part 
below  the  line  ;  for  that  part  of  a  revolution  where 
the  curve  extends  above  the  circle  the  work  is  in  ex- 
cess, and  for  that  portion  where  the  curve  goes  be- 
low there  is  a  deficiency  of  work  done.  Two  phases 
of  a  revolution  show  an  excess,  and  two  phases  a 
deficiency,  and  the  excess  balances  thb  deficiency  for 
an  entire  revolution,  as  we  find  on  calculating  the 
areas.  Comparing  the  whole  excess  or  deficiency  with 
the  work  done  in  a  revolution,  which  is  represented 
by  the  mean  pressure  upon  the  crank-pin,  exerted 
through  360\  or  the  complete  circle,  we  find  a  vari- 
ation of  37.5  per  cent  for  a  whole  revolution.  If  we 
take  the  greatest  .irea.  which  is  the  excess  during  the 
first  quadrant,  and  compare  it  with  the  work  for  a 
stroke,  or  a  half-revolution,  we  will  have  a  variation 
of  4.'). 4  (XT  (lilt.     8ee  ^Uain-ftigiiu. 

FOCUS  OF  EXPLOSION.— The  center  of  the  cham- 
ber of  a  mine.     See  CraUr  and  Mines. 

FOCUS  OF  IGNITION.  —  The  point  at  which  the 
powder-hoses  or  the  Miicisxoiifi  are  brought  together 
when  several  mines  are  to  be  fired  simultaneously. 

FODDER.— The  food  collected  by  man  for  the  use 
of  the  domestic  herbivorous  quadrupeds.  In  English, 
the  term  is  commonly  restricted  to  dried  herbage,  as 
haj-  and  straw;  but  in  other  languages  it  is  more  com- 
prehensive, and  includes  all  the  food  of  stock  except 
what  they  gather  for  themselves  in  the  field.  The 
principal  part  of  the  food  of  all  the  domestic  hcrbiv- 
ora  is  furnished  by  grasses,  almost  all  of  which  arc 


eaten  by  them  when  fresh  and  green.  Besides  the 
supplies  which  they  receive  of  all  the  kinds  of  com 
cultivated  for  human  food,  they  are  also,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  dependent  on  the  nirair  or  dried  herb- 
age of  the  corn-plants  for  their  winter  provender;  and 
that  of  many  other  grasses,  cultivated  on  this  accoimt 
alone,  is  converted  into  hai/  for  their  use.  Hav,  being 
cut  and  rapidly  dried  whilst  the  plant  is  siifl  full  of 
sap,  contains  more  nutritious  matter  than  the  ripened 
straw  of  the  cereals.  The  most  important  fodder- 
grass  is  rye-grass,  next  to  which  must  be  ranked 
timothy-grass;  but  all  the  meadow-grasses  and  larger 
pasture-grasses  also  contribute  to  the  supply  of  hay. 
Kext  to  the  grasses  must  l)e  ranked  different  kinils  of 
kgnmiiwsa,  affording  food  for  stock  in  their  seeds — 
as  beans,  peas,  lentils,  lupines,  etc. — and  in  their  her- 
bage, on  account  of  which  many  of  them  are  cultivated, 
as  clover,  mtdick,  melilot,  vetch,  tare,  Siiinfoin,  etc., 
of  some  of  which  there  are  numerous  species.  Some 
of  these  also  often  enter  pretty  largely  into  the  com- 
position of  hay,  being  cut  and  dried  with  the  grasses 
along  with  which  they  have  been  sown;  which  is  the 
case  also  with  some  plants  of  other  orders,  as  the  rib- 
wort plantain,  etc.  Some  of  the  crucifira  are  culti- 
vated to  a  considerable  extent  as  forage-plants,  cattle 
being  fed  on  their  green  herbage,  although  they  are 
not  suitable  for  drjing  as  fodder.  In  portions  of  the 
world,  stock  are  not  unfrequently  fed  on  the  leave*  of 
trees,  as  in  the  Himalayas,  where  the  leaves  of  different 
species  of  aralia,  greitia,  elm  and  oak,  are  chiefly 
employed  for  this  purpose,  and  are  collected,  dried, 
and  stacked  for  winter  fodder.     See  Foraye. 

FOE. — An  enemy  in  war;  a  national  enemy;  a  hostile 
army;  an  adversary.  Also  written  Foemait  a.n({  Foue, 
but  the  latter  is  now  obsolete. 

FOGEY. — 1.  A  tenn  sometimes  applied  to  an  inva- 
lid soldier  or  sailor.  2.  The  common  expression  for 
extra  pay  for  long  service. 

FOIL. — 1.  A  thin  bar  of  elastic  steel,  mounted  as  a 
rapier,  but  without  a  point,  and  additionally  blunted 
at  the  end  by  the  presence  of  a  button  covered  with 
leather.  See  Fencing.  2.  A  general  name  for  thia 
metal  intermediate  in  thickness  between  leaf-metal, 
such  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper  leaf,  and  sheet-metal. 
There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  foil  in  common  use — 
the  tin-foil  used  for  silvering  and  for  the  conducting 
coatings  of  electrical  apparatus;  and  the  bright  foils 
employed  by  the  jewelers  for  backing  real  or  artificial 
gems,  and  therebj-  increasing  theu-  luster  or  modifying 
their  color. 

FOILING-taACHINE.— A  machine  employed  in  the 
fabrication  of  cartridge-primers.  The  one  used  at 
Frankford  Arsenal,  and  represented  in  the  drawing. 


Foiling-machioe. 

is  a  single-action  pre.ss  arranged  to  receive  and  move 
horizontally  the  plate  of  caps  under  a  gang  of  punches 
and  dies.  The  strip  of  foil  is  fed  between  these  tools, 
and  by  them  cut  into  disks.  The  punches  press  the 
disks  through  the  dies  into  the  caps,  and  the  ends  of 


FOISSONNEMENT. 


(;S4 


FOOT-TON. 


till'  punclies,  beini;  (X)nc:ive,  press  tl;o  edges  of  the 
disks  anmiul  the  cliuruTs  ajpiinsl  the  Iwtloms  of  the 
caps,  aiul  at  the  same  time  the  i)un(h  gives  tlie  charge 
a  unifdrin  conical  shape,  that  its  heisjht  may  permit 
the  iuserlion  of  the  anvil  far  enough  into  the  cap  to 
prevent  anv  premature  exi>losion  in  this  operation  and 
that  of  inserting  the  completed  jirinier  iu  the  pocket  of 
the  shell,  while  leaving  no  unnecessary  s])ace  between 
the  anvil  and  the  apex  of  the  charge.  See  V<i li ridge- 
prim  r  ami  C,  iiUr-priiiiKl  MiUiUir-cdite  C'tirtridge. 

FOISSONNEMENT.— A  term  used  in  forlilication  to 
signify  the  increase  in  hulk  of  earth  after  its  excava- 
tion. "  This  increase  varies  from  one  eighth  to  one 
twelfth  generally.  For  all  ordinary  sand  it  is  one 
twentielli. 

FOLDING-BOAT.— A  boat  having  a  jointed  frame- 
•work  covered  with  canvas,  used  in  campaigning  and 
hv  travelers. 

FOLLOW-BOARD.— A  board  beneath  the  pattern,  in 
the  louudry,  and  on  wliicli  the  pattern  lies  while  the 
loam  is  lieiiig  rammed.     .See  liroiize  Gnus. 

FOLLOWER-WEIGHT.— A  weight  employed  in  the 
ft<il-driims  of  certain  machine-guns  to  force  the  Ciir- 
tridges  downward  towards  the  barrels  when  firing. 
Skv  Oiilliiiff  Oun  and  Fivd-dnim. 

FOLLOW  UP. — To  pursue  with  an  additional  \ngor 
Bome  arlvantage  which  has  already  been  gained. 

FOOD. — Although  very  nearly  sixty  elementary  sul)- 
stanccs  are  known  to  chemists,  only  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  these  take  part  in  Ihe  forn\alion  of 
man  and  other  animals;  and  it  is  only  this  small 
numl)er  of  constituents  which  are  essential  elements 
of  our  food.  These  elements  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  oxj-gen,  jihosphorus,  sulphur,  chlorine, 
smliiun,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  and 
fluorine. 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen  are  sup- 
plied to  the  system  liy  the  albuminous  group  of 
alimentary  principles,  viz.,  albumen,  tibrine,  and 
caseine,  which  occur  both  in  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms,  and  the  gluten  contained  in  vegetables. 
Animal  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  corn,  and  many  other  vcge- 
talile  products  contain  one  oi'  more  of  these  principles. 
The  gelatinous  group  also  introduces  the  same  ele- 
ments into  the  system  when  such  substances  as  pre- 
parations of  isinglass,  calves'  feet,  etc.,  are  taken  as 
food.  Carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxvgen  aic  abundantly 
introduced  into  the  system  in  the  form  of  sugar,  starch 
(which  occurs  in  large  quantity  in  the  cereal  grains, 
leguminous  seeds,  roots,  tubers,  etc.,  used  4s food),  and 
organic  acids  (which,  as  citric,  malic,  tartaric  acid, 
etc.,  occur  in  numerous  veget;ibles  emiiloyed  as  food). 
Carbon,  with  a  little  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  occurs 
aljundantly  in  the  oleaginous  group  of  alimentary 
principles,  as,  for  instance,  in  all  the  fat,  suet,  butter, 
and  oil  that  we  eat;  in  the  oily  seeds,  as  nuts,  walnuts, 
cocoa-nuts,  etc.;  antf  in  fatty  foods,  as  liver,  brain, 
etc.  Phosphorus  is  supplied  to  us  by  Ihe  flesh,  blood, 
and  bones  used  as  food  (the  flesh  of  fishes  is  especially 
rich  in  phosphoric  matter),  and  in  the  form  of  various 
phosphates  it  is  a  consiiiuent  of  many  of  the  vege- 
tables used  as  food.  The  .system  derives  its  sulphur 
from  the  tibrine  of  Hesh,  the" albumen  of  eggs,  and  the 
ca.scine  of  milk,  from  the  vegetable  tibrine  of  corn,  etc. , 
from  the  vegetable  albumen  of  turnips,  cauliflowers, 
asparagus,  etc.,  and  from  the  vegetable  ca.seine  of 
l)ease  and  beans.  Most  of  the  culinary  vegetables 
contain  it,  especially  the  cnirifirii'.  ('Idorine  and 
sodium,  in  the  form  of  chloride  of  sodium,  arc  more 
or  less  abundanlly  conlain<Ml  in  all  varieties  of  animal 
food,  and  are  taken  separately  as  common  .s;ili.  Potas- 
sium is  a  constituent  of  both  animal  and  vegetable 
f<x>d;  it  occurs  in  consideralile  (piantity  in  milk,  and 
in  Ihe  juice  that  permeates  animal  flesh;  and  most  in- 
land plants  contain  il.  We  derive  the  calcium  of  our 
system  from  flesh,  bones,  eggs,  milk,  etc.  (all  of  which 
contain  salts  of  lime);  mo.st  vegelables  also  contain 
limesalLs;  and  another  source  of  our  calcium  is  com 
nion  water,  which  usuallv  contains  lH>lh  bicarbonate 
and  sulphate  of  lime.     Magnesium  in  small  (juantit^' 


is  generally  found  in  those  foods  that  contain  calcium. 
Iron  is  a  consiiiuent  of  the  blood  found  in  meat;  and 
it  occurs  in  smaller  (|uantity  in  milk,  in  the  volk  of 
egg,  and  in  tnices  in  most  vegetable  foods.  I'luorine 
occiu^s  in  minute  ipiantily  in  the  bones  and  teeth. 
This  .small  quantity  is  accounled  for  liy  the  traces  of 
fluorine  found  by  Dr.  George  \Vilsi)n  iii  milk,  blood, 
etc. 

These  simple  bodies  are  not,  however,  capable  of 
being  assimilated  and  converted  into  tissue;  they  must 
be  previously  combined,  and  this  ct)mbination  is 
primarily  conducted  by  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The 
number  of  combined  elements  varies:  thus  water  con- 
tains oidy  2\  sugar,  starch,  fat,  and  many  organic 
acids  contain  :i;  caseine  contains  5;  and  fibrine  and 
albumen  contain  6. 

It  would  be  impos.sible.  and  it  is  quite  unnecessarj', 
to  mention  in  this  article  the  difTcrcnl  animals  and 
plants  that  are  used  as  food  by  dill'erent  nations.  The 
subject  is,  however,  an  interesting  one,  and  those  who 
desire  to  study  it  may  be  referred  to  Jloleschotf's 
Physiologie  dtr  j\ahrvngi>mitt<l  (1H5I)),  and  especially 
to  Reich 'sJV«//;v/ /(17s-  uud  G( >i iisiwiilUlhn iidf  (ISdO-Ql), 
which  is  the  most  learned  and  elaborate  work  on  the 
subject  in  any  language.     See  ])iitiir>i. 

FOOT.— 1.  The  most  common  unit  of  lineal  measure 
all  over  the  world.  It  has  been  evidently  taken  origin- 
ally from  the  length  of  the  luunau  foot,  and  as  that 
varies  in  length,  .so  iloes  the  measure;  each  countty,  and 
at  onetime  each  town,  having  a  foot  of  its  own.  The 
three  foot-measures  that  occur  most  frequentiv  are  the 
Paris  foot,  or  pi>d  de  rvi,  the  (German)  Rhenish  foot, 
and  the  ilnglish.  Compared  with  the  French  mtter 
(=  3.28090  feet  Knglisb),  they  stand  thus: 

Meters.  Inches. 


English  foot 
Paris        " 
Rhenish   " 


=  0.80479 
=  0.32484 
=   0.31385 


Paris  foot        =  12.78912 
Rhenish  foot  =   12.35652 


In  round  numbers,  46  French  feet  =  49  English  feet, 
34  Rhenish  or  German  feet  =  35  English,  and  57 
French  feet  =  59  Rhenish.  The  Russian  foot  is  equal 
to  the  English.  Almost  every  German  State  has  or 
had  a  dillerenl  foot.  The  Rhenish  foot  is  that  used 
in  Prussia.  The  longest  foot  occurring  is  the  old 
Turin  foot  =  20  inches  English.  Jlany  local  feet  are 
rinly  aliout  10  inches.  The  toot  has  aliiiost  uniformly 
been  divided  into  12  inches;  the  inch  into  12  lines, 
often  into  tenths.  The  Frence  pied  nmtl  is  the  thu-d 
part  of  Ihe  meter. 

2.  A  term  often  applied  to  foot  soldiers.  The  in- 
fantry is  usually  designated  as  the/wrf,  in  distinction 
from  Ihe  cavalry. 

FOOT-ARTILLERY. — Artillery  soldiers  .serving  on 
fool      The  name  is  also  ajiplied  to  heavy  artillery. 

FOOT  BOARDS.— The  transverse  board's  on  the  front 
of  a  limber,  on  which  Ihe  cannoneers  rest  their  feet 
when  mounted. 

FOOT-FIGHT.— A  conflict  by  persons  on  foot;  in 
opiiosilioii  to  a  fighl  when  mounted  or  on  horseback. 

FOOT  GUARDS.— The  flower  of  the  Biitish  infantry, 
and  the  garrison  ordinarily  of  Ihe  metropolis,  comprise 
three  regiments,  the  Grenadier,  Coldstream,  and  Scots 
Fu.silicr  Guards,  in  all  7  battalions  and  6307  officers 
and  men.     Sec  Oimrdn. 

FOOT-LEVEL.— A  form  of  level  used  by  gunners  in 
giving  any  ])roi)osed  angle  of  elevation  to  a  piece  of 
ordnance. 

FOOT-POUND.— The  unit  by  which  the  trnrk  done 
by  a  force  is  eslinialcd;  lluis  (taking  1  lb.  and  1  foot 
as  the  units  of  weight  and  distance),  if  1  lb.  be  raised 
through  1  foot,  the  irork  done  is  cqtial  to  1  foot-pound; 
if  10  lbs.  be  niiscd  9  feet,  the  imrk  done  is  90  foot- 
|)Ounds;  and  generally,  if  W  represent  the  m>rk  done, 
P  the  ireigfil  in  pounds,  and  /(  the  heigld  in  feet,  then 
AV  (in  foot  pounds)       Vh. 

FOOT-TON.  In  EnL'Iand  the  power  of  modern  ord 
nance  is  estimated  f>y  the  energy  of  the  shot  in  fool- 
tons,  divided  by  Ihe  number  of  inches  in  Ihe  shot's 
cireumfcreuce.     The  expression   for  the  energy   is 


FOBA0E. 


685 


FOSAGE-CAP. 


wv- 

E  =  ;; ,  in  which  W  is  the  weight  of  the  shot  in 

2:ir.g  * 

tons,  V  is  the  velocity,  2;rr  the  circumference  of  the 

shot  in  inches,  and  g  the  force  of  eravity.    is  the 

ff 
liWnir  force  of  the  shot,  and  is  equal  to  twice  the 
quantity  of  work  it  is  capable  of  doing:. 

F0KA6£. — 1.  To  collect  supplies  both  for  man  and 
stock,  from  an  enemy  by  force,  and  from  friends  by 
impressment.  In  the  latter  Ciuse  receipts  arc  ^ven  and 
the  claims  are  paid  ultimately. 

2.  The  hay,  corn,  fodder,  oats,  etc.,  required  for 
the  subsistence  of  the  animals  in  an  army.  It  is  of 
two  kinds,  green  and  drj';  the  former  consists  of  green 
grass,  tjiris,  vetches,  etc. ;  the  latter  of  oats,  hay,  and 
sometimes  of  corn,  fodder,  barley,  etc.,  according  to 
circumstances  and  the  country  in  which  the  animals 
may  be  serving.  In  India  the  daily  food  given  to 
horses  consists  of  grain  and  grass.  Oienerally  4  seers 
or  8  poun<ls  per  horse  is  given  of  the  former  during  the 
warm  sesison,  and  5  seers  throughout  the  cold  weather 
and  when  on  the  march.  Grass,  about  30  pounds  daily, 
is  provided  by  gra.ss-cutters,  of  whom  there  is  usually 
one  to  every  two  animals.  On  the  march,  should  it 
be  difficult  to  obtain  gi'iiss,  a  requisition  is  made  on 
the  Civil  Authorities  to  collect  it  at  any  named  place. 
The  forage  for  IjuUocks  in  India  consists  of  6  pounds 
of  grain  iind  14  pounds  of  chopped  straw,  called 
bfioosa.  Camels  feed  on  the  leaves  of  the  pepul-tree. 
Elephants  are  fed  on  wheaten  cakes  mi.xed  with  mo- 
lasses, called  in  India  go>ir.  The  daily  ration  is  from 
15  to  80  pounds  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal. 
The  green  food  consists  of  sugar-cane  or  green  leaves 
of  different  trees.  Where  troops  are  together,  in  Eng- 
land, the  provision  of  forage  devolves  on  the  Commis- 
sariat: Orficers  of  the  Staff,  etc.,  who  are  entitled  to 
horses,  but  whose  duties  are  at  stations  where  bodies 
of  horse  are  not  collected,  receive  a  money  allowance, 
in  lieu  of  forage  in  kind,  varying  according  to  the 
place  and  price  of  provender,  but  usually  alxiut  Is. 
10(f.  to  in.  per  horse  per  day.  ^Vhen  a  soldier  is  en 
mute  away  from  his  regiment,  the  innkeeper  with 
whom  li"  .stops  is  bound,  under  the  Mutiny  Act,  to  pro- 
v\de  his  horse  with  the  specified  ration  of  forage — \iz. , 
10  pounds  oats,  I'i  pounds  hay,  and  8  pounds  straw, 
for  the  payment  of  l.*.  9d.  a  da}',  which  must  also  in- 
clude stabling.  The  daily  .ration  in  the  United  States 
army  is  for  each  horse  14  pounds  hay  and  13  pounds 
oats,  barley,  or  corn.  For  a  mule  the  s;ime  amount 
of  hay  with  9  pounds  grain.  Leaves  of  Indian  corn 
are  used  in  default  of  hay.  The  consumption  of  for- 
age during  active  army  operations  is  enonnous.  and 
the  weight  is  foiu'  and  a  half  times  as  much  as  that  of 
all  other  subsistence  supplies.  Duiing  the  War  of  the 
Rebellion  there  were  issued  from  the  depot  of  Wash- 
ington 4,.500,0O0  bushels  of  corn,  29,000,000  bushels 
of  oats,  and  490,000  tons  of  hay.  Partial  reports  of 
the  Quartermaster  General  show  issues  of  forage  dur- 
ing the  war  as  follows: 

22,816,271  bushels  of  corn,  costing $29,879,314 

78,66:1799  bushels  of  oats,  costing 76,36 J.026 

1,518,631  tons  of  hay,  costing 48,.)95,8T2 

Total $154.837.212 

The  weight  of  these  supplies  in  pounds  was — 

Corn 1,277.711.176 

Oats 2..'il7.241..V.8 

Hay 3.037.S42.000 

-—making  a  total  of  6,832,194,744  pounds:  numbers  in- 
teresting as  showing  the  magnitude  of  the  operations 
necessarj'  to  provide  ;md  distribute  these  few  items  of 
the  expenses  of  war. 

The  endurance  and  ciipabilities  of  the  stock  in  the 
field  will  depend  upon  the  proper  supply  of  mitritious 
forage,  and  it  is  incumbent  upon  the  soldier  to  instruct 
himself  as  to  the  jiroperties  and  chemical  constituen- 
cies of  the  different  articles  of  forage. 

Oats  contain  about  three  fourths  their  weight  of 


nutritiovis  matter.  When  good  they  should  be  dry, 
sweet,  heavy,  and  rattle  like  shot.  They  are  most 
nutritious  when  about  one  year  old.  Xew  oats  are 
difficult  to  digest,  and  often  occasion  colic  and  stag- 
gers. All  such,  or  those  that  are  wet  and  nmsty, 
should  be  kiln-ilried  before  feeding.  Oats  possess  an 
invigorating  principle  u:t  found  in  anj- other  grain. 
Oat-meal,  in  the  form  of  giuel,  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  satisfactory  articles  of  food  for  the  sick  and  tireil 
hoi^se.  Hay  should  be  one  year  old,  if  procurable, 
when  fed.  New  hay  act:  as  a  purgative.  Old  hay 
becomes  dry,  tasteless,  innutritive,  and  often  mow- 
burnt,  in  which  condition  it  becomes  really  poisonous. 
Horses  fed  on  such  soon  become  languid,  hide-lxjund, 
worthless,  and  often  victims  of  diabetes.  Hay  must 
not  be  fed  in  too  large  quantities.  Many  diseases  of 
the  horse  are  the  results  of  over-feeding  with  hay. 
Horses  are  prone  to  eat  more  than  they  should,  hence ^ 
it  is  necessiiry  to  add  grain  containing  more  nutri-  * 
ment  in  a  smaller  comi)ass.  Barley  contains  about 
nine  tenths  its  weight  of  nutritious  matter,  but  is  not 
so  good  as  oats  as  an  article  of  food.  Animals  fed 
upon  it  are  subject  to  mange,  surfeit,  and  inflamma- 
tory complaints.  Barley-straw  induces  diseases  of 
the  skin.  Wheat  contains  more  nutritious  matter  than 
barley  and  more  gluten  than  any  other  grain.  It 
should  be  fed  in  small  quantities,  or  colic  and  fomen- 
tation will  result.  It  is  diffici'll  of  digestion,  and  the 
horse  fed  on  it  should  have  but  little  hay  and  water 
soon  afterwards.  Under  certain  conditions  the  addi- 
tion of  other  articles  to  the  forage  ration  is  very  bene- 
ficial. Peas  and  beans,  in  small  quantities  and  about 
one  year  old,  are  excellent  articles  of  food  for  horses. 
They  should  be  wellcru.shed  before  feeding,  and  Gen- 
erally fed  with  hay.  If  fed  alone  they  might  produce 
the  meagiims  or  staggers.  Carrots  when  sliced  and 
mixed  with  grain  make  a  splendid  provender  for  the 
horse,  and  are  found  to  be  very  beneficial  in  all 
breathing  and  skin  disorders,  coughs,  and  broken 
w  ind.  They  shoidd  be  fed  in  small  quantities,  as  they 
are  sUghtly  laxative  and  diuretic  at  first.  Potatoes 
possess  great  virtue  as  an  article  of  horse-food.  If 
they  are  slightly  steamed  before  feeding,  horses  will 
prefer  them  to  oats.  If  they  are  mixed  with  other 
provender,  there  is  a  great  saving  in  expense  and  an 
increased  capability  for  work.  One  acre  of  potatoes- 
is  equivalent  to  four  acres  of  hay. 

FOKAGE-CAP. — The  small,  low  cap  worn  by  officers 
and  enlisted  men  when  not  in  full  dress.  In  the 
United  States  anny  the  following  patterns  are  worn: 
For  General  Offici'rs.—Oi  dark  blue  cloth,  chasseur 
pattern,  with  black  velvet  band  and  badge  in  front; 
cap-cord  of  gold  lace.  For  all  other  Commusimwd 
Officers. — Of  dark  blue  cloth,  chasseur  pattern,  with 
badge  of  corps  or  regiment  in  front,  and  top  of  badge 


FlQ.    1. 

to  be  even  with  top  of  cap;  cap-cord  of  gold  lace. 
For  all  Enlifted  Men.—Ot  plain  blue  cloth,  same  pat- 
tern as  for  officers,  with  ba<lge  of  corjis  or  letter  of 
company  of  yellow  metal,  worn  in  frfnil  as  for  otlicers. 
The  following  are  the  authorized  fonige-cap  badges 
for  otlicei-s  and  men:  For  General  Offieem. — A  gold- 
embroidered  wreath  on  dark  blue  cloth  grountl,  en- 
circling the  letters  ffl.  S.  in  silver,  old  English  char- 
actei-s.  For  Officem  of  the  Adjutant  Gi  neral's  Dejiart- 
ment. — A  soUd  shield  of  silver  bearing  thirteen  stars. 


FOBAOEOUARD. 


fi86 


FOKAOINO. 


according  to  pattern  in  the  Adjutmit  General's  OfTice. 
For  OJUKm  vf  the  En</iiit<n.  —  A  goldembioidereil 
wreath  of  laurel  and  palm  encircling  a  silver  tiirre- 
led  castle  on  dark  blue  cloth  ground.  Fur  Officer*  of 
Orilnitnce. — A  gold-embroidered  shell  and  tianic  on 
a  dark  blue  cloth  ground.  For  Officers  uf  the  fignal 
Corps. — According  to  the  pattern  ilepositcd  in  the 
office  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer.— /V  Officers  of  the 
other  Stuff  Corps. — The  sjune  as  prescribed  for  General 
Officers.  For  Officers  of  Caralry. — Twogold-embroid- 
ereil  sabei's,  crossed,  edges  upward,  on  dark  blue  cloih 
ground,  with  the  number  of  the  regiment  in  silver  in 
the  upper  angle.  For  Officers  of  Arti/leri/.— Two  gold- 
embroidered"  cannons,  crossed,  on  dark  blue  cloth 
ground,  with  the  number  of  the  regiment  in  silver  at 
the  intersection  of  the  cross-cannon.  For  Officers  of  In- 
fantry.—Tvco  gold-embroidered  rifles  without  bayo- 
nets, barrels  u|)ward,  on  dark  blue  cloth  ground, 
with  the  number  of  the  regiment  in  silver  in  the  upper 
angle.     For  Light  Artillery  and  Cavalry  Soldiers. — 


Fio.  2. 

The  numbers  of  their  rcgimonf.s  in  the  upper,  and  the 
letters  of  their  companies  in  the  lower,  angles  of  the 
badges  of  their  respective  arms  upon  the  forage-caps. 
For" Ordnance  Sergeants  and  Soldiers. — The  "shell 
and  flame"  on  the  dress  and  forage  caps.  For  Hospital 
Stewards. — The  letters  "  U.  S."  in  white  metid,  inclosed 
by  wreath,  on  dress  and  forage  caps.  For  Commis- 
sary Sergeants. — Crescent  in  white  metal,  the  points 
in  a  vertical  line,  on  the  dress  and  forage  caps.  For 
Engineers. — The  castle,  with  letter  of  company  above 
it,  on  dress  and  forage  caps.  For  Artillery. — The 
crossed  cannons,  with  number  of  the  regiment  in 
upper,  and  letter  of  company  in  lower,  angles,  on  dress 
and  forage  caps.  For  Infantry. — The  crossed  rifles, 
with  the  numbers  of  regiment  and  the  letters  of  com- 
pany placed  as  for  artillery,  upon  dress  and  forage 
caps.  For  Field  and  Band  Musicians. — Bugle,  with 
numbers  of  regiment  in  the  center,  and  the  letters  of 
the  coinjianv  above  the  bugle.     See  Figs.  1  and  2. 

FORAGE-GUARD.— A  detachment  sent  out  to  secure 
foragers.  They  are  posted  at  all  places  where  either 
the  enemy's  party  may  come  to  disturb  the  foragere, 
or  where  they  may  be  spread  too  near  the  enemy,  so 
as  to  be  in  danger  of  being  taken.  This  guard  con- 
sists both  of  horse  and  foot,  who  must  remain  on 
their  ])osts  till  the  foragers  are  all  off  the  ground. 

FORAGE-MASTER.— A  person  in  charge  of  the  for- 
age; his  duties  being  to  provide  the  necessjiry  forage 
and  its  means  of  transportation.  The  Quarternia.ster 
General  is  authorized  to  employ  from  time  to  time  as 
man)-  Forage-masters  as  he  may  deem  necessiiry  for 
the  service,  not  exceeding  twenty.  See  Wagon-mas- 
ter. 

FORAGING. — The  collection  of  forage  or  other  sup- 
plies systematically  in  towns  or  villages,  or  going 
with  an  escort  to  cut  nourishment  for  horse-;  in  the 
flelils.  Sudi  operations  freijuently  lead  to  engage- 
ments with  the  enemy.  Foragatig-parties  are  fur- 
nished with  reaping-hooks  and  cords.  The  men 
promptly  dismount,  make  bimdles  with  which  they 
load  their  horses,  and  are  prepared  for  anything  th.it 
may  follow.  The  word  foraging  is  sometimes  inac- 
curatelv  used  for  marauding.  \Vlien  foraging  is  ef- 
fected ni  rillages,  it  is  best  not  to  take  the  parly  into 
the  village,  but  to  send  for  the  chief  ])ers(ins  and 
stipulate  with  them  that  the  inhabitants  shall  bring 
the  required  forage  and  other  stores  out  to  the  troops. 
If  the  inhabitants  do  not  promptly  comply  with  this 


moderate  command,  it  is  necessary  to  take  the  troops 
into  the  village.  In  this  event  all  pos.sible  means 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  disorder,  as  for  instance  : 
1.  A  certain  numlHT  of  houses  are  a.ssigned  to  each 
company,  so  that  the  Commander  of  the  detachment 
may  hold  each  coniiiany  res])onsible  for  the  disorders 
eommitled  within  its  Uiuits.  2.  Guards  arc  posted 
and  patrols  sent  out,  who  arrest  any  foragers  guilty 
of  disorder.  3.  If  the  form  of  the  village  permits,  "a 
part  of  the  detachment  remains  at  the  center  to  pack 
the  horses  and  load  the  wagons  as  fast  as  the  other 
men  bring  the  forage  from  the  houses.  In  places 
where  an  attack  may  Ix"  expected,  the  foraging  is  con- 
ducted as  follows :  Either  fatigue-parties  are  sent 
with  wagons,  or  parties  of  cavalry  with  their  own 
horses;  in  both  cjises  a  special  escort  is  added  for  the 
protection  of  the  foragers.  In  all  cases  the  strength 
of  the  escort  depends  upon  the  degree  of  danger,  the 
space  over  which  the  foraging'  is  to  extend,  and  the 
distance  from  the  enemy.  During  the  march  of  for- 
agers to  and  from  the  foniging-ground,  if  they  con- 
sist of  a  fatigue  party  with  wagons,  an  escort  is  added, 
which  acts  in  cxjnformity  with  the  rules  for  escorting 
convoys.  If  the  foragers  consist  only  of  cavalry  with 
their  own  horses,  then  on  the  outward  march  they 
mo\c  in  one  Ijody,  obser\iug  the  precautions  pre- 
scribed for  movements  near  the  enemy;  on  the  re- 
tvirn-march,  if  the  horses  of  the  foragers  are  packed 
and  led,  the  detachment  acting  as  escort  should  not 
pack  more  than  fortj'  pounds  on  their  horses,  so  that 
the  load  may  not  prevent  them  from  acting  against 
the  enemy.  Sometimes  the  escort,  or  a  part  of  it, 
may  be  sent  out  early  to  the  foraging-ground  to  take 
measures  for  the  seciirity  of  the  foragers  before  they 
arrive.  For  the  safety  of  the  foragers  when  at  their 
work,  the  escort  is  divided  into  two  or  three  parts, 
according  to  circumstances  ;  one  part  placu'S  a  chain 
of  outposts  and  sends  out  patrols  to  guard  the  whole 
ground;  another  furnishes  the  supports  of  the  out- 
posts, and  if  there  are  infantry  or  moiuited  rifles  with 
it  they  occupy  the  points  which  cover  the  approaches- 
the  tliird  part  is  placed  in  reserve  near  the  center  of 
the  ground,  that  it  maj'  easih-  reach  any  point  at 
tacked.  If  the  enemy  attacks  while  the  forasring  is 
going  on,  the  escort  should  go  to  meet  him  or  (lefcnd 
itself  in  position,  endeavoring  to  stop  him  until  the 
foragers  have  finished  their  work  and  are  drawn  out 
on  the  road  for  their  return-march;  then  the  escort 
commences  its  retreat,  acting  as  a  rear-guard,  and  en- 
deavoring to  keep  the  enemy  as  far  from  tlie  foragers 
as  possible.  If  it  is  impossible  to  holil  the  enemy  in 
check  long  enough  to  finish  the  work,  they  should  at 
least  send  forward  and  protect  all  the  foragers  who 
have  packed  their  horses  or  loaded  their  wagons;  the 
rest  join  the  escort.  If  there  is  a  probability  of  driv- 
ing off  the  enemy  by  uniting  all  the  foragers  to  the 
escort,  it  is  best  to  abandon  the  forage  already  ]iacked, 
and  to  begin  foraging  anew  after  having  repulsed  the 
enemy.  It  is  permitted  to  abandon  the  forage  en- 
tirely only  in  extreme  urgency,  when  there  is  abso- 
lutely no  otiier  way  of  s;iving  the  foragers.  If  the 
enemy  is  repulsed,  we  must  not  be  induced  to  pursue 
him  except  far  enough  to  prevent  a  renewal  of  the 
attack,  but  must  endeavor  to  complete  the  foraging. 
The  foraging  must  not  be  extended  over  any  ground 
not  guarded  by  the  escort.  If  the  escort  is  too  weak 
to  cover  the  whole  space  designated  for  foraging,  the 
gniwnd  is  divided  into  parts,  and  the  foraging  ef- 
fected in  the  different  portions  successively.  If  the 
foraging-ground  is  at  a  consiilerable  distance  from 
the  camp,  it  will  be  a  proper  precaution  to  post  a 
special  detachment  in  su])port  half  wav.  Foraging 
in  places  occupied  liy  the  enemy  is  tnidertaken  only 
upon  the  entire  exhaustion  of  the  ground  occupied 
by  our  own  troops.  Such  foraging  is  covered  by 
offensive  operations,  so  that,  having  driven  in  the 
enemy's  ailvanced  troops  or  other  p.arties,  we  may 
rapidly  seize  all  the  supplies  to  be  found  in  the  vi- 
cinity. This  is  called  forced  foraging .  The  strength 
and  composition  of  a  detachnieut  for  forced  foraging 


rORCAT. 


G8^ 


FOBCE. 


must  be  such  that  it  can  ovenvhelm  the  enemy's 
troops,  and  remain  long  enough  in  position  to  enable 
the  accompanying  detachment  of  foragers  to  complete 
their  work  and  retreat  out  of  danger.  The  main  con- 
ditions of  success  in  such  an  enterprise  are  sudden- 
ness, rapidity,  and  determination  in  the  attack, 
promptness  in  the  work  of  the  foragers,  and  tenacity 
in  holding  the  position  taken  from  the  enemy  as  long 
as  necessary.  Success  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by 
partial  attacks  made  upon  different  points  of  the  ene- 
my's position  while  the  foraging  is  going  on.  At- 
tacks upon  foragers  should  be  sudden  ancl  rapid,  in 
order,  by  not  giying  the  escort  time  to  defend  the 
points  attacked,  lo  produce  confusion  among  the  for- 
agers and  thus  preycnt  them  from  working.  The 
approach  of  the  attacking  party  should  be  concealed, 
rapid,  and  compact;  that  is,  it  should  not  send  out 
parties  to  any  great  distance  in  front  or  on  the  Hanks, 
and,  as  a  general  rule,  should  not  iliyide  its  force 
prematurely,  but  only  the  moment  before  the  attack. 
The  force  of  a  detachment  sent  to  attack  foragere  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  the  object  of  the  attack — that  is, 
whether  it  is  designed  to  capture  the  foragers,  or  only 
to  prevent  them  from  foraging  by  alarming  them,  or  to 
prevent  them  from  carrying  olf  forage  already  packed. 
It  is  in  all  eases  advantageous  to  begin  with  several 
simultaneous  false  attacks  by  small  parties,  toix-rplex 
th» enemy  and  oblige  him  to  divide  the  escort;  then 
to  direct  the  main  party  of  the  detachment  upon  the 
principal  point  of  the  enemy's  arrangements,  over- 
throw his  weakened  escort,  and  penetrate  to  the  road 
of  retreat,  so  as  either  to  cut  off  and  destroy  a  part  of 
the  escort  and  foragers,  or  to  force  them  to  abandon 
their  work  and  fly,  by  threatening  to  cut  them  off. 
If  from  the  disproportion  of  force  it  is  impossible  to 
prevent  the  foraging  entirely,  the  attacking  party  con- 
fines itself  to  delaying  the  work;  its  operations,  there 
fore,  should  consist  in  jiartial  attacks  upon  several 
points,  in  order  to  alarm  and  disperse  the  foragers  by 
breaking  through  the  outpost-s  at  several  points. 
Uiwn  meeting  any  considerable  force  of  the  enemy 
these  attacking  parties  should  at  once  retreat,  and  re 
new  the  attack  in  a  different  place.  In  such  opera- 
tions a  portion  of  the  attacking  detachment  should  be 
kept  together  and  held  in  reserve,  as  a  support  and 
rail \-ing  point  for  the  small  parties.  If  they  do  not 
succeed  in  preventing  the  foraging,  they  may  trj-  to 
attack  the  foragers  on  the  return-march;  observing 
in  this  case  the  rules  laid  down  for  attacks  upon  con- 
voys.   See  Contoji. 

FOSCAT.— A  rest  for  the  musket,  used  in  very  an- 
cient times.     It  is  now  obsolete. 

FORCE.— Until  we  know  what  matter  is,  if  there  be 
matter,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  we  cannot 
hope  to  have  any  idea  of  the  absolute  nature  of  force. 
Any  speculations  on  the  subject  could  only  lead  us 
into  a  train  of  hyix)theses  entirely  metaphysical,  since 
utterly  beyond  the  present  powers  of  experimental 
science.  If  we  content  ourselves  with  a  definition  of 
force  based  on  experience,  .such  a  definition  will  say 
nothing  of  its  nature,  but  will  confine  itself  to  the 
effects  which  are  said  to  be  due  to  force,  and  in  the 
present  state  of  o<ir  knowledge  it  is  almost  preposter- 
oiLs  to  aim  at  more.  Our  first  ideas  of  force  are  evi- 
dently derived  from  the  exertion  required  to  roll,  or 
lift.  i)end,  or  compress,  etc.,  some  mass  of  matter; 
and  it  is  ea.sy  to  see  thai  in  all  such  ca.ses  where  mu.s- 
cular  contraction  is  employed,  matter  is  moved,  or 
tends  to  move.  Force,  then,  we  may  say  generally, 
is  any  range  w?uch  produces,  or  tendx  to  produre,  a 
change  in  a  bodi/'s  state  of  rest  or  motion.  The  amount 
or  magnitude  of  a  force  may  be  measured  in  one  of 
two  ways:  1.  By  the  pressure  it  can  produce  or  the 
weight  it  can  support;  2.  By  the  amount  of  motion 
it  can  produce  in  a  given  time.  These  are  called  re- 
spectively the  slatioil  and  dynamical  meas\n-es  of 
force.  The  latter  is,  as  it  stands,  somewhat  ambigu- 
ous. What  shall  we  take  as  the  quantity  of  motion 
produced?  Does  it  depend  merely  on  the  velocity 
produced,  or  does  it  take  accoimt  of  the  amount  of 


matter  to  which  that  velocity  is  given?  Again  is  it 
proportional  to  the  velocity  itself ,  or  to  its  square? 
This  last  question  was  very  fiercely  discussed  between 
Leibnitz,  lluyghens.  Euler  ilaelaurin,  the  Bemouil- 
lis.  etc. ;  Leibnitz  being,  as  usual  with  him  in  physi 
cal  questions,  on  the  wrong  side.  Newton,  to  whom 
we  owe  the  third  law  of  motion,  had  long  before 
given  the  true  measure  of  a  force  in  terms  of  the  mo- 
tion produced.  This  law  is  an  experimental  result — 
that  when  pressure  produces  motion,  the  momentum 
producetl  is  proportional  to  the  iiressure,  and  can  be 
made  (numerically)  equal  to  it  by  emplojing  proper 
imits.  Hence,  momentum  is  the  Inie  flynamical  meas- 
ure of  force,  which,  therefore,  is  proportional  to  the 
Jirst  power  only  of  the  velocity  pro<luced.  \Vhat  is 
proiierly  measured  in  terms  of  the  square  of  the  veloc- 
ity we  shall  presently  see. 

"it  is  obvious  that  "in  order  to  produce  any  effect  at 
all,  or  to  do  work,  as  it  is  technically  called,  a  force 
must  produce  motion,  i.e.,  must  move  its  point  of  ap- 
plication. A  weight  laid  on  a  table  produces  no  ef- 
fect whatever  unless  Ibe  table  yields  to  the  pressure; 
i.e.,  miless  that  weight  descends,  be  it  ever  so  little. 
Vt'e  do  no  work,  however  much  we  may  fatigue  our- 
selves, if  we  try  to  lift  a  ton  from  the  floor;  if  it  be  a 
himdred-weight  only,  we  maj-  lift  it  a  few  feet,  and 
then  we  shall  have  done  work — and  it  is  e\ident  that 
the  latter  may  be  measured  as  so  many  poimds  raised 
so  in;my  feet — introducing  a  novel  imit,  the  foot- 
poi/nd,  "which  is  of  great  importance,  as  we  shall 
shortly  see,  in  modern  physics.  This  is  evidently, 
however,  a  statical  measure  of  work,  since  no  account 
is  taken  of  velocity.  Have  we  then  for  work,  as  we 
had  for  force,  a  dynamical  measure?  Let  us  take  a 
simple  case,  where  the  mathematical  investigation  is 
comparatively  very  easy,  and  we  shall  find  we  have. 
■\Ve  know  that  if  a  p;iiticle  be  moving  along  a  line 
(straight  or  not)  and  the  distance  moved  (in  the  time 
/)  along  the  line  from  the  point  where  its  motion 

ds 
commenced  be  called  s,  its  velocit}'  is  r  =  -r-    Also 

we  know  that  the  force  acting  on  it  (in  the  direction 
of  its  motion)  is  to  be  measured  by  the  increase  of 
momentiun  in  a  siven  time — this  gives  (just  as  the 

last  equation  was  obtained)  F  =  )/(  -  •    From  these 

two  equations,  we  have,  immediately,  mrdr  =  Yds. 

or,  as  the  rudiments  of  the  differential  calculus  give 

m  r-         /* 
at  once,  — ^  =   /  Fds  =  F.s  if  the  force  he  uniform. 


'!!f=J'Fds  =  : 


The  quantity  on  the  right-hand  side  is  the  sum  of  the 
products  of  each  value  of  F  by  the  corresponding 
space  ds  through  which  the  particle  moved  under  it? 
action.  It  is  therefore  the  whole  work  done  by  tht 
force.  On  the  left  hand  we  find  half  the  product  ot 
the  mass,  and  the  sfjuare  of  the  velocitj-  it  has  ac 
quired;  in  other  words,  the  vis-\iva.  Hence,  in  this 
case,  the  vis-\-iva  acquired  egnalsthe  amount  of  work 
exTsendcd  by  the  force. 

It  appears  from  a  general  demonstration  (foimded 
on  the  experimental  laws  of  motion,  and  therefore 
true,  if  they  are),  but  which  is  not  suited  to  the  pres- 
ent work,  that  if,  in  any  system  of  bodies,  each  be 
made  up  of  particles  or  atoms,  and  if  the  forces  these 
mutually  exert  be  in  the  line  joining  each  two,  and 
deiwncl  merely  on  the  distance  Iwtween  them,  then 
we  can  express  the  required  iiroposition  in  the  follow- 
ing fonn:  Any  change  of  risrira  in  the  syKtem  corre- 
sponds to  an  equal  amount  of  work  gained  or  lost  by  the 
attractions  of  the  particles  on  each  other.  What  is 
spent,  then."  in  work  is  stored  up  in  vis- viva;  and 
conversely,  the  system,  by  losing  some  of  its  vis-viva, 
will  recover  so  much  work-prcKlucing  power.  If  we 
call  the  former,  as  is  now  gener.dly  done,  h'netie,  and 
the  latter  potential,  tntrgy,  we  may  express  the  above 
by  sajing,  that  in  any  system  of  Ixxlies  where  the 
before-mentioned  restrictions  are  complied  with,  tlie 
sum  of  the  hinetic  and  jwtential  energies  cannot  be  al- 
tered'by  the  mutual  action  of  the  bodies.     The  most 


FOSCE. 


688 


FOBC£, 


simple  and  c\ident  illustration!!  of  this  projiosilion 
art'  lo  l>t'  found  in  tlic  case  of  the  force  known  as 
gnivitilion.  The  potential  energy  of  a  mass  on  the 
earth's  surface  is  zero,  iK^causi-,  not  heiiiij;  ahle  to  ile- 
s<vnd,  it  has,  in  common  language,  no  wbrlv-produc- 
ing  ixiwir.  If  it  be  raised  al)ove  the  surface,  and 
then  dropped,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  work  expended 
in  raising  it  will  be  exactly  recovered  sis  vis- viva  after 
its  fall.  "  For  a  mass  falling  through  a  space  /i  to  the 
earth  acquires  a  velocity  r,  stich  that  r-  —  •if/h;  or  if 


111  he  the  mass, 


:  mg.h.    The  left-hand  side  gives 


the  vis-\-iva  acquired  hy  the  fall;  the  right  is  the  pro- 
duct of  the  weight  (»(</)  and  the  height  fallen  through 
— or  is  the  work  required  to  elevate  the  nniss  to  Its 
original  altitude.  Hence  we  may  calculate  the 
amount  of  work  which  can  he  obtained  from  a  head 
of  water  in  driving  water-wheels,  etc.,  remembering, 
however,  that  there  is  always  a  Id.-vi  (as  it  is  usually 
called)  due  to  friction,  etc.,  in  the  machinery.  That 
Uieix'  is  a  lo.ss  in  u.seful  power  is  true,  but  we  shall 
find  presently  that  in  energy  there  is  none,  as  indeed 
our  general  result  ha-s  already  shown.  Where  the 
apparently  lost  energy  goes  is  another  question. 
Another  gi>od  example  of  potential  energy  is  that  of 
the  weights  in  an  ordinary  clock.  It  is  the  gradual 
conversion  of  polcniial  into  kinetic  energy  in  the 
driving  weight  which  maintains  the  motion  of  the 
clock,  in  spite  of  friction,  resistance  of  the  air,  etc.; 
and  we  have  in  the  kinetic  energy  of  sound  (which 
depends  on  \ibrations  in  the  air)  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  expended  potential  energy  of  the  striking 
weight.  A  coiled  watch-spring,  a  drawn  bow,  the 
charged  receiver  of  an  air  gim,  are  good  examples  of 
stores  of  potential  energj'  which  can  be  directly  used 
for  mechanical  purposes.  The  chemical  arrange- 
ment of  the  different  components  of  gunpowder  or 
gim  cotton  is  such  as  corresponds  to  enormous  poten- 
tial energy,  which  a  single  spark  converts  into  the 
equivalent  active  amount.  But  here  heai  has  a  con- 
siderable share  in  the  effects  [noduced;  it  may  then  ' 
be  as  well,  before  proceeding  farther,  to  consider 
how  we  can  take  account  of  it  and  other  (so-called) 
physical  forces  as  forms  of  energy. 

The  physical  forces  that  require  to  be  carefully  no- 
ticed in  this  work  maybe  thus  classified:  1.  Gra\i- 
tation;  2.  Jlolecular  Forces,  including  Cohesion, 
Capillarity,  Elasticity,  and  Chemical  Xffinity ;  3. 
Heat  and  Light;  4.  Electricity,  including  Magnet- 
ism. Of  these,  cUis-ses  1  and  2,  and  some  forms  of 
class  3,  are  more  immediately  coimected  with  iiuilkr 
than  the  others— that  is  to  say,  that  the  remainder 
almost  necessitate  the  hj-pothesis  of  the  existence  of 
some  medium  imlike  ordinary  matter,  or,  in  popular 
language,  an  imjytiiihrnlile. '  The  almost  universjil 
opini.m  of  physicist.s,  however,  seems  to  be  that  even 
the  former  must  be  accounted  for  in  .some  such  way. 
(Jf  what  that  medium  might  consist  we  camiot,  iif 
course,  hazard  even  a  conjecture;  but  if  it  be  com- 
posed of  .separate  atoms— i.e.,  not  continuous— it  is 
evident  that  a  second  medium  will  be  required  to 
help  the  particles  of  the  first  to  act  on  each  other  (for 
without  this  the  first  medium  would  he  merely  ob 
siruclive),  and  .so  on.  This  must  stop  somewhere; 
why  not,  then,  at  the  first?  But  in  the  present  state 
of  our  understanding  of  mechanics  a  continuous  me- 
dium is  barelv  conceivable,  and  its  motions,  etc.. 
|)re.sent  considerable  ditlicuUiis  to  even  plausibK> 
mathematieu:  treatment.  If  we  take  the  view  op- 
pos«>d  to  Newton's,  as  Mosotii  and  others  have  done 
(their  ideas  are  considered  farther  on),  we  om,  in  a 
\erj'  artificial  maiuK  r,  however,  account  for  gravita- 
tion and  molectdar  action;  but,  as  before  said,  the 
fnmdations  of  this  attempt  at  explanation  are  hardly 
tenable.  .Inst  as  sound  (l<'i)ends  on  llie  clnsticity  of 
the  air  and  vibrations  thereby  miiiiit.iined  and  propa- 
gated, light  and  radiant  heat,  which  are  certainly 
identical,  most  probably  consist  in  the  vibrations  of 
sfime  very  elastic  fiuid."  This  lias  been  provisionally 
named  ether.     If  it  be  continuous,  it  nniy  helj)  us  to 


!  account  for  the  first  two  categories  of  force  also,  as 
we  have  already  seen;   if  not  so,  as  is  more  likely, 
fresh   difliculties  arise.     Light   and   heat,  however, 
I  imdoubtedly   tlepend    on    motion,   and  correspoml, 
therefore,  to  so  much  of  \is-viva  or  actual  energy. 
Even  heat  in  a  liquid  or  solid  body  must  correspond 
i  to  stime  vis-viva  in  the  material  particles,  since  a  hot 
;  body  can  give  out  Iwth  light  and  heat,  and  a  iKxly 
may  be  heated  by  hmiinous  or  calorific  rays  which 
I  are  vibratory,  sis  we  have  seen.     Cla.ss  4  contains  per- 
'  haps  the  most  puzzling  of  all   the.se  forces.     That 
j  there  is  something  in  common  in  all  the  forms  of 
electricity,  and  that  magnetism  is  nearly  related  to 
them,  iscertain;   it  is  probable,  also,  that  fiictional 
electricitj',  when  st^itical,  consists  in  .something  analo- 
gous to  a  coiled  spring,  or  is  one  form  of  iMtential 
energy — the  others  being  forms  of   kinetic  energy. 
.Some  have  supposed  magnetism  to  be  also  a  form  of 
I)otential  energy,  but  Ampere's  discoveries  have  ma- 
terially !e.s.sened  the  probability  of  the  truth  of  this 
hypothesis.     We  shall  consider  this  again. 

These  forces  can  be  transformed  one  into  another. 
Take  the  potential  energy  of  gravitation  to  commence 
with.  We  can  employ  it  to  drive  a  water-wheel. 
This  turns  a  shaft,  to  which,  if  a  tight  brake  be  ap- 
plied, heat  will  be  produced  by  friction,  and  light 
also,  if  a  rough  wheel  on  the  shaft  be  made  to  rotiite 
against  a  piece  of  tlint  or  pvrites;  or  electricity  nj«y 
be  produced  by  employing  the  moving  power  to  turn 
an  ordinarv'  electrical  machine,  or  a  magneto-electric 
one;  and  from  the  electricitj"  so  produced  electrical 
charges  and  currents  may  be  derivetl;  from  them 
heat  and  light  again.  Or  the  currents  may  he  em- 
ployed to  magnetize  a  needle  or  a  piece  of  soft  iron, 
or  to  iiroduce  chemi'.al  decomposition.  Ag:un,  heat 
may  be  employed  l)v  means  of  a  steam-engine  as  a 
substitute  for  the  water-power  or  potential  energy  of 
gravitation,  and  the  above  effects  be  produced.  It 
may  also  be  employed  in  raising  weights,  and  there- 
fore in  producing  the  potential  energy  in  question; 
or  it  may  be  employed  to  produce  thermo-electric 
currents,  and  thence  all  the  ordinary  effects  of  elec- 
tiicity,  including  the  motion  of  a  magnetic  needle. 
Light  may  be  employed  to  produce  chemical  combi- 
nation or  decomposition,  as  we  see  in  photography; 
it  may  also  by  the  same  means  be  made  to  produce 
electric  currents,  and  consequent  motion  of  a  needle. 
It  is  not  yet  proved  that  light  can  produce  magnet- 
ism (UrecUy,  though  there  can  be  little  doubt  that, 
if  pro|ierly  applied,  it  is  capable  of  doing  .so.  Chemi- 
cal action  in  a  voltaic  battery  can  Ix'  made  to  produce 
motion,  heat,  light,  electricity,  electrical  charges  and 
magnetism,  and  to  overcome  other  chemical  affinity. 
Capillary  action  has  been  employed  to  i>roduce  elec- 
tricity and  mechanical  effects,  etc.,  but  we  need  not 
go  through  the  whole  category.  In  these  experi- 
mental results,  then,  consi.st  what  is  called  the  cor- 
relation of  the  physical  forces — i.e.,  the  transmtita- 
billty  of  one  of  the  latter  into  another  or  others. 
The  idea  is  old,  but  the  proofs  of  its  truth  have 
only  become  numerous  within  the  last  half-century. 
Grove  has  pviblished  an  excellent  treatise  with  the 
above  title;  to  this  we  refer  the  curiovis  reader  for 
further  detail  on  this  interesting  subject. 

A  far  more  important  principle,  being,  in  fact,  the 
pireiM-  statement  of  the  preceding — which  is  some- 
what vague — is  that  of  the  conservation  of  energj'. 
It  is  situply  the  extension  (to  all  physics)  of  the  prin- 
ciple which  we  have  given  in  fidl.  and  jnoved  in  a 
particularca.se,  at  the  l)eginning  of  this  article — i.e., 
that  the  .sum  of  the  potential  and  kinetic  energies  of 
any  set  of  moving  bodies  cannot  be  altered  by  their 
nuUual  action.  Let  us  now  suppose  heat,  light,  etc., 
to  consist  in  the  energ)"  of  vibratory  movements  of 
particles,  and  in  their  relative  states  of  distortion, 
etc.,  and  make  the  supiiosition  that  these  particles  act 
on  eiu-h  other — no  matter  by  what  means — in  the  line 
joiinng  each  two.  and  with  forces  which  depend  on 
their  distance,  and  we  have  at  once  the  theorem  that 
the  sum  of  the  potential  and  kinetic  energies  is  a 


FOECED  MARCHES. 


689 


FOBCED  MARCHES. 


quantity  unalterable  in  any  system,  save  by  external  ] 
influences.  Hence,  when  mechanical  power  is  said 
to  be  lost,  as  it  is  by  the  unavoidable  friction  in  ma- 
chinery, etc.,  it  is  really  only  changed  to  a  new  form 
of  energ)- — in  general,  heat.  Thus,  when  a  savage 
lights  his  fire,  he  expends  animal  energy  in  rubbing 
two  pieces  of  dry  wood  together.  If  fhese  pieces  of 
wood  were  not  in  contact,  no  force  would  be  required 
to  move  them  past  atch  other — more  and  more  is  re- 
quired as  they  are  more  strongly  pressed  together. 
The  equivalent  of  the  energy  so  expended  is  found 
in  the  heat  produced.  Da\-y  showed  that  two  pieces 
of  ice  might  be  melted  by  rubbing  them  together.  A 
skillful  .smith  can  heat  a  mass  of  iron  to  redness  by 
mere  hammering.  Here  the  energ)'  actually  em- 
ployed is  partly  given  out  in  the  shape  of  he;it,  and 
partly  stored  up  in  the  iron  as  potential  energy  due 
to  the  compression  of  the  mass,  or  the  forcible  ap- 
proximation of  its  particles.  Amongst  the  earliest, 
and  certainly  the  be)<t  experiments  on  this  subject,  are 
those  of  Joule.  He  determined  the  relation  between 
the  units  of  heat  and  potential  energy  of  gravitation 
by  various  methods,  which  gave  very  nearly  coinci- 
dent results.  One  of  these  we  may  mention.  A 
paddle-wheel  is  so  fixed  as  to  revolve  in  a  closed  ves- 
sel full  of  water.  The  wheel  is  driven  by  the  descent 
of  a  known  weight  through  a  measured  space,  and 
precautions  are  taken  against  losses  of  energy  of  all 
kinds.  The  water  agitated  by  the  paddle-wheel 
comes  soon  to  rest,  as  we  know;  but  this  is  due  to 
friction  between  its  particles;  and  the  final  result  is 
the  heating  of  the  water  The  quimtity  of  water, 
and  also  the  number  of  degrees  by  which  its  tem- 
perature is  raised,  being  measured,  a  simple  propor- 
tion enables  us  to  find  how  many  foot-pounds  of  me- 
chimical  energy  correspond  to  the  raising  by  one 
degree  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of  water.  The 
result  is  that  the  heating  a  pound  of  water  one  de- 
gree Fahrenheit  is  effected  by  772  foot-pounds — and 
this  number  is  called  Joule's  equivalent.  In  other 
words,  if  a  pound  of  water  fall  to  the  ground  through 
772  feet,  and  be  then  suddenly  arrested,  its  tempera- 
ture will  be  raised  one  degree;  and,  conversely,  the 
Leat  that  would  raise  the  temperatvtre  of  a  pound  of 
water  one  degree  would,  if  applied  by  a  steam-engine 
or  otherAvise,  raise  772  pounds  one  foot  high.  Now 
we  know  the  amount  of  beat  which  is  produced  by 
the  burning  (in  air)  of  any  material  whose  composi- 
tion Is  known.  It  follows",  then,  that  from  the  mere 
quantity  and  composition  of  a  substance  we  can  tell 
the  amount  of  mechanical  work  due  to  its  combus- 
tion; that  is,  supposing  it  all  to  be  effective.  ! 

An  immediate  consequence  of  the  truth  of  the  coii- 
servation  of  energy  is  the  impos.sibility  of  what  is 
usually  understood  by  the  perpetual  motion;  for  it 
is  to  lie  carefully  remembered  that  perpetual  motion, 
in  the  literal  si-nsc  of  the  words,  is  not  only  possible, 
but  very  general.  If  there  were  no  such  thing  as 
friction!  or  if  we  had  a  perfectly  smooth  Iwdy,  in 
the  form  of  a  teetotum,  for  example,  it  would  spin 
forever  in  vacuo  with  undiminished  speed.  The 
earth  in  its  axial  rotation  affords  a  good  exanqjle. 
■Were  it  a  perfect  sphere,  and  of  uniform  material, 
the  other  mji,sscs  of  the  system  could  produce  no  ef- 
fect whatever  on  its  rotation,  and  the  latter  would 
remain  forever  imchanged.  And  even,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  when  one  form  of  kinetic  energy,  as 
electricity,  or  ordinary  vis-viva,  is  lost,  we  find  it  re- 
appearing in  other  forms  of  kinetic  energy,  such  iis 
heat  and  light.  But  this  is  not  the  technical  accepta- 
tion of  the  term,  the  perpetual  motion;  it  is  popu- 
larly understoml  to  mean  a  source  of  motion  which 
will  not  onlj'  preserve  its  own  vis-\iva  vmehanged, 
■but  also  do  irork.  This  is,  of  course,  incompatible 
with  the  con.servation  of  energy,  for  wherever  work 
is  done,  equivalent  energy  in  some  form  or  other  is 
consumed.  The  ordinary  attempts  to  obtain  "the 
perpetual  motion"  which  are  still  being  made  in 
thousands  by  visionaries  are  simply  absurd,  based 
as  they  are  for  the  most  part  on  ignorant  applications  , 


of  mechanics.  There  is  absolute  impossibility  here; 
and  a  "perpetual  motioni.st"  of  the  common  herd  is 
far  more  iiifatuated  than  a  "  squarer  of  the  circle;" 
for  the  latter's  problem  may  be  solved,  although  cer- 
tainly not  by  the  means  usually  employed,  or  in  the 
form  usually  sought  for.  There  are,  in  mechanics, 
several  other  quantities  which  retain  a  fixed  value 
under  certain  circumstances.  We  may  briefly  con- 
sider a  few  of  them. 

ConseraitioK  of  Areas. — We  have  seen  in  the  article 
Cestr^vl  Forces  that  if  a  particle  move  a1x)ut  a 
center  of  force,  its  motion  is  confined  to  a  plane,  and 
its  radius  vector  traces  out  equal  areas  in  equal  times. 
Similar  theorems  hold  in  any  system  of  particles 
acted  on  only  by  their  mutual  attractions.  If  in  such 
a  system  we  suppose  the  positions  of  the  resjiective 
particles  to  be  continually  projected  (orthogonally)  on 
any  fixed  plane,  and  radii  vectorcs  to  be  drawn  from 
any  ix>iut  in  that  plane  to  the  projections — the  shin  of 
the  ureas  sirept  out  by  all  those  radii  rectores  iri/l  be 
equal  in  equal  times.  Also,  this  being  true  of  all 
planes,  there  is  one  for  which  this  sum  is  a  niaxi- 
nuini,  and  tJiis  plane  is  fixed  in  space.  It  is  thence 
called  the  invariable  plane  of  the  system.  Similar 
propositions  hold  for  a  system  of  bodies  each  of  finite 
size,  their  several  axial  rotations  being  taken  into  ac- 
count; hence  what  is  called  the  invariable  plane  of 
the  solar  s3-.stem. 

Conserration  of  Momentum. — When  two  mas.ses  at- 
tract or  impinge,  the  forces  they  exert  on  each  other 
are  evidently  equal  and  opposite.  Now,  the  measure 
of  a  force  is  the  momentum  it  produces;  hence  equal 
and  opposite  momenta,  in  addition  to  their  original 
quantities,  \\ill  be  commimicated  to  the  masses,  and 
therefore  the  sum  of  the  momenta  of  the  two,  resolved 
in  any  direction,  will  be  unaltered;  hence  the  sum  of 
the  momenta  of  any  number  of  bodies  trill  be  unaltered 
by  mutual  actiom  either  of  the  nature  of  attraction  or 
impact. 

Conserration  of  the  Motion  of  the  Center  of  Oravity. 
— Again,  in  such  a  system,  the  momentum  of  the 
whole  collected  at  its  center  of  inertia,  resolved  in 
any  assigned  direction,  is  the  sum  of  the  momenta  of 
the  separate  bodies  in  that  direction;  hence  the  center 
of  inertia  of  a  system  subject  to  none  but  the  m  utual 
actions  of  its  components  either  remains  at  rest  or 
motes  uniformly  in  a  straight  line.  See  Center  of 
Grarity,  Central  Forces,  CovpUs,  Energy,  Falling 
Bodies,  Grarity,  Mechanical  Powers,  Motion,  Parallelo- 
gram (f  Forces,  Vehxity,  Virtual  Velocities,  and  Work. 

FOECED  MARCHES. — Whether  forced  marches  are 
offensive  or  defensive,  the  important  considerations 
are  to  travel  rapidly  without  enciimbrance  mid  to 
have  at  hand  all  things  necessary  for  the  comfort  and 
safety  of  the  command.  The  matter  of  proper  equip- 
ment for  the  forced  march  is  frecjuently  a  difficult 
one,  when  the  element  time  is  an  imcertain  factor, 
and  the  character  of  the  country  to  be  traveled  over 
is  unknown.  Assuming  that,  in  ca.se  of  necessity, 
the  country  will  afford  the  necessary  .supplies,  the 
question  of  most  proper  equipment  may  be  easily  dis- 
posed of  in  particular  cases.  Whether  the  troops  are 
mounted  or  not.  the  equipment  should  be  selected  so 
as  to  avoid  all  strains  and  unequal  pres.sures ;  and, 
with  a  constant  \iew  to  comfort  and  convenience,  the 
useful  points  should  be  most  numerous  and  the 
weight  in  toto  a  mininuim.  Of  course,  the  time  will 
never  come  when  regular  troops  will  scout  or  cam- 
paign without  tents;  but  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the 
bivouac,  a  temporary  makeshift,  being  far  preferable 
to  tenting  in  a  dangerous  or  rugged  moimtauious 
country.  "  Bivouacking  Is  not  only  healthier,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  soldier  inhaling  purer  air,  but  he  is 
enabled  to  better  see  and  hear,  and  does  not  indicate 
to  sneaking  hostiles  the  exact  si>ot  where  he  is  lying 
and  enable  them  to  move  accordingly.  A  mound  of 
sand  or  earth,  covered  "by  a  cloth  or  blanket,  will 
make  an  excellent  pillow;  'whilst  a  blanket  judicious- 
Ij- pitched  over  a  little  tumed-up  earth  or  an  accumu- 
iation  of  twigs,  leaves,  or  grass,  serving  as  a  comfort- 


PORCES. 


690 


rosciNG, 


able  bed,  will  afford  n  shelter  surprisingly  complete 
so  far  as  protection  from  cold  winds  or  drift  injr  rains 
is  conceme<l.  This  plan  of  flying  camps  could  be 
very  advantageously  c;.rried  out  l)y  transiK)rting  extra 
eoiiiliiiiatiouMdnhUi,  so  made  as  to  admit  of  l)eing 
worn  as  apR)ns  when  moving  through  wet  bushes  or 
during  rainy  weather,  anil  to  be  packed,  when  not  in 
use,  singly  or  in  great  nund)ers  (as  horse-blankets) 
u]X)n  anv  loose  stock  that  may  accompany  the  com- 
mand, i'hc  blankets  will  prove  invaluable  for  many 
purjKiscs  after  the  march  is  completed,  even  if  it  is 
not  desirable  to  adjust  them  as  shelters.  The  Indians 
of  the  Xorthwest,  when  traveling  rapidly,  invariably 


low  the  winding  of  the  grooves  without  materially 
altering  its  shaiie.  The  patch  is  still  used  in  sportiu^- 
ritles,  and  gives  excellent  results;  hut  the  loading  is 
too  slow  and  dilhcult  for  a  military  arm. 

31.  Dehngne,  an  othcer  of  the  French  infantry,  ap- 
]iears  to  have  been  the  first  person  who  overcame  the 
dilliculty  of  loailing  ritles,  thereby  removing  the  prin- 
cipal obstacle  to  their  inlroduction  into  the  nulitary 
service.  The  plan  i>roposed  by  him,  in  IH-JT.  was  to 
make  the  projectile  small  enough  to  enter  the  bore 
easily,  and  to  attach  it  to  a  mboi,  or  block  of  wood  (a) 
(as  siiown  in  Fig.  2),  which,  when  in  position,  rested 


transport  extra  blankets  on  the  led-horses,  and  make 
such  uses  of  them  as  the  nature  of  the  weather  neces- 
sitates. When  not  engaged  in  forced  marches,  and 
when  not  compelled  to  leave  the  means  of  transpor- 
tation, the  men  should  bear  only  their  rifles,  ammu- 
nition, uitrenching  tools,  and  at  times  otnteens.  The 
haversack  and  contents  are  useless  and  burdensome. 
It  is  not  needed  during  an  ordinary  march,  and  is 
certainly  in  the  way  about  the  time  of  an  engase- 
ment.  A  few  pieces  of  hard  bread  placed  in  the  hip- 
pocket  of  the  soldier  do  not  incommode  him  and  are 
alway.s  attainable,  whereas  the  haversack  is  often  lost, 
and  oftener  abandoned  before  the  soldier  has  had  an 
opportunity  to  attend  to  his  hunger.  See  Farrow 
Cotnlnndtiiin-tfiit  and  Ronh-marclifs. 

FORCES. — An  armv  of  all  branches — artillery,  cav- 
alry, and  infantry.  'The  word  is  sometimes  used  in 
the  singular  number,  but  with  the  same  signification. 
The  efffctiir  forces  comprise  all  the  efficient  parts  of  an 
army  that  may  be  brought  into  action,  with  their  ne- 
ces.siiry  appendages,  such  as  Hospital  Staff,  Wagon- 
train,  etc.  TheXa\')'  of  a  country  must  be  looked 
upon  as  part  of  the  effective  force  of  the  country,  to 
which  is  added  the  MJirines. 

FORCING.— As  a])plied  to  a  jirojectile,  forcing  is  the 
operation  by  which  it  is  mad<>  io  take  hold  of  the 
grooves  of  a  rifled  barrel  and  follow  them  in  its  pas- 
sage through  the  bore.  It  may  be  accomplished  in 
various  ways,  most  of  which  depend  upon  the  soft 
and  yielding  nature  of  lead,  the  material  of  which 
small  arm  projectiles  .ire  made,  viz.:  1.  Bvtheaction 
of  the  ramrod.  2.  By  the  action  of  the  powder.  3. 
By  the  action  of  ramro<l  and  i)owder  combined.  4. 
By  the  form  of  the  bore  or  projectile,  as  in  breech- 
loading  arms,  etc. 

When  rifles  were  first  made,  forcing  was  effected  by 
making  the  projectile  a  little  larger  than  the  bore, 
and  driving  it  down  with  a  mallet  applied  to  the 
point  of  the  ranu-od;  although  this  caused  the  lead  to 
till  the  grooves  completely,  con- 
verting the  projectile  into  a  screw, 
whereof  the  barrel  was  the  nut; 
the  operation  was  slow  and  labori- 
ous, and  the  accuracy  of  the  pro- 
jectile was  imi)aired  by  the  conse- 
quent disfiguration.  The  form  of 
the  grooves  then  used  is  shown  in 
Fig.  1.  Tliev  were  liable  to  be  in- 
jured bv  the  ramrod,  and  were  difficult  to  dean. 

The  foregoing  plan  was  imjiroved  by  making  a  pro 
jectile  a  little  .smaller  than  the  bore,  and  wrappini;  it 
with  a  patch  of  cloth,  greased,  to  diminish  friction  in 
loading.  The  thickness  of  llie  cloth  was  greater  thiin 
the  windage;  this  caused  the  patch  to  press  upon  the 
projectile  ^^^th  so  much  force  as  to  compel  it  to  fol- 


Fio.  1. 


FtG.  2.  • 

upon  the  shoulders  of  a  cylindrical  chamber  (6) 
formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  bore  to  contain  the  pow- 
der. In  this  position  the  projectile  was  struck  two  or 
three  times  with  the  ramrod,  which  expanded  the 
lead  into  the  grooves  of  the  barrel.  To  the  bottom 
of  the  sabot  was  attached  a  piece  of  greased  serge, 
which  served  to  soften  the  residuum  of  the  powder 
and  facilitate  the  loading.  By  this  plan  the  accuracy 
of  the  round  projectile  was  increased,  but  its  range 
was  diminished. 

In  1742  Robins  pointed  out  the  superiority  of  the 
oval  or  elongated  fonn  of  projectile,  and  since  this 
many  attempts  have  been  made  to  employ  it  in  rifled 
arms,  especially  in  this  countrv:  but  it  remained  for 
M.  Delvigne,  followed  by  MM."  Thouvenin  and  Minie, 
of  the  French  service,  to  apply  it  successfully  to  the 
military  service.  The  form  of  projectile  proposed 
by  these  oflicers  was  composed  of  a  cylinder  and  co- 
noid. The  cylinder  served  as  the  ba.se  of  the  projec- 
tile, and  gave  it  stability  in  the  bore  of  the  piece;  the 
conoidal  surface,  which  formed  the  point,  was  well 
adapted  to  diminish  the  effect  of  the  air,  by  increas- 
ing the  penetrating  power  of  the  projectile.  A  single 
groove  was  formed  around  the  cylinder,  to  contain  a 
greased  woolen  thread,  in  place  of  the  woolen  patch 
of  Delvigne.  It  was  shown  by  the  trials  which  fol- 
lowed that  the  presence  of  this  groove  improved  the 
accuracy  of  the  projectile— a  fact  which  gsive  a  new 
turn  to  the  investigations,  and  led  to  the  adoption  of 
two  additional  gi-oovcs.  The  theory  advanced  in  ex- 
planation of  theaction  of  these  grooves  was,  that  they 
opiiose  a  resistance  to  the  air  which,  acting  on  the 
rear  portion  of  the  projectile,  tends  to  keep  the  point 
foremost  in  flight, thereby  rendering  the  resistance  of 
the  air  uniform,  and  at  the  same  time  a  minimum. 
The  correctness  of  this  theory  may  be  well  questioned; 


^^^m^^'^yW^^y^m:' 


but  that  the  grooves  exert  abeneficial  effect,  by  dimin- 
ishing adhesion  to  the  surface  of  the  l>ore,  and  by  fa- 
cilitating expansion,  can  scarcely  admit  of  a  doubt. 

Colonel  Thouvenin  )iroiiosed  to  rejilace  tbcchamber 
of  Dehigne  by  a  sjiindle  of  iron,  screwed  into  the  cen- 
terof  the  breech-screw  (seer/.  Fig.  S).  Thiswas  found 
to  be  an  excellent  point  of  sujiport  for  the  base  of  the 
elongated  bullet  when  forced  by  the  blows  of  the 
ramrod.  The  expansion  of  the  lead  into  the  grooves 
secured  the  bullet  in  jilaee,  and  protected  the  powder 
from  moisture.  Considerable  dilliculty,  however, 
was  experienced  in  cleaning  the  space  anmnd  the 
spindle;  and,  like  all  plans  of  forcing  by  the  ramrod, 


?OBD. 


691 


FOBEIOK  &BMIES. 


it  is  subject  to  variation,  arising  from  the  particular 
care  and  strength  exercised  iiy  the  soldier. 

The  method  of  forcing  by  form  of  inojectile  is  il- 
lustrated in  the  Whilworth  ritlo.  The  form  of  the 
bore,  as  in  the  cannon,  is  a  twisted  hexagonal  prism, 
making  a  complete  turn  in  20  inches.  The  projec- 
tile is  made  nearly  of  the  exact  form  and  size  of 
the  bore,  and  is  about  three  diameters  in  length.  To 
prevent  disfiguration  and  stripping,  which  are  very 
liable  t<i  occur  in  bullets  of  this  length,  fired  with 
high  velocities,  the  lead  is  hardened  bj-  alloying  it 
with  tin  and  manganese;  and  to  obviate  fouling  a 
greased  wad  is  placed  between  the  powder  and  bullet. 
As  might  be  exjiected  from  the  length  of  the  bullet, 
the  amount  of  twist,  and  the  extreme  accuracy  with 
which  the  bullet  fits  the  bore,  the  results  obtained 
with  this  arm  are  much  superior  to  those  obtained 
with  serviceamis. 

It  appears  that  the  first  attempt  to  force  a  projectile 
by  the  action  of  the  ))0wder  was  made  by  Mr.  Greener, 
an  English  gimsmith,  in  1836.  The  plan  which  he 
tried  consisted  in  forming  a  cavity  at  the  ba.se  of  an 
oblong  bullet,  and  partially  inserting  in  it  a  conical 
]iewter  wedge,  which  was  driven  in  by  the  force  of 
the  powder  in  such  manner  as  to  expand  the  outer 
part  of  the  bullet  into  the  grooves  of  the  barrel.  Some 
years  after  this  Colonel  Jlinie  produced  a  projectile 
constructed  on  the  same  principle,  but,  instead  of  a 
solid  wedge,  he  used  a  cup  of  sheet-iron,  w  hich  was 
inserted  into  a  conical  cavity  (as  seen  in  Fig.  4),  at 
the  base  of  the  bullet.  The  point  of  the 
ball  was  cut  off  to  prevent  disfiguration 
by  the  fiat  head  of  the  ramrod.  This 
projectile,  when  fired  from  a  rifle  of 
ser\ice-caliber,  generally  posses.sed  great 
range  and  accuracy;  but  it  had  certain 
defects  which  prevented  it  from  being 
extensively  used  in  the  military  service, 
Fio.  4.  \\z,:  it  was  compound  in  its  structure; 
the  cup  was  sometimes  forced  in  obliquely,  producing 
unecjual  ex^pansion;  and,  from  the  large  size  of  the 
ca\-ity,  the  top  was  occasionally  blown  off,  leaving 
the  cylindrical  portion  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the 
bore. 

Not  long  after  the  introduction  of  the  Minie  bullet 
it  was  discovered  that,  by  giving  a  suitable  size  and 
shape  to  the  cavity,  the  wedge  could  be  dispensed 
with.  The  projectile  thus  obtained  was  simple  in  its 
structure,  and  gave  better  and  more  reliable  results 
than  the  one  from  which  it  was  derived.  The  par- 
ticular form  and  mode  of  expanding  bullets  varies  in 
most  military  serWces;  in  general  terms,  however,  all 
modem  small-arm  projectiles  arc  eyUndro-coTioidal  in 
shape,  and  a  majority  of  them  are  forced  by  the  action 
of  the  powder.  The  effect  of  the  powder  may  be  di- 
rect, a.s  in  the  case  where  it '  acts  in  the  cavity  of  a 
bullet;  or  it  may  be  indirect,  as  when  it  comjjresses 
the  bullet  lengthwise,  or,  as  it  is  technically  termed, 
"  upsets"  it.     See  Smtill-arm  Projectiks. 

FOKD. — When  a  river  or  rivulet  is  crossed  without 
the  aid  of  either  a  bridge  or  ferry,  it  is  said  to  be. 
forded,  and  an  established  place  for  this  crossing  is 
called  a  ford.  Thus  we  have  Oxford,  Stratford, 
Deplford,  Hungerford.  etc.,  towns  built  around  an- 
cient fords.  To  the  military  engineer  and  the  traveler 
in  wild  countries  the  selection  of  the  sjifest  place  for 
fording  a  river  is  a  matter  of  some  practical  impor- 
tance. In  the  first  place,  the  widest  part  of  the  river 
should  be  chosen,  as,  wherever  a  certain  cpiantity  of 
water  is  flowing,  the  wider  its  bed — the  rapidity  of 
the  flow  being  the  same — the  shallower  it  must  be. 
At  the  bend  of  a  river  the  line  of  shallow  water  does 
not  run  straight  across,  but  extends  from  a  promon- 
tory on  one  side  to  the  nearest  promontory  on  the 
other.  The  stream  \isually  runs  deep  along  hollow 
curves,  and  beneath  steep  perpendicular  and  over- 
hanging banks,  whilst  it  is  always  shoal  in  front  of 
promontories,  imless  the  promontory  is  formed  by  a 
jutting  rock.  For  safe  fording  on  foot  the  depth  of 
water  should  not  exceed  3  feet;  on  horseback,  4  feet; 


or  a  foot  less  for  each  if  the  current  be  very  strong. 
The  bottom  of  a  ford  should  be  firm  and  even";  weeds, 
blocks  of  stone,  etc.,  are  serious  obstacles,  especially 
for  cattle.  When  a  caravan,  a  numljer  of  troops  or 
of  cattle,  have  to  cross,  a  sandy  bottom  is  very  bad, 
for  the  sand  is  stirred  up  an(I  carried  away  by  the 
stream,  and  renders  the  ford  impracticable  "for  the 
hindmost.  For  a  small  party  hard  sand  or  gravel 
is  the  safest  bottom.  The  inhabitants  of  a  district 
generally  know  the  sjifest  forils,  and  their  experience 
affords  a  better  guide  than  the  best  ndes  that  can  be 
given.  Fords  are  continually  varying,  either  from 
the  swelling  of  the  river  or  the  shifting  of  its  bed  or 
banks,  and  therefore  it  does  not  follow  that  the  place 
set  down  by  one  traveler  as  a  Siife  ford  will  contiime 
so  for  the  next  that  succecils  him. 

The  best  ford  seldom  leads  directly  across  a  stream, 
but  must  be  selected  at  a  point  where  the  width  of 
the  stream  is  greater  than  usual,  with  the  point  of 
egress  some  distance  down  stream,  in  order  that  those 
crossing  may  secure  the  advantage  of  the  cuiTent. 
In  certain  cases,  however,  owing  to  the  formation  of 
the  river-banks,  it  is  necessary  to  ford  obliquely  up 
the  stream.  This  is  alwaj's  attended  with  much  labor 
and  difficulty,  and  frequently  in  the  struggle  with  the 
current  the  footings  of  men  and  animals  are  lost. 
In  such  cases  it  will  accomplish  much  if  mounted 
men  are  placed  at  suitable  points,  to  urge  forward 
with  whips  any  animals  that  do  not  work  properly. 
To  insure  reaching  the  proper  point  of  egress,  some 
of  the  animals  will  need  frecjucnt  assistance  by  means 
of  attached  lariat-ropes.  When  the  river  is  deep  and 
rapid,  in  consequence  of  the  body's  buoyancy  ilimin- 
ishing  its  power  to  resist  the  action  of  the  current,  it 
might  be  well  to  place  a  heavy  rock  in  the  arms  be- 
fore entering  the  ford.  When  the  different  arms 
cross  a  ford  separately,  the  infantry  should  precede 
the  cavalry  imd  artillery ;  otherwise  they  would  de- 
stroy the  bottom  and  render  the  crossing  for  the  in- 
fantry difiicult  or  impossible.  While  fording,  it  is 
important  to  direct  the  cj'cs  to  some  fixed  point  upon 
the  shore  and  not  look  at  the  water,  and  particularly 
when  the  water-course  is  broad  or  the  current  rapid. 
Sec  Br/'df/i.i. 

FORE  CARRIAGE.— That  portion  of  a  wagon  con- 
sisting of  the  frame  (formed  by  the  .sweep-bar,  the 
splinter-bar,  and  futchells),  the  axletree  together  with 
its  connections,  and  the  front  wheels. 

FOREIGN  ARMIES.— Looking  at  the  armies  of 
Europe  from  every  point  of  view,  their  strength,  the 
rapidity  with  which  they  can  be  mobilized,  and  the 
means  of  feeding  them,  they  may  be  classed  as  fol- 
lows: 

(Jermany. 

France. 

Rus.sia. 

Austria. 

Italy. 

England. 
7.  Belgium. 
,    8.  Turkey. 

9.  Sweden  and  Norway. 

10.  Holland. 

11.  Denmark. 

12.  Spain. 

13.  Portugal. 

14.  Switzerland. 
^  15.  Greece. 

The  four  armies  of  the  first  class  can  place  together 
in  the  field,  in  round  numbers,  a  combatant  force  of 
3,400,000  men  and  86r)2  guns,  whilst  they  can  count 
twice  that  number  of  men  on  iiaper.  Tlie  expense  of 
these  armies  exceeds  £07,000,000  per  annum.  Rus-sia, 
Turkey,  and  Austria  keep  their  troops  at  least  cost, 
\'iz.,  from  £25  to  £29  a  year  per  man;  the  main- 
tenance of  the  British  soldier  is  by  far  the  dearest,  as  it 
amounts  to  close  upon  £100  per  aniuim.  In  Germany 
the  cost  is  .£38  11".  per  man.  Of  the  al)ove-named 
fifteen  States  of  Europe,  seven  have  introduced  the 
compulsory  service  as   the  means  of  raising  their 


First  class. 


Second  class. 
Third  class. 


Fourth  class. 


FOB£ION  AXrXILIABIIS. 


692 


FOREIGN  ENLISTMENT  ACT, 


iirinics — Germany.  Russia,  Austria,  France,  Italy, 
Denmark,  and  Switzcrlaml.  Seven  are  recruited  liy 
conscription,  or  conscription  and  enlistment,  viz., 
Spain,  Turkey,  Sweden  and  Xorway,  Holland,  Bel- 
gium, Portugal,  and  Greece.  The  British  army  alone 
13  solely  deiK-udent  on  voluntary  enlistment.  In  the 
foUowiusr  armies  the  age  f<ir  joiiiini:  the  Colors  is  30, 
viz.,  Austria,  France,  Russia,  Sjiain.  and  Switzerland; 
21  in  Germany  and  Sweden;  19  in  Belgium;  IH  in 
Italy;  and  22  in  Denmark  and  Norway.  In  England 
men  enlist  between  18  and  25.  The  "term  of  service 
in  Austria,  Gennany,  Italy,  and  Greece  is  12  years; 
in  Russia,  1.");  in  France  and  Turkcv,  20;  in  England, 
12;  in  Denmark,  16;  and  in  Switzerland.  10.  The 
direct  term  of  army  service — that  is  to  say,  the  term 
the  recruit  or  the  conscript  has  to  remain  in  the  active 
army  before  entering  the  Reserve  (e.xceptionsomitted) — 
is,  iii  Austria,  Denmark,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy, 
3  years;  in  England,  6;  in  Sweden  and  Norway,  5;  in 
Turkey  and  Russia,  4.  The  training  of  a  recruit  last-s 
in  Austria  8  weeks;  Germany  and  ftaly  require  but  6; 
Russia  deems  26  requisite;  France  linds  13  sufficient; 
England,  16;  whereas  Turkey  considers  12  weeks 
neeessiiry  for  the  drill-education  of  her  soldier.  The 
active  army  in  Austria  is  composed  of  the  l^iue.  Re- 
serve, and  eventually  of  the  Landirehr,  together  with 
the  Substitute  Reserve.  In  Germany  the  active  army 
is  composed  of  the  same  parts.  Russia  fomis  hers  of 
the  Line,  Reserve,  and  Militia,  who  have  served  but  4 
years  in  that  l)raneh  of  the  army.  France  has  her  Ac- 
tive Army  and  her  Reserve,  followed  by  the  Territorial 
Army  and  the  Reserve  of  the  Territorial.  As  in  the 
ca.se  "of  Russia,  her  Reserves  a.s  well  as  her  Territorial 
Armies  are  bi^t  on  paper,  as  sufficient  time  has  not 
elapsed  for  the  new  system  to  mature.  Italy  has  the 
Line  and  the  M'Mle  MUizia.  In  Turkey  tiie  active 
army  is  followed  by  three  reserves,  the  Iilnli/al,  the 
Ji'dij,  and  the  Iliyade,  the  latter  beinjr  a  kind  of 
LitndsUiriii.  In  the  six  principal  armies  of  Europe 
the  proportion  of  jiuns  and  cavalry  on  active  service 
to  the  strength  of  infantry  is  as  follows: 

Austria  has. . . .  108  cavalry  and  4  guns" 


France 119 

Germany 117 

Russia  (Europe).  178 

"      (Asia)  .  .  910 

England 133 

Italy 


The  Austrian  infantry  is  armed  with  the  AVerndl  v\^e, 
the  Bavarian  with  the  Werder,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  German  infantry  with  the  Mauser  rifle.  France 
is  gradually  providing  her  troops  of  the  line  \\\ih  the 
modified  Chas.sepot  called  the  Gras  rifle,  from  the 
name  of  the  officer  who  has  improved  this  weajion. 
Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden  vise  the  Remington 
ritle.  Italy  and  Switzerland  have  adopted  the  Vct- 
terli  rille,  R\issia  the  Berdan,  and  Sjiain  the  Reming- 
ton. Belgium  has  found  the  Albini-Braende  rifle 
superior  to  all,  and  England  and  Turkey  the  Martini- 
Henry.  The  American  troops  are  armed  with  the 
Springfield  ritle.  Before  closing  this  article  on  the 
small-arms  of  the  several  foreign  armies,  a  statement 
of  the  guns  used  by  the  four  largest  Continental 
powers  may  be  considered  interesting.  The  tield- 
batteries  of  "the  German  army  are  armeil  with  the  H.8- 
centimetcr  B.L.R.  gun,  firing  a  shrapnel  of  17  lbs. 
weight;  the  horse-artillery  with  the  7.8.")-centimetor 
B.L.R.  gun,  firing  a  shrapnel  weighing  12.2  lbs. 
These  guns  are  maile  of  cast-steel,  with  i)olygroove(i 
rifling  and  we<lge-brcak  action.  For  siege  "purposes 
the  Germans  use  the  12-ccntimel(r  (4.6H-inch)  bronze 
gun,  tiring  a  29-lb.  shell,  and  steel  and  bronze  giuis  of 
1  .')-centimcter  (6.85-inch)  caliber,  tiring  a  .'>4-lb.  shell. 
A  21 -centimeter  shell  gun  is  so(m  to  be  added  to  this 
arm.  The  lield-artillery  of  Austria  is  composed  of 
8  pdr.  and  4-pdr.  bronze  rifled  guns,  having  calibers 
of  3.9  inches  and  3  inches,  firing  14-lb.  and  K-Ib.  shell 
respectively.  Steel  B.L.R.  guns  of  the  Prussian  type 
are,  however,  being  gradually  introdueiil.  Tlie  numn- 
tain-batteries  are  armed  with  3pdr.  rifled  l)ronze  gims; 


and  for  siege  and  garrison  purposes  the  guns  in  use 
are  B.L.R.l.l- ami  21 -centimeters  and  8-inch  bronze 
guns.  The  liussian  lieldartillerv  is  now  armed  with 
both  cast-steel  and  bronze  B.L.R.  guns,  4-pdrs.  and 
9-pdrs.  of  3.3-inch  and  4-inch  calibei-s,  tiring  12-11). 
and  24-lb.  shell  respectively.  For  siege  and  garri.son 
artillery  they  use  12-l)dr.  and  24-ixlr.  guns,  throwing 
30-lb.  and  63-11).  shells,  and  8-inch  bronze  and  .steel 
guns.  The  mountain-gim  is  a  3-pdr.  bronze  rifled 
gun,  and  fires  a  9-lb.  projectile.  The  fleld-iruns  of 
J'ranccare  the  14-pdr.  steel  and  10-pdr.  bronze  B.L.R., 
the  former  the  production  of  Colonel  Relive,  the  latter 
made  by  Major  Pothier,  and  a  steel  7-pdr.  B.L.R. 
gun  of  a  new  iiatt<'rn. 

FOREIGN  AUXILIARIES.— In  the  early  periods  of 
English  history,  the  Foreign  Auxiliaries  were  by  no 
means  uneoimnon.  Harold  had  a  body  of  Danes  in 
his  army  when  he  defeated  the  Norwegian  King,  and 
to  their  refusal  to  march  against  the  kindred  Nor- 
mans he  owed  not  the  least  among  the  complications 
which  ultimately  overwhelmed  him.  Passing  to 
moilern  times,  William  III.  had  for  some  time  a 
body  of  Dutch  troops  in  his  pay  as  King  of  England; 
throughout  the  eighteenth  century,  IIes.siim  and  Han- 
overian regiments  were  constantly  in  the  pay  of  tlie 
English  Government  for  terajiorary  i)urposes.  Hes- 
sians fought  for  the  English  in  the  first  American  war; 
and  the  Landgrave  of  IIe.s.se,  who  sold  his  troops  at 
so  much  a  head,  received  upwards  of  half  a  million 
for  soldiers  lost  in  the  campaign.  During  the  Irish 
Rebellion,  again,  iu  1798,  man}-  Hessian  troops  were 
employed. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Continental  War  in  1793,  it 
was  determined  to  recruit  the  British  army  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  large  body  of  foreigners;  and  accordingly, 
in  1794,  an  Act  was  pas.sed  for  the  embodiment  of  the 
"  King's  German  Legion,"  consisting  of  1.5,000  men. 
These  troops,  who  were  increased  in  the  co\irse  of  the 
war  to  at  least  double  that  number,  distinguished 
themselves  in  various  engagements,  and  formed  sonic 
of  the  regiments  on  which  the  Generals  could  be-st 
rely.  Corps  of  French  EinigriK,  as  the  York  Rangers 
and  others,  were  also  organized.  The  whole  of  the 
Foreign  Legions  were  disbanded  in  1815,  the  officers 
being  placetl  on  half-pay. 

During  the  Russian  War,  in  18.54,  the  British  Gov- 
ernment again  had  recourse  to  the  enlistment  of  for- 
eigners; s|)ecial  pro\ision  Ijcing  made,  in  the  Act  au- 
thorizing their  emplopnent,  that  the  arms  of  the 
Legionaries  were  in  no  case  to  be  used  against  British 
subjects,  in  the  event  of  internal  discord.  The  num- 
bers to  be  raised  were  10,000  Germans,  5000  Swiss, 
and  5000  Italians;  the  pay  to  be  the  same  as  to  Brit- 
ish troops,  but  temporaiy  ser\-ice  to  convey  no  claim 
to  half-pay.  About  half  the  number  of  men  were  en- 
rolled, and  were  .said  to  ha\e  reached  gi'cat  efficiency, 
when  the  stoppage  of  hostilities  arrested  their  pro- 
gress, and  caased  them  to  be  disbanded  at  a  great 
cost  for  gratuities,  etc. 

The  Swiss  Auxili;uies  used  to  fonn  a  regular  con- 
tingent in  many  of  the  armies  of  Euroi)e,  especially 
of  France  anct  of  Italy.  Over  1,000,000  served  in 
France  from  tlie  time  of  Louis  XI.  to  that  of  Louis 
XIV.  (146.5-1715),  See  Giirdfs  Siimes.  Usual- 
ly the  Swiss  served  only  on  condition  of  lieing  com- 
manded by  their  own  ofiicers,  and  occasionally  the.se 
officers  obtained  distinction  and  fame.  But  the  pri- 
vates returned  home  poor  and  often  demoralized;  and 
the  Cantons  which  supplied  most  mercenaries  suffered 
severely  by  their  absence.  After  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, the  Cantons  ceased  publicly  to  hire  out  their 
subjects;  and  after  1830  most  of  the  Cantons  forbade 
foreign  eidistmenf.  In  18.59  the  Confederacy  passed 
a  severe  law  against  recruitment  for  service  aliroad. 
There  is  still,  Cowever,  a  large  contingent  of  Swi.ss  as 
mercenaries  in  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Colonies.  The 
Pajml  Swiss  troops  have  shrunk  to  a  body-guard  of 
about  100  men, 

FOREIGN-ENLISTMENT  ACT.— In  the  law  of  Eng- 
land there  was  a  statutory  prohibition  of  enlistment 


rORELAND. 


693 


FORM  OF  PROJECTILE. 


in  tlie  service  of  a  Foreign  Prince.  It  provides  that 
if  any  British  subject  shall  agree  to  enter  the  service 
of  any  Foreign  Stale,  either  as  a  soldier  or  a  sailor, 
withcSiit  the  license  of  her  Majesty,  or  an  Order  in 
Coinicil  or  lioyal  Proclamation,  or  if  any  person 
within  the  British  Dominions  induces  any  oilier  per- 
son to  enlist  in  the  service  of  a  Foreign  State,  such 
a  person  shall  be  gnilt}'  of  a  misdemeanor.  The 
Otticers  of  the  Customs,  on  information  on  o;ith,  may 
detain  anj'  vessel  having  persons  on  l)oard  destined 
for  unlicensed  Foreign  Service,  blasters  of  vessels, 
knowingly  having  such  persons  on  board,  are  punish- 
able by  tine  or  imprisonment,  or  lioth.  Persons  build- 
ing any  vessel  for  Foreign  Service,  without  license, 
are  guilty  of  a  high  misdemeanor,  and  the  ship  and 
stores  are  forfeited.  Even  to  as.sist  a  Foreign  State 
wth  warlike  stores,  without  license,  is  a  misdemeanor 
punishable  with  tine  and  imprisonment.  These  pen- 
alties are  irrespective  of  any  consequences  that  maj- 
follow  to  the  individual  for  having  committed  any 
breach  of  international  law. 

FORELAND.— In  fortification,  the  piece  of  ground 
between  the  wall  of  a  place  and  the  moat. 

FORE-SIGHT.— 1.  A  sight/.)r(r(/;f?  at  the  leveling- 
staff  or  through  the  sights  of  the  circumferentor.  2. 
The  muzzle-sight  of  a  gun.     See  Front  Sight. 

FORGE. — The  process  of  hammering  red-hot  iron 
or  steel  into  any  required  shape  is  called  forging,  and 
the  workshop  in  which  the  operation  is  performed,  a 
forge.  The  principal  tools  of  the  common  smith's 
forge  are  the  forge-tire  or  hearth,  with  its  bellows,  the 
anvil,  and  the  various  hammers,  swages,  etc.  For 
large  work,  an  air-furnace,  blown  by  steam-bellows, 
supplies  the  place  of  the  simple  hearth  of  the  black- 


Power-forge. 

smith,  powerful  cranes  swing  the  work  to  its  place 
on  the  anvil,  and  a  steam-hammer  strikes  the  blows 
that  squeeze  the  red-hot  mass  into  shape.  Besides 
these,  there  arc  portable  forges  of  various  sizes  and 
forms,  used  for  milit.iry  and  other  purposes.  They 
usually  consist  of  an  iron  frame,  to  which  a  bellows, 
worked  by  the  foot,  is  attached:  and  above  the  liel- 
lows  is  an" iron  trav,  with  a  hearth,  etc..  upon  which 
the  fire  is  made;  "and  the  ainil  is  either  attached  to 
this  frame  or  has  a  separate  stand. 

For  the  largest  work  to  which  hand-haminers  are 
still  applied,  two  gangs  of  from  six  to  twelve  ham- 
mermen are  employed;  they  swing  the  large  hammers 
with  such  wonderful  precision  and  regularity  that 
the  instant  one  hammer  is  withdrawn  another  falls 
unon  the  same  place.  A  foreman,  with  a  wand, 
directs  the  hammering.  The  two  gangs  relieve  each 
other  altcrnatelv.  on  account  of  the  great  severity  of 
the  labor.  Shovels,  spades,  mattocks,  and  many 
other  tools  and  implements,  arc  partly  forged  tinder 
the  tilt-hammer. 

The  dr;n\-ing  shows  a  power-forge  weighing  500 


pounds,  with  a  fire-pan  36x54  inches.  It  i?  well 
adapted  for  armory  work,  excelling  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  gearing,  strength  of  blast,  and  general 
working  capacity.  It  Ls  furnished  with  the  Keystone 
fan-blower  and  revolving  tuyere.  This  forge  is  well 
arranged  for  rapid  work,  and  in  all  processes  of  forg- 
ing it  is  of  primary  importance  to  obtain  the  greatest 
possible  rai)iility  in  the  succession  of  the  blows. 
There  is  a  double  reason  for  this:  tirst,  and  simply, 
that  the  work  is  cooling,  and  the  more  slowly  it  is 
forged  the  juore  frequently  it  must  be  reheated;  and 
secondly,  that  percussion  generates  actual  heat,  and 
when  the  blows  are  sufficiently  hea\w  and  rapid,  the 
temperature  of  the  work  may  be  hilly  maintained 
out  of  the  lire  for  some  considerable  length  of  time. 
The  hammer  used  for  tilting  steel  not  only  maintains 
the  heat  of  the  bar,  but  it  raises  it  from  a  dull  to  a 
bright  red  heat.     See  Caralry  Forge. 

FORGE-WAGON.— A  wagon  consisting  of  the  body 
of  an  ammunition-wagon,  carrying  a  movable  frame 
for  the  bellows,  hearth,  anvil,  etc.,  and  the  limber  in 
which  the  necessarv  tools  are  conveved. 

FORLORN  HOPE.— The  body  of"  men  selected  to 
attempt  a  l.reaeh  or  to  lead  in  scaling  the  wall  of  a 
fortress.  The  name  ( w  hich  in  t  he  French ,  cnfu  n  In  per- 
dun,  is  even  more  expressive)  is  given  on  account  of 
the  extreme  danger  to  which  the  leaders  of  a  storming- 
party  are  necessarily  exposed.  As,  however,  tlie  honor 
of  success  is  proportionate  to  the  peril  of  the  under- 
taking, there  is  ordinarily  no  laik  of  volunteers  for  this 
arduous  service.  The  forloni  hope  is  called  bj'  the 
Germans  Die  rerloriwn  Posten. 

FORM. — In  a  general  acceptation  of  the  term,  to 
assume  or  produce  any  shajie  or  figure,  extent  or  depth 
of  line  or  column,  by  means  of  jire- 
scribed  rules  in  military  movements 
or  dispositions.  To  form  on  is  to 
advance  forward,  so  as  to  connect 
with  any  given  object  of  formation, 
an<l  to  lenirthen  the  line. 

FORMATION.— A  temi  applied  to 
that  ]iarticular  arrangement  of  the 
troojis  composing  any  unit  when 
this  latter  is  waiting  for  battle  or  is 
prepared  to  execut^  a  movement. 
That  portion  of  the  formation  up- 
on the  side  towards  the  enemy  is 
known  as  Ihe  front;  the  side  opposite 
to  the  front  is  designated  the  rear; 
the  lateral  extremities  are  known  iis 
JliinkK.  Any  row  of  sohliers  (ilaeed 
parallel  to  the  front  is  known  as  a 
file;  the  number  of  ranks  measures 
the  depth  of  the  formation. 

FORMERS. — Round  pieces  of  wood 
that  are  fitted  to  the  diameter  of  the 
bore  of  a  gun.  round  which  the  car- 
tridge-pa])er,  parchment,  lead,  or  cot- 
ton is  rolled  before  it  "is  served.  Cartridgiformern  are 
wooden  shapes  for  cutting  out  the  form  and  size  of  can- 
non cartridse-bags:  theirsize  and  shape  depend  on  the 
nature  of  the  cartridge  to  be  made.  Port-firefornurs 
are  used  for  making  portfire  cases.  They  are  made 
of  wood,  of  a  diameter  slightly  larger  than  the  port- 
fire settins-drift.  Signal-roeketfonners  are  used  for 
fomiinc  the  cases  of  signal-rockets.  They  have  a 
movable  piece  from  two  to  three  diameters  in  length, 
which  is  termed  the  nipple,  the  smaller  end  of  wbicli 
fits  into  a  hole  made  in  the/wmer,  and  when  .slightly 
drawn  out  keeps  the  neck  of  the  case  open  while  the 
choke  is  being  formed  and  secured.  Wadforment  are 
fiat  circular  piecesof  wood,  hollowed  out  and  grooved. 
They  are  employed  for  making  up  gnimmeUwads 
for  suns. 

FORM  OF  PROJECTILE.— "When  a  body  moves 
throiurh  the  air  the  gaseous  particles  in  front  arc 
crowded  upon  each  otlier  until  they  meet  with  a  cer- 
tain resistance,  after  which  they  move  oflF  laterally-, 
and  finallv  pa.ss  around  and  arrange  themselves  in 
rear  of  the  moving  body.     It  is  endcnt  that  the  dif- 


roKT. 


694 


FOSTIFICATIOV. 


ferencc  of  the  densities,  or  pressures,  front  and  rear, 
depends  on  the  velocity  with  which  the  disphiccd 
particles  rearnmiro  themselves  after  displacement :  and 
this  in  turn  dcpeuiLson  the  shape  and  extent  of  the  sur- 
faces of  the  moving  body.  The  Itest  form  for  a  projec- 
tile can  only  be  determined  by  experiment,  as  theorj' 
and  ex-periiiient  do  not  agree  in  their  results.  Accord- 
ing to  theorv,  if  a  plane  of  given  area  be  moved 
through  the  air,  it  meets  with  a  resistance  which  is  pro- 
portional to  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  angle  which 
its  direction  makes  with  that  of  motion.  • 

The  expi-riments  of  Ilutton  with  low  velocities  show 
that  this  is  only  true  in  cases  of  0°  and  90';  that  from 
90°  up  to  50  or  00'  the  resistance  is  nearly  propor- 
tional to  the  sine;  beyond  this  it  decreases  a  little 
more  rajiidly  than  thesine,  but  not  so  rapidly  as  the 
square  of  the  .sine: 
For  an  angle  of  23°    i Us  only  i  "1 

^Q?o  •>  "     "    tithe  resistance  proportional 
°;    II  to  the  sine. 

2"    IJ 

The  following  arc  the  results  of  the  experiments 
made  by  Ilutton  and  Borda  on  the  resistances  experi- 
encetl  bv  different  forms  of  solids  moving  through 
the  air  with  velocities  varying  from  3  to  25  feet  per 
second: 

HiTTON's  Experiments.    Velocity,  10  Feet. 


Kind  of  surface. 

Experi- 
mental 
resist- 

Theo- 
retical 
resist- 

ance. 

ance. 

D- 
O- 

No.   1.    Hemisphere    (convex 
surface  in  front) 

119 

144 

No.  2,  Sphere 

124 

144 

t>— 

No.  3,  Cone,  elements  inclined 
to  the  axis  23*  42' 

126 

53 

No.  4,  Disk 

885 

288 

a  - 

No.  5,  Hemisphere  (plane  sur- 
face in  front) 

288 

288 

<i— 

No.  0,  Cone  (base  in  front) 

291 

288 

BoRDA. 


Kind  of  surface. 

Experi- 
mental 
resist- 
ance. 

Theo- 
retical 
resist- 
ance. 

<— 

No.  1,  Prism,  with  triangular 
base 

100 

100 

t>- 

No.  2,       " 

52 

25 

D— 

No.  3,       "     semi-ellipse 

43 

50 

D— 

No.  4,       "      ogee 

39 

41 

The  foregoing  experiments  show:  1st.  That  the  re- 
sults of  theorj-  do  not  agree  with  those  of  practice. 
2<1.  That  rounded  and  jiointed  solids  suffer  less  resist- 
ance from  the  air  than  those  which  present  flat  sm-- 
faces  of  Ihe  .same  transverse  area;  but  at  th(;  same  time 
the  sharpest  points  do  not  always  meet  with  Ihe  least 
resistance.  M.  Thai  where  the  front  surfaces  were 
the  .same  the  rcsislaiiee  was  least  with  ihusc  in  which 
the  posterior  surfaces  were  llic  llallist.  4tli.  That  llie 
ogeeval  form,  or  tlie  form  of  the  present  ritle-musket 
bullet,  experiences  less  resistance  than  any  of  the 
others  tried. 

These  experiments,  as  before  remarked,  were  made 
mth  low  velocities  comjiared  to  lliose  which  ordinarily 
actuate  prf)jectiles,  and  the  conclusions  which  have 
iK'eii  drawn  from  them  may  not  be  striclly  ajiplicable 
in  practice.     Now  that  oblung  projectiles  are  ased  in 


all  kinds  of  firearms,  it  is  important  to  determine 
that  form  which  will  be  least  affected  by  the  re-sist- 
ame  of  Ihe  air.     See  Projirtilts. 

FOET. — A  tenn  technicidly  applied  to  an  inclosed 
work  of  the  higher  da.ss  of  lield-fortilications;  but 
the  word  is  often  used  in  military  works  much  more 
loosely.  Detached  works,  depending  solely  on  their 
own  strimith,  belong  to  tlie  cla.ss  o^  works  termed 
forts,  aiui  should  have  a  revetted  scarp  and  coun- 
terscarj)  of  sutlicient  height  to  present  great  difficul- 
ties to  an  oi)en  assault,  and  have  their  ditches  Hanked 
either  from  the  parapet  of  the  work  itself,  or  by  ca- 
ponieres,  or  by  countcrscarp-giUleries.  Their  prin- ' 
cipal  use  is  to  occupy  ground  like  comiuanding 
heights,  which,  although  not  within  good  sweep  of 
the  tire  of  the  main  work,  is  still  within  range  of  the 
heavie.st  calibers  of  the  a.ssailaiil,  and  which  if  occu- 
pied by  him  would  i^rove  a  source  of  serious  annoy- 
ance to  the  work.  These  detached  works  are  also 
sometimes  calletl  independent  defensible  workv,  or  sim- 
ply iudciundeut  works.  In  British  North  America 
the  term  fi>rt  is  applied  to  a  tradiug-po.st  in  the  wil- 
derness with  referen<-e  to  its  indispensable  defenses, 
however  slight,  against  the  surrounding  barbarism. 
It  has  thus  been  often  employed  to  designate  merely 
a  palisaded  log-hut,  the  central  oasis  of  civilizjjtionin 
a  desert  even  larger,  it  may  be,  than  Scotland.  See 
Adranced-irorks  and  FvrtificJition. 

FOET  ADJUTANT.— An  officer  holding  an  appoint- 
ment in  a  fortress — where  the  garrison  is  often  com- 
posed of  drafts  from  dilTercnt  Corjis — analogous  to 
that  of  Adjutant  in  a  Regiment.  He  is  responsible 
to  the  Commandant  for  the  internal  di.scipline,  and 
the  appropriation  of  the  ueces.sary  duties  to  particu- 
lar Corps.  Fort  Adjutants  are  Stall  Officers,  and  so 
receive  a  certain  allowance  per  day  in  addition  to 
their  ordinarv  regimental  pay. 

FOETALICE— FOETELACiE.— A  small  outwork  of 
a  fortification.  The  military  power  of  the  State  is 
intrusted  bv  the  Constitution  of  England  to  the  Sov- 
ereign. xVher  having  been  unconstitutionally  claimed 
by  the  Long  Parliament  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  it 
was  again  \indicated  for  the  Crown.  This  branch  of 
the  royal  prerogative  extends  not  only  to  the  raising 
of  armies  and  the  construction  of  fleets,  but  to  the 
builduig  of  forts,  fortalices,  and  all  other  places  of 
strength.  Sir  Edward  Coke  lays  it  down  that  no 
subject  can  build  a  house  of  strength  embattled  with- 
out the  license  of  the  King;  and  it  was  enacted  by 
Henry  VII.  tliat  no  such  place  of  strength  could  be 
conveved  williout  a  special  grant. 

FOETIFICATION.— The  records  of  historj'  and  the 
vestiges  of  remote  civilization  show  that  the  art  of 
fortification,  in  some  guise  or  another,  has  been  in 
practice  throughout  all  nations,  even  in  the  lowest 
stages  of  social  progress,  and  that,  wherever  it  has 
been  cidtivated,  its  character  has  been  more  or  le.ss 
influenced  not  only  by  llie  nalural  features  of  the 
country,  but  by  the  poiitieal  and  .social  conditions  of 
its  inhabitant.s.  There  are  ihrfc  distinct  epochs; 
namely,  ancient,  that  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  mod- 
ern. In  its  earliest  api)lieations,  we  find  men  resort- 
ing to  one  or  more  simple  inclosures  of  earthen  walls; 
or  of  these  sin'mouiited  by  slakes  ]i]aeed  in  juxtapo- 
.silion;  or  of  slakes  alone  lirndy  ])lanleil  in  Ihe  ground, 
with  a  strong  wattling  between  lliem;  orof  limber  in 
its  natm-al  slate,  having  its  branches  and  Ihe  under- 
growth strongly  inlerl;iced  to  form  an  iini)ervious 
obstruction,  with  tortuous  paths  through  it  only 
known  to  the  defense.  A  resort  to  such  feel)le  means 
shows  not  only  a  verv  low  stale  of  this  branch  of  the 
military  ail.  but  al.so'of  that  of  Ihe  attack;  as  defens- 
es of  this  kind  would  present  but  a  slight  obstacle, 
except  against  an  enemy  whose  habitual  mode  of 
warfare  was  as  cavaliy,  or  of  one  not  yet  conversant 
with  the  ordinary  plans  for  scaling.  "  This  cla.ss  of 
fortifications  for  the  defense  of  eiilire  frontiers  has 
been  mostly  met  with  in  the  e.ist  of  Europe,  and  was 
<loubtless,  at  the  lime,  found  to  be  a  sufficient  protec- 
tion against  those  nomadic  tribes  that  for  ages  have 


^, 'W.  ^,^..  m  ,.^1 


^<»"':pL?*^"^^-  '■''■'•.  Outline  nna  profile  or  a  lanctto.  Intrenchm--nt^:  2,  FK^clie.  "i'""*'"^- J,il'2?nctimMi»- 
F/'?!!^!"'"'  "^di'Ubt.  witli  Bt-ml-bastlonH.  U.  Star  rudoubt.  12.  Cross  redoubt.  13  to  6-  ^""!^  "VS"cti-i1  WB' 
IS.  Oblique  cmbrassiiruB.  i9a,b,  Orouud  plan  imd  profile  of  a  parapet.  ISl.-.  Prollieof  paropii  l^fn"f^j„  ^ 
de-loupsiWolMraps,.    25.  PalllMdea.  wltfi^dltcli.    *.  Stockade,  wlfh  cmpaleinent.    27.  t'ommon  w m»  , 

fence.  Si  Abauis.  33.  Caltrops  or  ChauHse-lrapca.  34.  Mine.  35.  MoiTe  of  eonvcy  nKOje  tomini  ^^^,,,,,,.,fl 
fe""^!-!;  .■"■.,J'»"'^''y'c"verlD({"^dltch.  42.  Redoubt,  with  componieres  covering dllcli.  ^i.^„\v,|5; of  li'"'" 
F,'"^"?^.,'''"'K«.  *»■  T.Hedu-pont  or  Bridge-head.  49.  Fort  I  fled  forest.  W- P^oQIe  and  coMtmciion  ^^,,.,,o* 
M.  Wot  dltcb.  wltb  branehea  aa  barricades.      58,  Bomb-proof  earthwork.     56.  P"wd'7„''!2S?S    W  Cook' I 

VI-IS?""^  81.  Eartn-workfi.one-quaner.  one-third,  oue-lialf.  entire,  double,  triple.   (B.  03.  Teal«,  w- ^ 


'Uietiih^J^"'"'-  "■■  Horn-woric.  7- Crown-work.  8.  (iuadninfnilar  redoubt.  9.  Sexagonal  redoubt.  10. 
lliifiirm  ni  o '■  "■ '*alBed  cmbrassure :  b,  deep  ombrassure,  with  reveted  checks;  t,  with  un re ve ted  cheeks. 
(•lllwrii:..i„V'  Pi"^'P-  22-  Sand.bag  scarp,  obftndef:  23.  Che val-de-f rise.  2J  n,  l>.  Snare  ond  round  Troos- 
u.  p  '"' "  '"■  inrvtiLde-trlse.  29.  Fraleliig  an  obtuse  anKle  30.  Different  modes  of  fratslui^  31.  Wlre- 
'i't  LTnu,,  1    ''      "'  ''    P'-rcuiislon  dlscharKi^r  for  mine.     3S.  Location  for  mioee.     S).  Stone  mine.     40.  Block 


■   ili'ii 


ii-llni 


47. 


r^v 


TOETmCATIOK. 


695 


FOETIFICATIOIT. 


Toamed  over  its  vast  plains,  and  who  are  only  formi- 
dable as  a  mounted  force.  The  next  obvious,  and,  in 
humid  countries,  necessary  step,  was  to  fonii  walls 
cither  of  rough  blocks  of  stone  alone,  or  of  these  in- 
terlaced with  the  trunks  of  heavy  trees.  Obstruc- 
tions of  this  kind  could  only  be  used  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent, and  were  confined  to  the  defenses  of  places 
forming  the  early  centers  of  jiopulation.  As  human 
invention  was  developed,  these,  in  their  turn,  were 
found  to  ijrcsent  no  .serious  obstacle  to  an  assault  by 
escalade;  gi^^ng  to  the  assailed  only  the  lemiiorary 
advantage  of  a  more  commanding  position;  and  they 
gave  place  to  walls  of  dressed  stone,  or  brick,  whose 
height  and  perpendicular  face  alike  bade  defiance  to 
indindual  attempts  to  climb  them,  or  the  combined 
effort  of  an  e.scalade.  From  the  tops  of  these  inac- 
cessible hei^rhts,  sheltered  in  front  by  a  parapet  of 
stone,  and,  in  some  cases,  by  a  covered  corridor  be- 
hind them,  the  as-siiiled  could  readil}-  keep  at  bay  any 
enemy,  so  long  as  he  could  be  attained  by  their  mis- 
siles; but  having  reached  the  foot  of  the  wall,  he  here 
found  shelter  from  these,  and,  by  procuring  any 
cover  that  would  protect  him  from  objects  thrown 
from  above,  could  securely  work  at  effecting  a  breach 
by  mining.  It  was  proliably  to  remedy  this  defect  of 
sim])le  walls  and  towers,  which  at  first  were  nothing 
more  than  square  or  semicircular  projections  built  from 
distance  to  distance  in  the  wall  itself,  that  flanking  tow- 
ers were  first  de%i.sed,  and  which  subsequently  were 
not  only  inclosed  throughout,  Ijut  divided  into  stories, 
each  of  which  was  pro\ided  with  loop-holes  to  flank 
the  adjacent  towers  and  the  straight  portions  of  the 
will  between  them.  Each  tower  could  be  isolated 
from  the  straight  portion  of  the  walls  adjacent  to  it 
by  an  interruption  at  the  top  of  the  wall,  over  which  a 
communication  between  the  tower  and  wall  could  be 
established  by  a  temporaiy  bridge.  These  fonnidable 
defen.ses  were,  in  their  turn,  fomid  to  be  insufficient 
against  the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  assailant,  who, 
hy  means  of  covered  galleries  of  timber,  sometimes 
above  ground  and  sometimes  Ix'neath,  graduallv  won 
his  way  to  the  foot  of  the  wall,  where,  by  breaking 
his  waj'  through  it,  or  by  undennining  and  support- 
ing it  on  timber  props  to  be  subsequently  destroyed 
by  fire,  he  removed  the  sole  obstruction  to  a  l)odily 
collision  with  the  a.ssailed.  These  methods  of  a.s.sault 
Avere  in  some  cases  supported  by  means  of  high 
mounds  of  earth  which  were  raised  in  an  inclined 
plane  towards  the  walls,  and  sometimes  carried  for- 
ward to  them,  from  the  top  of  which  the  assailant,  by 
the  erection  of  wooden  towers  covered  with  raw  hides 
to  secure  them  from  being  burnt,  could  command  the 
interior,  and,  dri\ing  the  assailed  from  the  walls,  gain 
a  foothold  on  them  by  lowering  a  drawbridge  from 
the  wooden  tower. 

These  changes  in  the  attack  led  to  new  modifications 
in  the  defense,  which  con.sisled  in  surrounding  the  place 
Ijy  wide  and  deep  ditches,  of  which  the  walls  formed 
the  scarp,  the  counterscarp  being  either  of  earth  or 
revetted.  This  placed  a  formidable  obstacle  to  the 
mode  of  attack  by  mining,  and  also  to  the  use  of 
earthen  mounds,  as  these  last  had  to  l)e  constructed 
across  the  ditch  before  they  could  gain  sufficient 
proximity  to  the  wall  either  to  form  a  communica- 
tion with  its  top.  or  to  breach  it  by  means  of  the 
battering-ram;  the  ditches  also  were  filled  with  water 
whenever  this  obstruction  could  Ije  procured,  and 
when  dry  they  fonned  a  defile  through  which  the  as- 
sailed often  sallied  upon  the  assailant  with  success 
when  found  at  a  disadvantage  in  it.  The  gigantic 
profile  often  given  to  the  fortifications  of  antiquity 
seems  almost  incredible,  as  well  as  their  extent.  In 
many  cases  a  double  wall  of  stone  or  brick  was  filled 
in  between  with  earth,  forming  a  wide  rampart  upon 
which  several  vehicles  could  go  abreast.  Not  only 
was  the  space  inclosed  by  some  of  these  fortifications 
suflSeient  for  the  habitations,  but  ground  enough  was 
taken  in  to  add  consideral>ly  to  the  food  of  the  inhab- 
itants and  cattle,  for  the  long  periods  to  which  block- 
ades were  in  m;iny  cases  extended  when  all  other 


means  of  reducing  the  place  had  failed.  The  wall 
built  by  the  Romans  between  Carlisle  and  Newcastle 
to  restrain  the  incursions  of  the  Piets  into  the  south- 
ern portions  of  the  Island  was  16  miles  in  extent, 
about  12  feet  in  height,  and  9  feet  in  thickness.  The 
extent  and  dimensions  of  this  work  sink  almost  into 
insignificance  when  compared  with  those  of  the  cele- 
brated wall  of  China,  built  to  rcstnun  the  incursions 
of  the  Tartars.  This  structure  is  al«)Ut  1.500  English 
miles  in  length;  has  a  height  of  27  feet;  its  thickness 
at  top  is  14  feet.  The  lower  portion  of  it  is  built  of 
dressed  stone,  the  upper  of  well-biuneil  brick.  It 
is  flanked  at  distances  of  about  80  yards  apart  by 
tcnvers  in  which  iron  cannon  are  found.  In  the  grejit 
extent  it  embraces  it  necessarily  cros.ses  hills  and  val- 
leys, anil  in  many  places  important  defiles.  An  ex- 
amination of  its  parts  has  shown  that  in  its  plan  there 
was  an  eWdent  design  to  adapt  it  to  those  features  of 
its  site,  as  it  is  well  thrown  back  to  the  rear  of  diffi- 
cult passes;  and  at  points  where  there  is  most  danger 
to  be  apprehended  from  attempts  of  invasion  there 
are  several  walls  in  succession.  The  mode  of  attack 
of  fortified  places  resorted  to  by  the  ancients  was  re- 
duced to  settled  rules,  and  brought  to  the  highest 
state  of  perfection  by  the  Greeks,  about  the  epoch  of 
Alexander  the  Great  and  the  immediate  succes.sors  to 
his  vast  conquests.  Anes.scntial  featiue  in  it,  whether 
in  the  sieges  of  inland  fortresses  or  those  on  the  sea- 
board, was  to  cut  off  all  communication  between  the 
place  and  the  exterior  by  hemming  it  in  by  sea  and 
land  with  stationarj-  forces,  covered  tlienLselves  by 
lines  of  intrenchments  strengthened  by  towers,  and, 
in  the  ca.se  of  sea-coast  places,  also  by  fleets,  from  all 
assaults  both  from  without  and  from  the  place  in- 
vested. Ha\-ing  selected  the  portions  of  the  place  on 
which  the  attack  was  to  be  directed,  a  second  line 
was  fonned  parallel  to  the  first,  which  was  covered, 
and  constructed  of  tunber  and  wicker  work,  and  se- 
cured with  raw  hides  to  prevent  its  being  set  on  fire. 
From  this  sheltered  position,  which  served  also  the 
purpose  of  a  lodging  for  the  besiegers,  the  besieged 
were  annoyed  with  missiles  thrown  from  all  the  artil- 
ler)'  known  in  that  day,  consisting  of  the  ordinary 
bow,  the  cro.s.s-bow,  and  the  various  machines  for 
projecting  hea%'y  stones  and  other  projectiles.  The 
defense  was  mostly  of  a  passive  character;  the  be- 
sieged trusting  mainly  to  the  strength  of  their  de- 
fenses, under  cover  of  which  they  resorted  to  all  the 
means  used  by  the  besiegers  for  assailing  the  latter 
when  they  caiiie  within  reach  of  their  missiles;  using 
cranes  and  other  devices  to  .seize  upon  tlie  implements 
Ijlanted  at  the  foot  of  the  wall,  and  carrying  out  gal- 
leries of  countennines  to  overwhelm  the  artificial 
mounds  and  their  lowers.  The  Romans  evinced 
their  decided  military  aptitude  not  only  in  the  em- 
ploj-ment  of  the  ordinary  systematic  methods  of  the 
attack  an<l  ilefense  of  fortified  places,  but  in  their  ap- 
plication of  the  cardinal  princi]>le  of  mutual  defen- 
sive relations  between  the  parts  of  a  fortified  )K)silion, 
obtained  by  advanced  and  retired  portions  of  the  en- 
ceinte, and  also  in  the  adaptation  of  intrenchments 
to  the  natural  features  of  the  site,  as  .shown  in  the 
fortifications  of  some  of  the  pennanent  frontier  camps 
of  their  military  colonies.  These  i^rinciiMes  have 
also  been  noticed  in  some  of  the  fortified  positions  of 
India,  whicli  consist  of  a  mural  enceinte  with  the 
earthen  ramiiarts  flanked  by  roun<l  towers,  and  of 
round  towers  in  advance  of  the  enceinte  connected 
witli  it  bv  caponieres. 

The  reminns  of  the  structures  raised  for  defensive 
purposes  during  the  prosperous  days  of  the  Empira 
were  probably  the  sole  means  of  protection  afl'orded 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  that  still  maintained  a 
nucleus  of  population,  until  the  rise  of  the  Western 
Empire  under  Charlemagne;  and  it  was  the  necessity 
felt  by  this  conqueror  not  only  of  securing  his  con- 
quests, but  of  checking  the  irruptions  of  the  barbarous 
tribes  along  his  ex-tended  frontier,  which  led  him  to 
erect  tftes-de-j^nt  on  the  frontier  rivers,  and  a  line 
of  strons-  towers,  for  garrisons  of  a  few  men,  upon 


70BTIFICATI0K. 


696 


FOETIFICATIOK. 


the  most  inaccessible  and  i)romineiu  |»ints  of  this 
frontier;  the  hitter  being  a  means  which  was  subse- 
quently resorted  to  for  a  like  piirixisi'  in  the  Spanish 
Peninsuhi.  Henry  I.  of  Geniiany  iiitrotluced  a  more 
important  and  more  systematic  addition  to  thesi-  per- 
manent frontier  defenses  by  surrounding  the  frontier 
towns  and  \illaires,  occupietl  by  military  colonists, 
with  walls  and  ditches,  to  secure  them  from  such  at- 
tacks as  they  might  be  exposed  to,  and  subsecjuently 
adding  a  second  line  of  strongholds  within  the  fron- 
tier, by  which  an  irruption  through  the  frontier  line 
niiglitstill  be  checked.  During  the  general  disorgan- 
ization of  States  under  the  feuiUd  system,  the  free 
cities,  which  dei)en(led  for  their  defense  on  the  burgh- 
ers composing  the  dilTercnt  crafts,  every  indiWdual 
who  could  maintain  a  few  retjiiners  in  his  jxiy,  smd 
the  Clergy,  even,  resorted — eiich  according  to  their 
separate  Wews — to  such  means  of  defense  as  woidd 
hesi  secure  them  from  the  attacks  of  others  in  a  like 
condition,  and  woidd  enable  them  to  carey  out  that 
system  of  pillage  which  had  become  gencnd  among 
the  nobles  and  other  military  chieftains.  From  this 
state  of  society  sprang  up  those  castles  placed  in  the 
most  inaccessible  positions  on  the  lines  of  communi- 
cation which  the  little  inland  conmierce  that  was  still 
carried  on  was  obliged  to  traverse.  These  were  pro- 
vided with  ever\-  possible  de\icc  for  an  obstinate  pas- 
sive defense,  being  surrounded  by  a  wide  and  deep 
ditch,  or  moat,  over  which  a  drawbridge  was  the  only 
communication  to  the  main  entrance,  which  was 
flanked  by  towers  on  the  exterior,  and  closed  with 
ma.ssive  doors;  the  tortuous  pa.s.s;ige  wliich  led  from 
them  to  the  interior  of  the  castle  being  further  secured 
by  a  grated  portcullis,  which  could  be  let  drop  at  a 
moment's  notice,  to  arrest  a  sudden  iuss;udt.  To  these 
means  were  often  joined,  hesitlcs  the  ordinary  mcits- 
urcs  of  loop-holes  and  machicoulis  in  the  walls  and 
towers  for  annoying  the  assiulant,  a  high  interior 
tower,  termed  a  keep,  or  donjon,  which,  command- 
ing the  exterior  defenses,  was  also  a  watch-tower 
over  the  adjacent  country.  The  keep,  which  was 
the  last  defensible  point,  was  in  some  cases  proNnded 
with  a  secret  subterranean  jiassage,  having  its  outlet 
in  some  distant  concealed  spot,  through  which  succor 
coidd  be  introduced  into  the  Ix'leaguercd  castle,  and, 
in  the  last  extremit}-,  the  garrison  find  stifety  in  a 
stealthy  flight.  The  fortifications  of  towns  partook 
of  the  siime  characteristics  as  those  of  oa.stlcs.  From 
the  old  custom  of  assigning  to  the  difTerent  burgher 
crafts,  each  of  which  had  an  indejiendent  militarj- or- 
ganization, the  exclusive  guardianship  of  portions  of 
the  enceinte,  as  well  as  their  erection  and  re|)airs, 
great  diversity,  and  frenuently  a  whimsicality,  in  the 
defensive  arrani,'cmcnts  was" the  natural  result;  the 
evidence  of  which  still  exists  in  the  remains  of  the 
walls  of  some  of  the  old  Continental  cities.  The  art, 
for  the  most  part,  was  practiced  by  ambulatory  engi- 
neers, who,  like  the  secret  orders  by  whom  tlie  bridges 
and  churches  of  the  sime  period  "were  built,  olTered 
their  services  wherever  they  were  w;mted.  Many  1 
ideas  were  also  introduced  fr<)m  the  East  bv  the  Cru- 
saders, as  exhibited  in  the  fortifications  of  ca.stles  and  i 
citii-s  belonging  to  the  Templars  and  other  religious  [ 
military  orders. 

With  the  invention  of  gunpowder  and  its  applici- 
tion  to  nulitary  purjKjses,  a  gradual  revolution  took 
place  in  the  general  forms  and  <l(tails  of  fortification. 
It  was  soon  seen  that  naked  walls  alnne  di<l  not  offer 
either  suitable  conveniences  for  the  new  mililarv  ma- 
chines, or  sutlicient  protection  ag:iinst  the  ]iroji"(lilis 
thrown  from  them.  This  led  to  the  introduction  of 
earthen  ramparts  and  paraiwts,  which  were  placed 
against  the  walls  and  suitably  arranged  to  meet  the 
exigencies  cf  the  moment.  The  art  received  some- 
thing like  a  scientific  basis  about  this  time  in  Italy, 
from  which  the  names  and  forms  of  most  of  the  efe- 
nienls  of  fi)rtiti(ation  now  in  use  are  derived.  The 
Italian  emrineers,  like  their  predecessors,  went  from 
State  to  State  to  offer  their  .services  wherever  they 
were  needed,  and  in  this  way  disseminated  the  priii-  . 


ciples  of  their  School  throughout  Euro|)e.  It  was  at 
this  epoch  that  the  bastioned  form  of  forlitication  lirst 
appe;ired,  but  the  precise  date  and  the  author  of  the 
invention  are  both  unknown.  With  its  introduction 
the  importance  of  separating  the  parts  of  a  line  of 
fortification  into  advan<-ed  and  retired  parts,  the  lat- 
ter flanking  and  defending  the  former,  seems  to  have 
been  recognized  as  an  e.s,si'ntial  principle  of  the  art. 
With  these  changes  in  the  form  of  the  enceinte,  the 
art  was  gradually  improved  by  the  addition  of  the 
outworks  to  incrciuse  tlie  amount  of  cro.ss-  and  flank- 
fire;  the  introduction  of  bomb-proof  shelters  for  the 
troops  and  other  purposes;  the  substitution  of  earthen 
for  stone  parapets;  and  the  attempt  to  conceal  the 
scarp-walls  from  the  enemy's  batteries  by  decreasing 
the  command  and  deepening  the  ditches  of  the  en- 
ceinte. By  these  gradual  changes  stone  walls,  which 
in  the  old  fortifications  were  the  essential  defensive 
fea^tures,  came  at  length  to  be  regarded  in  their  true 
character,  simply  as  passive  obstacles  to  an  open  as- 
ssiult  by  escalade.  The  property  of  earthen  parapets, 
of  resisting  without  material  loss  of  strength  the  long- 
continued  fire  of  the  assailant's  heaviest  guns,  showed 
that  the  sjime  defensive  means  were  applicable  both 
to  work  of  a  permanent  and  of  a  temporary  charac- 
ter; and  were  equally  available  for  the  purposes  of 
the  assailant  and  the  assitiled.  The  measures  for  the 
attack  and  the  defense  of  positions  were  thus  reduced 
to  the  same  general  principles,  differing  only  in  the 
forms  and  dimensions  of  the  elementary  parts,  as  cir- 
cumstances seemed  to  demand.  From  the  discussions 
of  and  the  variations  made  in  the  bastioned  system  by 
engineers  of  this  period,  there  arose  four  distinct 
Schools  of  Fortification— the  Italian,  Dutch,  French, 
and  Spanish,  all  Ijelonging  to  this  system.  Asabove 
stated,  the  first  employment  of  bastions  as  they  now 
exist  was  made  by  the  Italian  engineers,  and,  as  far 
as  has  been  ascertained,  towards  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth or  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
To  whom  the  credit  of  their  invention  is  due  is  not 
known.  In  the  earlier  fronts  of  the  Italian  School  the 
bastions  are  very  small,  and  they  are  connected  by 
curtains  varying  from  250  to  500  yards  in  length. 
The  bastion  flanks,  which  were  perpendicular  to  the 
curtains,  were  divided  into  two  portions;  that  next 
to  the  curtain,  which  was  one  third  of  the  entire  flank, 
was  thrown  back  and  covered  by  the  portion  in  ad- 
Viince,  which  thus  formed  what  received  the  name  of 
the  orillon.  The  lower  part  of  the  retired  portion, 
was  cascmated  for  cannon;  and  behind  this,  and  sep- 
arated from  it  by  a  dry  (litch,  rose  a  second  flank, 
having  the  same  command  as  the  other  parts  of  the 
enceinte  parapet.  In  some  cjises  a  small  and  very 
obtuse  bastion  was  erected  at  the  miildle  of  long  cur- 
tains. The  defects  of  these  early  fronts  were  soon 
felt,  and  a  more  ci>inplicated  but  impr()\ed  method 
adopted,  in  which  the  ba.stions  were  enlarged  and  the 
curtains  diminished.  The  retired  flanks  were  still 
retained,  lail  the  oriUon  instead  of  being  angular  was 
roimded.  To  these  improvements,  cavaliers  were 
sometimes  added  to  the  bastions,  wliich  in  those 
eases  were  made  without  retire<l  flanks;  or  placed  OB 
the  curtains,  when,  from  the  configuration  of  the  site, 
some  portion  of  the  ground  within  cannon-range 
could  not  be  swept  from  the  enceinte  parapet.  The 
coveied-way  was  introduced  and  became  an  integral 
part  of  the  front;  and  a  small  demi-lune  or  ravelin 
was  placed  in  advance  of  the  enceinte  ditch,  forming 
a  tit<-<U  ponl  to  cover  the  commuTiication,  at  the  mid- 
dle of  the  curtain  across  the  main  ditch,  between  the 
enceinte  and  the  exterior. 

The  Dutch  School  took  its  rise  in  the  political 
necessities  of  the  times  in  which  the  national  spirit 
was  aroused  to  throw  otT  an  onerous  foreign  yoke. 
The  aquatic  character  of  the  country,  and  the  want 
of  time  and  pecuniary  means,  leil  to  those  expedi- 
ents of  defense  which  are  never  wanting  under  like 
circumstances.  The  deficiency  of  earth  led  to  Uie 
formation  of  low  parapets  for  the  main  enceinte  and 
wide  ditches  filled  with  water.     The  main  enceinte 


FOBTIFICATION. 


697 


FOBTIFICATIOK- 


was  usually  preceded  by  a  second  one  with  a  very 
low  parapet  to  sweep  the  surface  of  the  wet  ditch; 
and  this  second  enceinte  was  separated  from  the  first 
by  a  dry  ditch,  which  favored  sorties,  and  which  was 
provided  with  all  tlie  means,  as  palisades,  tambours, 
and  block-houses,  for  offensive  returns  and  surprises. 
The  second  enceinte  was  generally  covered  from  an 
exterior  command  by  a  glacis  in  advance  of  the  main 
ditch.  The  covered-wa\'  between  the  glacis  and  the 
ditches  was,  to  a  great  extent,  deiirived  of  its  essen- 
tial offensive  feature  by  an  exterior  wet  ditch  made 
at  the  foot  of  the  glacis  and  inclosing  it,  over  which 
communication  with  the  exterior  was  kept  open  by 
temporary  bridges.  The  works  were  usuall.y  very 
much  niultipliid  and  their  combination  complicated; 
features  the  less  objectionable  where  their  defense 
chiefly  rested  upon  the  inhabitants  who  had  become 
familiar  with  all  their  turnings,  and  as  offering  obscu- 
rity of  design  to  an  assailant  who  might  force  his  way 
into  them.  The  whole  of  the  defensive  mea.sures  o'f 
this  School  seem  to  have  had  solely  for  their  object  a 
strictly  passive  resisttmce.  With  this  view  long  lines 
of  intrenchmenis,  supported  from  distance  to  distance 
by  forts,  connected  their  frontier  towns  and  villages, 
affording  a  sutticient  obstacle  to  marauding  expedi- 
tious, and  requiring  the  efforts  of  a  strong"  force  to 
break  through  them.  What  may  be  tenned  the 
characteristics  of  the  French  School  are  to  be  seen 
rather  in  the  method  of  Connonlaigne  than  in  the 
practice  of  V'auban,  although  his  authority  has  exer- 
cised a  pre|)onderating  influence  throughout  Emope, 
and  is  still  ajipealed  to,  in  all  great  problems  of  the  art, 
by  each  side  in  polemical  dis|iutes.  This  School  is 
characterized  by  the  retention  of  the  protile  of  the 
Italian  School,  combined  with  the  outworks  of  the 
Dutch,  and  a  systematic  arrangement  of  all  the  parts. 
The  French  have  evinced  in  this,  as  in  all  the  other 
arts,  that  spirit  of  systematic  combination  which  forms 
one  of  their  most  striking  national  traits.  From  the 
existing  fortifications  of  Spain  the  influence  of  the 
Italian  School  may  be  traced,  but  moditied  by  national 
characteristics.  The  works  seem  organized  more  for 
a  purely  jiassive  defense;  the  covered-way,  tliat  es- 
sential outwork  to  an  active  defense,  being  in  many 
cases  omitted,  the  means  of  annoyin";  the  besiegers 
by  fires  being  greatly  multipliefl,  and  the  outworks 
generally  being  arranged  with  a  view  to  a  purely 
pa.ssive  defense.  Besides  this,  the  dinu'iisions  of  the 
profile  and  height  of  scarp  were  in<-reased  as  a  great- 
er .security  against  .escalade;  interior  retrenchments 
were  midtijilied,  sometimes  inclosing  a  bomb-proof 
keep  to  render  the  defense  more  obstinate.  The 
Spaniards,  although  resorting  but  little  to  sorties, 
show  great  skill  and  pertinacity  in  the  defense  of 
breaches,  and  in  availing  themselves  of  all  obstruc- 
tions for  |irolonging  resistance. 

The  combinations  adopted  in  fixing  the  defensive 
relations,  and  the  proportions  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  bastioned  system,  produced  a  great  many  me- 
thods of  fortification.  These  differ  so  little  in  plan 
from  those  that  characterize  the  four  Schools  just 
named,  that  they  may  all  be  placed  under  the  head 
of  one  or  the  other  of  the.se  classes.  It  has  been 
observed  how  the  natural  features  of  the  coimtry, 
like  Holland,  and  tlu'  national  characteristics  of  the 
people,  like  the  Spanish,  have  modified  the  plan  and 
protile  of  their  works.  This  is  particularly  true  in 
Sweden,  and  partly  so  in  Germany.  We  iuay  then 
form  two  other  Schools  based  on  these  peculiarities 
— that  of  Sweden  and  that  of  Germany.  The  part 
played  by  Sweden  u])on  the  theater  of  Europe,  imder 
her  two  cclebrati'd  Monarchs,  Gustavus  Adolphus 
and  Charles  XII.,  served  to  develo])  in  this  nation 
every  branch  of  the  military  art,  and  produced  a 
number  of  distinguished  Generals  and  Engineers,  who 
combined,  with  the  practice  of  their  profession,  a 
study  of  its  theory.  Among  the  eiiirineers  of  this 
School,  Virgin  holds  the  first  place.  The  climate 
luid  the  nautical  habits  of  the  country  seem  to  have 
led  to  laud-defenses  analogous  to  those  of  ships,  as 


.shown  in  the  uses  of  casemated  batteries  in  several 
I  tiers,  both  for  sea-coast  and  inland  fortifications.     Ill 
this  School  the  bastioned  system  seems  to  have  been 
'  generally  adopted   for  the  enceinte,  great  attention 
being  paid  to  covering  the  faces  of  the  works  from 
I  enfilading  fire;  in  providing  casemates  having  reverse 
views  on  the  besieger's  works;  and  particularly  in  so 
arranging    the   interior  dispositions  that  each   part 
should  not  only  contribute  to  the  defense  of  the  others, 
but  be  capable  of  an  independent  resistance.     These 
dispositions  necessarily  led  to  great  complication  and 
nudtiplicity  of  works,  as  shown  in  the  writings  of 
Virgin.     The  Germans  reckon  a  number  of  original 
writers  on    fortification,   among  the  most  noted  of 
j  whom    are    the    celebrated    painter    Albert   Diirer, 
I  Daniel   Sjicckle,  and  Riinpler.     In  the  propositions 
of  these  writers  are  to  be  found  the  influence  which 
the   Italian  School    naturally   exercised   throughout 
I  civilized  Europe,  and  the  germs  of  many  of  the  views 
held  by  the  German  School  of  the  present  day;  which 
last  seem,  however,  to  have  been  taken  more  imme- 
diately from  the  propositions  of  Montalcmbert  and 
Carnot. 

The  introiluction  of  cannon,  although  it  led  to  im- 
portant changes  in  the  measures  Ixith  of  the  attack 
and  defense,  still  did  not,  for  a  considerable  period, 
bring  about  any  very  decisive  results  in  the  length  of 
sie.srcs.  The  means  which  it  afforded  the  defensi'  of 
reaching  the  besiegers  at  a  distance,  and  of  destroying 
all  the  nu'thods  of  aiiproaching  and  annoying  the 
place  which  hail  hitherto  been  used,  led  to  the  substi- 
tution of  the  ordinary  trenches  of  the  present  day  for 
the  wooden  galleries  and  other  similar  expedients  for 
ai)iiroaching  under  cover,  and  to  the  erection  of  bat- 
teries at  distant  points  to  open  breaches  in  the  walls. 
Lines  of  circumvallation  and  countervallation,  which 
formed  so  prominent  a  feature  previously  to  this 
j  epoch,  was  the  only  one  which  still  kept  its  phace,  as 
!  it  has  done  to  a  gi-eater  or  less  extent  to  the  present 
day.  For  the  purpose  of  ctTecting  an  entrance  into 
the  place,  breachiug-batteries  were  erected  opposite 
the  points  deemed  most  favorable.  They  were  i>laced 
either  on  natural  elevations  of  the  ground  or  upon 
artificial  mounds,  with  the  object  of  attaining  the 
wall  to  be  opened  near  its  foot,  and  to  form  a  breach 
of  easy  ascent.  These  batteries  were  enclosed  in 
works  of  sufficient  size  and  strength  to  hold  garrisons 
to  secure  them  from  sorties.  The  approaches  were 
made  as  at  present,  by  zigzags  along  the  capitals  of 
the  salients  to  the  counterscarp,  where  a  covered  de- 
scent was  made  into  the  ditch  opposite  the  breach 
preparaltny  to  its  assiiult.  When  the  wall  was  not 
exposed  to"  a  distant  fire,  the  besiegers  were  obliged  to 
carry  the  covered-way  by  assault,  and  establish  their 
breachingbatteries  on  the  crest  of  the  glacis.  In  car- 
rying forward  these  works  the  besiegers  were  sub- 
jected to  great  losses  and  delays,  owing  to  the  mag- 
nitude aiid  the  multiplicity  of  the  works  they  were 
obliged  to  cimiplele;  to  the  imperfect  character  of 
their  arlillery  and  the  faulty  position  of  their  batter- 
ies, by  which  tliej'  were  unable  to  keep  under  the  fire 
of  the  place;  the  want  of  connection  between  the 
separate  approaches,  and  the  con.se(|ueiit  exiiosure  of 
the  workiixn  in  the  trenches  to  sorties,  the  troops  for 
their  support  being  too  distant  in  the  inclosed  works 
in  the  rear  to  give  them  timely  succor;  besides  which, 
as  these  inclosed  works  naturallv  became  the  chief 
objects  for  the  fire  of  the  besieged,  this  agglomeration 
of  troops  in  them  adih'd  maleri.illy  to  the  losses  of 
i  the  besiegers.  Owing  to  these  iniperfections  in  the 
j  measures  of  attack,  the  besieged  were  able  to  make 
I  a  vigorous  and  prolonged  defense;  and  sieges  liecame 
the  most  important  military  operations  of  this  period, 
I  in  which  Captains  of  the  greatest  celebrity  sought  for 
I  opportunities  of  distinction. 

But  'little  deviation  was  made  in  the  methods  just 
described  until  Vauban  appeared  upon  the  scene. 
Previouslv  to  him,  Monlluc.  a  distinguished  French 
GencRil  and  Engineer  of  his  day,  had  introduced  short 
branches  of  trenches,  which  were  nm  out  from  the. 


rOETinCATION-DBAWIHB. 


698 


FOBTIFICAIION-DBAWING. 


au'jles  of  the  zijrzags,  to  post  a  few  troops  for  the  iin- 
niediate  protection  of  the  workmen;  but  these  were 
fuund  to  be  very  insutlicieiit  in  sepelliug  sorties  of 
any  stren^h.  I'he  event  which  seems  to  have  had 
the  greatest  intluenee  on  the  subsequent  progress  of 
Ixith  the  attack  ami  defense  was  the  memorable  siege 
of  Candia,  in  which  volunteers  from  all  psu-ts  of 
Eurojie  engaged,  and  who,  after  its  close,  ilisscmina- 
teti  throughout  their  resi)ective  countries  the  results 
of  the  experience  Ihey  had  there  acquired.  Whether 
the  idea  cf  the  parallels,  now  in  use  in  the  attack, 
oridnated  there,  or  with  Vauban,  this  eminent  man 
was  the  tirst  to  establish  them  in  a  systematic  manner, 
and  to  demonstrate  by  cxjierience  their  controlling 
importance  in  repressing  sorties.  The  introduction 
of  this  important  element  in  the  attack;  the  concen- 
tration of  (he  tire  of  batteries,  bv  giN^ing  them  enfilad- 
ing positions;  the  invention  of  the  ricochet,  as  the 
most  powerful  destructive  means  against  the  defenses; 
the  avoidance  of  open  assaults,  which,  even  when 
successful,  are  nuide  at  a  great  sacrifice  of  life,  pre- 
ferring to  them  the  less  brilliant  but  slower  method 
of  skill  and  industry,  by  which  the  blood  of  the  sol- 
dier is  spared,  and  the  end  the  more  surely  attained, 
such  are  the  important  .ser\'ices  which  the  attack  owes 
to  Vauban.  which  has  given  it  its  present  marked 
superiority  over  the  means  of  defense,  and  to  which 
the  science  and  experience  of  engineers  since  his  day 
have  added  nothing  of  marked  importance. 

From  this  brief  summary,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
art  of  fortification,  in  its  progress,  has  kept  pace  with 
the  measures  of  the  attack;  its  successive  changes 
ha\ing  lieen  brought  about  by  changes  either  in  the 
arms  ased  by  the  sissailanl,  or  by  the  introduction  of 
.some  new  mode  of  ass;iult.  The  same  Ciiuses  must 
continue  to  produce  the  same  effects.  At  no  past 
period  ha.s  mechanical  invention,  in  its  beating  on 
the  militarj'  art,  been  more  active  than  at  the  present 
day.  The  improvement  that  has  already  been  made 
in  the  range  and  accuracy  of  aim  of  both  small-arms 
and  cannon,  the  partial  adoption  of  ■wrought-iron  and 
steel  for  floating  batteries  and  sea-coast  defeiLses, 
point  to  the  commencement  of  another  epoch  in  the 
Engineer's  art.  The  great  improvement  in  cannon 
will  give  to  the  assiiilant  a  still  wider  range  in  the 
selection  of  positions  for  his  batteries,  and  will  thus 
increa.se  the  dilBculties  of  the  engineer  in  adapting 
his  works  to  the  site,  and  in  gi\"ing  adequate  .shelter 
to  the  garri.s<jn  and  armament.  Whilst  the  defense 
will  be  to  this  extent  weakened,  the  approaches  of 
the  besieger  will  be  rendered  more  perilous  and  more 
dilfioult  from  the  greater  range  and  accuracy  of 
small  arms.  Upon  the  chief  defects  and  wants  of 
the  art  there  exists  but  slight  divergence  of  opinion 
among  engineers  generally;  not  so  with  respect  to  the 
remedy;  opposite  opinions  being  frequently  drawn 
from  the  sjune  cla.ss  of  facts,  and  the  same  authority 
iK'ing  frequently  cited  to  sustain  opposite  \-iew.s. 
Whilst  each  new  disputant  denounces  systematizing 
and  the  systems  of  others,  his  remedy  for  the  abuse 
complained  of  is  usually  a  system  of  "his  own,  which 
not  unfrequently  is  but  "a  coinbination  of  the  dlsjechi 
tnemlirn  from  those  of  others.  See  Citxtle,  Enceinte, 
Fifld-fortificdiion,  Permanent  Forlification,  and  Sy»- 
U'ln  of  Fortiftfali'in. 

FOKTIFICATION  DRAWING.  — The  method  now 
in  general  u.se,  among  militiiry  engineers,  for  deline- 
ating the  plans  of  permanent  "forlirications  is  similar 
to  the  one  which  had  been  previoiisly  emjiloved  for 
representing  the  natural  surface  of  ground  in  topo- 
graiihieal  and  hydrographicjd  maps,  and  which  con- 
sists in  projecting,  on  a  horizontal  plane  at  any  as- 
sumed level,  the  bounding  lines  of  the  surfaces  and 
also  the  horizontal  lines  cut  from  them  by  equidistant 
horizontal  plams,  the  distances  of  the.se  lines  from 
the  assiuned  i)lane  I)cing  expressed  unmirli-dUi/  in 
terms  of  some  linear  measure,  as  a  yard,  a  fool,  etc. 
The  assumed  horizontal  plane  upoii  which  the  lines 
arc  projected  is  termed  the  plane  of  ompuriitfm  or 
plane  of  nferenrc,  as,  it  is  the  one  to  which  the  dis- 


tances of  all  the  lines  from  it  are  referred,  and  a-s-  it 
serves  to  comiiare  these  distances  with  each  other  and 
also  to  detennine  the  relative  positions  of  the  lines. 

The  numbers  which  express  the  distmices  of  points 
and  lines  from  the  plane  of  comparison  are  termed 
refennas.  The  imit  in  which  these  distances  are  ex- 
pressed is  usually  the  linear  foot  and  its  decimal  divi- 
sions. As  the  [josition  assumed  for  the  plane  of  com- 
parison is  arbitrary,  it  may  be  taken  either  above  or 
below  every  point  of  the  surfaces  to  be  projected.  In 
the  French  military  ser\'ice  it  is  usually  taken  above, 
in  our  own  below  the  surfaces.  The  latter  seems  the 
more  natural  and  is  also  more  convenient,  as  vertical 
distances  are  more  haliitually  estimated  from  below 
upwards  than  in  the  contrary  direction.  Each  of 
these  methods  has  the  ailvantage  of  requiring  but  one 
kind  of  symbol  to  be  u.sed,  viz.,  the  numerals  express- 
ing the  references;  whereas,  if  the  jilane  of  compari.sou 
were  so  taken  that  .some  of  the  points  or  lines  projected 
should  lie  on  one  side  of  it  and  .some  on  the  other,  it 
would  be  then  necessary  to  ase,  in  connection  with 
the  references,  the  algebraic  symliols  jilus  or  mindu  to 
designate  the  points  above  the  plane  from  those  below 
it.  As  the  distiinces  of  all  points  arc  estimated  from 
the  plane  of  comparison,  the  reference  of  any  point  or 
line  of  this  plane  will  therefore  be  zero  (0.0);  that  of 
any  point  above  it  is  usually  ex]ire.s.sed  in  feet;  decimal 
parts  of  a  foot  being  used  whenever  the  reference  is 
not  an  entire  number.  When  the  reference  is  a  whole 
number  it  is  ^\Titten  with  one  decimal  place,  thus 
(23.0);  and  when  a  broken  number  with  at  least  two 
decimal  places,  thus  (3.70),  (13.63).  In  writing  the 
reference  the  mark  used  to  designate  the  linear  unit  is 
omitted,  in  order  that  the  numbers  exjiressing  refer- 
ences may  not  be  mistaken  for  those  which  may  be 
put  upon  the  drawing  to  express  the  horizontal  dis- 
tances between  points  The  references  of  horizontal 
lines  are  written  along  and  upon  the  projections  of 
these  lines.  All  other  references  are  written  as  nearly 
.OS  practicable  parallel  to  the  bottom  border  of  the 
drawing,  for  the  convenience  of  reading  them  without 
having  to  shift  the  position  of  the  sheet  on  which  the 
drawing  is  made. 

This  method  of  representing  the  projections  of  ol> 
jects  on  one  plane  alone  has  given  rise  to  a  very  useful 
modification  of  the  one  of  orthogonal  projections  on 
two  jjlanes,  and  has  been  denominated  one-plane  de- 
scriptive geonu'try;  the  plane  of  comparison  being  the 
sole  plane  of  projection,  and  the  references  taking 
the  place  of  the  usual  projections  on  a  vertical  plane. 
By  this  modification  the  number  of  lines  to  be  drawn 
is  less;  the  graphical  constructions  simplified;  and  the 
relations  of  the  parts  are  more  readily  seized  upon, 
as  the  eye  is  confined  to  the  examination  of  one  set  of 
projections  alone.  But  the  chief  advantage  of  it  con- 
sists in  its  application  to  the  delineation  of  objects, 
like  works  of  permanent  fortification,  where,  from  the 
great  disjiarity  of  the  horizontal  extent  covered  and 
the  vertical  dimensions  of  the  ixirts.  a  drawing,  made 
to  a  scale  which  would  give  the  horizontal  distances 
with  accuracy,  could  not  in  most  cases  render  the 
vertical  dimensions  with  any  approach  to  the  same 
degree  of  accuracy;  or,  if  made  to  any  scale  which 
would  admit  fif  the  vortical  dimensions  being  accu- 
rately determined,  would  reqviire  an  area  of  drawing 
surface,  to  render  the  horizontal  dimensions  to  the  same 
scale,  which  would  exceed  Ihe  convenient  limits  of 
practice.  Taking'  for  exanijile  an  ordinary  scale  used 
for  drawing  the  |>l:ms  of  permanent  forlitications  of 
one  infli  Utfiftj/fed,  or  the  scale  n^j,,  the  details  of  all 
the  bounding  surfaces  can  lie  determined  with  accu- 
racy to  within  Ihe  fractional  part  of  a  fool,  whereas 
a  vertical  projection  to  Ihe  same  scale  would  be  alto- 
gether too  small  for  Ihe  sjime  puqioses. 

For  Ihe  convenience  of  numerical  calculation,  the 
position  of  a  line,  with  respect  to  the  plane  of  reference, 
is  often  exjiressed  in  terms  of  the  natural  langeni  of  the 
angle  it  makes  with  this  plane;  bul  as  this  angle  is  the 
sjime  as  that  Ix'tween  Ihe  line  and  its  jirojcclion,  its 
natural  tangent  can  be  exjiressed  by  the  dillerence  of 


TORTILAOE. 


699 


FOTHEKGILL  PEOCESS. 


level  between  any  two  points  of  the  line,  divided  by  the 
hoirzontal  distance  between  the  points.  Now,  as  the 
ditference  of  level  between  any  two  points  of  the  line 
is  the  same  as  the  difference  of  the  references  of  the 
points,  and  the  horizontal  distance  between  them  is 
the  same  as  the  horizontal  [jrojection  of  the  portion 
of  the  line  between  the  same  points,  it  follows  that  the 
natural  tangent  of  tlie  angle  which  the  line  makes  with 
the  phme  of  reference  is  found  by  divkUng  tlu:  differeiice 
of  the  referents  ofthi-  pointu  by  the  distance  in  horizontal 
jtrajeetion  between  them.  The  vulgar  fraction  which 
exjjreases  this  tangent  is  known  as  the  inclination  or 
declivity  of  the  line.  Thus  the  fraction  \  would  ex- 
press that  the  Iiorizontal  distance  between  any  two 
points  is  six  times  the  vertical  distance,  or  difference 
of  their  references;  llie  fraction  5,  that  the  vertical 
distance  between  any  two  points  is  two  thirds  the 
horizontal  distance;  the  denominator  of  Vie  fraction,  in 
all  cases,  repremnting  the  nvmher  of  parts  in  ki/rizontal 
projection,  and  the  numerator  t/ie  corresponding  number 
of  parts  in  rertical  dixtance.  When  the  position  of  a  line 
js  designated  in  this  way,  it  is  said  to  be  a  line  whose 
inclination  or  decli\itj'  is  one  sixth,  two  thirds,  ten  on 
one,  etc.,  or  simply  a  line  of  one  sixth,  etc. 

Knowing  the  declivity  of  a  line,  tlie  difference  of 
reference  of  any  two  of  its  points,  the  projections  of 
■which  are  given,  will  be  found  by  multiplying  the 
horizontal  distance  between  them  by  the  fraction 
■which  exiiresses  this  declivity;  in  like  manner  the 
horizontal  distance  of  any  two  points  will  be  obtained 
by  dividing  the  ditference  of  their  references  by  this 
fraction.  To  obtain,  therefore,  the  reference  of  a  point 
of  a  line,  having  its  i^rojection,  the  horizontal  distance 
between  it  and  Ihat  of  .some  other  known  point  of  the 
line  must  be  determined  from  the  scale  of  the  drawing 
hy  which  the  horizontal  distances  are  measured;  this 
distance  expressed  in  numbers,  being  multiiilied  by 
the  fraction  which  exTiresses  the  declivity  of  the  line, 
will  give  the  dilTcrence  of  reference  of  the  two  points; 
the  required  reference  of  the  point  will  be  found  by 
subtracting  tliis  product  from  the  reference  of  the 
known  poin*.  if  it  is  higher  than  the  point  sought,  or 
by  adding  if  it  is  lowei. 

When  the  projection  of  a  line  is  divided  into  equal 
parts,  each  of  which  corresponds  to  a  tmit  in  vertical 
distance,  and  the  references  of  the  points  of  division 
are  written,  it  is  termed  the  scale  of  declirity  of  thi  line. 
In  constructing  tlie  scale  of  declivity  of  any  line,  the 
entire  references  are  alone  i>ut  down;  one  of  the  divi- 
sions of  the  equal  parts  being  subdivided  into  tenths, 
or  hundredths  if  necessarj',  so  as  to  give  the  fractional 
parts  of  the  references  corresponding  to  any  fractional 
part  of  an  entire  division.  The  true  length  of  any 
portion  of  an  ol)li(iue  line  between  two  given  points 
is  evidently  the  hypothenuse  of  a  righl-angled  tri- 
angle of  which  the  other  two  .sides  are  the  differ- 
ence of  reference  of  the  points,  and  their  horizontal 
distance. 

The  position  of  any  plane  oblique  to  the  plane  of 
reference  may  be  dctennined  either  by  the  projections 
and  references  of  three  of  its  points;  by  the  projections 
and  declivity  of  two  lines  in  it  oblique  to  the  plane  of 
reference;  or  by  the  projection  of  two  or  more  hori- 
zontal lines  of  the  plane  witli  their  references.  The 
more  iisual  method  of  representing  a  plane  is  by  the 
projectioiLS  on  the  plane  of  reference  of  the  horizontal 
lines  determined  when  intersecting  it  by  equidistant 
horizontal  planes.  These  projections  are  termed  hnri- 
zontals  of  the  plane,  those  usually  being  taken  the 
references  of  which  are  entire  numliers.  If  in  a'given 
plane  a  line  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  any  horizontal 
line  in  it,  the  projection  of  this  line  on  the  plane  of 
reference  will  lie  also  peqiendicular  to  the  projections 
of  the  horizontals.  The  angle  of  this  line  with  the 
plane  of  reference  is  evidently  the  siune  as  that  of  the 
given  plane  with  it,  and  is  greater  than  the  angle  be- 
tween any  other  line  drawn  in  the  plane  and  the  plane 
of  reference.  This  line  is,  on  this  account,  termed 
the  line  of  greatest  declirity  of  the  plane.  If  the  scale 
of  declivity  of  the  line  of  greatest  declivity  be  con- 


structed, it  will  alone  serve  to  fix  the  position  of  the 
plane  to  which  it  belongs,  and  to  determine  the  refer- 
ence of  any  point  of  the  i)lane  of  which  the  projection 
is  given.  For,  since  the  horizontals  are  |>erpendieular 
to  the  scale  of  ileclivity,  the  point  where  the  horizontal 
drawn  through  the  given  ])rojection  of  a  point  in  the 
plane  cuts  this  line  v\  ill  determine  upon  the  scale  the 
reference  of  the  horizontal,  and  therefore  that  of  the 
point. 

The  inclination  or  declivity  of  any  plane  with  the 
plane  of  reference  may  Ixf  expressed  in  the  .same  way 
as  the  inclination  of  its  line  of  greatest  declivity. 
Thus  a  plane  of  one  fourth,  a  plane  of  twenty  on  one, 
a  plane  of  two  thirds,  express  that  the  natural  tangents 
of  the  angle  between  the  planes  and  the  plane  of  ref- 
erence are  respectively  represented  by  the  fractions  J, 
-i",  and  .ij.  The  horizontal  ilistance  between  any  two 
horizontal  lines  in  a  plane,  the  angle  of  which  is 
given,  can  lie  found  in  the  same  way  as  the  horizontal 
distance  between  two  jioints  of  a  line,  the  inclination 
of  which  is  given,  bv'  dividing  the  difference  of  the 
reference  of  the  two  horizontal  lines  liy  the  fraction 
representing  the  declivity  of  the  plane;  in  like  manner 
the  difference  of  references  of  any  two  horizontal  lines 
will  be  obtained  by  imdtipljing  their  horizontal  dis- 
tance by  the  SiUne  traction.  With  the  foregoing  ele- 
ments the  usual  problems  of  the  right  line  and  plane 
can  be  rendilj-  solved.    See  Drawing. 

FORTILAGE.— The  name  formerly  given  to  a  little 
fort  or  block-house.  The  word  is  now  obsolete,  as  also 
the  v:oTd  fortin,  used  in  the  same  sense.  Fortlet  is 
conuiionlv  used  at  present. 

FORT  MAJOR.— The  next  officer  to  the  Governor 
or  Commandant  in  any  fortress.  He  is  expected  to 
understand  the  theory  of  its  defenses  and  works,  and 
is  responsible  that  the  walls  are  at  all  limes  in  repair. 
He  is  on  the  Staff,  liut  has  to  resign  his  regimental 
appointment,  and  receives  an  addition  to  his  Calf-pay. 

FORWARD. — The  word  of  command  given  when 
troops  ai-c  to  resume  their  march  after  a  temporary 
interruption. 

FOSS— FOSSE.— In  fortitication,  the  ditch  or  moat, 
either  v\  ith  or  without  water,  the  excavation  of  which 
has  contributed  material  for  the  walls  of  the  fort  it  is 
designed  to  protect.  The  foss  is  immediately  with- 
out the  wall,  and  offers  a  serious  obstacle  to  escalading 
the  defenses. 

FOSSANO  POWDER.— The  "  progrcs.sive  powder  of 
Fossano,"  made  at  the  Italian  powder-mills  of  Fos- 
siuio,  is  of  peculiar  manufacture.  After  ]iassing 
through  the  tii-st  stage  of  manufactiue,  and  Ixing 
brought  to  the  condition  of  nieal-powd<r,  it  is  pres.sed 
into  a  cake  which  has  a  density  of  1.79.  The  cake 
is  then  broken  up  into  iiTegidar  grains  01  about  an 
eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The 
grains  are  then  mixed  with  a  certain  quantity  of  fine- 
grain  powder,  and  the  whole  mass  is  pressed  into  a 
cake  which  has  a  density  of  1.T5.  This  second  cake 
is  then  broken  up  into  tolerably  regular  pieces  about 
2i  inches  square  by  1?  inches  thick.  These  grains 
are  therefore  composed  of  a  num!)er  of  small  pieces 
with  a  higher  density  placed  in  a  sort  of  conglomer- 
ated ])ovvder-niaterial  of  a  lower  density,  the  intention 
I)einii  to  proilucc  more  gas  in  a  given  time,  when  the 
powder  has  been  partly  burne<l,  than  at  the  commence- 
ment of  its  ignition.  This  is  accomplished  by  the 
lighter  jiowdcr  igniting  tirst  and  producing  inequali- 
ties or  indentations  in  tlie  grains,  when  the  denser  por- 
tions will  burn  with  an  increasing  surface.  The  Fos- 
sano powder  has  given  remarkably  high  velocities  with 
moderate  pressures,  and  has  the  great  merit  of  cheap- 
ness and  simplicitv.     See  (rinijuiwder. 

FOSSEWAY.— One  of  the  military  Hoir.an  roads  in 
Enirland,  so  calle<l  from  the  ditches  on  Ixith  sides. 

FOTHERGILL  PROCESS.— This  is  one  of  the  numer- 
ous dry  processes  in  ])liotography  which  have  for  their 
object  the  preservation  of  sensitive  plates  ready  for 
expo.sure.  It  is  named  after  the  inventor,  and' con- 
sists in  the  partial  removal  of  the  free  nitrate  of  silver 
which  adheres  to  the  collodion  film  on  withdrawing 


roircASE. 


700 


POUNDET. 


it  from  the  sensitizinf;  bath  bj*  wnshiii|i  ■HilU  water, 
and  the  subsequent  conversion  of  the  reniainintr  free 
nitrate  of  silver  into  albuiuimite  and  chloride  of  silver 
by  pourin!;  over  the  jilate  dilute  albumen,  eontiiininj; 
chloride  of  ammonium,  the  excess  of  albumen  being 
finally  washeii  off  by  \iolent  agitation  with  a  copious 
supply  of  water.  I'he  plates  being  si't  aside  to  drain 
on  folds  of  blotlinp-papcr  are,  when  thoroughly  dry, 
ready  for  use.     See  Pliotogmphy. 

FOUCADE. — A  term  formerly  and  very  commonly 
applied  to  a  small  mine.     Also  written  Amgadt: 

FOnOASSES. — Mines  are  so  called  wlicn  placed  at 
the  biiltiim  of  small  shafts  from  9  to  12  feet  deep. 
The  jiowder  is  lodged  in  one  of  the  sides  of  the  shaft, 
and  it  is  lire<l  from  a  secure  spot  by  means  of  a 
powder-hose  train,  brought  up  one  side  of  the  shaft, 
and  carried  in  a  trough,  ])anillel  to  the  ground,  5  or 
6  feet  Ik'Iow  the  surface.  When  there  is  no  occitsion 
to  fear  that  shells  may  fall  on  the  part  where  the 
trough  is  laid,  it  will  be  sutlieient  to  place  it  2  or  2* 
feet  under  the  ground.  The  powder-case  and  trough 
should  be  well  "pitched,  the  shaft  tamped  iu  the  strong- 
est manner,  and  the  earth  round  about  the  shaft  be 
dug  over,  that  nothing  may  indicate  to  the  enemy  the 
position  of  the  fouga.s,se. 

The  chief  difticully  attending  the  use  of  fougasscs 
is  to  explode  them  at  the  instant  when  the  enemy  is 
passing  over,  as  any  variation  in  the  time  of  explosion 
from  this  instant  renders  them  useless.  It  is  recom- 
mended to  place  an  obstacle  over  them,  as  an  abatis 
or  chevau.x-de-frise,  so  that  the  fougasses  may  be  ex- 
plo<led  while  the  enemy  is  occupied  in  forcing  his  way 
over.     See  Shell  I<}>u;/tisscs  and  Stone  Fougasses. 

FOHGETTE.— An  Indian  sky-rocket,  a  species  of 
fire- work  which  is  frequently  used  by  the  Asiatics.  It 
is  made  of  the  hollow  tube  of  the  bamboo,  of  a  very 
large  size,  tilled  with  the  usual  composition  of  rockets. 
The  rod  is  only  a  part  of  the  same  bamboo,  the  greater 
part  of  which  is  cut  away. 

FOUILLER. — In  a  military  sense,  to  detach  small 
bodies  of  infantry  round  the  flanks  of  a  column  that 
is  marching  through  a  wood,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
covering im  ambuscade,  anil  of  giving  timely  notice 
that  it  may  be  avoided.  The  same  precaution  is  nec- 
essary when  a  body  of  men  advance  towards  or  enter 
a  village. 

FOULING. — Smoke  is  a  solid  product  of  the  explo- 
sion in  a  tine  state  of  division;  but  at  the  instant  of 
explosion  this  product  is  liipiid  and  a  part  of  it  cakes 
together  in  the  bore  and  cau.ses  foultni).  Each  suc- 
ceeding round,  however,  expels  a  good  deal  of  that 
which  was  previously  deposited.  Foulinn  is  more 
likely  to  occur  in  a  small-arm  than  in  a  large  piece  of 
ordnance,  and  it  is  best  prevented  by  the  use  of  good 
powder  in  the  charge  and  careful  sponging.  It  grad- 
ually impairs  the  accuracy,  sometimes  makes  the 
breech  difficult  to  open,  and  increases  the  recoil,  as 
the  resistance  to  motion  of  the  bidlet  in  the  bore  be- 
comes greater,  and  consequently  the  charge  exerts  its 
force  for  a  longer  time. 

FOUNDATION.— The  artificial  structure  on  which 
the  remainder  of  an  edilice  rests.  The  hod;/  of  the 
foundation  is  the  niiisonry  or  timber- work  used;  the 
bnl.  the  prepared  surface  on  which  the  body  rests.  The 
bed  may  lie  a  leveled  surface  of  rock,  sjuid,  or  earth, 
consolidated  by  lieatiiig  or  l)y  driving  piles  into  it;  if 
the  tops  of  the  piles  are  bound  together  by  a  flooring 
of  timbers— called  a  grillage— this  flooring  is  deemed 
the  bed  of  the  foundation.  Hock  is  the  best  founda- 
tion, but  its  beiiring  jxtwer  should  be  tested,  and  its 
upper  surface  should  be  made  normal  to  the  direction 
of  the  pressure.  To  avoid  exi>en.se,  the  l)earing  sur- 
face may  be  left  in  steps,  but  the  steps  shoulil  be  filled 
with  well-fitted  masonrj-,  that  there  may  not  be  undue 
settlement  upon  the  filled  side,  in  ca.sc'lhe  lowest  step 
should  be  much  lower  than  the  highest.  Great  care 
«h(juld  be  taken  to  apportion  the  hiad  to  the  sujiport- 
ing  ])OWerof  the  foundation;  if  the  l.'itter  be  found 
inadc()uate,  the  area  of  the  foundation  sIkhiM  be  in- 
crea-scd  until  the  weight  distributed  to  each  unit  of 


surface  shall  be  brought  within  the  proper  maximum. 
Engineering  science  has  been  severely  tested  by  de- 
mands for  sure  foundations  in  places  where  the  soil 
and  substrata  are  by  nature  yieldiiig,  or  exposed  to 
the  insidious  action  of  ruiming  water,  or  where  both 
evils  are  united.  Except  upon  solid  rock,  .settlement 
cannot  be  avoided.  It  is  enough  for  the  safety  of  the 
structure  if  the  settlement  can  be  made  uniform  in  all 
its  parts. 

A  method  of  constructing  foundations  in  deep  water 
adopted  in  late  years  is  called  the  "  pneumatic;"  the 
manner  of  its  application  is  either  that  of  a"  vacuum" 
or  a  "  plenum,"  according  as  the  pressure  of  the  air 
within  is  below  or  above  the  usual  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere. In  either  case,  an  iron  cylinder,  usually 
constructed  In  .sections,  is  lowered  into  the  water  until 
its  lower  end  rests  on  the  bottom,  while  its  upper  end 
extends  above  the  surface.  If  the  vacuum  process  be 
used,  the  cylinder  is  capi)ed,  and  an  air-pumi)  reduces 
the  pressure  of  the  air  within.  The  weight  of  the  tube 
with  the  atmospheric  pressure  on  its  head  pushes  it 
into  the  groiui(l,  while  the  water  pressing  in  below  the 
lower  end  stirs  the  earth  and  a.ssists  the  descent.  When 
descent  stops,  the  air-pump  may  be  reversed,  and  the 
water  ii!  the  pipe  will  be  slowly  driven  through  the 
earth;  a  sudden  release  of  the  inner  ])rcssvire  will  cause 
a  second  influx  of  water,  a  disturbance  of  the  soil,  and 
i  a  further  descent  of  the  tube.  If  the  earth  contains 
]  Iwwlders  or  buried  timbers,  the  movement  of  the  tube 
may  be  stoi^jjcd  before  reaching  the  depth  desired  by 
the  Engineer;  or  he  may  wish  to  remove  the  interior 
earth  and  replace  it  with  masonry,  even  where  the 
[  ground  is  too  gravelly  to  keep  out  the  water.  In  this 
case  an  air-lock  is  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  tube, 
air  is  forced  into  the  interior,  driving  out  the  water, 
and  workmen  are  employed  within  to  excavate  the 
earth,  and  afterward  to  lav  the  masonry.  The  air- 
lock is  a  chamber  which  serves  as  a  vestibule  to  the 
interior,  and  permits  the  maintenance  of  a  nearly  con- 
stant air-pressure  within.  A  man  enters  the  air-lock 
and  closes  the  door  behind  him;  he  then  opens  com- 
munication with  the  interior  of  the  tube,  and  whea 
the  pressure  of  air  is  equalized  in  the  two  si>aces  he 
passes  within. 

FOUNDRY. — The  principal  points  to  be  considered 
in  the  erection  of  a  foundry  are  the  proper  arrange- 
ment of  plants  for  the  economical  h.-mdling  of  the 
iron  and  fuel,  and  the  castings  when  made.  The 
grountl  should  be  well  drained."  and  if  in  the  proxim- 
ity of  water,  the  lower  floor  should  be  several  feet 
above  the  highest  level  of  the  water.  The  foundry- 
floor  is  filled  with  molding-simd,  from  five  to  ten 
feet  deep.  Sometimes  it  is  necessjiry  to  have  pits, 
made  of  boiler-iron,  set  in  the  ground,  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  deep,  as  in  the  car-wheel  fouiuhies,  for  the 
annealing  process.  The  main  building,  used  for  the 
molding-room,  should  be  at  least  twenty  feet  high 
in  the  walls,  and  should  be  well  lighted,  especially 
in  the  roof,  by  running  a  large  sky-light  the  entire 
lengtli  of  the  building,  and  so  arranged  as  to  be  easi- 
ly opened  for  ventilation.  Additional  rooms  should 
be  provided  for  storing  and  preparing  the  materials 
of  the  molds,  such  as  grinding  and  sifting  the  sand, 
loam,  sea-coal,  coke,  plumbago  and  the  charcoal,  and 
likewise  for  cleaning  the  castings  and  milling  them. 
There  should  also  be  a  workshop  for  making  pat- 
terns, and  large  ovens  for  drying  the  cores.  The 
molding-room  should  have  an  area  ijroportionatc  to 
the  amount  of  work  and  kind  of  castings  to  be  made. 
For  (Example,  the  Detroit  Car-wheel  Company,  De 
troit,  .Mich.,  have  a  molding-floor  with  ;ui  area  of 
about  lO.OOtI  s(|uare  feet,  they  cast  3()0  wheels  per 
day,  melting  100  tons  of  iron.  Barney  &  Smith, 
Dayton,  Ohio,  tl.oor-area  0000  square  feet,  melt  .50 
tons  of  iron,  making  170  car-wheels  \wv  day.  Lotiis- 
ville  Car-wheel  Company,  floor-area  HOOO  scpiare  feet, 
melt  50  tons  of  iron,  making  170  car  wheels  i>er  day. 
Union  Foimdry  and  Pullman  Car-wheel  Works, 
Pullman,  111.  melt  120  tons  of  irim  per  day,  making 
ItiO  wheels,  oesidcs  other  castings.     Area  of  floor. 


FOTTNDBY. 


701 


FOUHSBT. 


The  Victor  CoUiau  Cupola.— For  Foundry  Use. 


FOUB. 


02 


rouB. 


SO.IKK)  square  foot.  Walter  A.  'Wootl  Harvester 
Coinpiiny,  Hoosick  Falls,  N.  Y.,  melt  40  tons  of 
reiiper  and  mower  castings  per  day.  Area  of  floor, 
ltt,(HHt  s(|uare  feet.  A  stove-foundry  requires  a  very 
lar);^■  titwr  area.  The  cujKila.s  should  be  placed  as 
near  the  I'cnter  of  the  building  as  possible,  so  as  to 
equalize  the  distance  for  carrying  the  melted  iron 
from  the  cupola  to  the  molds.  This  is  done  very 
economically,  for  small  castings,  in  latUes  on  wheels, 
running  on  rails,  distrilmting  the  iron  to  small  hand- 
ladles  at  each  si-parate  tloor.  For  hea\y  castings 
large  cranes  are  used,  for  lifting  and  moving  molds 
and  castings,  and  conveying  the  mehed  metal  in 
large  laiUes.  The  cupolas  should  be  outside  of  the 
molding  room,  in  a  sei>arate  buihliug,  containing  the 
cupola  loading-floor,  elevator  (if  inclined  plane  is 
not  used),  and  a  mill  for  cleaning  the  cupoladrop- 
pings.  The  height  of  the  charging  doors  above  the 
bottom  plate  should  be  not  less  than  13  feet;  14  to  16 
feet  is  l)etter.  It  is  a  gooil  plim  to  provide  a  sepa- 
rate steam-engine  to  nm  the  blower.  This  is  more 
economical  even  in  the  first  construction,  as  the  en- 


Vertical  Section  of  Colliau  Cuiwla. 

glne  and  steam-pipes  cost  less  than  the  transmission 
of  power  by  .shafting  and  belts,  and  it  jirevents  all 
complaints  from  the  machine-shop.  The  blower 
should  be  selected  with  due  regiird  to  the  size  of 
the  cupola  and  the  amount  of  iron  to  be  melted 
per  hour;  a  large  blower  re(|uiriug  less  speed,  less 
friction,  and  thus  less  power  in  jiroportion  than  a 
small  one  for  the  same  amount  of  blast.  The  blast- 
pipe  from  the  blower  to  the  cupola  should  be  as 
large  in  diameter,  short,  straight,  and  as  air-tight  as 
possible.  Avoid  all  bends  if  possible;  if  not,  niake 
them  as  long  and  ea.sy  as  circumstances  permit. 

The  foundrv  is  the  ba.sis  or  starting-point  of  all 
machinery  ami  heavy  guns,  and  bad  castings  spoil 
the  work.  The  fouiidrv  should  receive  as  much,  if 
not  more,  care  and  stu(1y  as  the  machine-shop,  and 
the  best  cupola  should  be  used.  The  records  of  the 
Colliau  cupola  show  the  most  economy  in  fuel  and 
iron,  the  greatest  rapidity  in  fusion,  ami  the  largest 
amoinit  of  iron  melted  in  a  gnvcn  time  and  si/e.  as 
■well  as  the  greatest  (pianlity  of  iron  melted  at  a  heat 
in  one  cupola  without  clogging.  This  cupola  is  rep- 
resented complete  in  the  engraving  on  page  701.  The 
accompanying  drawing  npresi'iiis  a  vertical  section. 
1)1)  is  the  air-lx).\,  GG  the  lower  tuyeres,  FF  the 
ui)per  tuyeres.  A  B  is  the  line  of  horizontal  section, 
shown  Ik'Iow  the  vertical  wclion.  E  is  the  arch  over 
the  tap-hole,  L.    E '  is  the  arch  over  the  slag-bole,  II. 


The  line  from  F  to  J  shows  the  inclination  of  the 
upi)er  tuyeres,  F  F.  K  is  the  inside  brick  lining. 
The  peculiar  features  of  the  Colliau  cupola  are  the 
proportions  and  arrangements  of  the  ujijier  and  lower 
tuyeres.  The  six  lower  tuyeres  are  rectangular  antl  are 
inicnded  to  furnish  the  air  ncees.sary  to  the  combus- 
tion of  the  fuel.  They  are  generally  left  open  during 
the  fusion;  but  as  they  are  provided  with  gates 
inside  the  air-box,  they  can  be  shut  more  or  less 
during  the  working,  to  direct  the  blast  more  on  one 
side  than  the  other  if  necessary,  or  may  be  closed 
altogether  (in  case  of  accident  to  the  blower).  The 
six  upper  tuyeres  are  round,  and  point  downwards. 
They  are  arranged  to  alternate  with  the  lower  tuy- 
eres. Their  inclination  is  proportionate  to  the  diam- 
eter of  the  cupola,  in  such  manner  that  the  bla.st  from 
them  will  reach  the  focus  of  combustion  produced  by 
the  lower  tuyeres.  Tlie  upper  tuyeres  are  closed 
when  the  blast  is  turned  on,  and  o|)ened  when  the 
iron  shows  at  the  fai>-liole,  and  the  eui>ola  plugged 
up  to  accinnulate  the  first  draught  of  iron.  This  is 
accomplished  by  moving  the  lever-himdle  which  is 
shown  on  the  top  of  the  air-box  in  the 
figure.  The  opening  of  these  tuyeres  pro- 
duces a  downward  blast  of  air(on  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  blow-pipe),  and  furnishes  the 
oxygen  neees.sjny  to  the  combustion  of  the 
hydrocarbon  gas,  which,  without  it,  would 
be  thrown  oil'  by  the  imperfect  combus- 
tion of  the  fuel  at  the  level  of  the  lower 
tuyeres.  This  combined  blast  produces  a 
melting-point  about  18  inches  above  the 
ujiper  tuyeres,  and  nowhere  else,  concen- 
trating the  heat  in  the  smallest  possible 
compass,  so  that  the  metal  in  fusion  has 
less  space  to  traverse  while  exposed  to  the 
oxidizing  influence  of  the  blast,  thereby 
insuring  tougher  castings  and  more  perfect 
combustion  of  the  infiammable  ga.ses  (with 
corresponding  economy  of  fuel),  which  is 
contrary  to  the  usual  practice  of  spreading 
the  blast  as  much  as  is  possible.  In  the 
practical  use  of  this  cupola  there  is  no 
flame  at  the  loading-doors,  and  no  throw- 
ing off  of  combustible  gases,  CArbonie-aeid 
gas  (the  only  product  of  perfect  combus- 
tion) alone  escaping:  little  or  no  flame 
being  seen  at  the  top  of  the  stack  until 
the  iron  is  about  all  melted.  This  cupola 
melts  more  iron  per  hour  in  proportion  to 
its  size  than  any  other.  B  cupola  is  73  in- 
ches outside  diameter  of  shell,  HS  inches 
diameter  inside  of  lining;  melts  12  to  1.5  tons  per 
hour,  and  100  tons  at  a  lieat.  I)  cupola  is  64  inches 
outside  shell,  49  inches  in.si(le  of  lining;  melts  8  to  10 
tons  i>er  hotir,  and  .50  to  60  tons  at  a  heat.  P  cuiwla 
is  .54  inches  outside  of  shell.  4'i  inches  inside  of  lin- 
ing; melts  5  to  6  tons  per  hour,  and  40  tons  at  a  heat. 
Hcupola  is  47  inches  outside  of  shell,  H6  inches  in- 
side of  lining;  melts  4  to  5  tons  per  hour,  and  30  tons 
at  a  heat.  J  cupola  is  43  inches  outsiile  shell,  33 
inches  inside  of  lining;  melts  3  to  4  tons  per  hour, 
ami  20  tons  at  a  heat.  L  cupola  is  35  inches  outside 
of  shell,  25  inches  inside  lining;  melts  h  to  1  ton  per 
hour,  and  4  to  5  tons  at  a  heat.  Jleltings  of  10  to  13 
pounds  of  iron  to  1  pound  of  fuel  are  obtained  in 
this  cupola,  according  to  (juantity  of  metal  melted  at 
a  heat.  One  of  the  results  of  the  Colliau  cupola  is  a 
decrea.se  of  time  in  melting  as  the  operation  advances, 
that  is  to  say,  a  better  working  of  the  cupola  at  the 
end  of  the  opeintinn  than  at  the  beginning;  this  is  the 
reverse  of  whut  generally  occurs  in  ctipolas.  See  In/ii. 
FOUB.  —A  pliice  of  confinement  in  Paris  to  which 
vagabonds  and  persons  who  could  not  give  any  satis- 
factory account  of  themselves  were  committed;  and 
when  once  shut  up  had  their  names  registered,  and 
were  enlisted  for  the  old  French  Government.  These 
Fours  added  annually  2000  men  at  least  to  the  King's 
regular  army;  and  by  which  means  the  capital  was 
relieved  of  a  multitude  of  thieves,  pickpockets,  etc. 


FOUBAGE. 


703 


FBANCHSS. 


FOUBAGE. — A  term  used  fjjruratively  In  artillery, 
to  signify  hay,  straw,  or  anything  else  of  a  vegetable 
growth  which  is  used  to  ram  into  the  bore  of  a  can- 
non for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  it. 

FOUKGON. — 1.  A  tumbrel  or  ammunition-wagon. 
2.  A  Frencli  bagirage-vehicle,  much  used  in  the  tield. 

FOUBIEB. — A  Quartermaster  belonging  to  a  cavalry 
or  infantry  regiment.  In  France  there  were  Fimritn 
M<Ovis  who  composed  a  portion  of  the  Cavalry  Staff. 
Sergeant  Fourier  and  Corporal  Fourier  answer  to  our 
Quartermaster  Sergeant. 

FOURNIMENT.-^A  horn  formerly  in  use,  which 
held  about  one  pound  of  gunpowder,  to  prime  can- 
non. It  was  likewise  useil  by  cavalry  and  infantry 
soldiers,  who  slung  it  across  their  shoulders.  The 
artillerists  kept  it  in  a  belt. 

FOURQUINE.— A  forked  rest,  furnished  at  its  ex- 
tremity with  a  point  or  spikes  to  tix  it  steadily  in  the 
ground.  The  nuisket  was  at  first  very  considerably 
heavier  than  the  arijuebuse,  and  it  was  neces.sary  to 
discharsre  it  from  a  rest. 

FOWKE'S  PONTON.— This  ponton  is  formed  of  a 
wooden  skeleton,  over  which  is  strained  strong  can- 
vas rendered  water-proof.  It  can  be  used  as  a  boat 
and  is  water-tight.  It  is  readily  transported  and  has 
a  great  buovancv. 

FOWLING-PIECE.— A  light  gim  for  shooting  birds. 
In  constructing  the  barrels  of  this  sporting-weapon, 
the  maker  endeavors  to  secure  the  greatest  possiljle 
lightness,  but  without  detracting  from  the  necesstiry 
strength.  Formerly  wrought  -  iron  only  was  used", 
but  cast-steel  is  now  very  generally  preferred.  The 
breech-loading  principle  "has  been"  introduced  to  a 
great  e.vtent,  but  many  sportsmen  are  still  in  favor  of 
the  muzzle-loader.  The  manufacture  of  the  best 
specimens  of  fowling-pieces  demands  a  very  high  de- 
gree of  mechanical  skill. 

FOX. — An  early  and  common  name  given  to  the 
old  English  broadsword. 

FBAISEB.— To  plait,  knead,  or  to  drill.  In  a  mili- 
tary sense,  to  fraise  or  fence;  as.frainer  un  battalion, 
to  fraise  all  the  infantrymen  wnth  pikes,  to  oppose  the 
irruption  of  cavalry,  should  it  charge  them  in  a  plain. 
At  present  it  means  to  secure  a  battalion  by  opposing 
bayonet.s  obliquely  forward,  or  crosswise  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  render  it  impossible  for  horsemen  to  act 
against  it. 

FBAISES. — These  obstacles  are  formed  of  palisades, 
placed  in  juxtaposition,  either  horizontally  or  slightly 
inclined.  The  best  position  for  a  fraise  is  on  the 
berm,  or  a  little  below  it,  so  as  to  be  covered  by  the 
counterscarp-crest.  The  part  of  the  fraise  under  the 
parapet  is  termed  the  tail,  and  is  about  tive  feet  long. 
To  make  a  fraise,  a  horizontiil  piece  of  a  four-inch 
scantling,  termed  a  cttshion,  is  first  laid  parallel  to  the 


Fraise,  with  Pickets  in  the  Ditch. 

berm;  each  palisade  Is  nailed  to  this,  and  a  thick 
riband  is  nailed  on  top  of  the  fraise  near  the  end. 
The  point  of  the  frai.se  .should  be  at  least  seven  feet 
above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  should  not  project 
beyond  the  foot  of  the  scarp,  so  as  not  to  shelter  the 
enemy  from  logs,  stones,  etc.,  rolled  from  the  parapet 
into  the  ditch.  The  fraise  is  a  good  obstacle  for 
works  without  flanking,  as  a  redoubt,  etc.  The 
drawing  shows  the  construction  of  the  fraise,  also  the 


location  of  small  pickets  in  the  ditch.  See  Accesgory 
Mian^  (if  IJifeime. 

FBAMEA;—  a  lance  employed  by  the  Franks.  The 
entire  head  is  of  one  piece,  in  which  the  end  of  the 
shaft  is  inserted  and  riveted. 

FEAME-BBIDGE.  —  A  bridge  formed  of  timbers 
framed  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  obtain  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  strength  with  a  given 
quantity  of  material.  The  fundamental  principle 
upon  which  all  such  construction  is  based  is  that 
the  timbers  shall  be  so  arranged  that  the  weight  put 
upon  them  shall  exert  a  pulling  or  a  crushing  strain,, 
instead  of  a  transverse  strain,  and,  if  possible,  that 
the  greatest  strain  shall  act  as  a  direct  pull  in  the 
direction  of  the  tibers  of  the  wood.  The  construc- 
tion of  a  frame-bridge  is  veiT  similar  to  that  of  a 
roof,  excepting  that  in  the  bridge  a  considerable  out- 
ward thrust  upon  the  abutments  is  generally  permis- 
sible, while  the  walls  of  a  house  will  not  stand  this  ; 
and  that  for  the  bridge  a  nearly  level  way  on  the  top  is 
desirable,  while  for  a  roof  a  sleep  incline  is  not  objec- 
tionable, or  is  even  desirable.  The  celebrated  frame- 
bridge  of  Schaffhausen,  constructed  in  1757  l)y  Gru- 
benmann,  a  village  carpenter,  was  built  exactly  in 
the  manner  of  a  roof,  with  the  horizontal  pathway 
superadded.  It  was  composed  of  two  arches,  one 
193  feet,  the  other  172  feet  span.  It  was  merely  laid 
uiion  the  piers,  and  did  not  abut  against  them  to 
exert  any  outward  thi-ust,  as  will  be  noticed  in  the 
drawing.     The  weight  upon  the  bridge  is  transmitted 


Bridge  of  Schafthausen. 

by  the  oblique  beams,  which  by  analogy  we  may  call 
rafters,  to  the  tie-beam  ab,  where  it  exerts  a  horizontal 
pulling  strain.  These  rafters  are  framed  into  the 
tie-beam  .so  as  to  abut  firmly  against  it  in  the  same 
manner  as  roof-rafters  (see  Rocf).  This  kinil  of 
frame-bridge  is  verj-  common  in  Switzerland,  where 
timber-bridges  abound  ;  and  it  has  doubtless  origi- 
nated from  the  fact  that  most  of  the  bridges  have 
been  built  by  the  local  carpenters,  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  the  construction  of  roofs  of  considerable 
span  for  the  commodious  scjuare-built  wooden  cot- 
tages with  overhanging  roofs,  so  common  in  that 
co\mtry.  Frame-bridges  of  more  complex  structure 
are  sometimes  built ;  in  some  of  these  the  timbers 
are  framed  so  as  to  present  an  arched  form.  In  these 
ca.ses  the  structure  is  very  similar  to  those  described 
and  noticed  under  C'einterino.  The  serious  defect 
of  all  such  bridges  is  their  liability  to  decay  from 
exposure  to  moisture,  etc..  especially  at  the  joints, 
where  water  is  apt  to  lodge  and  remain,  from  want 
of  free  circulation  of  air  to  evaporate  it.  In  the 
bridge  of  Schaffhausen  above  described,  it  was  found 
that  When  it  had  stood  but  twenty-six  years,  the  oak 
beams,  where  they  rested  upon  the  masonry  at  a 
and  b,  were  rotted,  and  the  frames  began  to  .settle. 
This  was  remedied  by  a  carjienter  named  Spengler, 
who  raised  the  whole  structure  ujion  piles  bv  means 
of  screw-jacks,  and  so  replaced  llie  decayed  wood. 
Means  should  be  adopted  to  admit  the  free  circula- 
tion of  air  in  those  parts  where  the  timber  rests  upon 
the  masonry,  and  to  prevent  water  from  settling  in  the 
timber  joints.  The  covered  bridges  of  Lueenie  and 
other  parts  of  Switzerland  are  well  known  as  objects 
of  special  interest  to  tourists,  who  usually  imagine 
that  the  roofs  are  constructed  for  the  comfort  of 
travelers,  but  their  main  object  is  the  preservation  of 
the  bridge. 

FBANCHES. — Bodies  of  men  detached  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  army,  having  each  a  Chief 


FBANCIsaUE. 


704 


FBANKLIN  HAOAZINE-OUN. 


or  a  Commandant.  They  consistctl  cliietly  of  dra- 
goons, liu.sstirs,  etc.,  and  their  jieculiar  duly  was  to 
make  irruptions  into  an  enemy's  country.  They 
may  not  improperly  be  called  Ijiud-pinites,  as  tJieir 
chief  occupation  was  to  haro.ss  and  plunder  the 
enemy  imd  his  adherents,  in  whatever  manner  they 
i-ould",  without  twyini;  any  re.irard  to  military  forms. 
The  iK'rstms  who  composed  these  corps  were  termeii 
parlis;ms.  They  always  accompanied  the  main  army 
in  lime  of  war,  anif  were  distributed  amon^  the  dif- 
ferent garris<ins  in  France  during'  peace.  1  hey  were 
common  to  every  power  in  Europe.  The  Pandours 
and  Iliilans  were" of  this  description.  They  were  the 
worst  attliitions  of  war ;  and  generally  as  fatal  to 
their  fiienils  as  to  their  enemies. 

FKANCISQUE.  —  A  battle-axe  generally  in  use 
amonj:  the  Franks.  It  was  either  used  as  a  hatchet, 
or  was  hurled  at  the  head  or  at  the  shield  of  the 
enemy.  It  was  made  under  several  varieties  of  form; 
and  iis  blows  if  properlv  aimed  took  violent  effect. 

FRANC-TIREURS.— fiands  of  French  soldiers  that 
sprang  into  existence  during  the  progress  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  (1870-1871).  They  did  not 
form  a  part  of  the  regular  army,  and  at  first  their 
military  organization  was  very  imi)erfect ;  but  this 
defect  "was  afterwards  in  some  measure  remedied. 
They  exercised  a  species  of  guerrilla  warfare,  attack- 
ing small  detachments  of  the  enemy,  as  also  single 
travelers,  baggage-trains,  etc.,  their  attacks  being 
very  often  characterized  by  those  siivageries  incident 
to  this  mode  of  warfare.  They  consisted  mostly  of 
the  country  population;  but  their  birth,  education, 
clothing,  arms,  age,  and  even  their  aim,  were  almost 
in  every  case  diilerent.  At  tirst  they  were  not  re- 
cognizcil  by  the  Germans  as  having  any  military 
standing  at  all,  and  when  seized  they  were  shot ;  but 
after  a  time,  wlien  they  received  a  better  organiza- 
tion, and  CO  operated  with  the  regular  French  army, 
such  recognition  was  accorded  them.  The  name  was 
also  applied  to  French  soldiers,  during  the  Crimean 
War,  who  were  stationed  as  sharp-shooters,  and  to 
certain  corps  of  lisht  infantry  in  the  republican  wars. 

FRANKING  LETTERS.  -^  In  the  United  States, 
established  as  a  system  b<'fore  th('  ado|ition  of  the 
Federal  Constitution,  and  coutiiuicd  with  various 
moditications  until  the  last  day  of  June,  1873.  At 
first  granted  only  on  letters  of  iievolutionary  soldiers 
who  were  in  actual  service,  its  privilege  was  after- 
wards extended  to  the  President,  the  Heads  of  De- 
partments, the  Chiefs  of  Bureaus,  and  certain  Clerks 
designated  by  the  Postmaster  General.  Public  docu- 
ments were  also  sent  free.  It  was  further  extended 
to  Senators  and  Congressmen  for  matter  addresseel 
by  or  to  them,  with  certain  limitations,  Ijefore  and 
after  the  .sessions  of  Congress;  Postmasters  could 
frank  official  correspondence ;  newspapers  were  ex- 
changed free,  and  petitions  to  Congress  were  sent 
free,  but  the  weight  of  packages  was  limited  to  4 
ounces  each.  A  further  extension  included  the  ex- 
changes of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  medals,  and 
testimonials  granted  to  .soldiers.  After  .July  1,  1873, 
the  franking  .system  was  in  part  set  aside,  and  an 
allowance  of  stamps  wits  made  to  the  various  Depart- 
ments to  cover  the  expense  of  correspondence  and  of 
the  transmission  of  reports  and  docmnenls. 

In  England,  on  the  introduction  of  the  uniform 
pemiy-poslage  on  all  inlaml  letters  in  1840,  the  privi- 
lege formerly  enjoyed  by  Peers  and  .Members  of  the 
Uou.se  of  Commons,  and  many  ollicial  persons,  of 
fiiinh'iif/  was  abolishcil.  The  privilege  was  claimed 
by  the  lIou.se  of  Commons  in  l(!(iO,  when  the  Post- 
oilice  was  tii-st  legally  established,  but  it  was  after- 
wards dropped  upon  a  private  as.surance  from  the 
Crown  that  it  should  be  allowed  to  mcndier.s.  The 
Postniiuster  (Jeiural  accordingly  conslanlly  issued  a 
warrant  directing  the  allowance,  till  the  privilege 
was  expressly  conferred  by  statute.  In  the  days  of 
frank-inn,  each  Meinlx;r  of  either  House  of  Parlia- 
ment Was  entitled  to  send  ten  letters  every  day,  not 
cxcecdiiig  an  ounce  in  weight  each,  to  any  place  iu 


the  United  Kingdom,  and  to  receive  lifteen.  free.  As 
it  W!is  not  neces.sary  that  the  letter  should  be  either 
written  by  or  to  the  i)rivileged  person,  the  privilege 
W!is  greatly  abused;  and  most  persons  whose  memo- 
ries reaih  bick  to  the  jieriod  when  it  existed  will 
rememl)er  family  arrangements  for  taking  advantage 
of  it,  by  \vhich  the  whole  correspondence  of  the 
kindred,  connections,  and  even  the  intimate  acquaint- 
ances of  a  Peer,  or  a  Member  of  Parliament,  was  iu 
general  carried  on  duty  free.  Up  to  the  passing  of 
the  last-mentioned  statute,  all  that  was  retjuisite  was 
that  the  Jlember  should  write  his  name  or  title  on  the 
corner  of  the  letter.  From  this  time,  however,  till 
the  abolition  of  the  ])riyilege,  it  was  required  that  the 
whole  address  should  be  written  by  the  .Member;  that 
he  should  add  not  only  his  name,  but  the  name  of 
the  post-town,  and  the  day  of  the  month;  and  what 
was  most  troublesome  of  all,  that  the  letter  should 
be  posted  on  the  day  on  which  it  wsis  written,  or  the 
following  tlay,  and  in  a  i^ost-town  within  twenty 
miles  of  which  the  person  fnin/,'iiir/  was  then  actually 
resident.  By  this  regulation  the  kindly  cu.stom  of 
giving  franks  t(j  friends,  or  leaving  them  with  them 
lor  future  use,  was  rudely  interfered  with,  and  the 
public  mind  reconciled  to  the  tinal  abolition  of  what 
many  regarded  as  a  time-honored  abuse.  See  Official 
Enrdojh's. 

FRANKLIN  MAGAZINE-GUN.— This  gun  belongs 
to  that  system  iu  wliicli  a  tixed  chamber  is  clo.sed  by 
a  bolt  b}'  tlirect  action,  and  iu  which  the  lock  is  con- 
cealed. The  receiver  has  a  vertical  slot  cut  entirely 
through  it  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  cartridges 
from  above  and  affording  egress  to  the  empty  shells 
below.  It  has  also  a  longitudinal  slot  through  which 
the  handle  on  the  breech-bolt  slides,  with  a  side  cut  at 
the  front  end  of  the  slot  for  the  receiition  of  the  hau- 
tUe  when  the  bolt  is  locked.  The  breech-bolt  is  com- 
|)osed  of  three  parts,  viz.,  the  locking-tul)e,  the  bolt- 
head,  and  the  cocking-piece.  To  the  latter  of  these 
the  tiring-pin,  which  extends  the  whole  length  of  the 
breech-bolt,  is  .secured  by  a  screw.  The  bolt-head, 
which  supijorts  the  cartridge  at  the  instant  of  fire,  is 
secured  to  the  locking-tube  by  a  pin  at  right  angles  to 
its  axis.  The  tiring-pin  spring,  which  is  held  Ijctwcen 
the  shoulder  on  the  front  of  llie  tiring-|iin  and  that  at 
the  Imllomof  the  locking-tube,  serves  by  its  tension  to 
hold  in  contact  the  locking-tube  and  cocking-piece. 
By  means  of  the  spiral  surfaces  of  a  projection  on  the 
cocking-piece,  and  a  corresponding  rece.ss  on  the 
locking-tube,  the  cocking-piece  is  cammed  back, 
withdrawing  the  point  of  the  tiring-pin  within  the 
face  of  the  bolt-head  when  the  piece  is  unlocked. 
Accidental  explosions  are  thus  avoiiled  in  closing  the 
bolt.  The  form  of  the  cut  in  the  receiver  is  such  as 
to  cam  back  the  handle,  and  with  it  the  boll,  during 
the  unlocking,  starling  the  empty  shell.  This  is  a 
necessary  feature  of  all  bolt  guns  "which  are  intended 
to  fire  copper-ease  cartridges.  The  breech-bolt  is  pre- 
vented from  being  pulled  comiiletely  out  by  the  nose 
of  the  .sear  strikiiig  on  the  bolt-head.  The  "magazine, 
which  is  a  metallic  tube,  lies  on  top  of  the  barrel. 
The  magazine  slop  spring  is  fasteneil  at  its  rear  to  a 
lever,  and  its  front  is  inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  re- 
ceiver. When  the  handle  is  turned  so  as  to  uidock 
the  breech  boll,  a  lever  one  extremity  of  which  enlere 
a  groove,  while  the  other  is  comiected  with  the  maga- 
zine stop-spring  and  its  lever,  is  so  moved  as  to  cause 
I  he  slo]>-spring  to  move  forward,  when  its  inclined 
front  springs  through  an  oix-ning  in  the  side  of  the 
receiver  and  partially  "covers  the  mouth  of  the  ma.gsi- 
zine,  preventing  escape  of  cartiidges.  '\\'hen  the 
breech-bolt  is  returned  to  its  locking  iiosilion  the  slop- 
spring  is  returned  to  its  first  position  by  means  of  a 
.spring  operating  its  lever;  at  the  same  time  the  in- 
clined face  of  the  slop-spring  beating  on  the  side  of 
the  cut  in  the  receiver  is  jtressed  out  of  the  way,  and 
a  cartridge  i.ssues  from  the  magazine  into  the  space 
above  the  breech-boll.  It  follows,  Iherefore.  that  a 
cartridge  always  occupies  the  space  aliove  Ihe  breech- 
I  bolt  when  the  piece  is  locked,  provided  the  magazine 


m&NES. 


705 


FBAin). 


has  been  previously  filled.  When  the  bolt  Is  with- 
drawn, this  cartridge,  uniler  the  influence  of  gravity 
alone,  falls  into  a  position  in  line  with  the  axis  of  the 
bore.  The  bullet  is  supported  by  a  shelf  in  rear  of  the 
chamber.  The  base  of  the  cartridge  is  prevented 
from  falling  below  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the  bore  by 
the  shape  of  the  slot  in  the  receiver,  which  is  only 
wide  enough  for  the  shell  to  fall  through  when  its 
bead  is  behind  the  extractor.  This  condition  oidy 
obtains  when  the  shell  is  being  withdrawn.  When 
the  bolt  is  returned  the  cartridge  is  forced  into  the 
chamber  and  another  one  enters  the  space  above  the 
breech-bolt.  A  lid  covers  the  opening  at  the  top  of 
the  receiver.  A  catch  serves  to  keep  the  lid  closed 
except  when  the  breech-bolt  is  unlocked.  If  the  lid 
be  raised  during  that  time,  a  shoulder  on  its  interior 
bearing  against  a  lever  prevents  the  stop-spring  re- 
turning to  its  original  position.  The  lid  remaining 
open,  the  piece  may  be  loaded  and  tired  as  a  single- 
loader.  No  ejector  is  required  with  this  gun,  gravity 
again  being  called  on  to  effect  the  fall  of  the  empty 
shell  through  the  opening  to  the  ground.  As  a  mag- 
azine-gun, three  motions  are  necessary  to  operate  it, 
viz.,  opened,  closed,  tired.  As  a  single-loader,  four 
motioas  are  necess;iry,  \-iz.,  opened,  l(jaded,  closed, 
fired.  This  gun  carries  ten  cartridges  in  the  maga- 
zine, one  in  the  space  above  the  breech-bolt,  and  one 
in  the  chamljer.     See  Miir/aziiu-gtin. 

FRANKS. — The  name  a.ssumed  by  a  Confederation 
of  Gennan  tribes  that  api)earcd  on  the  Lower  Rhine 
in  the  third  century,  anil  afterwards  overthrew  the 
Roman  dominion  in  Gaul.  It  was  onlv  the  name, 
however,  that  was  new;  the  indi\idual  tribes  compos- 
ing the  Confederation  had  been  known  on  the  Rhine 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  the.se  were  the  Sigambri,  Chama\i,  Ampsi- 
varii,  Chatti,  Chattuarii,  and  Brncteri  of  the  lime  of 
the  First  Emperors.  In  the  third  and  fourtli  centu- 
ries hordes  of  them  began  to  pour  through  the  Low 
Countries  into  Gaul,  imtil  at  last  the  country  became 
their  prey.  After  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
they  appear  divided  into  two  groups,  the  Salians 
and  the  Ripuarians,  the  former  inhabiting  Holland 
and  the  Low  Countries,  the  latter  on  both  sides  of  the 


strong  principle,  although  a  series  of  thin  coils  helps 
us  to  distribute  the  induced  strain  upon  a  gun  by 
shrinking  on  each  coil  separately,  the  method  is  open 
to  the  serious  objection  that  it  is  practically  difficult 
to  calculate  the  respective  proportionate  amount  of 
extension,  and,  consequently,  the  greater  the  number 
of  pieces  in  a  gun,  the  more  likely  that  some  weak- 
ness will  exist  in  the  mass,  owing  to  the  undue  strain 
on  some  of  its  parts.  Shrinking  on  the  coils  succes- 
sively was  adopted  by  Sir  William  Armstrong,  as  a 
convenient  mode  of  adhesion,  and  not  on  the  distribu- 
tion theorj'.  In  the  formation  of  a  triple  coil,  it  is 
generally  a  manufacturing  necessity  to  have  the  first 
coil  cold  before  the  second  bar  is  wound  round;  but 
the  third  bar  is  wound  on  while  the  second  coil  is 
hot;  the  second  and  third  layers,  therefore,  contract 
nearly  simultaneously,  and  are  kept  in  a  state  of  ten- 
sion by  the  first,  which  they  compress  to  a  certain 
degree,  thus  carrying  out  the  theory  of  initial  ten- 
sion. 

The  barrel  is  made  from  a  solid  forged  cyliuder  of 
cast-steel,  drawn  by  beating  and  hammering;  it  is 
turned,  bored,  and  chambered,  then  heated  to  a  uni- 
form temperature  in  a  vertical  furnace  and  plunged 
into  a  covered  tank  of  rapeoil,  where  it  cools  and 
soaks.  The  muzzle-coil  is  constructed  of  two  single 
coils,  welded  together  endways.  Each  coil  is  formed 
bj'  hejiting  a  long  bar  and  wrapping  it  about  a  man- 
drel; this  is  next  healed  in  a  reverberatorj-  furnace  and 
welded  under  a  steam-hammer  Before  being  united, 
the  two  cylinders  are  turned  and  bored.  The  breech- 
coil  is  composed  of  a  triple  coil,  a  trunnion-ring,  and 
a  double  coil  welded  together.  The  double  coil  is 
formed  by  placing  a  single  coil,  when  cold,  on  a 
mandrel  and  winding  over  it,  but  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion to  break  joints,  a  second  bar;  if  over  this  a  third 
bar  is  immediately  wound  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  first,  a,  triple  coil  will  result.  These  coils  are 
welded  by  being  heated  and  hammered  on  end  and 
on  the  sides.  The  trunnion-ring  is  made  by  welding 
slaljs  of  iron  together  on  the  fiat  end  of  a  bar,  and 
gradually  forming  a  ring  by  dri\ing  through  the  cen- 
ter wedges  and  manilrels  increasing  in  size;  the  trun- 
nions, one  of  which  comes  from  the  bar,  are  at  the 


Rhine  as  far  up  as  the  Main.     Each  group  had  its  i  same  time  hammered  into  shape.     The  coils  and  the 


own  laws,  afterwards  committed  to  writing  (i#j  Stiliea 
and  IjCJ-  R/'piuiriorum).  Like  the  two  peoples,  these 
laws  differ  little  even  in  detail. 

FBAS£S  GUN.— This  gun  is  an  important  modifica- 
tion of  the  Armstrong  gun,  from  which  it  differs 
principally  in  building  up  a  gun  of  a  few  long  double 
and  triple  coils,  instead  of  .sevend  short  ones,  and  a 
forged  breech-piece.  The  Fraser  9-inch  gun  is  repre- 
sented in  the  drawing,  where  it  is  readilj'  seen  how  a 


Fraser  9-inch  Gun. 

great  expense  is  -saved  by  this  means  of  constniction, 
as  there  is  much  less  surface  to  be  bored  and  turned. 
With  respect  to  theory,  it  may  l)e  urged  in  its  favor, 
in  the  first  place,  that  a  forge"d  breech-piece  (which  is 
comparatively  exjjensive,  and  liable  to  fly  into  frag- 
ments should"  the  gun  burst)  is  not  required  with  a 
solid-ended  steel  barrel  and  long  thick  coils,  although 
it  is  necessjirk-  with  several  short  coils  to  compensate 
for  the  longitudinal  weakness  of  their  joints.  The 
whole  of  the  wrought-iron,  therefore,  can  be  coiled 
round  the  barrel,  and  thus  give  an  extra  transverse 
strength.  Again,  the  trunnion-ring,  which  had  to  be 
shnmk  on  in  the  first  constniction,  is  welded  on 
to  the  breech-coil  in  the  Fraser  plan,  so  that  there  is 
no  fear  of  slipping.     With  regard  to  the  second  Arm- 


ring  liaAUig  been  turned  and  bored,  the  latter  is 
placed  on  a  shoulder  of  the  triple  coil,  the  double 
coil  is  dropped  through  the  tnuinion-ring  on  to  the 
triple  coil,  and  the  joints  welded  in  this  position. 
The  cascabel  is  forged  of  good  scrap-iron. 

The  different  parts  having  been  formed  are  accu- 
rately turned  and  bored  with  a  slight  taper.  The  B- 
tube,  being  healed,  is  dropped  over  the  barrel,  which 
is  stood  in  a  pit,  a  stream  of  cold  water  circulating 
through  the  bore.  The  half-formed 
gun  is  then  placed  on  its  muzzle,  water 
forced  through  the  bore,  and  the  breech 
coil  heated  and  .slipped  into  position. 
The  cascabel  is  screwed  into  the  breech- 
coil  abutting  agairLst  the  barrel,  great 
care  being  taken  that  the  contact  is 
perfect.  A  tell-tale  hole  is  cut  along 
the  thread  on  the  cascabel  to  give  warn- 
ing by  the  escape  of  gas  should  the 
barrel  break  in  firing.  The  vent  is 
bored  through  hardened  copper;  it  enters  at  near  the 
center  of  the  serWce-cartridge.  This  gives  greater 
velocity,  but  also  greater  pressure.  The  large  guns 
have  from  seven  to  ten  grooves.  The  twist  is  uni- 
formlv  increasing:  the  shape  of  the  grooves  is  circu- 
lar, with  curved  edges.  Larger  cannon  are  built  up 
of  a  greater  number  of  pieces.  In  some  a  coil  (the 
lx>lt)  is  placed  Ix-tween  the  muzzle  and  breech  coils, 
with  an  additional  coil  (the  waistcoat)  under  the 
breech-coil.  Shoulders  also  are  used,  by  which  the 
parts  when  hot  are  hooked  together.  See  Armstrong 
OiiriK,  Ordnance,  and  Woolin'rh  Oun. 

FKAUD.— Any  person  in  the  military  service  of  the 
United  States  who  makes  or  causes  to  be  made  anv 
claim  against  the  United  States,  or  any  officer  thereof. 


FKAYS. 


706 


7BENCH  ABHT. 


knowing  such  claim  to  be  false  or  fraudulent;  or  who 
presents  or  causes  to  be  presented  to  any  person  in 
tlie  civil  or  military  service  lliereof,  for  Tipproviil  or 
payment,  any  claim  against  the  United  Stales,  or  any 
olllcer  tliereof,  knowing  s\ich  claim  to  be  false  or 
traudulcnt;  or  who  cuti-rs  into  any  ajrrecment  or  con- 
spiracy to  defrauil  the  United  Stales  by  obtiiining.  or 
alding\)thcrs  lo  obtain,  the  allowance  or  payment  of 
any  false  or  fraudulent  claim;  or  who,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtainin;;,  or  aiding  others  to  obtain,  the  ap- 
proval, allowance,  or  payment  of  any  claim  aj?iinsl 
the  United  States,  or  against  any  officer  thereof, 
makes  or  uses,  or  jjrocures  or  advises  the  making  or 
use  of,  any  writing,  or  other  paper,  knowing  the 
same  to  contain  any  false  or  fraudulent  stjitement;  or 
who,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aiding  others 
to  obtain,  the  approval,  allowance,  or  payment  of  any 
claim  against  the  United  States  or  any  officer  thereof, 
makes,  or  prtK^ures  or  advises  the  making  of,  any 
oath  to  any  f:ict  or  to  any  writing  or  other  paper, 
knowing  such  oath  to  be  false;  or  who.  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining,  or  aiding  others  to  obtain,  the  ap- 
proval, allowance,  or  paj-ment  of  any  claim  against  tlie 
United  States,  or  any  officer  thereof,  forges  or  coun- 
terfeits, or  procures  or  adWses  the  forging  or  counter- 
feiting of,  any  signature  upon  any  writmg  or  other 
paper,  or  uses,  or  procures  or  advises  the  use  of,  any 
such  signature,  knowing  the  same  to  be  forged  or 
counterfeited;  or  who,  having  charge,  possession, 
custody,  or  control  of  any  money  or  other  properly 
of  the  United  States,  furnished  or  intended  for  ihe 
military  service  thereof,  knowingly  delivers,  or  causes 
to  be  delivered,  to  any  person  ha\-ing  authority  to  re- 
ceive the  same,  any  amount  thereof  less  than  that  for 
which  he  receives  a  certiticale  or  receipt,  shidl.  on 
con\'iction  thereof,  be  punished  by  tine  or  imprison- 
ment, or  by  such  other  punishment  as  a  Court-Martial 
may  adjudge.  And  if  any  person,  being  guilty  of 
any  of  the  offenses  aforesaid,  while  in  the  military 
service  of  the  United  States,  receives  his  discharge, 
or  is  dismissed  from  the  service,  he  shall  continue  to 
be  liable  to  be  arrested  and  held  for  trial  and  .seulence 
by  a  Court-Martial,  in  the  same  manner  and  to  the 
same  extent  as  if  he  had  not  received  such  discharge 
nor  been  dismissed. 

FBAYS. — All  officers  of  what  condition  soever  have 
power  to  part  and  quell  all  quaiTels,  frays,  and  disor- 
ders, though  the  per.sons  concerned  should  belong  to 
another  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  and  either  to 
order  officers  in  arrest,  or  non-commissioned  officers 
or  soldiers  into  confinement,  until  their  proper  .supe- 
rior officers  shall  be  acquainted  therewith;  and  who- 
soever shall  refuse  to  obey  such  officer  (though  of 
an  inferior  rank,  and  of  a  different  regiment,  troop, 
or  company),  or  shall  draw  his  sword  upon  him,  shall 
be  punished  at  the  discretion  of  a  General  Court-Mar- 
tial. 

FHEEBOOTEE.— A  term  commonly  applied  to  one 
■who  w anikr-i  about  for  plunder;  a  robber;  a  pillager; 
a  plunderer. 

FEEEDMENS  BUREAU.— The  branch  of  the  War 
Department  of  the  United  States,  established  in  1865, 
to  which  W!is  committed  the  supervision  and  manage- 
ment of  abandoned  lands,  and  the  control  of  all  sub- 
jects relating  to  refugees  and  freedraen  from  any  dis- 
trict embraced  within  the  territory  covered  by  the 
ojxjrations  of  the  army.  It  Wiis  managed  by  a  Cora- 
mis.sioner,  with  a  number  of  As.sistanls.  ItWas  cre- 
ated to  meet  a  special  exigency:  much  of  tlic  work 
was  long  ago  accomplished,  and  Ihe  principal  func- 
tions of  the  Bureau  cea-sed  in  1870.  During  its  ex- 
istence the  Bureau  exercised  a  general  super\ision 
over  the  freedmen  and  other  loyal  refugees,  protect- 
ing their  rights,  finding  work  and  providing  educa- 
tion for  them,  and  furnishing  medical  treatment. 
More  than  2100  day- and  night-schools  were  in  ope- 
ration in  1H69,  with  24.')5  tejichers  and  114,.W3  pu- 
pils. The  Bureau  was  in.stnimenlal  in  establishing 
institutions  for  the  higher  education  of  freedmen, 
such  as  Howard  University  at  Washington,  Atlanta 


Universilv,  Claflin  University  in  South  Carolina,  and 
others.  The  number  of  rations  i.ssued  to  freedmen 
was  over  ir),000,000,  and  nearly  600,000  sick  persons 
were  cared  for. 

FREE-LANCES. — Roving  companies  of  knights  and 
men-al-arins,  who,  after  the  Crusades  had  ceased 
to  give  them  emiiloyment,  wandered  from  Stale  to 
State,  selling  their  .serWces  lo  any  lord  who  was  will- 
ing to  purchase  their  aid  in  the  perpetual  feuds  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  They  played  their  most  prominent 
part  in  Italy,  where  they  were  known  as  CondottVeri. 

FREEMAN  GUN.— A  breech-loading  rifle  having  a 
fixed  chamber  closed  by  a  movable  breech-block,  ro- 
tating about  a  vertical  axis  at  90  to  the  axis  of  the 
barrel,  and  lying  in  the  plane  of  the  axis  of  the  barrel. 
It  is  opened  by  cocking  the  piece  and  pulling  back 
the  horn  of  the  breech-block;  and  is  closed  by  push- 
ing the  horn  forward  with  the  right  hand,  a  bevel  on 
the  left  face  of  Ihe  breech-block  pushing  the  car- 
tridge home.  When  locked  by  the  position  of  the 
breech-block  it  is  also  kept  from  turning  by  the  front 
segmeni  of  the  hammer  eng-aging  with  a  correspond- 
ing groove  in  the  back  of  the  block.  It  is  fired  by  a 
center-lock  of  the  usual  pattern. 

Extraction  is  accomplished  by  a  bent  lever  pivoted 
below  the  chamber  and  struck  by  the  ejector-cam, 
which,  turning  with  the  breech-block  in  opening  the 
piece,  rides  over  the  curved  horn  of  the  extractor  and 
ilraws  back  its  upper  end,  carrjTng  with  it  tlie  car- 
tridge-shell. Ejection  is  caused  b)'  a  flat  spring  riding 
on  a  cam  formed  on  the  hub  of  the  extractor,  and 
thereby  accelerating  its  action  on  the  cartridge-shell 
when  the  latter  has  been  started  from  its  seat  in  the 
chamber  in  the  act  of  opening  the  piece. 

The  arm  has  been  modified  so  thai  Ihe  horn  of  the 
breech  block,  instead  of  being  solid  with  the  block, 
is  pivoted  to  it  on  a  vertical  axis,  and  has  its  lower 
portion  cam-shaped,  with  a  bearing  on  the  side  of  the 
frame,  so  that  a  lever  power  is  obtained  in  the  first 
movement  of  opening  the  piece,  when,  if  at  all,  the 
block  is  likely  to  stick.  The  hammer  also  has  a  pro- 
jecting tooth  on  its  forward  surface,  which  engages 
with  a  notch  in  the  under  si<le  of  the  firing-pin  and 
retracts  it  when  the  hammer  is  cocked.  The  point  of 
the  firing-pin  may  thus  be  withdrawn  from  its  im- 
pression in  the  cartridge-head,  in  order  to  allow  the 
block  to  open  freelv- 

FRENCH  army".— One  of  the  chief  Continental  ar- 
mies of  Europe.  Early  in  1868  a  Bill  was  carried 
through  the  French  Chambers  which  raised  the  force 
of  that  country,  nominally,  to  800,000  men.  The 
term  of  service  was  increased  from  seven  to  nine 
years.  The  rate  of  recruiting  per  annum  was  fixed 
at  100,000  men,  selected  by  conscrii)tion;  the  propor- 
tion of  which  to  the  population  (37,000,000)  being 
about  1  to  every  370.  The  nine  years'  service  men 
were  divided  (as  regards  the  70,000  men  who  were 
called  for  service  out  of  the  100.000)  between  five 
yeare  passed  under  the  Regimental  Colors  and  four 
years  in  a  General  Reserve,  culled  the  Second  Re- 
serve. The  remaining  30,000  men  were  enrolled 
in  the  First  Reserve,  and  were  not  required  to  per- 
form any  military  service  in  peace-time,  except  five 
months'  drill  in  each  of  the  five  years.  Those 
who  were  not  drawn  by  conscription  had  to  serve 
five  j-cars  in  the  Oarde  Mobile,  being  called  upon  to 
take  the  field  on  emergency.  Such  was  the  mili- 
fjirj-  system  of  Prance  when  the  war  of  1870-71 
broke  out.  It  jiroved  inefficient  to  produce  a  trained 
Second  Reserve;  and  in  order  lo  insure  the  French 
army  an  ample  and  constant  supply  of  recruits,  the 
law  of  general  military  service  of  the  First  Republic 
was  restored  in  ils  fullest  vigor,  in  a  Bill  passed  by 
the  French  A.sscnibly  in  .July,  1873.  The  present  sys- 
tem alters  entirely  "the  military  recruiting  of  that 
countn,',  and  is  similar  to  the  German  one,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  following  principal  clauses:  Every  French- 
man is  liable  to  military  .ser%-ice,  and  must  serve  per- 
sonally, the  system  of  substitute  being  aboli.shed.  He 
is  called  upon  to  serve  from  the  age  of  30  (instead  of 


raZNCH  ARHT. 


707 


FBENCH  ABHY. 


21,  as  by  the  former  law)  to  the  age  of  40,  the  period 
of  senice  being  thus  distributed:  five  years  in  tlie 
Active  Army;  four  years  in  the  Reserve  of  the  Active 
Army;  five  jears  in  the  Territorial  Army;  six  years  in 
the  Reserves  of  the  Territorial  Army.  Every  man  en- 
rolled in  each  yearly  contingent  "has  to  serve  for 
twelve  mouths  at  least,  except  those  for  the  service  of 
special  arms — artillery,  engineers,  and  cavalry,  which 
require  a  longer  training — and  they  have  therefore  to 
serve  a  much  longer  time.  Notwithstanding  all  per- 
manent exemption  being  abolished,  there  are  certain 
strictly  determined  cases  of  a  temporary  kind  which 
exempt  men  from  the  service,  such  as  supporters  of 
families,  eldest  brother  of  orphans,  only  son  or  grand- 
son of  widows,  etc.  Young  men  who  have  obtained 
university  and  college  degrees,  and  those  who  belong 
to  government  schools,  and  who  desire  to  continue 
their  studies,  may  volunteer  for  one  year.  They  are 
called  Volontaires  d'uii  an.  The  men  of  this  class 
must  defray  at  their  own  expense  the  cost  of  their  uni- 
form, equipment,  and  horse,  if  in  the  cavalrj'.  After 
one  year  they  have  to  pass  an  examination,  and,  if 
not  successful,  have  to  remain  another  year  in  the 
ranks.  At  the  end  of  their  term,  they  receive,  as  a 
rule,  certificates  of  qualilicjition  as  Xon-commissioned 
Officers  or  OBicers  in  the  Territorial  Army.  Like  all 
others,  they  are  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  on 
the  outbreak  of  war.  The  rate  of  recruiting  by  this 
new  law  is  computed  to  give  France  a  yearly  contin- 
gent of  1.50,000  men,  deductions  being  made  on  ac- 
count of  the  "dispensed  with"  class.  Each  contin- 
gent is  therefore,  in  different  ways,  subject  to  serve 
for  twenty  years,  and  consequently  at  the  end  of  that 
period  the  forces  of  France  will  amount  to  an  aggre- 

fatc  of  twenty  contingents  of  130,000  each,  with  de- 
uctions  for  deaths  and  casualties,  gi\'ing  a  total  of 
2,423,164  men.  In  addition  to  these  levies,  France 
has  a  Permanent  Army  of  81, 722  men,  belonging  to 
the  permanent  effective,  not  recruited  by  means  of 
the  conscription,  composed  of  Officers,  Staff,  Admin- 
istrative Corps,  Gendarnwrk ,  etc.  The  active  army 
in  time  of  peace  has  (18T.5)  a  strength  of  480,000  meii, 
and  in  time  of  war,  by  calling  in  the  trained  contin- 
gents of  780,000  men,  organized  in  corps,  and  ready 
to  take  the  field  at  once  on  the  outbreak  of  a  war, 
has  behind  it  "  Troops  of  Reinforcement"  amounting 
to  279,000  men,  who  have  all  served  at  least  one  year 
in  the  army.  These  Troops  of  Reinforcement  will  be 
distributed  in  the  corps  depots,  together  with  the 
150,000  men  of  the  last  class  called  up  and  not  yet 
fully  instructed.  Thus  the  fighting  army  of  780,000 
men  may  be  increased  by  429,000  men  read)-  to  till  up 
vacancies  in  the  fighting  corps. 

The  organization  of  these  forces  was  the  subject  of 
the  Bill  passed  by  the  Assembly,  and  promulgated  in 
March,  1875;  it  is  known  as  the  Loi  dts  Cadres.  By 
this  law,  France  is  divided  into  18  military  regions, 
each  garrisoned  by  an  Armj-  Corps,  besides  a  special 
Corps  (19th)  for  Algeria.  Each  Army  Corps  has  2 
infantry  divisions,  Ibrigade  of  cavalry,  1  brigade  of 
artillery,  1  battalion  of  engineers,  and  1  squadron  of 
field-train,  besides  staff  and  auxiliarj-  services.  The 
.several  Army  Corps  are  recruited  indifferently  from 
the  whole  contingent,  and  during  peace  may  be  moved 
from  region  to  region;  but  the  Reserves  are  organized 
in  their  own  regions.  On  the  outbreak  of  war,  the 
men  of  the  Reserve  will  be  mobilized  near  their  homes, 
clothed  and  armed  at  depots  already  known  to  them, 
within  a  day's  walk,  and  sent  to  swell  the  ranks  of 
that  Corps  which  happens  to  be  stationed  in  the  re- 
gion at  the  time.  The  Territorial  Army  will,  at  all 
times,  belong  to  its  own  region.  Its  duties  in  war 
will  be  to  garrison  fortresses,  defend  strategic  points, 
work  the  lines  of  communication,  and  set  the  active 
army  free  for  field-operations,  but,  when  urgent,  will 
also  co-operate  in  the  field  with  it.  The  EVench  army 
is  composed  as  follows:  144  regimen t.s  of  the  line, 
each  regiment  consisting  of  4  battalions,  and  each 
battalion  of  4  companies,  with  2  depot  companies;  30 
battalions  of  foot-chasseurs  {chasseurs  a  pied),  each 


battalion  of  4  fighting  companies  and  1  depot  com- 
pany. In  addition,  the  19th  Corps  d'armee.  quartered 
in  Algeria,  comprises  four  regiments  of  zouaves, 
each  regiment  of  4  battalions,  consisting  of  4  fight- 
ing companies  and  1  depot  company;  three  regi- 
ments of  Algerian  sharp-.^hooters  (liircos),  organized 
like  the  zoiiares;  one  foreign  regiment  of  4  battal- 
ions, each  4  companies  strong;  five  discipline  com- 
panies (zephyrs).  Each  fighting  company  consists  of 
1  Captain,  1  Lieutenant  and  1  Sub-lieutenant,  1  Ser- 
geant Major,  4  Sergeants,  1  Quartermaster  Sergeant, 
8  Corporals,  2  drummers  or  buglers,  and  66  privates; 
total  per  company  on  peace-footing,  3  officers  and  85 
rank  and  file.  At  16  companies  per  regiment,  this 
gives  an  aggregate  of  48  officers  and  1312  rank  and 
tile.  The  two  depot  companies  present  an  effective 
of  6  Officers,  32  Noncommissioned  Officers,  and  the 
number  of  men  remains  unknown.  On  the  war-foot- 
ing, each  company  is  increased  by  1  Lieutenant  or 
Sub-lieutenant,  1  Quartenna.ster  Corporal,  4  Ser- 
geants, 8  Corporals,  and  2  drummers.  The  cavalrj' 
branch  of  the  ser\ice  consists  of  77  regiments,  viz.: 
12  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  26  regiments  of  dragoons, 
20  of  chasseurs,  12  of  hussars,  4  of  chasseurs  d'Afrique, 
and  3  regiments  of  spahis  (native  cavalrj'  of  Algeria). 
The  70  home  regiments  form  18  brigatles  of  2  regi- 
ments each,  one  of  which  is  attached  to  each  Carps 
d'armie.  This  leaves  34  regiments  available  to  form 
independent  cavalry  biigades  and  divisions.  Each  of 
the  70  home  regiments  consists  of  5  squadrons,  hav- 
ing on  peace-footing  45  officers,  830  men,  and  740 
horses.  The  African  regiments  are  6  squailrons  strong, 
and  their  effective  amounts  to  59  officers,  978  men, 
and  930  horses.  In  addition  there  will  be  19  squad- 
rons of  cavalrj'  volimteers,  who  will  supplj'  the  (Jen- 
erals  and  Stall  Officers  with  men  capable,  from  pre- 
vious instruction,  of  perfomdng,  efficientlj',  duties  as 
guides,  escort,  orderlies,  etc.  The  artillirj'  consists 
of  38  regiments  quartered  in  France,  forming  19  bri- 
gades, 2"  per  Armv  Corps.  The  first  regiment  of  each 
brigade  consists  of  3  batteries  n  pied  (without  gims), 
8  batteries  montees  (with  guns),  2  mont-es  depot  batr 
teries  (provided  with  guns  for  drill  and  practice  pur- 
poses); in  all  65  Officers,  1349  Non-commissioned 
Officers  and  men,  and  635  horses.  The  second  regi- 
ment of  each  brigade  consists  of  8  mounted  batteries, 
3  batteries  of  horse-artillerj',  and  2  mounted  depot 
batteries;  68  officers,  1369  men,  and  878  horses.  There 
are  2  regiments  exclusively  intrusted  with  the  Bridge 
and  Ponton  Department,  10  companies  of  Artillery 
Artisans,  3  Rocket  Companies,  and  57  companies  of  the 
Artillerj'  Train.  The  Engineering  Department  con- 
sists of  4  regiments  of  sappers  and  miners,  and  that 
of  the  Military  Tram  of  20  .stjuadrons. 

Besides  the  above  forces,  there  are  certain  auxiliar- 
ies, ^iz.:  Military  Clerks  and  Artisans;  Ambulance 
Staff  and  Attendants  (injirmurs  militaires);  Military 
Chaplains;  the  Oejidarmerie  and  a  regiment  of  Fire- 
men of  the  City  of  Paris,  who  are  picked  men  from 
the  annv;  a  Corps  of  Militarj-  Interpreters,  a  Tele- 
graphic Staff  and  Corps,  a  Railway  Staff  and  Corps,  the 
three  latter  being  borrowed  from"  the  German  system. 
The  various  railway  lines  in  the  rear  of  the  army  are 
to  be  worked  by  these  Corps,  under  militjiry  superin- 
tendence in  front  of  the  lines.  To  secure  a  compe- 
tent militarj-  Railway  Staff,  a  certain  number  of  sap- 
pers and  miners,  after  one  year's  service  with  the  Col- 
ors, will  he  told  off  to  the  various  railways  to  com- 
plete their  professional  instruction. 

The  French  army  is  officered  partlj'  from  the  ranks, 

partly  from  the  Militarj-  Colleges,  spi-cially  from  the 

latter.      Major  Brackenburj-,   in  the  preface  to  his 

translation  of  the  law  on  the  general  organization  of 

the  French  army,  adverts  to  the  subject  of  the  prin- 

j  ciples  on  which  it  has  been  remodeled,  as  follows: 

1st.    General  obligation  to  milit;iry  ser\ice.      2d.  A 

peace  organization  approaching  as  nearlj'  as  possible 

!  the  organizjilion   for   war.     The   Corps  are   alwaj-s 

ready  with  their  Slatis  and  administrative  services,  and 

;  only  require  the  addition  of  their  Reserves — always 


FS£NCH  ASMY  OBDNANCE. 


708 


FRENCH  ARMY  ORDNANCE. 


close  at  hand — in  order  to  go  into  the  field.  Their 
stores  lire  also  on  the  spot.  3(1.  Deceiitralizalioti. 
Each  General  mobilizes  his  own  Corps,  is  responsi- 
ble for  his  own  first  supplies,  iiiul  can  have  no  one 
but  himself  to  blame  if  he  is  slow  or  wants  anylliini;. 
4th.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Government  has  a  Corps 
of  Inspectors,  who  will  durinj;  peace  deti-ct  the  in- 
competence of  a  Commander.  5th.  The  Control  is 
ciirefully  si'pavatetl  from  the  Administration,  and 
the  Geiiends  are  expected  to  be  good  administra- 
tors as  well  as  good  leaders  of  troops,  (itb.  Kecruit- 
ing,  remounts,  hos|>iliils,  etc.,  are  managed  by  the 
Territorial  StulT  in  eacli  region,  but  always  under  the 
Geuend  Conim:in(liMg  the  Corps  tlieu  iireseiit.  When 
a  Corjis  is  mobilized  and  ipiils  its  region,  the  com 
mand  of  the  ri'gionand  its  territorial  troops  is  handed 
over  to  an  officer  jireviously  appointed  by  the  Minis- 
ter. In  order  to  act  iij)  to  the  spirit  of  the  new  law, 
the  War  Office  has  been  reconstituted  under  condi- 
tions more  in  accordance  with  llie  organization  of  the 
army;  and  the  Department  of  the  Chief  of  the  Gcn- 
eralMinisterial  Staff  conipri.ses  now  a  Ministerial  Cab- 
inet and  live  Bureaux,  namely:  First  Bureau— gen- 
eral orgimization  and  mobilization  of  the  army;  posi- 
tions and  strength;  general  correspondence;  Second 
Bureau— military  slati.stics;  historical  office;  Third  Bu- 
reau— militarj'  operations;  instruction  of  the  army;  to- 
pographical olliee:  Fourth  Bureau — Ktajijitii  and  rail- 
way service;  execution  of  movements  of  troops;  trans-' 
port  of  troops  by  land  and  sea;  Fifth  Bureau  (or  war 
depot) — technical  services:  collections;  material  and 
accounts  of  the  General  Stall.  Two  Deputy  Chiefs 
of  the  Staff  are  altaebed  to  the  Chief  of  the  Staff. 

FRENCH  ARMY  ORDNANCE.— The  broad  features 
of  construction  of  I  lie  army  heavy  ordnance  are  essen- 
tially those  finding  [ilaee  in  the  naval  guns,  but  the 
power  deemed  necessarj'  for  land  piirjio.ses  is  much 
more  limited,  of  course,  than  for  maiine  and  .sea-coast 
uses;  and  hence  we  find  that  a  24""  gun  is  the  high- 
est type  introduced  into  this  branch  of  the  service. 
The  steel  guns  are  known  as  the  Modele  de  Bange. 
The  body  of  the  gun  is  composed  of  a  tube  of  cast- 


vice  of  France.  There  are  no  novelties  to  point  out 
in  this  construction  other  than  tho.se  staled.  The 
charges  are  84  lbs.  of  powder  and  336  lbs.  weight  of 
projectile  for  the  24 '"  steel;  and  62  lbs.  and  21)5  lbs. 
for  the  24""  cast  iron  and  steel  constructions.  The 
former  gives  (it  is  reported  from  olhcial  sources)  a 
velocity  of  1598  feet,  and  a  resulting  muzzle-energy 
of  6000  foot-tons. 

The  Modele  de  Bange,  24'"',  it  will  be  seen  on  an 
inspection  of  the  accompanying  drawing,  is  a  well- 
proportioned  gun  of  extreme  simplicity  in  design;  the 
only  i)art  of  any  moment  in  a  coiisiruclive  point  of 
view  being  the  body.  The  weight  of  the  entire  guu 
is  only  13.75  tons.  The  frettes,  trunnion-bauds,  and 
other  parts  outside  of  the  core  weigh  7  tons.  All 
these  parts  are  .small  in  size,  hence  readily  handled, 
the  rough-turned  steel  forgings  from  steel-works  arc 
readily  obtained,  the  only  prominent  part  being  the 
body.  The  assembling  and  finishing  of  the  gun  is 
simple  work,  and  wiibiu  the  capacity  of  ordinary 
machinery  and  appliances.  The  only  question  is  if 
it  has  sufficient  longitudinal  (breech)  strength.  How 
ever  this  may  be,  it  is  a  construction  well  worthy  of 
consideration. 

The  following  table  gives  the  charges,  etc.,  of  the 
more  important  ^uns  of  the  French  service,  and  also 
shows  their  relative  energies  per  ton  of  metal: 


Caliber 

Charge 

Projec- 
tile. 

Initial 
veloc- 
ity. 

.Muzzle- 
energy. 

Energy 

per  ton 

of 

Kind. 

metal. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

fiet. 

Ft-tons 

40cm 

617.3 

i,re6 

1,738 

36,628 

485.8 

) 

37"".... 

.545.6 

1,177 

j.ar,6 

31. ISO 

415.7 

^Navy. 

;«'•"•.... 

462 

924 

1,955 

24,482 

415 

i 

ST'™.... 

237.6 

464 

1,9.W 

12.294 

396.6 

Navy. 

Sf".... 

440 

9:a 

1.9.50 

24.647 

493         Schultz. 

24™.... 

84 

3:36 

1,600 

U,033 

430        Army  steel. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  views  of  the  French  en. 
gineers  on  construction  arc  al)out  the  same  as  those 
now  existing  amongst  English  constructors,  and  that 


~T ' 1 ^ 


Aiudele  de  Banpe,  24"". 


steel  (tempered  in  oil  and  annealed),  reinforced  by 
frettes  of  puddled  steel  (tempered  in  oil  or  water). 
Th(t  breechfrette  is  prolonged  in  rear  of  the  base  of 
the  tube,  forming  a  protection  for  the  breech-me- 
chanism. The  trunnions,  except  in  fieldgims,  are 
hollow.  Pieces  of  a  heavy  caliber  have  carrying- 
hnndle.s.  The  frette  first  placed  in  position  abuts 
against  a  shoulder  on  the  tube,  which  prevents  any 
forward  sliding.  (In  the  180"'"'  and  240"'"'  guns', 
fretted  all  the  way  to  the  muzzle,  it  is  the  last  cylin- 
drical frette.)  The  extremity  of  the  chase  is  strength- 
ened by  a  swell  of  the  muzzle  shaped  like  a  band. 
The  seat  of  the  breech-mechanism  has  nearly  the 
same  diameter  as  the  bore.  The  threads  of  small 
dimensions  have  a  very  short  pilch.  Their  section  is 
a  rectangular  i.soscdes  triangle,  tlic  lop  of  which  is 
tiatlened.  The  cylinilrical  ixiwdcr-chamber,  with  a 
diamel<'r  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  bore,  is  con- 
nected with  the  latter  by  a  tnmcatcd  surface  of  short 
length  where  the  grooves  commence  and  against 
which  the  projectile  abuts  when  seated  home.  The 
ordinary  screw  fermeture,  but  with  the  De  Bange 
gas  cheek,  is  used,  The  24""  gun,  model  1876,  is  a 
cast  iron  gun  similar  in  construction  to  the  model 
of  1870  for  the  body  of  the  gun,  the  fermeture  dilTer- 
ing,  however,  in  the  substituting  of  the  De  Bange 
gaS'Chcck,  which  is  universally  used  in  the  lund-scr- 


fhey  arc  striving  to  reach  results  in  power  combined 
with  lightness  which  are  gradually  rendering  im- 
penituv  the  ultimate  discarding  ///  toUi  of  cast-iron  in 
their  models.  A  brief  summaiy  may  here  be  added 
in  closing  this  notice  of  FreiH'h  heavy  ordnance. 
1.  A  long  and  patient  test  of,  and  an  experience  (in 
breech-loading  system?!)  with,  steel-fretted  ca.st-iron 
lias  resuKed  in  failure  and  abandonment.  2.  The 
adoption  of  the  model  of  1870,  <'asl-ii()n  hooped  and 
tubed,  has  given  good  results,  warranting  the  intro- 
duction of  this  type  in  .service.  3.  That  with  the 
development  of  "the  steel  interests  of  France,  the 
French  Authorities  are  not  satisfied  with  cast-iron 
entering  into  their  constructions,  and  are  resorting  to 
steel  entirely,  and  that  they  contemplate  the  disuse 
of  the  former.  4.  That  wire  guns  are  being  persist- 
ently experimented  with,  and  are  looked  to  as  promis- 
ing to  be  introduced  as  the  guns  of  the  future.  5. 
That  constructions  looking  to  the  "division  of 
strains"  are  regarded  as  the  probable  solutions  of  the 
dangers  arising  from  the  combination  at  the  breech 
of  the  longitudinal  (Imcch)  and  tangential  (breech) 
stres.ses;  and  that  the  Schultz  jilan  is  preferred.  6. 
That  a  new,  simple,  and  an  apparently  eifcetive 
fermeture.  other  than  the  Broaihvell,  has  be<n  tested 
with  success,  aiiproved  and  adopted  at  least  in  the 
land  service  of  France.    This  fermeture  is  known  as 


FBENCH  FRICTION-TUBE. 


709 


FBETTAGE. 


the  De  Bange.  7.  The  undoiit)tcd  tendencj'  in  France, 
in  England,  and  in  other  countries  is  to  resort  to  steel 
constructions  for  ordnance.  This  leaves  us  to  remark 
that  the  use  of  this  metal  in  some  form  or  other — a.s 
developments  in  production  in  our  country  may  de- 
cide— is  a  foregone  conclusion;  and  that  some  plan 
looking  to  its  speedy,  practical  introduction  in  our 
fabrications  caimot  too  soon  be  inaugurated.  See 
Ordnance. 

FRENCH  FRICTION-TUBE.— The  French  primer, 
of  which  ours  is  a  modilicd  and  improved  form,  was 
adopted  in  the  French  army  in  1847.  The  large 
tube  with  a  cross-head  at  the  top  to  prevent  its  en- 
tering the  \ent  loo  far,  is  stopjied  at  the  top  by  a 
wooden  plug  held  in  place  by  an  indented  girdle. 
Below  this  and  iusitle  the  large  tube  is  a  smaller  tube, 
the  upper  part  of  which  is  tilled  with  a  fulminating 
powder  composed  of  ^  chlorate  of  potiis.sa  and  j 
sulphuret  of  antimony  mixed  with  gummed  water 
or  alcohol.  This  is  pierced  through  the  axis  to  give 
passage  to  the  friction-wire,  the  lower  end  of  which  is 
flattened  and  .serrated.  This  serrated  part  remains  in 
the  empty  part  of  the  small  tube,  the  lower  end  being 
clinched  arounil  the  end  of  the  tube.  The  small  tube 
being  preiiared  with  the  fulminate,  the  wire  is  intro- 
duced into  the  large  tube,  iia.ssing  out  through  the 
hole  in  the  a.\is  of  the  wooden  plug.  The  wire  is 
then  twisted  on  it.self  and  bent  down  along  the  tube. 
The  primer  is  then  linished  by  filling  the  lower  ends 
of  both  tubes  with  musket-powder,  and  closing  the  end 
of  the  large  t>il)e  with  a  mixture  of  wax  and  pitch. 
The  opening  around  the  wire  where  it  pas-ses  through 
the  wooden  plug  is  closed  with  a  drop  of  wax. 

FRENCH  HORN.— A  wind-instrameut,  commonly 
called  in  the  United  States  lufrn  ;  in  Italy,  corno  ;  in 
France,  cnr  de  chasse.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  lengthy 
lul)e  of  brass,  with  a  large  bell-shaped  ending.  For 
greater  convenience  the  tube  is  coiled  up  into  con- 
tinuous circles,  lying  side  bj'  side,  the  coils  being  sol- 


French  Horn. 

<lered  together,  to  keep  them  in  their  position.  It  is 
sounded  by  means  of  a  mouth-piece,  in  form  like  a 
little  hollow  cup.  The  thinner  the  sheet-brass  is  of 
which  the  horn  is  made,  the  more  easilj'  can  the  sound 
be  produced.  The  sounds  obtained  on  the  Fn-nch 
born  are  the  harmonics  of  the  soimd  of  its  whole 
length,  a  fimdamental  sound  which  cannot  be  pro- 
iluccd  by  the  mouth.  As  tho.se  sounds  form  only  a 
limited  scale,  the  notes  wanting  are  artificially  made, 
by  the  hand  being  inserted  into  the  bell,  so  a.s  to  flat- 
ten a  higher  note  down  to  a  lower  one.  These  flat- 
tened notes  are  called  stufl'ed  notes,  as  the  sound  of 
them  is  muffled.  The  French  horn  in  its  natural 
state  can  only  be  played  in  one  key;  but  by  means  of 
crooks,  which  are  addetl  to  increase  the  length  of  the 
tube,  it  can  be  transposed  into  any  key.     When  at  its 


greatest  length  it  mea.sures,  from  the  mouth-piece  to 
the  end  of  the  bell,  16  feet.  The  music  for  the  French 
horn  is  always  written  in  the  key  of  C,  with  the  key 
of  the  composition  marked  at  the  beginning  of  each 
movement;  thus,  corno  in  D,  etc.,  guicies  the  perform- 
er as  to  the  crooks  he  must  use  in  order  to  play  the 
notes  in  the  key  indicated.  The  stuffeil  notes  on  the 
French  horn  being  very  defective  in  quality  of  .sound, 
in  comparison  with  the  great  beauty  of  the  oi)en  notes, 
many  inventions  have  been  from  time  to  time  tried  to 
remedy  them,  the  most  successful  of  which  is  the 
valve-hom,  which  is  constructed  .so  that  the  performer 
can,  by  means  of  three  valves,  lengthen  or  shorten  the 
tube  so  as  to  pro<luce  any  note  in  the  chromatic  scale, 
as  a  harmonic  of  the  length  of  the  tube,  and  conse- 
quently all  the  notes  are  of  the  same  quality  of  sound, 
and  open  notes.  The  valve-horn  is  now  generally 
u.scd  as  a  .«olo  instrument  with  greater  effect  than  the 
common  French  horn.  As  a  band  and  orchestral  in- 
strument the  French  horn  is  of  great  importance. 
There  are  never  less  than  two  French  horns  in  an 
instrumental  score,  and  in  many  great  works  four 
are  absolutely  necessiry.  The  dale  of  its  invention 
is  lost  in  :inti((uitv.     See  Band. 

FRENCH  PRO  JECTILE.— The  projectile  used  in  the 
French  field-service  is  made  of  cast-iron,  and  has 
twelve  zinc  studs  on  its  sides,  ar- 
ranged in  pairs,  so  as  to  fit  the  six 
grooves  of  the  gun.  For  the  larger 
cannon-projectiles  but  three  studs 
are  used ,  and  these  are  cast  on  the 
projectile,  nearly  opposite  to  its 
center  of  gravity ;  the  beating  sides 
of  the  studs  are  faced  with  white 
metal  to  diminish  friction  against 
the  grooves  of  the  bore.  The  shape 
of  the  grooves  is  such  as  to  center 
the  projectile.  The  latter  projec- 
tile is  used  with  increasing,  the  for- 
mer with  grooves  of  tuiiform,  twist. 
Russian,  Austrian,  and  Spanish  ar- 
tillery projectiles  belong  to  this 
studded  or  button  class,  but  differ 
from  each  other  in  the  details  of  their  construction. 
See  CotnpreMiiin-projectUts  and  Projectiles. 

FRENCH  SIGHTS.— In  this  system,  employed  when 
the  target  is  invisible,  specially  constructed  sights 
(used  in  the  ordinary  sight-slots)  are  provided,  having 
cross-bars  on  their  heads,  di\ided  into  scales  of  equal 
parts,  and  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  trunnions. 

The  whole  of  the  rear  bar  can  slide  latenilly  through 
the  head  of  the  rear  sight,  and  there  is  a  scale  of  de- 
grees and  minutes  on  the  cross-bar  which  registers 
the  amount  of  slidingor"  deflection."  The  other  bar 
is  a  fixture.     Each  bar  carries  a  sliding  sight  leaf. 

If  the  target  can  be  seen  at  any  time  from  the  l)at- 
tery,  the  piece  is  laid  in  the  ordinary  way,  both  slid- 
ers being  clamped  at  the  sjime  graduation  near  the 
middle  of  each  bar.  A  plumlvline  and  a  vertical 
chalk-line  drawn  on  a  board  (or,  in  confined  positions, 
two  plummets  hanging  from  frames  in  the  rear)  are 
aligned  on  the  sights,  should  firing  through  smoke  or 
by  night  be  afterwards  expected.  These  sights  are 
chiefly  employed  with  the  siege-artillerj'.    See  Siyhl. 

FRET. — A  figure,  used  in  Heraldry-,  resembling  two 
sticks  laid  sidtierwise,  and  interlaced  with  a  mascle. 
When  six,  eight,  or  more  i>ieces  are  represented  cross- 
ing and  interlacing  like  lattice  work,  the  shield  is  said 
to  be  fretti/.     See  Ilerdldry. 

FRETTAGE.— The  introduction  and  development 
of  hoopmg  cast-iron  with  steel  bands  in  strengthening 
the  former  material  in  gun-construction  have  been 
noted  with  much  interest.  It  appears  th.il  the  first 
attempt  was  made  in  1836,  at  the  foundries  of  Liege, 
in  Belgium,  where  the  minor  powers  of  Europe,  and 
even  Rus.sia,  procured  their  cannon  at  that  time;  re- 
sort being  had,  however,  also  to  the  well-known  Swe- 
dish foundries  of  Fingspong  and  Aker.  The  method 
was  first  brought  into  notice  at  Ruelle,  in  1843.  It 
was  introduced  a  few  years  later  by  Blakely  in  Eng- 


FSEYT&G  SYSTEM  OF  FOKTIFICATION.  7  10 


FBICTION. 


land:  and  in  1859  it  was  tested  again  in  France,  at 

ViiKvniU'S.  bv  the  Xa\y  Di'parlnuiit,  and  ofticially 
atloptcd  for  ail  its  rilKcl  guns.  In  IStU.  in  the  nRKlcl 
then  adopted,  the  exact  allowances  for  shrinkage  were 
etitati|lsh<.'<l,  bai*il  uixin  both  praetiral  and  theoretical 
oliscrvations.  The  allowance  for  shrinkage,  it  is  in- 
tended, shall  be  such  as  to  secure  a  compression  of 
the  interior  strata  according  to  the  theories  of  Gado- 
lin  and  Lanu's.  The  amount  of  diminution  of  «li- 
ameter  of  tubes  varies  from  .OO'i  to  .007  inch.  It  is 
hardly  nccessjuy  to  allude  to  the  fact  that  the  large 
constructions  for  naval  service  have  two  series  of 
puddled  steel  frettes,  made  at  Le  Creusot  and  Rive 
de  Gier.  The  banded  jiortion  of  the  cast-iron  body 
is,  according  to  general  rules,  about  one  caliber  in 
thickness,  and  the  bands  .25  caliber  for  each  row. 
giving  a  thickness  at  the  seat  of  dangerous  pressures 
of  about  one  and  one  half  calibers.  The  operation  of 
shrinking  on  the  hoops  requires  but  simple  and  ordi- 
nary appliances.  An  oven,  modeled  after  the  ones 
employed  in  England  for  heating  tires  for  wheels, 
supplies  the  means  for  heating  up  the  frettes  to  the 
proper  temperatures.  They  are  transferred  froin 
thence  by  means  of  a  small  crane,  and  are  placed  in 
their  proper  positions  on  tlic  exterior  of  the  prepared 
cannou-botlv  by  two  or  three  workmen.  A  circular 
tube  and  colhii  containing  water,  which  escapes  in 
jets  on  to  the  superimposed  frette,  supplies  the  means 
for  cooling.  It  is  applied  not  directly  after  the  plac- 
ing of  the  frette  in  position,  but  in  about  ten  minutes 
affer  the  latter  operation  ha,s  "oeen  completed.  After 
preparing  the  body,  and  the  assemblage  of  the  first 
row  of  bands,  the  gun  is  transferred  to  the  boring- 
lathe,  and  the  exterior  of  the  frettes  accurately  turned, 
and  the  preparations  for  the  application  of  the  second 
row  of  bands  completed.  After  this  row  has  been 
superimposed  the  gun  is  sent  to  the  machine-shop  for 
the  tiual  process  of  titling  the  fermeture,  rifling,  and 
other  necessary  work  to  complete  the  manufactiu-e. 
Proof-frettes  are  tested  for  elasticity,  and  proof  of 
endurance  by  a  shrinkage  test.  A  cast-iron  cylin- 
der is  used  over  which  the  experimental  hoops  are 
placed  under  a  definite  tension  by  heat,  and  when  the 
parts  are  cut  the  cylinders  are  broken  up  and  the 
frettes  under  proof  measured  and  otherwise  examined. 
A  shrinkage  determined  upon,  say,  nearly  up  to  .002 
of  the  diameter,  and  a  slightly  less  one  for  trunnion- 
bands,  should  attain  without  any  permanent  set  re- 
sulting in  enlargement.  They  should  withstand  an 
enlargement  not  exceeding  .004  without  rupture,  or 
development  of  serious  superficial  defects  sulficicnt 
to  warrant  rejection.  Based  upon  these  trials,  the 
frettes  are  prepared  which  are  to  be  used  in  construc- 
tion. In  the  application  of  frettes  or  trunnion-bands 
to  the  l)f)dies  of  guns  the  establishment  of  the  limits 
of  shrinkage  must  largelj'  depend  upon  the  results-  of 
the  testing-machine  for  phy.sical  properties,  and  limits 
which  may  be  determined  by  one  set  of  experiments 
may  be  non-concurred  in  by  another,  operating  on 
different  metals  used  in  different  countries.  The  data 
resulting  from  French  experiments  are,  therefore, 
matters  of  interest,  but  furnish  no  definite  standard 
for  following  absohitely  when  other  steels  are  used. 
See  Tii/iiir/, . 

FREYTAG  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In  this 
system  the  maximum  of  the  angles  of  bastions  is 
fixed  at  90'.  The  tliUiks  are  jX'rpendicular  to  the 
curtain,  and  the  whole  enceinte  is  surrounded  by  a 
fausse-braye  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  The  sali- 
ents of  bastions  are  covered  by  lunettes,  and  the  cur- 
tains by  ravelins.  The  escarps  have  no  revetment. 
The  chief  defense  of  this  forlirtcalion  rests  on  the  wet 
ditches;  which,  however,  fail  in  frosty  weather.  The 
ravelins  are  too  small  to  cover  even  the  curtain,  and 
the  lunettes,  when  taken,  afford  a  very  advantageous 
hxlgmint  for  the  enemy. 

FRICTION. — When  one  bo<ly  rubs  against  another 
as  it  moves,  a  certain  force  is  felt  to  resist  tlie  motion. 
This  resistance  is  called  friction.     As  a  considerable  1 
proportion  of  the  motive  power  in  all  opcratious  is  I 


spent  in  overcoming  the  friction  of  the  parts  of  the 
machine  uix)n  one  another,  and  is  thus  lost  for  the 
useful  work,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  undersUmd 
the  nature  of  this  obstructive  force,  with  a  view  to 
reduce  it  to  the  least  pos.sible  amount.  Accordingly, 
a  great  many  careful  experiments  have  been  made  on 
this  subject,  and  the  result  is  a  number  of  precise  and 
valuable  facts  or  laws  regarding  friction  which  are 
now  considered  cert;»in  and  reliable.  The  more  im- 
portant may  be  thus  stated  and  illustrated.  When  a 
block  of  oak — say  a  cubic  foot,  which  weighs  about 
60  lbs. — is  placed  on  a  horizontal  table  of  cast-iron, 
the  two  surfaces  being  flat  and  smooth,  it  requires  a 
force  of  nearly  j  the  weight  of  the  block,  or  24  lbs., 
pulling  horizontally,  to  make  it  slide  along  the  table. 
This  me;isures  the  friction  between  the  two  surfaces. 
Another  block  of  the  same  size  and  shape  laid  on  the 
sjime  table  would  require  the  san\e  force  to  draw  it; 
and  if  the  two  were  laid  side  by  side,  imd  fastened 
together  so  as  to  become  one  block,  it  would  evidently 
reijuire  double  the  force,  or  4S  lbs,,  to  draw  the 
double  block:  the  amount  of  the  friction  being  thus 
still  I  of  the  weight,  or  of  the  pressure  between  the 
two  surfaces.  But  suppose  that,  instead  of  being  laid 
side  by  side,  the  second  block  were  laid  on  the  top  of 
the  first,  what  is  to  be  expected?  Here  the  weight  is 
doubled  as  before,  but  tlie  extent  of  rubbing  surface 
remains  unaltered ;  it  would  be  natural,  therefore,  to- 
expect  that  this  would  make  a  difference,  and  that, 
though  the  friction  would,  of  course,  be  increased,, 
the  increase  would  be  less  than  in  the  former  case. 
Experiment,  however,  shows  that  there  is  no  differ- 
ence, and  that  the  friction  is  exactly  double  in  both 
cases.  In  short,  the  unexpected  and  importimt  fact 
is  estiiblished  that,  within  certttiii  limits,  (lie  friction 
of  any  two  surfaca  increases  in  proportion  to  the  force 
irith  which  they  are  pressed  together,  and  is  wholly  inde 
ptndint  if  the  extent  of  the  surfaces  in  contact.  The 
amount  of  friction  between  two  bodies  is  thus  a  con- 
st;mt  fraction  or  proportion  of  the  force  with  which 
they  are  pressed  against  each  other.  This  fraction 
differs  for  the  different  kinds  of  surfaces.  Thus,  be- 
tween oak  and  cast-iron  it  is,  as  already  stated,  about 
5,  or  more  exactly,  .38;  for  wTought-iron  on  wrought- 
iron  (we  speak  at  present  of  dry  surfaces,  without 
grease  or  unguent  of  any  kind)  it  is  .44;  for  brass 
upon  cast  iron,  .22.  This  constant  fraction  (express- 
ing the  proportion  between  the  pressure  of  two  sur- 
faces and  their  friction)  is  called  the  coefficient  of 
friction  for  these  two  surfaces.  Friction  is  very  much 
diminished  by  the  use  of  grease  or  unguents.  The 
coefficient  of  wrought-iron  upon  oak,  which,  in  the 
dry  state,  is  .49,  is  reduced  by  the  application  of 
water  to  .26,  and  by  dry  soap  to  .21.  TJie  result  of 
experiments  on  this  subject  is  slated  to  he  "that 
with  the  unguents  hog's  lard  and  olive-oil  inter- 
posed in  a  continuous  stratum  between  them,  surfaces 
of  wood  on  metal,  wood  on  wood,  metal  on  wood,  and 
metal  on  metal  (when  in  motion),  have  all  of  them 
very  nearly  the  same  coefficient  of  friction,  the  value 
of  that  coefficient  being  in  all  ca.ses  includi'd  between 
.07  and  .08."  Tallow  gives  the  .sjiine  coefficient  as 
the  other  unguents,  except  in  the  case  of  metals  upon 
metals,  in  which  the  coefficient  rises  to  .10.  In  the 
case  of  wood  on  wood,  black-lead  is  frequently  em- 
ployed for  the  sjime  purpose.  The  most  imiwrtant 
fact,  perhaps,  and  one  that  could  hardly  have  been 
anticipated  before  experiment,  is  that  tfie  friction  of 
motion  is  wholly  indejTcndfnt  of  the  Telocity  of  the  ino- 
lion.  The  resistance  lo  the  motion  of  a  wheeled  car- 
riage proceeds  from  two  sources — the  friction  of  the 
axle,  and  the  ineq\ialities  of  the  road.  The  resistance 
of  friction  lo  the  turning  of  a  shaft  in  its  liearings,  or 
of  an  axle  in  its  box,  has  cvidenflj'  the  greater  lever- 
age the  thicker  the  journal  or  the  axle  is;  the  axles 
of  wheels  are  accordingly  made  as  small  a.s  is  consist- 
ent with  the  re(iuire(l  strength.  The  resistance  that 
occurs  lK?twecn  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  and 
the  road  constitutes  what  is  cidled  rolling  friction. 
There  are  on  all  roads,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 


FRICTION-CHOCKS. 


711 


FBICTION  FBIMEBS. 


visible  rigid  prominences,  such  as  small  stones,  in 
passing  over  which  the  wheel  and  the  load  resting  on 
it  have  to  be  lifted  up  against  gravitj-.  But  even 
if  these  were  wanting,  the  hardest  road  jnelds,  and 
allows  the  wheel  to  sink  to  a  certain  depth  below  its 
surface;  so  that  in  front  of  the  wheel  there  is  always 
an  eminence  or  obstacle,  which  it  is  at  every  instant 
surmounting  and  crushing  down.  This  i.s"  the  case 
even  on  iron  rails,  though  of  course  to  a  much  less 
extent  than  on  any  other  road.  Now,  for  overcom- 
ing this  resistance,  it  can  be  shown,  on  the  principle 
of  the  lever,  that  a  large  wheel  has  the  advantage 
over  a  small  one;  and  by  numerous  e.\-perimcnts  the 
fact  has  been  fully  established  that  over  horizontal 
roads  of  a  uniform  quality  and  material  tlif  tracti'in 
tariea  diriTtly  IIS  the  load,  and  inrirsdy  as  t/w  radius 
of  the  irhed.  Tlie  best  direction  of  traction  in  a  two- 
wheeled  carriage  is  not  parallel  to  the  road,  but  at  a 
slight  inclination  upward,  in  ijroportion  to  the  depth 
to  which  the  wheel  sinks  in  the  road.  On  a  perfectly 
good  and  level  macadamized  road  the  traction  of  a 
cart  is  found  to  be  ^'^  of  the  load;  that  is,  to  draw  a 
ton,  the  horse  requires  to  pull  with  a  force  equal  to  75 
lbs.  On  a  railway  the  traction  is  reduced  to  5I,,,  of 
the  load,  or  I0  8  lbs.  per  ton.  While  frictioii  thus 
acts  as  an  obstruction  to  motion,  and  wastes  a  portion 
of  the  motive  power,  it  has  also  important  uses.  It 
is,  in  fact,  an  indispensable  condition,  no  less  than 
gra\it}-,  in  the  stability  of  every  structure,  and  in 
every  mechanical  motion  on  the  earth's  surface. 
How  essential  it  is  to  our  own  movements  we  expe- 
rience when  we  try  to  walk  on  ice!  Even  on  ice  there 
is  still  considerable  friction,  so  that  one  foot  can  be 
slightly  advanced  before  the  other;  were  it  altogether 
annihilated,  we  could  not  stir  a  fraction  of  an  inch, 
even  supposing  we  could  stand  upright.  Without 
friction,  a  ladder  could  not  be  planted  against  a  wall, 
unless  there  were  a  hole  in  the  ground  to  retain  the 
foot.  In  short,  no  oblique  pressure  of  an}-  kind 
could  be  sustained.  The  advantage  of  railways  con- 
sists chiefly  in  the  diminution  of  friction;  biit  were 
this  diminution  carried  much  further,  there  could  be 
no  motion  whatever,  at  least  by  means  of  locomotives. 
Without  a  considerable  friction,  the  driving-wheels 
of  the  locomotives  would  slide  round  on  the  rails 
without  advancing;  and  this  sometimes  happens 
when  particular  states  of  the  weather  render  the  rails 
as  if  they  were  greased.  The  force  of  friction  is  often 
directly  employed  in  mechanics.  It  is  u.sed,  for 
instance,  to  communicate  motion  by  means  of  belts, 
chains,  etc.  It  is  the  force  that  holds  a  knot.  It  is 
specially  useful  when  a  machine,  with  greai  momen- 
tum, has  to  be  checked  or  arrested  in  its  motion. 
The  best  example  of  this  is  the  brake  used  on  rail- 
ways. By  means  of  a  system  of  levers,  blocks  of 
wood  arc  made  to  pres.s  upon  the  circumferences  of  a 
number  of  the  carriage  wheels;  and  thus  the  momen- 
tum of  a  train  weighing  hundreds  of  tons,  and  mo\-ing 
with  a  velocity  of  perhaps  50  miles  an  hour,  is  gradu- 
ally destroyed  in  a  wonderfully  short  space  of  time. 
Priction-wheets  are  employed  to  diminish  the  friction 
of  axles  on  their  supports.  Two  wheels,  of  a  large 
circumference  in  proportion  to  their  weight,  are  lo- 
cated close  together,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  so  that 
the  one  seems  to  overlap  the  half  of  the  other;  in  the 
notch  thus  formed  by  the  upper  circumferences  of  the 
wheels  one  end  of  the  axle  rests;  a  similar  arrange- 
ment being  made  for  the  other  end.  The  friction, 
which  formerly  acted  directly  on  the  axle,  is  by  this 
arrangement  referred  to  the  axles  of  the  friction- 
wheels,  and  is,  by  the  laws  of  mechanics,  reduced  in 
the  ratio  of  the  circumference  of  the  friction-wheel 
to  the  circumference  of  its  axle.  In  order  to  render 
the  friction  of  the  friction-wheels  themselves  the  least 
pos.sible,  they  arc  made  as  light  and  as  large  as  is 
pr.icticable. 

FRICTION  CHOCKS.— Brakes  attached  to  the  com- 
mon standing  garrison-carriages  of  gims,  so  as  to  raise 
the  trucks  or  wheels  off  the  platform  when  the  gun 
begins  to  recoil,  to  prevent  its  running  back. 


FRICTION  CONES.— A  kind  of  coupling  in  which 
motion  is  communicated  by  the  friction  of  the  surface 
of  a  cone  tixed  on  one  shaft  against  the  inner  surface 
of  a  similar  cone,  into  which  it  may  he  thrust,  fixed 
on  another  shaft.  The  friction-cone  prevents  the  ele- 
vating gear  from  breaking  on  tiring,  by  enabling  the 
gun  to  twist  the  cone  round  inside  the  irorm-ieheel, 
when  it  irives  a  severe  blow. 

FRICTION  PLATE.— A  plate  of  iron  placed  on  the 
side  of  the  trail  beam  of  wooden  gun-carriages  at  that 
point  where  the  wheel  locks  with  the  carriage.  The 
plate  is  placed  in  that  position  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
trail  when  the  limber  is  being  turned  at  an  angle  to  the 
gun-carriage.  Friction-plates  are  also  used  to  check 
the  recoil  of  irinis.    Sec  Elsiriek  Compressor  and  Recoil. 

FRICTION  PRIMEES.—The  friction  primer  for  can- 
non is  a  small  tube  of  brass  filled  with  gimpowder, 
which  is  igtiited  l)y  drawing  a  flat  wire  w'ith  serrated 
edges  briskly  through  friction-composition  contained 
in  a  smaller  tube  inserted  into  the  first  near  the  top 
and  soldered  at  right  angles  to  it.  A  lanyard,  with  a 
hook  attached,  is  used  to  ignite  the  primer.  Two 
kinds  are  in  use  in  the  ser\ice — the  long  iirimer  for 
hea^■y,  and  the  short  for  light  cannon.  "The  friction- 
primer  is  composed  of  one  long  tube,  one  short  tube, 
one  wire  igniter,  friction-composition,  musket-pow- 
der, wax,  and  shellac  varnish. 

The  long  tube  is  made  from  a  circular  disk  of  sheet- 
brass  by  means  of  a  series  of  punches  and  dies,  gra- 
dually diminishing  to  the  last,  which  is  of  the  required 
size  of  the  tube.  The  brass  must  be  annealed  before 
each  drawing  or  reducing.  This  is  done  in  open  pans, 
or  in  a  revolving  cylinder  in  a  special  furnace.  The 
bras-S  should  not  be  heated  above  a  dark  red  color. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  cool  in  the  air,  and  afterwards 
pickled  in  a  liath  of  forty  parts  of  water  and  one  of 
sulphuric  acid  to  remove  the  scale,  and  then  thoroughly 
washed  to  remove  all  trace  of  acid.  Thickness  of 
.sheet-brass  disk,  .036  inch;  diameter,  .62  inch  for 
short, and  .98inchforlongprimers.  The  tubeiscutto 
the  prescribed  length,  measuring  from  the  closed  end, 
by  means  of  a  circular  .saw,  and  the  holes  for  the  short 
tube  and  wire  igniter  are  drilled  and  the  burs  removed. 
Length  of  long  tube  for  .short  primer,  1.75  inch;  for 
long  primer,  2.35  inches;  exterior  diameter,  maxi- 
mum, .195  inch;  minimum,  .187  inch;  interior  diame- 
ter for  short  primer,  .175  inch;  and  for  long  primer, 
.155  inch;   diameter  of  holes,  .15  inch  and  .06  inch. 

The  shnrt  tube  is  de- 
rived from  the  longer 
one  by  using  two  addi- 
tional punches  and  dies, 
reducing  the  size  each 
time,  it  is  made  to  the 
proper  length  by  circu- 
lar saws  placed  at  the 
required  distance  apart, 
and  the  Inu-  is  remov- 
ed by  rolling  in  a  barrel. 
Length  of  the  shorter 
tube,  .44  inch;  exterior 
diameter.  .15  inch;  in- 
terior diameter,  .133  inch, 
is  dipi>ed  in  a  solution  of  zinc  chloride,  inserted  in  the 
hole  drilled  in  the  long  tube,  heated  in  the  flame  of  a 
spirit-lamp,  until  solder  melts,  and  soldered  with  soft 
solder;  it  is  then  washed  and  ilried.  The  itire  igniter 
is  made  of  brass  wire  .05  inch  diameter,  annealed,  cut 
to  the  propiT  length,  and  pressed  flat  at  one  end  by  a 
machine  for  that  purpose.  The  flat  end  is  serrated 
by  a  punch  and  die  with  dentated  edges,  and  the  tip 
Is  annealed  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp.  Length  of 
\vire,  3.4  inches;  length  of  flattened  end,  .65  inch. 
The  frirtion-composition  is  made  of  55  parts  antimony 
trisulphide,  37  parts  pota.ssium  chlorate,  5  parts  flow- 
ers of  sulphur,  and  3  parts  gum  arable.  The  mate- 
rials must  be  finely  pulverized,  and  mixed  thoroughly 
in  a  bowl  of  stone-ware  by  stirring  with  equal  quan- 
tities of  alcohol  and  water  until  the  mixture  attains 
the  consistency  of  paste. 


One  end  of  the  short  tube 


FBILL. 


712 


FKONT. 


The  smnll  lubo  is  charfred  by  pressinjr  the  open  end 
in  iho  friction-<oMi|«isili(>n  spread  on  a  tlat  piece  of 
zinc,  and  l)roui;hl  to  Ihe  consistency  of  soft  putly,  the 
lonj:  tulie  being  closed  its  whole  length  with  a  wooden 
or  metal  plug.  A  conical  hole  is  made  in  the  compo 
sition  while  yet  moist,  with  a  conical  drift,  and  the 
stirplus  composition  removed;  the  wire  igniter  is 
passi'd  thixnigh  the  short  tube  and  through  tlie  small 
hole  in  the  long  tube,  the  round  end  lirsl,  leaving  the 
annealed  ti])  projecting  out  of  the  open  end,  which  is 
then  closed  by  pressing  the  top  and  bottom  together 
lirmly  with  pincers,  and  bending  the  tip  against  the 
Iwttom.  The  end  of  Ihe  wire  igniter  is  doubled  on 
itself  and  twisted,  leaving  a  loop  .2  inch  diameter. 


6.75  inches  wide,  for  long  primers;  60  pounds  sheet- 
brass,  .036  inch  thick,  6.75  inches  wide,  for  short 
primers;  about  i  returned  as  scrap;  20  [Xjunds  brass 
wire.  .05  inch;  1.25  pound  solder;  1.5  ]x>und  anti- 
mony trisulphide;  1  pound  potjussium  chlorate;  .125 
pouiid  Howersof  sulphur;  .094  pound  gum  arable;  7.5 
pounds  beiswax;  2.5  pounds  rosin;  11  i)()uuds  musket- 
powder;  2  quarts  pine-tar;  1.25  quart  varni.sh  (.75 
pound  shellac,  1  quart  alcohol,  .25  ounce  lamp-black); 
.5  pint  alcohol  for  friction-composition.  See  Ekctric 
Priiiwr,  Fin-irorku,  Freneh  Friction-tube,  Maynard 
Primer,  and  Pircimon  Primer. 

FBILL. — An  ornamental   appendage  to  the  shirt 
which  officers  and  soldiers  generally  wore  with  regi- 


Frog  o£  Officer's  Overcoat,  U.  S.  .\miy. 


x^ssss^ 


The  head  of  the  long  tube,  including  the  short  tube 
and  the  joint,  is  dipped  into  shellac  varnish  colored 
with  lamp-black.  When  dry,  the  long  ttibe  is  filled 
up  with  musket-powder  (7  or  10  grains  according  to 
length),  and  closed  with  beeswax  mixed  with  tar  and 
rosfn.  Both  ends  are  touched  with  varnish,  and  the 
tube  thoroughly  dried.  The  material  for  closing  the 
ends  of  the  primer  is  made  of  15  parts  of  beeswax,  5 
rosin,  and  8  pine-t;ir,  boiled  2A  hours  on  a  slow  lire, 
constantly  stirred  to  prevent  burning,  and  then  per- 
mitted to  cool. 

To  pack  the  primers, 
rectangular  wooden  blocks 
are  made,  having  holes  .38 
inch  and  .57  inch  in  dia- 
meter, bored  in  two  oppo- 
site ends.  The  primers 
are  placed  in  the  boles,  5 
or  10  to  each  block.  The 
block  is  covered  with  a 
paper  wrapper,  which  is 
then  varnished.  A  printed 
label  tells  contents,  place, 
and  year  of  manufacture. 
The  blocks  arc  packed  in 
W'oiiden  boxes  containing 
1000  of  live  primers  eacli, 
or  100  of  ten  each.  For 
better  preservation  in  sea-coast  fortifications,  the  pri- 
mers are  also  packed  in  rectangular  tin  ca.ses,  contain- 
ing five  paper  jiackages  of  20  primers  each.  The  tin 
cases  are  hermetically  si'aled,  japanned,  and  stenciled 
with  contents,  place,  and  year  of  manufacture.  Fifty 
tin  cases  arc  packed  in  a  wooden  box. 

The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  and 
weights  of  packing-boxes: 

Depth.  'Weight 


<!aj*es  for  short  primers 

Cas*-8  for  lonK  priiiuTH 

Box  for  1000  1)lc)cl(s  

Box  for  100  (  [..onK  primers. 

blocks. . ,  '*  Sliort  prinifra. 
Box  for  50  tin  coses,  short 

primt^rs  

Box  for  50  tin  cases,  long 

priiiifrs 


Length 

Width. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

7.85 

2.2 

7.8 

2.(15 

22 

12 

16 

9 

12 

9 

22 

11.5 

87.5 

11.25 

Inches.  Pounds 


2.1 

2.2      I 
12.5 
6.125  I 
6.125 

7.5 

7.75 


1 
1.56 

26 


70 
SO 


The  following  materials  are  required  for  10,000  fric- 
tion-primers: 136  pounds  sheet-brass,  .036  inch  thick. 


mentals.  A  small  aperture  was  usually  made  at  the 
top  to  admit  the  hook  and  eye  of  the  uniform-coat. 
Enlisted  men  generally  wore  frills  detached  from  the 
coat. 

FRISRUTTEH. — An  instrument  made  of  iron  and 
used  for  the  purpose  of  blocking  up  a  haven  or  river. 
The  beams  through  which  the  upright  bars  pass  are 
usuidly  12  feet  in  length,  and  the  upright  bars  that 
go  through  the  beam  are  of  such  length  that  when 
the  frisrutter  is  let  down  into  the  river,  they  will  at 
high  water  reach  within  5  feet  of  the  surface. 

FROCK. — In  the  British  service,  the  undre.ss  regi- 
mental coat  of  the  Guards,  Artillery,  and  Royal  Ma- 
rines. 

FROG. — 1.  A  button  or  toggle  of  spindle  shape  and 
covered  with  silk  or  other  material,  which  is  passed 
through  a  loop  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  breast  of  a 
military  cloak  or  overcoat,  serving  to  fivstcn  the  two 
breasts  together.  The  drawing  rejiresents  the  frog 
or  agraffe  for  officer's  overcoat  as  at  present  worn  in 
the  United  States  army. — 2.  The  loop  of  a  bayonet- 
or  sword-scabliard. — 3.  A  horny  wedge-shaped  sub- 
st;ince  within  the  cavity  of  a  horse's  hoof.  The  func- 
tion of  the  frog  is  to  share  in  the  pressure  on  the 
foot,  and  by  its  elasticity  to  relieve  or  distribute  the 
pressure  on  the  hoof. 

FR0G6ED. — A  term  used  in  regard  to  imiforras, 
and  ajiplied  to  stiipes  or  workings  of  braid  or  lace, 
as  ornaments,  mostly  on  the  breast,  on  the  plain  cloth 
of  whicli  a  coat  is  made. 

FRONDE. — A  sling  used  in  France  by  the  Hugue- 
nots at  Sancerre,  as  late  as  the  year  1572,  in  order  to 
save  their  powder.  There  were  two  kinds,  the  one 
which  was  used  in  throwing  a  stone  from  the  arm, 
and  the  other  fixed  to  a  lever  and  so  contrived  that  a 
large  quantity  of  stones  might  be  thrown  into  the 
enemy's  cjimp.  The  froiide  or  sling  was  used  by  the 
Romans  on  three  different  occasions,  viz. :  w  hen  they 
sent  their  light-armed  men.  called  Velilt^i,  forward  to 
skirmish  before  a  general  engagement;  when  they 
w  islu'd  to  drive  the  enemy  from  under  the  walls  of  a 
town  which  they  wore  prcpaiing  to  storm;  and  finally 
to  haraw  and  wound  the  men  in  the  enem.v's  works. 
This  weapon,  together  with  the  bow  and  arrow,  may 
be  nunilicred  among  the  primitive  arms  of  mankind. 

FRONT. — 1.  A  word  of  command  .signifying  that 
the  men  are  to  face  to  their  front;  also  to  ca.st  their 
eyes  to  the  front  after  dressing. — 2.  The  ojiposite  to 
rear.  The  front,  with  reference  to  an  alignment,  is 
the  direction  of  the  supposed  enemy.    Used  as  a  gen- 


FEONTAGE. 


713 


FSONTIEK  DEFENSE. 


oral  term,  Ibe  word  signffies  the  direction  in  which 
sokliei's  face  when  occupying  the  same  relative  posi-  , 
tions  as  when  last  told  oil.     The  front  in  artillery  is  j 
the  direction  to  which  the  horses'  heads  turn  when 
the  liattery  is  limbered  U|).  j 

FRONTAGE. — This  term  is  expressive  of  the  ground  [ 
troops  in  line  occupy  either  on  parade  or  in  camp. 
Cavalry  in  one  line  requires  one  yard  to  each  tile,  and 
12  yards  between  squailrons.  Artillery  in  line,  whether 
a  field  or  horse-artillery  battery,  occuijies  95  yards, 
and  19  yards  between  battery  and  battery,  or  between 
other  troops.  The  frontage  required  by  infantry  is 
2  feet  per  file,  with  intervals  of  30  paces  between  bat- 
talions. In  cam]),  the  frontage,  as  a  general  rule,  of 
cavalry  and  infantry  should  correspond  with  the  space 
covered  by  the  reginienls  when  deployed  into  line  (al- 
lowance being  made  for  intervals  between  corps),  aiul 
the  lines  of  tents  should  be  on  the  prolongation  of  the 
squadrons  or  companies  as  the}'  stand  when  in  column. 
When  troops  are  encamped  in  two  or  three  lines,  from 
200  to  500  yards  should  be  left  clear  between  the  rear 
of  one  line  and  the  front  of  that  behind.  The  front- 
age of  a  battalion  of  infantry  in  camj)  on  war  estab- 
lishment occupies  820  yai'ds,  a  regiment  of  cavalry 
256  yards,  and  a  batterv  of  artillery  110  yards. 

FRONTAL.— The  metal  faec-guard  ot"  the  .soldier. 
The  term  is  freiiuently  api^lied  to  anything  worn  on 
the  face  or  forehead. 

FRONTIER  DEFENSE.— Militiiry  engineers,  and 
Other  writers  on  tliis  branch  of  the  military  art,  have 
proposed  systems  of  defensive  lines  for  retarding  an 
as.sailant  at  the  frontier,  of  a  more  or  less  complicated 
character;  the  |)oint  aimed  at  in  all  eases  being  to 
make  the  works  of  each  line  of  siitlicient  strength  to 
defy  an  open  assault  even  when  their  garrisons  are 
reduced  to  their  least  number,  and  to  combine  this 
obstacle  \\ith  the  active  effort  of  an  army  holding 
the  open  field,  and  maneuvering  in  connection  with 
the  fortified  points,  to  threaten  the  flanks  and  rear  of 
an  invading  force  that  might  attempt  to  force  its  wa}' 
through  the  defensive  lines  without  carrying  .some  of 
the  works  by  a  siege.  Although  hypothetical  cases 
of  this  character  do  very  well  to  hang  an  argument 
upon,  they  are  of  little  practical  use,  as  the  points  j 
that  must  necessarily  be  fortified  will  be  those  which 
lie  upon  the  main  avenues  of  access  to  the  interior 
from  the  frontier;  as  u|)on  these  also  must  lie  the  prin- 
cipal centers  of  population  from  the  frontier  to  the 
interior.  The  problem  in  each  case  will  be  therefore 
a  special  one,  and  must  I)e  treated  upon  its  own  data. 
In  the  organization  of  the  Inland  frontier  fortifica- 
tions of  a  State,  the  points  to  be  princijjally  regarded 
are  the  principal  aveimes  of  access  to  it,  and  their 
topographical  features  as  they  lend  themselves  more 
or  less  to  strengthen  the  artificial  defenses.  In  con- 
ducting an  invasion  across  an  inland  frontier,  the 
march  of  the  enemy  must  necessarily  be  along  the 
roads  that  intersect  it,  a.s  these  afford  the  only  means 
for  transporting  the  mat/rn'l,  etc.,  of  the  army.  The 
points,  therefore,  or  places  in  their  ueigiiborhood 
where  the  principal  roads  or  other  avenues  of  com- 
munication cross  the  frontier.  i)articularly  those  which 
lead  to  the  great  centers  of  ])oi)ulation  and  wealth,  are 
the  ones  which  would  necessarily  call  for  permanent 
defenses.  No  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  the 
distribution  and  strength  of  such  works  along  a  fron- 
tier. Everything  must  depend  upon  the  more  or  less 
of  facility  presented  to  an  enemy  for  penetrating  at 
one  point  rather  than  another,  and  of  tlie  ulterior  ad- 
vantiiges  the  one  may  present  to  him  over  another. 
Rivers  and  mountain-ranges  are  the  natural  fortifica- 
tions of  Stales;  and  where  they  form  the  frontiers 
they  greatly  facilitate  the  application  of  artificial  de- 
fensive means,  as  they  present  but  few.  and  those  in 
general,  importjmt  points  of  access.  When  these 
points  on  a  river  are  fortified,  an  invading  force, 
however  powerful,  cannot  without  great  risk  cross 
the  river  without  first  gaining  possession  of  them; 
for,  even  should  a  sufficient  detachment  be  left  to  ob- 
serve and  blockade  the  fortrcs.ses,  the  main  army,  in 


case  of  retreat  or  any  disaster,  might  be  placed  in  an 
extremely  critical  position,  in  its  movements  to  recros.s 
the  river,  with  the  garrisons  of  the  fortresses  threaten- 
ing its  tlanks  and  rear.  In  offensive  oi)eralions  for- 
tresses ui)on  a  river  frontier  form  one  of  the  .strongest 
bases  of  operations.  If  a  river  intersects  the  frontier, 
the  i)oiiit  where  it  cro.sscs  it.  or  some  one  in  its  vicin- 
ity, should  be  occupied  by  a  permanent  work;  among 
such  points  those  are  more  jx'culiarly  necessary  to  be 
held  where  a  river  forming  the  frontier  is  intersected 
l)y  another  navigable  one  which  lies  wholly  within 
the  frontier.  The  importance  of  thoroughly  occupy- 
ing such  ijoints  is  obvious,  as  they  afford  an  army  on 
the  defensive  the  means  of  jia.ssing  readily  and  siifely 
from  one  side  to  the  other  of  the  river,  cither  to  evade 
a  force  too  powerful  for  it  to  cope  with  in  the  o|)cn 
field,  or  when  an  opportunity  offers,  from  any  impru- 
dent movement  of  an  invading  force  on  one  side,  to 
throw  itself  suddenly  from  the  other  on  its  fiank  or 
tear,  and  thus  forcing  it  to  a  retrograde  movement. 
With  resjieet  to  mountain-passes,  the  main  roads  alone 
will  require  permanent  woiks.  If  the  i)asses  are  inde- 
pendent of  each  (JtluT.  a  wiirk  will  be  nece.s.sary  for 
each  one  separately;  but  where  .several  unite  at  the 
same  point,  upon  or  within  the  frontier,  a  single  work 
placed  upon  Ibis  point  will  sulHce  Local  tareum- 
stances  will  determine  the  point  in  each  pass  which, 
Ofcupied,  will  offer  the  greatest  advantage  for  ob- 
stnicting  the  march  of  an  invading  force,  and  retard- 
ing the  ijringing  forward  its  iiinti'riel.  The  only  rule 
that  can  be  given  is  that,  whilst  the  position  seiected 
shall  satisfy  these  conditions,  there  shall  be  every 
facility  of  communication  between  the  fortress  and 
the  interior  for  receiving  sujiplies  and  reinforcements. 
This  rule  would  lead  generally  to  the  selection  of  some 
point  of  the  outlet  within  the  frontier  as  the  proper 
one.  In  the  case  of  important  commercial  cities  and 
large  naval  depots  l3'ing  within  harbors  more  or  less 
accessible  both  to  sea  and  land  attacks,  the  character 
of  the  defenses  called  for  must  necessarily  be  eom- 
mensiu'ale  with  the  magnitude  of  the  interests  to  be 
guarded,  and  the  consequent  temptation  to  an  enemy 
to  put  forth  great  efforts  for  their  occupation  and  de- 
struction. The  avenues  of  approach  to  these  objects 
by  sea,  which  can  be  brought  within  range  of  cannon 
and  mortars  in  fortifications  on  the  shore,  or  in  ease- 
mated  works  erected  on  natural  or  artificial  islands, 
should  be  occui)ied  to  a  distance  that  will  prevent  a 
fleet  from  approaching  near  enough  to  open  a  bom- 
bardment, and  if  practicable  also  force  the  enemy,  if 
he  ventures  a  land-attack,  to  disembark  his  forces 
either  at  so  great  a  distance  from  the  object  to  be 
reached  that  he  will  not  be  able,  by  a  sudden  move- 
ment of  this  nature,  to  effect  a  surprise,  or  to  limit 
his  landing  to  such  points  on  the  coast  as,  from  their 
exposed  position,  may  render  the  co-operation  of  the 
naval  and  land  forces  very  uncertain,  and,  in  ciuse  of 
a  storm,  place  the  latter  in  a  very  perilous  condition 
if  attacked.  These  works  will  form  the  exterior  chain 
of  the  defenses.  Within  the.se,  batteries  either  open 
or  ea.semated,  as  the  locality  may  seem  to  demand, 
should  occupy  all  the  most  suitable  positions  for 
sweeping  the  path  that  a  fleet  must  follow  by  power- 
ful cross,  direct,  and  eufihuling  fires,  and  for  reach- 
ing every  point  of  anchorage  within  the  harbor.  On 
the  land-approaches,  points  should  Ije  occupied  by 
forts  of  a  iiermancnt  character,  which  will  prevent 
a  suflBciently  near  apjiroach  to  bombanl  the  city  or 
depot,  and,  in  combination  with  temporary  works, 
will  alTonl  an  intrenched  fielil  of  battle  for  the  ti'oops 
on  the  defensive.  These  will  form  the  exterior  line 
of  the  liuid-defenses,  the  interior  line  being  either  a 
continuous  enceinte  of  permanent  fortification,  which 
will  require  a  regular  sie.se  for  it.s  reduction,  or  else  a 
suitable  combination  of  either  continuous  or  detached 
field-works  of  such  strength  and  armament  that  the 
enemy,  in  any  attempt  to  carry  them  by  an  open  as- 
sault, will  be  made  to  suffer  heavily  even  if  he  is  not 
repulsed.  The  security  of  objects  of  this  character 
will  be  greatly  increased  when  they  lie  at  some  dis- 


FBONT  OF  COUNTERGUAKOS. 


714 


FUEL. 


taiice  within  the  sea-coast  frontier,  and  can  only  be 
u]>|>roached  by  walor  through  such  comparatively 
narrow  duljles  as  evtii  our  largest  rivers  present,  and 
by  land  after  one  or  more  marches.  These  detiles  will, 
for  the  most  part,  not  onl^'  present  admin\ble  jwsitions 
on  their  biiiik><,  from  which  an  assjiilant's  fleet  can  be 
enfiladed  within  the  range  of  the  heaviest  guns,  but 
frequently  others,  at  points  where  the  river  narrows, 
or  changes  its  coup>e,  where  works  occupying  the  op- 
posite l)anks  will  give  the  means  of  rendering  the 
river  impjissable  by  torpedoes,  booms,  rafts,  or  other 
floating  and  sunken  obstructions,  which  ainnot  be 
removed  except  by  getting  possession  of  the  defenses 
by  which  they  are  guarded,  by  a  land-attack.  In  the 
great  military  States  of  Continental  Euroix',  llie  ques- 
tion !is  to  wliat  e.xtent  the  great  centers  of  ])opulation 
and  wealth  in  the  interior  sliouUl  be  covered  by  for- 
titications  has  been  submitted  to  the  investigation  of 
the  ablest  engineers  and  statesmen,  from  the  time  of 
Vauban  dowii  to  the  present  day.  Whatever  differ- 
ences of  opinion  have  been  railed  forth  as  to  the  mode 
of  accomiilishing  this  object,  as  sliown  in  the  pub- 
lished views  on  the  proiiosition  to  fortify  Paris,  there 
seems  to  have  been  none  among  those  best  qualitied 
to  decide  upon  it  as  lo  the  great  importance  of  so  forti- 
fying thisJCapital  and  other  large  places  in  the  interior, 
as  Lyons,  etc.,  which  from  their  position  must  be  of 


ing  and  stationarj'  obstructions,  like  bombs  and  tor- 
pedoes, combined  with  iron-clad  floating  batteries,  to 
si'curc  them  from  all  hazard.     See  Fortifieution  and 

I  Ptrmiiiii  lit  Furtifieatioti. 

FRONT  OF  COUNTERGUARDS.— A  certain  num- 
ber of  ((nintcrguanls  so  disixisi'd  as  to  mutually  flank 
eacli  (illicr. 

FRONT  OF  FORTIFICATION.— All  the  works  con- 
structed iqion  any  one  side  of  a  regular  polygon, 
whether  placed  within  or  without  the  exterior  side. 
Some  authors  give  a  more  limited  sense  to  the  term, 
by  confining  it  to  two  half-biistions  joined  by  a  cur- 
tain. 

,  FRONT  OF  OPERATIONS.— All  that  part  of  the 
theater  of  operations  in  front  of  the  successive  posi- 
tions occupied  by  the  army  as  it  moves  forward.  See 
titriitfffii. 

FRONT  SIGHT.— A  sight  usually  attached  to  the 
barrel,  near  Ihe  muzzle,  by  means  of  a  horizontal 
screw  at  right  angles  to  the  barrel,  which  allows  a 
horizontal  motion  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  true  posi- 
tion, which  is  marked  by  the  0  of  the  scale  and  ver- 
nier.    To  assure  the  vertical  position  of  the  sights,  a 

'  level  is  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  front  sight,  and 
has  a  colored  liquiil,  which  renders  the  bubble  more 
distinct  to  the  marksman  in  aiming. 

!      The  shape  of  the  sight  proper  is  a  subject  about 


Frout  Sights. 


the  highest  strategical  value  in  the  case  of  a  successful 
invasion  by  a  large  army,  as  not  only  to  prevent  their 
wealth  and  resources  from  falling  into  the  possession 
of  the  invading  force,  but  to  make  them  safe  rallying- 
pointsfor  Ixjaten  and  dispersed  forces,  and  depots  for 
organizing  new  armies.  The  plan  that  has  been  adopted 
for  this  end,  both  in  Franee  and  in  most  of  the  other 
cities  of  Europe  which  have  been  either  newly  fortified 
or  had  their  old  works  strengthened  witliin  this  jieriod, 
is  to  surround  the  city  by  a  continuous  enceinte  of 
greater  or  less  strength,  but  one  secure  from  a  roiip-dt- 
viaiii,  and  to  occupy  with  forts  of  a  permanent  eliarac- 
tcr  the  most  suitable  points  in  advance  of  the  enceinte,  to 
prevent  an  enemy  from  bombarding  the  city,  or  jiene- 
traling  between  them  without  first  gaining  possession 
of  them.  By  this  |)lan  it  is  proposed  to  gain  all  the  ad- 
vantages offered  by  the  piussive  resisUuiee  of  fortifica- 
tions and  Jhe  activity  of  a  disposable  movable  force 
occupying  the  zone  between  the  enceinte  and  the  forts 
as  an  intrenched  camp,  ui)on  which  the  forts  with 
temporary  works  thrown  up  between  them  winild  ren- 
der an  open  assjuilt  too  perilous  to  be  attempted.  As 
to  wliat  future  changes  will  be  called  for  in  perma- 
nent fortitications,  both  for  inland  and  sea-coast  de- 
fense, time  alone  can  develop.  Judging  from  the 
increitsing  size  and  range  of  eannon,  and  their  greater 
dcslnietive  effects,  it  fs  probable  that  wrought-iron 
will  have  to  besubstituteil  forstoue  in  positions  where 
the  latter  is  c.vposeil  lo  the  heavy  projectiles  coming 
into  use,  as  this  material  and  earthen  paiaiiets  will 
alone  afford  an  inrlestruelible  cover  against  such  pro- 
jectiles. Still,  when  we  look  to  the  time  and  care 
which  are  given  to  the  erection  of  permanent  works, 
the  great  superiority  Ihiy  have  over  teniporary  struc- 
tures for  Ihe  planting  and  hanclling  the  heaviest  can- 
non, besides  the  difficulty  which  the  transportation  of 
such  enormous  weapons  offers  lo  their  use  by  the  as- 
sailant, there  is  no  reason  why  these  changes  should 
not  inure  lo  the  advantage  of  the  defense,  both  on 
land  and  water  fronts.  In  the  defense  of  harbors  and 
rivers  against  the  most  iinpo-*ing  means  of  attack  Ijy 
heavily  armed  iron-clad  steamers,  there  is  every  rcii-son 
to  suppose  that  adequate  means  will  be  found," in  float- 


which  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  among^ 
marksmen,  some  preferring  one  variety  and  others 
another.     Provision  is  made  for  the  ready  substitu- 

I  tion  of  sight-pieces  of  different  kinds.  The  drawings 
show  some  of  the  varieties  most  commonly  used  by 
the  best  marksmen.  To  avoid  the  reflection  of  the 
sun  on  the  sights,  they  should  be  blackened  with 
smoke,  or,  better,  by  lampblack  mixed  with  shellac 

'  varnish,  and  apjilied  with  a  small  l)rusli.  A  shade 
made  of  metal  or  eard-board,  and  ])ainlcd  black  or 
dark  green,  incloses  the  end  of  the  barrel  for  a  dis- 

'  tance  of  three  inches.     See  Sight. 

FRUMENTARITJS.— A  Roman  soldier  whose  duty 
was  to  bring  supplies  of  pro\isions  to  Ihe  army,  and 
the  earliest  notice  of  all  hostile  movements.  They 
were  also,  under  the  Roman  Empire,  officers  who 
acted  as  spies  in  the  Provinces  and  reported  to  the 
Emperor  whatever  seemed  worthy  of  note.  They 
appear  to  have  derived  this  appellation  from  their 
gathering  news  in  the  same  way  that  the  Frumcntarii 
or  Purveyors  collected  corn. 

1  FUEL.— This  term  is  generally  applied  to  combus- 
tibles uscil  for  the  ]iroduetion  of  heal ;  also,  le.ss  fre- 

i  quently,  to  combustibles  such  asoil,  paraffine-oil,  used 

:  for  lighting.  Under  articles  Co.\l.,  Coke,  etc.,  will 
be  found  details  of  the  physical  properties  and  chemi- 
cal composition  of  the  various  fuels;  the  following 
observations  bear  chiefly  on  their  economical  applica- 
tion as  sources  of  motive  power.  The  two  elementary 
hollies  to  which  we  owe  the  heating  powere  of  all  our 
fuels,  natural  and  artificial,  are  carbon  and  hydrogen. 
Coke,  wood  charcoal,  peat-charcoal,  and  anthracite 
contain  little  or  none  of  the  latter  element,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  purely  carbonaceous  fuels.  But  wood, 
peat,  and  most  varieties  of  coal  contain  hydrogen  as 
well  as  carbon;  and  in  their  combustion  these  two 
substances  combine  to  produce  volatile  and  combus- 
tible hydrocarbons,  which  are  volatilized  previous  to 
being  consumed,  while  a  i)urely  carbonaceous  fuel 
evolves  no  volatile  matter  until  comlmstion  has  been 
effected.      These   hydrocarbons   are    numerous  and 

1  varied  in  composition;  but  when  combustion  is  per- 

I  feet,  the  amount  of  heat  produced  by  any  hydrocarbon 


FITEL. 


715 


TtTEL. 


is  exactly  what  would  have  been  produced  had  the 
hydi'ogen  and  carbon  been  burned  separately.  It  will 
be  of  advantage,  therefore,  to  study  these  two  ele- 
mentary combustibles  in  succession,  in  order  to  esti- 
mate subsequently  the  combined  effect  where  they 
come  together  in  the  same  fuel.  The  heating  power 
of  a  combustible,  or  the  amount  of  heat  generated  by 
it,  is  usually  expressed  in  degrees  Fahrenheit  on  so 
many  pounds'  weight  of  water.  But  in  estimating 
the  tempemture,  or  intensity  of  heat  produced,  we 
have  to  keep  in  view  that  different  substances  have 
different  capacities  for  heat — that  of  water  being 
generally  assumed  as  unity.  The  number  expressing 
this  capacity  Is  called  the  specilic  heat  of  the  sub- 
■  stance.  Water  1000,  carbonic  acid  221 ,  imply  that 
while  1000  units  of  heat  are  required  to  elevate  the 
temperature  of  water  any  given  number  of  degrees, 
only  221  units  are  required  to  elevate  to  the  same 
temperature  an  equal  weight  of  carbonic  acid. 

Carbon  as  Fuel.— 1.  Amount  of  Air  required  for 
Combustion .  — Burned  in  au-,  carbon  combines  with  the 
oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid  (COj),  mingled  with 
nitrogen,  the  other  atmospheric  element.  The  chemical 
change  may  be  thus  represented,  atomically: 

Products  of  Combustion. 
Carbon,  6.0-^^ 

Air/«Qm    j  Oxygen,      16.0 Carbonic  acid,    22.0 

AirvQ».o;     (Nitrogen,    53.6        Nitrogen,  53.6 

75.6  75.6 

Or,  assuming  carbon  as  unity: 
Carbon,  1.000^^ 

A,-rni«\  i  Oxygen,  2.667— ^Carbonic  acid,  3.667 
■aJT  Ui-o;    I  Nitrogen,  8.933        Nitrogen,  8.933 

12.600  12.600 

Carbon  therefore  requires  about  twelve  times  its  own 
weight  of  air  for  perfect  combustion. 

2.  Amount  of  Heat  Produced. — Andrews  found  that 

1  lb.  carbon  produced  heat  equal  to  1°  F.  in  14,220 

lbs.  of  water.     Other  observations  agree  very  closely. 

This  may  l)e  othei-n'ise  stated  thus:  1  lb.  carbon  will 

raise  from  freezing  to  boiling  point  (32'  to  212°  =  180°) 

14220 

—  79  lbs.  water;  from  mean  temperature  to  boil- 

loU 

14220 
ing-point(60°to212°  =  153°)^5-  =93.5  lbs.  water; 

will  boil  off  in  steam  from  mean  temperature  (60°  to 

212°  =  152°,  add  latent  heat  in  steam  965'  =  1117°) 

14220 

-r^j=-  =  12.73  lbs.  water;  and  will  boil  off  in  steam 

14220 
from  boiling-point  (latent  heat  in  steam  965°)  = 

14.74  lbs. 

3.  UtmoKt  Temperature  or  Intensity  of  Heat  from 
Carbon. — Here  we  .suppose  the  combustion  effected  in 
a  space  inclosed  by  non-conducting  material,  so  that 
all  the  heat  produced  by  1  lb.  carbon  is  retained  by 
the  products  of  its  combustion.  Caloric  sufficient  to 
raise  14,220  lbs.  of  water  1°  F.  is  thus  compressed, 
a.s  it  were,  into  12.6  lbs.  of  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen. 
To  determine  the  temperature  thus  produced,  we  re- 
quire to  know  the  specific  heat  of  this  gaseous  com- 
pound, that  of  water  being  1. 

3.667  lbs.  carbonic  acid.  Specific  heat  2210 

8.933    "    nitrogen.  "  "     27M 

12.600    "    products  of  combustion.     Mean  sp.  "     2596 

14,320°  on  water  at  1.000  specific  heat  will  give 
54,776°  on  these  products  per  pound  weight.  Dis- 
tributed over  13.6  lbs.,  this  heat  will  raise  the  tem- 
perature to-js^  =4347°  F.,  which  is  therefore  the 

utmost  intensity  of  heat  attainable  in  burning  carbon, 
suppo.sing  no  loss  by  absorption  or  radiation. 

4.  Effect  of  Kmfis  of  Air. — Excess  of  air  has  been 
proved  to  have  no  effect  on  the  qnantity  of  heat  pro- 
duced where  combustion  is  perfect;  but  the  intensity 


of  temperature  is  diminished.  Suppose  two  equivalents 
of  air  admitted;  we  then  have  as  the  products  of  com- 
bustion— 

3.667  lbs.  carbonic  acid.  Specific  heat  2210 

8.9.33    '■    nitrogen.  '*  "      27M 

11.600    "    air  in  excess.  '*  '*      '.  266& 

21.200   "    products.  Meansp.  "      2631 

14,220°  on  water  =  54,048°  on  this  new  mixture  of 
gases.     But  the  heat  is  now  diffused  over  24.2  lbs. 

.54048 
matter  in.stead  of  13.6  lbs.,  ^^^  =  2347°  F.:  the  ut- 
most temperature  produced  by  carbon  burned  in  two 
equivalents  of  air.  The  utmost  temperatures  attain- 
able, with  various  proportions  of  air,  are  given  below, 
and  also  the  appearance  which  the  interior  of  the 
furnace  would  exhibit.  Flame  at  these  temperatures 
will  present  the  same  differences  in  color. 


Weight. 

Ratio 
of  Fuel 
to  Air. 

Highest 
Possible 
Tempera- 
ture. 

Appearance  of  a  Body 
exposed  to  such  Tem- 
perature. 

Carbon. 

Air. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

11.6 

17.4 

23.8 

39.0 

34.8 

iW 

69.6 

Itol 
1  "H 
1  "8 
1  "2i 
1  "3 
1  "  5 
1  "6 

4347« 

2951 
22.33 
1797 
1503 
908 
758 

Intensely  brilliant. 
Dazzling  white. 
BriKlit  itjuition. 
Full  elierry  red.  " 
Commencing  cherry  red 
Incipient  red. 
Blacl;. 

5.  Effeet  of  Defieienfy  of  Air. — If,  before  reaching 
the  superior  laj-ers  of  carbon  or  cinder,  the  air  has 
parted  with  all  its  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid  with 
the  production  of  heat,  then  the  carbonic  acid  com- 
bines with  part  of  the  remaining  carbon  to  form 
carbonic  oxide,  CO,  but  without  producing  heat. 
The  loss  may  amount,  therefore,  to  one  half  of  the 
fuel:  some  have  stated  it  as  high  as  three  fourths.  If 
this  oxide,  when  it  gets  above  the  fuel,  meet  with  air 
before  cooling,  it  burns  with  a  pale  blue  flame,  restor- 
ing part  of  the  lost  heat;  but  to  what  extent  has  not 
yet  been  determined. 

6.  Effeet  of  Water  Present. — Passing  into  a  vapor, 
wafer  absorbs  both  sensible  and  latent  heat,  and  thus 
diminishes  the  temperature.  Heating  power  is  also 
lost,  as  products  of  combustion  are  generally  passed 
into  the  atmosphere  at  a  high  temperature. 

Hydrogen  as  Fuel. — 1.  Air  Required. — Hydrogen 
combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  form  vapor  of 
water,  mingled  with  nitrogen: 

Products  of  Combustion. 
Hydrogen,  1.0-^^ 

A-   /Q^  a\    (Oxygen,      8.0 Vapor  of  water,     9.0 

Air  (d4.8)    -J  Nitrogen,  36.8        Nitrogen,  ,  26.8 

85.8  35.8 

1  lb.  hydrogen  therefore  requires  34.8  lbs.  air,  while 
1  lb.  carbon  requires  only  11.6  lbs. 

2.  Amount  of  Heat  Produced. — The  amount  of  heat 
produced  from  hydrogen  is  much  greater  than  that 
from  carbon;  the  caloric  from  1  lb.  heating  60,840  lbs. 
water  1°  F.  Part  of  this  is,  however,  latent  in  the 
water-vapor,  and  must  be  deducted  in  calculating 
intensity  of  heat,  and  also  heating  effect  under  all 
ordinarj'  circumstances.  This  deduction  amounts  to 
9  lbs.  water  X  965°  latent  =  8685°,  leaving  53,155°  as 
the  effective  heating  power  of  1  lb.  hydrogen. 

3.  UtmoHt  Temperature  or  Intensity  of  Heat. — This 
is  lesn  than  in  the  ca.se  of  carbon,  in  consequence  of 
the  high  specific  heat  and  greater  quantity  of  the  pro- 
ducts.    We  have- 
Vapor  of  water 9    lbs.       Specific  heat 8170 

Nitrogen 26.8  "  "  "     2764 

35.8  '•  Meansp.  "     4191 

52,155°  on  water  will  be  124,445°  on  these  products; 

124445 
and  --  lbs.  =  3476°  is  the  utmost  possible  tem- 

35.8 
perature. 


rnOLEMAN. 


716 


FULLEK'S  EAKTH. 


4.  Effect  of  E>eas  of  Air. — As  in  the  case  of  carbon, 
the  intensity  of  heat  is  diminished,  as  under: 


Wbioht. 

Ratio  of 
Fuel  to  Air. 

Hiehest  Poaslble 
Temperature. 

Hydrogen.             Air. 

lbs. 

1 
1 
1 
1 

lbs. 
»4.8 
69.6 
J0».4 
139.2 

1  tol 
1  •■  8 
1  •'  3 
1  "  4 

S176» 
2187 
1591 
1250 

5.  Effect  of  Deficiency  of  Air. — No  new  product  is 
the  result  of  deficiency  of  air,  as  in  combustion  of 
carbon;  the  hydrogen  simply  escapes  uiiconsumed. 

0.  Effect  of  iriiter  la/X'r  present  is  dimiiuition  of  in- 
tensity and  ultimate  loss  of  heat  in  application,  as  in 
the  ca.se  of  carbon. 

Teiiiperatiire  of  Ignition  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen. — 
Tlicsc  substances  must  be  themselves  healed  before 
they  can  burn.  Ilvdrosrcn  bcjrins  to  burn  at  or  below 
:^(I0"  ,  wliiU'  cnrbiin "requires  a  rrd  heat  (SCO"  to  1000°  F. ), 
and  even  at  that  ti-iuiHTaluru  burns  \iry  slowly.  Cou- 
se(iucnlly,  where  they  arc  combined,  as  in  common 
coal,  the  Icmpuraliirc  present  is  often  suttlcieully  high 
to  ignite  and  consume  the  hydrogen,  while  the  carbon 
remains  luichanged  as  cinder  or  passes  away  as  smoke, 
uncousumed  in  either  ca.si'.  All  that  has  been  said  above 
of  carbon,  as  to  air  required,  heating  power  or  value, 
utmost  temperature,  lemiicrature  of  ignition,  effect  of 
water  jiresenl,  and  of  excess  or  deficiency  of  air,  ap- 
plies without  modification  to  one  class  of  fuels— the 
purely  carbonaceous,  induiling  anthracite,  coke  from 
coal,  charcoal  from  wood  and  peat,  and  the  cinder  of 
any  descri])tion  of  fuel.  The  incombustible  ash  must 
be  allawed  for  in  calculating  heating  power  or  value: 
and  also  the  volatile  bodies — nitrogen,  sulphur,  etc. — 
the  latter  of  which  frequently  renders  the  fuel  unsuit- 
able for  many  purposes  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 
Peat,  wood,  and  coal,  with  the  exception  of  anthracite, 
conlain  hydrogen  to  an  extent  rarely  exceeding  ">  per 
cent  We  have  seen  that,  compared  with  carbon, 
hydrogen  recpiires  three  times  as  much  air,  and 
generates  nearly  four  times  as  much  heat,  but  pro 
duces  20  per  cent  less  intensity  of  heat,  and  ignites  at 
a  much  lower  ten\peraUire;  aud  the  combustion  of 
wood,  coal,  etc.,  is  in  these  respects  modified  accoid- 
ing  to  Ihe  proportion  of  hydrogen  present  in  them. 
The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of  British 
coal,  as  detennined  by  Playfair  and  De  la  Beclie. 
Columns  8  to  12  are  added  to  illu-strate  the  process  of 
combustion. 


The  elements  of  a  hydrocarlion  are  consumed,  not 
simultiuieously,  but  in  succession.  First,  the  carlwn 
is  separated  from  the  hydrogen  in  light  lloating  par- 
ticles, subsequently  seen  as  soot  or  smoke  (if  not  con- 
sumed); then  Ihe  hydrogen  burns,  anil  communicates 
heat  to  the  carbon"  jiarliclcs,  which  then  appear  as 
tlamc.  The  color  of  the  tlame  indicates  the  tempera- 
ture present;  and  if  the  temperature  is  sufficiently 
high,  the  carbon  of  which  the  Hame  is  composed 
hums  also,  producing  a  further  increase  of  heat.  If 
not,  the  flame,  as  it  moves  onward,  cools,  becoming 
red,  dull  red,  and  finally  black  and  smoky,  passing 

■  away  as  such.  For  complete  combustion  oi'  ci'mmon 
coal,  wc  therefore  require  not  only  air  in  sufllcient 
quantity,  l)Ut  also  intensity  of  heat  above  the  fuel. 
AVe  re<iuire  a  low  temperature  to  sejiarate  the  carbon 
from  the  hydrogen;  a  higher  temperature  to  consume 

I  the  hydrogen;  and  a  still  higher  to  consume  the  car- 

I  bon  of  the  flame.  In  closed  furnaces,  such  as  those 
of  .steam  boilers,  while  the  current  of  air  supplied  con- 
tinues prelly  uniform  in  quantity,  ihe  volatile  bodies 
are  evolvetl  alnujst  immediately  after  fueling;  and 
would  require,  for  the  moment,  perhaps  four  times 
the  quantity  of  air  which  is  pa.ssing  through.     The 

I  volatile  fuel  is,  iu  consequence  of  the  want  of  air, 
carrietl  otf  partly  unconsumcd;  an<l  the  temperature 
in  such  furnaces  is  frequently  too  low  for  the  ignition 
of  carbon,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  color  of  the  flame; 
the  cold  boiler  haWng  abstracted  the  heat  before  the 
flame  has  been  subjected  to  its  influence.  From  the 
lirinciples  involved,  we  should  exijecl  most  success 
where  the  fuel  is  supplied  by  mechanical  arrange- 
ments as  regularly  and  unifornfly  as  Ihe  air,  and 
where,  in  addition,  the  body  of  the  furnace  is  pro- 
tected or  removed  so  far  from  boiler-surface  and 
all  other  cooling  agents  as  is  necessjuy  to  maintain 
a  temperature  within  it  sufficient  for  the  thorough 
ignition  of  the  flame.     See  Ciipnliifirnxce. 

FUGLEMAN.— An  intelligent  soldier  posted  in  front 
of  a  line  of  men  at  drill,  to  give  the  time  and  an  ex- 
ample of  the  motions  in  the  manual  and  platoon  exer- 
cises, lie  originally  stood  in  front  of  Ihe  right  wing, 
and  hence  the  name.  The  word  is  frequently  written 
Fugelman,  and  more  properly  F/iigelinmi,  from  the 
German  fliif/el.  a  wing. 

FULCEUM.— The  cast  iron  post  at  the  breech  of  a 
large  cannon  >ised  as  a  support  for  an  iron  bar  in  giv- 
ing deviations;  called  also  ratchet  punt.     Sec  Lerer. 

FULL  BASTION.— When  the  interior  is  filled  up  to 
the  level  of  the  terre-plein  of  the  rami)art,  the  bastion 
is  called  full.     See  Bastion. 

I      FULL  CHARGES.— The  charges  of  powder  required 


On  Distillation,  there  is 

1^ 

Average  Composition. 

Left  as  Coke 
or  Cinder. 

Expelled  in  Gaseous  Form. 

Locality. 

5  = 

As  Volatile  Hydro- 
carbons. 

.22 

Carbon. 

Water  = 
Hydro- 
gen and 
Oxygen. 

Sulphur 

aud 
Nitrogen. 

Incom- 
bustible 
Ash. 

Ash. 

Carbon. 

n 

Carbon. 

Total. 

p 

Wales 

Newcastle . . . 
LancaHbire  . . 
Seolland.  ... 
Derbyshire... 

88.78 
82  12 
77.90 

7S.53 
79.08 

1 

4.27 
4.60 
4.53 
440 
3.66 

S 

4.67 
6.40 
10.78 
10.90 
11.56 

3 

2.41 
2.59 
2.74 
2.11 
2.42 

4 

4.91 
3.77 
4.88 
4.03 
2.65 

6 

4.91 
3.77 
4.88 
4.03 
2.65 

6 

67.69 
56.90 
55.84 
50.19 
56.67 

7 

668 
8.99 
13  46 
13.01 
13.98 

8 

4.27 
4.60 
4.53 
4.40 
3.66 

9 

16.09 
25.22 
92.56 
28.34 
23.01 

10 

20.36 
29.82 
26.69 
32.74 
26.67 

11 

lto8 
1   "5.5 
1   "5.4 
1   "6.4 
1   "6.8 

18 

Wlien  coal  is  heated  in  a  retort,  it  jnclds  volatile 
hydrocarbons  amounting  to  20  to  32  per  cent  of  its 
weight  (see  colmnn  11).  The  hydrogen  has  robbed 
the  fui-1  of  six  limes  its  own  weight  of  c.irbon.  When 
fresh  fuel  is  added  to  live  coal  in  a  furnace,  Ihe  same 
result  ensues;  so  that  in  using  coal,  .50  lo  07  per  cent 
of  carlM)n  burn  on  the  grate,  and  20  to  ;i2  per  cent 
carbon  and  hydrogen  have  to  be  burned  in  Ihe  open 
space  above  the  fuel,  or  escape  unconsumed. 


in  actual  service  to  produce  the  best  or  most  useful 

effect.      See  Charcje. 

FULLER'S  EARTH.— A  mineral  consisting  chiefly 
of  silica,  alumina,  and  wafer,  with  a  little  magnesia, 
lime,  and  peroxide  of  iron.  The  .silica  is  about  50, 
the  ahnnina  20,  and  the  water  24  per  cent  of  the 
whole.  It  is  regarded  as  essentiallv  a  hydrous  bisili- 
cale  of  alumina.  It  occurs  in  beds,  a.s9ocialed  with 
chalk,  oolite,  etc.;  is  usually  of  a  greenish-brown  or 


FULL  PAY. 


717 


FULMINATES. 


a  slate-bhie  color,  sometimes  white;  has  an  uneven 
earthy  fracture  ami  a  dull  appearance;  its  specific 
jrr.i\ity  is  from  1.8  to  2.2;  it  is  soft  enough  to  yield 
readily  to  the  nail;  is  very  grea.sy  to  the  touch;  scarce- 
ly adliercs  to  the  tongue;  falls  to  pieces  in  water,  but 
(Iocs  not  become  plastic.  It  has  a  remarkable  power 
of  absorbing  oil  or  grease;  and  wa.s  fonnerly  very 
much  used  for  fulling  cloth,  for  which  purpose  it  was 
considered  so  valuable  that  the  exportation  of  it  from 
Enghuid  was  prohibited  under  seven'  i)enalties;  it  is 
.still  used  to  a  considerable  e.\tent.  The  annual  con- 
sumption in  England  is  sjiid  to  have  at  one  time  ex- 
ceeded 6000  tons.  It  is  found  at  Nuttield,  near  Rei- 
gate,  in  Surrey,  in  cretaceous  strata;  where  there  are 
two  distinct  lieds,  the  upper  one  of  a  greenish  color, 
and  .5  feet  thick,  resting  on  the  other,  whicli  has  a  bluish 
tint,  and  is  11  feet  thick.  It  is  also  found  in  Bedford- 
shire, Xottinghamshire,  and  Kent;  and  on  the  Conti- 
nent in  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  near  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
There  is  a  considerable  deposit  of  it  at  Bath,  where 
the  group  of  a.ssociated  lilue  and  yellow  clays  and 
marl  has  received  the  name  of  "  The  Fuller's  Earth 
Series."     It  is  also  found  at  Maxton,  in  Scotland. 

FULL  PAY. — The  full  imiount  of  an  otlicer's  or  sol- 
dier's pay,  as  fixed  by  law.  In  the  British  service,  an 
officer  of  thirtj-  ycjjrs'  full  pay  is  permitted  to  retire 
on  the  full  paj'  of  his  regimental  rank,  with  a  rank 
one  step  higher  than  that  which  he  holds  bj'  brevet  or 
otherwise. 

FULL  REVETMENT.— Any  revetment  is  said  to  be 
full  when  the  w  all  is  carried  up  to  the  superior  slope 
of  the  parapet. 

FULL  SAP. — The  full  sap  is  resorted  to,  in  siege- 
operations,  when  the  fire  becomes  so  destructive  that 
the  flying  .s;ip  cannot  be  used.  The  trench  is  opened 
and  pushed  forward  by  engineer  troops  alone;  for 
this  ])urposc  a  working  party,  termed  a  brigade,  of 
eight  Siippers,  is  requisite.  The  brigade  is  divided 
into  two  eciual  mclwns  ;  the  .siipi)ers  of  the  first  sec- 
tion dig  the  trench,  and  are  numbered  from  1  to  4, 
No.  1  leading.  The  other  four  are  termed  amntanis  ; 
they  bring  forward  the  materials,  and  assist  the  first 
section  in  all  the  necessary  operations.  The  leading 
sapper.  No.  1,  is  provided  with  a  pick  and  shovel, 


Full  Sap. 
and  wears  a  musket-proof  helmet  and  cuirass;   he  '  slightest  friction_betwcen  two  hard  bodies  produces  a 


the  further  precaution  is  taken  of  dri\'ing  sap-fagots 
along  the  Ixrm,  at  the  junction  of  the  gabions;  these 
are  successively  removed  as  they  are  no  longer  requi- 
site. The  trench-fascines  are  placeii  upon  the  gabions 
by  the  assistants;  and  the  remainder  of  the  trench 
completed  by  working-parties  of  the  line,  so  soon  as 
the  brigade  of  s;ippers  have  proceeded  far  enough  for 
the  others  to  commence  w  ithout  hindrance.  See  Sap. 
FULL  SIGHT.— An  aim  in  which  the  entire  fore 
sight  is  seen  when  looking  tlirough  the  notch  on  the 
rear  siirht      See  Siqht. 

FULMINATE  OF  MEECUEY.  — Fulminating-mer- 
cuiT  (2HgO,C,NaU2)  is  best  prepared  by  dissolving 
3  parts  of  niercuiy  in  3G  of  nitric  acid  of  specific 
gra\ity  1.34.  without  the  application  of  heat,  in  a 
Hask  capable  of  holding  18  times  the  bulk  of  the  acid. 
The  solution  is  then  to  be  poured  into  a  large  vessel 
containing  17  parts  of  alcohol  of  a  specific  gra\ity 
0.830,  and  immediately  to  be  re-trausferreil  to  the 
flask,  which  is  still  full  of  nitrous  vajwrs,  and  with 
which  it  must  be  well  shaken  in  order  to  effect  their 
absorption.  Effervescence  commences  after  a  few 
minutes,  and  soon  becomes  extremelj-  violent;  and  at 
■the  same  time  there  is  a  deposit  of  metallic  mercury, 
which  is  gnjdually  re-dissolved.  The  reaction  must 
be  moder.ite'd  by  the  gradual  addition  of  17  parts 
more  of  alcohol;  and  on  cooling,  crystals  of  the  ful- 
minate, amoimting  to  4.6  parts,  are  deposited.  These 
must  be  washed  with  cold  water,  and  ilried  at  100'  F. 
Fulminate  of  mercury  forms  white  silky  needles. 

This  is  the  composition  used  in   the  detonating 
primers  employed  for  the  ignition  of  djnamite  and 
gim-colton.     It  is  the  substance  in  percussion-caps 
that  detonates  and  produces  fire  when  the  cap  is 
struck  a  sharp  blow.     Dry  fulminate  of  m-ircury  ex- 
plodes violently  when  heated  to  367   F.,  bj'  the  elec- 
tric spark,  or  when  stnrck.     When  wet  it  is  inexplo- 
sive,  and  therefore  it  is  always  kept  wet,  being  dried 
1  in  small  amounts  when  required  for  use.     Great  care 
i  is  requisite  in  handling  it.     For  the  purpose  of  deto- 
j  nating  nitroglycerine  or  its  preparations  15  grains 
i  cf  the  fulminate  are  sufficient,  but  trt  detonate  gun- 
j  cotton   2.5  grains  are  nece.s.sar\-.     The  fulminate  in 
I  detonating  fuses  should  be  inclosed  in  a  copper  case 
or  cap,  and  must  never  be  loose.     The  ful- 
minate should  l)e  w  ct  when  charging  the 
detonatiii-s,  ;ind  afterwards  dried. 

FULMINATE  OF  SILVER.— Fulminating- 
silver  (2AgO,CiNiOj)  is  prepared  in  nearly 
the  same  manner  as  the  fulminate  of  mer- 
cury. It  is  more  ixjwerfully  explosive  than 
the  last-named  s;dt.  Even  when  moist  or 
under  water,  pressure  with  a  hard  body  will 
cause  its  explosion;  and  when  quite  dry,  the 


works  on  his  knees,  being  covered,  on  his  side  toward 
the  defen.ses,  by  the  parapet  of  the  trench,  from  which 
he  delx)uches;  and  in  front  by  a  sap-roller,  which  is 
placed  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  direction  on  which 
lie  is  to  work,  and  rests  against  the  gabion  he  is  till- 
ing, covering  it  one  foot.  The  portion  of  the  sap 
which  he  digs  is  21  inches  wide  at  top  and  21  inches 
ileep;  it  receives  a  slope  of  4  perpendicular  to  1  base 
on  the  front,  and  is  vertical  in  the  rear;  and  its  length 
is  5  feet.  So  soon  as  this  portion  is  finished.  No.  2, 
who  is  protected  in  all  resijects  like  No.  1,  commences 
to  widen  and  deepen  the  trench  8  inches  at  the 
jioint  from  which  Xo.  1  started,  and  follows  on  after 
No.  1,  keeping  always  5  feet  in  his  rear.  When  No. 
2  has  pushed  forward  5  feet.  No.  3  commences  and 
enlarges  the  trench  in  each  direction  7  inches;  he  fol- 
lows on  also  5  feet  in  rejir  of  No.  2;  but  as  the  work 
thrown  up  by  the  sappers  preceding  him  affords 
pretty  good  cover,  he  can  work  standing,  taking  the 
precaution  to  bend  forward  for  greater  security.  Fi- 
nally, No.  4  begins  when  No.  3  has  got  on  5  feet,  and 
<leepens  and  widens  7  inches.  As  he  is  well  covered 
he  cim  work  in  an  unconstrained  jxjsture.  Besides 
the  shelter  given  on  the  flank  by  the  gabions,  as  they 
are  successively  tilled,  and  by  the  sap-roller  in  front, 


similar  result.  The  preparation  of  the  fulminates  is 
attended  with  verj*  considerable  danger,  and  should 
be  attempted  by  none  but  profe.s,sed  chemists. 

FULMINATES.— All  the  fulminates  are  easily  ex- 
plixlwl.  and  some  are  excessively  sensitive;  the  mer- 
eiiry  mil  is  the  only  one  of  practi<al  value. 

The  ex])losive  force  of  the  fulminate  of  mercury  is 
not  much  greater  than  that  of  gun|X)wder,  on  account 
of  the  small  amount  of  g-as  given  off,  but  it  is  much 
more  sudden  in  its  action,  and  the  effect  is  of  a  local 
character.  AVhon  diT,  a  violent  explosion  is  pro- 
ducwl  by  a  blow;  by  a  heat  of  186  (366.8  F.);  by 
contact  with  some  strong  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid  ; 
by  sparks  from  flint  and  steel;  or  by  the  electric 
spark.     If  wet,  it  is  inexplosive. 

Fidminate  of  mercury  is  formed  by  the  action  of 
mercuric  nitrate  and  nitric  acid  upon  alcohol.  One 
part  of  mercurj-  is  di.ssolved  in  12  parts  of  nitric  ncid, 
and  the  solution  poured  into  11  parts  of  alcohol. 
The  vessel  is  placed  in  hot  water  until  the  mixture  it 
contains  darkens,  l)ecomes  turbid,  and  begins  to 
evolve  dense  white  fumes.  It  is  then  removed  from 
the  water.  The  reaction  is  allowed  to  go  on  till  the 
liquid  clears  and  the  dense  white  fumes  cea.se;  fur- 
ther action  is  then  stopped  by  tilling  up  with  cold 


FUMIGATION. 


718 


FUNERAL  HONORS. 


water.  Should  red  fumes  appear  during  this  opera- 
tion, cold  alct)hol  must  In;  added  to  check  the  vio- 
lence of  the  action.  The  fulminate  .'settles  to  the 
bottom  of  the  ves.-*'!  as  a  jmiy  crystalline  precipitate. 
The  liquid  is  then  poured  oU.' and  the  fulmin.ile 
wa.shed  several  times  by  decantatiou  or  upon  a  tiller. 

Fulminate  of  mercury  is  u.'ied  only  for  iifnilin'r 
other  sulwtances.  It  is  employed  mainly  in  ]x>rcus- 
sion-caps,  primers,  fuses,  detonators,  etc.  It  is  of 
special  importance  from  its  jwwer  to  cause  the  \'io- 
leut  explosion  called  detonation;  it  has  thus  become 
a  retiuisite  for  exploding  gun-cotton,  nitroglycerine, 
and  preparations  made  from  them.  The  fulminate 
in  a  detonating  fuse  sho\dd  be  contjiined  in  a  copper 
case,  and  must  not  be  loose;  on  account  of  danger, 
it  is  necessary  that  it  be  charged  wet. 

In  the  application  of  fuses  to  the  detonation  of 
modern  explosives,  some  verv  surprising  facts  have 
recently  been  established  which  go  far  to  induce  a 
belief  that  synchronism  in  vibration  is  an  important 
element.  Titus,  compressed  gim-cotton  may  be  de- 
tonated by  5  grains  of  fulminating  mercury,  but  re- 
quires 50  grains  of  chloride  of  nitrogen;  it  fails  with 
100  grains  of  iodide  of  nitrogen,  and  even  with  124 
grains  of  nitro-glvcerine,  though  the  latter  <levelops 
far  more  heat  and  mechanical  force.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  small  initial  charge  of  gun-cotton  readily  de- 
tonates nitro-glycerine.     See  Ej-pUmre  Agents. 

FUMIGATION. — To  correct  and  purify  an  infec- 
tious or  confined  atmosphere,  such  as  is  often  found 
in  transports,  fumig-ations  are  neces-sjiry.  The  ma- 
terials recommended  for  the  purpose  are  brimstone 
with  Siiwdust  ;  or  niter  with  vitriolic  acid  ;  or  com- 
mon salt  with  the  same  acid.  One  fluid  ounce  of 
sulphuric  acid  mixed  with  two  fluid  ounces  of  water, 
and  then  poured  over  four  ounces  of  common  salt, 
and  one  ounce  of  oxide  of  manganese  in  ]M)wder, 
these  latter  ingredients  being  previously  placed  in  hot 
sand,  are  also  recommended.  Burning  charcoal  is 
also  a  good  disinfectant. 

FUNCTIONS.— A  mathematical  term  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  solutions  of  the  problems  of  gun- 
nerj-.  When  two  or  more  variables  are  combined 
with  constants  in  an  equation,  and  are  such  that  a 
change  of  value  of  one  implies  a  corresponding 
change  of  value  of  one  or  more  of  the  others,  then 
such  variables  are  said  to  depend  on  and  to  be  func- 
tions of  each  other;  and  the  expression  of  the  mode 
of  dependence  is  said  to  be  a  function  of  such  varia- 
bles. If  such  an  expression  involves  but  one  varia- 
ble, it  is  said  to  be  a  function  of  one  variable  ;  if  two 
are  involved,  to  be  a  function  of  two  variables ;  and 
so  on.  Thus  sin  x,  e",  log  x,  Va^  -  x',  are  func- 
tions of  one  variable — \iz.,  of  x;  «•'  -  ''>■,  tan  (ax  +  by), 
x>',  are  functions  of  two  variables,  j-  and  y ;  so  xyz, 
^'  +  .V '  +  2*  lire  functions  of  three  variables;  and  so  on. 
Functions  are  denoted  by  the  symlx)ls  F,  /,  <p,  il',  etc. 
Thus  F(j)  means  a  function  of  one  variable,  x  com- 
bined with  constants  or  not,  as  the  ca.se  may  be ; 
iKxyzK  n  function  of  three  variables.  These  "func- 
tional symbols  are  general,  and  their  specific  forms 
are  the  particular  functions  which  arise  from  oijcra- 
tions  in  algebra,  trigonometry,  etc. 

Functions  are  implicit  and  explicit.  When  one 
variable  is  expressed  in  terms  of  others,  it  is  said  to 
be  an  explicit  function  of  them;  but  when  all  the 
variables  remain  involved  in  one  expression,  the 
fuDCtion  is  said  to  tx'  implicit.  Thus,  x-  -}- y'  —  ;••' 
=  0  is  an  implicit  function  of  two  variables,  but  y  = 
■V'r-  —  x'  is  an  explicit  function  of  one  variable.  In 
explicit  functions,  the  variable  which  is  expressed  in 
terms  of  the  others  is  called  the  dijiendint  variable, 
and  the  others  the  indtpeniknt  variables.  Explicit 
functions  are  iLsually  written  in  the  form  2  =  f{xy); 
implicit,  in  the  form  v  =  Fixyz)  =  0.  Functions, 
again,  are  algebraical  or  transcendental.  Algebraical 
functions  are  those  which  involve  the  operations  of 
addition,  subtraction,  etc.,  and  of  involution  and 
evolution.  Transcendental  functions  are  those  where 
the  operations  symbolized  are  such  as  e',  log^  x,  sin 


X,  etc. — i.e.,  exponential,  logarithmic,  or  circular. 
Functions,  also,  are  simple  or  compound  according 
as  they  involve  one  or  several  o|)enitions.  y  =  sin  x 
is  a  simple  function  ;  but  y  —  log  sin  x  is  com- 
IX)und.  Further,  functions  are  div-ided  into  the 
continuous  and  the  discontinuous,  the  circidating  and 
the  periodic.  Continuous  functions  are  such  as 
are  subject  to  the  following  conditions:  1.  As  the 
variable  gradually  changes,  so  the  function  must 
gradually  change  ;  2.  The  law  sjnnlKjlized  by  the 
functional  character  should  not  abruptly  change. 
Circulating  functions  are  those  whose  values  lie 
within  certain  limits  for  all  values  of  the  variables. 
y  =  sin  X  is  an  example  at  once  of  a  continuous  and 
of  a  circulating  function.  A  function  is  said  to  be 
periodic  when  it  itssumes  the  form  /"(x)  —  x,  sig- 
nifyinir  that  if  on  J  a  certain  operation  /  be  per- 
formed  n   times,    the   resulting   value  will  be  x. 

Thus/Cj)  =  ;j is  a   periodic   function  of   the 

third  order.  For  performing  the  operation  indicated 
by  /  the  second  time  on as  the  variable,  we  have 


/%') 


we  have  f'{x) 


-('-) 


and  the  third  time 


The  ftinctional 


calculus  is  a  recent  growth  of  the  transcendental 
analysis.  The  object  of  the  differential  calculus  is 
generally  to  ascertain  the  changes  in  functions  arising 
from  the  continuous  and  infinitesimal  variation  of 
their  subject  variables.  The  object  of  the  new  func- 
tional calculus  is,  speaking  generally,  to  investigate 
the  forms  of  functions  and  their  growth,  when  they 
are  subject  to  a  continuous  and  infinitesimal  change 
as  to  form.  According  to  Mr.  Price  (Treatise  on  the 
Infinitesimal  Calculus),  as  the  differential  calculus 
investigates  properties  of  continuous  numbers,  so 
does  the  new  calculus  the  properties  of  continuous 
functions;  and  as  there  is  an  integral  calculus  of 
numbers,  .so  there  is  an  inverse  calculus  of  functions. 
Of  the  new  calculus,  the  calculus  of  variations  may 
be  regarded  as  the  main  branch.  It  includes,  of 
course,  the  subject  of  functional  equations.  Func- 
tional equations  are  those  in  which  it  is  required  to 
determine  from  equations  the  forms  of  the  functions 
entering  them. 

FUND. — There  are  several  kinds  of  Funds  in  the 
United  States  ser\ice,  arising  from  certain  savings 
and  assessments,  and  expended  according  to  certain 
laws.  See  Company  Fund,  Post  Fund,  and  Regi- 
int'ntifl  Fif/id. 

FUNERAL  HONORS.— On  the  receipt  of  official  in- 
telligence of  the  death  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  at  any  post  or  camp,  the  Commanding  Officer 
on  the  following  day  causes  a  gun  to  be  fired  at 
every  half-hour,  beginning  at  sunrise  and  ending  at 
sunset.  When  posts  are  contiguous,  the  firing  takes 
place  at  the  post  only  commanded  by  the  Superior 
Orticer.  On  the  day  of  the  interment  of  a  General-in- 
Chief,  a  gun  is  fired  at  every  half-hour  imtil  the  pro- 
cession moves,  beginning  at  sunrise.  When  the 
funeral  of  an  ofticer  entitled,  when  living,  to  a  salute 
takes  place  at  or  near  a  military  post,  minute-guns 
are  fired  while  the  remains  are  being  borne  to  the 
place  of  interment;  but  the  number  of  such  guns  is 
not  to  exceed  that  which  the  officer  was  entitled  to  as 
a  salute  when  li\-ing.  After  the  remains  are  depos- 
ited in  the  grave,  a  salute  corresponding  to  the  rank 
of  the  decea.s<'d  officer  is  fired  in  addition  to  three 
salvos  of  artillery  or  three  volleys  of  musketry.  In 
the  event  of  a  Flag  Officer  of  theNavy,  whether  of  the 
United  States  or  of  a  foreign  coimtVy,  dying  afloat, 
and  the  remains  are  brought  a.shore,  minute-guns  are 
fired  from  the  ship  while  the  tody  is  Ixing  conveyed 
to  the  shore.     If  it  be  in  the  \icinity  of  a  military 


FDNNEL. 


V19 


FUBLOUOH. 


post,  the  flag  of  the  latter  is  displayed  at  half-staff, 
and  minute-guas  arc  tired  from  the  post  while  the 
procession  is  moving  from  the  landuig-place.  These 
minute-guns  are  uot  to  exceed  in  number  that  which 
the  officer  was  entitled  to  as  a  salute  when  living. 
During  the  funeral  of  a  civil  functionary  entitled, 
when  living,  to  a  salute,  the  flag  is  displayed  at  half- 
staff,  and  minute-guns  fired  as  before;  but  neither 
Balute  nor  salvos  are  fired  after  the  remains  arc  de- 
posited in  the  grave.  On  the  death  of  an  officer  at  a 
military  post,  the  flag  is  displayed  at  half-staff,  antl 
kept  so,  between  the  hours  of  reveille  and  retreat, 
until  the  last  salvo  or  volley  is  tired  over  the  gi-ave, 
or,  if  the  remains  are  not  interred  at  the  post,  until 
they  are  remo%'ed  therefrom.  During  the  funeral  of 
an  enlisted  man  the  flag  is  displayed  at  half-staff,  and 
is  hoisted  to  the  top  after  the  final  volley  or  gun  is 
fired.  All  military  posts  in  sight,  or  within  si.x  miles 
of  each  other,  display  their  flags  at  half-staff  upon 
the  occasion  of  cither  one  doing  so.  The  same  rule 
is  observed  towards  a  vessel  of  war.  On  all  occasions 
where  the  flag  is  displayed  at  half-staff  it  is  luwi'red 
to  that  position  from  the  top  of  the  staff.  It  is  after- 
wards hoisted  to  the  top  bi'frre  being  finally  lowered. 

Funeral  escorts  are  allowed  as  follows:  Oeneral 
Commanding  iii-C/uif,  a  regiment  of  infantry,  a  bat- 
talion of  cavalry,  and  two  batteries  of  arfillerj-;  a 
Lietitenant  Oeneral,  a  regiment  of  infantrj',  a  bat- 
talion of  cavalry,  and  a  battery  of  artillerj';  a  Major 
Oeneral,  a  regiment  of  infantry,  two  companies  of 
cavalry,  and  a  battery  of  artillery;  a  Brigadier  Oen- 
eral, a  regiment  of  infantry,  a  company  of  cavalry, 
and  a  platoon  of  artillcrj';  a  Colonel,  a  regimeut;"a 
Lieutenant-colonel,  six  companies;  Major,  four  com- 
panies; Captain,  one  company;  Subaltern,  half  a 
company;  Non  commissiimed  Staff  Offieer,  and  a  S-r- 
geant,  sixteen  privates,  commanded  by  a  Sergeant; 
Corporal,  twelve  privates,  commanded  by  a  Corporal; 
pricate,  eight  privates,  commanded  by  a  Corporal. 
An  officer's  escort,  when  practicable,  is  commanded 
by  an  officer  of  the  same  grade.  The  escort  is  formed 
with  the  center  opposite  the  tent  or  quarters  of  the 
deceased;  armsat  a  carry;  bayonets  unflxed;  the  band 
on  that  flank  of  the  escort  towards  which  it  is  to 
march.  Upon  the  appearance  of  the  remains,  the 
Commander  commands:  1.  Present,  2.  Akms,  and 
the  band  plays  an  appropriate  air;  arms  are  then  car- 
ried, after  which  the  coffin  is  taken  to  the  flank  of 
the  escort,  opposite  the  music.  The  escort  is  next 
wheeled  into  column  of  companies,  platoons,  or  fours. 
If  the  escort  be  small,  it  may  be  faced  by  the  flank. 
The  procession  is  formed  in  the  following  order:  1. 
Music;  3.  Escort;  3.  Clergy  and  Surgeons;  4.  Re- 
mains and  Pall-bearers:  5.  Mourners,  including  mem- 
bers of  the  former  command  of  the  deceased ;  6.  Dis- 
tinguished persons,  according  to  rank;  7.  Delegations; 
8.  Societies;  9.  Citizens.  The  proces.sion  being 
formed,  the  Commander  of  the  escort  commands,  1. 
Beverte,  3.  Arms,  and  then  puts  the  escort  in  march. 
The  escort  marches  in  slow  time  to  solemn  music; 
the  center  of  the  column  having  arrived  opposite  the 
grave,  line  is  formed  facing  it.  The  remains  are  next 
brought  and  placed  over  the  grave,  after  which  arms 
are  presented,  the  band  playing  an  appropriate  air. 
The  music  having  ceased,  arms  are  carried,  and  the 
coffin,  by  direction  of  the  Commander  of  the  escort, 
is  lowered  into  the  grave.  The  Commander  ne.xt 
commands:  1.  Rest  on,  3.  AuMS.  The  funeral  ser- 
vices are  now  completed,  after  which  the  Commander 
commands:  1.  Carry,  3.  Arms,  3.  With  blank  car- 
tridges, 4.  Load.  He  then  causes  the  escort  to  fire 
three  rounds  with  blank  cartridges,  the  muzzles  of 
the  pieces  being  elevated.  The  escort  is  then  formed 
into  column,  and  marched  to  the  point  where  it  was 
assembled,  and  is  then  dismissed.  The  band  does 
not  pla}'  till  it  has  left  the  inclosure.  When  the  dis- 
tance to  the  place  of  interment  is  considerable,  the 
escort,  after  having  left  the  camp  or  garri.son,  may 
march  in  route-step  imtil  it  approaches  the  burial- 
ground,  when  it  is  called  to  attention  and  the  arms 


reversed.  The  music  does  not  play  while  at  route- 
step.  In  all  funeral  ceremonies,  six  pall-bearers 
may  be  selected  from  the  grade  of  the  decea.sed,  or 
the  grades  next  above  or  below  it.  If  a  CommLs- 
sioned  Officer,  the  cottin  is  borne  by  six  Non-com- 
missioned Officers;  if  a  Non-commissioned  Officer, 
or  i)rivate,  by  six  privates.  At  the  funeral  of  a  Gen- 
eral Officer,  the  Commander  of  the  escort,  in  forming 
column,  gives  the  appropriate  commands  for  the  cav- 
alry, artillery,  and  infantry,  which  form  in  column, 
from  front  to  rear,  in  the  order  named.  The  trum- 
peters or  field-masic  somid  a  march,  flourishes,  or 
ruffles,  according  to  the  rank  of  the  decea.sed,  when- 
ever arms  are  presented,  after  which  the  band  plays 
an  appropriate  air.  In  marching  to  the  cemetery, 
the  trumpeters  of  the  artillery  and  cavalry  may  alter- 
nate, in  playing,  with  the  band  of  the  infantry.  If 
the  funeral  be  for  a  Mounted  Officer,  his  horse,  in 
mourning  caparison,  follows  the  hearse.  Should  the 
entiance  to  the  cemetery  prevent  the  hearse  from  ac- 
companying Uie  escort  till  the  latter  halts  at  the  grave, 
the  column  is  halted  at  the  entrance  long  enough  to 
take  the  remains  from  the  hearse,  when  the  column 
is  again  put  in  march.  The  cavalry  and  artillery, 
vv  hen  unable  to  enter  the  inclosure,  wheel  out  of  the 
eolunm,  face  to  the  column,  and  salute  the  remains 
as  they  pass.  When  necessary  to  escort  the  remains 
from  the  quarters  of  the  deceased  to  the  ch\irch,  be- 
fore the  funeral  service,  arms  are  presented  upon  re- 
ceiving the  remains  at  the  quarters,  and  also  as  they 
are  borne  into  chapel.  The  Commander  of  the  es- 
cort, previous  to  the  funeral,  gives  the  clergyman  and 
pall-bearers  all  needful  directions. 

The  usual  badge  of  military  mourning  is  a  piece  of 
black  crape  around  the  left  arm  above  the  elbow,  and 
also  upon  the  sword-hilt,  and  is  worn  when  in  full  or 
in  undress.  As  family  mourning,  crape  is  worn  by 
offieei's  (when  in  uniform)  only  around  the  left  arm. 
The  drums  of  the  funeral  escort  arc  covered  with 
black  crape  or  thin  black  serge.  See  Honors  paid  by 
Troops. 

FUNNEL. — An  implcirient  formed  of  sheet-copper 
and  used  for  pouring  the  charges  from  the  powder- 
measure  into  the  shell.  It  is  of  the  ordinarj'  shape, 
the  upper  edge  being  turned  over,  outwards,  to  slightly 
stiffen  it. 

FURLOUGH. — A  term  usually  applied  to  the  absence 
with  leave  of  non-commissioned  officers  and  other 
enlisted  men,  granted  at  the  discretion  of  the  Com- 
manding Officer.  In  the  British  service,  the  term  is 
very  generally  used  in  India  when  a  servant  of  the 
government  proceeds  on  leave  out  of  the  country. 
The  English  furlough-pay  is  as  follows:  An  officer 
drawing  staff  pay  in  addition  to  the  pay  of  his  rank 
is  allowed  SO  per  cent  of  his  .substantive  appointment; 
but  in  no  case  can  the  absentee  draw  more  than 
tlOOO  per  annum.  Officers  not  on  staff  duty  in 
India  receive  half  the  Indian  pay  of  their  rank;  but 
in  no  case  do  they  receive  less  than  the  minimum  of 
£350  per  annum. 

In  the  United  States,  under  .authority  of  the  11th 
Article  of  War,  furloughs  for  twenty  days  may  be 
granted  by  the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  post  or  die 
Commanding  Officer  of  the  regiment  actually  quarter- 
ed with  the  portion  of  it  to  wliich  the.soldier  belongs. 
Furloughs  may  be  prohibited  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Officer  in  Command.  They  are  not  granted  to  sol- 
diers about  to  be  discharged. 

A  Department  Commander  may  grant  furloughs  to 
enlisted  men  for  two  months;  a  Military  Division 
Commander  for  three  months,  or  he  may  extend  to 
three  months  a  furlough  granted  by  a  Department 
Commimder  under  his  command.  The  General  of 
the  Army  may  grant  furloughs  not  to  exceed  fovir 
months,  or  extend  to  four  months  a  furlough  already 
granted. 

Furloughs  are  not  granted  by  any  Commanding 

Officer  to  go  beyond  the  limits  of  the  ne.xt  highest 

command.     To  warrant  a  soldier  in  going  l)eyond 

.  such  limits  the  sanction  of  the  superior  authority 


FURNACE. 


720 


FUKNACE, 


must  prcvioiwly  he  indorsed  on  his  furlou^'h.  A  fur-  I 
loutfli  musl  biivc  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of 
Wiir  to  enable  the  soldier  to  j;o  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  l"niled  Slates.  The  prescribed  limits  are  stated 
ill  tlie  furlousrii,  and  if  e.xceediil  the  man  is  liable  to 
arrest  and  the  revocation  of  his  furk)ugh. 

IncasL'S  of  special  urgency,  where  it  seems  most 
judicious,  and  the  applicant  can  show  sufficient  cause 
for  his  inability  to  pay  his  own  expenses,  Department 
Commanders,  "in  the  exercise  of  a  sound  discretion, 
may  order  tnuisportalion  tickets  to  1)0  purcha.sed  Ijy 
the  Quartermaster  for  furlougbed  stildiers,  and  where 
this  is  done  a  report  of  the  amount  paid  for  such 
transportation  is  made  by  letter  to  the  Company 
Conimander,  who  charges"  the  same  apiinst  the  sol- 
dier's pay  on  the  next  nuister-day. 

Soliliers  on  furlough  are  not  p"ermittcd  to  take  with 
them  their  arms  or  accouternients. 

No  payments  can  be  made  to  enlisted  men  on  fur- 


solid  fuel  is  mixed  with  the  matters  to  be  heated. 

Crucible-furnaces  are  used  for  melting  steel  or  brass, 
and  the  furnace  itself  is  embedded  in  the  nuLss  of 
heating  fuel.  Forge-furnaces  are  such  as  are  in  ordi- 
nary use  liy  blacksmiths,  merely  a  combination  of 
draught  ami  blowing  from  a  bellows.  Blast  and  cupola 
furnaces  are  u.sed  in  the  smelling  of  iron  and  other 
ores,  and  the  fusing  of  hard  metals.  In  these  the 
slutT  to  be  melted  and  the  fuel  are  charged  in  combi- 
nation in  the  ujiper  end  of  a  vertical  cylinder,  and 
the  combustion  is  produced  by  air  forced  in  at  the 
bottom.  Flame-furnaces  are  of  varied  form  and 
character.  Their  elTect  is  tjbtained  by  bringing  a 
tlanie  or  current  of  highly  heated  gas  into  contact 
with  the  thing  to  beaded  "upon,  inslead  of  imbedding 
the  substance  with  the  fuel.  The  well-known  rever- 
beratory  furnace,  with  tire-grate,  IIuiir -chamber,  etc., 
is  so  arranged  that  by  means  of  a  low  arched  roof 
the  flame  is  reverberated  or  turned   back  upon  the 


<«*P"l«9iPiRi 


Fio.  1. 


lough,   on  their  descriptive    lists,   without    special 
authority  from  the  Adjutant  General. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  a  furlough: 
To  fill  ii'hom  it  ma;/  concern: 

Tlie  bearer  hereof, .  a  Sergeant  (Corporal  or 

private,  as  the  <'a,sc  niny  be)  of  Captain com- 

Eaiiy, rPKiniPiit  of .  ageJ  —  years.  -  feet  —  inclies 
iKli. compii'xinn, eyes, hair,  ant!  t)y  profession 

a ;  horn  in  the  of  .  and  enlisted  at .  in 

the of ,  on  the  —  day  of .  eitrhteen  hundrecl 

and ,  to  serve  for  the  period  of ,  is  herel)y  per- 
mitted lo  go  to .  in  the  county  of .  State  of  ^ , 

he  having  received  a  fiirlongli  from  the day  of to 

the day  of ,  at  wliicli  perio<l  lie  will  rejoin  his  com- 
pany or  regiment  at  ,  or  wherever  it  then  may  be,  or 

be  considerf<l  n  deserter. 

Subsistence  has  been  furnished  to  said to  the 

day  of ,  and  pay  to  the day  of ,  both  in- 
clusive. 

Oiven  under  my  hand  at this day  of ,  18—. 

[Signntnre  of  the  nflflcer  giving  the  furlough.] . 

Si'C  hurt  tif  AfiMfnrr. 

FURNACE.— A  contrivance  for  the  production  and 
utili7Jilion  of  heat,  for  wanning,  ventilating,  cook- 
ing, anil  for  manipulation  of  metals  and  liquids  in 
the  arts.     Calcining-fumuccs  are  those  in  which  the 


materi.'il  lo  be  operated  upon.  Gas-furnaces  have 
nTciilly  come  into  i]s<-  ihore  are  five  or  six  diiTerent 
kinds.  There  are  funiuces  for  burning  powdered 
fuel,  for  natural  gas,  and  for  petroleum.  Furnaces 
are  also  very  largely  used  in  glass-making,  and  in 
metallurgy  and  ironnianufaclure. 

The  mo'sl  perfect  and  satisfactory  furnace  for  gen- 
eral armory  and  laboratory  use  is  known  as  the 
Murjiby  Smokeless  Furnace",  and  shown  in  section  in 
Fig.  1.  CiiliUe  (liber  furnaces,  the  more  it  is  crowded 
the  more  iierfecl  combustion.  The  grates  are  kept 
constantly  in  motion,  the  clinkers  cannot  form  upon 
them,  hence  air  always  ]5asscs  lielween  them  and 
keeps  them  cool.  The  furnace  is  esiiecially  adapted 
to  the  use  of  fine  or  slack  coal,  wliich  is"  put  into 
large  hoppers  or  magazines.  By  referring  to  the 
drawing,  there  will  be  seen  a  casting  resting  on  the 
brick-work.  This  is  a  coking-plalc.  The  inclined 
grates  rest  against  it  at  their  upper  ends.  On  this 
plate  is  placed  the  inverted  open  box,  called  the 
stoker  box.  It  has  a  ratchet  in  each  end;  a  shaft, 
workcil  from  the  outside,  has  a  section  of  a  pinion 


Itm  JOl^     '.'w.. 


•  •■«tb.(.    ;,  T,  liodtwr*.    B.  ICoaailaii  maiUHU.    u.  I^umufct. 


Tons. 


721 


FUB8. 


fitted  to  each  ratchet,  moving  the  stoker-box  back 
and  forth  on  the  coking-plate  every  six,  ten,  or  fifteen 
minutes,  as  may  be  required.  These  stoker-boxes 
push  the  coal  on  to  the  edge  of  the  coking-plate  and 
grates;  the  coal  then  slides  down  toward  the  center 
of  the  furnace  by  its  own  giavity.  The  triangular 
piece  above  the  box  moves  out  and  in  by  a  lever 
from  the  outside,  which  divides  the  coal  and  helps 
bring  it  down  in  front  of  the  stoking-boxes.  Imme- 
diately over  the  coking-plates  and  on  the  side  of  each 
magazine  is  the  arch-plate,  on  which  the  tire-brick 
'arch  rests.  Where  the  brick  come  in  contact  with 
the  plate  there  are  ribs  about  an  inch  apart  on  which 
the  brick  arc  placed.  This  leaves  a  small  space  be- 
tween each  rib.  Air  is  admitted  in  front  of  the 
furnace,  regulated  by  a  damper;  it  passes  up  through 
a  tiue  in  the  brick  wall,  then  over  the  arch,  and  there 
takes  up  the  heat  from  the  brick-work,  passes  down 
through  the  little  openings  and  gives  to  the  fresh  fuel 
on  the  coking-plate  its  supply  of  air;  not  only  that, 
but  it  is  hot  enough  in  itself  to  ignite  any  gsises 
evolved,  consequently  immediate  combustion  takes 
place,  and  no  smoke  is  made.  By  the  time  the  coal 
reaches  the  grate  the  Ijituminous  part  is  consumed, 
and  what  remains  is  coke.  This  gets  its  needed  sup- 
ply of  air  through  the  grates.     Less  than  a  one-horse- 


horizontal  bar  lying  lengthwise  the  furnace  in  pillow- 
blocks  at  the  front  iuid  back  of  the  furnace,  and 
moved  forward  and  back  on  its  axis  by  a  lever  at- 
tached to  an  end  protruded  from  the  ash  pit  into  the 
fire-room.  At  the  bottom  of  this  grate,  and  entirely 
independent  of  il ,  is  a  horizontal  bar  lying  length- 
wise the  furnace  in  pillow-blocks,  bristling  with  pro- 
jecting teeth,  and  capable  of  being  either  vibnitcd 
forward  and  back  or  revolved  entirely  aroimd  its 
axis  by  a  lever  attached  to  an  end  protnidcd  from  the 
ash-pit  into  the  tire-room.  This  is  the  clinker-erusher 
and  refuse  remover.  The  crushing  is  done  by  the 
teeth  of  the  vibrating  or  revolving  bar,  and  the 
removing  is  done  by  the  same  process  at  the  same 
time,  the  entire  refuse  falling  from  the  furnace 
between  the  lower  edge  of  the  inclmed  grate  and  the 
side  of  the  crusher  along  the  lengthwise  center  of  the 
ash-pit.  The  drawing  shows  the  crusher-bar  placed 
nearly  but  not  exactly  at  the  center,  the  grate  form- 
ing two  planes,  one  on  each  side  of  this  bar,  inclin- 
ing from  the  horizontal  at  an  angle  of  45  ,  or  forming 
a  right  angle  with  each  other.  The  inner  shape  of 
the  whole  apparatus  is  that  of  a  hopper  with  vertical 
ends,  or,  more  nearly,  that  of  an  ordinary  /lod.  A 
simple  arrangement  is  for  the  grate  to  consist  of  only 
one  inclined  plane  extending  nearly  across  the  fur- 


1  ooooooooooooooooo  /■ 
\ooooooooooooooooo/ / 


Fio.  8. 


power  engine  is  placed  at  the  side;  to  this  is  attached 
a  bar  running  across  the  front  of  the  furnace.  This 
bar  is  connected  by  links  to  arms  which  move  the 
stoking  apparatus,  shake  the  grate-bars,  and,  if  de- 
sirable, the  clinker-breaker  can  be  connected  in  the 
same  manner. 

The  operation  of  the  grates  is  very  simple  and 
efifeetive.  Fig.  2  shows  their  arrangement  in  a 
recent  United  States  Government  test.  The  whole 
apparatus  consists  of  an  inclined  shaking  grate  com- 
bined with  a  clinker-crusher  and  refuse-remover. 
The  purpose  of  this  combination  is,  without  opening 
the  furnace-door  or  using  tire-tools,  to  keep  the  fires 
free  of  ashes  and  holes,  to  cnish  the  clinker  into 
small  pieces,  and  to  remove  from  the  furnace  all 
refuse,  whetlier  ash  or  clinker,  resulting  from  the 
combustion  of  the  coal,  these  operations  being  per- 
formed by  simply  working  levers  placed  outside  the 
furnace.  This  is  effected  by  arranging  the  grate-bars 
at  right  angles  to,  instead  of  parallel  with,  the  length 
of  the  furnace,  inclining  them  so  as  to  form  a  hop- 
per, and  making  the  alternate  bars  stationary  and  vi- 
brating, the  latter  being  pivoted  at  their  uiiper  ends 
upon  the  upper  ends  of  the  fonner,  and  viljratcd  up 
and  down  by  means  of  a  continuous  feather  on  a 


nace,  instead  of  two  inclined  planes,  each  extending 
across  nearly  half  of  the  furnace,  and  for  the  crusher 
to  be  placed  against  one  side  of  the  furnace,  thus  dis- 
pensing with  one  of  the  vibrating  bars.  See  Ciipola- 
furDftec  and  Iron. 

FURS.— In  Heraldry,  shields  being  often  covered 
with  the  skins  of  wild  animals,  on  which  the  fur  was 
left,  there  came  to  be  certain  kinds  of  fur  which  were 
used  in  coat  armor,  as  well  as  in  trimming  and  lining 
the  robes  of  knights  and  nobles,  and  the  mantles 


Potent.      Counter-vair. 


Ermine. 


which  were  represented  as  surroimding  the  shields. 
The  principal  heraldic  furs  are:  1.  Ermine  of  which 
the  field  is  white,  and  the  spots  black;  2.  Ermines 
of  which  the  field  is  black  and  the  spots  white;  3. 
Emiinois,  which  has  the  field  gold,  with  black  spots; 
4.  Vair,  which  consisted  of  pieces  of  the  shape  of  lit- 
tle glass  pots.    It  is  said  that  the  furriers  used  suck 


rvsK. 


722 


FUSE. 


glasses  to  whiten  furs  in,  and  because  thej;  were  com- 
n\only  of  an  azure  (blue)  color  the  fur  in  question 
canu-  to  be  blazoned  iiryetit  and  nziirt  ;  whilst  toun- 
ter-vair,  iu  which  the  cups  are  rc])reseuted  as  placed 
biise  against  base,  in  place  of  edge  to  base,  as  in  vair, 
was  or  and  azure.  '>.  Potent  and  counter-potent, 
which  are  supposed  to  resemble  the  heads  of  cnUches, 
l>laced  diflcrenlly,  but  having  the  same  tinctures — 
viz..  azure  and  argcut. 

FUSE. — Fusi's  for  projectiles  may  l>e  classified  as 
timefuses,  percussion-fuses,  and  combination-fuses. 
The  tiine-fuite  serves  to  explode  a  projectile  during 
flight,  or  at  the  end  of  a  given  period  of  time  after 
its  discharge  from  the  gun.  1\ie  jurcussion-fiist',  rifled 
guns,  serves  to  explode  projectiles  at  the  instant  of 
striking  a  resisting  object.  The  eoinbinatitm-fiine 
serves  to  explode  a  projectile  either  during  flight  or 
on  impact. 

Ti.ME-Ki'SES. — The  timefuse  is  composed  of  a  col 
xunn  or  ring  of  fuse-composition,  driven  or  pressed 
into  a  suitable  metal,  wood,  or  paper  casi-.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  composition  vary  according  to  the 
time  it  is  intended  to  burn.  The  service  time-fuses 
comprise  three  varieties,  viz.,  irooden-ease  inorUir- 
fiiien,  mttal-cuie  (Bormanu)  /«*»,  and  paper-case 
fuses. 

Fuses  fur  Morinr-slteUs. — The  hard,  close-grained 
Woods  are  best  adapted  for  making  fu.scs;  beech  or 
ash  is  generally  used.  It  should  be  dry,  sound,  free 
from  sap,  kuois,  worm -holes,  or  shakes.  To  turn  the 
fuse-plug,  a  helper  .sjiws  the  plank  into  lengths  equal 
to  that  of  the  fuse,  and  then  into  prisms,  taking  off 
the  edges,  and  centering  it  on  each  end.  The  turner 
puts  the  fuse-plug  thus  roughed  out  in  the  lathe, 
turns  its  exterior,  and  graduates  it,  by  means  of  a 
steel  ^luge,  into  inches  and  tenths  of  an  inch,  com- 
mencing at  the  bottom  of  the  cup.  When  a  number 
have  been  turned,  the  turner  puts  each  fuse-plug  into 
a  chuck,  Iwres  it,  and  makes  the  cup  with  a  tool  for 
that  purpose.  The  fuse-plugs  should  be  carefully  in- 
spected, and  verified  with  gauges,  and  those  rejected 
which  have  splits,  knol.s,  or  worm-holes,  or  which 
have  not  the  proi)er  dimensions.  One  turner  can 
turn  500  fuse-plugs,  or  turn  and  bore  350,  in  ten 
hours. 

The  following  utensils  are  required  for  dri\-ing  the 
fuses:  driciitg-fjloe/iS,  with  holes  of  the  size  of  the 
fuse-plug;  benches;  malhts,  for  the  13-Lnch,  10  inch, 
and  8-inch  fuses  weighing  1  pound,  for  smaller 
fuses  weighing  A  to  J  pounds;  sted  drifts,  shod  with 
copper,  the  shortest  with  a  mark  .2  inch  from  the 
end,  copjier  Indies,  to  contain  sufficient  composition 
to  make  a  height,  when  driven,  equal  to  one  diameter 
of  the  bore;  capper  pax s  ;  brushes. 

The  composition  for  8-  and  10-inch  light  mortar- 
fuses  is  2  parts  of  niter,  1  of  sulphur,  and  3  of 
mealed  powder;  for  10-  and  13-iiich  heavy  mortars,  2 
of  niter,  1  of  sulphur,  and  2f  of  mealed  powder. 
The  composition  must  lx>  thoroughly  sround  and 
mixed  with  a  muller,  or  in  a  leathern  barrel,  with 
bniss  balls.  The  time  of  burning  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  the  materials  used  (especially  of 
the  mealed  powder)  and  the  de'Tce  of  their  adinix- 
ture.  Trials  shoulil  be  n;ade  with  each  composition 
by  driving  several  fuses  and  getting  their  lime  of  burn- 
ing. There  should  ncjt  Ijc  any  great  vaiiation  iu  the 
times  of  burning  of  the  dillerent  fuses  of  the  same 
composition.  Fuse-composition  should  be  prepared 
only  a  short  lime  Ijcfore  being  used,  and  should  be 
preserved  in  clo.se  ve.s.sels  in  a  dry  place. 

When  driving,  the  workman  is  seated,  his  drinng- 
block  in  front  of  him,  and  a  bemh  to  hdld  a  pan  ()f 
coniposilion  at  his  right  hand.  Mc  takes  a  fuse, 
cleans  it  of  all  foreign  matter,  inserting  the  drift  to 
the  bottom  of  the  bore.  He  then  drops  the  fuse-plug 
into  the  driving-hole,  takes  a  ladleful  of  composition, 
passing  the  drift  along  the  edges  of  the  ladle  to  strike 
oil  the  surplus;  pours  the  composition  into  the  fuse- 
plug,  strikes  it  two  gentle  blows  with  the  mallet,  in- 
serts the  drift,  pressing  it  down  on  the  composition, 


giving  the  fuse  two  slight  blows  to  settle  the  compo- 
sition. The  workman  strikes  the  drift  twenty-one 
blows  in  volleys  of  threi',  nusing  the  mallet  about 
one  foot  each  blow,  and  moving  tlie  drift  after  each 
volley.  He  puts  in  another  ladleful,  and  continues 
as  for  the  first.  Care  should  be  taken  to  put  in  equal 
charges  of  composition  each  time,  and  to  give  to  each 
ladleful  the  siune  number  of  blows  and  with  the  same 
force.  Fuses  are  often  driven  by  pressure  in  a  screw- 
press. 

Fuses  are  all  driven  to  the  same  height  by  means  o£ 
a  mark  on  the  short  drift,  or  the  composition  is  bored 
out  with  the  gouge  to  the  sjime  <lepth.  They  are 
primed  with  mealed  powder  for  about  .2  inch,  driven 
with  the  same  force  as  a  ladleful  of  composition. 
The  cup  is  filled  with  a  paste  of  mealed  powder  and 
spirits  of  wine  or  strong  whiskey,  and  laid  Jiside  to 
dry;  it  is  then  covered  with  a  small  piece  of  paper, 
over  which  is  jiasted  a  cap  of  strong,  water-proof 
paper,  marked  with  the  number  of  seconds  the  fuse 
burns  to  the  inch. 

Timefuse  for  Ouns. — This  fuse  consists  of  a  paper 
ra«(; charged  with  fuse-composition;  it  is  inserted,  at 
the  time  of  loading  the  gun,  into  a  brass  or  wooden 
plug  previously  dnven  into  the  fuse  hole  of  the  shell. 
The  following  utensils  are  required  for  making  the 
cases:  puttent  of  wood,  in  the  form  of  a  rectangle 
joined  to  a  trapezoid;  iron  former,  .35  inch  diameter; 
knife  ;  glue-pot  ;  brushes. 

The  paper  is  cut  to  the  proper  size  by  means  of  the 
pattern.  The  whole  length  of  the  stri]>  must  be  de- 
teniuneil  by  a  trial  for  each  kind  of  paper,  to  give 
the  case  the  proper  diauieter.  The  strip  is  rolled 
hard  on  the  former,  beginning  with  the  large  end, 
and  is  glued  after  the  first  turn.  When  the  case  is 
dry,  it  is  smoothed  with  a  fine  tile  or  siuid-paper. 

There  are  diflferent  compositions  used,  one  inch 
burning  2.5,  5,  10,  15,  anil  20  secontls  respectively. 
Their  time  of  burning  is  subject  to  considerable  vari- 
ation, according  to  Uie  quality  of  the  ingredients 
and  the  manipulation  iu  mixing  them;  the  exact  pro- 
portions must  be  determined  by  experiment.  The 
composition  is  carefully  mixed,  and  several  fuses  are 
first  driven  and  their  times  of  burning  determined, 
and  the  proportions  varied,  if  necessary,  to  produce 
the  reqiured  result. 

The  following  utensils  are  required  for  driving  the 
fuses:  brass  molds  in  two  parts,  which  are  held  to- 
gether by  a  wedge  or  cam;  the  molds  have  holes  for 
i'our  or  five  fuses;  steel  drifts,  .35  inch  diameter; 
knife;  mallet,  weighing  i  pound. 

The  mold  is  put  together  and  secured;  the  empty 
ca.ses  are  inserted  and  drivi'u  gently  in;  their  upjx-r 
ends,  projecting  above  the  mold,  are  slit  with  a  knife 
into  four  parts.  The  composition  is  put  in  and  driven 
as  described  above,  giving  15  blows  to  each  ladle- 
ful, which  will  make  .25  inch  in  length  of  the  fuse. 
They  are  next  [irimed  by  covering  the  larger  ends 
with  shellac  varnish  and  dipping  them  into  rifle- 
powder;  when  the  jniming  has  set,  the  entire  fuse, 
except  the  priming,  receives  a  coat  of  shellac  var- 
nish. The  fuse  is  stained  the  ])roper  color,  according 
to  the  compo.sition  used,  and  the  number  of  seconds 
that  one  inch  will  burn  is  marked  on  each  fu.se. 

To  cut  tbe  fuse  it  is  insi'rted  in  an  iron  gauge, 
the  bore  of  which  is  the  same  size  awl  taper  as  the 
fuse,  and  its  width  is  the  true  length  of  the  fuse — 2 
inches.  The  projecting  ends  of  the  fuse  are  first 
sawed  off  with  a  fine  saw  and  then  trimmed  with  a 
knife.  They  are  packe<l  in  wooden  blocks  (]ioplar), 
bored  to  receive  five  fuses  each,  and  the.se  blocks  are 
wrapp<'d  in  various-colored  jiaper,  to  distinguish  the 
dilTerent  times  of  burning,  having  a  jirintcd  label  set- 
ting forth  the  kind  of  fuse,  and  place  and  date  of 
manufacture,  etc. 

The  fuses  are  apjilied  to  projectiles  by  inserting 
them  in  wood  or  metal  plugs,  which  are  driven  or 
screwed  into  the  fuse-hole  of  the  projectile.  For  sea- 
coast  ser\ice,  the  pa))er-case  time-fuse  is  inserted  in  a 
metallic  plug  fitting  the  projectile.     The  metallic  plug 


FUSE. 


723 


PT78E. 


•'TrvTrvj-iinO 


is  fitted  with  a  screw-cap,  called  a  water-cap,  having  a 
crooked  passage,  through  which,  by  suitable  priming, 
tiaiiie  is  communicated  to 
the  fuse,  and  the  escaping 
gases  are  intended  to  exert 
sufficient  pressure  to  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  water 
to  extinguish  tlie  fuse,  es- 
pecially with  spherical  pro- 
jectiles. The  insertion  of 
the  fuse  in  the  rear  end  of 
the  rifle-])rojectile  has  been 
proposed  to  dispense  with 
the  use  of  the  water-cap, 
but  the  enormous  force  ex- 
erted upon  the  projectile, 
while  in  the  gun,  has  been  a  serious  obstacle  to  the 
practical  use  of  a  rear  fuse. 

Fuses  for  Smooth-bore  Fuld-guns  and  Mountain-liotc- 
iUtrs. — A  fuse  for  shells  and  spherical  case-shot  for 
field  and  mountain  service  is  that  known  as  the  "  Bor- 
mann  fuse."  It  consists  of  a  circular  disk  of  soft 
metal,  containing  an  annular  space  charged  with 
mealed  powder.  The  outer  circumference  of  the  disk 
is  chased  with  the  tlirwids  of  a  .screw  to  secure  it  in 
the  shell.  The  annular  space  for  the  composition  is 
concentric  witli  the  outer  circumference,  andcoimects 
at  one  end  by  a  hole  with  a  small  magazine  in  the 
center  of  the  disk,  filled  with  rifle  powder,  and  closed 
on  the  under  surface  by  a  thin  disk  of  tin.  The  fuse 
is  charged  from  the  under  side  by  pressure,  and  a 
ling  of  the  same  metal  is  pressed  firmly  on  the  com- 
position. The  composition  is  thus  securely  protected 
from  accidents,  and  the  fuse  is  screwed  into  the  shell 
in  the  laljoratory.  The  metal  covering  the  composi- 
tion on  top,  being  left  thin,  is  easily  cut  with  a  linife 
or  cutter  at  the  moment  of  loading,  and  the  composi- 
tion exposed  at  the  required  point  to  the  action  of  the 


and  closing  the  molds  to  attach  the  two  parts  of  the 
mold  for  the  fuse  and  also  for  the  ring  to  the  jaws  of 
a  bench-vise,  so  that  both  molds  are  opened  and 
closed  by  the  same  movement  of  the  .screw.  The 
fuse-mold  is  kept  hot  by  means  of  iron  disks,  which 
are  heated  and  hung'  on  the  arbor  which  supixjrts  the 
molds.  A  mold  of  more  approved  pattern  has  been 
dertsed  by  which  the  casting  is  expedited. 

The  following  utensils  are  required  for  charging 
the  fuse:  a  strong  screw-press ;  annular  charger  the 
size  of  the  ring;  annular  drift;  flat  drift;  round 
drift. 

Take  the  mold  in  which  the  fuse  was  cast,  place 
the  fuse  in  the  parts  of  the  mold  containing  the  screw 
and  the  upper  or  graduated  side,  and  secure  the  mold 
by  a  ring  driven  on  it.  Draw  up  the  piston,  and  fill 
the  charger  l)y  jircssing  it  into  the  mealed  powder 
contained  in  a  shallow  pan;  place  the  charger  over 
the  groove  and  force  down  the  piston,  transferring 
the  powder  into  the  fuse;  insert  the  button  in  the 
magazine  and  the  pin  in  the  priming  hole  to  preserve 
their  shapes;  place  the  ring  on  the  powder,  and,  with 
the  armuiar  drift,  force  it  ilown  by  means  of  a  strong 
screw-press,  bringing  the  ring  flush  with  the  surface 
of  the  fuse;  rivet  the  ring  in  its  place  with  another 
drift;  withdraw  the  button  and  the  pin,  charge  the 
priming  hole  with  rifle-jiowder,  and  till  the  magazine 
with  musket-powder;  cover  the  magazine  with  a  disk 
of  tin,  and  rivet  it  in  place  by  means  of,  first,  a  flat 
drift,  and  then  a  round  one,  which  turns  down  apart 
of  the  metal  of  the  fuse  over  the  disk.  Remove  the 
fuse  from  the  mold,  place  it  in  a  screw-chuck  made 
to  fit  it,  and  turn  off  in  a  lathe  the  lower  surface 
smooth  and  to  the  proper  thickness.  The  powder  of 
the  fuse  is  now  perfectly  sealed  up  from  the  air.  The 
fuse  should  be  varnished. 

The  following  table  shows  the  principal  dimensions 
and  weights  of  the  sernce-fuses: 


Dimensions  and  Weights. 


Wooden  Fuses. 

Paper 

13  inch. 

10-inch. 

8-inch. 

Fuses. 

10.8 

9.4 

6.3 

2 

1.85 

1.7 

1.25 

.53 

1.25 

1 

.9 

.4 

.4 

.3 

.3 

.35 

2.8 

2  25 

1.25 

1.65 

1.55 

1.15 

.6 

.5 

.4 

1.25 

1 

.75 

.9 

.8 

.6 

1.2 

.9 

.9 

9 

8 

5 

2 

.86 

.27 

.27 

.3 

9 

8 

8 

4.5 

4 

4 

8 

4 

2.5 

2 

M 

33 

16 

"ii" 

6 

2.25 

.4 

Whole  length inches 

Fii«p  J  (Attop do. 

'^"""^ '   Diameter..-  At  bottom do. 

(  Of  l>ore do. 

*  Length do. 

'*  Diameter  at  lower  end do. 

I  Depth do. 

'^"■' ]l>'-eter.    ]Atujp^^......................„^  do. 

Thiclmess  of  wood  at  bottom  of  fuse do. 

Length  of  composition , do. 

^  Diameter do. 

"(  Length,  exclusive  of  handle.  .  -j  g^ond ...... ... . '. '. . .... . . . . . ..!!.....!!'    do! 

(  Of  composition  for  100  fuses pounds 

•  ■(  Of  100  fuses  complete . do. 

f  Whole  length inches 

Paner  for  the  case  J  length  of  rectangle do 

i-aper  ror  tne  case i  Width  of  rectangle do. 

I,  Width  of  small  end do. 


First  cone.. 


Drifts 


•  Weight . 


Bormann  Fuse. 

Diameter  of  fuse,  including  threads , . . . . '. 1 .  65  inch. 


Thickness  . 


.45  inch. 


Number  of  threads  to  the  inch 12 

Diameter  of  plug,  including  threads 1 .07  inch. 

Thickness  for  field-guns  3   inch. 

Number  of  threads  to  the  inch  12 


fiame.  The  graduations  into  seconds  and  quarter- 
seconds  are  marked  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  disk. 
The  time  of  burning  of  the  whole  length  of  fuse  is  5 
seconds. 

The  following  utensils  are  required  for  casting  the 
fuse:  ;;wW.«  for  the  fuse;  molds  for  the  ring;  hacksaw; 
nippers;  nmllit ;  kettk  ;  ladle. 

Melt  the  lead  and  tin  to.sether;  heat  the  molds  so  as 
not  to  chill  the  metal  in  casting.  Fill  the  mold  with 
the  melted  metal,  and  tap  it  gently  with  the  mallet 
to  make  the  metal  fill  the  small  parts.  Cut  off  the 
gate  with  the  saw,  and  the  ends  of  the  ring  with  the 
nippers.     It  has  been  found  convenient  in  opening 


Percussion-fuses. — Many  varieties  of  fuses  have  ' 
been  used  in  service,  under  the  names  of  percussion 
and  concussion  fuses.  Among  the  simpler  ones,  the 
Absterdam,  Hotchkiss,  Parrott,  and  Schenkl  may  be 
named.  They  arc  much  alike  in  their  general  "fea- 
tures. They  consist  of  hollow  metallic  screw-plugs 
to  tit  the  fuse-hole  of  the  projectiles.  A  loosely  tit- 
ting  plunger  is  inserted  in  tie  bore  of  the  plug,  the 
front  end  of  which  is  closed  by  a  screw-plug  or  cap. 
On  the  forward  end  of  the  plunger  a  percussion-cap, 
or  rather  detonating  de\ice,  is  arranged,  to  be  ex- 
ploded and  communicate  fire  to  the  bursting-charge, 
through  an  opening  at  the  rear,  by  the  plimger  stnk- 


7U8£-AU0£B. 


724 


FUSE-HOLE. 


ing  ihe  plug  or  cap  when  the  motion  of  the  projectile 
is  arrested.  Various  s;ifcty  devices  arc  used,  having 
sufficient  strcngtU  to  prevent  the  plunger  being  thrown 
forward  by  shocks  in  transixjrtatiou,  etc.,  but  weak 
enough  to"  be  broken  by  the  shock  of  discharge,  or 
iinpict  of  the  projectile!  :i.s  the  case  may  be. 

Co.MBlN.\TioN  KisEs. — Many  varieties  of  combi- 
nation-fuses have  iK'en  proposed  and  tested,  but  with 
out  satisfactory  results.  This  varietv  of  fu.se  would 
be  best  adapted  to  general  ser\ice  if  perfected.  If 
a  perfect  combination-fuse  can  be  made,  none  other 
would  Ik-  required,  as  it  would  have  the  proiX!rties 
of  the  other  two.  capable  of  use  separately  or  com- 
binetl.  Granting  certainty  of  ignition  of  the  time 
element,  only  one  kind  of  fuse^would  be  required 
for  all  kindsof  scr\nce.  A  good  one  should  po.s.sess, 
in  one  structure,  the  properties  of  the  most  perfect 
time-  and  iiniiactfu.ses.  It  should  be  simple  in  con- 
struction, siife  to  handle  and  transport,  and  easily 
applied  to  the  projectile.  • 

It  is  the  opinion  of  many  who  have  given  the  sub- 
ject much  study  that  no  fulminate  or  friction  com- 
position should  enter  into  its  construction,  except  per- 
haps to  insure  the  ignition  of  the  time  element  of 
the  combination.  Certainty  of  ignition  by  the  g-ases 
in  the  gun  is  not  always  attainable,  especially  with 
ritle  -  projectiles  and  breech-loading  cannon  which 
have  but  slight  windage;  therefore  some  form  of  in- 
ertia igniter  is  neces,s;iry.  Such  igniters  are  simple 
and  easily  made,  and  may  be  arranged  for  attachment 
to  the  fu.se  at  the  last  moment  before  loading  the  gim, 
thereby  avoiding  all  risk  of  accident  in  transporta- 
tion, etc.  The  above  conditions  exclude  all  but  a  few 
of  the  devices  subjected  to  tiial,  and  the  subject  is 
still  unsettled  and  under  test.  Xo  one  variety  of  the 
many  offered  for  test  has  given  sufficiently  satisfactory 
results  to  warrant  its  adoption. 

It  is  impossible  that  any  species  of  fuse  should  be 
absolutely  perfect.  When  suitable  opportunities  for 
observation  occur,  it  is  noticed  that  in  tiring  a  num- 
ber of  shells  many  do  not  explode.  The  failure  of 
the  composition  to  ignite  is  probably  generally  due  to 
the  absorption  of  moisture;  and  therefore  all  fuses 
which  have  been  more  than  one  year  in  service  should 
be  returned  to  the  laboratory.  Fuses  of  over  two 
years'  date  of  mainifacture  should  not  be  issued  for 
service.  Sometimes  the  fuse  is  extinguished  after 
having  been  ignited.  This  may  occur  when  the  shell 
ricochets  on  soil  or  water.  Water  is  not  so  detrimen- 
tal as  sjmd,  and  the  fuse  is  rarely  extinguished  by 
several  ricochets  upon  it.  Generally  the  gases  evolved 
by  the  combustion  of  the  composition  will  repel  with 
great  energy  any  obtrusive  matter  which  woidd  ex- 
tinguish the  fuse  if  once  in  contact  with  the  ignited 
surface. 

Premature  explosions  may  be  caused  by  the  in- 
crea.se  of  the  ignited  surface  of  the  composition  re- 
sulting from  cracks  in  tlie  ca.se  or  composition  itself, 
or  by  interstices  between  the  ca.se  and  composition; 
and  m  proportion  to  the  extent  of  this  cause  so  will 
be  the  increased  eeh'rily  of  the  combiLstion.  Crevices 
may  occur  in  the  composition  from  some  defect  in  the 
tools  or  in  the  mode  of  using  them,  or  they  may  be 
created  by  bending  the  case.  It  may  also  hap|)en 
that  the  displacement  of  the  shell  by  the  charge  of 
the  gun  will  force  in  the  column  of  "composition  or 
the  ca.se  with  it.  This  would  of  course  cause  the 
shell  to  explode  very  quickly.  The  shell  may  lie  de- 
fective in  thickness  or  quality  of  metal,  and  be 
crushed  bv  the  force  of  the  discharge,  when  the  ex- 
])losion  will  take  place  in  or  near  the  gun.  The 
bursting  of  the  shell  near  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  is 
sfunelimcs  attributed  to  the  detonating  qualities  of 
the  powder  in  the  shell.  It  is  manifest  that  the  pre- 
mature explosion  of  shells  is  far  more  detrimental 
to  their  elHciency  than  the  failure  to  be  exploded  at 
all.  See  Almlerdiim  Perrnsxion-fiiw,  Di/riiiauu  Fiixc, 
B"Xfr  Fifr,  ('oHfuxiiiott-fiiite,  Detoiiatingfusi ,  Dynamo- 
elf  trie  Ij/iiiler,  Egyo  i'eriUMiiiin-fiise,  Electrk  J-'uiten, 
Firt-icorks,  German  Percumon-fuse,  German   Tiine- 


fiue.  Gill  Coinbiruilion-fiiiifs,  lliitclihi»s  Pfromsitm- 
fuse,  Liiisberger  Fuws,  Mclntire  Fums,  MorUir-futf, 
O'ReHly  Combination-fune,  Pereuisitm-fu-ne,  Petiman 
Fuse,  Pliimof/ter  Perev*>ioii-fu»e,  Bayal  Ijoix/ratory- 
fuse,  Ruben  and  Fornerod  Combination  fuses.  Run- 
ning fuse,  Sc/ienkl  Percussion  fuse,  iyacoastfute, 
Splinffurd  Fuse,  Thompson  Combination-fuse,  Time- 
fuse. Treadwell  Combination  fuse,  and  Waee  Combi- 
nation-fuses. 

FUSE  AUGER.— An  instrument  for  regulating  the 
time  of  burning  of  a  fuse  by  removing  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  composition.  It  consists  of  a  steel  bit, 
fastened  into  a  wooden  handle,  at  the  lower  end  of 
which  Is  a  brass  socket,  with  a  bar,  under  which  a 
graduated  limb  of  the  slider  moves.  The  bit  fits  into 
the  slider,  and  is  by  a  steel  thumbscrew  fiustencd  to 
it  in  any  required  position.  The  position  of  the 
slider,  which  determines  the  depth  to  which  the  auger 
bores,  is  regulated  by  a  tine  scale  attached  to  it  oy 
a  screw. 

FUSE  BLOCK. — A  simple  contrivance  for  holding 
paper  timefuses  when  being  cut.  It  consists  of 
two  blocks  of  wood  hinged  together  so  as  to  open  and 
shut  after  the  manner  of  a  book.  In  each  end  is  a 
recess  into  which  the  fuse  is  placed,  and  where  it  is 
securely  held  by  pressing  the  blocks  tightly  together. 
The  fuse  is  put  in  with  the  small  end  extending  out 
of  the  end  of  the  block,  the  point  at  which  it  is  to  be 
cut  beinjj  even  with  the  end  of  the  block. 

Along  one  side  of  the  recess  is  att;iched  the  brass 
scale.  This  was  intended  for  fuses  of  obsolete  pal- 
tern.  As  now  made,  each  fuse  is  divided  into  as 
many  equal  parts  as  the  number  of  seconds  for  which 
its  entire  length  (two  inches)  is  intended  to  burn. 
These  parts  are  marked,  and  are  the  guides  in  cutting 
the  fu.se;  the  latter  operation  being  performed  with 
the  fusi-knifi',  which  is  a  very  sharp  and  thin-bladed 
knife  (preferably  a  shoe-knifc'),  or  a  fine  saw. 

FUSE-ENGINE.— A  name  formerly  given  to  an  in- 
strument for  extracting  a  wood  fuse  wlicn  tixed  in  a 
spherical  shell.  As  it  was  found  faulty  in  construc- 
tion it  has  Ix'cn  replaced  by  the  present  fuse-extractor, 
which  is  applicable  to  extracting  wood  fuses  from 
liHed  shells. 

FUSE-EXTRACTOR. — An  implement  used  for  ex- 
tracting wooden  fuses  from  the  fuse-hole,  when  tliey 
have  been  too  firmly  driven  to  be  withdniwn  by  the 
sliell  plug-screw,  or  in  any  other  way.  It  consists  of 
an  inner  screw  and  stem  of  steel,  riveted  to  an  iron 
handle,  and  contained  in  a  hollow  steel  screw,  which 
works  up  and  down  by  me;uis  of  an  iron  nut  with 
two  handles.  The  hollow  screw  is  prevented  from 
tinning  by  a  slot  and  a  feather  in  the  frame,  which  is 
of  brass.  "  The  nut  is  kept  in  place  by  four  iron  set- 
screws,  the  points  of  which  enter  into  a  groove  in  the 
nut.  To  extract  a  fuse,  the  bottom  of  the  frame  is ' 
placed  on  the  shell  over  the  fuse-head,  and  the  inner 
screw  screwed  into  the  fuse  by  means  of  the  upper 
handle.  The  handles  of  the  "nut  are  then  turned, 
which  raises  the  hollow  screw,  and  with  it  the  inner 
screw  and  the  fuse. 

FUSE  HOLE. — The  hole  in  a  shell  prepared  for  the 
reception  of  the  fuse-stock.  The  loss  of  force  by  the 
fuse-hole  may  be  ascertained  w  ith  sulbcient  accuracy, 
provided  we  know  from  an  actual  cxiieriment  the 
amount  of  the  loss  from  the  fuse-hole  of  any  one 
shell. 

Let  R  and  r  be  the  exterior  and  interior  radii  of  a 
spherical  projectile;  T,  the  tenacity  of  the  metal;  i, 
the  radius  of  the  fuse-hole;  w' ,  the  "weight  of  powder 
neces.sarv  to  burst  it  under  the  supposition  that  there 
is  no  loss  of  force  at  the  fuse-hole;  ir,  the  weight  of 
powder  that  is  actually  required  to  burst  it.  By  for- 
mulas approved  we  obtain  the  value  of /r  ;  ir  —  w 
is  therefore  the  amount  of  loss  from  the  fu.se-hole. 
Take  anollier  projectile,  and  let  (r  rei)resent  the 
charge  which  is  necessary  to  burst  it,  under  the  sup- 
position that  there  is  no  loss,  and  ir  the  weight  that 
is  found  by  experiment  neces.sary  to  burst  it;  ic  —  it,' 
will  represent  the  loss.     We  are  "at  liberty  to  suppose 


FUSEHALLET. 


725 


FUSIKG  AND  FBEEZINS  F0IKT8. 


the  loss  from  the  two  fuse-holes  is  proportional  to  the 
size  of  the  holes,  and  the  density  of  the  giises  at  the 
moment  of  rupture;  we  shall" therefore  have  this 
proportion: 

w  —  w'  :  IP,  —  w,' ::  i^d  :  i\-d,. 


Or, 


w  =  w'  +  (w, 


From  the  experiments  made  at  Metz  in  1835,  it  was 
shown  that  this  mode  of  estimating  the  loss  of  force 
by  the  fust-hole  was  sufficiently  accurate  for  practical 
purposes.     See  Bmichiiig  and  Shtlh. 

FUSE-MALLET.  —  An  implement  for  setting  the 
fuse  home.  It  is  cylindrical  in  shape,  with  a  handle 
on  one  end,  and  is  turned  out  of  a  siugle  piece  of  dog- 
wood, oak,  or  other  hard  wood. 

FUSE-PLUG. — Fuse-plugs  are  made  of  brass  or  of 
close  grained  wood,  well  sea- 
soned. They  are  turned  to  a 
size  a  little  larger  than  the 
fuse-hole,  but  of  the  same  ta- 
per,— 2.0  inches  long ;  a  hole 
is  bored  through  the  axis  and 
reamed  out  to  receive  the  pa- 
per fuse,  and  the  large  end  is 
counterbored  and  tapped  to 
receive  the  water-cap.  If  a 
wooden  plug  be  used,  a  short, 
hollow  cylinder  of  brass,  .5 
inch  long,  .15  inch  thick,  is 
inserted  in  the  recess  before 
the  plug  is  driven,  and  after- 
wartls  tapped  to  receive  the 
water-cap. 

The  irater-cap.  shown  in  the 
drawing,  is  a  plug  of  brass,  5 
inch  long,  .6  inch  in  diameter, 
chased  with  12  threads  to  the 
inch.  One  end  has  a  shallow 
recess  cut  in  it,  .1  inch  deep, 
larger  at  bottom  than  at  top; 
a  hole  .1  inch  in  diameter  is 
bored  through  the  middle  of 
the  aip.  and  a  hole  is  bored 
from  either  end  into  this  transverse  hole,  but  meeting 
it  at  points  .25  inch  or  more  apart;  these  and  the  re- 
cess in  the  end  arc  tilled  with  mealed-powder  paste. 
Diameter  of  hole  at  bottom  of  recess,  .53  inch;  at 
small  end,  .4  inch. 

A  little  shellac  is  brushed  around  the  s;ifety-plug 
and  lower  end  of  fuse-plug;  also  around  the  leaden 
patch  and  top  of  stock.  A" pasteboard  cap  is  put  on 
over  the  safetvplug  end  of  the  fuse-plug  to  prevent 
the  plug  from  being  broken  off,  and  the  fuses  thus 
prepared  are  stowed  in  boxes.  See  Fuse  and  Water- 
cap. 

FUSE-KEAMER. — The  implement  used  to  enlarge 
the  hole  in  a  fuse-plug  so  as  to  make  it  of  the  proper 
size  for  the  jiajier  fuse. 

FUSE  SETTEE.— An  implement  for  setting  wooden 
fuses  in  the  fuse-hole.  It  is  made  of  brass;  the  bot- 
tom is  countersunk  and  cup  shaped,  to  prevent  it 
from  slipping  off  from  the  head  of  the  fuse. 

FUSE-WRENCH.  —  A  three-pronged  wrench  used 
for  setting  fuse-plugs  that  are  to  be" screwed  into  the 
shell.  One  prong  "contains  forks  for  the  fuse  plug, 
and  another  oni-  smaller  forks  for  the  water-cap. 

FUSIBLE  METAL.— Fusible  metjil  is  composed  of 
2  parts  of  bismuth,  1  of  lead,  and  1  of  tin.  It  fuses 
at  201 '  F. ,  becoming  pasty  before  it  completely  melts. 
It  expands  in  a  very  anomaloas  manner;  its  bidk  in- 
creases regidarivfrbm  32°  to  95°;  it  then  contracts 
gradually  to  131  ;  it  then  ex-pands  rapidly  till  it 
reaches  176',  and  from  that  point  till  it  melts  its  ex- 
pansion is  uniform.  The  faculty  of  ex-panding  as  it 
cools,  while  still  in  a  comparatively  soft  state,  ren- 
ders the  alloy  very  .ser\iceable  to  the  die-sinker,  who 
employs  it  to  test"  the  accuracy  of  his  die,  every  line 
being  "faithfully  produced  in  the  cast  made  of  the 
alloy.     The  proportions  of  the  three  metals  are  some- 


times varied,  and  another  formula  is  given  in  the 
table  in  Fusing  and  Freezing  Polnts. 

FUSIL. — 1.  A  firelock  lighter  than  the  musket,  in- 
vented in  France  about  1635,  and  deri\ing  its  name 
from  the  Italian  word /ocfTc,  "a  flint."  In  1678  a 
British  regiment  was  armed  with  the  fusil,  and  the 
King  added  a  company  of  men  anncd  with  hand-gre- 
nades to  each  of  the  oid  British  regiments,  which,  was 
designated  the  Grenadier  Com|)any. 

2.  FitJtil  is  represented  heraldically  as  longer  and 
more  acute  than  a  lozenge. 

FUSIL  A  CHEVALETS.  -A  species  of  fusils  upon 
rests,  which  was  recommended  by  Marshal  Vauban 
to  be  used  at  the  commencement  of  a  siege,  about  50 
or  100  toises  in  front  of  the  glacis,  at  the  entrances  of 
narrow  passages,  etc. 

FUSILIER. — Formerly  a  soldier  armed  with  a  short- 
er and  lighter  musket  than  the  rest  of  the  anny,  which 
he  could  sling  over  his  shoulder.  The  fusilier  regi- 
ments, of  which  there  are  ten  in  the  British  service, 
are  not  distinguished  from  the  Infantry  of  the  Line  as 
they  formerly  were;  the  title  is  now  purely  honorary, 
and  they  are  armed  anil  dressed  in  every  way  like  the 
line  regiments,  except  in  the  head-dress  and  the  mode 
of  wearing  their  chevrons.  The  headdress  of  the 
officers  is  a  busby,  the  material  of  which  is  made  of 
raccoon-skin,  for  that  of  the  non-commissioned  officers 
and  of  the  men,  of  sealskin.  On  parade,  or  marching 
in  (juick  time,  or  upon  occasions  of  guard-mounting 
paratle,  or  re\iew,  they  always  march  to  the  Grena- 
diers' March. 

FUSILLADE. — The  simultaneous  discharge  of  fire- 
arms in  various  military  exercises. 

FUSIL-MOUSQUET.— A  name  applied  to  the  Jfint- 
loek  gun,  invented  about  1640,  and  introduced  into 
the  French  army  by  Vauban.  This  gun  had  a  bay- 
onet with  a  socket. 

FUSIL-RAYE.— The  name  given  to  the  early  long- 
ranire  ritle  of  the  Imperial  Guard. 

FUSILS  A  L'EPPE.— Fusils  with  long  bayonets, 
shaped  like  a  cut-and-thrust  sword.  These  weapons 
were  recommended  as  extremely  useful  in  the  rear 
rank  of  a  battalion,  or  in  detached  bodies  that  are 
stationed  for  the  defense  of  baggage,  etc. 

FUSING  AND  FREEZING  POINTS.  —  Terms  ap- 
plied to  the  temperature  at  which  solids  assume  the 
liquid  form  and  liquids  become  solid.  The  following 
table  gives  some  of  the  best  determinations  of  the  fus- 
ing-point: 

Mercury —  39° 

Oil  of  vitriol -30° 

Bromine  9°. 5 

Oil  of  turpentine 14° 

Ice 32° 

Lard 91° 

Phosphorus Ill '.5 

Pota.ssium 136' 

Yellow  w^ax 143°  .6 

Stearic  acid 158° 

Sodium 207° .  7 

Fusible  metal  (5Pb,3Sn,8Bi) 212° 

Iodine 226°. 4 

Sulphur 239' 

Alloy  (lSn,2Bi) 286° 

"     (3Sn,2Pb) 333' 

Tin 451° 

Bismuth  512° 

Nitrate  of  soda 591° 

Lead 620° 

Nitrate  of  potash 642° 

Zinc 773' 

Antimony  (about) 900° 

Silver 1773° 

Copper 1996° 

Gold   2016° 

Cast-iron 2786' 

Wrought-iron,  higher  than 3280° 

We  see  from  this  table  that  alloys  may  have  a  fusing- 
point  far  below  that  of  any  of  the  metals  which  enter 


7USS-STBEITAZT. 


726 


OABIONASE. 


into  tlieir  composition.  Similarly,  mi.xturcs  of  vari- 
ous silicates  fuse  at  a  teni|XTdlure  far  below  that 
which  is  rcquireii  to  melt  any  one  of  them,  and  the 
Slime  remark  applies  to  mi.xtures  of  various  chlorides, 
carbonates,  etc. 

Most  .solids,  when  heated  to  their  fusing-points, 
charisrc  at  once  into  perfect  liquids:  but  some— as,  for 
exanii)le.  platinum,  iron,  glass,  phosphoric  acid,  the 
resins,  and  man^-  others — pass  through  an  intermedi- 
ate pasty  condition  before  they  attain  perfect  fluidity, 
and,  in  these  cases,  it  is  dillicult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
determine  the  e.vact  fusing-point.  This  intermediate 
condition  is  termed  ritriviis  fusion,  because  it  is  a 
characteristic  property  of  gla.ss.  It  is  in  this  inter- 
mediate state  that  glass  is  worked,  and  iron  and  pla- 
tinum forged. 

As  a  geiiend  rule,  the  freezing-point  is  the  same  as 
the  fusing  point— that  is  to  sjiy,  if  a  substance  in  the 
liquid  form  be  cooled  below  the  fusing-point,  it  again 
becomes  solid;  but  there  are  cases  in  which  we  can 
cool  a  liquid  several  degrees  below  its  fusing-point ; 
thus,  by  keeping  water  perfectly  still,  we  can  cool  it 
to  5  ,  or  even  to  1.4,  before  it  freezes.  If,  however, 
we  drop  a  solid  bodj'  into  water  in  this  condition,  or 
if  we  shake  the  ve.s.sel  containing  it,  congelation  be- 
gins at  once,  and  the  temperature  rises  to  33'.  This 
phenomenon  is  exhibited  to  a  still  greater  degree  in 
\-iscid  tiuids,  like  the  oils.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
freezing-point  of  water  is  depressed  by  the  presence 
of  Siilt.s.  Thus,  sea- water  freezes  at  about  36  .6,  and 
a  saturateil  solution  of  common  salt  must  be  cooled  as 
low  as  4'  before  freezing. 


FUSS-8TKEITAXT.— A  German  battle-axe,  having 
a  Idiiir  huudlc  and  ust>d  bv  the  foot-soUliers. 

FUST  —  FUST  AGE. —  The  very  early  gun-carri- 
age, upon  which  the  ancient  bombard  was  tixed  by 
means  of  iron  work.  Tlie.se  carriages  consisted  of 
bliK'ks  of  wood  or  frame  structures,  made  in  imitation 
of  the  mountings  of  small-aniis. 

FUSTIBALE.— A  kind  of  .sling  with  a  handle  fas- 
tened to  it.  It  was  u.sed  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  cen- 
turv  for  liurlhig  lireballs  and  grenades. 

FUSTUARIUM.— In  liomau  antiquity,  a  method  of 
inflicting  capital  punishment  upon  any  soldier  guilty 
of  theft,  desertion,  or  similar  crimes.  When  the  ac- 
cused had  been  found  guilty,  he  was  made  to  stand  in 
front  of  the  legion  to  which  he  Ueliinged.  One  of 
the  Tribunes  tlien  touched  him  lightly  with  a  stick, 
and  all  the  soldiers  immediately  rushed  upon  the  cri- 
minal and  beat  him  to  death  with  clubs  (fasles).  If 
he  escai)ed — as  he  was  allowed  to  do  if  he  couUl,  but 
which  was  rarely  if  ever  possible— he  was  forbidden 
ever  to  return  to  his  native  country,  and  his  nearest 
relatives  were  not  allowed  to  receive  him  into  their 
homes  or  houses.  This  method  of  capital  punish- 
ment continued  to  be  enforced  even  under  the  Em- 
pire. 

FUTCHELLS. — Horizontal  longitudinal  bars  which 
rigidly  connect  the  splinter-bar  with  the  axletree-bed, 
or  with  springs  or  other  intermediate  connection  be- 
tween them  and  the  axletree. 

FYROZ. — A  Persian  word  signif  j-ing  rictorious,  and 
forming  the  name  of  several  ruling  kings  in  Persia 
and  Hindostan.    Also  written  Feroze. 


G 


OABION. — A  hollow  cylinder  of  basket-work,  em- 
ployed in  field  or  temporary  fortification,  and  varying 
in  size  from  a  diameter  of  30  inches  to  6  feet,  with  a 
height  of  from  3  feet  i)  inches  to  6  feet.  In  consti'uct- 
ing  it,  stout  straight  stakes  are  pMccd  upright  in  the 
ground  in  a  cinle  of  the  required  diameter,  and  are 
then  wattle<l  together  with  osiers  or  green  twigs,  as  in 
the  formation  of  baskets.  The  apparatus  beingraised, 
W'hen  completed,  from  Ibe  ground,  the  ends  are  fas- 
tened, and  the  gabion  is  ready  to  be  rolled  to  any 
place  where  it  is  desiral)le  to  form  the  breastwork 
against  the  enemy.  Placed  on  end,  and  tilled  with 
earth,  a  single  row  of  gabions  is  proof,  except  at  the 
points  of  junction,  against  musketry-fire,  and  by  in- 
creiising  the  number  of  rows  any  degree  of  security 
can  be  obtained.  The  gabion  has  the  advantage  of 
being  highly  portable,  from  its  shape,  while  with  its 
aid  a  parapet  c^n  be  formed  with  far  less  earth,  and 
therefore  in  less  time,  than  in  cases  when  allowance 
has  to  be  made  for  the  sloiies  on  both  sides,  which  are 
ncccisarily  present  in  ordinary  earthen  walls.  The 
»ap-rolkr  consist.s  of  two  concen- 
tric gabions,  one  4  feet,  the  other 
2  feet  8  inches,  in  diameter,  with 
the  space  between  them  wedged 
full  of  jiickels  of  hard  wood.  In 
sap])iiii;,  these  serve  as  substitutes 
for  mantlets.  .Stujf'ed  gahions  are 
gabions  rammed  full  of  broken 
branches  and  small  wood;  being 
light  in  weight,  they  are  rolled 
before  soldiers  in  the  trenches, 
and  alTtird  some,  though  not  a 
very  etlicient,  protection  against 
miisketry-tire. 

To  form  a  gabion,  a  directing 
cirrle  is  made  of  two  hoops,  the 
difference  between  their  radii  being  such  that,  when 
placed  concentrically,  there  shall  be  alM)Ut  1}  inches 
between  them.     They  are  kept  in  this  position  by 


placing  small  blocks  of  wood  between  them,  to 
which  they  are  tied  with  pack-thread.  The  directing 
circle  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and  si'ven  or  nine 
stakes,  about  1  inch  in  diameter  and  3  feet  long,  are 
driven  slightly  into  the  ground  between  the  hoops,  at 
equal  distances  apart ;  the  directing  circle  is  then 
slipped  up  midway  from  the  bottom,  and  tied  in  thai 
Ijosition.  Twigs  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
as  long  as  they  can  be  procured,  are  wattled  between 
the  stakes  like  ordinary  basket-work:  when  flnished 
within  about  H  inches  of  the  top,  the  gabion  is 
placed  with  the  other  end  up,  the  directing  circle  is 
taken  olT.  and  the  gabion  is  completed  within  the 
same  distance  from  the  other  extremities  of  the  pick- 
ets. The  wicker-work  at  the  two  ends  is  secured  by 
.several  withes,  and  the  ends  of  the  ])ickets  being 
brought  to  a  jioint,  the  gabion  is  ready  for  use.  See 
Oiihiiiii  lit  I'll  mi  lit ,  JoiuK  Gahiiin,  ami  TyUr  (lnhioii. 

GABIONADE. — Traverses  placed  between  guns  or 
on  their  Hanks  lo  cover  them  from  an  enfilade-fire 
are  u.sually  termed  (jahionad(».  To  form  a  gabionade, 
gabions  are  placed  in  a  row,  side  by  side,  inclosing  a 


rectangular  space  of  about  15  feet  in  width  from  out 
to  out,  and  about  34  feet  in  length,  perpendicular  to 
the  para|)et.  A  second  row  is  placed  within  this  and 
touching  it,  and  a  third  row  inside  of  Ibe  second. 
The  n-eathus  inclosed  is  filled  in  with  earth  to  a  level 
with  the  top  of  the  gabions.  Six  rows  of  large  fas- 
cines are  next  laid  on  the  gabions  to  support  a  second 


OABION  BEVETMSNT. 


727 


GALENA. 


tier  consisting  of  two  rows.  The  second  tier  is  tilled 
in  like  the  first,  and  the  earth  is  heaped  up  on  top. 
Four  rows  of  large  fascines  are  placed  on  these  to 
support  a  third  consisting  of  one  row,  making  the 
gabionade  nearly  twelve  feet  high.  The  ends  are  in- 
closed by  filling  in  with  gabions,  as  for  the  sides.  A 
passage- waj'  of  about  two  feet  is  left  between  the  end 
of  the  traverse  and  the  parapet.  This  space  may  be 
roofed  over  with  logs  and  earth  to  fonn  a  cover  in 
which  the  cannoneers  may  shelter  themselves  against 
fragments  of  shells.  Sjili/tUr-prmf  Inii-erses  may  be 
made  by  placing  two  thicknesses  of  g-abions  side  by 
side  filled  with  earth,  with  a  .second  tier  of  one  thick 
ness  on  top.  When  a  service-magazine  is  to  be  placed 
in  a  gabionade,  the  rows  of  gabions  are  set  farther 
apart,  and  the  excavation  for  the  magazine  is  made 
between  them.  The  chamber  of  the  magazine  is 
constructed  in  one  of  the  ways  neretofore  described. 
h.  parapet  en  gabionnade  is  a"  parapet  con-structed  of 
gabions.     See  Trarerse. 

GABION  EEVETMENT.  —  Gabion  revetments  are 
rarely  used  for  the  interior  slopes  of  ordiuarj'  field- 
works.  They  are  much  and  usefully  employed  in 
the  trenches  in  siege-operations,  in  batteries,  and  in 
embrasures.  When  ased  as  a  revetment  for  the  in- 
terior slope,  they  give  a  height  of  three  feet,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  projecting  ends  of  the  pickets.  They 
are  niaiie  to  rest  upon  a  row  of  fascines  half  buried 
in  the  banquette,  and  are  so  placed  as  to  have  the 
same  inclination  as  the  interior  slope.  The  gabions 
are  then  tilled  with  earth,  and  the  parapet  is  raised 
behind  them.  When  the  parapet  reaches  the  height 
of  the  g-abion,  a  row  of  fa.scines  is  laid  on  top  of  the 
gabions  to  give  the  requisite  height  to  the  interior 
crest. 


Profile  of  Gabion  and  Fascine  Work. 

To  form  this  revetment,  a  fascine  is  first  laid  partly 
embedded  below  the  tread  of  the  banquette;  the  gabi- 
on, which  is  placed  on  end,  rests  on  this,  so  as  to 
give  it  the  requisite  slope;  it  is  then  filled  with  earth; 
others  are  placed  in  like  manner,  and  the  parapet  is 
raised  behind  them;  another  fascine  is  laid  on  top, 
and  in  some  cases  two.  The  drawing  shows  the  pro- 
file of  gabion  and  faspinc  work,  with  small  pickets 
in  the  ditch,  and  an  abatis  behind  the  glacis.  In 
making  the  gabions,  iron  hoops,  similar  to  baiTel- 
hoops,  may  be  used  instead  of  wattling.  The  num- 
ber of  stakes  should  lie  increased  to  eleven  or  thirteen. 
Gabions  made  either  of  wattlings  or  hoops  are  not 
good  for  holding  dry  s;»nd.  Sheet-iron  is  preferable 
to  either  iron  hoops  or  brush  for  gabions.  For  this 
purpose  rectangular  sheets  of  suitable  dimensions  to 
form  cylinders  of  the  same  height  and  diameter  as 
the  ordinary-  gabion  arc  prepared,  with  three  holes 
punched  near  to  and  parallel  with  the  shorter  sides  of 
the  sheets.  These  are  to  secure  the  ends  with  wire 
when  the  sheet  is  Ijent  into  the  cvlindrical  form. 
The  advantages  of  this  description  of  gabion  are 
greater  strength,  liglitness,  and  durability  than  either 
of  the  other  two,  offering  great  facility  for  transporta- 
tion, and  resisting  Ijetter  the  blast  of  guns  when  ased 
for  revetting  the  cheeks  of  embrasures.  Galvanized 
iron  is  less  liable  to  m.st  than  plain  iron;  when  not 
galvanized,  the  gsibions  should  be  always  lacquered 
with  coal-tar.      See  Reretment. 

GABION  TRIP. — The  bands  of  Jones's  iron  gabions 
may  be  formed  into  a  network  as  an  obstacle  against 
cavalry  and  even  against  infantry  in  night-attacks. 
The  bands  are  buttoned  and  jjlaced  in  line  3  or  4  feet 
apart;  each  band  is  then  connected  with  the  next 
by  stout  wire  or  rope  passed  through  binding-holes. 


Bands  thus  connected  should  be  laid  in  parallel  rows, 
checkcrnise,  3  or  4  feet  apart,  the  rows  also  con- 
nected by  wire  or  rope  and  secured  at  intervals  to 
pickets  driven  into  the  gi'ound.     See  Gabion. 

GAD — GADLING. — An  old  Norman  name  given  to 
that  part  of  the  gauntlet  which  covers  the  knuckle, 
and  which  Wius  armed  with  knobs  or  spikes  of  iron. 
In  a  trial  by  combat  adjudged  between  John  de  Vis- 
eonti  and  Air  Thomas  de  la  ilarche,  fought  before 
Edward  III.  in  close  lists,  at  Westmin.ster,  Sir  Thomas 
de  la  Marche  gained  the  advantage  by  striking  the 
gadlings  of  his  gauntlet  into  the  face  of  his  adver- 
sarj'.  The  term  gad  is  also  applied  to  the  point  of  a 
spear  or  an  arrow-head,  and  the  withe  used  in  the 
construction  of  fascines. 

GADASU. — The  French  term  employed  for  a  very 
broad  Tui  kish  .saber,  formerly  in  common  use. 

GAFFLES. — A  name  applied  to  the  steel  levers  by 
means  of  which  the  ancients  bent  their  cross-bows. 

GAGE. — 1.  A  pawn  or  pledge.  The  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  French  gager.  Hence,  by  changing  g 
into  ir,  we  have  irage  and  trager;  as,  "  wager  of  law," 
'■  wager  of  battle,"  wherein  a  person  gave  his  pledge 
that  he  would  sustain  his  affirmation;  and,  in  the 
latter  case,  the  glove  was  sent  as  a  material  pledge  to 
be  redeemed  by  a  mortal  combat.  Hence  also  in 
England. 

2.  A  tool  for  settmg  out  lines  and  grooves  parallel 
with  the  margin  of  the  carpenter's  work.  The  "stem" 
of  the  gage  is  retained  in  the  head  or  slock  by  means 
of  a  small  wedge,  and  the  cutter  is  fixed  in  a  hole 
at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  stem  by  another 
wedge.  There  are  several  forms  of  gages,  such  as 
the  iiiarking,  cutting,  router,  mortise  gage,  etc.  See 
Gauge. 

GAINE  DE  FLAMME.— A  variety  of  linen 
sheath  or  cover  into  which  the  staff  of  a  flag 
or  pendant  is  put. 

GAINE  DE  PA  VILLON.— A  cloth  or  linen 
band  which  is  sewed  across  llie  flag,  and 
through  which  the  different  ribbons  are  in- 
terlaced. 

GAINING  T'WIST.— Some  of  the  rifles  and 
rifled  ordnance  in  the  service  are  made  with 
grooves  which  have  a  verj'  slight  twist  at  the 
breech,  but  the  twist  is  increased  regularly  until  it 
reaches  the  muzzle;  this  is  known  as  the  iiicreamng 
or  gaining  tirixt.  At  the  instant  of  discharge,  when 
the  shot  from  a  state  of  rest  is  instantly  given  a  high 
velocity,  it  would  seem  likely  to  be  pushed  across  the 
grooves,  especially  if  they  have  a  great  inclination. 
To  avoid  this,  the  inclination  of  the  grooves  is  made 
slight  at  the  breech,  and  increased  gradually  toward 
the  muzzle,  at  which  point  they  are  sufficiently  in- 
clined to  give  the  necessarj-  rotatory  motion.  In  the 
increasing  twist,  though  the  projectile  leaves  the  seat 
or  chamber  of  the  gun  with  great  velocity,  and  re- 
lieves the  breech  a  good  deal  from  the  strain  of  the 
discharge,  its  velocity  is  less  than  from  a  gun  with 
uniform  tiri.\t.     See  Tirist. 

GAIN-PAIN.— A  term  applied  in  the  Middle  Ages 
to  the  sword  of  a  hired  .soldier. 

GAITEBS.— A  sort  of  cover  for  the  leg,  usually 
made  of  cloth,  and  either  long  or  short.  Those 
reaching  just  above  the  ankle  are  termed  half-gaiters, 
and  are  worn  by  infantrj'  soldiers  in  Europe. 

GALEA. — Aniong  the  Romans,  a  light  castjue, 
head-piece,  or  morion,  coming  down  to  the  shoulders, 
and  commonly  of  bra.ss;  though  Camillus,  according 
to  Plutarch,  ordered  those  of  his  army  to  be  of  iron, 
as  Ining  the  stronger  metal. 

GALENA. — A  mineral  which  is  e.s.sentially  a  sul- 
phuret  of  lead,  the  proportions  being  13.3  sulphur 
and  86.7  lead;  but  usually  containing  a  little  silver, 
and  sometimes  copper,  zinc,  antimony,  or  seleniuni. 
It  is  of  a  lead-gray  color,  with  a  metallic  luster,  is 
found  massive,  or  sometimes  gnmular,  or  crystallized 
in  cubes  or  octahedrons.  It  is  verj-  easily  broken, 
and  its  fragments  are  cubical.  It  occurs  in  veins, 
beds,   an4  embedded  mas-ses,   often    accompanying 


GALE'S  COUFOinn). 


728 


OALLEBT  DESCENT. 


other  inctallic  ori's.  in  primitive  iinil  seconflart'  rocks, 
but  most  of  all  in  wlial  is  known  as  truiisition  or 
mounlainjimeslone.  It  is  found  very  abundantly  in 
some  parts  of  Britain.  Almost  all  the  lead  of  com- 
merce  is  obtainwl  from  it.  It  sometimes  contains  so 
much  silver  that  the  separation  of  that  metal  is  protil- 
ably  carrieil  on.  The  lead  is  extracted  from  it  b)-  a 
verv  simple  process.     See  I^iid. 

GALE'S  COMPOUND.— Powdered  glass  with  gun- 
powder, rendering  the  latter  non-explosive;  so  named 
after  the  patentee. 

OALET. — The  French  name  for  the  German  bal- 
laitre,  a  crass-tiow  alK)ve  the  ordinarj-  size.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  a  round  stone  thrown  from  a  sling 
or  l)ow.  and  is  sometimes  written  Galht  and  Jalif. 

OALL. — The  wound  inflicted  on  draught  or  riding 
horsis  from  the  imperfect  tilting  of  tjie  liarnc.-;s  or 
.sadtllc.  The  slightest  tendency  to  gall  should  be 
promptly  looked  after.  Hot  water  and  poultices 
make  the  iK-st  early  treatment.  Leather  burned  to  a 
crisp  and  tinelv  iwwdered,  when  spread  over  the 
wound,  causes  it  to  heal  very  quickly.  There  is  no 
excuse  for  the  frightful  wounds  on  the  backs  of  mules 
anil  horses  due  to  improper  saddling. 

6ALLAS. — A  warlike  race  occupying  the  South  and 
Ea.st  of  Abyssinia.  The  general  name  by  which  the 
tribes  designate  themselves  is  Oroi/m  (ui-iim,  men). 
Although  generally  belonging  to  the  negro  race,  they 
are  not  purely  negroes,  but  form  with  the  Fulahs, 
Mandingoes,  and  ISubas,  as  it  were,  the  transition  to 
the  Semitic  variety,  and  scen\  to  belong  to  that  great 
family  inhabiting  llie  Kast  of  Africa,  from  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  Cape  land  to  Aby.ssinia,  and  usually 
denominated  the  Kaffers.  They  are  a  \igorous, 
well-fonne<l  people  of  a  dark  brown  color,  with  hair 
frizzled  but  not  quite  woolly,  round  faces,  and  small 
sharp  eyes,  and  are  distinguished  not  less  by  their 
energy  and  warlike  spirit  than  by  their  mental  cap'»- 
cities.  They  first  apjiear  in  history  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  as  a  barbarous  people,  extending  their  con 
quests  from  the  interior  of  Africa,  laying  waste,  by 
constant  incursions,  the  countries  of  Eastern  Africa, 
to  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  gradually  subduing  or 
expelling  the  original  iuhabitant.s  (hence  their  name), 
occupying  great  part  of  Abyssinia,  and  advancing  as 
far  as  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  It  is  only  of 
late  years  that  their  power  in  Abyssinia,  and  their 
incursions  into  that  country,  have  been  partially 
checked,  chiefly  by  the  vigorous  government  of  the 
King  of  Shoa,  who  sulxlued  some  of  the  Gallas  tribes 
and  induced  them  to  profess  such  Christianity  as  ex- 
ists in  Aby.s.sinia.  They  still,  however,  occupy  many 
districts  of  Abyssinia,  and  extend  their  power  to  an 
indefinite  extent  over  the  countries  situated  south 
and  southwest  of  it.  Politically,  the  Gallas  do  not 
form  a  single  Nation,  but  are  divided  into  numerous 
tribes,  forming  separate  Kingdoms  and  Slates,  which 
are  frequently  at  war  with  each  other.  Most  of  the 
Gallas  follow  pastoral  avocations.  Some,  however, 
through  intercourse  with  the  semi-Christian,  semi- 
civilized  Ahyssinians,  have  become  tillers  of  the  soil. 
The  wandering  Gallas  are  mainly  engaged  in  bunting 
and  the  slave-lnidc.  The  larger  number  of  the  Gallas 
are  still  heathens,  though  Mohammedanism  has  lately 
made  great  progress  among  them.  Their  religion 
bears  a  res<'mblance  to  that  of  the  Kaflers. 

GALLERY.— A  covered  passage  cut  through  the 
earth  or  masonry  in  a  fortification,  either  as  a  means 
of  conununication,  or  as  a  position  whence  a  mus- 
ketry-fire can  be  maintained  through  loopholes.  For 
the  latter  puriwse,  gsillcries  are  formod  occasionally 
in  the  counterscarps  of  dry  ditches,  where  their  de- 
fenders exercise  a  flanking  fire  upon  the  ditch.  To 
explain  the  practical  operations  in  driving  a  gallery, 
let  an  example  l)e  taken  where  the  soil  is  loose,  aiid 
the  floor  of  the  gallery  ri-^es  from  the  iKiint  of  ilepart- 
ure.  In  this  ca."*-  the  first  frame  of  the  gallcrv  must 
l)e  set  up  within  the  shaft  and  acainsi  the  shaft -frames, 
on  the  side  from  which  the  gallery  is  to  open.  The 
ground-sill  of  this  frame  being  laid,  the  ^Aanchions 


are  secured  to  the  inlennediate  shaft-frames  of  the 
last  interval  by  battens,  and  the  to])  sill  fastened.  A 
horizontal  Iwam  is  then  secured  to  the  under  side  of 
the  top  shaft-frame  of  the  same  interval,  to  preserve 
the  proper  slope  for  the  top  sheeting  wIumi  inserted; 
wedges  being  placed  iK'twecn  this  iH'ain  and  the -sheet- 
ing-board for  this  purpose.  A  like  arrangement  for 
the  side  sheeting  may  be  made  if  ueces.sarv.  The  ex- 
cavation of  Ihc  gallery  Ls  now  commenced  at  top,  b_v 
forcing  down  with  a  crowbar  the  sheeting  of  the 
shaft  on  the  side  of  the  gallery.  The  earth  is  re- 
moved gradually  forwards  and  downwards,  and  the 
gallery -slieeting  advanced  at  the  same  "rate.  When 
the  excavation  has  reached  as  low  as  the  intermediate 
shaft-frame,  the  piece  of  it  that  sustains  the  lower 
portion  of  the  .sheeting  is  removed  to  allow  the  exca- 
vation to  proceed.  When  in  this  way  the  earth  is  re- 
moved as  far  as  the  middle  of  the  fi'rst  interval,  the 
auxiliary  gallerv-frame  is  set  up,  to  support  the  top 
and  side  sheeting  until  the  .second  gallcry-fniinfr  is 
placed.  To  phue  this  last  frame,  the  position  of  the 
ground-sill  is  first  determined  by  placing  the  slope- 
block  on  the  ground-sill  first  laid,  and  then,  bj'  a 
common  mason's  level  upon  the  side  of  which  the 
interval  is  marked,  laid  upon  the  slope  block,  bringinc 
the  top  of  the  ground-sill  on  the  .same  level  as  that  oi 
the  slope-block.  The  sill  being  adjusted  and  firmly 
secured,  the  .stanchions  are  next  set  up,  and  secured 
by  battens  to  the  stanchions  of  the  first  frame,  and 
the  cap-sill  is  secured  in  the  last  place.  The  adjust- 
ments of  the  stanchions  and  cap-sills  are  made  by  an 
ordinary  plumb  line,  by  means  of  which  the  edges  of 
the  stanchions  are  placed  vertically,  and  the  scores  on 
the  cap-  and  ground-sills  brought  into  the  vertical 
plane  of  the  axis  of  the  gallery.  The  battens  are 
placed  horizontally.  In  a  level  gallery  they  are  nailed 
alternately  at  4  and  8  inches  below  "the  cap-sill.  In 
others  they  are  nailed  4  inches  below  the  lower  of  the 
cap-sills  of  the  two  frames  which  they  unite;  this  will 
bring  them  to  4  inches,  added  to  the  height  of  the 
slope-block,  below  the  other.  The  auxiliary  frame 
is  not  taken  down  until  wedges  have  been  placed  be- 
tween the  sheeting  and  the  frame  last  placed,  in  order 
to  introduce  the  boards  for  the  next  interval;  and  the.se 
last  are  kept  in  the  proper  direction,  as  the  excavation 
is  advanced,  by  wedges  inserted  between  them  and 
the  sheeting  of  the  interval  finished.  See  Aiiriliary 
Frame,  Jiniiirli  Galkrks  irith  Dutch  Canes,  Galleri/ 
Descent,  Gallery  Interi-ah,  Scarp-gallery  Shaft,  Slope- 
block,  and  Wimden  Gallery. 

GALLERY  DESCENT.— A  descent  to  a  ditch  is  usu- 
ally by  blindage  when  the  depth  of  the  ditch  does  not 
exceed  10  or  12  feet.  For  greater  depths  the  com- 
mencement of  the  descent  is  by  a  blinilage  which  is 
continued  to  a  point  where  the  bottom  of  the  descent 
is  about  9  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground;  here 
the  blindage  is  terminated,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
descent  is  nuide  by  gallery,  as  the  depth  of  the  earth 
aljove  the  gallery  w  ill  l)e  sufficient  to  allow  the  exca- 
vation to  be  earned  on  without  trouble.  In  a  firm 
soil,  grand  gallerj'-frnmes  are  used  for  the  descent;  in 
a  loose  soil,  common  gallery-frames.  The  frames 
used  and  construction  of  the  gallery  are  the  same  as 
for  a  mine-gallery.  The  point  of  departure  of  a  ditch 
descent  is  usually  taken  at  only  aliout  'i  feet  below 
the  bottom  of  tlie  trench;  the" usual  landing  being 
made  at  this  point.  In  a  drj-  ditch,  the  l)Ottom  of  the 
descent  should  come  out  at  the  usual  depth  of  the  full 
.sjip  below  the  Iwttom  of  the  ditch.  In  a  wet  ditch  it 
sho\dd  come  out  about  1.")  inches  aliove  the  water- 
level.  The  passage  of  a  dry  ditch  is  nothing  more 
than  a  fidl  siip.  which  leads  from  the  outlet  of  the 
descent  In  the  ditch  to  the  bottom  of  the  breach. 
From  this  point  the  trench  and  parapet  are  directed 
up  the  breach  to  the  scarp- wall,  which  fonns  the  -side 
of  the  breach  towards  the  dangerous  point.  The  only 
lirecaulion  neccssiirv  in  making  this  pa.ssage  is  to  sink 
the  trench  at  the  on"l.sel  to  its  full  depth  of  43  inches 
to  g.iin  secure  cover.  The  passiige  of  a  wet  ditch  is 
a  perilous  and  ditlicult  operation  under  any  circum- 


OAXLEBT  INTEBVALS. 


r29 


GALLEEY  TAEGET-PEACTICE. 


Stances,  but  particularly-  so  when  a  strong  current  can 
be  produced,  by  the  besieged,  in  the  ditch.  The  meth- 
ods usually  recommended  are  to  form  a  dike,  or  bridge 
of  fascines  and  hurdles,  laid  in  successive  layers,  and 
limily  connected  by  pickets.  To  form  a  footing  for 
the  dike,  a  grand  gallery  is  excavated,  directly  Ijehind 
the  counterscarp-wall,  "to  a  distance  of  12  or  15  feet 
on  each  side  of  the  descent,  and  the  earth  from  it  is 
thrown  into  the  ditch,  through  the  outlet  of  the  de- 
scent. The  dike  or  bridge  of  fascines  is  gradually 
pushed  forward  from  this  point,  Ix'ing  secured  in  the 
best  way  practicable  to  the  earth  thrown  into  the  ditch. 
The  sappers  who  carrj-  for^^ard  the  head  of  the  dike 
are  covered  from  the  lire  of  the  dangerous  point  by 


Which  leaves  39  feet  to  be  divided  into  suitable  inter- 
vals; which  may  be  done  by  constructing  twelve  of 
them  each  3  feet  3  inches. 

The  intervals  of  the  portion  C  D  will  be  found  as 
follows.     From  44  feet  take  the  following  sum: 

Half  the  width  of  the  landing  at  C 2  ft.    i  in. 

Thickness  of  the  landing- frame 5     " 

The    distance  from  D  (as  found   from 

sketch)  to  the  landing-frame  back 9     " 

Thickuessof  gallerj-frame  at  landing  D.  44   " 

3ft.  Tin. 
Which  leaves  40  feet  5  inches.    This  can  be  divided 


Longitudinal  Section  of  Blinded  and  Gallery  Descent  into  Ditch.    A,  Blindage-frames;  B,  GaUery;  C.  Passage  of  Ditch; 

D,  Covered-way. 


a  musket-proof  mask  of  fascines  and  Iwards,  attached 
to  a  raft  on  which  they  work.  The  dike  should  tie 
from  12to  lo  feet  wide  at  toi).  A  gabionade  parapet, 
formed  of  two  tiers  of  g:ibions  tilled  with  earth,  is 
placed  on  it  towards  the  dangerous  side.  The  bottom 
tier  consists  of  two  rows  of  gabions,  each  crowned  with 
two  fascines,  the  two  rows  being  in  iu.xt.iposition;  the 
top  tier  is  a  single  row  crowned  with  three  fiv«cines. 
The  top  of  the  dike  is  covered  by  a  layer  of  earth,  and 
the  parapet  with  raw  hides,  to  prevent  the  effects  of 
incendiary  comix)sitions  that  might  be  thrown  on 
them.  liift-Iiridges,  on  barrels,  protected  by  a  gabi- 
onade parapet,  have  also  been  proposed,  particularly 
■where  a  strong  current  is  to  be  contended  with.  See 
Oalkrij. 

GALLERY  INTEEVALS.— The  portion  of  the  floor 
of  the  gallery  l]etween  the  frames  that  bound  the  en- 
trance 10  a  return  is  termed  a  landing.  The  landing 
is  in  all  cases  horizontal,  as  well  as  that  portion  of  an 
oblique  return  between  the  oblique  frame  and  the  one 
next  succeeding,  which  last  should  not  be  jjlaced  fjir- 
ther  than  an  ordinarj-  interval  from  the  farthest  point 
of  the  oblique  frame. 

Having  determined,  by  means  of  the  working 
sketch,  the  landings  and  their  frames,  with  respect  to 
the  points  of  intersection  of  the  axis  of  the  gallery  of 
departure  with  those  of  the  returns,  the  intervals  of 
this  gallery  can  Ix'  calculated,  and  their  jiositions 
marked  out  on  the  sketch.  The  manner  of  mak- 
ing this  estimate  will  be  best  illustrated  by  observing 
the  following  example: 

Let  A  B  =  118  feet  he  the  total  length  of  a  gallery 
of  departure,  estimated  horizontally  along  its  axis, 
from  the  central  picket  of  the  shaft  frmn  which  the 
gallerr  starts.  At  the  point  C.  44  feet  from  A,  the 
axis  of  a  rectangular  return  commences:  and  at  D,  44 
feet  farther,  that  of  an  oblique  one.  The  part  A  C  of 
the  gallery  is  to  lie  a  common  great  gallery,  the  part 
CD  a  common  gallery,  and  the  portion  DB  a  great 
branch.  With  these  data  it  is  required  to  determine 
the  intervals  for  the  different  portions  of  the  gjdlery. 

To  tind  the  interval  for  the  first  portion,  AC,  sub- 
tract from  the  total  distance,  44  feet,  the  following 
agcreirate: 

Half  the  width  of  the  shaft  in  the  clear.  . .  2  ft.  2  in.  ! 
The  thickness  of  the  lowest  shaft-frame. ..  4i  " 

Half  the  width  of  the  landing  at  C 2  "     i" 

Thickness  of  a  gallery -frame'at  the  landing        5   " 

5  ft. 


into  nine  intervals,  each  3  feet  1  inch,  and  four  of 
3  feet  2  inches  each. 

To  find  the  intervals  for  the  part  D  B,  from  30  feet 
take  the  following  aggregate: 

Distance  from  D  to  frame  of  landing  beyond 

i' 4ft  Sin. 

Thickness  of  landing-frame  beyond  D 3+  " 

Thickness  of  last  frame  at  B 3i  " 


5  ft 

This  leaves  25  feet,  which  can  be  diWded  into  six  in- 
tervals of  3  feet  2  inches  each,  and  two  of  3  feet.  See 
GiitUry. 

GALLEEY  TAEGET-PEACTICE.— The  method  of 
using  round  balls  and  reduced  charges  in  the  service 
cartridge-shells  solves  practically  and  satisfactorily  in 
many  respects  the  question  of  unlimited  target-prac- 
tice. For  this  practice  the  targets  are  reduced  direct- 
ly as  the  ranges.  The  balls  should  1x3  of  sufficient 
diameter  to  slug  in  the  rifling  of  the  Ixire,  and  tit 
clo.sely  over  the  powder  in  the  bottom  of  the  shell. 
Any  motion  of  the  ball  in  the  shell  would  vary  the 
position  the  powder  takes  when  poured  in,  and  gives 
uncertain  shooting.  There  is  less  fouling  of  the'inm- 
barrel  when  the  balls  are  slightly  lubricated  with 
Japan  wax.  paraffine,  or  seme  lubricant  that  solidities 
in  cooling,  as  distingliished  from  oils  that  remain 
liquid.  Good  results  have  been  obtained  by  melting 
Japan  wax,  immersing  the  balls  in  it,  and  .shaking 
off  the  excess  of  the  lubricant  in  a  sieve.  In  firing 
100  rounds  with  l)all  lubricated,  the  weight  of  foul- 
ing was  ,50  grains,  without  lubricant  1.50  grains. 
When  no  lubricant  is  at  hand,  wiping  out  the  bore 
after  every  5  or  10  rounds,  and  then  running  a 
slightly  oiled  rag  through  it,  will  answer.  The 
firing  is  more  accurate  when  the  shells  and  gim  are 
cleaned  after  every  5  or  10  rounds;  the  shells  washed 
in  warm  water,  and  the  hoK  of  the  gun  wiped  out  by 
pushing  a  wet  rag  through  it,  and  afterwards  an  oiled 
one.  The  ondujance  of  the  FViinkford,  Lowell,  and 
Winchester  shells  is  from  200  to  3(X)  rounds  fired  with 
round  balls  and  smsill  charges.  They  give  out  by  the 
bottom  of  the  pockets  getting  knocked  in  by  reiK-ated 
blows  of  firing-pin,  which  causes  the  primers  to  miss 
fire.  When  short  of  shells,  the  e.V|)ed:ent  could  lie 
resorted  to  of  putting  a  thin  disk  of  metal  in  the  lK)t- 
tom  of  the  pocket,  with  a  vent  hole  in  the  middle, 
until  the  bottom  of  the  pocket  is  entirely  knocked 
through.     Charges  of  3,  4,  and  5  grains  of  Oriental 


GALLIC  SWOKO. 


730 


0ALTANI8H. 


standard  muskclpowder  pive  gixxi  accuracy  at  50, 
T'l.  and  KK)  fwl  respectively,  tiring  from  a  shoul- 
der- and  iiuizzle-rest.  A  w(x")dcn  drift,  with  shoulder 
to  prevent  the  twil  from  iH'ins  driven  in  too  tightly, 
is  convenient.  When  any  shell  l»ecomes  expanded  so 
as  to  tit  the  chanilxT  of  the  gun  lightly,  it  can  be  re- 
sized in  the  resizini;  die  accompanying  the  reloading 
tools.  This  will  not  often  happen.  The  penetnition 
of  round  ball  with  5  grains  powder  at  50  feet  is  aljout 
1  inch  in  while  pine,  aud  slightly  more  in  hemlock. 
A  lioard  from  2  to  4  inches  thick  is  soon  cut  through 
by  the  balls.  A  bos  or  Iwrrel  filled  with  dirt  and 
placed  in  rear  of  target  will  catch  the  spent  lead  and 
prevent  injury  to  the  gallerv.  A  butt  made  larger 
and  filled  with  earth  or  sjuid  will  afford  a  better  pro- 
tection. If  the  balls  are  fired  into  and  lodgcfi  iu 
thick  wood,  ditliculty  will  l)e  experienced  iu  digging 
them  out.  An  iron  screen  would  cause  the  balls  to 
splash  and  rebound  about  the  target;  hence  earth 
would  seem  to  be  best  to  tire  into.  The  above  gives 
some  idea  as  to  what  should  lie  done  to  prevent  the 
gallery  from  being  deface<l  and  persons  being  in- 
jured standing  near  the  target  for  scoring  shots.  A 
pound  of  powder  furnishes  1400  five-grain  charges,  a 
pound  of  leail  50  balls.  The  lead  can  be  recast  as 
long  as  it  la-sLs,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  burned  in 
remelting.  Fifty  shells  will  answer  for  10,000  rounds 
at  200  roimds  csich,  requiring  10,000  primers  for  re- 
loading. With  50  men  to  a  company,  10.000  primers, 
50  shells,  40  pounds  of  lead,  aud  7  pounds  of  powder 
will  give  200  rounds  per  miui,  assuming  that  the  balls 
can  be  remelted  and  recast  four  times  before  the  lead 
is  entirely  consumed.  Friction  in  shooting  wears 
away  the  lead.  It  appears  evident  that  by  the  use  of 
the  round  ball  with  reduced  charges  in  the  ser\ice- 
rifle  the  recrtiit  may  rnorc  readily  than  otherwise  be 
taught  to  hold  his  guu  with  steadiness,  pull  trigger 
without  deranging  his  aim.  and  overcome  a  very 
natural  tendency  to  shut  his  eyes  and  shrink  from 
the  recoil  of  his  jiiece  at  the  moment  of  its  discharge, 
while  the  trained  soldier  ma_v  thereby  conveniently 
and  economically  preserve  and  improve  that  accord 
between  the  brain  and  the  mu.scles  without  which  the 
best  marksmanship  is  impossible.  See  Targd-prac- 
iice. 

GALLIC  SWOKD.— This  sword  was  made  of  bronze. 
It  was  long,  sharp-pointed,  edged  on  both  sides,  and 
in  the  graceful  curves  of  its  form  it  somewhat  resem- 
bled the  leaf  of  the  sage-plant.  The  weapon  was  like 
the  Greek  sword  in  general  appear.mce. 

GALLING  FIRE.— The  sustained  discharge  of  can- 
non or  small-arms,  which  by  its  execution  greatlj' 
annoys  the  enemy. 

GALLI VATS.  — Large  row-boats,  formerly  and  still 
to  some  extent  us<.'d  in  Eastern  waters.  They  rarely 
exceed  seventy  tons,  carry  two  masts  with  lilgh  tri- 
angular sails,  and  are  generally  armed  with  a  few 
small  swivel-guns,  fastened  on  "the  bulwarks.  The 
Malay  pirates  employ  these  swift  but  rather  fragile 
vessels. 

GALLOP.— The  word  of  command  in  the  School  of 
the  Soldier  Mounted,  by  which  the  trooper  is  directed 
to  cause  his  horse  to  lift  alternately  the  fore-feet  and 
the  hind-feet  together,  in  successive  leaps  or  bounds. 
The  horse  gallops  on  the  right  foot  when  the  right 
fore  and  hind  legs  move  in  advance  of  the  left  fore 
and  hind  legs;  he  gallops  on  the  left  fool  when  the 
left  fore  and  hind  legs  are  in  adv.nnce.  He  gallops 
Inic  when  he  g-allops  on  the  right  foot  in  marching  to 
the;  right  hand,  or  on  the  h'ft  Um\  in  marching  tothc 
left  hand;  and  gsillops  fiilut  if,  in  marching  to  the 
right  hand,  he  gsiUops  on  the  left  foot,  or  conversely. 
A  horsi'  isf/iVi/H/to/when  he  gallops  with  the  nearfoi-e- 
leg  followed  by  the  off  hind-leg,  or  the  off  fore-leg 
followed  by  the  near  hind-Jeg:  in  either  case  his  cen- 
ter of  gravity  is  deranged,  and  his  strength  impaired. 
When  the  horse  gallops  on  the  left  foot  the  rider  feels 
a  sensible  movement  in  his  iK>sition  from  left  to  right; 
when  he  gallops  on  the  right  foot  the  movement  of 
the  rider  is  from  right  to  left;  when  the  horse  is  dis- 


united the  rider  experiences  irregular  movements. 
To  cau.se  the  horse  to  gallop,  pither  him  and  keep 
him  perfectly  straight;  carry  the  hand  slightly  for- 
ward, aud  to  the  left,  to  enable  the  right  shoulder  to 
move  in  advance  of  the  left ;  close  the  legs  U-hind  the 
girth  so  as  to  urge  the  horse  forward,  causing  him  to 
feel  the  left  leg  most.  When  the  horse  obeys,  keep 
the  hand  light  that  the  g-.iUop  may  be  free  aud  regu- 
lar, and  hold  the  legs  close  to  keep  him  at  the  giiit. 
To  keep  a  horse  true  the  riiler  must  acconmicxlate 
himself  to  all  his  motions,  partieuUuly  in  changing 
direction. 

GALLOPER. — A  carriage  on  which  very  small  guns 
are  conveyed,  having  shafts  on  which  the  gun  may 
be  borne  without  a  limber.  This  caniage  is  seldom 
or  never  used  in  late  years. 

GALLOPER-GnNS.— Light  gims  of  small  caliber. 
Formerly  these  guns  were  attached  to  English  infan- 
try regiments,  but  they  have  long  been  alwlished. 

GALLOWGLASS. — In  ancient  times,  a  hea^•y -armed 
foot-soldier  of  Ireland  and  the  Western  Isles. 

GALVANISM— That  branch  of  the  science  of  elec- 
tricity which  treats  of  the  electric  currents  arising 
from  chemical  action,  more  jiarticularlv  from  that 
attending  the  dis.solutlon  of  metals.  It  is  sometimes 
called  dynamical  electricity,  because  it  deals  with 
current  electricitj',  or  electricity  in  motion,  and  is 
thus  distinguished  from  frictional  electricity,  which 
is  called  statical  in  consequence  of  its  investigating 
the  electric  condition  of  bodies  in  which  electricity 
remains  insulated  or  stationary.  These  terms,  al- 
though in  the  main  thus  properly  applied,  are  in 
all  .strictness  applicable  to  both  sciences.  Fric- 
tional electricity,  though  small  in  quantity,  cim 
pass  in  a  sensible  current,  and  galvanic  electricity, 
though  small  in  teu-sion,  c:ui  lie  made  to  manifest  the 
attractions  and  repulsions  of  stationary  electricity. 
Thus  the  series  of  discharges  which  are  transmitted 
in  a  wire  coimecting  the  prime  conductor  of  a  ma- 
chine in  action  with  the  ground  posses,ses,  though 
feebly,  the  characteristics  of  a  gidvanic  current;  and 
the  insulated  poles  of  a  many-celled  galvanic  battery 
manifesl  before  the  current  begins  the  electric  ten- 
sion of  the  friction-machine.  The  other  branches  of 
current  electricity  will  be  found  under  Ixdvction  op 

Ei.ECTUIC   CrURENTS,    M.VGSETO-ELECTRICITY,    and 

TitEKMo-Ei.ECTRiciTV.  The  scieuce  of  galvanism 
dates  from  the  closeof  the  eighteenth  century.  In  the 
year  1780,  Gal  v;ini,  in  making  investigations  on  the  ner- 
vous iiTitability  of  cold-blooded  animals,  discovered  by 
accident  that  the  limbs  of  a  recently  killed  frog,  when 
hung  liy  the  crural  nerve  on  a  metal  support  near  an 
cleelric  machine,  contracted  convulsively  at  the  recur- 
rence of  each  spark.  This  he  properly  accounted  for 
by  the  back-stroke.  Six  years  afterwards,  in  exiK'ri- 
menting  on  atmospheric  eicctricity  with  frog  limbsaa 
delicate  elect ro.scopes,  he  oljtained,  also  accidentally, 
the  .same  convulsions  by  bringing  the  copper  hook 
on  which  the  nerve  hung,  and  the  limb  it.self,  simul- 
taneously in  contact  with  an  iron  railing.  The  simi- 
larity of  the  result  led  him  to  attribute  it  to  the  same 
cause — viz.,  electricity  either  existing  in  the  limb 
it.self  or  produced  in  the  conducting  arc  of  metal. 
On  consideration,  he  adopted  the  former  hypothesis, 
and  looked  upon  the  limb  as  a  self  charging  Leydcn 
jar.  with  the  nerve  as  the  brass  knob  and  wire,  the 
interior  of  the  muscle  as  the  inner  coating,  its  exterior 
the  outer  coating,  and  the  metal  arc  as  the  discharg- 
ing tongs.  He  first  published  his  researches  in  1791. 
Volta,  1792.  discarded  the  account  given  by  Galveni 
of  his  experiment;  and  from  the  fad  that  the  convul- 
sions in  (pieslion  took  place  with  more  energy  when 
there  were  two  metals  in  the  conducting  arc  instead 
of  one,  attributed  the  source  of  electricity  to  the 
heterogeneity  of  the  metals  employed.  He  main- 
tained that  at  the  surface  of  contact  of  two  different 
nu  tals  an  electric  force  arising  from  their  heteroge- 
neity is  generated,  which  throws  them  into  <lifferent 
tensions.  This  doctrine  forms  the  fundanu  iilal  prin- 
ciple of  the  contact  theoi-y  of  galvanism.    In  rei»ly  to 


OALVANISK. 


731 


OALVANISU. 


Volta,  Galvani  proved  incontestably  that  the  contrac- 
tion in  tlie  limbs  of  the  frog  took  place  when  only 
one  metal  was  employed,  and  even  when  the  con- 
ductor was  not  of  metal  at  all.  Subsequent  discovery 
has  proved  Galvani  to  be  partly  right  in  attributing 
the  cause  of  these  convulsions  to  animal  electricity, 
and  Volta  also  to  be  partly  right  in  attributing  them 
to  electricity  generated  in  the  metal  arc,  for  both 
causes  may  be  at  work  in  producing  the  result. 
Volta 's  theory  of  contact  is  still  maintained,  though 
another  theory  obtains  no  less  support  which  attri- 
butes the  .source  of  g-alvanic  electricity  to  the  chemical 
action  of  a  liquid  on  a  metal  coupled  with  another 
metal  less  easily  acted  on  than  itself.  Fabroni,  a  Pro- 
fessor at  Florence,  was  the  tirst  (1792)  to  suggest 
chemical  action  as  one  of  the  aiuses  at  work  in  Gal- 
vani's  experiment.  Volta  did  not  accept  of  Galvani's 
vindication,  but  supported  his  theory  by  several  ap- 
parently conclusive  experiments.  In  1799  he  con- 
structed, as  the  crowning  evidence  of  the  truth  of 
his  reasoning,  his  pile,  and  with  it  properly  begins 
the  history  of  galvanism.  To  Galvani  is  thus  due 
the  merit  of  discovering  a  new  manifestation  of 
electricity;  to  Volta  is  due  the  merit  of  displaying 
in  it  a  source  of  power  of  incalculable  impor- 
tance, and  which,  but  for  his  genius,  might 
have  remained  among  the  barrencuriosities  of 
science.  Hence  it  becomes  a  question  of  some 
difficulty  to  decide  to  which  of  the  two  the 
science  we  are  discussing  owes  its  origin — 
whether  it  is  to  be  called  Galvanism  or  Volta- 
ism.  Priority  of  discovery  has  led  men  gener- 
ally to  decide  in  favor  of  Galvani,  although 
Volta  has  almost  equal  claim  to  have  his  name 
attached  to  the  science.  The  first  account  of 
Volta's  pile  reached  England  in  a  letter  to  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  by  the  inventor  (1800).  A  few 
weeks  afterwards  Carlisle  and  Nicholson  de- 
composed water  with  it.  and  afterwards  several 
salts.  They  were  the  firet  to  use  platinum  elec- 
trodes. Da\T,  in  the  sjime  year,  traced  the 
electricity  of  the  pile  to  chemiail  action.  Wol- 
laston  (1801)  reiterated  the  same  thcon,-,  and 
went  the  length  of  attributing  even  frictional 
electricity  to  chemical  action.  He  proved  like- 
wise the  identity  of  the  two  electricities,  and 
showed  that  by  diminishing  the  electrodes  to 
mere  points,  the  electricity  of  the  machine 
could  produce  the  same  chemical  effects  as 
that  of  the  pile.  In  1802  Cmikshank  im- 
proved the  construction  of  the  pile  by  dis- 
posing the  plates  horizontally  in  a  trough  in- 
stead of  vertically  in  column.  The  main 
features  of  electro-chemical  decomposition  were 
discussed  by  Davj'  in  his  famous  Bakerian  lecture 
of  1806.  In  180t  the  same  philo-sopher  obtaineil, 
for  the  first  time  by  galvanic  agency,  the  metals  po 
tassium,  sodium,  barium,  strontium,  calcium,  and 
magnesium.  Dcluc  (1809)  first  made  drj-  jnles  of 
gold  and  silver  iiaper,  and  these  were  altered  and  im- 
proved by  Zamboni  (1812).  In  1813  Davy  discovered 
the  electric  light  and  voltaic  arc  by  means  of  the 
colossal  battery  then  placed  at  his'  disposjtl  at  the 
Royal  Institution.  CErsted  (1820)  first  observed  the 
action  of  the  current  on  the  magnetic  needle;  and  a 
few  months  afterwards  Ampere  discovered  the  law 
of  this  action,  and  originated  an  electric  theory  of 
magnets  which  has  proved  wonderfully  fertile  in 
practical  results.  In  the  same  year  Schweigger  in- 
vented the  galvanometer.  In  1825,  Becquerel,  with 
the  aid  of  his  differential  galvanometer,  investigated 
the  condiictibility  of  metals.  Kemp,  in  1826,  fii-st 
ti-sed  amalgamated  zinc  for  the  galvanic  battery.  In 
1827  Ohni'  gave  a  mathematical  theory  of  the  pile, 
rigidly  deduced  from  Volta's  fundamental  principle, 
and  in  perfect  keeping  with  experiment.  Faraday 
(1831-32)  published  his'discoveries  of  the  inducticin  of 
electric  currents,  and  of  the  evolution  of  electricity 
froqji  magnets,  which  have  since  enriched  the  science 
with  the   induction-coil    and  the    magneto-electric 


machine.  This  distinguished  electrician  discovered 
(1833-34)  the  definite  nature  of  electro-chemical  de- 
composition, and  proved  that  electro-chemical  and 
chemical  equivalents  were  identical.  In  LSiO  Dan- 
iel! constructed  his  constant  battery.  Spenser  in 
England,  and  Jacobi  in  Russia,  made,"  simultaneously 
(1837),  the  discovery  of  electro- metallurgy.     Grove 

(1839)  constructed  his  nitric-acid  balterj-."   Faraday 

(1840)  gave  his  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  chemical 
theory.  Smee's  battery  dates  also  from  this  year. 
In  1843  Wheatstone,  by  means  of  his  rheostat  and  re- 
sistance-coils, investigated  the  resistances  offered  by 
various  conducting  substances  to  the  current.  In  the 
same  year  Bunsen  introduced  his  carbon  battery. 
The  rivalry  between  the  chemical  and  contact  theo- 
rists has  favored  the  advancement  of  the  science, 
each  party  calling  in  the  aid  of  experiment  to  sup- 
port their  views.  Among  the  more  distinguished  con- 
tad  theorists  may  be  mentioned  Volta,  Uitler,  Pfafl, 
Biot,  Deluc,  Ohm,  and  Fcchner;  and  among  the 
chemical  theorists,  Fabroni,  Da\'}',  Wollaston,  Par- 
rot, De  La  Rive,  and  Faradaj*.  Davy  latterly 
maintained  a  theory  of  distribution  and  equilibriiun 
of  electricity  midway  between  the  two,  which  num- 


Fio.  1. 

bered  among  its  supporters  Jaeger,  Berzelius,  Er- 
mann,  and  Jh^chtl.  Recently  (1860  onwards).  Sir 
William  Thomson  has  given  what  he  considers  to  be 
convincing  proofs  of  Volta's  contact  thcorj',  but  he 
modifies  the  theory  so  far  as  to  render  it  consistent 
with  the  conservation  of  force. 

When  two  plates  of  copper  and  amalgamated  zinc 
(zinc  whose  surface  has  been  rubbed  over  with  mer- 
cury) are  placed  in  a  vessel  containing  water  to  which 
a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added,  so 
long  as  they  are  kept  from  touching,  either  within  or 
without  the  liquid,  they  remain  apparently  unaf- 
fected. If,  however,  they  be  made  to  touch,  bubbles 
of  hydrogen  gas  are  formed  in  abundance  at  the  cop- 
per plate,  and  their  formation  continues  until  the 
plates  are  again  separated.  If  the  contact  be  main- 
tained for  some  time,  and  the  plates  and  liquid  be 
afterivards  examined,  it  is  fotmd  that  the  copper 
plate  weighs  exactly  the  same  as  before,  that  the  zinc 
plate  has  lost  in  weight,  and  that  the  liquid  contains 
the  lost  zinc  in  solution  in  the  form  of  the  sulphate  of 
that  metal.  The  contact  need  not  be  affected  by  the 
plates  themselves.  If  wires  of  copper,  or  any  other 
conductor  of  electricity,  be  soldered  to  the  plates,  or 
fixed  to  them  by  binding-screws,  and  be  made  to 
touch,  tlie  changes  just  mentioned  take  place  as  if  the 


OALVANISK. 


732 


OALTANISU. 


plates  were  in  contact.  When  the  wires  arc  thus 
joined  iind,  so  to  s|)eiik,  form  one  connecting  wire 
iK'lwivn  the  plates,  Ihey  exhibit  very  peculiar  proper- 
ties. If  a  jx)rtion  of  the  connecting  wire  be  placed 
parallel  to  a  magnetic  ne<'dle,  and  the  needle  brought 
near,  its  north  end  no  longer  points  to  the  north,  but 
to  a  ix)int  either  to  the  east  or  west  of  it.  and  this 
deviation  ceases  with  the  sejiaration  of  the  wIr's.  It  is 
not  even  necessary  that  the  wires  be  in  contact,  for  if 
their  i  luU  lie  put  into  a  ve.s.sel  containing  a  conduct- 
ing lii|uid  thesiune  changes  occur,  though  to  a  dimin- 
Lslied  extent,  the  contact  l)eing  completed  through 
the  liquid.  The  ends  of  the  wires,  when  so  immersed, 
show  strong  chemical  affinities.  If  the  conducting 
li<iuid  were  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  the 
wire  from  the  zinc  becomes  coated  with  the  copper  of 
the  solution,  whilst  the  other  attracts  its  o.xygen  and 
sulphuric  acid,  and  wastes  away  in  entering  into  com- 
bination with  them.  The  comiecting  wires  are 
found,  therefore,  in  actual  or  virtual  combination, 
to  possess  very  marked  magnetic  and  chemical  prop- 
erties. The  arrangement  just  descrilx-d  constitutes  a 
galmnic  pair,  which  may  be  generally  defined  to  be 
tiro  dmiiiiiltir  condiictinr/  phiUn  Immersed  in  n  liquid 
tthirh  can  aft  chemicaUji  an  one  of  them,  and  eniHible 
of  being  placed  in  eondueting  connection ;  and  the 
properties  just  referred  to  form  the  characteristic 
powers  of  galvanic  electricity.  These  properties 
arise  from  the  wires  in  connection  being  Ihe  seat  of  a 
constant  discharge  or  tlow  of  electricity,  for  they  are 
IX)ssessed,  though  to  a  very  feeble  e.xlcnt,  by  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  friction  electric  machine.  If  the  prime 
conductor  of  a  powerfid  electric  machine  be  coimected 
with  one  of  the  binding-screws  of  an  insulated  gal- 
vanometer, and  a  wire  connected  with  the  groimd  be 
fixed  into  tl>e  other,  the  plate  on  being  turned  causes 
a  current  of  electricity  to  pass  from  the  machine  to 
the  ground  through  Ihe  coil  of  the  gidvanomeler,  the 
needle  of  which  will  then  show  a  deviation  of  one  or 
two  degrees.  The  deviiition.  so  far  as  direction  Ls 
concerned,  is  the  same  as  that  which  would  be  pro- 
duced by  placing  the  wires  coming  from  the  copper 
and  zinc  respectively  in  the  same  binding  screws  as 
those  connected  with  the  machine  and  the  ground. 
This  would  indicate  that  the  copper  plate  stands 
electrically  in  the  sjime  relation  to  the  zinc  plate  as 
the  prime  conductor  of  the  machine  to  the  ground. 
The  electricitj'  of  the  conductor  is  ]io.sitive,  anil  that 
of  the  ground  by  inducti<jn  negative;  so  that  in  the 
galvanic  pair  the  copper  plate,  by  analogy,  gives  off 
the  positive  electricity,  and  the  zinc  plate  negative. 
Again,  let  the  wire  from  the  machine  end  in  an  insu- 
lated vessel  containing  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of 
copper,  and  let  the  end  of  a  fine  platinum  wire  con- 
nected with  the  groimd  be  made  to  di]i  below  the 
surface  of  the  solution,  and  let  the  machine  be  kept 
in  action  so  as  to  send  a  current  of  electricity  through 
the  wires  and  liquid:  at  the  end  of  some  minutes 
the  point  of  the  platinum  wire  will  be  covered  with  a 
minute  quantity  of  copper.  The  win;  connected 
with  the  zinc  in  the  gsilvanic  pair  and  that  connected 
with  the  ground  are  tlnis  shown  to  <lisplay  the  same 
chemical  power;  and  this,  again,  sliows  us  that  the 
zinc  plate,  like  the  ground  in  the  above  experiment, 
is  the  .seat  of  negative  electricity.  The  electric  con- 
dition of  the  plates  before  contact  reveals,  with  the 
aid  of  a  delicate  electrometer,  positive  electricity  in 
the  copper  plate,  and  negative  in  the  zinc  plate.  If 
the  wile  joined  to  Ihe  zinc  plate,  or,  as  we  may  write 
it  shortly,  zinc  wire  (not,  however,  necessarily  a  zinc 
wire),  be  connected  with  the  ground,  and  the  insulated 
copper  wire  l)e  made  to  touch  tlut  lower  plate  of  a 
condenser  whilst  the  linger  touches  the  upper,  on 
both  being  withdrawn,  the  leaves  of  the  elcctro.scope 
<livcrge  with  Ihe  positive  electricity  sent  to  it  from 
the  copper  plate.  It  can  be  shown, moreover,  that 
the  current  is  not  contined  to  the  connecting  wire,  for 
if  a  nnignetic  needle  be  suspended  between  the  plates 
when  lliey  lie  north  and  .south,  slightly  above  the 
.surface  of  the  liquid,  it  will  deviate  from  its  usual  ! 


I)Osilion  when  the  wires  arc  joine<l,  and  in  the  oppo- 
site way  to  that  which  it  shows  when  held  atove  the 
wire  placed  in  the  .same  direction.  The  current  thus 
)ias.ses  within  the  liijuid  from  the  zinc  to  the  copper 
the  opposite  waj'  to  that  in  which  it  nins  in  the  con- 
necting ■wires,  so  that  it  makes  a  complete  circuit. 
Hence  we  may  eoncluile,  generally,  that  in  the  gal- 
vanic jxiir  11  current  of  electricity  runs  within  the 
liquid  fnmi  Ihe  chemically  actire  to  the  chemically  pas- 
fire  jtltite,  and  without  the  liquid,  from  the  chemically 
jMHisire  to  the  chemically  actire  plate,  n;?iing  a  cmnplete 
circtiit;  and  that  if  Ihe  connection  be  interrupted  the 
pair  shows  electric  polarity,  the  cheniieaUy  passive 
plate  being  the  pitsitire  jxile,  and  the  chemicallg  actire 
plate  the  negatire  pole.  The  theory  of  the  action  of 
the  galvanic  pair  may  be  thus  given.  When  the  two 
plates  are  put  into  the  water  and  sulphuric  acid  they 
iissume  opposite  electric  states.     There  is  developed 


Fio.  2. 

at  the  surface  of  the  zinc  an  electric  force  arising 
from  its  affinity  for  the  o.xygen  of  the  water  which 
throws  the  whole  arrangement  into  a  state  of  polarity, 
The  zinc  plate  with  its  wire  becomes  polarized, 
showing  negative  electricity  at  the  extremily  farthest 
from  the  liquid,  and  po.siiive  electricity  at  Ihe  ex- 
tremity next  the  liipiid.  The  copjier  plate  with  its 
wire  is  polarized  in  Ihe  ojipo.sile  way,  being  positive 
at  itsouterend  and  negative  at  ilseiul  next  the  liquid. 
The  compound  molecules  of  water  (H:(>),  consisting 
of  oxygen  ((Ji  and  hydrogen  (Hj),  are  likewise  polar- 
ized, but  the  polarization  lakes  place  in  the  individ- 
ual molecules.  It  appears,  moreover,  to  have  refer- 
ence to  their  compound  niiture.  an<l  we  may  imagine 
them  placed  in  series,  with  their  oxygen  or  negative 
])ole  toward  the  zinc,  and  their  hydrogen  or  positive 
pole  towards  the  copjHT.  When  the  ends  of  the 
wires  are  brought  near  each  other,  we  might  antici- 
pate thai  a  spark  discharge  \vould  restore  quiescence. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  the  electric  tension 
is  .so  low  that  nothing  short  of  contact  can  effect  a 
discharge.  When  Ihe  discharge  thus  takes  place,  the 
polarity  of  the  circuit  lor  the  instant  ceases;  the  ten- 
dency to  union  of  Ihe  zinc  with  the  atom  of  oxygen 
next  it  is  completed  by  the  formation  of  the  oxide  of 


GALVANISH. 


733 


GALVANISM, 


zinc.  But  in  order  to  accomplish  this,  the  hydroRcn 
of  the  molecule  of  water  next  the  zinc  thus"  set  free 
unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  neighboring  molecule 
to  re-form  the  water,  and  the  same  transference  and 
union  is  continued  along  the  whole  series  until  the 
hydrogen  of  the  molecule  next  the  copper  is  tlirown 
on  the  copper,  where,  being  unable  to  unite  chemi- 
cally with  it,  it  is  given  off  a.s  a  gas.  From  the  fact 
that  pure  water  has  almost  no  action  on  zinc,  a  more 
probable  hypothesis  is  held  that  it  is  not  the  water 
but  the  sulphuric  acid  (IIjSO,)  that  is  concerned  in 
the  action.  We  have  Hj  as  before;  but  instead  of  O 
we  have  SO,,  a  compound  molecule  forming  zincic 
sulphate  (Zn^SO))  at  once.  In  either  case  the  zinc  is 
left  clean,  either  by  the  acid  dissolving  the  oxide  or 
the  water  present  di.s,solving  the  sulphate.  After  the 
first  discharge,  therefore,  the  whole  is  as  at  first,  so 
that  a  seconddischarge  instantly  follows,  thena  third, 
and  so  on.  A  series  of  discharges  is  thus  transmitted 
through  the  circuit,  constituting  what  is  known  as  a 
ftrrent. 

In  a  wire  where  a  current  of  galvanic  or  frictional 
electricity  is  passing  there  is  no  point  which  forms  the 
seat  of  positive  or  negative  electricity,  but  it  appears 
electrically  homogeneous  throughout.  It  exerts  no 
statical  inductive  action  on  surrounding  object.s, 
neither  attracting  nor  repelling  them,  for  the  electric 
action  being  more  easily  propagated  along  the  wire 
than  in  any  other  direction,  lakes  place  only  in  it. 
The  laws  of  induction  and  distribution  applicable  to 
frictional  statical  electricity  hold  true  in  a  current 
electricity  only  at  the  section  of  the  wire  or  conductor 
along  which  the  action  is  transmitted.  As  tested 
by  the  magnetic  needle,  there  Ls  no  part  of  the  circuit 
which  pos.sesses  more  power  than  another.  This 
homogeneity  gives  rise  to  the  hypothesis  that  every 
molecule  of  the  circuit,  whether  solid  or  liquid,  acts 
in  the  transmission  of  the  electric  force,  and  is  simi- 
larly affected  in  its  passage.  In  this  way  the  plates 
and  connecting  wires  show  the  same  molecular  polar- 
ity as  the  liquid,  only  the  discharge  does  not  effect 
an  interchange  among  the  molecules,  but  leaves  them 
in  the  sjime  condition  as  before.  Each  molecule  of 
the  connecting  wire  may  be  viewed  to  be  the  seat  of 
electric  polaritj'  and  discharge  with  its  negative  faces 
turned  towards  the  copper,  and  its  positive  towards 
the  zinc  ;  whenever,  therefore,  we  go  with  the  cur- 
rent we  meet  each  molecule  on  its  negative  side,  and 
whenever  we  go  contrary  to  the  current  we  meet  each 
molecule  on  ita  positive  side.  Any  portion  of  the 
circuit  shows  its  negative  face  to  the  approaching 
current,  and  its  positive  face  at  the  other  extremity. 
A  break  in  the  connecting  wire  thus  separates  two 
contiguous  molecules;  that  ending  the  copper  wire 
shows  itself  positive,  and  that  ending  the  zinc  wire 
negative.  This  is  in  perfect  keeping  with  experiment, 
for  wherever  a  break  or  change  of  medium  is  made 
in  the  circuit  without  stopping  the  current— as  in  the 
electric  light,  chemical  ilecompositions,  the  visible 
passage  of  electricity  in  vacuous  tubes,  and  the  like — 
the  ends  or  poles  exhibit  opposite  powers,  from  the 
pole  meeting  the  curient  discharging  negative,  and 
the  other  positive,  electricity.  The  polarity  displayed 
at  such  interruptions,  or  visible  passages  of  tlie  cur- 
rent, is  necessarily  different  from  the  polarity  of  fric- 
tional electricity,  for  the  dynamical  manifestation  of 
electric  force  cannot  be  the  same  as  the  statical;  in 
the  same  way  that  motion,  for  instance,  the  dynami- 
cal manifestation  of  the  force  of  gravity,  is  essentially 
different  from  weight,  or  its  statical  manifestation. 
Within  the  galvanic  pair  itself  the  same  polarity  is 
shown:  the  zinc  plate,  without  the  liquid  or  the  wnre 
connected  with  it,  is  foimd  to  act  as  a  negative  pole, 
and  the  similar  copper  plate  and  wire  as  a  positive 
pole;  but  within  the  liquid  of  the  cell  the  zinc  plate 
shows  the  same  chemical  alTinities  as  the  exterior 
positive  pole,  and  the  .similar  copper  plate  acts  as  the 
exterior  negative  pole.  The  terms  positive  and  nega- 
tive poles  are  merely  relative,  for  cverj-  molecule  or 
series  of  molecules  would  thus  appear  to  have  its  op- 


posite poles.  They  serve,  however,  conveniently  to 
express  the  relations  of  two  consecutive  parts  of  the 
circuit.  Considerable  confusion  sometimes  arises  fiom 
speaking  of  the  zinc  plate  as  at  once  the  positive  ele- 
ment and  negative  pole,  and  the  copper  the  negative 
element  and  positive  pole  of  the  galvanic  pair,  and 
such  expressions  seem  even  inconsfetcnt.  The  truth 
is  that  the  zinc  and  copper  plates  must  have  each 
both  poles  from  the  very  nature  of  the  circuit;  but  as 
the  outer  poles  only  of  these  plates  are  of  practical 
importance,  these  are  considered  to  be  the  poles.  Ac- 
cording to  the  one-fluid  theory  of  electricity,  a  force 
is  developed  at  the  seat  of  the  action  which  has  the 
power  of  liberating  tlie  electric  fluid,  and  of  maintain- 
ing it  in  motion  throughout  the  circuit,  constituting 
a  current  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term.  According 
to  the  two-fluid  theory,  two  such  currents,  one  of  the 
positive  and  tlie  other  of  the  negative  fluid,  are  made 
to  move  in  opposite  directions  throughout  the  circuit. 
The  propelling  force  is  consequently  termed  eltclro- 
motire,  and  the  galvanic  pair  is  called  \h.eiitctro)uotor. 
The  temis  current  and  electromotive  have  their  ori- 
gin in  the  supposed  fluidity  of  electricity,  but  being: 
quite  definite  in  their  application,  they  may  be  use<l 
without  any  such  admis.sion.  A  current  may  be  taken 
to  signify,  apart  from  all  supposition,  simply  the 
peculiar  electric  condition  of  the  conductor,  which 
forms  the  line  of  discharge  between  a  positive  and  a 
negative  source  of  electricity,  and  electro-motive  force 
may  be  used  simply  to  denote  that  which  propagates 
and  maintains  this  discharge.  In  the  same  way,  when 
we  speak  of  the  direction  of  the  current,  we  onl}'  use 
a  convenient  way  of  showing  at  which  end  the  posi- 
tive and  negative  electricities  ari.se,  the  current  being 
always  represented  as  moving  from  the  positive  to 
the  negative.  The  greater  the  electro-motive  force  is, 
the  more  powerfully  is  the  discharge  effected,  and 
the  more  is  it  able  to  force  its  way  through  imper- 
fect conductors.  It  would  seem  probable  that  the 
source  of  the  electro-motive  force  in  the  galvanic 
pair  is  Uie  chemical  action  which  takes  place  at  the 
zinc  plate.  It  must  have  appeared,  even  to  the 
most  cursory  observer,  highly  probable  that  the 
seat  of  the  most  active  change  going  forward  in  the 
pair  is  likewise  the  origin  of  the  force  accompanying 
it.  It  is  found,  moreover,  when  we  tax  the  galvanic 
current  with  electro-chemical  work,  that  the  amount 
of  work  done  by  it  is  exactly  proportionate  to  the 
quantity  of  zinc  dissolved.  These  and  similar  con- 
siderations seem  to  argue  strongly  that  galvanic  ac- 
tion has  its  source  in  chemical  action.  Volta,  how- 
ever, and  several  of  the  most  eminent  authorities  in 
the  science,  maintain  that  the  electro-motive  force  has 
its  seat  at  the  surface  of  contact  of  heterogeneous 
metals,  and  that  chemical  action  is  not  the  cause  but 
the  manifestation  of  it.  This  view  of  the  origin  of 
galvanic  electricity  is  called  the  cmiiaH  theory,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  chemical  theory,  the  one  we  have 
hitherto  followed.  The  contact  theorj'  supposes  that 
at  the  surfaces  of  contact  of  two  heterogeneous  sub- 
stances an  electro- motive  force,  invariable  in  direc- 
tion and  amount,  is  generated  and  subject  to  modili- 
cation  only  by  the  resistance  offered  by  the  conducting 
circuit.  The  galvanic  pair  is  accounted  for  by  this 
theory  in  the  following  way:  Let  us  suppose,  for  the 
sake  of  explanation,  that  both  zinc  and  copper  plates 
are  connected  by  copper  wires.  The  seat  of  electro- 
motive force  is  at  the  junction  of  the  copper  wire  with 
the  zinc.  At  this  point  the  two  metals  assiune  oppo- 
site electricities— the  copper  the  negative,  aftd  the 
zinc  the  jwsitive ;  and  since  a  conducting  circuit 
through  wires,  plates,  and  liquid  is  estjililished,  these 
electricities  travel  in  opposite  directions,  and,  meet- 
ing, neutralize  each  other  within  the  liquid,  to  give ' 
place  to  succeeding  similar  discharges  of  electricity. 
The  discharge  within  the  liquid  takes  place  electro- 
lytically.  The  theory  is,  in  this  ca,se,  sufficient  and 
consistent,  but  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  in  a  cir- 
cuit so  [lerfectly  homogeneous  the  source  of  force 
may  be  placed  anywhere  without  altering  its  condi- 


eALTAinsx. 


734 


0ALVAHI8M. 


tions.  It  is,  however,  so  far  wron.s  in  assuming;  tbnt 
the  eontacl  of  the  metals,  where  lliere  is  no  force  lost 
or  transfornie«l,  niaintiiins  a  never-failing  develop- 
ment of  energy  in  the  circuit— that,  in  fact,  force  can 
be  created  from  nothing.  Sir  William  Thomson  and 
the  modern  advocates  of  the  contact  theory  nuxlify 
Volla's  tlieory  in  this  way.  They  admit  with  Volta 
that  the  contact  of  the  'metals  charges  them  with 
different  electricities,  but  that  the  chemical  energy  of 
the  liquid  in  contact  with  the  metals  is  necessary  to 
discharge  them  and  maintain  the  current.  In  the  ac- 
tion of  the  pair  three  elements  are  to  be  considered — 
the  elfttvo-motite  foref,  the  resistmici-,  and  the  stniir/l/i 
of  the  current.  The  electro-motive  force  is  propor- 
tional to  the  force  tending  to  chemical  action,  if  wc 
adopt  the  chemical  theory,  or,  on  the  contact  theory, 
to  difference  of  potential  produced  by  the  contact  of 
the  two  metals.  It  ismeasured  directly  by  the  charge, 
or,  as  it  is  called,  the  potential  (tension)'which  a  cell 
rives  to  a  delicate  electrometer.  In  Thomson's  re- 
flecting quadrant  electrometer,  for  instance,  a  single 
DanieU's  cell  detlects  the  needle  so  much  that  the 
spot  of  light  moves  some  3*  inches  from  the 
zero-point  of  the  scale.  The  relative  electro-mo- 
tive powers  of  the  various  forms  of  cells  can  be 
ascertained  by  the  amount  of  detlcclion  indicated 
by  such  an  instrument.  The  resistance  in  the  cir- 
cuit which  is  offered  by  the  liquid  of  the  cell  and 
the  interpolar  wire  or  other  coimection,  is  that 
■which  tends  to  redvice  the  current  or  flow  of  elec- 
tricilv  pro<luccd  by  the  electro-motive  force.  As 
stated  in  Ohm's  law,  the  current  strength  is  equal 
to  the  electro-motive  force  divided  by  the  resis- 
tance. The  elect ro-motivc  forces  of  the  different 
cells  can  also  be  compared  by  observing  the  effect, 
on  the  current  strength,  of  "a  given  resistance  in- 
terposed in  the  relative  circuits,  whose  own  proper 
resistance  has  been  previotisly  known.  The  unit 
of  electromotive  force  now  adoptetl  by  British 
electricians  is  called  a  mil.  This  is  about  7  per 
cent  less  than  that  of  a  Daniell's  cell.  The  unit 
of  resistance  is  called  an  ohm  or  H.  A.  unit.  48.1 
meters  of  pure  copper  wire  1  millimeter  in  dia- 
meter offer  an  ohm  of  resistance;  so  does  about 
A  of  a  mile  of  ordinary  telegrapli-wire  (No.  8). 
The  unit  of  current  strength  is  called  afnmd,  and 
is  the  amount  of  flow  of  electricity  that  would 
be  produced  in  a  second  if  the  cell  of  a  volt  in 
power  were  to  act  in  a  circuit  of  one  ohm  of 
resistance.  One  million  volts  are  called  a  mega- 
volt;  one  millionth  of  a  volt,  a  microvolt.  The 
same  proportion  holds  for  a  megohm  and  a  mi- 
crohm, ft  megafarad  and  a  microfarad.  In  the  centi- 
meter, gram,  second  series  of  electro-magnetic  tmits, 
an  ohm  is  expressed  as  10',  a  farad  as  10  ',  and  a  volt 
as  10'. 

When  a  number  of  copper  and  zinc  pairs,  similar 
to  the  one  already  referred  to,  are  put  together,  so 
that  the  copper  plate  of  one  cell  is  jjlaced  in  conduct- 
ing connection  with  the  zinc  plate  of  the  next,  they 
constitute  a  galvanic  battery.  The  term  battery  is 
sometimes  also  applied  to  a  number  of  cells  acting  as 
one  combination,  in  whatever  way  they  may  be  con- 
nected. When  the  terminal  copper  and  zinc  plates 
are  connected,  the  current  runs  from  each  copper  to 
each  zinc  plate  without  the  li([uids,  and  from  each 
zinc  to  each  copper  plate  within  the  liquids;  and 
when  the  contact  is  broken,  the  zinc  ]>ole  shows  nega- 
tive, and  the  copper  pole  positive,  electricity.  The 
galvifnii-  batteiy  acts  thus  in  all  respects  as  a  com- 
pound galvanic  pair.  If  the  polar  wires  be  con- 
nected with  a  tangent  galvanometer,  the  deflection  of 
the  needle  auisi'<i  by  the  battery  will  be  exactly  the 
same  as  that  effected  by  one  of  the  cells,  ]>ro\nded  the 
wire  l)e  thick  and  a  good  conductor;  but  if  the  zinc  I 
end  i)e  connected  with  the  ground,  and  the  electric 
tension  of  the  insulated  copper  pole  be  tested  by  a 
condenser  and  torsion-balance,  it.'i  tension  is  found  to 
be  as  many  times  greater  than  the  tension  of  the  same 
pole  of  one  cell  examined  in  the  same  way  sis  there  j 


are  cells  in  the  combination.  Thus,  if  two  cells  be 
taken,  the  tension  is  doubled;  if  tliree,  tripled;  and 
so  on.  T/w  electro-motire  force  of  a  battery  in  therefore 
proportional  to  <.'«■  number  of  celh,  .supix)sing,  of 
couitse,  that  they  are  arranged  consecutively.  Hence 
the  electricity  of  a  battery  is  Ix'tter  able  to  force  its 
way  through  imperfect  conductors  than  that  of  the 
simple  pair.  Wlicn  the  iuteriw)lar  communication  is 
formed  bv  a  thick  short  wire,  a  single  cell  jiroduces 
as  powerful  an  effect  on  the  magnetic  needle  as  a 
battery;  but  if  it  be  formed  by  a  bad  conductor,  such 
as  a  long  and  thin  wire,  or  a  li(iuid,  the  elTect  is  verj- 
diffeR'iit.  The  current  of  the  pair  is  then  nearly 
stoppetl,  and  its  inlluence  on  the  needle  .small,  while 
that  of  the  battery  continues  to  flow  comparativelv 
luiimijaired.  When  a  battery  is  i>ut  up  in  series,  it 
is  sjiid  to  have  a  tension  arrangement ;  when  put  up 
so  that  several  of  the  cells  are  grouped  together,  .so 
as  to  act  iis  one  large  cell,  it  is  said  to  have  a  tension 
arrangement.  Thus  20  cells  are  arranged  for  tension 
when  joined  in  succession;  but  they  may  be  dispos<]|k 
so  as  to  act  as  one  large  cell  20  times  sjs  large,  or  as 


Fig.  3. 

10  cells  twice  as  large,  or  as  5  cells  four  times  as 
large,  and  so  on.  The  disposition  or  size  of  the  cells 
is  determined  from  tlie  circuit. 

The  two  most  reliable  evidences  of  the  strength  of 
the  galvanic  current  are  its  power  to  deflect  the 
magnetic  needle  and  to  effect  chemical  decomposi- 
tion. To  measure  one  or  other  of  these  is  the  object 
of  a  galvanometer  or  voltameter.  A  magnetic  gal- 
vanometer shows  the  strength  of  the  current  by  the 
amotint  of  the  deflection  of  the  needle,  and  shows  its 
tiireetion  by  tlie  way  in  which  it  deflects,  as  ex- 
plained in  tile  article  'Gai-v.\nomktkh.  The  tangent 
galranometer  consists  es.sentially  of  a  thick  strip  of 
copper,  bent  into  the  form  of  a  circle,  from  one  to 
two  feet  in  diameter,  witli  a  small  magnetic  needle, 
moving  on  a  grailuated  circle,  .it  its  center.  When 
the  needle  is  small  compared  with  the  ring,  it  maj-  l>e 
assumed  that  the  needle  in  any  direction  it  lies  holds 
the  same  relative  position  to  the  disturbing  power  of 
the  ring.  Tliis  being  the  case,  it  is  easy  to  prove 
that  the  stretif/ths  of  currentJi  rircukitiiiy  in  the  ring 
are  proportionate  to  the  tangents  (f  the  angleit  of  deria- 
tiim  of  the  nfedle.  Thus,  if  the  deflection  cau.sed  by 
one  gidvanic  cou]ile  was  45\  and  of  another  flO",  the 
relative  strengths  of  the  currents  .sent  by  each  would 
be  as  the  tan^jent  of  4t  to  the  tangent  of  CO — \iz., 
as  1  to  l,7;i.  The  needle  can  never  be  deflected  90^, 
for  since  the  tangent  of  90°  is  iufluitely  large,  the 


OALTANISU. 


735 


GALVANISM. 


strength  of  the  debating  current  must  be  inlinitely 
great,  a  strength  manifestlj-  unattainable.  The  tan- 
gent galvanometer  can  consequently  be  ust>d  to  meas- 
ure the  strongest  currents.  The  diffcniitidl  galmno- 
vteter,  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  battery,  tests 
and  all  line,  accurate  measuremen  of  resistances, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  1  It  is  used  with  tlie  rheostat  to 
measure  any  resistance  from  one  one-himdredth  of 
an  ohm  upward.  The  roUnmeter  w;vs  invented  bj' 
Faraday  for  testing  the  strength  of  a  current.  In 
this  apparatus  two  platinum  plates,  each  alxjut  half  a 
square  inch  in  size,  are  placed  in  a  bottle  containing 
water  acidulated  with  sulphtirie  acid;  the  plates  are 
soldered  to  wires  which  pass  up  through  the  cork  of 
the  bottle;  binding-screws  are  attachecl  to  the  upper 
ends  of  these  wires;  a  glass  tube  fixed  into  the  cork 
serves  to  discharge  the  gas  formed  within.  When 
the  binding-screws  are  coimected  with  the  jiolcs  of  a 
battery,  the  water  in  the  bottle  begins  to  be  decom- 
posed, and  hydrogen  ;uid  oxygen  rise  to  the  surface. 
if,  now,  the  outer  end  of  the  discharging-tube  be 
placed  in  a  trough  of  mercury  (mercury  does  not  dis- 
solve the  gases),  and  a  graduated  tube,  likewise  tilled 
with  mercury,  be  placed  over  it,  the  combined  ga.ses 
rise  into  the  tube,  and  the  qtmntHy  <if  ijiis  giri  n  off  in 
a  ffieen  time  measures  the  strerifjth  of  the  rum  lit.  The 
voltameter  chooses  as  a  test  the  work  which  the  cur- 
rent can  actually  perform,  and  establishes  a  uniform 
standard  of  comparison.  The  indications  of  the  tan- 
gent galvanometer  are  comparable  only  with  its  own, 
but  the  quantity  of  gas  discharged  liy  the  voltameter, 
corrected  for  pressure  and  temperature,  is  something 
quite  absolute.  However,  by  comjiaring  the  indica- 
tions of  both  instnimcnts  with  each  other  when  jilaced 
in  the  s;ime  circuit,  an  absolute  standard  may  like- 
wise be  got  for  the  tangent  galvanometer.  If,  for  in- 
stance, the  current  given  by  a  battery  should  give  60 
cubic  centimeters  of  gas  in  a  minute,  and  produced 
at  the  same  time  a  deflection  of  45'  in  the  galvanom- 
eter, the  ratio  of  60  to  the  tangent  of  45' — viz.,  60  to 
1  .=  60 — is  constant,  for  correct  mea.surenients  of  the 
strength  of  currents,  however  taken,  must  bear  to 
each  other  a  constant  ratio.  If  the  angle  of  (knnation 
for  another  current  was  30°,  we  have  therefore  only 
to  multiply  60  by  the  tangent  of  30  ,  to  ascertain  the 
amount  of  gas  that  would  l)e*liberated  by  a  current 
of  that  strength  in  a  minute.  This  found,  we  know 
the  meaning  of  a  deflection  of  30'  of  the  galvanome- 
ter in  question  in  a  perfectly  comparable  standard. 
The  plates  of  the  voltameter  must  be  small,  for  when 
they  are  large  a  small  quantity-  of  electricitv  is  found 
to  pass  without  decomposing  the  water,  ft  is  found 
also  that  a  minute  quantity  of  the  oxvgen  forms  hy- 
dric  peroxide  with  the  water,  and  remains  in  solu- 
tion, so  that  when  very  great  accuracy  is  required 
the  hydrogen  alone  ought  to  be  measured. 

It  is  foimd  that  the  dimensions  and  material  of 
substances  included  in  the  circuit  exercise  an  impor- 
tant influence  on  the  strength  of  the  current.  It  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  a.scertain  the  relative 
amount  of  the  resistance  offered  by  conductors  of 
various  forms  and  materials.  The  rheostat,  invented 
by  Wheat.stonc,  is  generally  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  for  this  object  is  constructed  so  as  to  intro- 
duce or  withdraw  a  considerable  amount  of  highly  1 
resisting  wire  from  the  circuit  without  stopping  the 
■current.  It  is  represented  in  Fig.  2.  Two  cylinders, 
B,  L,  about  6  inches  in  length  and  li  inches  in  di- 
ameter, are  placed  pai~allel  to  each  other,  both  being 
movable  round  their  axis.  One  of  them  is  of  brass, 
the  other  is  of  well  dried  wood.  The  wooden  cylin- 
der has  a  spiral  groove  cut  into  it,  making  forty 
turns  to  the  inch,  in  which  is  placed  a  tine  metallic 
wire.  One  end  of  the  wire  is  fixed  to  a  brass  ring, 
and  its  other  end  is  attached  to  the  nearer  end  of  the 
brass  cylinder.  The  brass  ring  just  mentioned  is 
connected  with  the  binding-screw  h  by  a  strong 
metal  spring.  The  further  "end  of  the  cylinder,  B, 
has  a  similar  connection  with  the  binding-screw  6. 
The  key,  M,  fits  the  projecting  staple  of  either  cylin-  ; 


der,  and  can  consequently  turn  both.  As  the  brass 
cylinder.  L,  is  turned  in  the  .same  direction  as  the 
hands  of  a  watch,  it  imcoilsthe  wire  from  the  wocRlen 
cylinder,  B.  making  it  thereby  revolve  in  the  same 
•way.  When  the  wooden  cylinder  is  turned  contnirj' 
to  the  hands  of  a  watch,  the  reverse  takes  place. 
The  number  of  revolutions  is  shown  by  a  scale,  mii, 
placed  between  the  two,  and  the  fraction  of  a  revo- 
lution is  shown  by  a  pointer  moving  on  a  graduated 
circle.  AVhen  the  binding-screws  b  and  b  are  in- 
cluded within  a  circuit,  say  b  with  the  positive,  and 
b  with  the  negative  ix)le,  tlie  current  passes  along  the 
wire,  on  the  wooden  cylinder,  till  it  comes  to  the 
jioint  where  the  wire  crosses  to  the  brass  cylinder;  it 
then  passes  up  the  cylinder  B  to  the  spring  and 
binding-screw  b.  The  resistance  it  encounters  within 
the  rheostat  is  met  only  in  wire,  for  as  soon  as 
it  reaches  the  large  cylinder  the  resistance  it  encoim- 
tei's  up  to  b  may  be  considered  as  nothing.  When 
the  rheostat  is  to  be  used,  the  whole  of  the  wire  is 
wound  on  the  wooden  cylinder,  the  binding-screws 
are  put  into  the  circuit  of  a  constant  cell  or  batterj' 
along  with  a  galvanometer,  astatic  or  tangent.  If, 
no^v,  the  resistances  of  two  wires  are  to  be  tested,  the 
galvanometer  is  read  before  the  first  is  put  in  the  cir- 
cuit. After  it  is  introduced,  in  consequence  of  the 
increased  resistance  offered  by  it,  the  needle  falls 
back,  and  then  as  much  of  the  rheostat  wire  is  un- 
wound as  wiU  bring  the  needle  back  to  its  former 
place.  The  quantity  of  wire  thus  uncoileil  in  the 
rheostat  is  showTi  by  the  scales,  and  is  manifestly 
equal  in  resisting  power  to  the  introduced  wire.  The 
first  is  then  removed,  the  rheostat  readjusted,  and 
the  second  wire  included,  and  the  same  imwinding 
goes  on  as  before.  To  fix  our  ideas,  let  the  quantity 
of  wire  unwound  in  the  first  case  be  40  inches,  and 
in  the  second  case  60  inches;  40  inches  of  the  rheo- 
stat wire  offer  as  much  resistance  to  the  current  as 
the  first  wire,  and  60  inches  of  it  as  much  as  the 
second.  We  have  thus  40  to  60  as  the  ratio  of  the 
resistances  of  the  two  wires.  The  wire  of  the  rheo- 
stat, from  its  limited  length,  can  only  be  comparable 
with  small  resistances;  and  where  great  resistances 
are  to  l)e  measured,  supplementary  resistance -coils  of 
wires,  of  a  known  number  of  ohms,  are  introduced 
into  the  circuit,  or  removed  from  it,  as  occasion  re- 
quires, leaving  to  the  rheostat  to  give,  as  it  were, 
only  the  fractional  readings.  This  Vieiug  premised, 
it  will  be  easily  understood  how  the  following  results 
have  been  ascertained.  It  is  proved,  for  instance, 
that  the  resistances  of  vires  of  ihf  same  material,  and 
of  uniform  thickness,  are  in  the  direct  ratio  of  their 
lengths,  and  in  the  inrerse  ratio  of  the  squares  of  their 
diameters.  Thus  a  wire  of  a  certain  length  offers 
twice  the  resistance  of  its  half,  thrice  of  its  third,  and 
so  forth.  Again,  wires  of  the  same  metal,  whose  di- 
ameters stanil  in  the  ratio  of  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  offer  resist- 
ances which  stand  to  each  other  as  1,  J.  ^,  etc.;  there- 
fore the  longer  the  wire  the  greater  the  resistance; 
the  thicker  the  wire  the  less  the  resistance.  The 
same  holds  true  of  liquids,  but  not  with  the  same  ex- 
actness. For  this  reason,  the  larger  the  plates  of  a 
galvanic  pair,  and  the  nearer  they  are  placed  to  each 
other,  the  less  will  be  the  resistance  offered  to  the 
current  by  the  intervening  liquid.  The  following 
table  of  the  resistances,  expressed  in  ohms,  offered 
by  a  wire  one  meter  long  and  one  millimeter  in  di- 
ameter at  0°  Centigrade,  has  been  determined  by  Dr. 
Mathiessen :  silveir  annealed,  0.01937 ;  copper  an- 
nealed, 0.02057;  gold  annealed,  0.02650;  ahmiinium 
annealed,  0.03751;  zinc,  0.07244;  platinum  annealed, 
0.1166;  iron  annealed,  0.1251  ;  tin,  0.1701  ;  lead, 
0.2526;  mercurj',  1.2247;  and  German  silver,  0.2695. 
With  copper  at  32°  F.  as  1,  the  following  liquids 
stand  thus:  saturated  solution  of  the  sulphate  of 
copper,  at  48'  F.,  16,8*5.520;  ditto  of  chloride  of  so- 
dium at  56'  F.,  2,903,.5:«;  sidphate  of  zinc,  15,861.- 
267;  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  to  ^V,  at  68  F.,  1,032,- 
020;  nitric  acid,  at  55'  F.,  976.000;  distilled  water, 
at  59°  F.,  6,754,208,000.    The  slightest  admixture  of 


OALVANOKETEK. 


736 


OALVANOHETEB. 


a  foreign  metal  lUters  thi>  resistance  very  decidedly: 
J  per  tx'iit  of  iron  in  ci)p|KT  wire  increases  Ibe  resist- 
ance more  than  25  per  leut.  It  has  l>een  found  also 
that  the  resistance  offered  by  a  wire  increases  as  its 
tcmperiituri'  rises.  It  is  almost  needless  to  add  that 
tile  conducting  powers  of  metals  arc  invcrsi^ly  as 
their  sju'citic  resistances,  the  least  resisting  being  the 
l>esl  conducting.  A  combined  galvanonteter  and 
rheostat,  made"  specially  for  field-service,  is  repre-  I 
R-nted  in  Fig.  S.  It  is  I'nuch  used  for  measuring  the 
resistance  of  all  instruments,  batteries,  and  Hues  not 
exceeding  two  thousjind  ohms.  It  is  graduated  from 
one  tenth  of  an  ohm  upward,  is  accurately  adjusted  ' 
for  exact,  quick  tests,  and  is  found  invaluable  in 
testing  circuits,  apparatus,  etc.,  and  in  locating  faults. 
The  apparatus  is  very  {xn-lable,  weighing,  complete, 
only  five  pounds.  See  Daitidl  Batteri/,  Electricity, 
Ekdric  LiyM,  Ehdrolysh,  Firinghatttry,  Galranom- 
eUr,  Iiuliiction  of  Eketric  Currents,  Magneto^Uclrki- 
ty,  and  Olim's  Lair. 

OALVANOUETEE.  —  Two  of  the  most  reliable  evi- 
dences of  the  strength  of  the  galvanic  cuncnt  arc  its 
jiower  to  deflect  the  magnetic  needle,  and  to  effect 
chemical  decomposition.  To  measure  one  or  other 
of  these  is  the  object  of  a  galvanometer  or  voltame- 
ter. A  magnetic  g-alvanometcr  shows  the  strength  of 
the  current  by  the  amount  of  the  deflection  of  the 
needle,  and  shows  its  direction  by  the  way  in  which 
it  detlccts.  The  manner  in  which  a  needle  should 
turn  when  influenceil  by  a  current  is  easily  kept  in 
mind  by  Ampere's  rule:  Suppose  the  diminutire 
Jigiire  of  a  man  to  be  placed  in  the  circuit,  so  that  the 
current  ghetll  enter  by  his  feet,  and  leave  by  his  head; 
irhen,  he  looks  irith  his  face  to  the  needle,  its  north  pole 
alieays  turns  to  his  left.  The  deflecting  wire  is  sup- 
posed always  to  lie  in  the  magnetic  meridian.  The 
astatic  galmnonu'ter,  or  galranometer.  is  used  cither 
simply  as  a  galvanoscopc,  to  discover  the  existence  of 
:i  cuiTcnl,  or  as  a  measurer  of  the  strengths  of  weak 
cvirrents.  When  a  needle  is  placed  imder  a  straight 
wire,  through  which  a  current  passes,  it  deflects  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  when  the  wire  is  bent,  so  as  also 
to  pa.ss  l)elow  the  needle,  it  deflects  still  more.  This 
is  ea.sily  understofxl  from  the  alxive  rule.  The  sup- 
posed figure  has  to  look  down  to  the  needle  when  in 
the  ui)i)er  wire,  and  to  look  up  to  if  in  the  lower  wire, 
so  that  his  left  hiuid  is  turned  in  ditTerent  ways  in 
the  two  positions.  The  current  in  the  upper  and  the 
lower  wire  moves  in  opixssite  directions,  thus  chang- 
ing in  the  same  way  as  the  figure ;  and  the  deflection 
caused  by  both  wires  is  in  the  same  direction.  By 
thus  doubling  the  wire,  we  double  the  deflecting 
force.  If  the  wire,  instead  of  making  only  one  such 
circviit  round  the  needle,  were  to  make  two,  the  force 
would  be  again  doubled;  and  if  several,  the  force 
(leaving  out  of  account  the  weakening  of  the  current 
caused  by  the  additional  wire)  would  be  increased  in 
proportion.  If  the  circuits  of  the  wire  be  so  multi- 
plied as  to  fonn  a  coil,  this  force  would  be  enor- 
mously incrcitsi'd.  Two  needles,  as  nearly  the  sjime 
!is  poasible,  placed  parallel  to  each  other,  with  their 
poles  in  opposite  ways  and  suspended,  so  as  to  move 
freely,  by  a  thread  without  twist,  have  little  tendency 
to  place  them.selves  in  the  magnetic  meridian,  for  the 
one  would  move  in  a  contrary  direotion  to  the  other. 
If  they  were  exactly  of  the  s;une  power,  they  would 
remain  indifferently  in  any  position.  They  cannot, 
however,  be  so  accurately  iiaired  as  this,  so  that  they 
always  lake  up  a  fixed  jiosilion,  arising  from  the  one 
being  somewhat  slrongir  than  the  oilier.  This  posi- 
tion is  sometimes  in  the  magnetic  meridian,  some- 
times not,  according  as  the  needles  are  less  or  more 
perfectly  matched.  Such  a  compoimded  needle  is 
called  astatic,  as  it  stands  apart  from  the  directing 
magnetic  influence  of  the  earth.  If  an  astatic  needle 
lie  placed  in  a  coil,  so  that  the  lower  needle  be  within 
the  coil,  and  the  upper  one  above  it,  its  deflections 
will  be  more  considerable  than  a  .simple  needle,  for 
two  reasons :  in  the  first  place,  the  power  which 
keeps  the  needle  in  its  fixed  position  is  small,  and  the 


needle  is  con.sequently  more  easily  influenced;  in  the 
second  place,  the  force  of  the  coil  is  exerted  in  the 
same  direction  on  two  needles  instead  of  one,  for  the 
upper  needle  being  much  nearer  the  upper  part  of  the 
<(>il  than  the  lower  is  deflected  alone  by  it,  and  the 
deflection  is  in  the  sjune  direction  as  that df  the  lower 
needle.  An  astatic  needle  so  placed  in  a  coil  consti- 
tutes an  astatic  galvanometer.  Round  an  ivory  bob- 
bin, in  one  of  these  instruments,  a  coil  of  fine  copper 
wire,  carefully  iiisulatcil  with  silk,  is  wound,  its  ends 
being  connected  with  binding-screws.  The  astatic 
needle  is  placed  in  the  bobbin,  which  is  provided  with 
a  vertical  slit  to  admit  the  lower  needle,  anil  a  lateral 
slit  to  allow  of  its  oscillations,  jmd  is  suspeniled  by  a 
cocoon  thread  to  a  hook  supported  by  a  ba.ss  frame. 
The  upper  needle  moves  on  a  grailuated  circle;  the 
compound  needle  hangs  freely,  without  touching  the 
bobbin.  The  whole  is  included  in  a  glass  ca.se,  and 
rests  on  a  stand  supported  by  three  leveling-screws. 
When  used,  the  Imbbin  is  turned  round  by  a  screw 
imlil  the  needle  stands  at  the  zero-point,  and  the 
wires  through  which  the  current  is  s(>nt  are  fixed  to 
the  binding-screws.  The  munber  of  degrees  that  the 
needle  deflects  may  then  be  read  off.  \  erj'  sensitive 
galvanometers,  now  taking  the  places  of  all  others 
in  militarv  mining,  are  tliose  designed  by  Messrs. 
Queen  and  Company,  United  States.     The  engraving 


Queen  Convertible  GalTanometer. 

shows  the  instrument  provided  with  leveling-screws 
and  astatic  needles,  suspended  from  a  brass  arm  by  a 
fiber  of  unspun  silk,  with  an  arrangement  for  adjust- 
ing the  zero  of  the  scale  to  the  a.xis  of  the  coils.  It  is 
convertible  by  a  moment's  adjustment  from  an  ordin- 
ary quantity  galvanometer  into  one  for  intensity,  or 
into  a  differential  galvanometer  for  either  intensity  or 
f/uantity. 

With  these  most  essential  instruments,  the  cables 
are  from  time  to  time  examined  to  ascertain  if  their 
insulation  is  effective,  and  if  they  have  a  sufficient 
amount  of  electricity  ;  if  the  firing  battery  is  in  a 
condition  to  insure  certain  ignition  ;  if  the  electrical 
connections  of  the  circuit-closers  are  correct ;  if  the 
electrical  resistance  of  the  fuse  is  such  as  to  indicate 
certainty  of  ignition,  and  other  similar  information. 
A  separate  galvanometer  should  be  used  for  each 
mine,  and  a  special  battery,  distinct  from  the  firing- 
battery,  employed  in  connection  with  the  testing- 
circuii.s ;  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  detaching 
the  firing-battery  while  testing, — an  important  matter 
likely  to  occur  at  the  critical  period  when  vessels  are 


OAHA-GBASS. 


737 


GASDE-GENERAL  D  ABTILLESIE, 


attempting  to  break  through  the  lines.  Should  any 
leak  be  discovered  in  a  cable,  the  extent  of  it  is  shown 
by  the  galvanometer;  and  if  considerable,  the  defec- 
tive cable  is  detached  from  the  battery  and  the  fault 
repaired.  When  a  mine  is  tired,  it  is  important  that 
its  cable  should  be  disconnected  at  once  from  the 
tiring-battery,  to  prevent  loss  of  power  through  the 
broken  end  of  the  conductor.  When  a  separate 
galvanometer  is  supplied  for  each  cable  of  a  system 
of  mines,  it  furnishes  a  constant  indicator  to  point 
out  the  fact  of  a  circioit-closer  being  struck  by  a 
ship,  imd  in  many  cases  it  may  be  convenient,  or 
even  necessary,  to  perfonn  the  operation  of  throwing 
in  the  firing-battery  without  the  aid  of  a  personal 
operator.  A  self-acting  apparatus  has  been  devised 
for  doing  it.  By  making  the  apparatus  purely  self- 
acting,  all  chances  of  error  consequent  upon  the  in- 
attention or  want  of  dexterity  of  the  man  in  charge 
is,  of  course,  eliminated.  No  mine  or  circuit-closer 
can  be  tampered  with  by  an  enemy  without  the  fact 
being  instantly  known  in  the  testing-room,  and  pre- 
cisely what  mine.     See  Oahanism. 

6AMA-GRASS. — A  genus  of  grasses  distinguished 
by  unisexual  flowers  placed  in  spikes  which  are  fer- 
tile at  the  base  and  barren  towards  the  exlremity,  the 
spikelets  having  two  glumes  and  about  twf>  tlorets, 
the  female  florets  immersed  in  the  thick  and  sinuous 
joints  of  the  rachis,  so  that  the  spike,  when  the  seed 
has  ripened,  presents  the  appearance  ot  a  cylindrical 
bone.  Only  two  species  are  known  of  which  the 
gama-grass  of  Mexico,  distinguishetl  by  having  spikes 
usually  three  together,  ha-s  a  high  reputation  as  fod- 
der-gra.ss.  is  excellent  for  the  stock  in  the  field,  and  is 
cultivated  not  only  in  Mexico,  but  also  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  and  to  .some  extent  in  Europe. 
In  favorable  circumstances  this  grass  yields  a  very 
abundant  crop,  and  attai:5s  a  height  of  nine  or  ten 
feet,  its  root-leaves  measuring  six  feet  in  length.  It 
pos.sesses  what  for  some  climates  is  an  almost  invalu- 
able property  of  bearing  excessive  drought  without 
injurj-.  It  suffers,  however,  from  frost.  It  seems 
eminently  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  Australian 
Colonies.  The  other  species,  the  gama-grass  of  Caro- 
lina, distinguished  by  solitary  spikes,  is  not  so  much 
esteemed. — Gama-gra.ss  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  a  Spanish  gentleman  who  first  attempted 
its  cultivation  in  Mexico. 

GAMBADO.  —  A  case  of  leather  formcrlj-  used  to 
defend  the  leg  from  mud,  and  when  riding  on  horse- 
back. 

GAMBESON— GAMBOISON.— A  coat  of  mail  worn 
under  the  cuirass.  It  consisted  of  a  doublet  of  leather 
or  linen  cloth  without  sleeves,  and  quilled  so  that  it 
was  entirely  covered  with  stitches.  The  high  gnmlie- 
son  with  cuishesand  leggings,  which  in  the  fourteenth 
century  was  worn  under  the  earliest  suits  of  plate- 
armor,  was  also  in  leather  or  linen  lightly  quilted. 
Sonitimes  written  Oambesan. 

GAMELLE.— A  wooden  or  earthen  bowl  formerly 
used  among  the  French  soldiers  for  their  messes.  It 
generally  contained  the  quantity  of  food  which  was 
allotted  for  three,  five,  or  seven  men  belonging  to  the 
same  room.  During  the  Monarchy  of  France  subal- 
tern oflScers  and  volunteers  were  frequently  piuiishcd 
for  slight  offertses  by  being  sent  to  the  gamelle  and 
excluded  from  their  regular  mess.  On  such  occa- 
sions they  were  put  upon  short  allowance,  according 
to  the  nature  of  their  transgressions. 

GANG-DRILLS.— -A  number  of  drills  so  attached  to- 
gether, or  to  a  common  stock,  as  to  act  together.  In 
a  form  of  vertical  gang-drill,  much  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  smalj-arms,  the  spindles  are  of  steel,  hav- 
ing anti-friction  curved  bearing  at  lower  end,  with 
take-up  in  boxes  for  wear,  also  answering  the  purpose 
of  a  step,  doing  away  with  the  troulde  caused  by  ex- 
pansion in  the  length  of  spindle.  The  spindles  are 
driven  by  a  belt  longer  than  is  usually  found  on  this 
class  of  drills,  which  overcomes  the  objection  com- 
monly raised  against  them.  These  drills,  for  armory 
purposes,  are  constructed  in  sizes  as  follows: 


di'g 

c 

_ 

« 

^^^. 

o 

%? 

•a 

« 

1 

© 

•3 

a 

% 
■s 

i 

4 

i 

o 

Is® 

S5  a 

ol 

s 

^2 
%  a 

.£  S. 
SCO 

! 

o 

E 

cS 

5 

1 

1 

1 

26  X  33  in. 

32  in. 

5  ft.  9  in. 

73  in. 

11  in. 

11  in. 

1,750 

or  smaller. 

1 

6 

26  X  a  in. 
or  smaller. 

" 

it            t4 

4J" 

11  " 

IJ" 

1,950 

2 

3 

12Jx22Jin. 

20  in. 

5  ft. 

6    " 

7    '* 

1    " 
1    " 

1,350 

a 

4 

'*        "    " 

" 

" 

4    " 

7i 

1,350 

a 

3 

10X20      " 

*' 

3  ft.  6  in. 

5    " 

7    " 

1    " 

720 

' 

4 

SJ" 

7    " 

1    " 

reo 

No.  1  has  4-change  cone-pulley  for  3-inch  belt.  No. 
3  has  3-change  cone-pulley  for  2i-inch  belt.  No.  3 
has  4-change  cone-pulley  for  3-inch  belt.  Pulleys  on 
countershaft,  Nos.  1  and  3, 13  inches  diameter;  No.  3, 
10  inches  diameter.  Speed — No.  1,  350  revolutions; 
No.  3,  300  revolutions;  No.  3,  350  revolutions,  per 
minute.  See  Drilling-machine,  Drill-press,  and  Mul- 
tiple Drill. 

GANGUE. — The  stony  matrix  in  which  metallic  ores 
occur.  Quartz  is  the  liiost  common  gangiie,  but  calc- 
spar  is  also  very  frequent,  sulphate  of  barytes  and 
fluor-spar  not  un  frequent.  Large  portions  of  the 
gangue  are  generally  worked  and  submitted  to  metal- 
lurgic  processes  for  the  sake  of  their  contents.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  superfluous  earthy  matter 
of  a  smeltine-furnace. 

GANTLET— GAUNTLET.  — A  glove  of  iron  which 
formed  part  of  the  armor  of  knights  and  men-at-arms. 
The  back  of  the  hand  was  co\ered  with  plates  jointed 
together,  so  as  to  permit  the  hand  to  close.  Gantlets 
were  introduced  about  the  thirteenth  century.  They 
were  frequently  thrown  down  by  way  of  challenge, 
like  gloves.  They  are  frequently  used  in  Heraldry, 
the  fact  of  their  being  for  the  right  or  left  hand 
being  expressed  by  the  words  "  dexter"  or  "sinister." 
In  the  phrase  "To  run  the  gantlet."  the  word  is 
probably  a  corruption  for  gunglitpe  (from  gang,  a 
passage,  and  the  root  occuiTing  in  c-lope — D.  loopen, 
Ger.  laufen,  to  run).  The  German  has  gassfnlavfen 
(lane-run),  meaniu.ir  the  military  punishment,  which 
consists  in  making  the  culprit,  naked  to  the  waist,  pass 
repeatedly  through  a  lane  formed  of  two  rows  of  sol- 
diers, each  of  whom  gives  him  a  stroke,  as  he  passes 
with  a  short  stick  or  some  other  similar  weapon. 
The  term  is  frequently  applied  to  a  long  glove  cover- 
ing the  wrist  and  used  generally  as  a  riding  glove. 
See  Glores. 

GANTLOPE— GANTLET.— A  militarj'  punishment 
which  consisted  in  making  the  culprit,  naked  to  the 
waist,  pass  repeatedly  through  a  lane  formed  by 
two  rows  of  soldiers,  each  of  whom  gave  him  a  blow 
with  an  iron  glove  or  gantlet  as  he  passed.  Sub- 
sequently whips  and  canes  were  used  instead  of  gant- 
lets, until  such  a  mode  of  punishment  became  ob- 
solete.    Sec  Gatitlet. 

GAOL. — A  withe  used  for  binding  fa.scines  or  secur- 
ing cabions.     Also  a  prison.     See  Gabion. 

GARCON  MAJOR.— An  ofliccr  so  called  in  the  old 
French  ser\icc.  He  was  selected  from  among  the 
Lieutenants  of  a  regiment  to  assist  the  Aid  Majors  in 
the  general  details  of  duty. 

GABDANT. — A  term  iii  Heraldry,  said  of  an  animal 
which  is  represented  full-faced  and  looking  forward. 
See  Fnfmnt-fjrirdnnt. 

GABDE-FAUDE.— Over  the  flanks,  on  each  side  of 
the  figure,  to  \\k  fniideg  or  tacf«  was  appended  a  plate 
or  small  shield,  called  a  garde-faude  (usually  called 
Uiille  in  England).  These  plates  appeared  in  almost 
every  variety  of  forms — square,  hexagonal,  lozenge- 
shaped,  serrated,  etc.  In  front  and  behind,  the  hau- 
bergeon  was  shown  uncovered. 

GABDE  -  GENEBAL  DABTILLEBIE.— An  officer, 
under  the  old  Government  of  France,  who  had  charge 
of  all  the  ordnance  and  stores  belonging  to  his  Majesty 


OABSE  ITATIOKAUE. 


738 


OASDKIB  HACHIIT£-OTJK. 


for  the  land-siTvico.  He  jrave  receipts  for  all  amniu- 
nitiou.  etc..  anJ  his  bills  were  paid  by  the  Treasurer 
Ocnenil  of  the  Armv. 

GARDE  NATIONALE.— The  Garde  Narionale,  the 
celebrated  Imr-ther  defenders  of  order  in  Paris  and 
certain  other  French  towns,  was  for  the  tirst  lime  in- 
titxluced  into  Paris  during  the  lievolution  of  178U. 
It  had  existed  for  a  Ions:  tinie  previous  in  some  of  the 
French  towns,  having  l)eeu  at  tirst  employed  to  de- 
fend the  riL'hts  and  privileges  of  the  city,  and  subse- 
queiitlv  to  guanl  the  persons  and  property  of  the  citi- 
zens. SVhen,  in  July,  lT8Jt,  the  entire  lower  orders  of 
the  Capital  rose  anil  demanded  arms,  the  leaders  of 
the  Revolution,  sitting  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  seized 
the  opportunity  to  decree,  without  considting  the  Gov- 
ernment, the  formation  of  a  National  Guard  for  Paris 
of  -l^.OOl)  citizens,  which,  in  the  tirst  instance,  they 
named  the  Parisian  Jlilitia.  Each  electoral  district 
■was  to  enroll  a  battalion  of  800  men,  divided  into  4 
companies  of  200  men  each,  15  of  these  companies 
forming  a  legion.  The  officers  of  the  battalions  were 
to  be  electiKl  by  the  privates;  but  the  higher  officers 
were  named  by  the  Committee.  The  dc\ice  chosen 
as  the  badge  of  the  service  was  of  l)lue  and  red,  the 
colors  of  the  city,  to  which  white,  the  color  of  the 
army,  was  added,  to  denote  the  intimate  union  which 
shoiild  subsist  between  the  defenders  of  national  lib- 
erty and  the  military.  Thus  arose  the  celebrated  tri- 
color, afterwards  adopted  as  the  national  badge,  and 
now  borne  in  honor  wherever  the  French  name  ex- 
tends. On  the  King  consenting  to  the  removal  of  the 
regular  troops  from  Paris,  Lafayette  was  named  Com- 
manilant  of  the  National  Guard  of  the  City.  Ere  many 
more  davs  had  elapsed,  the  friends  of  municipal  free- 
dom had  organized  themselves  into  burgher  troops  in 
everj-  important  town,  and  the  National  Guard  had 
become  a  recognized  institution  of  the  whole  kingdom, 
the  entire  nuinber  raised  being  not  under  300,000. 
The  force  soon  acquired  an  extraordinary  degree  of 
discipline  and  efficiency — in  a  great  degree  from  the 
number  of  old  soldiers  who,  ha\ing  deserted  the 
crown,  were  elected  to  commissions  by  the  municipal 
troops.  By  an  ordinance  of  Jime,  1851,  the  Garde  Na- 
tionale  was  placed  nearly  on  the  footing  of  Louis  Phi- 
lippe's reign;  but  by  a  decree  of  1852,  which  held  till 
September  4,  1870,  the  entire  force  was  dissolved,  and 
reformed  on  a  more  military  basis,  in  certain  Depart- 
ments only.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  War  the 
Garde  Nationale  was  di\ided  into  sedentary  and  active 
battalions.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Commune,  in 
1871,  the  French  National  Assembly  decreed  to  dis- 
solve the  Garde  Nationale,  learing  the  Prefects  of  De- 
partments to  choose  the  time  of  executing  the  decree. 
At  present  this  body  may  be  considered  abolished,  as 
its  existence  is  incompatible  with  the  new  law  of  re- 
cniiting. 

GAKDE  PLUIE. — A  machine  originally  invented  by 
a  Frenchman,  and  submitted  to  the  Prussians,  who 
adopted  it  for  the  use  of  their  infantry.  Under  the 
cover  of  these  machines,  the  besieged  or  the  troops 
stationed  in  the  i>osts  attacked  would  be  able  to  keep 
up  a  brisk  and  cireitivc  discharge  of  musketry  during 
the  heaviest  fall  of  rain,  and  thereby  silenceto  some 
extent  the  tire  of  the  enemy. 

GARDE-REINS.— A  part  of  the  plate-armor  of  tlic 
Middle  Al'cs,  intended  to  protect  the  lower  part  of 
the  back.      See  Armor. 

GARDES-BRAS.— A  piece  of  armor  for  the  protec- 
tion ol  the  arms.     See  Arm-r/imrdn. 

GARDES  DE  LA  PORTE.— A  company  so  called 
during  the  .Monaich.v  of  France,  and  of  "so  ancient  a 
date,  indeed,  with  respect  to  original  institution,  that 
it  appears  to  have  been  coeval  with  it.  Mention  is 
made  of  the  Gunlts  ih  la  PurU  in  the  oldest  archives 
or  records  pertaining  to  the  King's  Ilotiseliold,  in 
which  scr\-ice  they  were  eniploye<l,  without  being  re- 
sponsible to  any  particular  Treasurer  as  other  compa- 
nies were  Tliis  company  consisted  of  one  Captain, 
four  Lieutenants,  and  fifty  Guards,  The  Caiitain  an(l 
officers  received  their  commissions  from  the  King. 


The  first  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  King  in  per- 
son, and  accepted  the  batt)n  from  his  haniis.  His 
duties  were  purely  iliscretionary.  The  lieutenants 
served  by  detachment,  and  took  their  tours  of  duty 
every  quarter.  Their  specific  sernce  consisted  in 
guarding  the  principal  gjite  belonging  to  the  King's 
apartments.  They  were  relieved  at  night  by  the 
l)ody-guards,  and  delivered  the  keys  to  a  Brigadier 
belongini:  to  the  Scotch  garrison. 

GARDES  DU  CORPS.— Under  the  old  French  Gov- 
ernment, a  certain  number  of  gentlemen  or  cavaliers 
whose  immediate  tlutv  was  to  attend  the  King's  per- 
.son.  They  were  di\^ded  into  four  companies,  under 
as  many  Captains,  whose  lour  of  duly  came  ever)' 
quarter.  They  took  rank  above  the  Gens  d'armes  and 
the  King's  light  cavaliy.  The  first  and  most  ancient 
of  the  four  companies  was  called  the  Scotch  Company, 
which  was  establishetl  by  Charles  VII.  of  France  m 
1423. 

GARDES  FRANCAISES.  —  A  regiment  formed  by 
Charles  IX.,  King  of  France,  in  15G3,  for  the  imme- 
diate protection  of  the  Palace.  The  Colonel  of  the 
Gardes  Fran(;aise  was  on  duty  throughout  the  ycjir, 
and  was  entitled  to  the  Ix'iton  deeomiiiande  in  common 
with  the  four  Captains  of  the  body-guards.  Peculiar 
Iirivileges  were  attached  to  every  officer  belonging  to 
this  body.  No  stranger,  not  even  a  native  of  Stnis- 
burg.  Savoy,  Alsjice,  or  of  Piedmont,  could  hold  a 
commission  in  the  French  Guards.  In  the  Revolu- 
tion of  17S9  tliev  took  a  very  active  and  leading  part. 

GARDES  MAGAZINS.— In  the  old  French  service 
there  were  two  sorts  of  magazine-guards,  one  for  the 
military  stores  and  the  other  for  the  artillery.  The 
first  was  subject  to  the  Grand  Master,  and  the  second 
was  appointed  by  the  Sccrctarj-  at  War.  Gardes  jmr- 
tiriilinrn  dfn  ituigazinsd'artillerieweTe  officers  appoint- 
ed by  the  Grand  Master  of  Ordnance  for  the  specific 
purpose  of  attending  lo  the  ammunition,  etc.  Their 
pay  was  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  stores  with 
which  they  were  intrusted. 

GARDES  SUISSES.  —  A  celebrated  corps  in  the 
French  army,  constituted  "  Gardes"  by  royal  decree 
in  1610.  They  comjirised  upwiu-ds  of  2000  hien,  were 
always  un.swer\'ing  in  their  fidelity  to  the  Bourbon 
kings,  and  are  quite  remarkable  for  their  heroic  end. 
On  August  10,  1702,  they  withstood  the  Parisian  re- 
volutionary mob,  and  defended  the  Palace  of  the 
Lou\Te  till  ahnost  every  man  was  cut  down.  During 
the  resistance  they  offered,  the  Royal  Fanuly  was  en- 
abled to  escape  to  such  shelter  as  the  National  Assem- 
bly atTorded. 

GARDE-VISURE. — The  heraldic  t«rm  used  for  what 
is  conmionly  called  the  visor  or  front  part  of  the  hel- 
met, used  for  the  defense  of  the  fact  and  eves. 

GARDNER  MACHINE-GUN.— The  improved  Gard- 
ner gun,  as  shown  on  carriage  and  tripods,  consists  of 
two  simple  breech-loading  rifie-barrels,  placed  paral- 
lel to  each  other,  about  1.4  inch  apart,  in  a  cani  or  (•oin- 
partiiieiit.  These  two  barrels  are  loaded,  fired,  and  re- 
lieved of  shells  by  one  revolution  of  the  hand-crank. 
The  working  of  the  gun  is  simple.  One  man  inserts 
the  heads  of  cartridges  projecling  from  a  feed-block 
into  the  feed-guide,  drawing.the  block  from  the  car- 
tridges; another  man  turns  the  crank  by  which  the 
gun  is  fired,  and  as  the  cartridges  disjippear  dowTi  the 
feed-guide,  their  places  are  supplied  from  another 
block:  in  this  manner  the  firing  may  be  made  contin- 
uous. The  barrels  are  open  from  end  to  end,  and 
chambered  at  the  rear  to  admit  a  Hanged  center-fire 
metallic  cartridge.  The  barrels  are  firndy  screwed 
into  a  rear  barrH-ring,\\\\\c\\  is  piiuiedfast  lo  the  rear 
case,  and  the  muzzles  pass  through  jjuiother  similar 
ring  called  frnut  barrd-riiii],  which  is  fitted  into  the 
front  case  and  made  last  with  a  taper  jiin.  The 
rear  case  exiends  from  rear  barrel-ring  far  enough 
to  contain  all  lock  parts,  together  with  the  driring- 
eraiik  and  mfitii-iitnp.  A  swinging  cover,  hinged  at 
forward  end  of  case,  is  finnly  locked  in  position  by  a 
cascabel  having  a  screw-thread  cut  on  ils  stem  that 
enters  the  rear  case.   When  the  cover  is  raised,  which 


GARDNER  MACHINE-GUN. 


739 


GARDNER  MACHINE-GUN. 


can  be  quickly  done  after  turning  back  the  cascabel, 
all  the  working  parts  of  the  gun  are  fully  exposed; 
and  should  an  accident  occur,  like  the  bursting  of 
cartridge-heads,  or  derangement  of  locks,  the  trouble 
can  be  instantly  discovered,  and  as  quickly  reme- 
died. The  u;md-crank  that  operates  the  gun  is  pinneil 
fast  to  the  main  crank,  which  is  supported  by  journal- 
boxes.  The  boxes  are  locked  into  the  rear  case,  and 
serve  as  a  protection  to  the  swinging  cover  from  side 
thrusts.  The  body  of  main  craiif;  is  eircidar,  having 
journals,  or  crank-pins,  for  operating  the  locks,  di- 
ametrically opposite  each  other  (the  "tiring  being  al- 
ternate), and  eccentric  enough  to  give  tlic  required 
motioa  to  the  locks  as  they  are  moved  forward  and 
back,  dri\ing  in  cartridges  and  withdrawing  shells. 
The  outer  portions  of  crank-pins  or  journals  are  tlat- 
tened  to  the  circle  of  the  periphery  of  main  crank  for 
the  pui-pose  of  holding  the  lock  stationary  while  tiring, 
about  one-tifth  part  of  revolution  of  hand-crank,  and 
allowing  ample  time  ioT/iangJiira.  The  lock  in  form 
resembles  the  letter  U,  having  an  extension  from  its 
side  which  contains  the  firing  pin,  the  main  (spiral) 
spring,  sector  or  spring  compressor,  sector-sleeve,  ex- 


the  flange  of  the  cartridge  when  the  lock  is  forced 
forward,  and  when  the  lock  retreats  withdraws  the 
empty  sliell  until  it  comes  within  reach  of  the  ejector, 
by  which  it  is  positively  thrown  out.  The  shell- 
starters  have  a  positive  movement  in  connection  with 
the  lock-head.  Should  the  cartridge  be  driven  by 
the  extractor  into  the  barrel,  to  it.s  head  (as  is  the  case 
when  the  gim  is  worked  rapidly),  before  the  lock  is 
in  firing  position,  it  is  forced  from  the  chamljer  by 
the  shell-starter  as  the  locked vanccs,  and  is  held  long 
enough  for  the  extractor  to  engage  with  the  head, 
when  the  lock,  extractor,  and  cartridge  are  driven 
home  together.  The  ejectors,  hinged  to  the  case,  are 
driven  by  projections  on  the  sides  of  the  locks  which 
give  them  positive  movements  to  eject  the  empty 
.shells.  They  also  setTe  as  stops  to  prevent  cartridges 
from  falling  through  the  perforated  plate  as  they  are 
forced  down  through  the  feed- valve.  The  lock-guide 
extending  across  the  rear  case,  to  which  it  is  fastened 
by  a  pin,  has  two  parallel  semicircular  grooves,  which 
are  enlarged  e.Tlension»  of  the  chambers  in  barrels. 
From  tlie  back  part  of  the  groove,  slots  large  enough, 
to  pass  freely  the  cartridges  (being  wider  at  the  rear, 


Gardner  .Machine-gun  mounted  on  Carriage. 


tractor,  and  lock-head.  The  U  part  of  the  lock,  that 
works  vmder  and  around  the  crank-pin,  is  curved  at 
the  inner  front  to  correspond  with  the  outer  circle  of 
the  crank;  the  office  of  the  curved  front  being  to  hold 
the  lock  in  position  for  firing.  The  circular  tiring- 
pin  is  llattened  a  portion  of  its  length  near  the  front 
end,  to  allow  it  to  pass  under  the  extractor  by  which 
it  is  held  in  position.  It  extends  from  the  head  of  the 
lock  through  the  mainspring  and  sector-sleeve,  termi- 
nating in  a  tlange  or  head  for  locking  into  a  sear. 
The  sear,  having  the  form  of  a  bell-crank,  pivoted  in 
the  center  to  the  lock,  holds  the  firing-iiin  securely, 
and  prevents  it  from  touching  the  cartridge  until  it 
is  released  from  its  hold  liy  the  action  of  the  crank- 
journal  when  the  lock  is  in  its  extreme  forward  posi- 
tion. The  sector,  or  spring  compressor,  hinged  in  a 
recess  of  the  lock,  and  engaging,  by  means  of  gear 
teeth, with  the  sector-sleeve,  has  its  arm  forced  against 
the  Sijfety-stop  as  the  main  crank  advances,  thus  com- 
pressino;,  through  the  medium  of  the  sector- sleeve, 
the  mamspriugTand  holding  it  tense  until  released  by 
action  of  the  sear. 

The  lock-heads  serve  as  breech-plugs,  and  receive 
the  recoil  when  the  cartridges  are  lired.  Each  lock 
carries  a  hook  extractor,  which  rides  over  and  catches 


behind  the  ejector,  than  at  the  front)  are  cut  down- 
ward through  the  plate.  When  the  retractor  has 
drawn  the  shell  back  nearly  to  the  extent  of  tlie  throw 
of  the  crank,  the  ejector  forces  the  shell  through  the 
slot,  and  is  then  in  position  to  receive  another  car- 
tridge from  the  feed  plate  or  valve.  The  feed-\alve, 
attached  to  the  swinging  cover,  has  a  reciprocating 
motion  across  the  perforated  plate.  It  has  two  angu- 
lar openings  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  outlineof 
the  cartridge,  with  centers  equidistant  with  centers  of 
barrels.  After  a  cartridge  has  dropped  one  half  its 
diameter  into  the  valve,  it  is  forced  by  the  action  of 
the  latter  into  its  true  jjosition,  and  held  jwsitivel}' 
against  the  rartridge-mppnrt.  ^Tien  the  valve  is 
again  moved  back,  the  cartridge  is  forced  downward 
into  the  perforated  plate,  and  tlie  cohnnn  of  cartridges 
is  cut  off  in  the  swinging  cover  feed  ways,  which  are 
extensions  of  the  feed-guide  that  is  located  above  and 
in  line  with  the  lock-guide.  The  feed  valve  is  driven 
by  the  feed  plnte  lever;  this  also  is  attached  to  the 
swinging  cover  and  is  operated  by  tlie  locks,  using 
abo\it  one  eighth  the  stroke  of  the  crank  in  its  for- 
ward motion,  thereliv  giving  the  valve  ample  time  to 
hold  both  cartridge  aiid  shell  down  in  position  as  tliey 
move  in  and  out  from  the  barrel.     The  feed-guide 


GARDNER  MACHINE  GUN. 


(40 


GARDNER  MACHINE-GUN. 


is  a  simple  plate  having  two  parallel  T-grooves,  ex- 
tending from  end  to  end,  their  centers  equidistant 
with  the  centers  of  the  barrels.  The  upper  end  of 
the  guide  has  a  trumpet  shaped  motith  to  facihiale 
tlie  entnmce  of  the  cartridge-heads.  The  lower  end 
is  provided  with  a  cartridge  stop,  which  lifts  all  car- 
tridges contained  in  the  guide  when  it  is  taken  out 
from  the  swinging  cover  liy  which  it  is  supjiorted. 
The  guide  is  helil  fast  in  tiring  position  by  a  spring 
catch.    It  can  be  quicklf  released  by  drawing  back 


The  carriage  of  the  gim  is  of  new  design  and  con- 
struction, and  is  made  entirely  of  steel  and  bronze. 
The  frame  for  tlie  carriage,  iiicluding  the  side  walls, 
bed -plate,  and  axle-support,  is  made  in  one  casting. 
The  lunette  body  and  ring,  the  handsiiijie  ring  imd 
socket,  and  ground-recoil  stop-supixirt  are  also  in  one 
casting.  The  top  and  side  trail-plates  are  supported 
at  their  upper  corners  by  angle-irons,  to  which  they  arc 
riveted.  These  angle-irons  extend  from  the  frame  to 
the  body  and  are  ris-eted  to  them.    Lost  motion  is  pre- 


Ganlner  Machine-gun  mounted  on  Tripod. 


the  spring  catch  by  pressure  on  its  exposed  arm.  In 
placing  the  guide  in  position,  the  spring  catch  becomes 
self-acting.  These  operations  require  but  one  hand, 
lca\ing  thfe  other  free  to  place  the  safety-stop  arm  in 
position.  The  safety-stop  is  an  oblong  block  having 
an  angidar  face  against  which  the  arm  of  the  sector 
in  the  lock  may  engage  when  the  locks  are  moved 
forward  by  thecrank.  It  is  held  in  |)osition  by  two 
links  wliich  are  moved  by  an  arm  that  is  pinned  fast 
to  a  shaft  passing  through  the  rear  case,  to  the  outer 
end  of  which  is  pinned  the  stop-arm.  This  arm  is 
constructed  in  the  form  of  a  hand  crank,  having  a 
stop-spindle  placed  in  its  haniUe,  behind  the  shoulder 


vented  in  the  wheels  on  the  arms  of  the  axles  by  coni- 
cal sleeves  sliding  mto  the  boxes  of  the  wheels  (their 
ends  being  cuijped  to  receive  the  same)  against  conical 
washers  supported  by  linch  pins.  The  sleeves  are 
forced  outward  by  a  toggle-joint  actuated  by  a  hand- 
lever  (underneath  the  trail),  and  can  be  locked  either 
in  or  out.  Ami)le  compensation  is  made  for  wear  of 
.surfaces  by  right-  and  left-hand  .screws  locked  l)y  jam- 
nuts.  Th(!  circular  bed-plate  of  the  carriage,  that  sup- 
ports the  swivel-plate  of  the  mount,  is  provided  with  a 
taper  socket  to  receive  the  spindle  of  the  swivel-plate, 
which  has  a  circular  groove  into  which  is  inserted,  by 
means  of  a  lever,  a  sliding-bolt  for  holding  down  the 


Gardner  Gun-carriage  and  Limber. 


of  -which  is  placed  a  spiral  spring  that   forces  the  ' 
spindle  out  from  the  arm  into  the  stop  holes,  two  in  I 
number,  in  the  rear  case.     When  the  stop-spindle  is 
in  the  upper  hole,  the  arm  is  in  line  with  barrels,  the 
.safety-stop  is  thrown  within  reach  of  the  sector-arm  i 
by  wliich   the  mainsprings  are  compressed,  and  the  [ 
gim  is  in  firing  position.     When  the  spindle  is  in  the 
lower  hf)le  the  stop  is  carried  forward  out  of  the  way 
of  the  sector- arm,  and  in  no  case  can  the  springs  be 
compressed  while  the  safety-stop  arm  is  down. 


swivel-jilate  which  pas,ses  over  and  around  the  bed- 
plate, and  may  he  secured  to  it  in  any  desired  position 
by  the  grip  ring,  which  is  fastened  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  iias  no  movement  \ip  or  down,  while  it  has  am- 
ple room  to  move  outward,  after  being  released  by  the 
grip-ring  screw-handle,  and  the  mount  then  has  full 
range  of  the  horizon.  The  base  of  the  mount  slips 
overand  around  the  swivel-plate,  and  is  held  from  up- 
rising by  the  nut  and  the  lock-pin  on  a  round  bolt  that 
passes  through  the  spindle  of  the  swivel-plate.     On 


GAEDNER  MAGAZINE-GUN. 


741 


GARRISON  COURT  MARTIAL. 


the  upper  face  of  the  swivel-plate  is  a  segmental  T 
groove  to  receive  thcheatlof  a  clamp-bolt  that  projects 
upward  through  the  front  of  the  base  i)late.  A  handle- 
nut  clamps  the  parts  fast  when  the  oscillator  is  not  in 
use.  The  amplitude  of  oscillation  is  twenty  degrees, 
and  can  be  decreased  at  will  bj'  turning  the  oscillator 
stop-screw  on  the  upper  face  of  the  biuse.  From  the 
base-plate  project  upwards  two  walls,  forming  the  outer 
portion  of  a  joint  in  which  rest  the  walls  of  the  mount- 
body.  On  the  inner  side  of  the  Iwdy  are  two  circular 
beveled  frictiou-iilatcs.  the  outer  surfaces  of  which  are 
forced  against  the  inner  sides  of  the  mount;  these  in 
turn  are  forced  against  the  walls  of  the  base,  and  that 
is  supported  by  a  bolt  passing  through  the  whole  and 
secured  by  a  washer  and  mit.  The  friction-plates  are 
held  from  rotjiry  motion  by  a  stout  pin  that  passes 
through  the  whole.  On  the  friction-plates  is  a  grip 
ring,  the  screw  of  which  passes  imderneath  the  rear 
body  of  the  mount  far  enough  to  form  a  pointing- 
lever  with  its  cross-handle,  thus  instantly  performing 
two  functions,  as  the  hands  do  not  leave  the  screw 
imtil  the  gun  is  pointed  and  secured,  in  any  position 
from  thirty  degrees  elevation  to  forty  degrees  depres- 
sion. At  the  front  of  the  mount-bod}'  extending  up- 
ward is  the  arm  for  sujiporting  the  gun-casing,  which 
is  bored  for  attachmeiU  liy  an  onlinary  pin-hinge. 
The  mouut-ljody  extends  far  enough  back  lo  receive 
the  nut  for  the  elevating-screw,  in  the  upper  part  of 


Ammunition-drawer. 

Tvhich  is  a  sliding  bo.x  to  receive  the  pin  that  makes 
conriection  with  the  rear  of  the  casing.  The  caisson 
that  accompanies  the  gun  is  of  the  usual  L'nited  States 
pattern.  The  chest  is  of  oak  and  carries  cisht  am- 
munition packing-drawers,  having  also  sufficient  space 
for  appendages  and  tools.  The  accompanying  draw- 
ing reijresents  one  of  the  eight  drawers  to  be  carried  in 
the  limber-chest.  Each  drawer  holds  forty-five  paste- 
board i>aper-covered  cartridge  packing  cases,  which 
may  Ix-  made  water  proof .  Each  case  holds  twenty 
cartridges.  The  total  amount  of  ammunition  carried 
in  the  caisson  is  7200  rounds.  The  cases  are  packed 
on  end,  and  are  suj^ported  by  each  other  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  cannot  be  shaken  arotmd  or  up- 
turned, and  all  liability  of  jamming  bullets  or  shells  is 
prevented.  The  drawers  have  on  their  inside  walls  a 
series  of  grooves  eqtial  in  number  to  one  third  of  the 
paper  cases  to  be  packed.  A  movable  ])ailition  (that 
can  be  withdrawn  by  one  motion  of  the  hand)  is  ar- 
ranged to  fit  the  grooves.  After  the  drawer  has  re- 
ceived its  full  amount  of  cases,  the  movable  partition 
is  inserted  into  the  grooves  at  the  end  of  tlie  drawer, 
thereby  forming  an  inner  wall,  supporting  and  locking 
the  cases  firmly  in  position.  In  order  to  break  bulk, 
the  partition  is  removed,  thus  leaving  space  enough  to 
admit  the  fingers  to  break  out  the  first  case,  after  which 
there  can  be  no  diffictdty.  When  a  portion  of  the  cases 
have  been  removed  from  the  drawer,  it  is  absoluMy 
necessarj-  to  secure  those  remaitiing,  and  the  movable 
partition  can  be  inserted  into  the  grooves  nearest  the 
cases,  thus  securing  them,  even  to  the  laM  rujv.  as  firm- 
ly as  though  the  bulk  had  uot  been  broken.   The  par- 


tition is  securecf  to  the  drawer  by  a  stout  cord,  so  that 
there  is  no  danger  whatever  of  its  becoming  lost.  See 
Miicliinc-'iini. 

GARDNER  MAGAZINE-GUN.— In  this  arm  the  bar- 
rel and  tip-stock  slide  forward  and  Ijackward  on  ways 
connected  with  the  butt-stock.  They  are  released  to 
move  forward,  and  secured  when  back  by  a  hook 
into  which  the  forward  end  of  the  trigger-guard  is 
formed.  This  guard  revohes,  to  a  sufficient  extent 
for  this  purjiose,  on  a  jiiii  passing  through  it,  at  the 
forward  end  of  the  guard-bow.  It  locks  the  piece 
automatically,  when  it  is  closeil,  Ijy  the  action  of  a 
spring  at  its  rearmost  end.  In  mo\ing  out  the  bar- 
rel the  hammer  is  cocked  by  an  internal  connection 
between  the  barrel  and  the  liunbler.  A  cartridge 
having  been  expelled  backward  from  the  magazine 
by  the  action  of  the  magazine  sjiring,  it  is  raised  by 
the  striking  of  a  projection  on  the  lower  end  of  the 
banel  against  the  forward  end  of  a  bent  lever,  the 
rearmost  end  of  which  lies  iK'ueath  the  cartridge. 
This  pas.«es  it  up  a  pair  of  guides  on  the  face  of  the 
frame,  so  shaped  as  to  hold  %\ithin  their  jaws  the 
head  of  the  cartridge  by  the  rim.  When  it  arrives 
opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  chamlier  it  is  i)assed  into 
it  by  closing  the  piece.  By  rejieating  the  movements 
as  described,  the  succeeding  cartriilge  will  pass  up 
the  guides  as  before,  and  striking  from  below  the 
empty  one  just  fired,  will  throw  it  up  the  guides 
with  sufficient  force  to  send  it  clear  of  the  gim.  The 
magazine  is  charged  through  the  trough  into  which 
the  space  between  the  ways  is  formed.  The  issue  of 
the  cartridges  from  the  magazine  is  limited  to  one  at 
each  forward  motion  of  the  barrel  by  the  interposi- 
tion of  a  s])ring  stop,  which  is  pressed  out  of  the  way 
by  the  barrel  at  the  end  of  its  stroke.  The  maga- 
zine can  be  cut  off  and  held  in  reserve  by  a  revolving 
eccentric  stop,  moved  by  a  thumb  piece  on  the  out- 
side. The  arm  can  then  be  used  as  a  single  loader 
b}'  inserting  the  rim  of  the  cartridges  into  the  guides 
at  each  opening  of  the  piece.  B.y  a  cam-motion  of 
the  movable  trigger-guard  power  is  obtained  to  start 
the  barrel  slighllv  away  from  the  butt,  anil  thus  to 
overcome  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  removal  of  the 
empty  shell,  viz.,  its  sticking  at  the  start. 

GARLAND. — A  variety'  of  chaplct  made  of  flowers, 
feathers.  aw\  sometimes  of  precious  stones,  worn  on 
the  head  in  the  manner  of  a  crown.  Both  in  ancient 
and  modem  times  it  has  been  customarj'  to  present 
garlands  of  flowers  to  warriors  who  have  distinguished 
themselves.  A  beauriful  young  woman  was  gener- 
ally selected  for  that  purpose. 

GARNISHED.— A  term  in  Heraldry.  Any  charge 
is  said  to  be  i/iiriiMt<l  with  the  ornaments  set  on  it. 

GARNISH-NAILS.— Diamond-headed  nails,  in  ear- 
ly times  used  to  ornament  artillery -carriages. 

GARRET. — A  temi  formerly  and  commonly  used 
to  signifj'  a  tmret  or  battlement.     It  is  now  obsolete. 

GARRISON. — A  body  of  troops  stationed  in  or  near 
a  fort  or  fortified  town  to  defend  it,  or  to  keep  the 
inhabitants  in  sidijection.  The  garrison  of  a  work, 
when  it  is  practicable,  should  always  be  a  complete 
organization,  or  composed  of  detachments  belonging 
to  the  same  unit  of  force.  Garrisons  should  not  live 
within  field-works  unless  there  is  a  pressing  necessity 
for  this  to  be  done.  As  a  nde,  the}'  should  encamp 
near  the  works  they  are  to  defend,  and  only  keep 
guards  within  the  works.  Nevertheless  the  engineer 
or  other  officer  who  lays  out  a  field-work  should 
always  consider  the  i)Ossil)ility  of  its  being  occupied 
by  a  garrison,  and  should  provide  the  necessary  ac- 
commodations, so  far  as  interior  space  may  be  re- 
quired. The  proportion  of  men  given  for  the  protec- 
tion of  a  garrison  generally  has  for  its  object  1)oth  the 
number  required  for  the  immediate  .security  of  the 
1  place  and  that  requiretl  to  sustain  a  siege  ;  an  ar- 
rangement which  in  peace  avoids  the  nece.s.sity  of 
sluitting  up  a  considerable  body  of  troops  without  an 
immediate  object.     See  Pout. 

GARRISON  COURT-MARTIAL.— A  legal  tribunal 
i  for  the  examination  and  pimishmeut  of  all  offenders 


GA££ISON  D£S  JANISSABI£S. 


V42 


OABBISON  sliho-cabt. 


against  martial  law,  or  against  good  order  and  mili- 
tary discipline. 

Tlic  following  is  a  form  of  record  for  a  Garrison 
CourlMurtial: 

Garkison  Courts-Martial. 
First  Dull. 

Proceedings  of  a  Garrison  Court-Martial  held  at  Fort , 

,  pursuant  to  the  foUowing  order: 

Ukadquabters  Fort 


- — ,  18^  . 
Post  Orders  I 

A  (iarrison  Court-Martial  will  convene  at  this  Post  on  the 

^  1S7  ,  at  10  o'clock  A.M..  or  as  soon  thereafter  as 

practicable,  for  the  trial  of  such  prisoners  as  may  properly  be 
broueht  before  it. 

D-lail  for  llie  Court. 

First  Lieutenant  A.  B., Artillery. 

First  I,ieut«-nnnt  C.  D.. Artillery. 

Second  Lieutenant  E.  F., Artillery. 

Second  Lieutenant  G.  H., Infantry,  J.  A. 

By  command  of 


(Signed) 

l$t  Lieutenant  - 

Fort 


Artillery, 

Post  Adjutant. 

'      ,  187  . 


The  Court  met,  pursuant  to  the  foregoing  order,  at 
o'clock  A.U. 

Preseii  t : 

First  Lieutenant , Artillery. 

First  Lieutenant , Artillery. 

Second  Lieutenant , Artillery. 

Second  Lieutenant , Infantry,  J.  A. 

The  Court  then  proceeded  to  the  trial  of  l>rivate  

,  Battery  , Regiment  U.  S.  Artillery,  who  was 

then  brought  before  the  Court,  and  having  thereupon  heard 
the  order  couvenint^  il  read,  was  asked  if  he  luid  any  objec- 
tion to  being  tried  bv  any  member  nam^d  tlierrin.  to  wliich 
he  replied  in  the  negative?  The  Court,  including  the  Recorder, 
was  tnen  duly  sworn  according  to  law  in  the  presence  of  the 
prisoner. 

The  mode  of  swearing  a  Regimental  or  a  Garrison 
Court  is  as  follows: 

The  junior  member  of  the  Court  is  its  Recorder,  and 
administers  to  the  other  two  members  the  oath  pre- 
scribed in  tlie  article  for  members,  after  whicli  the 
Presiding  Ofticer  administers  to  the  Recorder  the  fol- 
lowing oiith,  wliieh  combines  with  the  oath  of  a 
member  the  additional  obligation  required  of  the 
Judge  Advocate,  or  person  officiating  as  such: 

"You,  A B— ,  do  swear  that  you  will 

well  and  truly  try  and  determine,  according  to  evi- 
dence, the  matter  now  before  you,  between  tlie  United 
States  of  America  and  the  prisoner  to  be  tried,  and 
that  you  will  duly  administer  justice,  according  to 
the  provisions  of  '  An  Act  establishing  rules  and  arti- 
cles for  the  govenuncnt  of  the  armies  of  the  United 
States,'  without  partiality,  favor,  or  affection;  and  if 
any  doubt  shoultl  arise,  not  explained  by  sjtid  articles, 
according  to  your  con.science,  the  best  of  your  under- 
standing, and  the  custom  of  war  in  like  ca.ses;  and 
you  do  further  swear  that  you  will  not  divulge  the 
sentence  of  the  Court  to  any  but  the  proper  authority, 
until  it  shall  be  duly  disclosed  by  the  Siime;  neither 
will  you  disclose  or  discover  the  vote  or  opinion  of 
any  particular  member  of  the  Court-Martial,  imless 
required  to  give  evidence  thereof,  as  a  witness,  by  a 
Court  of  Justice,  in  a  due  course  of  law.  So  help 
you  God." 

The  record  from  here  on  is  made  up  in  the  same 
general  manner  as  indicated  for  the  proceedings  of 
General  Courts- .Martial.  The  junior  member,  as  Re- 
corder or  Clerk  to  the  Court-Martutl,  should,  with  the 
President,  authenticate  its  proceedings  in  each  and 
every  case. 

In  the  absence  of  a  Judge  Advocate,  or  person  offi- 
ciating as  such,  as  a  prosecuting  attorney  for  the 
United  St;itcs.  with  lef/a(  obligjitions  to  the  prisoner — 
confined,  however,  simply  to  objecting  to  any  leading 
or  criminating  question — the  Court  it.self  proceeds 
with  the  business  referred  to  it,  summons  all  neces- 
sarj'  witnc.s.scs,  and  asks  all  questions  tending  to  eluci- 
date the  matter,  pro  and  con,  without  denial  to  the 
prisoner  of  his  right  to  a.sk  any  additional  question 
pertinent  to  the  issue,  or  to  make  any  statement  re- 
spectful in  its  character. 

Equal  obligation  rests  on  each  member  of  the  Court 


to  well  and  tndy  try  and  determine,  according  to  evi- 
dence, the  matter  before  it,  and  to  duly  administer 
justice. 

Questions  by  the  Recorder,  or  any  other  member, 
if  not  obiected  to,  become  ■'Questions  by  the  Court." 

The  "decision  luid  orders"  of  the  Reviewing  Offi- 
cer, confirming,  dis)ippro\'ing,  or  remitting  the  sen- 
tence, should  follow  immediately  after  the  signature 
of  the  President  and  Recorder,  and  be  signed  o^//i;«, 
and  not  by  his  command,  and  then  forwarded,  with- 
out delay,"  together  with  a  copy  of  his  Post  or  Regi- 
mental Order  promulgating  tne  proceedings,  to  De- 
partment Headquarters,  for  the  super%'ision  of  the 
Department  C(>mmander.     See  CoiirtuMartial. 

GAEEISON  DES  JANISSARIES.  —  The  I'Ute  or 
flower  of  the  Janissjiries  of  Constantinople  was  fre- 
quently sent  into  garrison  on  the  frontiers  of  Turkey, 
or  to  the  places  where  the  loyalty  of  the  inhabitim'ts 
was  doubted.  The  Janissjiries  did  not  indeed  assist 
in  the  immediate  defense  of  a  besieged  town  or  for- 
tress, but  they  watched  the  motions  of  all  suspected 
persons,  and  were  subject  to  the  orders  of  their  offi- 
cers, who  usually  commanded  the  garrison. 

GABBISON  FLAG. — In  the  United  States  ser^-ice, 
the  garrison-rtag  is  the  national  flag.  It  is  made  of 
bunting,  thu-ty-si.\  feet  fly  and  twenty  .feet  hoist,  in 
thirteen  horizontal  stripes  of  equal  breadth,  alter- 
nately red  and  white,  beginning  with  the  red.  In 
the  upper  quarter,  next  the  statf ,  is  the  Union,  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  white  stars,  equal  to  the  num- 
ber of  States,  on  a  blue  field,  one  third  the  length  of 
the  flag,  extending  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  fourth  red 
stripe  from  the  top.  This  flag  is  furnished  only  to 
verj-  important  posts,  or  those  hann"  large  garrisons, 
and  is  hoisted  only  on  gala-days  and  great  occasions. 
See  Ftags. 

GAKEISON-GIN.— The  largest  size  of  gin.  It  is 
strongly  built  and  used  for  raising  heavy  ordnance, 
driving  piles,  etc.,  and  consists  of  three  poles,  each 
from  12  to  15  feet  long,  and  5  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  lower  end,  tapering  to  3|  inches  at  the  upper. 
The  poles  are  tniited  at  the  top,  either  by  an  iron 
ring  which  passes  through  them  or  by  a  rope  which 
is  twisted  .several  times  around  each,  and  to  this 
I  "joint"  a  pulley  is  fixed.  Two  of  these  poles  are 
kept  at  an  invariable  distance  by  means  of  an  iron 
rod,  in  order  that  they  may  support  the  wipdlass 
which  is  attached  to  them,  its  pivots  running  in  iron 
cheeks  fixed  to  the  poles.  When  the  machine  is  to 
Ije  used,  it  is  .set  up  over  the  weight  to  be  raised;  two 
r  blocks  arranged  according  to  the  Second  System  of 
Pulleys  are  fixed,  the  one  to  the  top  of  the  poles, 
the  other  to  the  weight;  and  the  rope,  after  passing 
around  both  bk)cks,  and  over  the  pulley  before  men- 
j  tioned,  is  attached  to  the  windlass,  by  ihe  revolution 
of  which  the  weii^ht  ran  then  be  raised.     See  ('in. 

GABBISON  SLING-CABT.— A  form  of  sling-cart  for 
mo\ing  very  heavy  weights.  It  is  attached  by  its 
pole  to  a  siege-  or  field-limber,  and  may  be  drawn  by 
horses.    With  this  cart  the  weight  is  raised  by  first 


attaching  to  it  a  sling,  and  then  applying  to  the  sling 
the  hooks  forming  the  lower  part  of  a  powerfid 
screw  passing  up  through  the  axle  of  the  cart.  Above 
the  axle  is  the  nut  of  the  screw,  provided  with  long 


6AEKIS0N  TOWN. 


743 


OAS. 


Star  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter. 


bandies.     Power  is  applied  to  these  handles,  and  the  i 
screw  is  run  up,  thus  rai.sing  the  weight.  ' 

This  sling-cart  is  capable  of  carrying  20,000  pounds;  i 
but  with  such  heav}'  weights  the  handles  of  the  screw 
are  difficult  to  turn.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  a 
niodilication  has  been  made  in  the  cart  by  substitu- 
ting for  the  screw  a  hydraulic  jack.  Through  the 
axle-body  two  vertical  mortises  are  cut,  each  at  a  dis- 
tance of  "twenty  inches  from  the  middle  of  the  axle- 
body.  Through  these  mortises  slide  two  stout  bars  of 
iron,  with  hooks  below  for  the  sling-chain,  and  holes 
above  for  pins  to  support  them  as  I  hey  are  raised;  the 
pins  pass  through  the  bars  above  the  axle-lxxly.  A 
strong  crossbar  cormccts  the  upright  bars  neai"  their 
tops;  under  this  the  head  of  the  jack  is  applied,  the 
jack  resting  on  the  axle-body.  See  Hand  Sling-cart  I 
and  lili>i<i-c-aH. 

GAEEISON    TOWN.— A  strong  locality  in  which  I 
troops  are  quartered  and  do  duty  for   the   security 
thereof,  keeping  strong  guards  at  each  post,  and  "a 
main  guard  in  or  near  the  marketplace. 

GAKTEB.— The  Order  of  the  Garter  was  instituted 
by  King  Edward  III.,  and  though  not  the  most  an- 
cient, is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  milifctrj-  orders 
of  Europe.  Selden  says 
that  it  "exceeds  in  ma- 
jesty, honor,  and  fame 
all  chivalrous  orders  in 
the  world."  It  is  said  to 
have  been  devised  for  the 
purpo.se  of  attracting  to 
the  king's  party  such  sol-  j 
diers  of  forttme  as  might  ! 
be  likely  to  aid  in  assert- 
ing the  claim  which  he 
was  then  making  to  the 
crown  of  France,  and  in-  i 
tended  as  an  imitation  of  j 
King  Arthur's  round  ta-  j 
l)le.  The  round  table  was  erected  at  AVindsor,  and 
the  knights  and  nobles  who  were  invited  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  were  exercised  at  tilts  and  tourna- 
ments as  a  preparation  for  the  magniticcnt  feasts  that 
were  spread  before  them.  That  general  "  jousts  and 
tournaments"  of  this  description  were  held  at  Wind- 
sor is  assured  from  the  letters  summoning  them 
bearing  date  January  1,  1344,  and  quoted  by  Sir 
Harris  Nicolas  in  his  Orders  of  Knightlimd,  and  also 
from  the  narrative  of  Frois.sart,  who  connects  them  ; 
with  the  institution  of  the  order.  The  original  num-  i 
ber  of  the  Knights  of  the  Garter  was  twenty-live,  his  t 
Majesty  himself  making  the  twenty-sixth.  The  story 
that  the  Countess  of  Salisbury  let  fall  ber  garter  when 
dancing  with  the  King,  and  that  the  King  picked  it 
up  and  tied  it  round  his  own  leg.  but  that,  observing 
the  jealous  glances  of  the  Queen,  he  restored  it  to  its 
fair  owner  with  the  exclamation,  lloiii  luiit  (jui  mal  y 
pense,  is  about  as  well  authent  icated  as  most  tales  of 
the  kind,  and  has,  moreover,  in  it.s  favor  that  it  ac- 
counts for  the  otherwise  unaccountable  emblem  and 
motto  of  the  order.  Sir  Harris  Nicolas,  whose  error 
does  not  usually  lie  in  the  direction  of  credulity,  .says 
that  though  the  writers  on  the  order  have  treated  it 
with  contempt,  they  have  neither  succeeded  in  show- 
ing its  absurdity  nor  suggested  anv  more  probable 
theory.  Various  dates  arc  assigned  to  the  Order  of 
the  Garter.  Froissart,  as  above  mentioned,  gives 
1344,  and  fixes  on  St.  George's  Day  (April  23),  1344; 
but  Stow,  and,  it  is  said,  the  statutes  of  the  order,  fix 
it  six  years  later,  vii.,  1850.  The  original  statutes 
have  long  since  perished,  and  little  reliance  can  be 
placed  on  the  modern  copies  of  them,  and  nothing  is 
known  on  the  subject  with  precision  till  the  compi- 
lation of  the  Jilack  Btxik  in  the  latter  jiart  of  the  reign  1 
of  Henry  VIII.  In  these  cireumstimces  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas  is  of  opinion  that,  though  founded  at  tlie  for- 
mer period,  it  was  not  till  the  latter  that  the  order 
■was  finally  organized  and  the  Comijanions  chosen.  It 
was  founded  in  honor  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  Vir-  : 
gin  Mary,  St.  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  St.  George;  1 


but  the  last,  who  had  become  the  tutelary  saint  of 
England,  was  considered  its  special  patron;  and  for 
this  rea.son  it  has  always  born  the  title  of  "  The  Order 
of  St.  George,"  as  well  as  of  "  The  Garter.  "  A  li.st 
of  the  original  Knights,  or  Kjiights  founders,  is  given 
by  Sir  Harris  Nicolas.  The  well  known  emblem  of 
tiae  order  is  a  dark  blue  ribbon  edged  with  gold, 
bearin  the  motto  Htmi  mit  qui  iiial  //  peiise,  in  gold 
letters,  with  a  buckle  and  pendant  of  gold  richly 
chased.  It  is  worn  on  the  left  leg  below  the  knee. 
The  mantle  is  of  blue  velvet  lined  with  white  taffeta, 
and  on  the  left  breast  a  star  is  embroidered.  The 
hood  and  surcoat  are  of  crimson  velvet  lineil  with  white 
taffeta.  The  hat  is  of  black  velvet,  with  a  i)hmie  of 
white  ostrich-feathers,  in  the  center  of  which  there  is 
a  tuft  of  black  herons'  feathers,  all  fastened  to  the 
hat  by  a  band  of  diamonds.  The  collar  is  of  gold, 
and  consists  of  twenty-.six  pieces,  each  in  the  form 
ofagarter.  The  "George"  isthcflgmeof  St.  George 
on  horseback  encountering  the  f)ragon,  and  is  worn 
hanging  from  tlie  collar;  there  is  a  "  le.sser  George" 
pendent  to  a  broad  dark  blue  ribbon  over  the  left 
shoulder.  The  star,  which  is  of  eight  points,  is  sil- 
ver, and  has  upon  the  center  the  cross  of  St.  George, 
gules,  encircled  with  the  garter.  The  officers  of  the 
order  are — the  Prelate  (the  Bishop  of  Winchester), 
the  Chancellor  (the  Bishop  of  Oxford),  the  Registrar, 
(the  Dean  of  Windsor),  the  Garter  King  of  Arms,  and 
the  Usher  of  the  Black  Rod. 

GARTER  KING  OF  ARMS.— The  Garter  King  of 
Arms  is  also  the  principal  King  of  Anns  in  England. 
Though  held  by  the  same  person,  they  arc  distinct 
offices.  The  first  was  instituted  for  the  service  of 
the  Order  of  the  Garter,  not  on  its  first  foundation, 
but  afterwards  by  Henry  V.  as  Sovereign,  with  the 
ad\ice  and  consent  of  the  Knightscempanions.  The 
jieculiar  duty  of  Garter  King  of  Arms  is  to  attend 
upon  the  Knights  at  tlieir  solemnities,  to  intimate 
their  election  to  those  who  are  chosen  by  the  order, 
to  call  them  to  be  installed  at  Windsor,  to  cause  their 
anns  to  be  hung  up  over  their  stalls,  and  to  marshal 
their  funeral  processions,  and  those  of  royal  jierson- 
ages,  and  of  memliers  of  the  higher  nobility.  In 
the  capacity  of  Principal  King  of  Arms,  he  grants 
and  confirms  arms,  under  the  authoritv  of  the  Earl 
Marshal,  to  whom  he  is  not  sul)ject  as  darter  King  of 
Arms.  All  new  grants  or  patents  of  arms  in  England 
are  first  signed  and  sealed  by  Garter  King  of  Arms, 
and  then  by  the  king  of  the  province  to  which  the 
applicant  belongs.     See  Garter. 

GAS. — The  term  gas  was  employed  by  the  older 
chemists  to  designate  any  kind  of  air  or  vapor.  Van 
Helmont  was  the  first  chemist  who  limited  the  term 
gas  to  such  elastic  fiuids  as  had  not  been  rendered 
liquid  or  solid  by  the  reduction  of  temperature.  In 
common  language  .some  distinction  is  made  between 
gases  and  vapors.  Gases  are  understood  to  be  in- 
variably al'riform  at  ordinary  temperatures  and  at- 
mospheric pressures,  while  vapors  imder  these  con- 
ditions are  solid  or  liquid,  and  only  assume  a  vapor- 
ous or  apparently  gaseous  form  at  relatively  high 
teiiijieratures.  "fhus  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
chlorine,  etc.,  are  considered  true  gases;  while  water, 
sulphur,  iodine,  etc.,  when  heated  to  certain  definite 
points,  become  transformed  into  vapors.  There  is, 
however,  no  distinction  between  gases  and  vapors  in 
a  theoretic  point  of  view.  The  kiiuiie  i/ie^n/ of  gases, 
first  put  forth  by  Daniel  Bernouilli,  is  to  the  effect 
that  they  are  formed  of  material  particles,  fiee  in 
space,  and  actuated  by  verj-  raiiid  rectilinear  move- 
ments, and  that  the  tension  of  elastic  fluids  results 
from  the  shock  of  their  particles  against  the  sides  of 
the  containing  vessels.  This  theory  has  been  recently 
reWved  and  developed  chiefly  bj-  Clausius  and  Clerk 
Maxwell.  Their  perfect  elasticity  is  one  of  the  most 
important  physical  peculiarities  of  gases.  Within 
the  limits  of  all  ordinary  experiments  it  is  generally 
true  that  "  the  volume  of  a  gaseous  body  is  inversely 
as  the  compressing  force."  In  consequence  of  their 
extreme  elasticity,  gases  exhibit  an  entire  absence  of 


GAS. 


744 


GAS. 


cohesion  among  their  particles,  and  in  this  respect 
thev  differ  esseutially  from  liquids.  A  vessel  may 
l)e  tillid  L-ilher  partially  or  completely  wilh  a  liijuid. 
and  this  liquid  «ill  have  a  dclinile  level  surface  or 
limit.  With  jrases  it  is  otherwise;  they  always  per- 
fectlv  till  the  vessel  that  contains  them,  however  ir- 
regular its  form.  IiLstead  of  cohesion,  there  is  a 
mutual  repulsion  among  their  particles,  which  have 
a  continual  tendency  to  recede  further  from  each 
other,  and  thus  exert  a  pressure  in  an  outward  direc- 
tion upon  the  sides  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  gas  is 
Inclosed.  This  outward  pressure  is  greater  or  less 
according  as  the  elasticity  of  the  gas  is  increased  or 
diminished.  Dalton  long  ago  remarked  that  "  there 
can  scarcely  be  a  douht  entertained  resiiecling  the  re- 
ducibility  of  all  ela.stic  Huids,  of  whatever  kind,  into 
liquids;  and  we  ought  not  to  despair  of  effecting  it 
at  low  temix-ratures  and  by  strong  )»ressure  exerted 
upon  the  unmixeil  gases."  This  prediction  has  been 
completely  fultilleu.  It  occurred  to  Faraday,  who 
led  the  van  in  these  investigations,  that  the  most 
probable  mo<le  of  obtaining  gases  (or  rather  what, 
under  ordinary  circtmistances,  would  be  gases)  in  the 
liquid  state,  would  be  to  generate  them  under  strong 
pressure.  When  thus  proiluccd  in  strong  bent  glass 
tuhes,  they  continued  liquid  at  low  temperatures 
while  the  pressure  was  maintained;  but  on  remo\-ing 


thus  confirming  the  bold  and  ingenious  idea  of  Fara- 
day, who  tirst  suggested  that  hydrogen  is  a  nietjil." 
Tile  distinction  between  permanent  and  condensable 
gases  is  thus  abolisheil. 

Graham's  experiments  with  the  simple  diffusion- 
tube  show  that  the  diffusiveness  or  tliffiifioii  rolume 
of  a  gas  is  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  .•square  root  of 
its  density;  consequently  the  squares  of  the  times  of 
eciual  (lirfusi(m  of  the  ilifferent  gsi-ses  are  in  the  ratio 
of  their  specilic  gravities.  Thus,  the  density  of  air 
being  taken  as  the  standard  of  compari.sou  at  1,  the 
.•iiiuare  root  of  that  density  is  1,  and  its  diffusion  vol- 
ume is  also  1 ;  the  density  of  hydrogen  is  0.0692,  the 
square  root  of  that  density  is  0.2(532,  and  its  diffusion 
volume  is  7r-n>Vss.  or  3.T994;  or,  as  actual  experi- 
ment shows,  S.ki — that  is  to  say,  if  hydrogen  and 
comiuon  air  be  placed  under  circumstances  favoring 
their  mutual  diffusion,  'A.K\  volumes  of  hydrogen  will 
change  place  with  1.00  of  air.  The  following  tjible 
gives:  1.  The  density;  2.  The  square  root  of  the 
density;  3.  The  calcidaled,  and  4.  The  observed 
velocity  of  diffusion  or  diffusiveness  of  several  im- 
l)orlant  gases;  the  numbers  in  the  last  column,  headed 
"  Rate  of  effusion,"  being  the  results  obtained  by  ex- 
periment upon  the  rajiidity  with  which  the  different 
gases  escape  into  a  va<uum  through  a  minute  aper- 
ture about  505  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


Gas. 


Hydrogen 

Light  carburetted  hydrogen, 

Carbonic  oxide 

Nitrogen • 

Oletiunt  gas 

Bino.Yide  of  nitrogen 

Oxygen 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 

Protoxide  of  nitrogen 

Carbonic  acid 

Sulphurous  acid 


Density. 


0.0G936 

0.559 

0.9«T8 

0.9713 

0.978 

1.039 

1.1056 

1.1912 

1..5-J7 

i.wnoi 

2.iM7 


Square  root 
ot  density. 


0  2632 
0.7476 
0.9837 
0.9859 
0.9889 
1.0196 
1.0515 
1.0914 
1.2337 
1.2365 
1.4991 


Calculated 
velocity  of 
diffusion. 


3.7994 
1.3.r5 
1.0165 
1.0147 
1.0112 
0.9808 
0.9310 
0.9162 
0.8092 
0.8087 
0.6671 


Observed  velocity 

ot  diffusion. 

Air  =  1. 


3.83 
1.344 

1.0149 
1  0143 
1.0191 


0  9487 

0.95 

0.82 

0.812 

0.68 


Rate  ot 
effusion. 


3.613 

1.322 

1.0123 

I.OIM 

1.0128 


0.950 


0  831 
0.821 


the  pressure  (breaking  the  tube),  they  instantly  passed 
into  the  ga.seous  state.  In  his  3Iemoir  published  in 
the  Philmophical  Triinmctiuns  for  1823  he  annoimccd 
that  he  had  succeeded  in  liquefying  chlorine,  euchlo- 
rine,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  nitrous  oxide,  cyanogen, 
ammonia,  and  hyilrochloric,  sulphurous,  and  car- 
tonic  acids.  Subsequently,  under  the  joint  action  of 
powerful  mechanical  pressure  and  extreme  cold,  the 
numl)er  of  liquefiable  gases  was  so  far  extended  as 
to  include  all  except  oxjgen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  ni- 
tric oxide,  and  coal-gas;  and  all  the  following  gases 
were  obtained  in  a  solid  form:  hjdriodie  acid,  hydro- 
bromic  acid,  sulplnnous  acid,  sulpliuretted  hydro 
gen,  carlwnic  acid,  cyanogen,  ammonia,  euchlorine, 
fluoride  of  silicon.  The  researches  of  Andre%vs  es- 
tablished the  fact  that  for  every  gas  there  is  a  certain 
minimum  tcmperalure  at  which  the  energy  of  the 
molecular  movement  is  exactly  balanced  by  the  force 
of  cohesion,  irhaterer  be  the  j)res»uri:  to  irhieh  the  rnpiir 
is  siihjicted;  this  temperature  is  the  "  critical  point"  of 
the  gas.  It  was  because  the  critical  points  of  certain 
ga.ses  are  very  low  that  they  so  long  resisted  all  ef- 
forts to  condense  them.  No  amount  of  pressure  with- 
out the  necessary  cold  could  be  effectual.  At  last, 
in  the  end  of  1877,  by  the  use  of  powerful  apparatus 
and  ingenious  contrivances  for  producing  cold,  the 
dillicullies  have  been  overcome  by  M.M.  Cailletet  and 
Ilaoul  Pictet  of  Geneva.  By  combining  a  cold  of 
120  to  140  below  zero,  with  enormous  pressures  of 
550  and  even  6.50  atmospheres,  M.  Piclet  was  able 
to  liquefy  oxygen.  "  He  has  also  liquefied  and  even 
soliditie<l  hydrogen,  which  he  has  seen  to  issue  from 
the  tube  iti  the  form  of  a  steel-blue  liquid  jel,  whieh 
partly  soliditied.  The  .solid  hydrogen,  in  falling  on 
the  floor,  produced  the  shrill  noise  of  a  metallic  hail. 


The  process  of  diffusion  is  one  which  is  continually 
performing  an  important  part  in  the  atmosphere 
around  us.  Accumulations  of  gases  which  arc  unfit 
for  the  support  of  animal  and  vetretable  life  are  by 
its  means  silently  and  speedily  dLspersed,  and  this 
process  thereby  contributes  largely  to  maintain  that 
uniformity  in  the  composition  of  the  at'rial  ocean 
which  is  so  e.s.sential  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the 
animal  ci'eation.  Rcsi)iratinn  itself,  but  for  the  pro- 
cess of  diffusion,  would  fail  of  its  appointed  end,  in 
ra|iidly  renew  ing  to  the  lungs  a  fresh  sujiply  of  air, 
in  ])Iace  of  that  which  has  been  rendered  unfit  for  the 
.support  of  life  by  the  chemical  changes  which  it  has 
undergone.  A  reference  to  the  last  two  columns  of 
the  above  table  shows  that,  within  the  limits  of  ex- 
perimental errors,  the  rate  of  effusion  of  each  gas 
coincides  with  its  rate  of  diffusion.  Graham's  ex- 
periments .show  that  the  velocity  of  tni impiration  (the 
term  which  that  chemist  applied  to  the  pa.ssage  of 
gas  through  long  capillary  tubes)  is  entirely  indepen- 
(lent  of  the  rate  of  (liffusion,  or  of  any  other  known 
I)ropcrty.  It  \aries  with  the  chemical  nature  of  the 
gas,  and  is  most  probably  "  the  resultant  of  a  kind  of 
elasticity  depending  ui)on  the  absolute  quantity  of 
heat,  latent  as  well  as  sensible,  wliieh  different  gases 
contain  imder  the  same  volume;  and  therefore  will 
be  found  to  be  connected  more  immediately  with  the 
siiecific  heat  thiwi  with  any  otiier  property  of  gases." 
Oxygen  is  found  to  have  the  lowest  rate  of  transpira- 
tion. Taking  its  transiiiiation  velocity  at  1,  that  of 
air  is  1.1074;  of  nitrogen,  1.141;  of  carbonic  acid, 
1.369;  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  1.614;  of  ammonia, 
1.93.");  of  olefiant  gas,  1.980;  and  of  hydrogen,  2.288. 
In  the  passage  of  gases  through  diaphragms,  the  law 
of  the  diffusion  of  gases  is  more  or  less  disturbed  or 


OAS. 


745 


6AS. 


modified  according  to  the  force  of  adhesion  in  the 
material  of  which  the  diaphragm  is  comiX)sed:  the  | 
disturbance  being  the  greatest  in  the  case  of  soluble 
gases  and  a  moist  thin  diaphragm,  such  as  a  bladder  , 
or  a  rabbit's  stomach.  I 

All  gases  are  more  or  less  soluble  in  water  and  other 
liquids.  Some  gases,  as,  for  e.xamplc,  hydrochloric  [ 
acid  and  ammonia,  are  absorbed  by  water  very  ; 
rapidly,  and  to  a  great  extent,  the  liqiiid  taking  up  ' 
400  or  GOO  times  its  bulk  of  the  gas;  in  other  ca.ses,  | 
as  carbonic  acid,  water  takes  up  its  own  volume  of 
the  gas;  whilst  in  the  ca.se  of  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and 
hj'drogen  it  does  not  take  u])  more  than  from  ^K  to 
jV  of  its  bulk.  As  the  elasticity  of  the  gas  Is'the 
power  which  is  here  opposed  to  adhesion,  and  wliich 
at  length  limits  the  quantity  dissolved,  it  is  found 
that  the  solubility  of  each  gas  is  greater,  the  lower 
the  temperature,  and  the  greater  the  pressme  exerted 
upon  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  Dr.  Henry  found 
that  at  any  given  temperature  the  xoluiite  oi  any  gas  I 
which  was  absorbed  was  uniform,  whatever  might 
be  the  pressiu-e  ;  consequently  that  the  weight  of  anj- 
given  gas  absorbed  by  a  given  volume  of  anj'  liquid 
at  a  fixed  temperature  increased  directly  with  the  j 
pressure.  If  the  pressure  be  uniform,  the  quantity  j 
of  any  given  gas  absorbed  by  a  given  liquid  Is  also 
imiform  for  each  temperature;  and  the  numerical 
expression  of  the  solubility  of  each  gas  in  such 
liquids  is  termed  its  coefficioil  of  absorption  or  of 
solubility,  at  the  particular  temperature  and  pressure, 
the  volume  of  the  gas  absorbed  being  in  all  cases 
calculated  for  32"  Fahr.,  imder  a  pressure  of  29.92 
inches  of  mercurj-.  Thus,  one  volume  of  water  at 
32°,  and  under  a  pressure  of  29.92  Inches  of  the  ba- 
rometer, dis.solvcs  0.04114  of  its  volume  of  oxygen  ; 
and  this  fraction  represents  the  coefficient  of  absorp- 
tion of  oxjgen  at  th;tt  temperature  and  pressure. 
Similarlj',  the  coefficient  of  absorption  of  common 
air  is  0.02471.  In  consequence  of  this  solubility  of 
the  air,  all  water  contains  a  certain  small  proportion 
of  it  in  solution  ;  and  if  placed  in  a  vessel  under  the 
air-pump,  so  as  to  remove  the  atmospheric  pressure 
from  its  surface,  the  dissolved  gases  rise  in  minute 
bubbles.  Small  as  is  the  quantity  of  oxygen  thus 
taken  up  by  water  from  the  atmo.sphere,  it  is  the 
means  of  niaintaiiang  the  life  of  all  aquatic  animals. 
If  the  air  be  exi)elled  from  water  bj'  foiling,  and  it 
be  covered  with  a  layer  of  oil,  to  prevent  it  from 
again  absorbing  air,  fish  or  any  aquatic  animals 
placed  in  such  water  quickly  perish.  Even  the  life 
of  the  superior  animals  is  depentlent  upon  the  solu- 
bility of  oxygen  in  the  fluid  which  moistens,  the  air- 
tubes  of  the  lungs,  in  consequence  of  which  this  gas 
is  absorbed  into  the  mass  of  the  blood,  and  circula- 
tion through  the  pulmonary  ve.s.sels. 

The  following  table,  drawn  up  from  the  researches 
of  Bunsen  and  Carius,  shows  the  solubilit)'  of  some 
of  the  most  important  gases,  both  in  water  and  in  al- 
cohol. 


Each  of  these  gases,  wth  the  exception  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  may  be  exi)elled  from  the  water  by 
long-continued  boiling.  Gases  are  not  abs<jrbed  by 
all  liquids  in  the  same  order;  for  example,  naphtha 
absorbs  most  olefiant  gas,  oil  of  lavender  most  pro- 
toxide of  nitrogen,  olive-oil  most  carbonic  acid,  and 
solution  of  chloride  of  [lotassium  the  most  carbonif' 
oxide.  If  a  mixture  of  two  or  more  gases  be  agitated 
with  water,  or  probably  any  other  liquid,  a  portion 
of  each  gas  will  be  absorbed,  and  the  amount  of  each 
so  absorbed  or  dis.solved  will  be  proportional  to  the 
relative  volume  of  each  gas  multiplied  with  its  co- 
efficient of  solubility  at  the  observed  temperature  and 
pressure.  As  all  ordinary  liquids  exert  a  greater  or 
less  solvent  action  on  gases,  a  gas  to  be  examined 
quantitatively  should  be  collected  over  mercury. 

The  adhesion  of  gases  to  solids  next  requires  a 
notice.  Illustrations  of  this  jihenomenon  periietually 
occur.  Thus,  wood  and  other  solid  substances  im- 
mersed in  water  or  other  liquids  ajjpear  covered  with 
airbubl)les.  It  is  this  adhesion  of  air  to  the  .surface 
of  gla.ss  lubes  which  causes  the  difficulty  of  olitaining 
barometers  and  thennometcrs  completely  free  from 
air.  It  is  in  consequence  of  the  adhesion  of  air  to 
their  surfaces  that  many  small  insects  are  enabled  to 
skim  lightly  over  the  surface  of  water  which  docs 
not  wet  them.  A  simple  method  of  illustrating  this 
phenomenon  is  by  gently  dusting  iron  filings  over  the 
surface  of  a  ves.sel  of  water  ;  if  we  proceed  carefully, 
a  considerable  mass  of  the  iron  may  accumulate  upon 
the  surface  ;  till  at  last  it  falls  in  large  flakes,  carry- 
ing down  with  it  numerous  bubbles  of  air.  As  the 
particles  of  iron  are  nearly  eight  times  as  heavy  as 
water,  it  was  only  the  adherent  air  that  enabled  them 
to  float  upon  the  surface.  Closely  allied  to  this  ad- 
hesion is  that  remarkable  property  of  condensation 
which  porous  bodies,  and  especiallj'  charcoal,  exert 
over  gases.  Owing  to  this  property  of  charcoal — 
especially  freshly  burned  vegetable  charcoal — various 
^ses  maj'  be  separated  from  their  watery  solution  by 
filtration  of  the  latter  through  it  ;  for  an  example, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  may  be  removed  from  water 
so  completely  that  it  cannot  be  detected  either  by  its 
well-known  odor  or  by  the  ordinary  tests.  Saussure 
found  that  1  volume  of  freshly  burned  box-wood 
charcoal  absorbed  90  volumes  of  ammonia,  85  of 
hydrochloiic  acid,  65  of  sulphurous  acid,  55  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  40  of  protoxide  of  nitrogen,  35 
of  carbonic  acid,  85  of  bicarburetted  hj'drogen,  9.4 
of  carbonic  oxide,  9.2  of  oxygen,  7.5  of  nitrogen, 
5.0  of  carbiuetted  Indrogen,  and  1.7  of  hydrogen. 
These  results  follow  an  order  very  nearly  the  same 
as  that  of  the  solubility  of  the  gases  in  water.  Sten- 
house  has  Investigated  the  differences  in  the  absor- 
bent power  of  the  different  kinds  of  charcoal ;  the 
table  on  page  746  shows  his  most  important  results:  .5 
of  a  gram  of  each  kind  of  charcoal  being  employed, 
and  the  numbers  in  the  table  indicating  in  cubic  cen- 
timeters the  quantity  of  absorbed  gas. 


Gks. 


Ammonia 

Hydrochloric  acid 

Sulphurous  acid 

Sulphuretted  hj-drogen 

Chlorine 

Oarbouic  acid 

Ppotoxiiie  of  nitrogen. . , 

defiant  gas 

Bino*ide  of  nitrogen. . . 

Marsh  pas 

Carbonic  oxide 

Ox.vgen 

Nitrogen 

Air 

Hydrogen 


Volume  of  eacli  gas  dissolved  in 
one  volume  of  water. 


'  At  32  degrees  F.       At  59  degrees  F. 


1049.69 
505.9 
68.861 
4.3706 
Solid. 
1 .7907 
l.:i052 
0.3563 


0.05449 
0.(13-*l7 
0  04114 
0.0-J035 
0.1)--'l71 
0.01930 


727. a 

468.0 
43.564 
3.8386 
2.368 
1.002 
0.0778 
0.1615 


0  08909 
0.0S43S 
0.IW989 
0  01478 
0.01795 
0.01930 


Volume  of  each  gas  dissolved  in 
one  volume  of  alcohol. 


At  32  degrees  F. 


328.63 
17.181 


4. 3295 

4.1780 

3.5950 

0.31606 

0.52259 

0.30443 

0.28397 

0.12634 


0.06925 


At  59  degrees  F, 


145.55 
9.539 

3!i993 

8.2678 

2.8825 

0.27478 

0.48280 

020443 

0.28397 

0.12142 


0.06723 


OAS-CHECK. 


746 


OAS-ENOINE. 


Gas  csed. 


Ammonia   

hydrochloric  acid 

Siilpliurous  acid 

Sulpliuretted  liydrogen 

Caroouio  acid 

Oxygen 


Kind  of  Charcoal  employed. 


Wood. 


»8.S 
4S.0 
82.S 
30.0 
14.0 
0.8 


Peat.      Animal. 


96.0 
60.0 
27.5 
28. .5 
10.0 
0.6 


43.5 

i¥.s 

9.0 
5.0 
0.5 


So  rapid  is  this  action  of  charcoal,  that  Stenhouse 
has  |)ropos<.'il  to  use  a  respirator  tilled  with  it  to  pro- 
tect the  mouth  and  nostrils  in  an  infected  atmosijherc; 
and  the  erai)loyraent  of  trays  of  powdered  wood- 
charcoal  in  dissecting  rooms,  in  the  wards  of  hospi- 
tals, and  in  situations  where  jiutrescent  animal  mat- 
ter is  present,  is  found  to  act  very  heneticially  in 
purifyinsr  the  air  by  absorliing  the  offensive  giLses. 
Its  u.se  in  reference  to  the  filtration  of  water  has  been 
already  alluded  to.  The  determination  of  the  exact 
specific  gravity  of  the  different  gases  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  calculating  the  proixirlions  of  the  differ- 
ent ingredients  of  compounds  into  which  they  enter  ; 
and  the  whole  series  of  numbers  expressing  the 
chemical  e(|uivalents  or  atomic  weights  of  bodies  de- 
pend upon  the  accuracy  of  the  determination  of  the 
speeitie  gravity  of  hydrogen  and  o.vygen. 

The  following  table  gives  the  specific  gravity  and 
the  weight  of  100  cubic  inches  of  some  of  the  most 
important  gjtses  at  a  barometric  pressure  of  30  inches 
and  at  a  teinperature  of  60%  together  ■with  the  name 
of  the  observer : 


Gas. 


Specific 
Gravity. 
Air  =  "l. 


Air 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen  

Hydrogen 

Carbonic  acid 

Chlorine  

Ammonia 

Carhuretted  hydrogen . 

Oleflant  gas 

.\rseniuretted  hydrogen 
Sulphuretted  liydrogen. 

C\'anogen 

Hydrocliloric  acid 

Sulphurous  acid 


1.0000 
1.1056 
0.9713 
0.069!! 

i.ijago 

2..'i000 
0.5902 
0.5555 
0.972-J 

0  5290 

1  1805 
1.8(K>5 
1.2847 

2  2222 


Weight  of 

100  Cubic 

Inches  in 

Grains. 


Observer. 


30.935 
31.203 
30.119 
2.143 
47.303 
76.250 
18.003 
16.944 
29.652 
li;  130 
30.007 
.^^.069 
39.1^83 
67. 7< ( 


Regnault. 


Thomson. 


Tromsdorff. 
Thomson. 
Gay-Lussac. 
Thomson. 


Regarding  the  chemical  properties  of  gases,  most  of 
the  different  gases,  when  \nirv.  can  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  some  well-marked  physical  or  chemi- 
cal property.  Some  are  distinguished  by  their  col- 
or, others  by  their  very  peculiar  odor ;  but  several 
of  the  most  important  "ones— viz.,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  o.xide,  light'cjir- 
buretted  hydrogen,  olefiant  gas,  and  the  iirntoxide  of 
nitrogen  -require  various  other  means  for  their  dis- 
crimination. 

GAS  CHECK.— Soon  after  the  introduction  of  the 
Woolwich  guns  it  became  evident  that  a  great  evil 
had  to  be  combated.  This  was  that  the  heavy  charges 
used,  and  the  consequent  rush  of  gas  along  the  bore, 
especially  at  that  portion  of  it  immediately  over  the 
scat  of  the  shot,  seriously  eroded  the  steel  tubes  of  the 
guns.  To  such  an  extent  does  this  erosion  take  place 
that  an  impression  of  the  rear  jxirtion  of  the  bore  of 
a  heavy  Woolwich  gun  reseml)1es,  in  ils  roughness, 
the  bark  of  an  elmtree;  and  obviously  this  erosion 
shortens  the  lives  of  the  gtnis.  (Jasehccks,  originally 
introduced  to  ])revent  erosion  of  the  bore,  have  been 
found  not  only  to  fulfill  this  purpose,  but  also  to  in- 
crease range  and  accuracy,  and  to  be  cap.ible  of  giv- 
ing the  requisite  rotation  to  the  i>rojeclile  so  as  to 
reniler  the  use  of  studs  tmncces.sary.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  boiling  a  ttanged  copper  disk  to  the  ba.se 
of  the  shell.    In  the  larger  calibers  the  studs  are  going 


out  of  use.  The  projectile  for  the  100-ton  gun  receives 
it.s  motion  of  rotation  from  an  expanding  (copper)  gas- 
cheek  on  its  base  fastened  by  12  screws  on  the  base 
of  the  jirojectile.  Under  the  action  of  the  powiler- 
gas,  the  check  is  expanded  and  compres.sed;  its  for- 
ward portion  is  compressed  between  the  walls  of  the 
bore  anil  the  surface  of  the  projectile,  which  is  den- 
tated  near  the  ba.se.  The  copper  is  molded  to  the 
lands  and  grooves  exactly,  giving  the  motion  of  rota- 
tion antl  preventing  the  escape  of  the  gas.  On  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  ga.s-check  are  buttons  which  take 
to  the  grooves.  These  are  not  necessary  except  as  a 
conveiiience  in  loading.  They  prevent  the  projec- 
tile from  being  forced  down  too  far  by  the  hydraulic 
rammer,  and  so  crushing  the  powder. 

In  experiments  with  tlie  H-inch  breech-loading  rifle, 
both  copper  and  sleel  gas-checks  were  used.  The 
former  proved  the  better  gas-checks,  but  at  times 
stuck  to  the  face  of  tlie  breech-block  after  tiring,  to 
such  extent  as  to  make  it  ditiicult  to  withdraw  the 
block.  With  the  steel  gas  check,  however,  no  diffi- 
culty was  found  in  withdrawing  the  block  after  firiiig, 
though  there  was  at  times  a  slight  escape  of  gas.  To 
remedy  the  defective  operation  of  the  checks  con- 
structed of  a  single  metal  (either  copper  or  steel  or 
other  metjils),  a  gas-check  was  designed  and  made  of 
steel  and  copper  combined,  thus  insuring  in  the  ring 
the  hanlness  and  elasticity  of  steel  at  the  base  \vith 
the  compressibility  and  extensibility  of  the  copper 
part  in  contact  with  the  walls  of  the  gas-ring  seat. 
This  construction  secures  through  the  extensible  cop- 
per a  perfect  and  close  check  at  the  sides  of  the  seat 
in  the  chamber' of  the  gun,  while  at  the  stune  time, 
the  check  having  its  base  of  hard  and  luiyielding  steel, 
any  binding  or  sticking  of  the  breech  fermeture  in 
opening  the  breech  is  prevented.  The  mode  of  con- 
struction of  an  8-inch  gas-check  is  as  follows:  Two 
holes  are  punched,  near  either  end,  through  a  steel 
bar  about  14  inches  long,  2A  inches  wde,  and  *  inch 
thick.  The  bar  is  then  slit  with  a  cliisel  between 
these  two  holes,  and  the  slit  first  enlarged  by  a  man- 
drel, and  tinally  foraicd  into  a  circle  on  the  anvil.  It 
is  then  placed  ui  the  latlie,  its  bearing  surface  with 
the  co])per  finished,  anil  only  suHicient  excess  of  metal 
left  elsewhere  to  allow  subsequi'Ut  slight  corrections. 
The  steel  sabot  is  then  carefully  heated  over  a  slow 
charcoal-fire  until  it  attains  a  dull  red  heat,  and  is 
then  immersed  in  a  lialh  of  lape-oil  and  left  to  cool. 
A  'J-inch  rotuid  coppiT  liar,  14  inches  long,  is  then 
similarly  sliaped  into  a  ring;  then  placed  in  tlie  lathe, 
its  face  and  shoulder  which  bear  agsiinst  the  steel 
sabot  is  finislied,  and  its  interior  diameter  roughly 
shaped.     See  BmiKhnll  Ring. 

GASCON— GASCONNADE.— The  term  gaJie/>n  is  now 
emiiloyeil,  in  the  French  language,  to  denote  a  boaster 
or  braggart,  and  (inncoiiiHKh'  to  signify  any  extrava- 
gant or  absurd  vaunting — the  inhabitants  of  the  dis- 
trict once  known  as  Gascony  ha\ing  long  been  notori- 
ous in  this  respect.  An  example  may  be  mentioned: 
A  Gascon,  on  a  visit  to  Paris,  was  asked  by  his  ci- 
ty-friend what  he  thought  of  the  Colonnade  of  the 
Louvre.  His  reply  was,  "Ah,  it's  not  had  ;  it  resem- 
bles pretty  closely  the  back  jiart  of  the  stables  at  my 
father's  castle!  "  There  arc  in  French  volumes  filled 
with  the  origiiial  and  numerous  stiUies  of  these  hu- 
morous boasters. 

GAS-ENGINE.— Many  attemiits  have  been  made  in 
the  ai'sinal  to  utilize  a«  a  motive  power  the  expan- 
sive force  aiising  from  the  explosion  of  a  mixture  of 
common  coal-pis,  such  as  is  in  general  use  for  illumi- 
nating purposes,  .and  conunon  air.  The  first  attempt 
of  this  kind  which  had  any  commercial  success  was 
that  of  Lenoir,  a  French  inventor.  It  resembles  in 
its  general  features  an  ordinary  horizontal  steam-en- 
gine. Il  has  two  .slides,  one  on  each  side  of  the  cyl- 
inder, which  are  opened  and  closed  by  eccentrics  in 
the  usual  way.  Through  one  of  the  slides,  air  imd 
gas  flow  into  the  cylinder,  in  the  proportions  of  about 
I  11  of  air  to  1  of  gas,  until  the  cylinder  is  marly  half 
i  full,  when  the  connection  with  the  galvanic  battery 


GAS-ESCAFE. 


747 


GATLING  QXrS, 


is  made  by  the  revolution  of  the  shaft,  causing  a  spark 
inside  the  cylinder,  and  consequent  explosion  of  the 
mixture  of  air  and  gas.  This  explosion  forces  the 
piston  from  the  middle  of  the  cylinder  to  the  fur- 
ther end.  The  products  of  the  explosion  then  escape 
from  the  cylinder  by  the  other  slide-valve,  which 
opens  at  the  proper  instant.  The  momentum  which 
the  fly-wheel  has  now  acquired  ^v^ll  carry  the  piston 
back  to  the  middle  of  the  cylinder,  sucking  in  be- 
hind it,  through  openings  which  are  made  by  the 
action  of  the  eccentric  on  the  slide,  a  fresh  supply  of 
air  and  gas;  and  when  the  piston  has  reached  to  the 
middle  of  the  cylinder,  the  further  inflow  of  air  and 
gas  is  stopped  liy  the  slide  closing,  and  at  the  same 
mstant  a  spark  of  electricity  Ls  sent  into  the  air  and 
gas,  exploding  it  as  before.  The  first  half  of  the 
stroke  of  the  piston  is  thus  employed  in  sucking  in 
the  requisite  quantities  of  air  and  ga-s,  and  the  last 
half  of  the  stroke  gi\'ing  off  the  power  arising  from 
the  explosion  of  the  mixture  of  air  and  gas.  Better 
gas-engines  than  Lenoir's  are  now  in  use,  and  one  of 
the  best  is  styleil  the  Otto  Silent  Gas-engine,  shown 
in  the  drawing.    In  several  respects  it  resembles  Le- 


Otto  Silent  Gas-Engine. 

noir's,  but  it  differs  from  it  in  others.  Instead  of  an 
electric  spark,  a  small,  constantly  burning  gas-flame 
is  used  to  tire  the  charge.  But  the  main  difference 
lies  in  the  use  of  a  more  dilute  mixture  of  gas  imd  air, 
placed  under  a  pressure  of  above  30  pounds  above  the 
atmosphere,  by  which  only  a  portion  of  the  charge  be- 
comes combustible;  the  remainder  is  simplj'  expanded, 
and  so  not  only  is  the  shock  of  a  full  explosion  avoid- 
ed, but  there  is  a  more  sustained  pressure  on  the  piston 
throughout  the  stroke.  We  may  compare  the  interior 
of  the  cylinder  to  that  of  a  soda-water  bottle  with 
straight  "sides  lengthwise,  only  it  has  no  constricted 
portion  or  neck.  One  third  of  its  length  at  the  bot- 
tom end  is  taken  up  bj*  the  combustiom-chi.mber;  an- 
other third  by  the  piston;  and  the  remaining  third,  or 
rather  more,  by  the  space  over  which  the  piston  travels. 
A  jacket  of  cold  water  surrounds  the  cylinder  to  keep 
it  cool.  There  are  two  openings  in  the  combustion- 
chamber — one  for  the  admission  of  the  charge,  and 
the  other  for  the  escape  of  the  products  of  combus- 
tion. Attached  to  the  combustion  chamber  there  is 
a  slide-valve  whose  movements  are  so  arranged  that 
it  first  admits  the  air  and  gas  in  due  proportions, 
which  the  return  of  the  piston  compresses,  and  then 
another  movement  of  the  valve  fires  the  mixture  by 
exposing  it  to  the  gas-flame.  The  explosion,  so  to 
call  it,  occurs  once  in  two  revolutions  when  the  en- 
gine is  fully  loaded,  but  less  often  when  it  is  not.  In 
the  Otto  it  acts  on  the  piston  at  the  beginning,  not  as 
in  the  Lenoir  at  the  middle  of  the  stroke;  but  the 
piston  is  connected  in  a  very  similar  way  with  the 
fly-wheel  in  both  engines.  "The  cost  for  the  gas  is 
about  one  penny  per  hour  per  horse-power. 

GAS-ESCAPE."— Rifled  muzzle-loading  built-up  and 
convened  gims  are  provided  with  small  channels 
called  ga>i-exmpeit,  through  which  smoke  is.sues  on 
firing,  if  the  inner  tube  is  cracked  through,  thus  giv- 
ing warning  that  it  is  time  to  cease  firing. 

GASKETr— In  artillery,  a  flat  plaited  cord  used  for 
"stoppering  the  fall."    It  may  also  be  made  (on  the 


same  principle  as  the  sehagee)  by  placing  the  same 
number  of  rope-yams  in  a  straight  line  and  marling 
down. 

GAS-EING.— A  thin  plate  of  steel  or  copper,  per- 
forated to  the  exact  size  of  the  caliber  of  the  gun,  and 
used  as  a  face-plate  to  the  breech-block  in  Sharp's 
breech-loading  rifle  and  Broadwell's  breech -loading 
ordnance.  It  is  used  by  the  Prussian  Government. 
The  breech  block  is  chambered  out  larger  than  the 
hole  in  the  plate,  so  that  the  gas  from  the  explosion 
of  a  charge  in  the  gun  flies  back  into  the  chamber 
and  presses  the  plate  or  ring  well  forward  against 
the  breech  of  the  gun. 

GASTEAFETES.— A  verj"  ancient  variety  of  cross- 
bow, so  called  because  the  crossbow-man  used  to 
rest  it  on  his  stomach. 

GATE. — A  door  of  strong  planks  with  iron  bars  to 
oppose  an  enemy.  Gates  are  generally  fixed  in  the 
middle  of  the  curtain,  from  whence  they  are  .seen  and 
defendetl  from  the  two  flanks  of  the  bastions.  The 
gate,  being  a  most  important  jjoint  in  all  fortified 
places,  is  usually  protected  by  various  devices.  It  is 
flanked  by  towers  with  loopholes,  from  which  a.ssail- 
ants  may  be  attacked,  and  is  frequently  overhung  by 
a  machieolated  battlement,  from  which  missiles  of 
every  description  were  poured  upon  the  liesiegers. 
City  gates,  and  gates  of  large  castles,  have  in  all  age& 
been  the  subjects  of  great  care  in  construction;  and 
when  from  some  cause,  such  as  the  cessation  of  con- 
stant fighting,  or  a  change  in  the  mode  of  warfare, 
gateways  have  lost  their  importance  in  a  military 
point  of  view,  they  have  maintained  their  position  as 
important  architectural  works,  and  where  no  longer 
useful  have  become  ornamental.  In  very  ancient 
times  we  read  of  the  "gate"  as  the  most  prominent 
part  of  a  city,  where  proclamations  were  made,  and 
where  the  kings  administered  justice.  The  Greek 
and  Roman  gates  were  frequently  of  great  magnifi- 
cence. The  propyla?a  at  Athens  is  a  beautiful  ex- 
ample, and  the  triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans  are 
the  ornamental  offspring  of  their  city  gates.  Most  of 
I  the  towns  in  England  have  lost  their  walls  and  city 
gates;  but  a  few,  such  as  York  and  Chester,  still  retain 
them,  and  give  an  idea  of  the  buildings  which  form- 
erly existed,  but  which  now  remain  only  in  the  name 
of  the  streets  where  they  once  stood.  English  castles- 
retain  more  of  their  ancient  gates,  and  from  these  we 
may  imagine  the  frowning  a.«pect  ever}'  town  pre- 
sented during  the  Middle  Ages.  Abbeys,  colleges, 
and  every  class  of  buildings  were  shut  in  and  de- 
fended by  similar  barriers;  manv  of  these  still  exist 
in  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  the  abbey  gates  of 
Canterbury  and  Bury  St.  Edmunds  are  well-known 
specimens  of  monastic  gateways. 

GATE'WAY. — In  works  witli  large  garrisons,  where 
the  means  of  frequent  communication  with  the  ex- 
terior are  requisite,  posterns  of  ordinary  tlimensions 
are  found  not  to  aflFord  a  suflicient  convenience  for 
the  daily  wants.  In  such  cases  a  passage-way  of  suf- 
ficient width  to  admit  of  at  least  a  single  carriage- 
road  with  narrow  foot  paths  on  each  side  has  to  be 
opened  through  the  ramparl,  which,  whenever  it  is 
practicable  to  do  so,  should  be  arched  and  covered 
with  earth  to  render  it  bomb-proof.  The  passage- 
way should  for  securitj-  have  the  bottom  of  its  outlet 
at  least  twelve  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  enceinte 
ditch;  and  when  this  difference  of  level  cannot  be 
obtained  the  main  ditch  should  be  deepened  suf- 
ficiently for  the  purpose  below  the  outlet.  A  gatc- 
way  of  sufficient  height  and  width  for  the  passage  of 
the  ordinary  vehicles  for  the  ser\-ice  of  the  garrison 
is  made  through  the  scarp-wall.  This  gateway  is 
arched  at  top,  where  a  machicoulis  defense  may  also 
he  arranged  to  guard  the  outlet  on  the  exterior.  See 
CommiinifatioDS  and  GnU. 

GATLING  GUN.— Among  the  many  important  and 
valualjle  invcniions  in  fire-arms,  of  which  the  present 
centurj-  has  been  prolific,  there  is  none  that  equals 
the  Galling  gun  in  originality  of  design, rapidity  of  fire, 
and  effectiveness.    The  severest  tests  and  trials,  and 


OATLINO  OITN. 


748 


OATLINO  60N. 


its  practical  use  in  warfare,  have  imlisputahly  estab- 
lished its  hisih  reputation  as  a  most  formidalile  dcath- 
dealiuir  weaixin.  Trials  i>i  the  gun  have  been  made 
from  its  invention  to  the  present  day  by  the  military 
authorities  of  the  United  States,  by  ^lexico,  by  every 
isatiou  of  EuroiK-  (except  llie  Greeks  and  Beljjians), 
by  several  of  the  South  Americ;\n  States,  by  hjiypt, 
aiid  by  China  and  Japan.  These  trials  have  made 
the  irun  well  known,  and  its  position  as  an  important 
part  of  the  armament  of  modern  armies  is  now  well 
assured.  Besides,  the  gun  has  t)een  formally  adopted 
as  an  auxiliary  .service-arm  in  many  of  the  countries 
mentioned.  iThe  gun  was  first  introduced  to  Euro- 
pean Qoveruments  in  1867.     At  this  time  the  manu- 


These  barrels  are  loaded  and  lired  while  revohing, 
the  empty  cartridge-.shells  being  ejected  in  continuous 
succession.  P^ach  barrel  is  tired  only  once  in  a  revo- 
lution, but  as  many  shots  are  delivered  during  that 
time  as  there  are  barrels,  so  that  the  ten-barrel  Gat- 
ling  gun  tires  ten  times  in  one  revolution  of  the  group 
of  barrels.  The  action  of  each  part  is  therefore  de- 
liberate, while  collectively  the  discharges  are  fre- 
fpient.  The  working  of  the  gun  is  simple.  One  man 
places  one  end  of  a  feed  case  full  of  cartridges  into  a 
liop|ier  at  the  top  of  the  gun,  while  another  man 
turns  a  crank  by  which  the  giai  is  revolved.  As  soon 
as  the  supiily  of  cartridges  in  one  feed-case  is  ex- 
ha\isteil,  another  case  may  be  substituted  without  in- 


# 


Tlie  Improved  GaMing  Gun  and  Feed-magazine. 


facture  of  metallic  cartridges  was  in  its  infancy,  and 
the  ammunition  furnished  for  the  gun  was  necessarily 
imperfect.  With  this  iini)erfcct  ammunition  and 
with  guns  that  had  not  the  important  improvements 
made  during  the  last  few  years,  the  earlj'  trials  \vere 
conducted,  The  new-model  g\m  and  tlie  cartridges 
recently  improved  work  perfectly,  and  commend 
themselves  to  the  critical  exatnination  and  highest 
consideration  of  Governments.  The  accomi)anying 
drawing  rcprasents  the  improved  Gatling  gun  and 
feed-magazine.  This  new  feed  is  jiositive  in  its  adion, 
and  by  it  the  gtin  can  be  tired,  al  the  rale  of  12fM)  shots 
per  minute,  at  rtWdegreesof  elevation  and  depression. 
These  results  have  never  been  attained  liy  any  other 
lire-arm,  and  will  be  noticed  in  detail  farther  on. 

The  gim  consists  of  a  number  of  very  simple 
breech-loading  rifled  barrels  grouped  around  and  re 
volving  about  one  shaft  to  which  they  are  parallel. 


tcrrupting  the  revolution  or  the  succession  of  the  dis- 
charges. The  average  number  of  liarrels  composing 
the  gun  is  ten.  The  bore  of  every  barrel  extends 
through  from  end  to  end,  and  the  breech  is  cham- 
liercd  to  receive  the  flanged  center  fire  metallic-case 
cartridge.  The  breech  ends  of  all  the  barrels  arc 
flrmly  screwed  into  a  disk  or  rear  bnrrelplatc,  which 
is  fa.stened  to  the  .shaft,  and  the  muzzles  pass  through 
another  similar  disk,  called  front  barrel  plate,  on  the 
same  shaft.  The  shaft  is  consideiably  longer  than 
the  barrels,  and  projects  beyond  the  muzzles,  and 
also  extends  backward  for  some  distance  l)ehind  the 
breeches  of  the  barrels.  Directly  bchinil  the  open 
barrels  a  cylinder  of  metal,  ealleil  a  carrier  block,  is 
fastened  to  the  shaft,  .'ind  in  the  exterior  surface  of 
this  carrier-block  ten  semi-cylindrical  channels  are 
cut,  which  form  trough  like  extensions  of  the  car- 
tridge-chambers of  the  barrels  to  the  rear,  and  are 


GATLIK6  GUN. 


749 


GATLING  GUK. 


designed  to  receive  and  guide  the  cartridges  while 
they  are  thrust  into  the  barrels,  and  to  guide  the 
empty  cases  while  they  are  withdrawn.  Behind  the 
carrier-block  the  shaft  carries  another  cylinder,  called 
the  lock-cylinder,  in  which  ten  guide-grooves  are 
formed,  which  are  parallel  to  the  barrels,  and  in 
which  slide  ten  long  breech-plugs  or  locks,  by  which 
the  cartridges  are  thrust  into  the  barrels,  anil  which 
close  the  barrels  and  resist  the  reaction  of  the  charges 
when  they  are  fired.  Each  plug  or  lock  contains  a 
spiral  mainspring  acting  on  a  tiring-pin,  by  which 
the  charge  is  tired,  so  that  the  plug  performs  all 
the  functions  of  a  gun-lock,  as  well  as  of  a  breech- 
plug.     The  shaft,  to  which  the  group  of  barrels  and 


Barrels,  Shaft  and  Casing. 

both  the  carrier-block  and  the  lock-cylinder  are  rig- 
idly attached,  is  free  to  turn  on  its  axis,  the  front 
end  being  jounialed  in  the  front  part  of  the  frame, 
and  the  rear  end  in  a  diaphragm  in  the  breech  casing. 
The  breech-casing  extends  to  the  rear  far  enou.ch  to 
contain  not  only  the  diaphragm  through  which  the 
main  shaft  is  journaled,  but  also  to  form  in  the  rear 
of  the  diaphragm  a  cover  for  the  gearing  by  which 
the  shaft  is  revolved.  This  mechanism  or  gearing 
consists  simply  of  a  toothed  wheel  fastened  to  the 
shaft  and  worked  bj'  an  endless  screw  on  a  small  axle 
which  i)a.>i.ses  transversely  through  the  case  at  right 
angles  to  the  shaft,  and  is  furnished  outside  the  case 


with  a  hand-crank.  A  cascabel-plate  closes  the  end 
of  the  case.  Each  lock  carries  a  hooked  extractor, 
which  snaps  over  and  engages  the  cartridge-flange 
when  the  lock  is  pushed  forward,  and  which,  when 
the  lock  retreats,  withdraws  and  ejects  the  empty 
case.  The  cartridge  carrier-block  is  covered  above 
the  frame  by  a  semi-cylindrical  shell,  which  is  pro- 
vided at  the  top  with  an  opening  of  suitable  size  and 
shape  to  permit  a  single  cartridge  to  fall  through  it 
into  one  of  the  channels  of  the  carrier-block,  which 
it  overlies.  There  is  a  trough  extending  upward 
from  this  opening  and  forming  a  hopper,  in  which  a 
straight  feed-case  can  be  placed  in  a  vertical  position, 
containing  a  number  of  cartridges  lying  lengthwise 
across  the  case,  one  above  another.  Beneath  the 
carrier-block  everything  is  open  so  as  to  allow 
the  cartridges  or  shells  which  are  withdrawn 
by  the  extractors  from  the  barrels  to  fall  to  the 
ground.  Within  the  cylindrical  breech-case  at- 
tached to  the  frame  a  heavy  ring  not  quite  the 
length  of  the  lock-cylinder  is  fastened  to  the 
case  and  diaphragm,  which  nearly  fills  the  space 
between  the  inside  of  the  case  and  the  cylinder. 
Portions  from  the  inside  of  this  ring  are  so  cut 
away  as  to  leave  a  truncated,  ■wedge-shaiied, 
annular  or  spiral  cam  projecting  from  the  inner 
surface  of  the  ring,  having  two  helicoidal  edges 
inclined  to  each  other  and  united  by  a  short, 
flat  plane.  Against  these  edges  the  rear  ends  of 
the  locks  or  breech-plugs  continuallj'  bear,  there 
being  room  enough  for  the  locks  to  lie  loosely 
within  the  parts  of  the  ring  which  are  cut  away. 
The  apex  of  the  wedge-shaped  cam  points  to 
the  barrels.  Each  lock  is  held  back  against  the 
cam  by  a  lug  or  horn,  projecting  laterally  from 
the  end  of  the  lock,  and  entering  a  groove  made 
at  the  base  of  the  cam,  in  the  thin  part  of  the 
ring. 

The  distance  of  the  apex  of  the  cam  from  the 
ends  of  the  barrels  is  such  that  the  breech-plugs 

•  or  locks  exactly  fill  the  space,  so  that  each  plug 

*  there  forms  an  abutment,  which  closes  the  breech 
of  it,s  barrel  and  abuts  against  the  apex  of  the 
cam,  which  serves  to  resist  the  recoil  of  the  plug 
when  the  charge  is  fired.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  locks  are  guided  in  grooves  formed  in 
the  lock-cylinder,  and  therefore  cannot  deviate 
from  their  alignment  with  the  barrels.  From 
what  has  before  been  explained  it  will  be  un- 
derstood that  the  ten  barrels,  the  cartridge  car- 
rier-block, and  the  lock-cylinder  canying  its 
ten  locks,  will,  by  turning  a  crank,  revolve  to- 
gether about  the  axis  of  the  central  shaft,  the 
lock-cylinder  revolving  within  the  stationary 
case  and  cam-ring,  and  the  cartridge  carrier- 
block  revohing  beneath  the  half-cylindrical  shell 
which  carries  the  hopper.  The  cartridges  will, 
as  the  carrier-block  channels  come  succes.?lvely 
under  the  hopper,  drop  into  the  channels  in 
front  of  the  locks,  and  be  kept  in  place  by 
the  hopper-shell.     The  revolution  of  the  lock- 

**        cylinder  carries  the  locks  around  with  it,  and 
causes  them  to  receive  a  longitudinal   recipro- 
cal motion,   by  their  ends  sliding  along  the 
inclined  surfaces  of  the  stationary  cam.     Each 
lock,  then,  one  after  the  other,  is  pushed  forward 
toward  its  barrel.     As  the  revolution  of  the  parts 
keeps  the  locks  in  contact  with  the  advancing  .side  of 
the  cam,  each  lock  in  succession  closes  its  barrel,  and 
its  longitudinal  motion  ceases,  while  it  passes  the  flat 
surface  to  the  cam,  and  then  each  slides  backward 
from  its  barrel  when  constrained  to  move  along  the 
retreating  side  of  the  cam  by  the  corresponding  cam- 
groove,  and  so  on,  each  lock  repeating  these  move- 
ments at  each  successive  revolution  of  the  shaft. 

The  position  of  the  cam  relatively  to  the  cartridge- 
hopper  is  such  that  each  lock  is  drawn  backward  to 
its  full  extent  when  it  ijasses  the  hopper,  so  that  the 
cartridges  may  fall  into  the  carrier  in  front  of  the 
locks.    The  explosion  of  each  cartridge  takes  place 


OATLINO  GUN. 


750 


OATLINO  OUN. 


as  ils  particular  lock  passes  over  the  flat  apex  of  the 
cam  which  resists  the  recoil. 

The  liaiiimer  is  cockeil  hy  the  knob  or  head  at  its 
rear  eiul  coming  into  contact  wilh  a  tiat  rib  located 
inside  of  the  cam.  This  rib  restrains  the  hammer 
from  niovinjt  forward,  while  the  forward  movement 
of  the  bovly  of  the  lock  continues;  the  spiral  main- 
sprinir  is  compressed  imtil  the  revolution  carries  the 
hammer  knob  beyond  the  end  of  the  cockingrib, 
when  the  hammer  will  spring  forward,  and  strike 
with  it.s  point  the  center  of  the  cartridge-head,  and 
explode  the  charge.  The  point  in  the  revolution  at 
which  the  barrels  are  discharged  is  below  and  at  one 
side  of  the  a.xis.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  in  the  ten- 
barrel  gun,  one  revolution  of  the  barrels  corresponds 
to  one  revolution  of  the  locks,  and  delivers  ten  shots; 
a  process  which  is  repealed  continuously,  so  long  as 
the  crank  is  turned  and  the  cartridges  are  supiilied. 
The  gun  can  be  unloaded  of  any  cartridges  not  fired 
by  removing  the  feed-case,  opening  the  hopper,  and 
reversing  the  motion  of  the  crank.  The 
locks  are  inaile  interchangeable,  and  are 
strong  and  dural)le,  but  should  they  get 
out  of  order  the  gun  is  so  constructed 
that  any  one  or  all  of  them  can  be  in  a 
few  moments  taken  out  and  others  in- 
serted in  their  places,  anil  so  the  gun  can 
be  kejit  in  perfect  working  order  at  all 
times  on  the  field  of  battle.  In  the  new 
model  the  mechanism  of  the  locks  has 
been  greatly  strengthened  as  well  as 
otherwise  inijiroved,  and  there  are  means 
at  hand  for  their  insertion  and  removal 
■without  taking  olT  the  cascabel-plate. 
These  means  consist  of  the  perforation 
of  the  covering  and  back  diaphragm  in 
the  outer  casing,  and  by  the  closure  of 
the  apertures  through  both  these  plates 
by  a  single  removable  plug. 

This  is  a  very  valuable  imiirovement, 
inasmuch  as  the  repairing  or  inspection 
of  the  locks  is  theret)y  greatly-  facilitated. 
The  absence  of  one  or  more  locks  does 
not  iiffect  the  working  of  the  gun,  ex- 
cept to  diminish  the  intensity  of  tire  in 
proportion   to  the  number  of  locks  re- 
moved.    For  each  lock  removed,  how- 
ever, one  unexploded  cartridge  falls  to 
the  ground  at  each  revolution  of  the  gun. 
The  gun  is  encased  in  a  frame  which  has 
trunnions,  and  is  mounted  in  the  ordi- 
nary way,  like  a  field-piece.     The  screw 
for  elevating  and  depressing  the  breech 
•works  in  a  nut  attached  to  the  rail  of 
the  carriage  in  the  usual  way.     An  au- 
tomatic traversing  ai)])aratus  is  ajiplied 
by  which  a  limited  angular  movement  in 
a  horizontal  plane  may  be  given  to  the 
gun ,  as  follows:  A  cylinder  having  a  cam- 
groove  in  its  periphery  is  apiiliell  to  the 
crank-axle,  and  the  end  of  a  cylindrical 
pin  enters  this  groove.   The  cylindrical  pin  is  attached 
loan  arm  which  is  connected  to  the  elevating-screw- 
when   the  crank   is   turned   the   cam-groovi"  travels 
back  and  forth  on  the  cylindrical  pin.  swinging  the 
gun  from  side  to  side  through  a  sector  of  three  de- 
grees.    The  pin  may  be  thrown  out  of  gear  wilh  the 
cylinder  and  the  gun  be  tired  without  swinging.    The 
sector,  covered  automatically  by  the  traverser,  may 
be  changed  almut  five  degrees  on  each  side  w-'ithout 
moving  the  trail  or  suspending  the  lirinsr.     The  cases 
■which  contain  the  cartridges,  and  whicji  are  applied 
to  the  hopper  when  it  is  (Icsired  lo  feed  the  gun,  are 
long  narrow-  boxes  of  sheet-tin  reinforced  bv  gun- 
metal,  open  only  at  the  lower  ends.     The  cross-sec- 
tion of  the  Citse  is  trapezoidal,  the  edge  next  to  which 
the  heads  lie  being  wider  than  the  carl  rid  ire- heads, 
while  that  which  receives  Ihe  points  of  the  balls  is  of 
the  width  of  the  ball.      This  form   enables  all  the 
cartridges  in  the  ca.se  to  assume  a  horizouta 


because  the  heads  of  the  contiguous  cartridges  have 
room  to  roll  over  slightly,  so  as  to  lie  partly  along- 
side of  each  other,  while  the  ball-ends  are  kept  verti- 
cally over  each  other.  Above  the  cartridges  in  the 
ctuse  is  a  weight  which  can  be  moved  up  ami  dow-u 
by  a  thumb-piece.  By  the  action  of  the  h:ind  press- 
ing on  the  Ihumb-pieceanydesired pressure,  regulating 
the  rapiility  of  feed,  can  be  given  to  the  cartridges. 
Each  straight  feed-case  holds  just  forty  cartridges. 
The  supply  of  cartridges  lo  the  gun  may  also  be  made 
by  what  is  called  the  feed-drum  (iLsed  only  with  the 
smaller  calibers).  This  contains  sixteen  radial  sec- 
tions groui)cd  vertically  about  the  axis  of  the  drum. 
Each  .section  holds  twenty  cartridges,  or  each  drum 
holds  three  hundred  and  twenty  cartridges.  The 
inunber  of  sections  in  the  drum  and  the  number  of  car- 
tridges in  each  section  may  l>e  varied.  The  drum 
rests  vertically  over  the  hopi^er,  and  feeds  the  car- 
tridges automatically  from  the  several  sections  in  suc- 
cession.    Five  men,  including  the  gunner,  are  neces- 


m 


D" 


« 


3' 


position. 


Posts  of  Cannoneers. 

sary  for  the  service  of  the  piece.  Wilh  a  greater 
number  of  cannoneers  an  exceptionally  rapid  and 
continuous  tire  can  be  sustained  by  assigning  more 
men  to  the  duties  of  exchanging  empty  for  full  feed- 
cases,  and  bringing  uji  ammunition;  b'ut  it  is  advis- 
able not  to  e.xiiose  too  ni:iny  men  around  the  gun  to 
the  enemy's  tire.  The  delachnient  may  bt  maneuvered 
by  the  usual  cominanils  and  means. 

The  cannoneers  are  mnnlwred  from  oneXofive.  and 
their  posts  at  the  piece  unlimbered  will  be  as' follows: 
Kos.  1  and  3,  on  the  right  Hank  of  the  piece— Xo.  1 
o|)posi(e  the  cascabel,  and  No.  .3  opposite  the  rear 
end  of  tlic  handspike;  No.s.  3  and  4,  on  the  left  flank 
of  the  piece— No.  2  o^iposite  Ihe  c.nscabel,  and  No.  4 
opposite  the  rear  end  of  the  handspike;  No.  5,  is  in 
rear  of  the  limber-chest,— all  facing  to  the  front. 
Nos.  2,  4,  and  5  wear  haversacks  slung  from  the  left 
shoulder. 

As  soon  as  the  piece  is  mulunbered.  No.  1  ungears 


CATLING  QVV. 


751 


GATLING  GUK. 


the  crank  and  sees  that  it  works  easily.  No.  2  sees 
that  the  hopper  is  clear  for  the  insertion  of  a  feed- 
case.  Xo.  3  places  the  handspike,  gets  the  travers- 
ing apparatus  in  action,  and  points  the  piece  in  the 
general  direction  required.  Nos.  2.  4,  and  .5  jro  to  the 
limber  and  place  live  tilled  feed-case.s  in  their  haver- 
sacks. After  these  duties  are  performed,  all  resume 
their  positions. 

At  the  command  Load,  No.  1  steps  in  to  the  crank, 
takes  hold  of  the  handle  with  his  risht  hand,  and  is 
ready  to  turn  the  crank.  No.  2  steps  in  and  places  a 
feed-case  in  the  hopper,  grasping  it  with  his  left  hand 


on  the  top,  taking  hold  of  the  weight-stud  with  his 
right  hand,  .so  that  he  can  gently  press  on  the  car- 
tridges as  they  move,  keeping  the"  ca.se  perpendicular 
to  the  line  of  the  bore.  No.  3  scats  himself  on  the 
trail-seat  and  sees  that  the  gun  is  properly  pointed. 
Nos.  4  and  5  stand  fast.  At  the  command  Fike, 
No.  1  turns  the  crank  regularly  without  jerks.  No.  2 
attends  the  fecdca.se  on  the  gvln,  seeing  that  it  feeds 
regularly,  withdrawing  the  empty  case,  and  replacing 
it  with  a  filled  one,  until  he  has  inserted  his  last  tilled 
case  in  the  hopper.  lie  then  calls  out  "  ca.se,"  when 
No.  4  steps  forward  and  replaces  the  empty  feed-ca.ses 
■vrith  filled  ones,  and  removes  the  empty  ones.     He  i 


then  takes  the  empty  ca.ses  to  the  limber,  exchanges 
them  for  tilled  cases,  or  refills  them  as  may  Ije  neces- 
sary, and  places  five  tilled  cases  in  his  haversack,  and 
stands  fast,  when  No.  4  steps  forward  to  No.  2.    No.  5 
steps  forward  to  the  position  just  left  by  No.  4,  and 
when  No.  2  again  calls  "  case,"  he  i^erforms  the  same 
duties  that  have  just  l)een  designated  for  No.  4,  and 
'  Nos.  4  and  .">  jjerfonn  these  duties  in  succession  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  the  tiring.     No.  2  may  drop 
the  empty  feed-cases  on  the  ground,  or  place  them  in 
his  haversiick,  taking  care  to  have  an  tminterrupted 
I  flow  of  cartridges  imo  the  hopper  kept  up.     At  the 
'  conmiand  Ce.\se  Firixo,  No.  2  withdraws  the  feed- 
i  ca.se  from  the  hopper,  places  it  in  his  haversack,  and 
resumes  tlie  position  which  he  had  before  the  com- 
mand  Lo.\D  was  given.      No.  1    turns  the  crank 
until  the  cartridges  in  the  hopper  have  been  fired, 
and  then  resumes  his  original  position.     No.  3  takes 
his  original  position,  after  No.  1  has  stopped  turning 
the  crank.     Nos.  4  and  5  stand  fast,  unless  they  are 
mo\ing  at  the  time  the  command  is  given,  in  which 
case  they  take  care  that  No.  2  has  five  filled  feed-cases 
in  his  haversack,  and  then  resurre  their  original  posi- 
tions.     Should  feed-drums  be  used  instead  of  feed- 
I  ca.ses.  No.  2  should  place  the  drum  on  the  pintle  as 
soon  as  the  piece  is  unlimbered.     Haversacks  will  not 
be  worn  by  Nos.  2,  4,  and  3,  and  when  No.  2  gets  to 
feeding  from  the  last  compartment  of  the  feed'drum, 
he  will  call  out  "  drum,"  when  No.  4  or  No.  .5,  as  the 
case  mav  be,  will   replace  the  empty  drimi,  which 
No.  2  wdl  lift  off,  by  a  filled  drum,  and  will  at  once 
take  the  empty  drum  to  the  limber  to  Iw  refilled.    At 
the  command'C'EASEFrRrsG,  when  the  drum  is  used, 
j  No.  2  will  continue  to  feed  until  all  of  the  cartridges 
I  in  the  compartment  of  the  drum  then  in  use  are  ex- 
hausted.    The  methods  of  limbering  and  unlimber- 
ing,  mounting  and  dismounting  of  the  cannopeers,  the 
intervals  between  the  pieces,  .service  of  the  piece  with 
reduced  luimbers,  etc.,  are  all  dependent  upon  the 
Fiekl-ailillery  Tactics  of  the  Nation  using  the  gun. 
AVhen  the  piece  is  limbered,  Nos.  1  and  2  are  opposite 
and  one  yard  outside  the  naves  of  the  can-iage-wheels, 
Nos.  3  aiid  4  opposite  and  one  yard  outside  the  naves 
of  the  limber-wheels,  the  gunner  in  front  of  the  lim- 
Ijcr-wheel,  on  the  .same  line  with  Nos.  2  and  4,  who 
are  on  the  right  of  the  piece,  the  odd  numbers  being 
I  on  the  left.     The  cannoneers  are  mounted  and  dis- 
mounted as  prescribed  in  Artillery  Tactics,  except 
iliat  the  gunner  and  Nos.  1  and  2  mount  on  the  lim- 
licr  of  the  piece.  No.  2  in  the  middle.     In  drilling  at 
ilie  school  of  the  piece,  in  garrison  or  camp,  it  will 
lie  well  to  remove  the  locks  to  prevent  the  unneces- 
sary snapping  of  the  spiings,  and  the  cartridges  can 
then  be  nm  through  the  hojjper  at  will,  familiarizing 
the  men  with  the  use  of  the  gun  without  waste  of 
ammunition  or  injury  to  the  locks. 

The  style  of  carriage  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
service  for  which  the  gim  is  intended.  In  the  United 
States  an  ordinary  field-carriage  with  limber  has  been 
used.  The  drawing  shows  the  musket-caliber,  ten- 
barrel  Galling  gun,  on  carriage  with  limlier  complete. 
Recently  a  two-wheeled  cart,  with  shafts  for  a  horse, 
has  l)eeh  proposed  by  the  Ordnance  Department,  in- 
tended to  carry  the  gun  and  two  ammunition-boxes, 
containing  together  40  feed-ca.'«?s,  each  holding  40 
cartridges,  so  that  the  caniage  takes  with  it  1600 
cartridges  in  feed-cases.  A  space  is  also  resen"ed  in 
front  of  the  axle  for  two  boxes  of  cartridges  contain- 
ing 1000  each.  The  weight  of  the  carriage  without 
cartridges  is  abotit  .lOO  lbs.  This  carriage  is  intended 
specially  for  service  with  cavalry. 

The  cartridge  for  the  Gatlir.g  gun  is  made  of  No. 
18  sheet-copper.  The  roin'iiltr  consists  of  a  ease 
terminated  at  one  extremity  by  a  hemispheioid  of 
lead  called  the  head ;  it  contains  for  the  1-inch  gun 
lii  bullets,  .48-inch  in  diameter.  The  charge  for  this 
gun  is  }  ounce  of  mortar-powder  and  6  grains  of  fulmi- 
nate; that  for  the  ..W-inch  gun  is  TO  grains  of  musket- 
powder  and  i  grain  of  fulminate.  "  The  fulminate 
used  is  composed  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  3  parts; 


G&.n6K. 


752 


OATIOE. 


pulverized  niter,  2  parts;  glass  dust,  i  part;  chlorate 
of  potassa,  2  parts.  This  is  well  moistened  with 
gum-arabic  water. 

The  dw/iV/  »liot  consists  of  a  case  contiiining  the  above 
composition  and  charge  of  powder,  with  an  elongated 
bullet  weighing  8  ounces  for  the  1  inch,  and  450 
grains  for  the  .oO-incli  and  .4r>-inch  guns.  Canister 
is  only  used  with  the  linch  gun.  Tlic  cartridges  are 
put  \ip  and  issued  from  the  arsenals  in  pastelxrard 
jKiekages.  and  when  retpiired  for  service  enough  are 
opened  to  till  the  tin  feed-cases  carried  in  the  limbers 
of  the  pieces.  The  ammunition-chests  of  the  caissons 
arc  tilled  with  unbroken  packages.  For  the  .4oinch 
gim  the  anunimition  is  intcrcluuigeable  with  that  for 
the  regulation  infantry  ritle. 

The  character  of  the  rifling  of  Gatling  guns  is  uni- 
form groove,  making  one  turn  in  72  inclics  for  the 
1-inch  gun,  one  turn  in  42  inches  for  the  ."jO-inch,  and 
one  in  22  inches  for  the  .45-inch  gun.  The  etfective 
range  Is  contemplated  at  from  200  to  1200  yards,  or 
the  zone  of  infantry  fire. 

The  Gatling  gim  has  recently  undergone  a  great  im- 
provement, both  in  the  matter  of  its  details  aiid  in  its 
feed.  The  drawing  at  the  head  of  this  article  repre- 
sents one  of  the  improved  ginis,  ha\'ing  si.x,  eight,  and 
ten  barrels,  each  barrel  having  its  corresponding  lock. 
The  barrels  and  locks  revolve  together,  inside  the 
outer  stationary  ca.se.  But  in  addition  to  this  action, 
the  locks  have  a  forward  and  backward  motion  of 
their  own.  The  forward  motion  places  the  cartridges 
in  the  chambers  of  the  barrels  and  closes  the  breech 
at  cjich  discharge;  while  the  backward  motion  ex- 
tracts the  empty  carlriiige-case  after  tiring.  The 
cartridges  are  supplied  to  the  gun  by  magazines  con- 
sisting of  a  circular  drum  of  a  width  slightly  greater 
than  the  length  of  the  carlridge.  On  the  two  circular 
plates  which  form  the  ends  of  the  drum  are  spiral 
grooves  running  from  the  center  to  the  outer  edge,  in 
which  the  ends  of  the  cartridges  are  supported  and 
guided  in  and  out  of  the  magazine.  In  the  center  of 
the  magazine,  between  the  two  aforesai<l  grooved 
plates,  arc  two  other  circular  plates  which  revolve 
round  the  central  shaft,  having  a  number  of  slots 
radiating  from  the  center,  and  joined  near  the  outer 
edge  by  pins.  The.se  two  plates  when  revolved  force 
the  cartridges  along  the  aforesaid  grooves  in  the  enil 
plates  out  of  the  ifiagazinc  into  the  receiver  of  the 
gun,  and  in  front  of  the  locks.  The  center  plates  of 
the  magazine  are  revolved  by  projections  on  the  re- 
ceiver which  engage  with  pins  that  join  the  center 
plates  in  the  form  of  gear.  The  magazine  is  held  in 
its  place  over  the  receiver  by  flanges  on  each  side  of 
the  hopper  with  two  imder-cut  slots  in  which  two 
projections  on  the  magazine  fit  so  as  to  lock  it  in  its 
place.  The  slots  are  of  unequal  size,  so  that  the 
magazine  camiot  be  wrongly  inserted.  On  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  hopper  are  two  wedge-shaped  points 
that  are  let  down  into  the  receiver,  which  eject  the 
empty  shell  from  the  receiver  when  extracted  from 
the  chambers  by  backward  motion  of  tlie  lock.  The 
extractor  is  so  "formed  that  its  hook  remains  always 
in  front  of  the  cartridge-head,  and  it  is  rendered 
stronger  by  making  it  (louble  its  former  width  cir- 
cumfcrentially.  It  has  no  spring  and  does  not  lift 
the  lock  by  springing  over  the  cartridge-bead.  The 
cartridge  is  therefore  always  struck  centrally  instcail 
of  at  the  side.  The  extnictur  is  so  arranged  that  after 
each  discharge  it  holds  l)ack  the  firing-pin  so  that  its 
point  does  not  project  in  front  of  the  lock-face  until 
relea.sed  by  the  cocking-ring,  making  it  impossil)le 
for  a  premature  explosion  of  the  carlridge  to  take 
l)lace  by  the  forward  motion  of  the  lock  coming  in 
contact  with  the  cartridge-heads.  In  tiring  at  high 
elevations,  the  cartridges  are  prevented  from  sliding 
t)ack  into  the  mechanism  through  the  oritice  in  the 
front  lock-flange,  either  when  the  locks  are  in  or  out 
of  the  gun,  bj-  flanging  the  openings  and  making  the 
lock  to  corres])ond.  The  gun  has  been  fired  in  a  ver- 
tical position  with  as  much  case  and  |)erfection  as 
when  horizontal.     The  rear  portion  of  the   lock   is 


sup]X)rted  by  a  T-way  at  the  center  instead  of  at  the 
bottom,  in  order  to  prevent  all  iwssibility  of  jamming 
by  dust  or  sand.  The  gun  is  mounted  on  trunnions 
two  inches  below  the  center,  and  is  elevated  and  de- 
pressed by  meaiLs  of  a  circular  elevating  arc  connected 
at  Ixjth  extremities  with  the  gun,  and  actuated  by 
gearing  so  arranged  that  elevation  and  depression  are 
indicated  in  degrees  and  min\ites.  A  horizontal  limb 
for  direction  is  graduated  in  the  sjimc  way.  Both 
kinds  of  gear  are  so  arrange<l  that  they  can  l)e  in- 
stantly thrown  o\it,  allowing  the  gim  to  move  rapidly 
in  all  directions  by  means  of  a  long  lever.  The  au- 
tomatic oscillator  is  dispensed  with,  the  effect  being 
produced  by  hand  movement  of  the  rear  lever.  An 
adjustment  of  the  lateral  training  is  obtained  by 
means  of  stops  on  the  turn-table  of  the  carriage, 
which  can  be  set  to  any  required  number  of  degrees. 
The  gun  can  be  elevated  to  74  degrees  and  depressed 
to  78  degrees.  It  is  provided  with  two  sights,  viz. ,  one 
on  each  side.  A  device  is  added  to  .serve  the  purpose 
of  throwing  the  cocking-ring  ovit  of  tise  at  will,  and 
prevents  the  cocking  of  the  firing-pins.  This  is  of 
advmitage  during  (hill,  and  allows  firing  motion  to 
take  place  without  snapping  and  thereby  injuring 
the  firing-pins.  The  barrels  are  locked  into  the  rear 
flange-jiiate  instead  of  being  screweil  as  heretofore. 
In  case  of  accident  to  lock  or  barrel  the  lock  can  be 
instantly  removed,  and  the  firing  continued  with  the 
remaining  locks. 

The  gun  can  be  fired  with  the  crank  either  at  the 
rear  or  side.  When  at  the  side,  the  gun  fires  at  each 
turn  of  the  crank  about  one  half  the  number  (.f  shots 
to  the  number  of  ban-els  in  the  gun ;  when  at  the  rear, 
it  fires  at  each  turn  of  the  crank  as  many  shots  as 
there  are  barrels  in  the  gun.  The  feed-magazines 
hold  from  65  to  104  cartridges  each,  and  weigh  from 
10  to  24J  lbs.  when  full  of  cartridges.  The  musket- 
caliber  gims  weigh  from  100  to  237  lbs.  each,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  and  length  of  the  barrels. 

It  is  believed  that  the  best  organization  for  Gatling 
guns  is  that  of  the  battery  in  field-artillery,  and  that 
the  batteries  should  belong  to  the  division  rather 
than  to  a  smaller  organization.  Circumstances  may 
arise  that  will  make  the  use  of  the  guns  in  batteries 
of  si.x  or  eight  pieces  enormously  valuable;  but  in  any 
event,  better  care  can  be  taken  cf  the  guns,  better  iii- 
slruction  given  to  the  men,  and  a  better  discipline 
and  tsprit  de  corps  kept  up  by  a  battery  organization 
than  by  distributing  them  singly  or  in  .sections  to 
serve  with  infantry  regiments.  Before  any  action, 
the  batteries  could,  if  nece.s.sary,  \ie  assigned  to  bri- 
gades, and  the  pieces  could  be  used  at  the  discretion 
of  the  Commanding  General  in  field-works,  trenches, 
to  guard,  or  drive  the  enemy  from  hollow  roads, 
fords,  bridges,  and  ravines,  or  to  a.ssist  infantry  in 
holding  exposed  positions.  For  detailed  description 
of  parts,  see  the  appropriate  headings.  See  Caincl- 
giiii  and  Mndiiiiefiun. 

GAUGE. — An  apparatus  for  measuring  any  special 
force  or  dimension;  thus  we  havcpiriiitiin-gtiuge,  in'nd- 
gatige,  riiiii-gaiige.  miv-gniige,  etc.    The  simplest  form 
'  of  gauge  of  dimension  is  the  common  trire-tjaiige,  by 
j  which  the  diameter  of  wire  is  measured.     It  is  simply 
I  an  olilong  plate  of  steel,  with  notches  of  different 
I  widths  cut  upon  the  edge;  these  are  luimbered,  and 
the  size  of  the  wire  is  determined  by  trying  it  in  the 
I  different   notches  until  the  one  is"  found  which  it 
\  exactly  tits.     The  thickness  of  sheet-metal  is  tried  by 
the  same  gauge.     There  is  a  great  want  of  uniformity 
in  all  these  gauges — the  Birmingham  gauge  for  iron 
wire,  sheet-iron,  and  steel  differing  from  that  used  for 
brass,  silver,  gold,  etc.,  and  thcsi-,  again,   from  the 
Lanca.shire  gauges.     It  has  been  projioscd.  in  order 
\  to  obtain  uniformity,  and  to  enable  definite  descrip- 
tions and  orders  to  be  given  with  accuracy  and  cer- 
j  tainty,  that  instead  of  the  arbitrary  numl>eis  of  vary- 
!  ing  signification  now  in  n.se.  decimal  jiarts  of  an  inch, 
Iciiths',    hundredths,    ihousandths,    or    still    smaller 
fractions,  if  necessary,  be  used,  and  that  these  lie  used 
I  for  all  diametei's  and  thicknesses,  such  as  wires,  sheet- 


GAimTLET. 


753 


GAUTIEB  TELEMETEB. 


i 


r 


M 


metals,  buttons,  watch-glasses,  etc. ;  but  such  a  scale 
has  not  yet  come  into  general  use.  The  gauge  com- 
monly u.sed  for  large  diameters  is  a  rule  with  a 
groove  cut  lengthwise  down  the  middle.  Another 
metal  rule,  with  a  brass  head,  slides  in 
this,  and  by  means  of  a  thumb-pin  may 
be  pushed  out  at  pleasure.  The  object  to 
be  UHasured  is  placed  between  the  inside 
of  the  slide  and  the  end  of  the  rule,  and 
the  ^\-idth  of  this  space  is  measured  by 
graduations  on  the  middle  metal  slide. 
The  engraving  shows  a  combination  of 
sizes  known  as  step-gauges.  This  de\ice 
is  very  valuable  lor  general  use  in  the 
arsenal  and  armorj-,  for  testing  holes,  ad- 
justing calipers,  etc.  They  arc  made  in 
sets  of  any  number  of  gauges,  as  may  be 
desired  for  the  particular  kind  of  work. 
The  width  of  the  disks  increases  with 
their  diameter.  A.  very  elegant  and  deli- 
rate  gauge  has  recently  come  into  use  for 
measuring  watch-glasses,  and  is  applica- 
ble to  many  other  purposes.  On  an  ob- 
long piece  of  sheet-metal  two  straight 
metal  ridges  are  tixed  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  shall  be  inclined  at  a  given  angle 
to  each  other.  Now,  let  us  suppose  the 
angle  to  be  such  that  the  distance  betneen 
the  upper  extremities  is  3  inches  and  that 
between  the  lower  ends  is  1  inch,  while 
the  len^hs  of  the  metal  ridges  are  10  in- 
ches. It  is  e\ident  that  forevery  inch  of 
descent  from  the  upper  to  toward  the 
lower  ends  there  will  be  a  narrowing 
equal  to  ^'j  of  an  inch;  and  for  every 
tenth  of  an  inch  of  such  descent  there 
■will  be  a  narrowing  of  yj^  of  an  inch, 
and  so  on:  thus  we  may,  by  graduating  downwards 
from  the  top,  measure  tenths  by  imits,  hundreiltlis 
by  tenths,  and  so  on  to  still  liner  quantities  if  re- 
quired. This  is  applicable  to  lengths  as  well  as  dia- 
meters. By  means  of  line  .screws  with  large  gradu- 
ated heads  Messrs.  Whitworth  have  measured  small 
pieces  of  steel  to  the  one-millionth  of  an  inch.  See 
Anemometer,  Caliptrs,  C'orrtctire  Gouges,  Micrometer , 
Pre»sure-fin>ige,  Stnr-gnuge,  and  Wire-gauge. 

GAUNTLET. — Armor  for  the  hand  and  arm,  made 
either  of  scales  or  mail,  and  used  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
It  formed  part  of  the  armor  of  knights  and  men-at- 
anns.     See  Gantlet. 

GAUTIEE  TELEMETER.— This  telemeter,  invented 
by  Captain  Gautier,  of  the  French  army,  is  an  in- 
stnunent  for  measuring,  \\ith  a  great  degree  of  ap- 
proximation, any  difference,  not  exceeding  three 
degrees,  which  may  be  exhibited  in  the  bearing  of  a 
distant  object  by  viewing  it  from  different  points  of  a 
ba.se-line  transverse  to  its  general  direction  from  the 
observer.  The  instrument,  in  its  simplicity,  accu- 
racy, and  portability,  recommends  itself  in  all  ca.ses 
where  a  knowledge  of  distances  is  desired  at  an}- 
moment  and  with  the  least  possible  delay;  such,  for 
instance,  as  range-finding,  river-crossing,  reconnoiter- 
ing,  and  the  like.  A  slight  acquaintance  with  its  use 
on  such  occasions  enables  the  observer  to  estimate, 
■with  more  than  ordinary  promptitude  and  precision, 
the  distance  which  It  might  be  all-important  to  ob- 
tain.    The  instrument,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  resembles  in 


Step-g.liis 


Fig.  1. 


shape  and  size  one  barrel  of  an  ordinary  reconnoiter- 
ing  or  field  glass.  The  ca.se  in  which  it  is  carried  is 
fadiioned  so  as  to  answer  as  a  handle  for  holding  the 


Fig.  2. 


instrument  when  making  obser\'ations.  'Within  the 
barrel  of  the  instrument  are  placed  two  mirrors  at  an 
angle  of  about  45  degrees  with  each  other;  this  angle 
can  be  varied  within  certain  limits  by  means  of  a 
millcd-headed  screw  acting  on  one  of  them.  The 
mirrors  are  thus  made  to  operate  upon  the  principle 
of  the  sextant.  A  slot  on  one  side  of  the  baiTel  per- 
mits the  raj's  of  light  from  an  object  to  fall  upon  one 
of  the  mirrors,  from  whence  they  are  reflected  upon 
the  other  mirror,  and  the  image  is  seen  through  the 
eye-glass  at  the  small  end  of  the  instrument.  At  the 
front  or  large  end  is  tixed,  in  a  ring  siurounding  the 
barrel,  a  prism,  whose  displacement  modifies  the  di- 
rection ot  any  object  seen  through  it.  At  the  rear 
of  the  instrument  is  a  small  eye-glass,  by  means  of 
which  the  observer  sees,  orer  the  mirrors  and  through 
the  prism,  the  object  which  is  before  him,  and  by 
double  relieetion  tn  the  mirrors  the  object  to  the  side 
of  him.  The  semi-revolution  of  the  movable  ring 
containing  the  prism  corresponds  to  a  displacement 
of  the  object  toward  the  left  of  about  three  degrees. 
The  ring  is  provided  with  a  graduated  scale  contain- 
ing numbers,  the  use  of  which  will  be  explained. 

Suppose  C,  in  Fig.  2,  to  be  the  object,  and  A  the 
point  from  which  the  distance  AC  is  to  be  deter- 
mined. Select  some  distant  object,  as  M,  for  the 
signal,  the  direction  A  M  to  it  making  ■nith  the  line 
A  C  an  angle  a  little  great- 
er than  90  degrees.  From 
the  point  A  measure  the 
ba.se,  A  B,  in  the  prolon- 
gation of  the  line  to  the 
nignal.  After  having  ad- 
justed the  telemeter  upon 
the  case,  w^ich  serves  as 
a  vertical  handle,  turn  the 
ring  until  the  word  "in- 
finiU'"  is  brought  opposite 
the  fixed  index  or  arrow. 
This  brings  the  prism  to  its  initial  position .  A  small 
opening  in  the  luider  part  of  the  instrument,  exhibit- 
ing the  mirror  index,  enables  the  observer  to  assure 
himself  that  the  movalile  mirror  is  at  its  mean  posi- 
tion, which  is  indicated  by  a  fixed  mark.  The  te- 
lemeter is  then  ready  for  operation,  and  the  observer 
places  himself  at  A,  so  that  the  object  C  will  be  on 
his  right.  (The  right  is  here  chcscn  merely  for  pur- 
pose of  illustration.  The  observation  can  be  as  easily 
made  with  the  object  on  the  left.)  The  instrument 
is  held  in  the  left  hand,  the  fingers  of  which  clasp  the 
barrel  firmly  to  the  handle  (the  case).  The  observer, 
facing  the  signal  M  and  sighting  through  the  eye- 
glaiis  upon  the  signal,  turns,  with  the  right  hand,  the 
milled  screw  until  the  image  of  the  object  C  coin- 
cides with  the  signal  M.  leaving  the  screw  in  this 
position,  he  retires  to  the  other  end,  B,  of  the  base- 
line, where,  holding  the  instrument  as  before,  he 
sights  upon  the  signal,  and  turning  the  graduated 
ring  on  the  front  end,  makes  the  images  again  coin- 
cide. This  done,  there  will  be  found  on  the  ring 
opposite  the  fixed  index  a  num1)cr  which,  being  multi- 
plied by  the  number  of  units  in  the  base-line,  will 
give  the  required  distance  A  C  in  terms  of  the  unit 
used  in  measuring  the  base.  This  is  the  method  of 
a  liMd  base.  Another  method  is  by  meaas  of  a  pro- 
jxirtional  base,  which  is,  instead  of  measuring  a  base 
as  just  described,  a  certain  factor  is  selected  on  the 
ring  and  the  instrument  set  to  it ;  then  by  moving 
back  in  the  direction  A  B  until  the  images  coincide, 
the  distance  thus  moved  over  will  be  the  base,  which 
is  then  measured  and  multiplied  by  the  selected 
factor.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  eliminat- 
ing the  errors  of  reading  the  movable  ring. 

A  ba.se  of  ,J j  of  the  distance  suffices  in  general  for 
obtaining  the  ex.-ictness  of  measurement  required  in 
militarj'  operations.  It  is  necessary  alwavs  that  the 
object  and  the  signal  be  well  defined  and  of  a  con- 
venient form  and  size,  and  that  the  observer  be 
sufficiently  skilled  with  the  instrument  to  make  ■with 
precision  "the  necessary  sightings,  and  to  make  the 


CAZE. 


754 


GENDAKMES. 


proper  alig:nmeDt  of  tbe  two  stations  upon  the  signal. 
In  II  case  where  a  good  natural  sisnal  is  found,  dis- 
tances up  to  2000  meters  c«ii  be  readily  measured  in 
less  than  two  miinites.  If  the  conditions  are  less 
favorable,  the  measurements  may  be  effected  by  em- 
ploying bii-scs  of  sV  or  of  a'o.  Whatever  be  the 
method  employed,  the  immediate  result  of  the  opera- 
tion is  the  knowledge  of  the  relation  between  the  dis- 
tance sought  and  the  base.  The  base  may  Ix;  ex- 
pressed accoriliiig  to  any  unit  of  measurement,  and 
tile  distance  will  \)c  correspondingly  expressed.  If 
the  base  is  measured  in  yanls,  the  distance  will  be 
yards,  etc.     See  Tileiiuter. 

GA2E.— A  term  in  Heraldry.  When  a  bejist  of  the 
cha.'i<',  as  a  hart  or  stag,  is  represented  as  affroiit^e,  or 
full-faced,  it  is  said  to  be  at  gaze. 

GAZETTE.— A  gazette  was  a  Venetian'  coin  worth 
somewhat  less  than  a  farthing;  and  the  name  was 
hence  apiilied  to  a  sort  of  gossiping  sheet,  or  primi- 
tive newsijaper,  that  was  sold  for  that  sum  at  Venice. 
In  its  English  acceptation  it  means  the  official  news- 
paper in  which  proclamations,  notices  of  appoint- 
ments, and  the  like,  are  published  by  the  Government. 
The  Gazette  is  said  to  have  been  "published  for  the 
first  time  at  Ojcford  in  1665.  On  the  removal  of  the 
Court  to  London,  the  title  was  changed  to  the  London 
Gazette.  It  is  now  published  on  'Tuesdays  and  Fri- 
days. Proclamations  printed  in  the  Oiizitte  are  ]3ro- 
bative,  without  production.  But  the  rule  is  different 
as  to  presentations  or  grants  to  private  persons. 

GAZONS. — In  fortification,  pieces  of  fresh  earth  or 
sods,  covered  with  grass,  and  cut  in  the  form  of  a 
wedge,  about  one  foot  long  and  half  a  foot  thick,  to 
line  the  outsides  of  a  work  made  of  earth,  as  ram- 
parts, parapets,  banquettes,  etc.  The  first  bed  of  ga- 
zons  is  fi.xed  with  pegs  of  wood,  and  the  second  bed 
is  so  laid  as  to  bind  the  former,  by  being  placed  over 
its  joints,  and  so  continued  till  the  works  are  finished. 
Between  those  it  is  usual  to  sow  all  sorts  of  binding 
weeds  or  herbs,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  rampart. 

GEAR-CUTTING  MACHINE.— A  machine  used  for 
making  cog-wheels,  etc.,  by  cutting  out  the  inter- 
dental material.  In  one  form  of  this  machine  the 
disk  to  be  cut  is  fixed  on  a  spindle  or  mandrel,  to 
whose  end  is  attached  a  graduated  di\iding-wheel. 
This  wheel  has  a  number  of  circles,  each  having  its 
own  series  of  graduations,  at  which  are  holes  with 
•which  the  stop-pin  engages  to  hold  the  blank  while 


Oear-cuttlng  Attacliznent. 

the  circular  cutter  on  the  slide-rest  docs  its  work. 
This  cutter  has  a  shape  coinciding  with  that  of  the 
interdental  si)ace  of  the  wheel  required.  The  man- 
drel of  the  cutter  wheel  is  rotjited  by  a  band,  and 
the  cutter  is  fed  by  a  hand-crank  and"  feed-screw,  so 
as  to  traverse  past  the  face  of  the  whciO  under  treat- 
ment. The  drawing  .shows  the,  gear-cutting  attach- 
ment to  the  milling-machine,  use<l  in  armories  for 
cutting  larger  and  heavier  wheels  than  can  be  cut 
with  the  ordinary  apparatus.  It  swings  13  inches,  and 


is  .supplied  with  a  20-inch  index  which  contains  4294 
holes.  It  will  divide  all  numl)ers  to  75,  and  all  even 
numbers  to  l.")0. 

GEARING. — 1.  Warlike  accoutemicnts;  military 
harness  and  apparatus  for  lifting  and  training  hea\-y 
ordiiaiice;  eijuipage.  2.  A  term  applied  to  the  parts 
of  machinery  by  which  motion  in  one  part  of  a  ma- 
chine is  communicated  to  another;  gearing  consists 
in  general  of  toothed-wheels,  friction-wheels,  endless 
bands,  screws,  etc.,  or  of  a  combination  of  these. 
'\\'hen  the  communication  Ixtween  the  two  parts  of 
the  machine  is  iMl(_Tni|>te(l,  the  machine  is  said  to  be 
out  of  </t'<ir ;  and  when  the  communication  is  restored, 
it  is  said  to  be  in  gnu:  In  the  ca.se  of  the  grinding- 
mill,  e.g.,  driven  by  a  .steam  engine,  the  gearing  usu- 
ally consists  of  an  endless  band  which  comnnmicates 
motion  from  the  axle  of  the  fiy-whi-el  to  that  of  the 
drum.  If  the  band  were  slipped  off  from  one  wheel, 
or  slackeneil  so  that  motion  could  not  be  commimi- 
caled  by  means  of  it,  then  the  machine  woidd  be  out 
of  gear.  Gearing  which  can  he  placed  in  and  out  of 
gear  is  called  morable  gearing ;  that  which  cannot, 
as,  for  instance,  the  wheel-work  of  a  watch,  is  called 
fited  gearing.  Gearing  which  consists  of  wheel-work 
or  endless  screws  is  put  out  of  gear  either  by  means 
of  one  of  the  wheels  sliding  along  its  axis,  or  being 
moved  out  of  its  place  horizontally  or  vertically  by 
means  of  a  lever.  Straight  gearing  is  used  when  the 
planes  of  motion  are  parallel  to  each  other;  beveled 
gearing,  when  the  direction  of  the  plane  of  motion  is 
changed.  Gearing  has  also  for  its  object  the  increas- 
ing or  diminishing  of  the  original  velocity,  and  in 
reference  to  this  is  distinguished  by  the  term  "  mid- 
tiplying"  or  "  retarding." 

GEAT. — The  hole  through  which  the  metal  is  con- 
veyeil  to  the  mold  in  casting  ordnance.     See  Casting. 
GEBEGIS.— A  term  formerly  applied  to  the  armor- 
ers among  the  Turks.    It  is  now  nearly  obsolete.    See 
Gelibaeh. 

GEBELIS. — A  Turldsh  corps  of  picked  men,  re- 
nowned for  their  perseverance  and  fighting  qualities. 
GEBELUS.— Every  Timariot  in  Tvirkey,  during  a 
campaign,  is  obli/;ed  to  receive  a  certain  number  of 
horsemen,  who  are  called  tfebettiD,  and  to  support 
them  at  his  own  expense.  He  is  directed  to  take  as 
many  as  would  anmwlly  cost  3000  aspres  for  subsist- 
ence. 
GELIBACH.— A  sort  of  Superintendent  or  Chief  of 
the  Gehegin  among  the  Turks.  Ue  is  only  subordi- 
nate to  the  Toppibachi,  or  the  Grand  blaster  of 
the  Turkish  artillery. 

GEMOTE —Besid"cs  the  great  Council  of  the  Na- 
tion— the  Witena  gemot,  or,  as  we  more  usually 
spell  it,  the  Witenagemot — which  corresponded  to 
the  Reichstage  of  the  Franks,  and  which,  though 
it  took  the  pface  of  the  still  more  ancient  meetings 
of  the  whole  Nation,  to  which  Tacitus  refers  as 
characteristic  institutions  of  the  Teutonic  tribes 
in  his  day,  was  a  representative,  though  not  per- 
haps an  elective  body,  there  were  amongst  the 
Anglo-Saxons  numerous  minor  motes  or  moots, 
which  did  not  take  part  of  the  representative 
character.  The  existence  of  these  is  an  in.stance 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  spirit  of  localization 
has  always  maintained  its  ground,  and  balanced 
that  of  centralization  amongst  the  Germanic  Na- 
tions, and  more  itarticularly  in  England.  There 
was  the  Shiregenwt,  or  County  Court,  which  met 
twice  in  a  year;  and  the  Burg-geinot.  which  met 
thrice;  also  the  J/nnilred gemot,  which  met  every 
month,  and  an  extraordinary  meeting  of  which  was 
held  twice  a  year;  the  llallcgemote,  or  Coart-biiron. 
These  institutions  excluded  "not  only  central  despot- 
ism, but  local  tyranny  in  the  shape  of  individual 
caprice.  The  Ealdofinan  decided  only  with  the 
assent  of  the  Shire-gemotc,  just  as  the  King  was  dc- 
Iiendciit  u|)on  that  of  the  Witan.  (Lappenburg  by 
Thorpr,  ii.  p.  ;)22.) 

GENDARMES— GENS  DAEMES.— Originally,    and 
up  to  the  time  of  the  first  French  Revolution,  tbe  most 


OENESAL. 


755 


GENZaAL  COnST  UABTIAt. 


distinguished  cavalrj-  corps  in  the  service  of  the  Bour- 
bon Kings,  to  whom  they  formed  a  sort  of  bod j- -guard. 
Under  existing  arrangements,  the  Gendamies  con- 
stitute a  military  police,  and  comprise  both  cavalry 
and  infantry.  The  force  con.sisLs  principally  of  sol- 
diers taken  from  the  army,  generally  on  account  of  in- 
telligence and  good  conduct.  Tlie  men  receive  much 
higher  pay  than  the  rest  of  the  army,  of  which,  how- 
ever, the  corps  is  a  part,  and  they  are  liable  in  cases 
of  emergency  to  be  sent  on  active  senice.  The  Gen- 
darmes amount  to  about  27,000  men,  and  are  in- 
trusted with  the  execution  of  many  of  the  most  deli- 
cate details  of  government. 

GENERAL.— 1.  A  term  for  the  roll  of  the  drum 
which  calls  the  troops  together.  To  "beat  the  gen- 
eral "  is  a  phrase  drawn  from  the  French  drum-in- 
structors, Battre  higinirak. — 2.  The  highest  military 
title  in  the  United  States  army  until  verj-  recently, 
and  the  highest  military  title  l)eIow  that  of  Field  Mar- 
shal in  European  armies.  A  General  ordinarily  com- 
miuids  DO  body  of  men  less  than  an  armj'.  See  Gen- 
eral Officer. 

GENERAL  COURT  MARTIAL.— In  the  army,  a  tri- 
bunal for  the  general  examination  and  pimishinent  of 
offenders  against  martial  law,  or  against  good  order 
and  discipline. 

The  following  is  a  form  of  record  for  a  General 
Court-Martial: 

Pagel.  Case  1. 

Proceedings  of  a  General  Couht-IIarttal  which  convened 

at .  ,  prrspant  to  the  following  order: 

HEADQUARTERS  DEPARTMENT  OF , 

, ,  187    . 

Special  Orders  i 

No.  — .        )'  

[extract.] 

A  General  Conrt-Martial  is  hereby  appointed  to  convene  at 

.  on the of at  10  o'cloclc  a.m.,  or  as  soon 

thereafter  as  practicable,  for  the  trial  of  such  persons  as  may 
be  brought  before  it  by  authority  from  these  Headquarters. 


1.  Colonel  - 

2.  Major  — 

3.  Surgeon  - 

4.  Captain  - 


5.  Captain 

6.  Captain 

7.  Assistant  Siu-geon 

8.  First  Lieutenant  — 

9.  First  Lieutenant  — 
First  Lieutenant 


Detail  for  the  Court. 

, Artillery. 

. Cavalry. 

.  L'.  S.  Army. 

. Infantry. 

-  Artillery. 


-. Infantry. 

,  U,  S.  Army. 


, Infantry. 

,  Ordnance  Dep't. 

. U.  S.  .\rtiUery,  is  ap- 

pointed  Judge  Advocate  of  the  Court. 

No  other  officers  tlian  those  named  can  be  assembled  with- 
out manifest  injury  to  the  service. 
By  command  of  Major  General : 

Assistant  Adjutant  General. 


JViSeS. 


Case  1. 


BARRACKS, 


,  187 


The  Court  convened,  pursuant  to  the  foregoing  order,  at  10 

o'clock  A.1I. 

Present: 

1.  Colonel , U.  S.  Artillery. 

2.  Major , U.  S.  Cavalry. 

8.  Surgeon ,  V.  S.  Armv. 

4.  Captain , U.  S.  Infantry. 

5.  Captain , U.  S.  Artillery. 

6.  Captain , U.  S.  Infantry. 

7.  Assistant  Surgeon .  U.  S.  Army. 

First  Lieutenant , U.  S.  Artillery,  Judge 

Advocate. 


Absent: 


1.  First  Lieutenant  - 

2.  First  Lieutenant  - 


-, U.  S.  Infantry. 

-,  Ordnance  Dep't. 


(Here  set  forth  the  cause  of  absence  of  any  absent 
member,  if  the  same  is  known.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
Judge  Advocate  to  ascertain,  if  pos.sible,  the  cause 
of  absence  and  record  it,  and  in  cases  of  sickness 
medical  certificates  should  generally,  when  practica- 
ble, be  fvirnished  by  the  absent  members,  and  ap- 
pended to  the  record.) 

The   Court  then  proceeded  to  the  trial  of . 

Regiment  T.  S.  Infantry,  who  thereupon  came  before 

the  Court,  and  having  heard  tije  order  convening  it  read,  was 
asked  if  he  had  any  objection  to  any  member  present,  named 


in  the  order:  to  which  he  replied  in  the  n^ative,  [or,  the 
Accused  (or  Prisoner,  as  the  case  may  be)  submitted  the  fol- 
lowing objection  to J. 

(Here  insert  the  objection.) 
The  challenged  member  stated  that: 

(Here  insert  the  statement  of  challenged  member.) 

The  Coiu-t  was  thereupon  closed,  the  challenged  member 
and  the  Prisoner  retiring,  and.  after  due  deliberation,  the 
Court  having  reopened,  the  challenged  member  and  the  Pris- 
oner resmned  their  seats,  and  the  decision  of  the  Court  was 
announced  by  the  Judgt-  Advocate  that  the  objection  of  the 
Prisoner  is  sustained,  and  [Here  insert  challenged  member's 
name  and  raukj  Ls  therefore  excused  from  ser\'ing  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Comt  in  this  case;  [or,  that  the  objection  of  the 
l*risoner  is  overruled]. 

(Objection  can  only  be  urged  to  one  member  at  a 
time,  for  cause  stated  to  the  Court,  and  a  record  as 
above  must  be  made  in  each  instance.  '  If  the  person 
on  trial  has  no  objection  to  offer,  the  record  will  con- 
tinue as  follows:) 

The  memijers  of  the  Court  were  then  severally  duly  sworn 
by  the  Judge  Advocate,  and  the  Judge  Advocate  was  then 
duly  sworn  by  the  President  of  the  c'ourt;  all  of  which  oaths 
were  administered  in  the  presence  of  the  Prisoner,  or  Accused. 

(The  oaths  are  given  in  the  84th  and  85th  Articles 
of  War.  Should  the.  person  on  trial  desire  to  intro- 
duce counsel,  he  should  now  make  application,  and  the 
record  will  continue  as  follows:) 

The  Prisoner  now  requested  permission  of  the  Court  to  in- 
troduce    as   his   Counsel,  which   request   was 

granted. 

(The  Cotmsel  for  Prisoner,  when  needed  by  him  to 
assist  in  an  objection  to  a  member  or  examination  on 
the  voire  dire,  may  be  introduced  to  the  Court  imme- 
diately after  reading  the  order  appointing  it.  The 
practice  of  all  Courts-Martial  is  to  receive  as  Coun- 
sel any  officer  of  the  anny  or  any  lawyer  in  good 
standing,  or  oilier  competent  person,  but  Courts- 
3Iarlial  may,  like  the  Civil  Courts  of  the  United  States 
of  criminal  jurisdiction,  decline  to  receive  any  indi- 
\idual  as  Cotmsel  who,  by  reason  of  character  or  ig- 
norance, woidd,  in  the  Court's  judgment,  be  an  im- 
proper person  to  appear  before  it.  In  such  ca.se  the 
record  should  state  the  reasons.  If  any  delay  in  the 
trial  is  desired,  application  should  now  be  made,  and 
in  passing  upon  the  request  the  Court  should  be  gov- 
erned by  the  93d  Article  of  War.) 

The  Prisoner  was  then  duly  arraigned  upon  the  following 
charge  and  specification: 

Charge: 

Specification: . 

To  which  the  Prisoner  pleaded  as  follows: 

To  the  specification:  "  Guilty"  [or,  "  Not  Guilty"]. 

To  the  cnarge:  "  Guilty"  [or,  "  Not  Guilty"]. 

(Or  the  Prisoner  may,  in  lieu  of  pleading  to  the 
merits,  ijut  in  a  plea  in  bar  of  trial — to  the  jurisdic- 
tion, or  special  plea,  such  as  autrefois  acquit  or  con- 
vict, pardon,  on  which  the  Court  wUl  have  to  pass.) 

Captain ,  of  the U.  S.  Infantry,  a  witness 

for  the  prosecution,  then  came  before  the  Court  and  was  duly 
sworn  by  the  Judge  Advocate,  and  testified  as  follows: 

(The  oath  is  given  in  the  92d  Article  of  War.) 
Question,  by  the  Judge  Advocate:  «  •  • 

ATiswer:        »  ,  «  .  .  « 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

puesfion,  by  the  Prisoner:'  »  »  »  • 

An.'ncer:         «...*•• 

(If  the  person  on  trial  declines  to  cross-examine  the 
witness,  it  should  so  appear  on  the  record.  If  new 
matter  has  been  elicited  in  the  cross-examination, 
bearing  upon  the  is.sue  of  the  trial,  the  Judge  Advo- 
cate may  re  examine  the  witness,  should  the  facts  re- 
quire it."  After  the  cxamiiiation-in-chief ,  the  cros.s-ex- 
amination  and  re-examination,  the  Court  can  ask  such 
questions  as  it  may  deem  neccs-sarj-.  A  question  by 
a  member  of  the  Court,  if  objected  to  and  rejected, 
must  be  recorded  as  "by  a  member."  If  not  ob- 
jected to,  the  record  will  continue  as  follows:) 
QuMtion,  by  the  Court:  •  •  »  » 

Anineer:  «»•••• 


OENEBAL  DE8  GALEKES. 


foT) 


GENERAL  UAJOB. 


(After  all  the  testimony  for  tlie  prasecution  has 
been  adduced,  the  record  will  continue  us  follows:) 
The  Judgv  Advocate  then  announced  that  the  prosecution 

The  Court  then,  at  —  o'clock  p.m.,  adjourned  to  meet  to- 
morrow at  10  o'clock  A.M. 


l«t  Lieutenant  - 


-  U.  S.  Artillery, 

Judge  Advocate. 


Second  Day. 
BAERACKS, 


-,187 


The  Court  met,  pursuant  to  the  foregoing  order  and  ad- 
journment, at  10  o'clock  A.M. 

Present: 

(Here  give  names,  rank,  etc.,  of  members  present 
and  of  Judge  Advocate  in  manner  stated.) 

Absent: 

(Names,  rank,  and  caase  of  absence.) 

The  Prisoner  (and ,  his  Counsel)  also  present. 

The  proceedings  of  the instant  were  then  read  and  ap- 
proved. 

Sergeant ,  of  the U.  S.  Infantry,  a  witness 

for  the  defense,  then  came  before  the  Court  and  was  duly 
sworn,  and  testified  as  f()llows: 

QnestioH,  by  the  Prisoners  »  «  * 

Answer:  «  «  *  «  « 


CROSS-EXAM  INATIOK. 

Ouestion,  by  Judge  Advocate:       »  •  * 

Answer:  ...»  * 

«  *  #  #  *  « 

Question,  by  the  Court:    *  *  •  * 

Answer:  ***** 

*  ***** 

The  Prisoner  having  no  further  testimony  to  offer,  made 
the  tollowiui;  statement  in  hisdefeu.se,  (.:i-,  sulimitted  a  writ- 
ten statement  in  his  defense,]  which  was  read  to  the  Court  by 
the  Prisoner,  [or  by  his  Counsel,  or  by  the  Judge  Advocate,] 
and  is  hereto  aimexed,  marked  "A." 

(The  statement  of  the  Accused,  when  in  writing,  or 
written  argument  in  his  defense,  and  all  written  ])lcis 
in  bar  of  trial  or  abatement,  .should  Ijc  signed  by  the 
Prisoner  himself  and  aijpended  to  tlie  record,  and  re- 
ferred to  in  the  proceeding.s  as  having  been  submit- 
ted by  him,  whether  he  is  defended  by  Counsel  or 
not.) 

The  Judge  Advocate  replied  as  follows: 

(Here  insert  the  remarks  of  the  Judge  Advocate,  if 
verbal;  if  wiitten,  they  shoidd  be  reatl  and  annexed 
as  in  ca.se  of  the  defense;  or,) 

[The  Judge  Advocate  submitted  the  case  without  remark.] 
The  Court  was  then  eleared  and  closed  f«ir  deliberation,  and 

having  maturely  considered  the  evidence  adduced,  flnds  the 

Prisoner. , U.  S.  Infantry: 

Of  the  specification:  ••  Guilty"  fur,  "  Jtot  Guilty"] 

Of  the  charge:  "Guilty"  [or,  "Not  Guilty"] 

And  the  Court  does  therefore  sentence  him,  - 

of Regiment  U.  S.  Infantiy,  to 

the  Court  does  therefore  ac<iuit  him, 

Regiment  U.  S.  Infantry.] 


,  [or.  And 
—  of 


Colonel U.  S.  Artillery, 

President. 

l8<  Limt. U.  S.  Artillery, 

Judge  Advocate. 

(The  following  will  be  added  to  the  record  of  the 
last  ca.sc  Ijrought  before  the  Court :) 

There  being  no  further  business  before  it,  the  Court  then, 
at o'clock  —  M.,  adjourned  .sint'  die. 


Colonel  - 


U.  S.  Artilleni. 

President. 


Itt  Lieut. U.  S.  Artillery, 

Judge  Advocate. 


(A  space  of  one  page  should  be  left  at  the  close  of 
each  record,  for  the  decisions  and  orders  of  the  Ke- 
viewing  Authority.  The  proceedings  shoidd  be  re- 
corded on  legal-cap  paper,  each  record  folded  in  four 
folds,  and  indorsed  on  the  tirst  fold  us  follows  :) 


-  BARRACKS, 


Proceedings  of  a  General  Court-Martial, 
convened  by  Special  Orders  No.  — , 
dated  Heaaquarters  Depart- 
ment or  the , 

,  1ST    . 


,187 


1st  Lieut.  A  - 


Colonel  I- 
■  B G- 


-  Artillery, 

President. 


■  Artillery, 
Judge  Advocate. 


Case  Tried. 

Private  E F  - 

Artillery. 


Sec  Cr)iirt.iMnrtitil. 

GENERAL  DES  GALERES.— A  Commander  of  the 
Galleys,  an  otlicer  of  high  rank  and  extensive  juris- 
diction in  France. 

GENERAL  DES  VIVRES.— A  sort  of  Chief  Commis- 
sary or  Siiiierinteiident  General  of  Stores,  whose  fimc- 
tions  were  to  provide  ammunition,  bread,  and  biscuit 
for  the  French  armv. 

GENERAL  GUIDES.— In  each  Infantry  Battalion  of 
the  United  St;itcs  iirmy  there  are  two  general  guides 
selected  liy  the  Colonel  from  the  Sergeants  most  dis- 
tinguished for  carriage  under  arms  and  uccuracy  in 
marching.  The  general  guides  are  posted  in  the  line 
of  file-closers,  ojjposite  the  right  and  left  flanks  of  the 
l)attalion;  the  one  on  the  right  of  the  battalion  is 
designated  right  general  guide;  ihe  oiher ,  left  generaC 
guide. 

GENERAL  HOSPITALS.— ITospitnls  specially  form- 
ed, on  the  outbreak  of  a  war,  for  the  reception  of  the 
sick  and  wounded  who  can  no  longer  be  kept  in  the 
tield-hospital.  They  are  of  such  im])ortance  in  a 
campaign  that  the  best  position  should  be  chosen  for 
them,  both  as  re,sards  safety  and  for  .s:initary  reasons. 
General  hospitals  should  be  witliin  e:isy  distance  of 
the  army  by  rail  or  w:iter.  In  .selecting  buildings 
for  such  ]iurposes,  ventihitinn  and  drainage  are  of 
]irimary  importance.  Huts  and  tents  are  frequently 
used  as  general  hospitjtls,  and  are  always  jjieferable 
to  private  houses,  as  the  latter  are  often  too  small 
for  the  purpose  required  of  them,  and  do  not  always 
afford  the  regul;ition  cubic  space  of  air.  The  .size  of 
general  hospitals  should  l)e  limited  to  the  reception  of 
500  or  (iOd  men  at  a  time;  and  when  it  can  be  man- 
aged, they  shouUl  be  cleared  out  as  quickly  as  ])o.ssi- 
ble,  and  the  invalids  sent  home  to  be  clistributed 
among  the  miliUiry  hospitals.  Considering  the  vast- 
ness  of  the  annies  of  the  present  day,  the  subject  of 
hospital  accommodation  is  a  diflieidt  question;  the 
c:ire  of  the  sick  and  wounded  must  therefore,  to  some 
extent,  lie  left  to  the  many  kind  and  liberal  peojile 
who  follow  :innies  with  tlie  view  of  attending  on  the 
sick,  and  of  distributing  the  many  comforts  they  take 
with  them,  such  us  clothing,  medical  !ind  other  stores, 
tluit  h;ive  been  collected  and  forwarded,  not  only 
from  the  country  of  the  sick  and  wounded,  but  from 
foreign  nations.  Such,  it  is  hajiiiy  to  think,  is  the 
sympatlietie  and  hiving  feeling  evinced  nowad;iys  by 
tlie  good  and  licncN  olciit  when  war  bre:iks  out. 

GENERALISSIMO.— The  Chief  Ollicer  in^-ommand 
of  an  army.  This  woril  is  used  in  most  foreign 
countries,  and  was  first  emiiloyed  to  designate  the 
ab.solute  authority  of  Cardiiial  Kiehelieu  when  he 
went  to  comnuind  the  French  ;irmv  in  Italy. 

GENERAL  MAJOR.— .\  particular  rank  or  appoint- 
ment, \v!i(is<>  fiinctioiis  correspond  with  those  of  a 
Ci-ilev:ml  .Marslail  of  France.  This  .situation  is  in- 
trusted to  a  General  Ollicer,  and  is  only  known  among 
the  armies  of  Hussia  and  some  other  Northern  Powers. 
He  takes  precedence  in  the  same  manner  that  our  Ma- 
jor Generals  do  of  all  Uriuiidier  Generals  and  Colo- 
nels, and  is  subordinate  to  lyieutenunt  Generals.  Fre- 
(luently  called  Geiural  dt  Balailk. 


6ENESAL  OFFICEB. 


757 


GENEVA  CONVENTION. 


GENEEAL  OFFICEE.— An  officer  of  tlie  General 
JStafi'  of  au  army  to  wboni  is  intrusted  tlie  command 
of  a  body  of  men  not  less  in  strength  than  a  brigade. 
In  an  army  of  very  large  [jroporlious  the  normal 
sequence  of  command  would  be  the  following:  the 
General  Commanding-inChief,  the  Generalissimo,  or 
Field  Marshal,  would  command  the  whole  force;  the 
Generals  would  have  the  separate  Corps  d'Armee;  the 
Lieutenant  Generals,  wings  of  those  Corpn  d'Ariiu'e; 
the  Major  Generals,  divisions  in  the  wings;  and  Briga- 
dier Generals,  brigades  in  the  di\isious.  In  practice, 
however,  an  army  is  rarely  large  enough  to  allow  of 
this  exact  schemeof  a  military  hierarchy  being  strictlj^  ' 
carried  out.  , 

In  the  British  service  Colonels  become  Slajor  Gen-  \ 
erals  (except  in  ca.ses  of  selection  for  veiy  distin-  I 
guished  service)  in  order  of  seniority,  provided  each 
has  served  on  full  pay  for  a  certain  number  of  years; 
promotion  to  be  Lieutenant  Generals  and  Generals 
follows  in  exact  order  of  seniority.  From  the  last, 
promotion  to  the  exceptional  rank  of  Field  Marshal 
is  conferred  in  rare  instances  by  the  special  favor  of  ! 
the  Sovereign,  who  represents  in  person  the  sole  com- 
mand and  posse.'i.ses  the  patronage  of  the  whole  land 
forces.  In  addition  to  the  Colonels  who  become  \ 
eflfective  Generals,  officers  who  have  retired  on  half- 
pay  at  earlier  periods  of  their  careers  rise  by  seniority 
to  the  rank  of  General  Officers;  but  they  continue, 
notwithstanding,  to  receive  onh'  the  half-pay  of  the 
rank  in  which  they  retired.  With  regard  to  remu- 
neration. General  Officers  hold  164  honorary  Colonel- 
cies of  regiments,  worth,  with  few  exceptions,  £1000 
each  per  annum,  and  the  remainder  receive  unat- 
tached pay  of  £600  a  year,  if  they  have  been  in  the 
Guards;  £1  Qs.'id.  a  day , if  in  the  Artillery  or  Engineers; 
and  £1  os.  a  day,  if  previously  in  the  Line.  This  ]iay 
is  received  during  non-activity,  but  when  employed 
actively  a  General  receives,  in  addition,  £5  VAs.  9rf.  a 
day;  a  Lieutenant  General,  £3  15«.  lOrf. ;  and  a  Major 
General,  £1  17*.  llrf.,  besides  various  allowances. 
The  onlj-  Generals'  commands  in  the  British  service 
are,  during  peace,  the  command-in-chief  of  the  army 
generally  and  of  the  forces  in  India,  and  sometimes 
in  Ireland.  In  the  estimates  for  1876-77  there  are  7 
Lieutenant  Generals,  18  ^Major  Generals,  and  5  Briga- 
dier Generals  employed  actively,  exclusive  of  the 
numbers  serving  in  India.  The  last-named  rank  is 
only  a  temporarj-  one  in  the  English  .service,  and  con- 
feiTed  verj-  commonly  on  the  senior  regimental  officer 
of  the  corps  composing  the  brigade:  during  duty  as 
Brigadier  he  receives  £1  Hs.  6rf.  a  day  in  addition  to 
regimental  or  other  pay.  Captain  General  is  a  rank 
verj'  rarel}'  conferred  by  the  Sovereign,  who  holds  it 
ex  officio.  There  has  been  no  Captain  General  other 
than  the  Sovereign  during  the  present  century. 

In  the  United  States  the  word  Ociteral  is  used  with 
much  license,  both  in  military  and  civil  affairs.  Be- 
sides Brigadier  and  Major  General  we  have  a  Lieu- 
tenant General,  Commissars'  General,  Quartermaster 
General,  etc.  In  the  militia  of  tlie  several  States 
there  are  officers  with  similar  designations  and  duties. 
In  law  we  find  the  Attorney  General  of  the  United 
States,  and  similar  officers  in  most  of  the  States. 
The  head  of  the  powerful  Society  of  the  Order  of 
Jesus  is  known  as  the  General.  The  French  anny 
has  Generals  of  Division  and  Lieutenant  Generals. 

GENEEAL  OF  THE  AEMY.— A  title  given  to  the 
General  in  the  United  States  army.  The  Re\-ised 
Statutes  provide  that  when  a  vacancy  occurs  in  the 
ofHce  of  General  or  Lieutenant  General  such  office 
shall  cease,  and  all  enactments  creating  or  regulating 
such  offices  shall,  respective!  v,  be  heldto  be  repealed. 
While  the  office  existed,  the  military  establishment 
was  under  the  orders  of  the  General  of  the  Army  in 
all  that  pertained  to  its  discipline  and  military  coii- 
trol,  and  all  orders  and  instructions  relating  to  mili- 
tary operations,  or  affecting  the  military  control  and 
discipline  of  the  army,  issiied  by  the  President  or  the 
Secretary-  of  War,  were  promulgateil  through  the 
Gcneralof  the  Army.     With  the  retirement  of  Gen- 


eral William  T.  Sherman  in  1884,  the  office  of  Gen- 
eral of  the  Army  ceased,  and  at  present  the  rank  of 
liieutenant  General  is  the  highest  in  the  United  States 
army.  The  General  of  the  Anny,  while  in  oftice,  was 
permitted  to  have  a  number  of  Aids,  not  exceeding 
six,  who  held,  while  .scr\'ing  on  his  Staff,  the  rank  of 
Colonel  of  caxalrv.     See  Geiwral  Officer. 

GENERAL  ORDEES.— Ordei-s  issued  to  announce 
the  time  and  place  of  issues  and  pajiiients;  hours  for 
roll-calls  and  duties;  the  number  and  kind  of  order- 
lies, and  the  time  when  they  shall  be  relieved;  police 
regulations,  and  the  prohibitions  required  by  circum- 
stances and  localities;  returns  to  be  made,  and  their 
forms;  laws  and  regulationsfor  the  army;  promotions 
and  appointments;  euk)gies  or  censures  to  corps  or 
individuals,  and  generally  whatever  it  may  be  im- 
portant to  publish  to  the  whole  command.  See  Or- 
ders and  Specieil  Orders. 

GENEEAL  SEEVICE.— In  the  United  States  army, 
the  whole  number  of  the  general-service  men  of  all 
grades  and  designations  allowed  as  clerks  for  Division, 
Department,  and  District  Headquarters,  and  for  Su- 
perintendents of  the  Recruiting  Ser\ice,  is  as  follows: 
14  Sergeants,  28  Corporals,  109  Privates,  and  9  Topo- 
graphical Assistants.  The  rates  of  commutation  of 
rations,  fuel,  and  quarters  of  the  general-service 
clerks  are  fixed  by  the  Secretary  of  War.  The  Gen- 
eral of  the  Army  determines  from  time  to  time  the 
distribution  that  shall  be  made  of  the  clerks,  accord- 
ing to  the  exigencies  of  the  service,  among  the  several 
commands,  and  the  above  number  must  include  all 
those  on  duty  in  the  Adjutant  General's,  Quartermas- 
ter's, Subsistence,  Jledical,  and  all  other  Staff  de- 
partments. The  men  of  the  general-ser^•ice  detach- 
ment are  not  employed  on  any  other  than  clerical 
duties.  If  Hospital  Stewards  are  employed  for  cleri- 
cal duty  in  the  offices  of  the  Medical  Directors,  they 
must  also  be  included  In  the  total  number  allowed, 
and  rated,  so  far  as  commutation  is  concerned  only, 
as  privates.  In  addition  to  the  above  mmiber  for 
clerks,  the  Commanding  Generals  of  Jlilitary  Divi- 
sions and  Departments,  the  Commanding  Officer,  Dis- 
trict of  New  Mexico,  and  the  Superintendents  of  the 
Recruiting  Service,  may,  if  it  be  necessary,  detail  en- 
listed men  from  troops  under  their  command  as  tnes- 
sengers,  not  to  exceed  five  for  each  Division  Depart- 
ment, two  for  the  District  named,  and  one  to  each 
Superintendent.  Enlisted  men  so  detailed  as  messen- 
gers receive  the  commutation  and  extfa  pay  as  fol- 
lows: 


COHUUTATION. 

Extra  pay 
per  day. 

Rations  per 
day. 

Fuel  per 
montli. 

Quarters  per 
month. 

80  50 

£8  00 

$10  00 

$0!!0 

Whenever  a  headquarters  is  at  a  militarj'  j)ost,  fuel 
and  quarters  are  furnished  the  clerks  and  messengers 
in  kind,  if  practicable.  When  furnished  in  kind, 
commutation  therefor  also  is  not  paid.  The  several 
Commanders  may,  at  their  discretion,  discharge  any 
of  their  general-ser%ice  clerks  and  fill  the  vacancies 
in  the  authorized  strength  of  the  detachment  by 
transfers  from  companies  or  enlistments  in  the  gen- 
eral service.  When,  however,  the  service  of  any  can 
l)e  dispensed  with,  they  are  discharge<l  or  transferred 
to  companies  and  their  places  not  filled. 

GENEEAL-SERVICE  WAGON.— A  wagon  of  ordi- 
nary eonsiniction,  ha\ing  a  long  body  covered  with 
water  proof  canvas;  it  is  fitted  for  double  draught, 
and  has  wheels  and  axletrees  of  great  strength.  It 
will  carrv  U  tons,  or  take  '20  powder-ca.ses. 

GENEEALSHIP.— The  office  of  General:  the  exer- 
cise of  the  functions  of  a  General;  the  skill  and  con- 
duct of  a  General  Officer;  military  skill  in  any  Com- 
mander. 

GENEVA  CONVENTION. — An  agreement  concluded 
at  the  International  Conference  which  was  held  at 


OEHIirS. 


758 


OENS. 


Geneva,  1864.  under  tlic  presidency  of  General  Du- 
four,  tlie  Swiss  Plenipotentiary,  fur  the  purpose  of 
amelioniting  the  eoiidilion  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
in  time  of  war.  The  credit  of  orijrinating  this  Con- 
ference must  be  fjiveii  to  two  citi/eus  of  Geneva, 
Dunant,  a  physician,  who  published  a  startling  ac- 
count of  what  he  had  witnessed  in  two  military  hos- 
pit^ils  on  the  field  of  Solferino,  and  his  friend  M(n- 
nier,  Chainnau  of  the  Society  of  Public  Utility,  who 
took  up  the  idea  of  "  neutralizing  the  sick- wagons," 
formed  associations  for  its  agitation,  and  at  length 
pressed  it  upon  the  Governments  of  Europe,  most  of 
■which  sent  representatives  to  the  Conference.  The 
Convention  was  drawn  up  and  signed  by  them  on  the 
22d  of  August,  and  since  then  it  has  received  the  ad- 
herence of  everv  Europcjin  Power,  and  one  Asiatic 
(^^z. ,  Persia),  "fhe  Convention  consists  of  ten  articles, 
of  which  the  last  two  are  fonnal.  The  others  pro- 
vide (1)  for  the  neutrality  of  ambulances  and  military 
hospitals  as  long  as  they  contain  any  sick;  ('»)  for  that 
of  the  Staff;  (3)  that  the  neutrality  of  these  persons 
shall  continue  after  occupation  of  their  hospitals  by 
the  enemy,  so  that  they  ma)'  stay  or  depart,  as  they 
choose;  (4)  that  if  they  depart,  they  can  only  take 
tlieir  private  property  with  them  e.\cept  in  case  of 
ambulances,  which  they  may  remove  entire;  (0)  that 
a  sick  soldier  in  a  house  shall  be  counted  a  protection 
to  it,  and  entitle  its  occupants  to  exemption  from  tlie 
quartering  of  troops  and  from  part  of  the  war  requisi- 
tions; (6)  that  wounded  men  shall,  when  curetl.  be 
sent  back  to  their  own  country  on  condition  of  not 
bearing  arms  during  the  rest  of  the  war;  (7)  that  hos- 
pitals and  ambulances  shall  carry,  in  addition  to  the 
flag  of  their  nation,  a  distinctive  and  uniform  flag 
bearing  a  red  cross  on  a  white  ground,  and  that  their 
Staff  shall  wear  an  arm-badge  of  the  same  colors;  (8) 
that  the  details  shall  be  left  to  the  Commanders.  A 
second  Conference  was  held  at  Geneva  on  the  same 
subject  in  1868,  and  a  supplementarj-  Convention 
drawn  out,  which,  though  not  fonually  signed,  has 
been  acquiesced  in  by  all  the  signatories  of  the  orig- 
inal Convention,  c.\cept  the  Pope,  and  which,  while 
still  unratified,  was  adopted  provisionally  by  France 
and  Germany  in  the  War  of  1870.  It  consists  partly 
of  the  interpretations  of  the  former  Convention,  and 
partly  of  an  application  of  its  principles  to  maritime 
wars.  Its  main  pro\nsions  are  these:  That  when  a 
person  engaged  in  an  ambulance  or  hospital  occupied 
by  the  enemy  desires  to  depart,  the  Commander-in- 
Chief  shall  fix  the  time  for  his  departure,  and,  wlien 
he  desires  to  remain,  that  he  be  paid  his  full  salary; 
that  account  shidl  he  taken  in  exacting  war  requisi- 
tions not  only  of  the  actual  lodging  of  wounded  men, 
but  of  any  display  of  charity  towards  them;  that  the 
rule  wliich  jicrmits  cured  soldiers  to  return  home  on 
condition  of  not  .ser\-ing  again  shall  not  apply  to 
„«« fpf  jijpjj  knowledge'  might  be  useful;  that 


officer 


hcspital-sliips,  merchantmen  having  woimded  on 
board,  and  boats  picking  up  wounded  and  wrecked 
men  shall  be  neutral;  that  they  shall  carry  the  red- 
cross  flag,  and  their  men  the  red-cross  armlet;  the 
hospital  ships  belonging  to  Government  shall  be 
painted  while  with  a  green  strake,  those  of  Aid  Soci- 
eties white  with  a  red  strake;  that  in  naval  wars,  any 
strong  presumption  that  the  Convention  is  being 
abused  by  one  of  the  belligerents  shall  give  the  other 
the  right  of  siLspendlng  it  towards  that  Power  till  the 
contrary  is  proved,  and,  if  the  iiresum|ilion  liecomes 
a  certainly,  of  suspending  it  to  the  end  of  tlie  war. 

GENIUS.— This  word,  which  convevs  the  most  lofty 
eulogium  that  can  be  applied  to  intellet'lual  excel- 
lence, meant  originally  the  tutelary  god  or  demon 
that  was  anciently  supjiosed  to  preside  over  the  birth 
and  destinies  of  everj-  individual  human  being.  The 
pccidiarities  attendiiig  the  character  and  career  of 
each  person  came  thus  to  be  attributed  to  the  higher 
or  lower  nature  of  their  allendiint  genii.  Thus  arose 
one  of  the  meanings  now  attached  to  the  word — 
namely,  the  special  bent,  ai>titude,  or  facvdty  which 
any  one  possesses;  as  a  genius  for  generalship,  etc. 


In  a  military  sense  the  tenn  implies  a  natural  talent 
or  disposition  to  every  kind  of  warlike  employment, 
more  than  iinv  other. 

GENOUILLERE.— In  fortification,  a  term  for  that 
part  of  the  jiaraiH-'t  of  a  battery  which  lies  under  the 
embrasure.  The  name  is  derived  from  French  genoii, 
knee,  as  representing  the  ordinary  height  of  the  ge- 
nouillere  above  the  platform  on  which  the  gim  is 
worked.  The  height  of  the  gcnouillere  is  regulated 
by  that  of  the  gun-carriage,  generally  from  2  to  S 
feet. 

GENOUILLIERES.— Small  plates  of  iron,  of  various 
shapes,  tixed  by  straps  and  buckles  over  the  mail,  in 
order  to  give  an  increased  security  to  the  joints  at  the 
knees.     See  Armor. 

GEMS. — This  Latin  word,  to  which  so  many  im- 
portant political  and  social  meanings  came  to  be  at- 
tached, signifies,  properly,  a  race  or  lineage.  From 
it  our  own  words — gentleman,  gentility,  etc.,  have 
come  to  as  through  the  French  gintilhoinme,  the 
))rimary  meaning  of  which  was,  one  who  belonged 
to  a  known  and  recognized  stock.  By  the  Romans 
it  was  sometimes  used  to  designate  a  whole  commu- 
nity, the  members  of  which  were  not  necessarily  con- 
nected by  any  known  ties  of  blood,  though  some  such 
connection  was  probably  always  taken  for  granted. 
In  this  seiLse  we  hear  of  the  Gens  iMtinorum,  Cam- 
punorum,  etc.  But  it  had  a  fjir  more  definite  mean- 
ing than  this  in  the  Constitutional  Law  of  Rome. 
According  to  Scwvola,  the  Pontifcx,  those  alone  be- 
longed to  the  same  gerts,  or  were  "gentiles,"  who 
satisfied  the  four  following  conditions,  viz.:  1.  Who 
bore  the  same  name;  2  Who  were  bom  of  freemen; 
3.  Who  had  no  slave  amongst  their  ancestors;  and  4. 
Who  had  suffered  no  capitis  diiiitn iitio  (reduction  from 
a  superior  to  an  inferior  condition),  of  which  there 
were  three  degrees,  maxima,  media,  minima.  The 
first  (maxima  capitis  diminutio)  consisted  in  the  re- 
duction of  a  free  man  to  the  condition  of  a  .slave,  and 
was  undergone  by  those  who  refused  or  neglecteil  to 
be  registered  at  the  census,  who  had  been  condemned 
to  ignominious  punishments,  who  refused  to  perform 
military  service,  or  who  had  been  taken  prisoners  by 
the  enemy,  though  those  of  the  last  class,  on  recover- 
ing their  liberty,  could  be  reinstated  in  their  rights  of 
citizenship.  The  second  degree  (media  capitis  dimi- 
nutio) consisted  in  the  reduction  of  a  citizen  to  the 
condition  of  an  alien  (Latin us  or  ping rin us),  and  in- 
volved, in  the  case  of  a  Latinus,  tlie  loss  of  the  right 
of  legal  marriage  (eonnuMum),  but  not  of  acquiring 
property  (cvinmercium);  and  in  the  case  of  the  pere- 
grinus,  the  loss  of  both.  The  third  degree  (minima 
capitis  diminutio)  consisted  in  the  change  of  condition 
of  ;i  juiUrfuiHilids  into  that  of  nfliusftinn'liiis,  either 
by  adoption  ((idrogalio)  or  by  legitimation.  In  the 
identity  of  name,  .some  sort  of  a|iproach  to  a  common 
origin  seems  to  be  here  implied.  The  gens  thus  con- 
sisted of  many  families,  but  all  these  families  were 
supposed  to  be  more  or  less  nearly  allied  by  blootl — 
to  be,  as  we  should  say,  kindred.  A  Roman  gens 
was  thus  something  very  nearly  identical  with  a  Celtic 
clan,  the  identity  or  similarity  of  name  IxMng  always 
siipi)osetl  to  have  arisen  from  relationship,  and  not 
from  similarity  of  occupation,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Smiths,  Taylors,  Lorimers,  etc.,  of  modern  Europe. 
There  was  this  peculiarity,  however,  alx)ul  the  gens 
which  did  not  belong  to  the  clan — \iz.,  that  it  was 
p()s>;ilile  for  an  individual  born  in  it  to  cease  to  be- 
long to  it  by  ropitis  dimiuutii',  or  by  adoption,  or  ad- 
rogation as  it  was  called  when  the  person  adopted 
was  sui juris.  If  the  adoption  was  by  a  family  of  the 
Siime  gens,  the  gentile  name,  of  course,  remained  un- 
changed. In  the  case  of  a  person  dying  intestate,  his 
gfiitiles,  failing  nearer  relatives,  were  liis  heirs,  and 
lluy  \inderlook  the  duties  of  guardianship  in  the  like 
circumstances.  The  gens  was  further  bound  together 
by  certain  siiered  rites,  which  were  imposed  on  the 
whole  of  its  members,  and  for  the  celebration  of  which 
it  jirobably  posscs,sed.  in  common  proiierty,  a  sunUum 
or  sacred  spot,  inclosed  and  containing  an  altar  and 


6£KTII,H0HHES  BE  LA  GARDE. 


•59 


GEOEGE. 


the  statue  of  the  gori  to  whom  it  was  dedicated.  Ac- 
cording to  the  traditional  accounts  of  the  old  Roman 
Constitution,  the  Gentes  were  a  subdivision  of  the 
Curia?,  as  the  Curiie  were  subdivisions  of  the  Tribe. 
In  this  \-iew  of  the  matter,  the  original  idea  of  the 
gens  becomes  simply  that  of  the  smallest  political 
diWsion,  without  any  relation  to  kindred  or  other 
ties. — An  excellent  article  on  the  gens  by  >Ir.  George 
Long,  in  which  references  to  the  principal  (Jerman 
authorities  on  the  subject  are  given,  will  be  found  in 
Smith's  Dktionnri/  of  limnnn  AntiquitUn. 

GENTILHOMMES  DE  LA  GAEDE.— A  company 
commonly  called  Aiihu-ih  Corbiii,  from  the  battle-a.xe 
which  they  carried.  The  company  went  through 
many  alterations  during  the  Monarchy  of  Prance. 
During  the  last  yeai's  of  that  government  it  consisted 
of  200  guards,  under  the  command  of  a  Captain,  a 
Lieutenant,  and  an  Ensign.  The  Captain  had  the 
power  of  giving  away  the  subaltern  commissions, 
and  had,  moreover,  the  entire  management  of  the 
rest;  e\erj-  vacancy  being  in  his  gift.  When  the 
company  was  first  raised  its  particular  duty  was  to 
attend  the  King's  pereon,  and  to  be  constantly  near 
him  on  the  dav  of  l)attle. 

GENTLEMEN-AT-AEMS.— The  body-guard  of  the 
British  Sovereign,  and.  with  the  exception  of  the  Yeo- 
men of  the  Guard,  the  oldest  corps  in  the  British  ser- 
vice. It  was  instituted  in  1509  by  Henry  VIII.,  and 
now  consists  of  1  Captain,  who  receives  £1200  a  year; 
1  Lieutenant,  £500;  1  Standard-bearer,  £310;  1  Clerk 
of  the  Check,  £120;  and  40  Gentlemen,  each  with  £70  a 
year.  The  pay  is  issued  from  the  Privy  Purse.  Until 
1861,  the  commissions  were  purchasable,  as  in  other 
regiments;  but  by  a  royal  command  of  that  year  pur- 
chase has  been  abolished  in  the  corps,  and  hence- 
forth the  commissions  as  Gentlemen-at-Anns  are  to 
be  given  only  to  military  officers  of  service  and  dis- 
tinction. The  attendance  of  the  Gentlemen-at-Arms 
is  now  rarely  required,  except  on  the  occa-sions  of 
drawing-rooms,  levees,  coronations,  and  similar  im- 
portant state  ceremonies.  The  appointment,  which 
is  in  the  sole  gift  of  the  Crown,  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  Commander-in-Chief,  can  be  held  in  con- 
junction with  half-pay  or  retired  full-pay.  but  not 
simultaneously  with  any  appointment  wliich  might 
involve  absence  at  the  time  of  the  officer's  services 
being  required  bv  the  Sovereisn. 

GEOGEAPHICAL  DEPARTMENTS  AND  DIVISIONS. 
— In  the  Unite<l  States,  a  Geographical  Military  Di- 
vision consists  of  a  number  of  Geographical  Military 
Departments,  and  is  usually  under  the  command  of 
a  General  Officer.  Military  Geographical  Divisions 
and  Department.s  are  established  and  their  Command- 
ers are  assigned  by  orders  from  the  War  Department. 
In  time  of  peace.  Army  Corps,  Divisions,  or  Brigades 
are  not  fonned.  Officers  commanding  Military  Divi- 
sions and  Departments  exercise  supervision  and  com- 
mand over  all  the  military  forces  of  the  United  States 
within  their  territorial  limits,  whether  of  the  Line  or 
Staff,  where  special  exception  is  not  made  by  the  War 
Department  Subject  to  the  approval  of  the  General 
of  the  Army,  a  Division  Commander  regulates  the 
establishment  of  military  districts  and  posts,  and 
originates,  directs,  or  approves  military  operations 
v\ithin  his  Departments.  In  case  of  emergency,  he 
transfers  troops  from  one  of  his  Departments  to  an- 
other requiring  reinforcements.  Division  and  De 
partment  Commanders  are  expected  to  decide  all  mat- 
ters properly  coming  within  their  jurisdiction,  or  to 
make  appropriate  remarks  upon  such  papers  as  they 
forward  for  decision  of  higher  authority.  A  Division 
Commander  decides  cases  sent  him  by  way  of  appeal. 
Department  Commanders  exercise  a  general  super- 
vision of  all  military  reservations  within  the  limits  of 
their  commands,  aiid  will  use  force  to  remove  squat- 
ters or  trespassers  when,  in  their  judgment,  it  be- 
comes necessary.  See  Drpardiunt  Commander,  Di- 
rmon  CiiniiiKiiiflir,  and  Military  Dipartment. 

GEOMETEICAL  PEOGEESSION.— A  series  of  quan- 
tities are  said  to  be  in  geometrical  progression  when 


each  term  of  the  .series  is  equal  to  that  which  pre- 
cedes it  nmltiplied  by  some  constant  factor — i.e., 
some  factor  which  Is  tlie  s;ime  for  all  the  terms;  or, 
in  other  words,  when  the  ratio  of  any  two  successive 
tenns  is  the  same.  Thus  a,  ar,  ar-,  ar*.  .  .  and  2,  6, 
18,  54 .  .  .  are  geometrical  series.  The  sum  of  n  terms 
of  the  former  series  mav  be  easily  obtained.  Let  it 
be  S.  Then  S  =  a  -f  «/■  +  «r*  +  .  . .  -f  ar"  -  '.  Mul- 
tiply both  sides  by  r,  we  have  rS  =  ar-\-nr--\- .  .  . 
+  ar".  Subtracting  the  former  of  these  expressions 
from  the  latter,  we  have  (r  —  1)S  =  ar"  —  a.  Whence 


we  have  S  =  a . 


r" 


— r.     If  the  series  be  one  whose 


terms  constantly  diminish,  i.e.,  if  r  <  1,  and  then  if 
we  suppose  «  indefinitely  great,  /■"  will  be  indefinitely 

a 


small,  and  we  shall  have  8  = 


1-r 


for  the  sum  of 


the  series  extended  ad  infimtiim.     For  example,  the 

3        3        3 
sum  of  the  series  --r  +  Ta^.  +  ttw  +  •  ■  •  '^^  infinitum  is 

i.     It  is  obvious  that  any  three  of  the  four  quantities 

7'°  —  1 

a,  r,  n,  S  being  given,  the  equation  S  =  a  . r  will 

r  —  X 

enable  us  to  find  the  fourth.     Series  of  this  cla,«s  are 

frequently  encountered  in  the  solutions  of  problems 

in  gunnery. 

6E0METEIC  CHUCK.— A  chuck  having  a  radial 
slider  to  which  the  work  is  attached,  the  said  slider 
oscillating  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of 
motion,  so  as  to  produce  curved  lines  in  various  pat- 
terns, as  regulated  by  sjiecial  devices.     See  Chuck. 

GEOMETET. — A  science  discussing  and  investigat- 
ing the  properties  of  definite  portions  of  space  under 
the  fourfold  division  of  lines,  angles,  surfaces,  and 
volumes,  without  regard  to  any  physical  properties 
which  they  may  have.  It  has  various  divisions,  e.g., 
plane  and  solid  geometry,  analytical  or  algebraical 
geometry,  descriptive  geometiy,  and  the  higher  ge- 
ometrj'.  Plane  and  solid  geometry  are  occupied  with 
the  consideration  of  right  lines  and  plane  surfaces, 
and  with  the  solids  generated  by  them,  as  well  as 
with  the  properties  of  the  circle,  and,  it  may  be  said, 
the  sphere;  while  the  higher  geometrj'  considers  the 
conic  sections  and  curved  lines  generally,  and  the 
bodies  generated  by  them.  In  the  higher  geometry, 
immense  advances  have  recently  been  made  through, 
improved  methods,  the  application  of -modern  analy- 
sis, and  the  various  calculi  in  algebraical  geometry, 
the  nature  of  which  is  explained  in  the  article  Co-or- 
dinates. Descriptive  geometry,  a  division  of  the 
science,  so  named  by  Monge,  is  properly  an  extension 
or  general  application  of  the  principle  of  projections, 
its  object  being  to  represent  on  two  plane  surfaces 
the  elements  and  character  of  any  solid  figure.  It 
has  many  practical  applications.  When  one  surface 
penetrates  another,  for  instance,  there  often  result 
from  their  intersection  curves  of  double  curvature, 
the  description  of  which  is  necessary  in  some  of  the 
arts,  as  in  groined  vault-work,  and  in  cutting  arch- 
stones,  etc.,  and  this  is  supplied  by  descriptive  geome- 
try. On  geometry  likewise  depends  the  theory  of 
gunnerv.  mininar,  mechanics,  hydraulics,  pneumatics, 
etc. 

GEOPHAGISM.— The  custom  of  dirt-eating,  indul- 
ged in  by  the  lowest  order  of  savages,  but  most  par- 
ticularly in  Terni  del  Fuego.  A  kind  of  femiginous 
clay  is  regvilarly  sold  for  food  in  certain  parts  of  Bo- 
livia. The  practice  is  usual  among  the  negroes  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  to  some  extent  among  North  Amer- 
ican Indians,  while  Laplanders  mix  clay  with  the 
flour  of  which  they  make  their  bread. 

GEOEGE.— 1.  The  badge  of  the  Order  of  the  Gar- 
ter, exhibiting  the  figure  of  St.  George  on  horseback 
piercing  the  fallen  dragon,  which  lies  on  a  mount. 

2.  The  banner  of  St.  George — white  with  a  red  cross. 
According  to  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  the  cross  of  St. 
Greorge  was  worn  as  a  badge  over  the  armor  by  every 
English  soldier  "in  the  tourteenth  and  subsequent 


GEBBE. 


Y60 


OEBHAN  AKMT. 


centuries,  although  the  custom  did  not  prevail  at  a 
mucli  niriier  poriixl,"  to  indicate  that  he  was  in  the 
ser\icc  of  the  Crown.  On  the  invasion  of  Scotland 
by  Richard  II.  in  1386  it  was  ordained  that  "even 
man  of  what  estate,  condicion,  or  nation  they  be  of, 
so  that  he  Im?  of  onrc  partie,  bcre  a  signe  of  the 
amies  of  Saint  George,  large  boihe  before  and  be- 
hynde,  upon  parell  that  yf  he  be  slayne  or  wound- 
eel  to  deth,  he  that  hath"  so  doon  to  hym  shall  not 
Ix;  putte  to  deth  fur  dcfaulte  of  the  crosse  that  he 
lacketh.  And  that  uou  enemy  do  here  the  same 
token  or  crosse  of  St.  George,  notwithstandyng  if  he 
be  prisoner,  upon  payne  of  delh."  A  simihir  ordi- 
nance was  adopted  by  Henry  V.  for  the  government 
of  his  army  in  France. 

3.  St.  George,  patron  of  England  and  Russid.  His 
origin  is  e.Nt^cmely  obscure,  and  the  very  oldest 
accounts  of  him  which  arc  extant  contain  a  strange 
adniixtnre  of  history  and  legend.  He  is  honored 
both  in  the  Esist  aiid  the  West  as  a  martjT,  and 
the  Greek  acts  of  his  martyrdom  fix  the  date  of 
his  death  as  the  persecution  under  Diocletian;  but 
these  acts  are,  by  the  confession  even  of  Roman 
Catholic  hagiologists,  undoubtedly  spurious.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  asserted  that  the  canonization  of 
George  is  one  of  the  many  errors  which  Protestant  his- 
torians freel.v  impute  to  the  Roman  calendar,  and 
that  the  George  who  is  thus  reputed  a  saint  and  mar- 
tvr  is  no  other  than  the  turbulent  and  unscrupulous 
Arian  partisan,  George  of  Cappadocia,  whom  his 
Arian  followers  revered  as  a  saint,  and  imposed  as 
such  upon  the  crcihility  of  their  Catholic  countrymen. 
It  must  be  coufes.sed,  however,  that  the  best  modern 
authorities.  Catholic  and  Protestant,  agree  in  admit- 
ting the  great  improbability  of  this  allegation.  Hey- 
lin  is  of  one  mind  in  this  matter  witb  the  Jesuit  Pape- 
broch,  and  Dean  Jlilman  adopts  the  arguments  and 
agrees  in  the  opinion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop 
Milner.  The  truth  is,  that  whatever  is  to  be  said  of 
the  early  accounts  of  the  martyrdom  of  George,  the 
fact  of  his  being  honored  as  a  martyr  by  the  Catholic 
Church,  of  churches  being  dedicated  to  him,  and  of 
the  Hellespont  being  called  "St.  George's  Arm,"  is 
traced  by  Papebrocli^  by  Milner,  and  by  other  writers 
to  so  early  a  date,  and  brought  so  immcdiatel}'  into 
contact  with  the  times  of  the  angry  conflicts  in  which 
George  of  Cappadocia  figured  as  an  Arian  leader,  that 
it  would  be  just  as  rea.sonable  to  Ijelieve  that  the 
Catholics  of  England  at  the  present  day  would  accept 
Lord  George  Gordon  as  a  Catholic  Saint,  as  to  sup- 
pose that  the  Catholics  of  the  East — while  the  tomb 
of  Athanasius  was  hardly  closed  upon  his  honored 
relics — woidd  accept  as  a  sainted  martyr  his  cruel  and 
unscrupulous  persecutor.  Indeed,  it  cannot  be  doubt- 
ed that  the  St.  George  of  the  Eastern  Church  is  a  real 
personage,  and  of  an  earlier  date  than  George  of  Cap- 
padocia— very  probably  of  the  date  to  which  tliese 
acts,  though  otherwise  false,  assign  him.  The  legend 
of  his  conflict  with  the  dragon  arose  most  probably 
out  of  a  symbolical  or  allegorical  representation  of  his 
contest  with  the  pagan  persecutor.  As  in  this  ancient 
legend  St.  George  appears  as  a  soldier,  he  was  early 
regarded  as  one  of  the  patrons  of  the  militarv  pro- 
fession. Under  this  title  he  was  honored  in  I^rance 
as  early  as  the  sixth  century;  but  it  was  not  until 
after  the  Crusaders,  who  ascribed  their  success  at  the 
siege  of  Antioch  to  his  intercession,  returned  to  Europe 
from  the  Holy  War,  that  the  religious  honor  paid  to 
him  reached  its  full  development.  He  was  selected 
as  the  Patron  Saint  of  the  Republic  of  Genoa,  and  also 
of  England.  At  the  Council  of  Oxford  in  1222  his 
feast  was  ordered  to  be  kept  as  a  National  Festival. 
In  1:530  he  was  made  the  Patron  of  tlie  Order  of  the 
Garter  by  Edward  III.;  and  even  since  the  Reforma- 
tion the  ancient  sentiment  is  still  quite  popularly 
maintained. 

OEEBE. — An  ornamental  fire- work,  in  the  shape  of 
a  strong  paper  tubi>  filled  with  a  burning  com]X)sition. 
The  ends  are  tamped  with  moist  plaster  of  Paris  or 
clay.     See  Pyrokchny. 


6EBIT. — The  French  name  of  a  Turkish  dart  about 
two  and  one  half  feet  long.  It  was  formerly  in  verj' 
ConmKin  use. 

GERMAN  AKMY.  — One  of  the  largest  Continen- 
tal armies  of  Europe.  By  the  Treaty  of  Prague,  con- 
cluded between  Austria  and  Prussia  after  the  war  of 
1!?66,  a  new  German  Confederation  was  formed.  A 
few  months  later  Pru.ssia  concluded  Conventions  with 
States  forming  the  new  Confederation,  by  which  they 
were  bound  to  adopt  any  quarrel  of  Prussia  arising 
out  of  the  recent  events,  and  to  place  their  militarj- 
strength  at  the  absolute  disposal  of  the  Prussians. 
In  order  to  insure  a  unity  of  organization,  the  mili- 
tary system  of  the  latter  was  adojited  by  these  St;ites. 
And  liow,  by  the  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire, 
bearing  date  the  Kith  of  April,  1871,  the  land  forces 
of  all  the  States  form  a  \mited  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Emperor.  Tlie  Gennan  ai-my  thus  in- 
cludes the  Contingents  of  Prussia  (with  Hanover), 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wurteni))erg,  Baden,  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  States.  The  military  system  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire  is  as  follows,  and  it  will  be  remarked 
how  clo.sely  the  French  system  resembles  it.  Every 
man  is  liable  to  militarj'  ser\'ice,  and  must  render 
such  service  personally,  neither  substitutes  nor  pur- 
chase of  exemption  being  allowed.  There  are,  how 
ever,  certain  social  exemptions  made,  such  as  for  sons 
of  widows,  supports  of  families,  etc.  The  number 
of  recruit.s  annually  raised  is  about  143,000  men,  and 
the  peace  strength  of  the  army  is  fixed  at  401,659 
men  (one-year  volunteers  not  included),  or  about  1 
per  cent  of  the  population.  The  age  of  conscription 
is  21;  the  period  of  military  ser\ice  is  12  years,  di- 
vided into  three  portions  of  3,  4,  and  5  years;  3  years 
are  passed  by  the  Conscript  in  a  Regular  Regiment,  the 
next  4  years  (on  furlough)  in  the  Reserve,  and  the 
final  period  of  5  years  in  the  Landtcehr  or  Second 
Reserve  of  his  district.  This  brings  the  soldier  to 
about  32  years  of  age.  After  this  he  is  incorporated 
in  the  Landstnrm ,  or  service  for  home  defense  in 
case  of  war.  Every  young  man  can  be  called  up  3 
years  in  succession;  those  who  are  exempted  in  their 
third  year  are  passed  into  the  Ersatz-Rt'sercf,  and  are 
free  from  military  service,  but  can  be  called  upon  in 
time  of  war.  In  order  that  civil  professions  may  not 
be  affected  by  military  exigencies,  youths  of  good 
character  and  education,  and  who  have  taken  univer- 
sity or  college  degrees,  can  qualify  themselves  for  one 
year's  sernce.  These  Eiiijuhrir/eii  Preiwilligen  (one- 
year  volunteers)  have  to  provide  themselves  with 
everything,  \iz.,  their  accouterments,  equipment,  and 
horse,  if  in  the  cavalry.  The  regiments  of  the  regu- 
lar army  during  peace-time  are,  on  the  breaking-out 
of  war,  raised  to  double  their  number  by  recalling  an 
equal  number  of  men  from  the  Reserve,  and  each  re- 
serve-man so  recalled  returns  not  merely  to  the  same 
battalion,  but  even  to  the  very  company  in  which  he 
had  passed  the  first  years  of  his  military  life.  The 
lAindicehr  battalion  is  the  basis  of  the  local  organi- 
zation, both  for  recniiting  and  mobilization.  In 
peace-time  these  battalions  exist  only  in  cadi'es.  By 
this  system  Germany  can  easily  place  in  the  field  an 
army  of  1,350.000  men,  not  including  the  Laiulnfunn, 
and  has  now  a  peace-establishment  of  about  428,000 
voted  for  7  vears,  including  officers  and  volunteers, 
with  a  budget  of  ,£16,000,(H)0.  The  German  army  is 
organized  on  the  territorial  system,  and  divided  into 
18  army  corps,  of  which  13  are  furnished  by  Prussia, 
including  the  Contingents  furnished  by  Hanover, 
Schleswig-IIolstein,  and  the  minor  States  annexed  to 
Prussia  in  1866;  2  by  Bavaria,  1  by  Saxony,  1  by 
Wurtemberg,  and  1  "by  Baden,  and  the  Contingent 
by  Alsace  Lorraine.  Each  Corpud' Arm/e  has  a  dis- 
trict, wliich  is  formed  by  the  Pro\'ince  within  which 
it  is  raised,  recruited,  and  slalioned.  These  corps 
districts  are  subdi\ided  info  divisions  and  brigades, 
and  these  asjain  into  Ln ndirehr  battalion  districts. 
Districts  an'  further  subdivided  into  company  dis- 
tricts, of  which  there  are  from  3  to  6  to  a  battalion. 
The  Cori)i  d' Annie  of  the  Guard  and  one  furnished 


c 


r) 


OEBMAN  LIFS-SATIN6  BOCK£T. 


761 


6£BHAN  LIF£-SAVING  BOCKET. 


by  Saxony  consist  of  2  infantry  divisions  and  1  of  cav- 
alry. The  otliers  have  2  dirisions,  except  tlie  11th, 
which  has  3.  Each  division  has  2  infantiy  brigades 
and  1  of  cavalry.  The  Saxon  and  the  i2th  corps 
have  2  brigades  of  infantry;  the  cavalrj-  of  the  Guard 
has  3,  theSaxon  and  the  loth  corps  "2  brigades  of 
cavalry  each.  Indepentlently  of  these  divisions,  each 
corps  posses-ses  1  or  2  battalions  of  Rifles  (the  Guards  1  ' 
of  Rifles  and  1  of  Sharp-shooters,  and  the  Bavarian 
army  Id  battalions  of  Ritlcs),  1  regiment  of  Field- 
artillery,  1  regiment   or   battalion  of  Foot-artilleiy, 

1  battalion  of  Pioneers,  and  1  of  Military  Train, 
as  well  as  1  battalion  EUippen  troops,  1  of  Instruc- 
tion, 1  of  Gendarmerie,  belonging  to  the  Staff  or  per- 
manent army.  There  are  74  brigades  of  infantry; 
each  brigade  is  conipo.sed  of  2  regiments  of  the  Line 
and  2  of  the  Landirehr,  giving  a  total  of  148  regi- 
ments of  the  line.  A  regiment  on  war-footing  has  60 
officers,  3000  men,  73  non-combatants,  with  105  hoi-ses 
and  19  wagons.  The  regiments  of  infantrj-  consist 
of  3  battalions,  the  third  one  being  Fusiliers.  Each 
battalion  has  4  companies,  and  has  a  peace-strength 
of  552  of  all  ranks,  and  a  war-strength  of  1022.  Be- 
sides these  field-battalions,  a  fourth  or  depot  battalion, 
1240  strong,  is  formed  on  mobilization.  The  Rifles 
and  Sharpshooters  (Juger  and  SeJiiitzi  /i)ave  not  orga-  ! 
nlzed  in  rcgiment.s,  but  form  independent  battalions. 
They  are  recruited  from  picked  men,  chosen  through- 
out the  army  corps  district.  The  cavalry  of  the  Ger- 
man array  is  divided  into  38  brigades;  1  brigade  is 
composed  of  4  regiments,  15  of  3,  and  the  22  others  of 

2  regiments,  giving  a  total  of  93  regiments — 12  of 
Cuirassiers  (including  those  of  the  Guard),  34  of  Dra- 
goons, 18  of  Hussars,  25  of  Lancers,  and  4  Sa.xon 
regiments.  In  peace-time  these  regiments  consist  of 
5  squadrons,  of  4  officers  and  135  men  each;  in  war- 
time they  take  the  field  with  4  squadrons  of  150  each, 
■while  a  fifth  remains  behind  to  form  the  depot.  The 
brigades  of  field-artillery  are  generally  composed 
each  of  2  regiments,  of  which  1  is  composed  of  2  sec- 
tions of  4  batteiies,  forming  the  division  artillerj-; 
and  the  other,  consisting  of  2  sections  of  3  batteries, 
and  1  section  of  horse-artillery  of  3  batteries,  forming 
the  artillery  of  the  Corps  d'Armre.  Each  battery  has 
4  guns.  The  Foot-artillery  brigade  is,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, composed  of  2  battalions  of  4  companies 
each;  to  these  must  be  added  1  company  of  Instruc- 
tors for  the  School  of  Gunnery,  and  1  company  for 
laboratory  purposes.  The  battalions  of  Pioneers  have 
each  4  companies— 1  of  pontons,  2  of  sappers,  and 
1  of  miners.  The  Etappen  battalion,  which  is  under 
the  direct  command  of  the  Chief  of  the  Staff,  has  also  , 
4  companies.  The  peace-establishment  of  each  com- 
pany is  146  men,  but  on  the  war-footing  it  is  increased 
to2i8men.  Further,  there  are  1  Riilwaj- battalion  and 
13  sections  of  Field-telegraph.  The  Train  is  a  mere 
skeleton  on  a  peace-footing,  and  has  37  companies 
with  a  strength  of  5049,  which  amounts  to  nearl_v 
49,000  men  when  it  takes  the  field.  The  German  ar- 
tillery is  armed  i\ith  guns  of  cast-steel  (Krupp's  sys- 
tem); the  field-batteries  have8.8-cm.  guns,  and  throw 
shrapnel  weighing  17.9  lbs.;  the  horse-arfilleiy  h.'A-e 
7.85cm.  guns,  throwing  the  same  nature  of  shell, 
weighimj  12.2  lbs.  On  war  being  declared,  the  dif- 
ferent (Jorjys  d'Armee  are  formed  into  armies;  and  to 
obtain  the  necessary  strength  to  place  them  on  a  war- 
footing,  the  Government  calls  under  the  Colors  the 
yearly  Contingent  of  Conscripts,  the  Reserves,  and 
the  men  of  the  Lnndirehr.  The  whole  army  is  then 
di\ided  into  (1)  field,  (2)  depot,  and  (3)  ganison  troops. 
The    field  troops  of    a   Corps    d'Anrne  comprise — 

(a)  Two  divisions  of  infantry,  each  ha\-ing  1  regiment 
of  cavalry  and  1  detachment  of  artillery  (24  guns). 

(b)  Tiie  artillery  of  the  Corps  d'Armee,  of  1  regiment 
of  field-artillerj-,  of  6  field  batteries,  and  2  horse-artil- 
lery batteries,  (r)  Three  independent  companies  of 
Pioneers,  (d)  Section*  of  columns, v\z.:  lOcolumnsof 
ammunition,  3  of  pontons  and  train,  5  of  provisions, 

3  sanitarj-  detachments,  1  remoimt  depot,  1  column 
ot  field-batteries,  5  columas  of  land-transport,  and  12 


ambulances,  the  inUndance  (commissariat),  field-post, 
etc.  The  other  cavalry  regiments,  not  attached  to 
the  diffcient  divisions,  are  formed  into  cavalry  din- 
sion.s  of  2  and  3  brigades,  and  3  batteries  of  horse- 
artiller}-.  These  di\isions  are  under  the  immediate 
command  of  the  General-in-Chief.  The  army  is  com- 
manded by  the  Emperor,  with  a  War  Minister,  and  a 
Chief  of  the  Staff  under  him.  The  War  Department 
is  divided  into  three  principal  offices,  as  follows: 
1.  Central  oftice,  including  the  Ministerial  one.  2. 
General  War  Department,  comprising  organization, 
mobilization,  quartering,  training;  strategical  and 
purely  military  questions.  3.  Military  Finance  De- 
partment :  pay,  clothing,  equipment,  and  supply. 
The  great  General  Staff  of  the  German  army  is  thus 
divided:  1.  Central  Bureau;  general  correspondence 
and  direction  of  all  the  other  sections.  2.  Three 
sections;  collect  all  available  and  latest  information 
concerning  European  armies,  etc.,  each  section  hav- 
ing a  certain  number  of  coimtries  under  its  charge. 
3.  Railway  section.  4.  Militarj- history  section:  his- 
torical records,  histories  of  great  wars,  annals,  etc. 
5.  Geographical  statistical  section,  connected  with 
the  topographical  section:  topography  and  statistics 
of  foreign  nations;  statistics  of  Germany.  5.  Topo- 
graphical and  land  triangulation:  survey  (land  anil  ca- 
dastral), •nith  special  regard  to  military  requirements. 
7.  Intelligenceotfice.  8.  Map-room:  store-room  for 
original  surveys,  maps  for  distribution.  There  are 
61  officers  on  the  General  Staff  at  Berlin,  and  they 
are  divided  into  two  classes:  1.  Active  Staff,  liable  to 
serve  with  corps  and  di\'isions  in  their  turn;  and  2. 
The  Keben-Eint,  or  accessory  establishment,  consisting 
of  from  30  to  40  officers  noted  for  special  acquirements, 
but  who  do  not  belong  to  the  first  dinsion.  There 
are  besides  113  employes,  such  as  registrars,  draught.s- 
men,  etc.  Bavaria  and  other  German  States  have 
similar  establishments,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Great  General  Staff  at  Berlin.  The  mode  of  officer- 
ing the  German  army  is  in  two  ways:  1.  By  candi- 
dates passing  the  required  examination  in  general 
subjects,  ser\ing  a  short  time  in  the  ranks  or  other- 
wise as  nou-commis.s1bned  officers,  and  qualifying  in 
the  theoretical  knowledge  of  their  profession  after  a 
nine  months'  course  of  study  at  the  Kriegsschule,  or 
School  of  War.  2.  By  paiising  the  latter  examina- 
tion direct  from  a  special  superior  class  of  the  Corps 
of  Cadets.  There  is  no  examination  for  promotion 
to  any  commis-sioned  rank  in  the  army,  promotion 
being" obtained  by  relative  merit.  Men  of  ability  are 
noticed  by  those  "in  authority  and  promoted;  those  of 
,  inferior  capacitv  do  not  progress.     See  Army. 

GEBMAN  LIFE-SAVING  ROCKET.— The  •5-centime- 
ter German  life-sa\ing  rocket  (5"'  Rettungsrakcte)  is 
composed  essentially  of  a  body,  head,  base,  rocket- 
stick,  and  chain.  The  rocket-case  or  body  is  cylin- 
drical, made  of  sheet -metal  .05  inch  in  thickness. 
The  head  is  ogival,  with  a  shoulder  that  extends  one 
fourth  of  an  inch  beyond  the  case,  and  has  a  cylin- 
drical tenon  to  fit  the  front  end  of  the  rocket-case. 
The  latter  is  secured  to  the  head  by  screws.  The  in- 
side of  the  rear  end  of  the  ca.se  is'  reinforced  for  1.1 
inch  of  its  length  by  a  cylindrical  metallic  ring, 
which  serves  as  a  seat  for  the  screws  that  attach  the 
l)ase  to  the  body.  The  base  e.xlends  to  the  rear, 
forming  three  ribs,  placed  triangularly,  with  all  the 
metal  removed  from  the  axial  portion  "to  facilitate  the 
escape  of  gas.  These  ribs  conjoin  at  their  posterior 
ends.  An  axial  hole  is  drilled  through  this  portion, 
ha\ing  a  femjile-screw  thread  cut  upon  its  interior 
surface  to  receive  the  screw  on  the  end  of  the  rocket- 
stick.  When  prepared  and  packed  for  service  the 
composition  is  covered  by  a  water-proof  cap,  from 
which  projects  a  fuse,  extending  2.5  inches  towards 
the  rear.  The  fuse  is  steadied  in  its  position  by  a 
strap  of  laboratory -paper  reaching  to  one  of  the  ribs. 
The  fuse  and  capare  covered  with  a  coat  of  shellac 
varnish.  Care  must  l)c  taken  in  handling  not  to 
break  off  the  fuse,  which  is  more  or  less  exposed. 
The  rocket-stick  is  of  wood,  enveloped  at  the  front 


GEKMAN  LIFE-SAVING  ROCKET. 


762 


GERMAN  LIFE-SAVING  ROCKET. 


end  by  a  metallic  frustum  of  a  cone,  whose  Inrger 
base  receives  the  end  of  the  stick,  and  whose  smaller 
base  is  pcnelmted  by  the  shank  of  a  screw,  intended 
to  enter  in  the  hole  in  the  base  of  the  rocket.  The 
stick,  frustum,  and  screw -shank  arc  bound  together, 
and  held  in  place  by  two  wrought-iron  bolts  of  small 
diameter.  The  rear  end  of  the  rocket-stick  is  armed 
■with  an  iron  loop,  with  flattened  arms,  slightly  curved 
to  lit  the  outside  of  the  stick.  This  loop  serses  as  the 
point  of  connection  for  the  rocket-chain.  The  dia- 
meter of  the  rocket-stick  is  slightly  greater  in  the 
middle  than  at  either  end.  All  tlie  "metallic  parts  of 
this  line-carrying  projectile  are  painted  black. 

The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  and 
weights: 


Total  length  of  5"°  lite-saTing  rocket. 
Case  or  body: 

Leugch 

Exterior  diameter 

Interior  diameter 

Hcati: 

Total  length 

Point- 
Length  of  

Diameter  of  l>ase 

Base-ring: 

Lengtii 

Exterior  diameter 

Interior  diameter 

Base: 

Total  length 

Diameter,  front  end 

Diameter,  rear  end 

Length,  embracing  ease 

Length  of  female  screw  in  rear  end. 

Width  of  ribs 

Rocket-stick: 

Total  length 

Diameter  at  junction  with  rocket.. . 

Diameter  at  larger  base  of  frustum 
Rocket-chain: 

Total  length 

Ring- 
Exterior  diameter ,. 

Interior  diameter 

Link.s — 

Length 

Width  

Thickness 

Total  length  of  rocket  and  stick 

Weight  of  rocket 

Weight  of  rocket-stick  and  chain 

Total  weight  of  rocket  complete 


Inches. 


23.5 

15.0 

a.i5 

2.05 

5.2 

3.6 
2.65 


Centime- 
ters. 


59.69 

38.10 
5.45 
5.20 

13.20 

91.44 
6.73 


l.I 

2.79 

2.05 

5.20 

1.65 

4.19 

5.8 

14.73 

2.65 

6.73 

1.25 

3,17 

0.9 

2.28 

1.2 

3.05 

0.35 

0.89 

39.4 

100.07 

1.2 

S.Oo 

2.2 

5.58 

87.0 

220.98 

1.5 

3.81 

0.7 

1.78 

1.5 

.3.81 

0.75 

1.90 

0.20 

0.51 

61.7 

156.71 

Pounds. 

Kilos. 

10.0 

4.53 

5.5 

2.49 

15.5 

7.02 

The  Germans  also  use  a  large  8""  life-saving  rock- 
et. The  form  and  construction  of  this  rocket  is  es- 
sentially the  same  as  the  .5""  rt>cket,  from  which  it  dif- 
fers only 'in  dimensions  and  weight.  The  description 
of  the  5""  rocket  will  answer  for  this  one. 


German  R»  Life-saving  Rocket. 

The  German  rocket-stand  is  trough-like  in  shape, 
and  is  supported  by  two  legs  near  the  front  cud  and 
a  cur\-ed  iron  foot  or  tang  at  the  rear  end.  The 
trough  like  body  of  tlie  lube  is  made  of  sheet-iron  or 
steel,  and  is  coiistnicted  from  a  single  piece  of  metal, 
cur\'od  over  a  former  of  the  required  shape.  A 
longitudinal  slot  in  the  liottom,  lO.U  inches  long  and 
1  inch  wide,  extends  from  the  front  end  to  the  first 


exterior  rib.  This  slot  is  for  the  reception  of  the 
rocket-chain,  which  is  led  along  the  bottom  of  the 
trough  uuder  the  rocket  and  stick,  and  allowed  to 
pas.s"downward  through  this  slot.  The  longitudinal 
edges  of  the  trough  are  stiffened  and  strengthened  by 
angle-pieces  of  iron  running  the  whole  length.  These 
angle-pieces  have  one  side  riveted  to  the  inside  of  the 
trough,  forming  the  bearing  surfaces  for  the  rockets, 
imd  the  other  forming  an  exterior  jirojectiug  flange. 
A  rolled  bar  of  iron,  1  inch  wide  and  .3  inch  thick, 
runs  from  the  rear  end  of  the  longitudinal  slot  the 
whole  length  of  the  trough  on  the  under  side.  The 
lower  or  rear  end  of  this  metallic  iMir  projects  about 
10  inches  beyond  the  frame,  is  decurved  and  pointed, 
to  form  the  claw  or  tang  for  the  svip)>ort  of  this  end 
of  the  trough.  This  is  matle  of  wood,  shod  at  one 
end  with  a  shnrp-jKiiuted  steel  socket,  and  armed  at 
the  other  with  a  hollow  brass  tube,  bent  and  split  to 
form  a  hinged  clamji.  The  latter  is  actuated  by  a 
lever  and  a  spring.  This  staff  is  u.sed  to  hold  "the 
pilknUchU:  for  igniting  the  rocket-fuse.  The  sharp- 
pointed  socket  is  for  convenience  in  thrusting  it  into 
the  ground  in  an  upright  position.  If  carelessly 
thrown  aside,  it  is  liable  to  be  lost  in  the  sand.  The 
staff  is  painted  the  same  color  as  the  rocket-stand. 
The  rocket  line  is  made  of  hemp.  The  line  is  twisted, 
and  is  maile  with  three  strands,  each  composed  of  four 
yarns.  The  diameter  of  this  line  is  .31  inch,  or  a  little 
greater  than  "  No.  9  Silver  Lake  braided  cord."  The 
rocket-line  is  stowed  in  the  faking-box  in  the  usual 
maimer.  The  combined  weight  of  the  faking-box 
and  line  is  100  pounds,  or  9.5  pounds  greater  than 
the  United  States  service-box  A,  with  a  Xo.  9  linen 
line. 

The  foUoAving  is  the  method  of  using  the  German 
rocket  apparatus: 

The  apparatus  is  supposed  to  Ix;  at  the  firing-iwint. 
First  remove  the  rocket-stand  from  its  box,  spread 
the  legs,  and  place  the  stand  with  the  axis  of  the 
trough  pointing  in  the  desired  direction.  Then  give 
the  proper  elevation  by  raising  or  lowering  the  front 
end  by  means  of  the  legs.  A  quadrant  or  combina- 
tion-level is  used  to  adjust  the  elevation.  Place  the 
faking-box  several  feet  in  front  of  the  stand,  turn  it 
upside  down,  remove  the  fnmie  and  pins  and  false 
bottom.  Incline  the  box  to  the  front  with  its  length 
in  the  direction  of  the  Hue  of  fire,  and  place  the  false 
bottom  or  frame  transversely  on  edge  beneath  the 
rear  end  of  the  box,  to  preserve  the  proper  incli- 
nation towards  the  front.  Then  screw  a  rocket- 
stick  into  the  base  of  one  of  tbe  rockets,  put  the 
chain  in  the  slot  at  the  front  end  of  the  trough  of 
the  stand,  and  lead  it  along  the  bottom  of  the  trough. 
Place  the  rocket  in  the  trough  over  the  chain,  draw- 
ing the  latter  taut,  and  allow  the  end  of  the  stick  to 
abut  against  the  ])Iate  at  the  loAver  end  of  the  trough; 
carrj'  the  other  end  of  the  rocket-chain  to  the  front 
and  tie  the  rocket-line  to  the  ring.  The  rocket  is  now 
ready  to  be  fired.  Take  a  piUfiiUchte  and  put  the 
.square  end  in  the  ciamp  of  the  firing-staff,  which 
brings  the  end  with  the  fulminating  primer  to  the 
front.  Next  place  the  bell-shaped  mouth  of  the 
tiring  lock,  with  tlie  firing-pin  withdrawn,  over  the 
outer  end  of  the  pillenlichtf;  press  the  thumb  upon 
the  rear  end  of  llie  firing-lever.  This  action  relieves 
llie  firing-pin,  the  spiral  spring  throws  it  to  the  front, 
exploding  the  primer,  which  sets  the  composition  on 
fire.  Approach  the  rocket-stand,  extend  the  firing- 
staff  until  the  burning  pilbnliehte  comes  in  contact 
with  and  ignites  the  fuse  in  the  base  of  the  rocket. 
After  seeing  that  the  fuse  is  proi)erly  ignited,  stand 
clear  of  the  apjiaratus.  As  soon  as  the  fuse  burns  up 
to  the  ba.se  of  the  rocket,  the  composition  takes  fire, 
and  the  rocket,  guided  by  the  inclined  trough  of  the 
stand,  is  launched  to  the  front,  carrying  with  it  the 
stick,  chain,  and  rocket  line.  The  object  of  the  stick 
is  to  give  steadiness  to  the  flight,  that  of  the  chain  to 
preserve  the  line  from  being  burned  off  by  tlie  flames 
issuing  from  the  rocket.  "  See  Ancfiorrvcket,  Life- 
sating  Rockets,  PilUnlic/ik',  and  Rockets. 


GERMAN  NAVAL  CABBIAGE. 


7r,3 


GEBHAN  FERCUSSION-FTTSE. 


GERMAN  NAVAL  CARRIAGE.— Carriages  of  this 
kimi  have  been  recently  constructed  for  light  guns  and 
introduced  into  the  German  naval  serrice.  They  be- 
long to  the  class  of  truck-carriages,  are  light,  easily 
moved  into  battery,  take  up  but  little  space,  and  are 
provided  with  a  circular  friction-brake,  by  which  the 
recoil  of  the  gun  may  be  controlled  at  pleasure.  A  6- 
inch  gun  mounted  on  one  of  these  carriages  was  fired 
a  number  of  times  at  Krupp's  proof  grounds  for  test. 
The  carriage  worked  well,  checking  the  recoil  within 
a  short  distance.  As  the  principle  on  which  the 
recoil  is  controlled  may  be  as  well  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  some  of  the  carriages  for  the  land-service, 
it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  give  a  short  de.scription 
of  its  leading  peculiarities.  The  cheeks  are  made  of 
thick  iron  plates,  each  cheek  of  a  single  piece,  rein- 


ing a  certain  resistance  to  the  turning  of  the  windlass 
and  the  unwinding  of  the  rope.  Carriages  of  this  pat- 
tern are  made  in  Dantzic,  for  the  Prussian  na\'y,  by 
ilr.  Wagenknecht,  who  also  designed  it.  See  Sea- 
coa»(  mill  frHrri^iii  Curriiigin. 

GERMAN  PERCUSSION-FUSE.— In  this  fuse  a  metal 
plunger,  A,  having  a  central  fire-hole,  B,  is  let  into 
the  fuse-hole  and  rests  against  the  shoulders,  DD.  Let 
into  the  top  of  the  plunger  and  across  its  center  is  a 
metal  bar,  P,  having  a  projecting  ])oint  on  its  top  side, 
the  point  being  in  center  of  fire-hole.  The  plunger  is 
retained  in  its  place  by  a  pin,  C,  which  i)a.s.ses  trans- 
versely into  the  fuse-hole,  the  side  of  which  is  put  in 
contact  with  the  point  of  the  cap.  The  outer  end  of 
the  pin  projects  on  the  side  of  the  shell,  the  projection 
being  limited  by  the  line  of  the  cylindrical  portion. 


German  Naval  Carriage. 


forced  aromid  the  trunnion-holes  hv  a  semicircular 
plate  of  iron  on  each  side  of  the  cheek-plate,  the  two 
riveted  together  through  the  latter.  The  cheeks  are 
joined  together  by  a  front  and  rear  bottom  transom 
and  a  front  vertical  transom  of  thick  iron  plate.  The 
carriage  is  supported  on  two  front  and  one  rear  truck- 
wheels,  the  latter  being  on  an  eccentric  axle,  thrown 
in  or  out  of  gear  by  the  handspike  projecting  to  the 
rear.  When  the  rear  wheel  is  not  bearing,  the  rear 
end  of  the  carriage  rests  on  wooden  bolsters,  made  fast 
to  the  under  side  of  the  rear  bottom  transom.  When 
the  carriage  is  in  battery,  two  bolsters  under  the  front 
ends  of  the  cheeks  rest  on  a  traverse-circle  raised 
slightly  above  the  level  of  the  platform.  The  shock 
of  the  discharge  is  thereby  thrown  on  these  bolsters, 
and  not  on  the  wheels  and  axle.  In  rear  of  the  front 
truck-wheels  there  are  two  shafts  rtmning  across  the 
carriage,  and  having  journal-boxes  in  the  cheeks;  the 
first  one  carries  a  pinion  inside  of  the  right  cheek- 
plate  and  has  a  crank  on  each  end,  out-sideof  the  cheek; 
the  other  carries  a  windla.ss,  with  a  cog  wheel  on  one 
end  and  an  iron  drum  on  the  other,  just  inside  of  the 
cheeks.  The  teeth  of  the  wheel  engage  in  those  of  the 
pinion.  The  drum  is  enveloped  by  a  band-brake, 
■which  can  be  tightened  bymeans  of  a  .screw,  orwithin 
narrow  limits  by  a  lever  placed  on  the  outside  of  the 
left  cheek,  and  held  in  any  desired  position  by  a  pin 
through  the  lever  and  cheek-plate.  A  strong  rope  is 
made  fast  at  its  middle  to  the  side  of  the  vessel,  or  the 
parapet  in  front  of  the  gun,  and  the  two  ends  are 
wound  around  the  windlass  and  made  fast  to  it.  A 
certain  pressure  is  applied  to  the  brake  by  means  of 
the  screw  and  lever  for  that  purpose.  When  the  gim 
is  fired,  the  recoil  of  the  carriage  is  overcome  by  the 
rope,  the  friction  between  the  brake  and  the  drum  offer- 


The  fuse-hole  is  closed  by  a  screw-cap,  F,  having  a 
small  central  screw-hole  into  which  the  fulminate  cap, 
G,  is  screwed.  When  fired  from  a  rifle-piece,  the  cen- 
trifugal force  generated  by  the  revolution  of  the  shell 
throws  out  the  pin,  C;  the  plunger  by  its  inertia  is  re- 
tained at  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  during  the  flight 
of  the  projectile;  at  the  moment  of  impact  the  project- 
ing point  on  the  phmger  impinges  against  the  fulmi- 
nate, which,  exploding,  ignites  the  charge  in  the  shell. 


A  i 


The  fulminate-cap,  G,  and  pin,  C,  are  not  applied  to 
the  shell  until  the  instant  of  loading,  when  the  loader, 
who  carries  these  articles  in  a  pouch,  screws  in  a  ful- 
minate<-ap  and  in.serts  the  pin,  previously  feeling  that 
the  plunger  does  not  stick.  To  keep  the  bursting- 
charge  in  place  in  the  shell,  a  bni.ss  thimble,  H,  with 
a  flange  about  the  top,  and  .small  holes  in  the  bottom, 
is  first  pres.sed  into  the  fuse-hole  and  takes  against  the 
shoulder,  D.  A  piece  of  cloth  is  jiasted  over  the  fire- 
holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  thimble.  In  this  thimble 
the  metal  plunger  rests.     See  Fuse. 


OEBHAN  STEEL. 


764 


GERMAN  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 


GERMAN  STEEL. — A  metal  made  of  charcoal-iron 
oliUiimd  from  boi;-iron  or  ibc  sparrv  carboniitc.    Sec 

GERMAN  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— In  the 
large  additions  made  to  the  forlitications  of  the  Grcr- 
niiin  Stales  since  ISl.'i,  the  German  en^neers  have 
for  the  most  part  of  these  new  structures  adopted  for 
the  plan  of  their  enceintes  the  polyironal  system  with 
Hanking  caponieres,  conibininj:  with  these  niuiicr- 
ous  casemates  for  defense,  for  bomb  proof  shelters, 
for  quartering  the  troops  and  preserving  the  nuuii- 
tions  and  other  stores.  The  following  appear  to  be 
the  leading  features  upon  which  these  works  are 
ba.sed:  1.  To  occupy  the  principal  ius-Siiilable  points 
of  the  position  to  be  fortified  by  works  which  sludl 
contain  within  themselves  all  the  resources  for  a 
vigorous  defense  by  their  garrisons;  these  works  being 
placed  in  reciprocal  defensive  relations  with  each 
other,  but  so  arranged  that  llie  falling  of  one  of  them 
into  the  besieger's  hands  will  iK'ither  compel  the  loss 
of  the  others,  nor  the  surrendering  of  the  position. 
These  are  styled  independent  itorks.  3.  To  cover 
all  the  space  to  the  rear  of  these  independent  works 
either  by  a  continuous  enceinte,  usually  of  the  poly- 
gonal system,  with  a  revetted  scarp  of  a  sufficient 
height  to  secure  it  from  escalade;  the  parts  of  this 
enceinte  being  so  combined  with  the  independent 
works  in  advance  that  all  the  approaches  of  the  be- 
siegers upon  each,  both  during  the  near  and  distant 
defense,  shall  be  swept  in  the  most  effective  manner 
by  their  fire;  or  else  to  connect  these  works  by  long 
curtains;  or,  finally,  to  employ  them,  as  in  a  system 
of  detached  works,  either  to  occupy  important  points 
in  advance  of  the  main  work,  or  for  forming  capa- 
cious intrenched  camps  with  a  view  to  the  eventuali- 
ties of  a  war.  3.  To  provide  the  most  ample  means 
for  an  active  defense  by  covered-ways  strongly  orga- 
nized with  ca.semated  redoubts,  and  ■nith  spacious 
communications  between  them  and  the  interior  for 
sorties  in  large  bodies.  4.  So  to  organize  the  artillery 
for  the  near  defense  that  it  shall  be  superior  to  that  of 
tlie  besiegers  at  the  same  epoch,  and  be  placed  in 
positions  where  it  will  be  sheltered  from  the  besieger's 
guns  up  to  the  time  that  it  is  to  be  brought  into  play. 

In  the  profiles  of  their  works,  the  German  engineers 
follow  nearly  the  common  rules  for  the  forms  and 
dimensions  of  their  parapets.  They  employ  three 
kinds  of  scarp  revetments:  1.  The  ordinary  full  re- 
vetment, or  sustaining  wall,  with  counterforts.  2. 
Revetments  with  relieving  arches,  either  with  or 
w  ithout  defensive  dispositions,  as  circumstances  may 
demand.  3.  Scarp-walls  either  partly  or  wholly  de- 
tached from  the  rampart  and  parapet.  In  all  these 
cases,  they  give  their  scarp-walls  a  height  from  27  to 
30  feet  for  im  portant  works ;  and  about  i .")  feet  for  those 
less  so.  The  batter  of  these  walls  is  usually  one  base 
to  twelve  perpendicular.  For  the  full  revetment  with 
counterforts,  they  regidate  the  dimensions  of  lioth  so 
as  to  afford  the  same  stability  as  in  the  revetments  of 
Vauban.  In  their  revetments  with  simple  relieving 
arches,  they  u.se  either  one  or  two  tiers  of  arches; 
placing  the  single  tier  either  near  the  top,  or  towards 
the  middle  of  the  wall,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  the  pressure  to  be  sustained.  Revetments 
with  relieving  arches  for  defense,  or  scarp-galleries, 
are  arranged  for  one  or  two  tiers  of  fire.  1'he  back 
of  the  gallery  is  sometimes  left  open,  the  earth  falling 
in  the  natural  slope  in  the  rear;  or  it  is  inclosed  cither 
with  a  plane  or  a  cjlindrical  wall,  according  to  the 
pressure  to  be  sustamed.  When  the  upper  part  of 
the  wall  is  detached,  to  form  a  corridor  between  it 
and  the  parapet  in  its  rear,  the  top  portion  alone  is, 
in  .some  ca.ses,  arranged  with  loo])holes  and  arcades, 
or  with  recesses  to  tlieir  rear,  to  cover  the  men  from 
shells;  in  others,  a  seaiii-gallery  is  made  below  the 
floor  of  the  corridor  to  give  two  tiers  of  fire.  The 
corridors  are  from  8  to  20  feet  in  width;  and  when 
<leemed  requisite,  they  are  divided,  from  distance  to 
distance,  by  transverse  loop  holed  traverse-walls  for 
defense.     When  the  scarj)  walls  arc  entirely  detached. 


they  arc  arranged  for  either  one  or  two  tiers  of  Are, 
with  arcades  to  cover  the  men;  the  banquette  tread 
of  the  upper  tier  of  loop-holes  resting  on  the  arches 
of  the  lower  tier  of  itfcadcs.  The  counterscarps  are 
revetted  either  with  the  ordinary  wall,  or  arranged 
with  a  defensive  gallery  with  the  full  center  arch, 
parallel  to  the  face  of  the  covmterscarpvvall. 

The  i^lan  of  the  independent  works  may  be  of  any 
polygonal  figure  which  is  best  adapted  to  ihe  part  as- 
signed them  in  the  defense  of  the  position;  but  they 
are  generally  in  the  form  of  lunettes,  having  a  rev»et- 
ted  scar]i  and  coimterscarp  to  secure  them  from  esca- 
lade. In  the  gorge  of  the  work  a  casemated  defen- 
sive barrack  is  placed,  which  serves  as  a  redoubt  or 
keep;  a  simple  loop-holed  wall  which  is  flanked  by 
the  barrack  closing  the  si)ace  between  it  and  the 
flanks  of  the  work,  and  securing  the  latter  from  an 
as-sault  in  the  rear.  The  ditches  of  the  work  are 
either  flanked  from  the  enceinte  in  the  rear;  or,  when 
the  work  is  a  detached  one,  by  caponieres  or  coun 
terscarp-galleries.  The  work  is  usually  organized 
with  a  covered-way  having  one  or  more  ca.sc'mated 
redoubts,  and  a  svstcm  of  mines  both  for  the  exterior 
and  interior  defense.  The  defensive  barrack  is 
usually  arranged  for  two  or  three  tiers  of  covered  fire, 
and  aii  up|K'r  one  with  an  ordinary  i)arapet  and  tcrre- 
plein  on  which  the  guns  are  uncovered  and  destined 
for  the  distant  defense.  The  two  up|ier  tiers  of  cov- 
ered fire  are  for  artillery,  to  sweep  the  interior  of  tile 
work,  and  to  reach  by  curvatcil  tires  the  approaches 
on  the  exterior.  The  lower  tier  is  loop-holed  for 
musketry  to  sweep  the  interior.  The  barrack  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  narrow  ditch  on  the  interior,  and  this, 
whenever  necessary,  is  flanked  by  small  caponieres 
placed  in  it,  which  are  entered  from  the  lowest  story. 
The  barrack  communicates  with  the  interior  by  a 
door  at  some  suitable  point;  and  the  communication 
between  the  interior  of  the  work  and  the  exterior  is 
through  doors  in  the  wall  inclosing  the  gorge.  Con- 
siderable diversity  is  shown  in  the  profiles  of  these 
works.  They  usuall.y  consist  of  a  parapet  and  ram- 
part of  ordinary  dimensions  for  the  luicovercd  defense ; 
of  scarps  either  partly  detached  and  loop-holed,  with 
a  corridor  between  them  and  the  parapet;  or  of  scarps 
with  relieving  arches  arranged  with  loop  holes  for 
musketry;  or  of  a  combination  of  these  two.  The 
height  of  the  barrack,  and  the  command  of  the  para- 
petof  the  exterior  work,  are  so  determined  that  the 
masonry  of  the  former  shall  l)e  jicrfectly  covered  from 
the  direct  tire  of  artillery,  and  the  exterior  l)e  perfectly 
swept  by  the  artillery  of  the  work.  The  portions  of 
the  counterscarps  at  the  siditnts  are  also  arranged 
with  defensive  galleries  to  sweei>  the  ditches;  usually 
•nith  musketr)-,  but  in  some  cases  with  artillery. 

Ca.semates  are  arranged  for  mortars  in  the  salient 
angles  of  the  work,  to  tire  in  the  directions  of  the 
capitals;  while  one  or  more  casemated  traverses  are 
placed  on  the  terre-plein,  to  obtain  a  fire  on  the  ex- 
terior and  to  cover  the.  terre-plein  from  ricochet. 
The  masonry  of  these  traverses  is  masked  by  the 
parapet.  Posterns  lead  from  the  interior  of  the  work 
to  the  scarp-galleries,  the  corridors,  the  dilch-caponi- 
eres,  and  to  the  casemated  mortar-battery  in  the 
salient.  The  systems  of  mines  for  the  exterior  de- 
fense consist  simply  of  the  listening-galleries  leading 
outwards  from  the"  counterscarp-g'.dleries.  That  for 
interior  defense  is  similarly  arranged;  the  communi- 
cations with  it  being  either  from  the  barrack  cajw- 
nieres,  or  from  the  countei-scarp  of  its  ditch.  The 
work  is  provided  with  povviler  magazines  which  are 
placed  at  the  jwints  of  the  interior  least  ex-posed  to 
the  fire  of  the  enemy;  and  covered  guardrooms,  store- 
rooms for  mining  tools,  etc.,  are  made  in  connection 
with  the  posterns.  The  caiionicres  for  flanking  the 
main  ditch  usually  consist  of  two  faces  and  two  case- 
mated  flank-batteries  of  two  stories  each;  the  lower 
story  being  loop-holed  for  musketry,  and  the  upper 
pierced  for  artillery.  Each  battery  consists  of  sev- 
eral rectangular  chambers;  each  chamber  for  a  single 
gun  being  12  feet  wide  and  24  feet  deep;  or  of  smaller 


GEKMAN  SYSTEM  OF  RIFLING. 


765 


GHENT  TEEATY. 


dimensions,  according  to  the  caliber  of  the  gun  and 
the  kind  of  carriage  on  which  it  is  mounted.  The 
upper  cbamliers  are  covered  with  bomb-proof  arches, 
tlie  lower  one  by  arches  of  sufficient  strength  for  the 
weight  thrown  upon  them.  The  front  mask-wall  of 
the  casemates  is  C  feet  thick;  the  wall  in  the  rear  is  3 
feet  thick,  and  is  pierced  with  windows  for  light  and 
ventilation.  Openings  for  the  escape  of  the  smoke 
are  also  made  in  the  front  ma.sk wall  immediately 
below  the  crowns  of  the  arches.  An  interior  court 
30  feet  in  width  is  left  between  the  two  flank-batteries, 
and  when  the  batteries  are  detached  from  the  scarp- 
wall  the  space  between  is  inclosed  Ity  a  loop-holed 
wall  built  on  each  side  in  the  prolongation  of  Uic 
front  ma.sk-wall.  The  faces  of  the  caponiere  form 
a  salient  of  60  degrees.  They  are  separated  from  the 
flanks  by  two  stories  of  arched  corridors,  in  front  of 
which  are  two  arched  chambers  of  two  stories;  the 
upper  chamber  being  arranged  for  mortars.  An  open 
triangular  court  is  left  between  the  front  walls  of 
these  chambers  and  the  faces  of  tlie  caponiere.  The 
upper  part  of  the  walls  of  the  faces  along  this  court 
are  arranged  with  arcades  and  loop-holed  for  mus- 
ketry, and  have  an  open  corridor  in  their  rear  on  the 
same  level  as  the  chambers  of  the  second  story.  See 
Polygonal  System  of  Fortification  and  System  of  Forti- 
fication. 

•GEEMAN  SYSTEM  OF  EIFLING.— In  this  system 
the  grooves  are  thirty  in  number  for  all  calibers, 
quite  shallow,  their  sides  being  radial  and  forming 
sharp  angles  with  the  bore.  The  rifling  has  a  uni- 
form twist  of  one  turn  in  'Z^  feet.  The  grooves  are 
wider  at  the  bottom  of  the  bore  than  at  the  muzzle, 
so  that  tlie  coinpres.sion  of  the  lead-coated  projectile 
is  gradual,  and  less  force  is  expended  in  changing 
the  shape  of  the  projectile.  The  change  of  shajie  is 
effected  by  making  the  whole  groove  of  the  same 
size  at  the  muzzle,  and  then  cutting  awa}'  gradually 
upon  the  loading-edge  of  the  groove.  Of  course,  as 
the  twist  is  uniform,  the  dri%nng-side  of  the  groove 
cannot  vary.  The  outer  surface  of  the  lead  coating 
of  the  projectile  is  in  raised  rings  with  grooves  be- 
tween, to  allow  space  for  its  being  drawn  down  in 
pas,sing  through  the  bore.  In  all  except  his  smaller 
calibers,  Krupp  makes  the  chamber  eccentric  with 
the  bore,  the  axis  of  the  chamber  lieing  above  that  of 
the  bore.  This  is  to  have  the  projectile  enter  the 
bore  as  tndy  as  possible,  by  having  their  axes  nearly 
coincident!     See  System  of  Rifling. 

GEEMAN  TIMEFUSE.— This  fuse  consists  of  the 
body,  or  fuse  proper,  in  two  parts,  A  and  B,  and  the 
igniter,  C.  The  lower  part,  B,  is  of  lead  and  tin,  and 
is  cast  around  a  brass  stem:  the  upper  part  of  this 
stem  is  provided  on  the  inside  and  outside  with  screw- 


German  Time-fuse. 

threads;  into  the  inner  thread  is  screwed  the  igniter, 
C;  into  the  outer  thread  works  a  screw  assembling- 
disk,  which  is  prevented  from  turning  when  screwed 
down  by  a  brass  screw;  at  the  bottom  of  the  brass 
stem  anil  projecting  from  its  center  is  a  sharp  project- 
ing pin.  The  stein  has  upon  its  exterior  a  grooved 
channel,  and  through  it,  near  the  point  of  the  pin, 
radial  holes,  which  permit  the  flame  from  the  fulmi- 
nate to  communicate  with  the  priming-chamber. 
The  upper  part,  A,  or  the  "regulator"  of  the  fiLsc,  is 
a  ring  of  a  truncated  conical  form;  it  has  a  priming- 


chamber  and  a  circular  groove  on  its  under  side,  in- 
closing compressed  mealed  powder.  The  external 
opening  of  the  chamber  is  covered  by  a  thin  strip  of 
lead  and  tin,  and  the  internal  by  a  piece  of  paper. 
The  rim  of  the  "  regulator"  is  diWded  into  regularly- 
increasing  spaces  from  2  to  22,  indicating  meters  and 
half-meters.  Separating  A  and  B  is  a  washer  of  felt. 
A  channel  through  the  lower  part  of  B,  filled  with 
rifle-powder,  allows  a  communication  between  the 
burning  composition  of  fuse  and  powder-charge  of 
shell;  the  position  of  the  upper  opening  of  this  chan- 
nel is  indicated  on  the  rim  of  B  by  a  triangular  notch; 
the  lower  opening  is  closed  by  a  disk  of  lead  and  tin, 
thin  enough  to  be  blown  out  by  the  rifle-powder. 
The  igniter,  C,  is  composed  of  four  parts— the  brass 
slAJck,  which  incloses  all;  the  screw  cap,  which  closes 
the  end;  the  leaden-shouldered  plunger,  with  its  re- 
cess at  tottom  to  receive  the  fulminate  irafer.  The 
fuse  works  a.s  follows:  At  the  instant  of  discharge, 
the  plimger,  by  its  own  inertia,  is  forced  back,  shear- 
ing off  the  soft  shoulders,  and  the  fulminate  strikes 
the  projecting  pin-point;  the  resulting  gas  escapes 
through  the  radial  holes  around  this  point  and  into 
a  grooved  channel,  igniting  the  powder  in  the  prim- 
ing-chamber and  circular  groove,  which  bums  till 
the  channel  of  rifle-powder  is  reached,  when  the  thin 
disk  of  metal  at  bottom  of  the  channel  is  blown  out, 
and  the  flame  reaching  the  powder  in  the  shell,  ex- 
plosion takes  place.     See  I^ise. 

GEEEHES. — Shields  used  by  the  ancient  Persians. 
They  were  usually  made  of  wicker-work,  and  were 
rhoniboidal  in  form. 

GESATES. — Formerly  the  Gallic  mercenary  .soldiers, 
who  volunteered  scrx-ices  beyond  their  native  coim- 
try.  ■  All  these  adventurers,  or  knights-errant,  were 
called  Gesates,  either  on  account  of  the  gese.  or  large 
dart,  which  they  earned;  or,  as  Polybius  imagines, 
on  account  of  the  subsistence  they  received,  which 
was  called  bv  that  name.     Also  written  Gtssates. 

GESES  AND  MATERES.— "Weapons  adopted  by  the 
Allobroges  (a  body  of  ancient  Gauls),  independently 
of  the  broad  cut-and-thrust  sword  which  the  Swiss 
still  wear.  These  instruments  were  onlj'  one  cubit 
long;  half  the  blade  was  nearly  square,  but  it  termi- 
nated in  a  round  point  which  was  exceedingly  sharp. 
Not  only  the  Romans  but  the  Greeks  received  it  into 
their  armies.  The  former  retained  the  full  appella- 
tion and  called  it  gese,  but  the  latter  corrupted  it  into 
ysse.  The  term  gese  was  also  applied  to  a  sort  of 
javelin.  Geserne  is  the  Anglo-Norman  term  for  bat- 
tle-axe.    See  Gesates. 

GETX. — The  people  of  Thracian  extraction,  who, 
when  first  mentioned  in  history,  inhabited  the  coun- 
try which  is  now  called  Bulgaria.  They  were  a  war- 
like people,  and  for  a  long  time  successfully  resisted 
the  attempts  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  Pyrrhus  to 
subdue  them.  They  afterwards  removed  to  the 
north  bank^of  the  Danube,  having  the  Dnieper  as 
their  boundary  on  the  east,  while  westward  they  en- 
croached ou  the  Roman  Empire,  with  which,  from 
this  time,  they  were  continuallv  at  war.  They  were 
called  Daci  by  the  Romans,  and  their  countrv-  Dacia, 
and  are  often  mentioned  in  the  literature  of  the  Au- 
gustan Era  a.s  savage  and  unconquerable  foes.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Domitian,  they  overcame  the  Romans, 
and  exacted  an  annual  tribute.  But  in  106,  their 
giiUant  King,  Decebalus,  was  defeated  by  Tnijan, 
and  the  people  completely  subdued.  A  Roman 
Colony  was  settled  in  the  country,  and  becoming  in- 
corporated with  the  Getae,  gave  rise  to  a  mixed  race, 
the  nioilern  Wallachs. 

GHENT  TEEATY.— A  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  which  ended  the  war  be- 
tween tlie  two  countries  known  as  the  "  War  of  1912.'' 
The  treaty  was  concluded  December  24,  1814,  two 
weeks  before  the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  The  main  pro- 
visions were:  1st.  Restoration  of  all  territory,  places, 
and  possessions  taken  by  either  party  from  the  other 
during  the  war,  except  certain  Islands.  Public  prop- 
erty remaining  in  such  places  at  rime  of  ratifying  the 


GHORCHAHA. 


766 


OILL  DTNAHOMETEK. 


treaty  was  not  to  be  destroyed  or  carried  away,  and 
the  same  promise  was  made  for  slaves  and  all  private 
property.  2d.  Article  IV.  provides  the  apiwintment 
of  a  Commission  to  decide  to  which  of  the  two  Powers 
certain  Ishmds  in  and  near  Passamaquo<ldy  Bay  be- 
Ion<;;  and  if  the  Commission  should  fail  to  come  to  a 
decision  the  subject  is  to  be  referred  to  some  friendly 
Sovereiirn  or  State.  M.  Articles  V.  to  VIII.  provide 
for  sevenil  Commissions  to  settle  the  line  of  boundary 
as  described  in  the  treaty  of  1783— one  Commission 
to  settle  the  line  from  the  river  St.  Croix  to  where 
the  fortytifih  parallel  cuts  the  river  St.  Lawrence 
(called  the  Iroquois  or  (Jataraqua  in  the  treaty) ; 
another  to  determine  the  middle  of  the  water  commu- 
nications from  that  point  to  Lake  Superior;  and  a 
third  to  adjust  the  limits  from  "the  water-commu- 
nication between  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior  to  the 
most  northwestern  point  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods." 
4th.  Article  IX.  binds  both  parties  to  use  their  best 
endeavors  to  alx)li.sh  the  slave-trade,  as  being  "  irre- 
concilable with  the  principles  of  humanity  and  jus- 
tice." It  is  remarkable  that  the  treaty  fails  to  speak 
of  the  impressment  of  American  seamen,  a  main  cause 
of  the  war,  and  passes  over  the  claims  of  the  LTnited 
States  to  participate  in  the  fisheries,  noticed  in  the 
treaty  of  1783;  nor  does  it  conclude  the  question  as  to 
British  and  American  naval  forces  on  the  northern 
lakes. 

GHOECHANA.— The  irregular  Sikh  yeomanry  who 
served  in  the  wars  in  the  Punjab  between  the  Sikhs 
imd  the  English. 

GHURRIf. — An  Indian  term;  a  circular  plate  of 
gun-metal,  issued  to  troops  in  India,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  per  regiment,  for  the  purpose  of  striking  the 
hours.     This  kind  of  plate  is  made  up  in  the  country. 

OIAHBEUX.  —  Greaves  or  an  armor  for  the  legs, 
made  of  metal  or  waxed  leather,  and  much  worn  in 
the  Middle  Ages. 

GIANT  POWDER.— A  mi.xture  of  nitro-glyeerine 
■with  absorbents,  by  w  liich  this  dangerously-explosive 
liquid  is  made  into  a  perfectly  safe  .solid  substance,  of 
a.  consistence  and  appearance  not  unlike  light-brown 
sugar.  It  is  not  possible  to  explode  this  powder  by 
ordinary  accident,  nor  even  by  the  ajiplication  of  a 
match.  A  qustntity  of  it  placed  upon  a  rock  and  tired 
with  a  lighted  match  will  burn  away  very  much  as 
a  piece  of  camphor  or  resin  would  burn,  with  little 
tlame  but  much  smoke,  and  will  Iwil  and  bubble  until 
only  a  crust  is  left.  There  is  not  the  least  danger, 
therefore,  of  igniting  the  powder  dangerously,  imtil 
properly  placed  for  the  blast.  In  this  respect  it  has 
a  very  great  advantage  over  ordinary'  blasting-powder, 
which  may  be  exploded  by  a  spark.  The  powder,  as 
it  is  manufactured,  is  made  into  cartridges  about  eight 
inches  in  length,  anil  of  any  required  diameter.  The 
cartridges  are  wrapped  in  strong  parchment-paper, 
and  covered  with  paraftine.  They  are  tired  by  a  cap 
which  is  in.serted  into  the  end  of  the  carii-idge.  The 
fuse,  which  is  of  the  common  kind,  is  inserted  into 
the  open  end  of  the  cap,  which  is  pinched  close  upon 
it  with  a  small  pair  of  pud's,  so  as  to  hold  it  firmly. 
The  cartridge  is  then  opined  at  one  end,  the  cap  with 
the  fuse  attached  inserted,  and  the  paper  is  tied  tight- 
ly around  the  fuse  with  a  piece  of  twine.  See  Dyna- 
mite and  High  Kj-phmnes. 

GIBERNE. — A  sort  of  ba"  in  which  the  grenadiers 
held  their  hand-grenades.  It  was  worn  like  a  powder- 
flask. 

OILL  COMBINATION  FUSES.— The  metallic  slock, 
A,  of  the  fuse  shown  in  Fig.  1  is  open  at  both  ends, 
the  front  half  being  bored  conically  to  receive  the 
time-fuse,  B.  At  the  bottom  of  the  recess  for  fuse  B 
is  a  small  disk  of  metal,  C,  having  a  vent-hole,  D, 
through  its  center;  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  below 
the  disk  C  is  a  second  and  heavier  one,  E.  having  a 
central  projecting  point,  F,  on  the  under  side; 
through  this  disk  and  equidistant  from  its  center  are 
three  small  holes.  The  space  between  disks  is  tilled 
with  pres.sed  musket-powder,  pieces  of  thin  paper  pre- 
venting its  falling  through  holes  in  disks.     The  re- 


mainder of  the  stock,  A,  is  bored  cylindrically  for  the 
play  of  the  triangular  plunger,  G,  the  hole  through 
center  of  which  is  sumiomited  by  a  ]>ercussion-cap, 
H.  On  one  of  the  triangular  edges  of  the  plunger,  G, 
is  a  single  stud  running  full  length  of  plunger;  both 
of  the  other  edges  have  two  studs,  so  arranged  that 
the  ones  in  front  shall  be  in  adilTcrent  plane  to  insure 
freedom  at  impact.  The  cylindrical  hole  through  the 
plunger  is  tilled  with  pressed  musket-i>owder  and  end 
stopped  by  a  leather  plug.  A  safetyi)in  secures  the 
plunger  in  place.  A  metal  pin,  L,  prevents  the  plun- 
ger from  falling  out,  and  a  paper  washer  closes  the 
rear  end  of  stock.  The  fuse  acts  as  follows:  the  time- 
fuse, B,  cut  for  a  certain  munber  of  seconds,  is  ignit- 
ed at  the  instant  of  discharge  by  the  gjts  from  powder- 
charge,  and  the  flame  from  fuse-i-omposition  ignites 
the  pressed  musket-powder  between  the  disks  C  and 
E,  which  in  turn  ignites  the  bursting-charge  of  shell. 
Should,  however,  the  flight  of  the  projectile  oe  arrested 
before  the  burning  out  of  fuse-composition,  the  plun- 
ger, G,  is  thrown  forward,  the  cap  striking  the  pro- 
jecting point,  F,  on  disk  E,  igniting  mciiled  powder 
in  the  center  of  plunger,  G,  thus  igniting  the  burst- 
ing-charge and  exploding  the  shell. 


Fig.  2. 

The  fuse  shown  in  Fig.  2  consists  of  a  metal  stock, 
A,  open  at  the  rear  but  closed  at  the  front  end  by  a 
screw-plug,  B,  having  atransversal  projection,  C,  on 
the  out,  and  a  central  one,  D,  on  the  in  side,  both  bored 
to  form  right-angled  channels,  which,  when  filled 
with  pressed  gunpowder,  constitutes  the  igniter  for 
time-fuse.  At  the  bottom  of  the  cylindrical  i)ocket 
of  the  stock.  A,  there  is  a  recess  to  receive  the  wedge- 
shaped,  soft-metal  valve  or  stopper-ring,  F,  which  is 
held,  after  being  pres.sed  tightly  into  place,  by  two 
pins,  G.  The  stock  terminates"  in  a  slightly  conical- 
shaped  projection  bored  to  receive  and  hold  securely 
the  time-fuse,  H.  The  bottom  of  the  recess  for  valve, 
F,  is  open,  except  at  the  three  points  or  shoulders. 
The  screw-plug,  B,  is  provided  also  with  two  holes, 
KK,  through  which  maybe  passed  a  strand  of  quick- 
match  to  insure  ignition  of  time-fuse.  The  operation 
of  the  fuse  is  !is  follows:  The  gas  from  the  Imrning 
powder-charge  starts  the  igniter,  which  in  turn  ig- 
nites the  time-fuse — cut  as  desired;  should  the  shell  s 
progress  be  arrested  before  burning  out  of  fuse,  the 
soft-metal  ring  is  thrown  forward,  allowing  gas  from 
burning  fuse  free  conuir  i.iication  with  bursting-charge 
in  shell.     See  Fukc. 

GILL  DYNAMOMETER.— This  in.strumcnt  consists 
essentially  of  a  hyilniulic  jack  for  producing  pressure, 
and  a  system  of  levers  and  weights  for  recording 
same.    There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  applying 


GIHBAL. 


767 


6IN6&L. 


the  pressure;  one  by  band,  the  other  by  the  accumu- 
lator. Both  methods  involve  the  use  o"f  the  jack;  but 
in  the  first  the  pressure  is  intermittent,  while  in  the 
second  it  is  continuous.  Automatic  checks  are  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  relieve  the  pressure  where  the  required 
effect  has  been  produced.  The  combination  leverage 
is  1  to  200.  The  capacity  of  the  machine  is  10,000 
pounds,  and  any  pressure  up  to  that  limit  can  be 
measured  by  the"  proper  adjustment  of  the  weights  in 
the  scale-pan  and  the  slide  on  the  graduated  levers. 

GIMBAL. — A  mechanical  contrivance  for  keeping 
a  suspended  body  vertical,  whatever  be  tlie  derange- 
ments to  which  the  points  of  suspension  are  liable. 
It  consists  of  two  brass  rings  which  move  within  one 
another,  each  perpendicularly  to  its  plane  about  two 
axes,  placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

6IHL£T. — A  tool  for  boring  holes  in  wood  to  re- 
ceive nails,  screws,  etc.,  and  generally  used  when  the 
hole  is  to  be  larger  than  can  be  bored  with  a  brad-awl. 
It  has  a  conical  screw-point,  followed  by  a  groove  for 
clearing,  and  is  fitted  in  a  cross  or  T  handle.  An  im- 
provement has  lately  been  made  by  twisting  the 
grooved  part  of  the  gimlet,  so  that  it  forms  a  long 
spiral  groove.  A  great  vaiiety  of  gimlets  are  used  in 
the  arsenal  and  laboratory. 

GIN. — The  gin  is  a  tripod  formed  of  three  poles. 
Two  of  these  poles,  called  legs,  are  joined  together 
by  braces  of  wood  or  iron,  and  contain  between  them 
the  windlass.  The  third  pole  is  called  the  pry-pole, 
and  is  joined  to  the  legs,  at  the  top,  by  a  bolt.  This 
bolt  supports  a  clevis,  to  which  the  upjjer  block  of 
the  tackle  is  hooked.  The  windla.ss  is  worked  by 
two  handspikes  fitting  into  brass  sockets,  one  at  each 
e.xtremity  of  the  windlass;  the  operation  of  the  hand- 
spike is  made  continuous  by  the  action  of  a  pawl  at- 
tached to  the  socket  on  the  ratchet  of  the  windhuss. 
To  prevent  the  legs  and  pry-pole  from  sinking  into 
the  ground,  or  injuring  the  pavement  of  casemates, 
stout  pieces  of  wood,  called  shoes,  are  placed  under 
them.  The  hoisting  apparatus  consists  of  two  blocks 
through  which  thefall  is  rove.  The  fall  is  wound 
two  or  more  times  around  the  windla.ss.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  gins  used  for  artillerj'  purposes:  the 
sicje,  the  garrison,  and  the  casemate.  The  last  two 
diner  froiii  each  other  only  in  height;  the  first  differs 
■  from  the  others  in  construction  and  size.  Piper's  gin 
is  an  improved  modification  of  the  siege-gin.  When 
the  gin  is  put  together  and  raised,  that  part  included 
between  the  legs  and  pry -pole  is  called  the  in.side,  the 
outside  l)eing  the  part  without  the  legs;  the  right  cor- 
responding to  the  right  hand  of  a  man  standing  at 
the  middle  and  outside  of  the  windla.ss,  facing  to- 
wards it,  the  left  corresponding  to  his  left  hand. 

When  mounting  a  siege-gun,  it  is  immaterial  upon 
which  side  of  the  piece  the  legs  of  the  gin  are  placed, 
but  for  uniformity  they  are  generally  placed  on  the 
right.  The  gun  is  suspended  either  by  a  sling  or  by 
a  bail;  the  latter  is  preferable.  It  consists  of  a  stoiit 
piece  of  iron  passing  like  a  handle  over  the  piece  and 
fitting  against  the  ends  of  the  trunnions,  to  which  it 
is  fastened  by  iron  bolts  passing  through  the  ends  of 
the  bail  into  holes  bored  for  the  purpose,  one  in  the 
end  of  each  trunnion.  A  clevis,  attached  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  bail,  gives  a  place  for  hooking  the  lower 
block  of  the  tackle.  The  piece  may  be  conveniently 
slung  by  a  rope  passed  around  each  trunnion,  and  the 
ends  fastened  together  on  top  of  the  piece;  or  trun- 
nion-rings may  be  used.  Hook  the  pulley  to  this 
sling  or  to  the  trunnion-rings;  bear  down  with  one  or 
two  men  on  the  handspike  in  the  bore  to  balance  the 
piece,  and  when  it  is  raised  sufHcicntly  high  run 
the  carriage  under  it,  and  place  a  handspike  in  the 
trunnion-beds  and  a  block  on  the  stock.  Lower  the 
gun,  the  trunnions  directly  over  the  trunnion-beds, 
until  the  piece  rests  on  the  block  and  on  the  hand- 
spike. Remove  the  sling  or  rings  from  the  trunnions, 
and  nin  the  carriage,  with  the  gun  on  it,  back  until 
the  head  of  the  cheeks  is  in  rear  of  a  perpendicu- 
lar let-fall  from  the  head  of  the  gin.  Pass  the  sling 
around  the  chase,  hook  the  pulley  to  it,  and  work  the 


gin  until  the  weight  no  longer  bears  on  the  handspike 
in  tiie  trunnion -beds;  remove  the  handspike,  and 
lower  the  trunnions  to  their  places;  t)ear  down  on 
the  muzzle,  and  remove  the  block  from  under  the 
breech 

To  sling  and  hoist  a  siege-mortar  mounted  on  its 
carriage,  a  gun-sling  or  sling-chain  is  used.  In  either 
case,  the  middle  of  it  is  passed  under  the  front  notch- 
es; the  ends  carriefl  up,  and,  crossing  over  the  top  of 
the  mortar,  are  pas.sed  under  the  rear  notches.  The 
gin  is  erected  over  the  mortar,  and  the  lower  block  of 


the  tackle  is  hooked  into  the  sling  where  it  cros.ses  the 
top  of  the  mortar.  The  mortar  is  raise<l  and  lowered 
upon  a  wagon  in  the  manner  prescribed  for  a  gun. 
By  removing  the  prypole,  the  legs  of  the  gin  may  be 
used  as  shears,  ^^^^en  the  garrison  or  casemate  gin 
is  to  be  thus  used,  a  block  of  wood  of  the  same  di- 
mensions as  the  head  of  the  pry-pole,  with  a  hole  in 
it  to  receive  the  clevis-bolt,  mus't  be  inserted  in  i>lace 
of  the  pry-pole.  The  fall  and  windlass  are  operated 
the  same  as  for  the  gin.  See  Casemate-gin,  Gin-der- 
rick, Mfchnnicnl  Maneurers,  and  Piper  Gin. 

GIN-DERBICK. — The  garrison  gin-derrick  consists 
of  two  legs  framed  together,  one  pry  pole,  two  drums 
or  windla.s.ses  with  geared  wheels,  and  two  wagon- 
wheels,  serving  the  double  piupose  of  moving  the 
derrick  from  point  to  point  and  for  working  the  wind- 
lass. The  axle  passes  through  one  of  the  windlasses, 
and  can  at  plea.sure  be  geared  into  a  wheel  on  the 
other  windlass.  Length  of  legs,  254  inches;  gi-eatest 
width  of  legs,  86  inches;  weight,  1725  pounds.  It  is 
hoisted  by  being  pulled  over  to  the  front;  the  feet  of 
the  k'gs  then  rest  on  the  ground,  and  the  pry-]K)le  is 
carried  out  over  the  object  to  be  raised.  The  wheels 
are  now  free,  and  the  method  of  operating  the  gin  is 
similar  to  that  for  other  gins,  the  power  being  applied 
to  the  wheels  instead  of  to  handspikes.  See  Gin  and 
Meehtiniral  Maneurers. 

GINDI. —  The  term  applied  to  Turki-sh  horsemen 
who  perform  extraordinary  feats  in  horsemanship, 

GINGAL. — A  weapon  used  by  Asiatic  armies  in  the 


GIONULES. 


768 


GIRONNI. 


defense  of  fortresses.  It  may  be  dcscril)ed  aa  a  large 
and  rude  musket,  which  is  tired  from  a  rest.  ITlie 
Chinese  employ  it  lo  a  considerable  extent.  Also 
■n-ritteii  Giiiijd'il  and  Giiijiiitl. 

GIONDLES. — Turkish  volunteer  cavalrj-  renowned 
for  ihfir  tinivery  and  excellent  horsemanship. 

GIRANDOLE."— 1.  In  fortification,  several  chamliers 
in  mines  connectctl  for  the  defense  of  the  place  of 
arms  of  the  covered-way.  2.  Any  firework  turning 
upon  a  wheel,  or  any  wheel  whose  circumference  is 
studded  with  rockets. 

GIRDEB. — A  main  beam  used  to  support  joisting, 
walls,  arches,  etc.  Girders  may  be  of  wood  or  iron, 
and  are  now  very  commonly  made  of  cast-iron.  They 
are  much  u.sed  in  supportinj;  the  upper  walls  of  houses, 
while  the  lower  part  is  cut  away  to  allow  of  rearrange- 
ment. Wooden  girders  are  sometimes  strength- 
ened with  iron  tru.sses,  and  are  then  called  tnis.sed 
girders.  Sometimes  a  beam  is  cut  in  two,  and  an 
iron  plate  inserted  between  the  pieces,  and  the  whole 
boiled  together.  This  kind  of  girder  is  called  a  sand- 
wiched beam.  Girders  are  much  used  in  railway  and 
fortification  works,  in  which  case  they  are  generally 
of  wrought-iron.  The  Menai  and  Britannia  bridges 
are  simply  very  large  boxed  girders.  The  lattice  gir- 
der is  another  form,  in  which  the  sides  are  made 
somewhat  like  wooden  lattice-work. 

GIRDLE. — A  band  of  leather  or  of  other  material 
worn  round  the  waist,  either  to  confine  the  loose  and 
flowing  outer  robes  so  as  to  allow  freedom  of  move- 
ment, or  to  fasten  and  support  the  garments  of  the 
wearer.  In  southern  Europe  and  in  all  Eastern  coim- 
tries  the  girdle  was  and  still  is  an  important  article  of 
dress.  Among  the  Romans  it  was  used  to  confine  the 
tunica;  and  so  general  was  the  custom  that  the  want 
of  a  girdle  Wius  regarded  as  strongly  presumptive  of 
idle  and  dissolute  projwnsities.  It  also  formcil  a  part 
of  the  dress  of  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  soldier;  the 
phrase  eiiigiilum  depoiiere,  to  lay  aside  the  girdle,  was 
as  equivalent  to  quitting  the  service.  It  was  used  as 
now  in  the  East  to  carry  money  in;  hence  zonarn  per- 
dere,  to  lo.se  one's  purse.  Girdles  and  girdle-buckles 
are  not  found  in  early  Celtic  mterments,  nor  are  they 
frequent  in  Gallo-Roman  graves.  But  in  Frankish 
and  Burgimdian  graves  they  arc  almost  constantly 
present,  often  omamenled  with  plaques  of  bronze  or 
silver,  and  the  clasps  and  moimtings  clia.scd  or  inlaid 
with  various  ornamental  designs,  occasionally  includ- 
ing figures  of  the  cross,  and  rude  representations  of 
Scripture  subjects.  In  later  times  girdles  are  fre- 
quently represented  on  brasses  and  monumental  efti- 
gies  from  the  twelfth  lo  the  sixteenth  century.  They 
were  either  of  leather  or  of  woven  materials,"  often  of 
silk  and  adorned  with  gold  and  gems.  The  mode  in 
which  they  were  worn  is  shown  on  the  eflicfies;  usu- 
ally fastened  by  a  buckle  in  front,  the  long  free  end 
of  the  girdle  was  carried  up  imdenieath  and  then 
down  over  the  cincture,  and  through  the  loop  thus 
formed  the  ornamented  end  hung  down  in  front. 

GIRL.— A  term  in  Heraldry,  used  to  signify  the 
young  of  the  roe  in  its  second  vear.     See  llrrnMn/. 

GIHOLAMO  MAGGI  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 
— A  system  in  which  the  liastions  are  small,  and  pro- 
vided with  double  flanks.  The  curtain  has  four 
double  flanks.  Vauljan  borrowed  from  this  system 
the  curtain  of  his  thinl  .system.     See  Ffn-ttfication . 

GIRONDISTS. — The  name  given  during  "the  French 
Revolution  to  the  moderate  Republican  Parlv.  When 
the  Legi.slative  As.sembly  met  in  October,  1791,  the 
Gironde  Department  chose  for  its  Representatives  the 
advocates  Vergniaud,  Guadet,  Gensonne,  Grange- 
neuve,  and  a  young  merchant  named  Ducos,  all  of 
whom  soon  acquired  great  influence  by  their  rhetori- 
cal talents  and  political  principles,  which  were  de- 
rived from  a  rather  hazy  notion  of  Grecian  republi- 
canism. Thev  were  joined  by  Brissot's  party  and  the 
adherents  of  Roland,  as  wellas  by  several  leaders  of 
the  Center,  .such  as  Condorcet,  Fauchet,  Lasource, 
Isnard,  and  Henri  La  Riviere,  and  for  some  time  hail 
a  parliamentary  majority.     They  first  directed  their  ' 


'  effort-s  against  the  reactionary  policy  of  the  Court,  and 
the  King  saw  himself  compelled  to  select  the  more 
moderate  of  the  party,  Roland,  Dumouriez,  Cla\if  re, 
and  Servan,  to  be  .Ministers,  lllimately,  however, 
i  he  dismissed  them,  a  measure  which  led  to  the  In- 
'  surrection  of  the  '.JOlh  .lune,  1792.  The  encroach- 
ments of  the  populace,  and  the  rise  of  the  Jacobin 
leaders,  compelled  the  Girondists  to  a.ssume  a  con.ser- 
vative  attitude:  but  though  their  eloquence  still  pre- 
vailed in  the  Assembly,  their  popularity  and  [xjwer 
out  of  doors  were  wholly  gone,  and  they  were  quite 
\inable  to  prevent  such  hideous  crimes  a-s  the  Septem- 
ber ma.ssacres.  The  principal  things  which  they  <it- 
tiiiiptnl  to  do  after  this — for  they  never  succeeded  in 
accomplishing  anything — were  to  procure  the  arrest- 
ment of  the  leaders  of  the  September  massacres,  Dan- 
ton,  etc. ;  to  overawe  the  mob  of  Paris  by  a  guard  se- 
lected from  all  the  Departments  of  France;  to  save 
the  King's  life  by  the  absurdest  of  all  possible  means, 
\\z.,  by  first  voting  his  death,  and  then  by  intending 
to  appeal  to  the  Xation;  and,  finally,  to  iiiipeach  Ma- 
rat, who,  in  turn,  induced  the  various  sections  of  Paris 
to  demand  their  expulsion  from  the  Assembly  and 
their  arrestment.  This  demand,  backed  up  as  it  was  by 
one  hundred  and  seventv  iiieces  of  artillery  under  the 
disposidof  Henriot,  leader  of  the  Sansculottes,  could 
not  be  resisted;  thirty  of  the  Girondists  were  arrested 
on  a  motion  of  Coutlion,  but  the  majority  had  escaped 
to  the  Provinces.  In  the  Departments  of  Eure,  Cal- 
vados, and  all  through  Brittany,  the  people  rose  in 
their  defense,  and,  under  the  command  of  General 
Wimpfen,  formed  the  so-called  FederalM  Army, 
which  was  to  rescue  the  Republic  from  the  hands  of 
the  Parisian  populace.  Movements  for  the  cause  of 
the  Girondists  took  place  likewise  at  Lyons,  Marseilles, 
and  Bordeaux.  The  progress  of  the  Insun-ection  was, 
however,  slopped  by  the  activity  of  the  Convention. 
On  the  20th  .July  the  Revolutionar;'  Army  took  pos- 
session of  Caen,  the  chief  station  of  the  insurgents, 
whereupon  the  Deputies  of  the  Convention,  at  the  head 
of  the  Sans-culottes,  forced  heir  way  into  the  other 
towns,  and  commenced  a  fearful  retribution.  On  the 
1st  Octol)er,  1793,  the  [irisoners  were  accused  before 
the  Convention  by  Amar,  as  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety,  of  conspiring  against  the 
Rcpul)lic  with  Louis  XVI.,  the  Royalists,  tlie  Duke 
of  Orleans,  Lafayette,  and  Pitt,  and  it  was  decreeil 
that  they  shoidd  be  brought  before  the  Revolutionarj- 
Tribunal.  On  the  24th  their  trial  commenced.  The 
accusers  were  such  men  as  Chabot,  Ilebert,  and  Fabre 
d'Eglantine.  The  Girondists,  however,  defended 
themselves  so  effectually  that  the  Convention  on  the 
30tli  was  obliged  to  come  forward  and  decree  the 
closingof  the  investigation.  That  very  night  Brissot, 
Vergniaud,  Gensonm'-,  Ducos,  Fonfri-dc,  Lacaze,  La- 
source,  Valaze,  Sillerr,  Fauchet,  Dujierret,  Carra, 
Lehardy,  Duchatel,  Gardien.  IJoileau,  Beauvais, 
Vigee,  Duprat,  Mainvielle,  and  Antiboul  were  sen- 
tenced to  death,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Valaze, 
who  stabbed  himself  on  hearing  his  sentence  pro- 
nounced, all  perished  by  the  guillotine.  On  their 
way  to  the  Place  de  Grrve.  in  the  true  spirit  of  French 
republicanism,  they  sang  the  ^far^lel7l(l^l^e.  Coustard, 
Manuel,  Cussy,  Xool,  Kersjunt,  Rabaut  St.  Etienne, 
Bernard,  and  Mazuyer  were  likewise  afterward  ginl- 
lotined.  Biroteau,  (jrangeneuve,  Guadet,  Salles,  and 
Barbaroux  ascended  the  scaffold  at  Bordeaux;  Lidon 
and  Charabon,  at  Brivcs;  Valady,  at  Perigueux;  De- 
elu'zeau,  at  Kochelle.  Rcliecciui  drowned  himself  at 
Marseilles,  I'ction  and  Buzot  slabbed  themselves,  and 
Condorcet  poisoned  himself.  Sixteen  months  later, 
after  the  fall  of  the  Terrorists,  the  outlawed  mem- 
bers, including  the  Girondists  Lanjuinais,  Defermon, 
Pontecoulant,  Louvet,  Isnard,  and  La  Riviere,  again 
appeared  in  the  Convention.  A  rather  flattering  pic- 
ture of  the  party  has  been  drawn  by  Lamartine,  in  his 
Ilint'iirf  diM  (rirnndhis. 

GIRONNE—GYRONNE—GYRONNY.— Terms  used 
in  Heraldry  to  indicate  that  the  field  is  divided  into 
six,  eight,  or  more  triangular  portions,  of  different 


GIRTH. 


r69 


6LAND£SS. 


tinctures,  the  points  of  the  triiuigles  all  meeting  in  the 
center  of  the  shield.  Nisbet  object.s  to  this  as  a  vul 
giir  mode  of  blazoning;  and,  in  speaking  of  the  "pa- 
ternal ensign  of  the  ancient  surname  ol  Campbell," 
he  siiys  that  it  is  "composed  of  the  four  princi|ial 
partition-lines,  parti,  coupe,  traunche,  taille,  which 
di\ide  the  tiold  into  eight  gironal  segments,  ordi- 
narily blazoned  with  us,  girony  of  eight,  or,  and 
sable."  The  t  riangle  in  dexter -chief  has  been  called 
a  giron  or  gyrun. 

GIKTH.— A  band  or  strap  made  of  web  pa.ssing 
round  the  belly  of  a  horse  or  other  animal,  to  keep 
the  saddle  in  its  place.  There  is  a  girth  known  as 
Ihe  Axutraliiiii  girt/i,  which  is  made  of  a  network  of 
hide  or  cord.  It  is  very  nmch  approved  of  in  the 
German  army,  and  has  been  adopted  by  the  cavalry 
of  that  Nation.  It  never  gets  siiturated  with  .sweat, 
and  is  therefore  less  likely  tfc  gel  stiff  and  hard,  and 
hence  causes  fewer  girtii-galis.  The  term  yirl/i  is 
also  u.sed  with  reference  to  the  circumference  of  lim- 
ber, etc. 

GISARME.— This  -n-eapon  is  quite  dilTerent  from 
the  irar-acythc  and  lireachknife,  as  it  is  double-edged, 
like  the  cut-and-thrust  sword,  and  ar.med  with  hooks. 
Its  origin  dates  from  the  Age  of  Bronze  among  the 
Keltic  and  Germanic  Nations,  at  which  time  many 
tribes  were  in  the  habit  of  fastening  glaives  or  sera 
mas-axe  swords  to  very  long  shafts.  Frequentl)'  call- 
ed glaiee-gisdrme.     See  Gumtnin . 

GISTES. — Pieces  of  wood  w  hich  are  made  use  of  in 
the  construction  of  platforms  to  batteries,  and  upon 
which  the  madriers  or  broad  jjlanks  are  placed. 

GLACIS. — In  fortilication,  the  slope  of  earth,  com- 
monly- turfed,  which  inclines  from  the  covered-way 
towards  the  countrv.  Its  object  is  to  bring  assail- 
ants, as  they  approach,  into  a  conspicuous  line  of  tire 
from  the  parapet  of  the  fortress,  and  also  to  mask  the 
general  works  of  the  place. 

In  the  fortiliealions  like  Noizet's,  one  principle  is 
chiefly  to  be  attended  to  in  disposing  the  different 
planes  of  the  glacis.  They  should  all  be  swept  by 
the  artillery-fire  of  the  works  immediately  in  their 
rear,  and  by  the  musketry -fire  at  least  of  the  bastion- 
face.  The  glacis  of  the  bastion  covered-way  should 
be  swept  by  the  artillery  of  the  bastion-face.  The 
glacis  of  the  re-entering  place-of-arms  .should  be 
swept  by  the  tire  from  its  redoubt.  The  glacis  of  the 
demi-lune  offers  more  difficulty  in  its  arrangement, 
owing  to  the  cremailli^re  form  of  the  interior  crests. 
The  best  method  seems  Ihe  following :  Planes  are 
passed  through  each  long  branch,  so  as  to  be  swept 
by  the  artillery-fire  of  a  portion  of  the  face  of  the 
demilune;  these  are  connected  by  another  series  of 
planes,  which  are  passed  through  the  sidient  point  of 
each  crotchet,  and  below  the  plane  of  musketry -fire 
of  at  least  one  half  of  the  bastion-face,  and  that  of 
artillery-fire  of  a  part  of  the  demilune  face.  It  will 
be  readily  seen,  from  the  nature  of  this  problem,  that 
it  admits  of  many  solutions.  In  selecting  amongst 
them,  the  following  considerations  may  serve  as 
gtiides  :  1.  When  the  planes  of  the  glacis  have  a  very 
gentle  slope,  they  are  better  seen  by  the  works  in 
their  rear ;  but  the  construction  is  more  expensive, 
on  accomit  of  the  greater  quantity  of  embankment. 
2.  When  the  slope  is  more  steep,  the  enemy's  works 
on  the  glacis  are  better  exposed  to  the  reverse  views 
of  the  collateral  works,  although  not  so  well  .seen  by 
those  directly  in  rear  of  the  glacis;  but  the  quantity 
of  embankment  is  smaller.     See  Fortification. 

GLADIATOR. — In  antiquity,  from  hIakHiik,  a  sword, 
one  who  fought  in  the  arena,  at  the  Amphitheater  at 
Rome,  and  in  other  cities,  for  the  amusement  of  the 
public.  The  gladiators  were  generally  slaves,  bought 
and  trained  for  the  purpose,  by  masters  who  made 
this  their  business.  The  custom  is  suppo.sed  to  have 
been  borrowed  from  the  East,  and  to  have  had  its 
origin  in  the  practice  of  htmuin  sacrifices,  or  that  of 
taking  the  lives  of  captives  or  prisoners  of  war,  in 
honor  of  heroes  who  had  died  in  battle.  Thus,  in 
the  Iliad  we    read  that  Achilles   sacrificed  twelve 


Trojan  prisoners  to  the  manes  of  his  friend  Patroclus, 
and  Virgil  speaks  of  captives  si^nt  to  Evander,  to 
be  sacrificed  at  the  funeral  of  his  son  Pallas.  The 
"  Great  Custom"  of  the  King  of  Dahoniey  thus  finds 
warr.uit  in  classic  antiquity;  and  tlie  North  American 
hulians,  in  putting  their  prisoners  to  death  with  tor- 
tures, have  only  refined  upon  an  ancient  barbar- 
ism. After  a  time,  all  funerals  were  .solemnized  by 
human  sacrifices,  which  took  the  form  of  combats, 
in  which,  to  increa.se  the  interest  of  the  spectators, 
the  pri.soners  were  required  to  sacrifice  each  other; 
and  as  prisoners,  and  afterwards  other  slaves,  were 
keiJt  for  this  purpose,  they  were  tndned  to  fight  with 
skill  and  courage,  to  make  the  spectacle  more  im- 
pressive. These  contests  first  took  place  at  funerals, 
but  afterwanls  in  the  Amphitheater;  and  in  process 
of  time,  instead  of  a  funeral  rite,  became  a  conunon 
amusement.  The  first  we  read  of  in  H(jman  historj' 
was  the  show  of  a  contest  of  three  pairs  of  gladiators, 
given  by  JIarcus  and  Decius  Brutus,  on  the  death  of 
their  father,  in  the  year  of  Rome  490.  In  the  year 
Ti'i"!  a  show  of  twenty-two  pairs  was  given  in  the 
Forum.  In  547  the  first  Afrieanus  diverted  his  army 
at  New  Carthage  with,  a  gladiatorial  exhibition.  The 
fashion  now  rapidly  increased.  Magistrates,  public 
otficers,  ciiudidates  for  the  popular  suffrages,  gave 
shows  to  the  peoi)le,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  these 
bloody  and  genemdly  mortal  encoimters.  The  Em- 
perors exceeded  all  others  in  the  extent  and  magnifi- 
cence of  these  cruel  spectacles.  Julius  Ca?.sar  gave  a 
show  of  320  couples;  Titus  gave  a  show  of  gladia- 
tors, wild  beasts,  and  .sea-fights  for  100  days;  Trajan 
gave  a  show  of  Vi!A  days,  in  which  2000  men  fought 
with  and  killed  each  other,  or  fought  with  wild 
beasts  for  the  amusement  of  the  70,000  Komans, 
Patricians  and  Plebeians,  the  highest  ladies  and  the 
lowest  rabble,  assembled  in  the  Colos.scum.  A  vast 
mnnber  of  slaves  from  all  parts  of  the  world  were 
kept  in  Home,  and  trained  for  these  exhibitions. 
There  were  so  many  at  the  time  of  Catiline's  Con- 
spiracy, that  they  were  thought  dangerous  to  the 
public  safety,  and  it  was  proposed  to  distribute  them 
among  the  distant  garrisons.  Efforts  were  made  to 
limit  the  number  of  gladiators,  and  diminish  the 
frequency  of  these  shows.  Cicero  proposed  a  law, 
that  no  man  should  give  one  for  two  years  before  be- 
coming a  candidate  for  office.  The  Emperor  Augus- 
tus forbade  more  than  two  shows  in  a  year,  or  that 
one  should  be  given  by  a  man  worth  less  than  half  a 
million  sesterces;  but  it  was  difficult  to  restrain  what 
had  become  a  pa.ssion,  and  men  even  had  such  con- 
tests for  Ihe  amusement  of  their  guests  at  ordinary 
feasts.  These  shows  were  announced  by  show-bills 
and  pictures,  like  the  plays  of  our  theaters.  The 
gladiators  were  trained  and  sworn  to  fight  to  the  death 
if  they  showed  cowardice,  they  were  killed  with 
tortures.  They  fought  at  first  with  wooden  swords, 
and  then  with"  steel.  When  one  of  the  combatants 
was  di.sarmed,  or  upon  the  ground,  the  victor  looked 
to  the  Em])eror.  if  present,  or  to  the  people,  for  Ihe 
signal  of  death;  if  they  raised  their  thumbs,  his  life 
was  spared;  if  they  turned  them  down,  he  executed 
the  fatal  mandate."  A  gladiator  who  had  conquered 
^vas  rewarded  with  a  branch  of  palm,  and  sometimes 
with  his  freedom.  Though  the  gladiators  at  first 
were  slaves,  freemen  afterwards  entered  Ihe  profes- 
sion, and  even  knights.  Senators  and  knights  fought 
in  the  shows  of  Nero,  and  women  in  those  of  Domi- 
tian.  The  Emjieror  Constanline  prohibited  the  con- 
tests of  gladiators,  335  a.d.  ;  but  they  could  not  at 
once  be  abolished.  In  the  reign  of  Ilonorius,  Tele- 
machus  went  into  the  arena  to  slop  the  tight,  when 
the  people  stoned  him.  They  were  finally  abolished 
bv  Theodoric,  500  a.d. 
"  GLADIUS. — A  Roman  sword  with  a  single  cutting 
edire,  and  having  a  grooved  1  lade.     See  Olfididtor. 

GLANDERS.— A  malignant  disease  of  the  equine 
species,  characterized  by  the  appearance  within  the 
nostrils  of  little  holes  or  ulcers,  remarkable  for  their 
rugged,  inflamed,  tindermined  edges,  their  discharge 


GLAIB£. 


r7o 


GLAZING-BABBEL. 


of  sticky,  greenish,  unhealthy  pus,  their  tendency  to 
spread,  "and  their  resistance  of  treatment.  The  blood 
of  glanderous  subjects  is  deficient  in  red  globules, 
contains  an  excess  of  albumen  and  librinc,  and  in 
this  vitiated  ami  deteriorated  state  is  inadequate 
properly  to  nourish  the  l)ody,  which  consequently  be- 
comes weal;  and  wasted.  The  mucous  membranes 
are  also  irritable  and  badly  nourished;  there  is  conse- 
quently impaired  respiration,  an  obstinate  choking 
cough,"  and  relaxed  bowels.  The  lymphatic  glands 
and  vessi'ls  become  inflamed,  and  in  their  swollen 
stale  may  be  distinctly  felt  about  the  throat  and 
imdemcath  the  jaws,  and  also  in  the  limbs,  where 
they  frequently  run  on  to  ulceration,  constituting 
farcy.  Glanders  is  produced  by  any  cause  which  in- 
terferes with  the  purity  or  integrity  of  the  horse's 
blood,  or  produces  a  deteriorated  or  depraved  state 
of  his  system.  It  has  been  frequently  developed  in 
health v"  animals  by  their  breathing  for  a  short  time  a 
close,  impure  atmosphere,  and  cases  of  this  sort  were 
thus  pro<luced  amongst  the  horses  of  several  cavalry 
regiments,  whilst  being  transported  in  badly-con- 
structed, overcrowded  vessels  to  the  Crimea  in  1854. 
Confined,  overcrowded,  badly  ventilated  stables  are 
almost  equally  injurious,  for  they  prevent  the  perfect 
aPration  of  the  blood,  and  the  prompt  removal  of  its 
organic  impurities.  Bad  feeding,  hard  work,  and 
such  reducing  diseases  as  di:ibetes  ^md  influenza  also 
rank  amongst  the  causes  of  glanders.  A 
small  portion  of  the  nasal  discharge  from  a 
glandered  horse  coming  in  contact  with  the 
abraded  skin  of  miin,  communicates  the 
loathsome  and  fatal  disease  from  which  so 
many  attendants  of  horses  have  died,  and 
Government  very  properly  compels  the  im- 
mediate destruction  of  every  glandererl  horse. 
\Vhilst  oxen  and  dogs  are  exempt  from  it, 
donkeys  suffer  generally  in  the  acute  form, 
often  dying  in  eight  or  ten  days.  Horses 
frequently  have  it  in  a  chronic  form,  and  if 
well  fed  and  managed  sometimes  live  and 
work  for  years.  In  the  old  coaching-days 
some  stages  were  known  to  be  worked  by 
a  glandered  team,  but  no  animal  with  glan- 
derous ulcers  or  discharge  should  on  any 
account  be  preserved,  for,  besides  being 
jierfectly  incurable,  the  fatal  disease  is  com- 
municable not  onlj'  to  healthy  horses,  but  also  to 
human  beings.     See  Veteriimry  Art. 

GLAIEE. — A  broad-sword  or  falchion  fixed  upon  a 
pike.  The  mime  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  weapon 
used  in  the  days  of  knighthood,  and  to  that  used  for 
executions. 

GLAIVE. — A  modified  form  of  the  warscytlie.  The 
blade  of  the  weapon  curves  from  the  edge  and  has  a 
hook  or  spur  at  its  base.  The  point  is  double-edged. 
The  glaive  was  much  used  in  France  during  the  four- 
teenth centurj',  and  is  especially  mentioned  in  the 
poem  of  the  ""Trente."     Also  written  Gluir. 

GLAIVE  GISARME.— This  weapon,  which  British 
authors  usually  confound  with  the  halberd,  is  simply 
a  glaire  fixed  on  a  shaft,  or  a  yisarme.     See  Oisarme. 

GLAIZE. — A  kind  of  hallwrd,  much  used  by  the 
Saxons  in  carlv  limes,  and  liv  whom  so  called. 

GLASSER  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION.— A  sys- 
tem having  a  bastioned  enceinte,  ravelins  with  reduits, 
counter-guards,  envelope,  and  reentering  places-of- 
arms  with  reduits.  The  ramparts  have  a  demi-revct- 
ment  with  a  chemin-des-rondes  or  fans.se  braye  on  the 
level  of  the  ground.  On  the  capitals  of  bastions  and 
ravelins  are  casemated  caponieres,  which  are  well 
covereil  and  powerfully  defend  the  ditches. 

GLASS-PAPER, — A  polishing  material  made  by 
powdering  gla.ss  more  or  less  finely,  and  siirinkling 
it  over  paper  or  calico  still  wet  with  a  coat  of  thiii 
glue;  the  powdered  glass  adheres  .as  it  dries.  Gla.ss- 
paper  is  very  extensively  employetl  as  a  means  for 
polishing  metal  and  wood-work;  it  is  sold  in  sheets, 
and  is  very  largely  manufactured  at  Birmingham  and 
other  places. 


OLAZING-BARREL.— Some  manufacturers  ghize  or 
polish  large-grain  powder  by  using  a  small  quantity 
of  black-lead,  at)out  half  an  ounce  to  every  UK)  pouiufs 
of  powder.  The  black-lead,  with  the  powder  in  these 
proportions,  is  put  into  a  glazing-barrel,  and  from 
three  quarters  of  an  hour  to  one  hour  is  found  to  be 
sufficient  time  to  polish  the  grain.  Black  lead  is  also 
sometimes  u.sed  with  the  small  or  fine-grain  powder; 
but,  although  its  use  has  some  advantages,  such  as 
lessening  the  formation  of  dust,  and  also  preventing 
the  moisture  in  the  atmosjihere  from  affecting  the 
powder  so  readily,  still  it  is  an  imi>urily,  and  i»s  such 
should  l)e  useil  sparingly  and  with  much  caution. 
Recently  plutnbago  has  lieen  used  for  glazing  gun- 
powder, and  if  obtained  pure  is  preferred  to  black- 
lead,  inasmuch  that  while  a  little  more  than  half  the 
quantity  is  sufficient  to  give  a  perfect  glaze  to  the 
powder,  it  is  found  to  protect  it  more  effectually  from 
the  action  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  The  glazing 
upparaHis  consists  of  a  large  strong  wooden  barrel 
supported,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  on  an  iron  shaft 
which  runs  through  the  center.  The  barrels,  two  of 
which  are  generally  placetl  in  line  on  one  shaft,  are 
formed  of  oak,  and  are  about  5  feet  Ion"  and  2*  in 
diameter;  the  shaft  is  cased  with  wocki  where  it 
passes  through  the  barrels.  Each  barrel  is  provided 
with  a  small  scjuare  tloor  for  charging  and  uncharg- 
ing.    The  barrels  are  found  to  be  peculiarly  well 


Glazing  Apparatus. 

adapted  for  the  purpose,  owing  to  their  shape.  For- 
merly wooden  cvlinders  with  straight  sides  were  used, 
but  it  was  founS  that  the  different  sizes  of  grain  had 
a  tendency  to  separate  in  them,  so  that  all  did  not 
receive  an  equal  amount  of  polishing.  But  in  the  bar- 
rels, which  are  larger  in  diameter  at  the  center,  there 
is  a  constant  intermingling  of  the  grain  and  a  more  uni- 
form action.  A  set  oi  glazing-barrels  consists  of  four, 
each  pair  being  supported  on  a  shaft.  These  shafts 
are  of  wrought-iron,  covered  on  the  inside  of  the  bar- 
rels with  wood,  and  receive  their  motion  by  means  of 
bevel  gearing  direct  from  a  main  shaft  driven  by  the 
water-wheel  or  steam-engine.  The  barrels  are  inclosed 
in  wooden  casings,  with  feeding-hoppers  on  the  top. 
Inioeaeh  hopper  four  ca.sks  of  fine-grain  powder  (each 
cask  containing  100  pound.s)  are  emptied,  the  barrels 
are  turned  with  their  doors  uppennost,  and  the  con- 
tents of  the  hoppers  pass  into  tliem;  the  doors  are  then 
closed  and  secured.  The  apparatus  is  now  set  in  mo- 
tion, and  after  riuniing  for  five  or  six  hours  it  will  t>e 
found  that  a  fine  gloss  has  been  imparted  to  the  powder 
by  the  mere  friction  of  the  grains  rubbing  one  again.st 
the  other,  whilst  at  the  same  time  all  the  sharp  angles 
and  corners  are  niblx'd  off,  and  the  powder  thereby 
rendered  much  better  for  keeping  or  for  transiJort. 
Each  pair  of  baiTels  can  be  stopped  or  put  in  motion 
at  pleasure,  independently  of  the  others,  l)y  simply 
throwing  a  clutch  in  or  out  of  gear,  so  that  after  the 
barrels  have  l)cen  at  work  a  sufticient  time  this  clutch 
is  thrown  out,  and  they  are  brought  to  rest  with  their 
doors  downwards.  Upon  the.se  being  unfa.stened  and 
opened,  the  ix)wder  is  delivered  into  casks  alrejidy 
placed  for  its  reception.    This  operation,  as  may  be 


GLISSADE. 


771 


GOBONY. 


imagined,  produces  a  small  quantity  of  dust,  which 
is  removed  bj'  passing  the  glazed  powder  once  through 
a  slope-reel  kept  expressly  for  the  puriwse.  The  tine- 
grain  powder  is  now  in  the  same  state  as  the  large- 
grain  powder.  Both  contain  about  the  same  degree 
of  moisture,  which  it  is  necessjirj'  to  extract  before 
the  powder  is  complete  and  tit  for  sending  into  store; 
this  is  effected  in  the  dr>ing-stove,  where  both  the 
fine  and  large-grain  powder  can  be  dried  at  one  and 
the  same  time.     See  Gimpmeder. 

GLISSADE.— The  term  formerly  applied  to  the  for- 
ward or  backward  movement  of  the  pike. 

GLOBE  OF  COMPRESSION.— The  phrase  eommtm 
mine  is  applied  to  tlie  crater  when  its  radius  is  equal 
to  the  line  of  least  resistance.  When  the  crater  radius 
is  greater  than  the  line  of  least  resistance,  the  terms 
otercharged  mine  and  globe  of  cmiqyressinn  are  used. 
When  the  crater  radius  is  less  than  the  line  of  least 
resistance,  the  mine  is  termed  undercharged. 

GLOBE-SIGHT.— A  form  of  front  sight  used  mostly 
on  target  and  sporting  rifles.     It  consists  of  a  pin  with 


a  small  ball  on  the  end  of  it,  or  a  disk  with  a  hole  in 
it.  For  protection  it  is  set  in  a  tube  open  at  both 
ends.  The  sight,  with  interchangeable  disk,  is  repre- 
sented in  the  drawing.     See  Front  Sight. 

GLOIBE. — An  artificial  fire-work  of  great  splendor 
which  resembles  a  large  sun. 

GLOEIOUS  virgin:— An  ( )rder  of  Knighthood  in 
Venice,  founded  by  Bartholomew  of  Vicenza,  and 
approved  b.y  Pope  Urban  IV.  in  1262.  This  institu- 
tion was  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  military,  and  its  ob- 
jects were  the  protection  of  widows  and  orphans, 
and  the  furtherance  of  the  peace  of  Italy.  The  badge 
was  a  purple  cross  between  certain  stars,  and  the  cos- 
tume a  white  surcoat  on  a  ru.s,set  cloak. 

An  Order  of  Knighthood  of  St.  Mary  the  Glorious 
also  existed  in  Rome  about  the  seventeenth  century, 
■whose  purpose  was  the  suppres.sion  of  the  Barbarj' 
Corsairs  who  infested  the  Jlediterranean. 

GLORT. — The  honor,  reputation,  and  fame  acquired 
by  military  achievements.  That  precarious  splendor 
which  plays  around  the  brows  of  a  warrior,  and  has 
been  collected  by  hard  service,  extraordinary  genius, 
and  unblemished  integrity:  but  which  may  desert  the 
greatest  hero  through  one  unfortunate  failure,  occa- 
sioned by  the  fatality  of  human  imperfection. 

GLOVES. — Covers" for  the  hands,  or  for  the  hands 
and  wrists,  having  a  separate  sheath  for  each  finger. 
Gloves  are  worn  by  all  officers  and  soldiers  when 
under  arms  or  when  wearing  side-arms.  In  the 
United  States  army  they  are  prescribed  .is  follows: 
For  General  Officers,  Officers  "f  (he  General  Skiff,  and 
Staff  Corps. — Buff  or  white  gauntlets  or  gloves.  For 
Field  Officers  of  Artiller!/,  Cavalry,  and  Infantry;  for 
the  Officers  of  Light  Artillery  and  Cavalry.  — White 
gauntlets  or  gloves.  All  other  officers  and  enlisted 
men,  while  gloves.  To  throw  t^ie  glove  is  the  old  ex- 
pression which  formerly  meant  to  challenge  to  single 
combat. 

GLUE.— An  impure  desiccated  gelatine,  procured 
from  various  sources,  such  as  the  scraps  of  ox  and 
other  thick  hides,  the  debris  of  tan-yards,  the  tendons 
and  intestines  of  many  animals,  rabbit-skins  deprived 
of  their  fur,  scraps  of  parchment,  old  gloves,  and 
many  other  apparently  worse  than  useless  matters,  all 
contributing  their  portion  in  the  manufacture  of 
"glue."  Glue  is  an  invaluable  article  in  the  labora- 
tory and  arsenal.  It  iliffers  only  from  gelatine  in  the 
care  taken  in  its  manufacture,  and  in  the  selection  of 
the  materials  from  which  it  is  made;  almost  everj' 
animal  substance  will  yield  it,  hence  all  kinds  of  am- 


mal  refuse  find  thdr  way  to  the  glue-makers'  boilers. 
Nevertheless,  the  impossibility  of  preserving  for  any 
length  of  time  the  materials  required  for  this  manu- 
facture renders  it  necessary  to  adopt  some  system  in 
choosing  and  preserving  them,  until  sufficient  quanti- 
ties are  collected,  without  fermentation  or  decompo- 
sition. Hence  the  refuse  of  tanneries,  consisting  of 
the  clippings  of  hides,  hoofs,  ear  and  tail  pieces  of 
ox,  calf,  and  shee]>,  are  preferred,  because  they  can 
be  dressed  with  lime,  which  removes  all  tlie  hair  and 
acts  like  an  anti.stiitic.  For  this  purpose  they  are 
placed  in  tanks  with  quicklime  and  water  for  two  or 
three  weeks,  during  which  the  lime  is  sexeral  times 
renewed,  and  the  pieces  frequently  turned  over.  They 
are  afterwards  washed  and  drietl,  and  are  ready  for 
use  b_v  the  glue-maker,  who  \isually  gives  them  an- 
other slight  lime-dressinir,  and  subsequenllj-  washes 
them;  they  are  afterwards  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  air  for  a  while,  to  neutndize]  the  caustic  lime. 
When  well  drained,  the  pieces  are  placi-d  in  Hat-bot- 
tomed copper  boilers,  which  have  a  perforated  false 
bottom  placed  a  little  distance  alwve  the  true  one,  to 
prevent  the  burning  of  the  materials,  and  which  have 
been  supplied  with  rain  or  other  soft  water  up  to  two 
thirds  the  depth  of  the  boiler,  the  pieces  being  piled 
up  to  some  height  above  the  top  of  the  open  boiler. 
The  w  hole  is  kept  at  a  gentle  boiling  heat  until  all 
the  gelatinous  part  has  dissolved  out,  and  the  mass  of 
material  has  sunk  down  into  the  fluid.  The  boiling 
is  .sustained  until,  by  repeated  trials  of  small  quanti- 
ties, the  operator  kiiows  the  fluid  is  of  the  right  con- 
sistency, when  it  is  drawn  off  carefully  into  the  con- 
gealing boxes,  and  fresh  materials  are  added  to  the 
residue  left  behind  in  the  boiler,  and  the  process  is 
repeated. 

Besides  its  use  in  joinery,  in  cabinet-making,  and 
similar  operations,  glue  is  used  by  paper-makers  and 
in  dressing  silks;  and  for  these  last  two  purposes  tine 
light-colored  kinds  in  thin  cakes  are  made.  Large 
quantities  are  employed  also  for  sizing  walls  in  the 
state  called  size,  wiiich  is  the  glue  simply  gelatinized 
after  boiling  in  the  first  process.  A  very  fine  and 
pure  white  ^ize  is  made  by  the  bonnet-makers  of  Bed- 
for<lshire  and  other  places  of  the  skins c)f  calves'  head, 
ears,  and  the  under  part  of  tlie  neck  and  belly:  this 
is  employed  for  stiffening  straw,  cotton,  hoi-se-hair, 
and  other  plaits  for  making  bonnets  and  hats. 

GLYACYLINE. — .\n  explosive  substance  composed 
principally  of  gim-cotton  imd  nitro-glycerme.  See  JNV- 
tro.gbieerine. 

GNOMON. — The  hand  of  a  sun-dial.  It  is  placed 
at  such  an  incUnation  with  the  plate  of  the  dial  that, 
when  properly  set,  the  gnomon  will  be  directed  to 
the  north  pole  of  the  heavens,  and  its  shadow  will 
fall  upon  the  same  lines  of  the  dial  at  the  sjmie  hours, 
whatever  be  the  season  of  the  year — that  is,  for  one 
particular  latitude;  but  dials  must  be  differently  con- 
structed for  places  which  have  different  latitudes.  It 
is  shown  in  Astronomy  that  the  elevation  of  the  celes- 
tial pole  is  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place,  and, 
consequently,  the  inclination  of  the  gnomon  of  a  sun- 
dial must  be  also  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place 
where  the  dial  is  intended  to  be  set.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  a  dial  constructed  for  London  would 
not  be  suitable  for  Edinburgh. 

GOAT'S-FOOT  CROSS-BOW.- A  fonn  of  cross-bovy 
anciently  used  by  the  cavalry.  It  was  much  lighter 
than  the  infantry  cross-bow,  and  the  string  was  al- 
ways stretched  by  means  of  a  simple  lever,  called  a 
goat's  fcn^t. 

GOBILLE. — A  small  copper  ball,  one  fourth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  several  of  which  are  put  into  a  re- 
volving cask  for  the  purpose  of  more  intimately  in- 
corporating the  ingredients  of  powder,  carcass,  and 
rocket-composition. 

GOBISSON. — A  quilted  and  padded  dress  worn  un- 
der the  hatx-rgeon.     Also  written  Gambasson. 
'      GOBONY.— A  term  in  Heraldry,  the  same  as  com- 
pone.     A  gohonatcd  bordure  is  frequently  carried  in 
,  place  of  5ie  baton  sinister,  not  only  by  the  lawful 


OOD  SAVE  THE  QUEEN. 


772 


GOODCONDTJCT  PAT. 


issue  of  baslanls,  who,  after  tlie  third  lawful  genera- 
tion, are  oonsidorcd  entitled  to  make  the  change,  hut 
hy  bastards  themselves.     See  Jianttird  Bur. 

"god  save  the  queen.— The  iLitional  anthem 
of  Great  Briiaiii.  ami  In  ailoplioii  that  of  several  of 
the  German  Sl.ates.  and"  which  is  plaved  and  sung  in 
every  part  of  the  British  Empire  alike  on  solemn  and 
festive  occasions,  has  lieen  a  subject  of  controversy 
with  resjH'Ct  to  its  origin.  Its  words  are  apparently 
imitated  from  the  Domine  Salvum  of  the  Catholic 
Church  Ser\-ice.  In  Kngland  the  authorship  has 
been  generally  attributed  to  Dr.  John  Bull,  l)orn  l."iti3; 
in  1.591  Orgjuiist  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  Cli.ipel;  l.^JOG, 
Professor  of  .Music  in  Gresliam  College,  and  Cliamlxr- 
musician  of  .lames  I.  About  the  period  of  tlie  dis- 
coveiy  of  llie  Gunpowder  Plot,  Bull  composed  and 
played  on  a  small  organ  before  the  King  an  ode  be- 
ginning with  the  words,  "  God  save  great  .James  our 
King."  He  died  at  Lttbeck,  1622.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear, however,  that  this  or  any  other  old  composition 
of  a  similar  title  had  any  coniiection  with  that  which 
we  now  pos.sess.  The  words  and  music  were  com- 
posed in  honor  of  a  birlliday  of  George  II.,  and  per- 
formed for  the  tirst  lime  at  a  dinner  given  on  that  oc- 
casion in  1740  by  the  Mercers'  Company  of  London. 
The  words  and  music  were  first  published  in  the 
Hannonm  Anglkana,  1742,  and  appeared  in  the  Gen- 
tlemaii'n  Magazine,  1745.  Tlie  air.  according  to  Dr. 
Ame,  has  preserved  its  oridnal  form,  but  its  harmo- 
nies have  been  modified  by  various  artists;  and  the 
words  were  changed  on  the  accession  of  William  IV., 
and  on  that  of  Queen  Victoria. 

GOLADAR. — \n  East  Indian  term  signifying  a  sut- 
ler or  storekeeper.     Also  written  Goldnr. 

GOLANDAAZEE.— The  Indian  term  foran  artilleiy- 
man.     Also  written  (rolimilanzee  and  Golundamee. 

GOLD  BEATEK'S  SKIN.— The  prepared  external 
membrane  of  the  large  intestine  of  the  ox,  frequently 
used  to  protect  primings  and  fiise-composit'ons  from 
dampness,  as  in  the  construction  of  the  Breithaupt  fuse. 

GOLD-COAST  CORPS.— A  corps  in  the  British  ser- 
vice made  up  of  ilrilled  Africans,  and  oflicered  from 
the  West  India  regiments.  It  is  kept  uji  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protecting  the  possessions  of  Sierra  Leone  and 
Gambi  1. 

GOLDEN  EAGLE. — The  t.\-pical  eagle  and  impeiial 
emblem  of  ancient  Home  and  Persia.  It  is  generally 
of  brown  color,  and  about  'A  feet  long. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE.— In  Greek  tradition,  the  fleece 
of  the  ram  Chrysomallus,  the  recovery  of  which  was 
the  object  of  the  .\rgonjmtie  expedition.  The  Golden 
Fleece  has  given  its  name  to  a  celeliraled  Order  of 
Knighthood  in  .Vusiria  and  Spain,  founded  by  Philip 
III.,  Duke  of  BurgiuKly  and  tlie  Netherlands,  at 
Bruges,  on  tlie  lOtli  .January,  14".!il,  on  tlie  occasion 
of  his  marriage  wiih  Isabella,  daughter  of  King  John 
I.  of  Portugal.  This  Order  was  instituted  for  the 
pretection  of  the  Church,  and  the  fleece  was  probaTily 
a.ssumcd  for  its  emblem,  as  much  from  being  the  ma- 
terial of  the  staple  manufaclureof  the  Low  Covintries 
as  from  its  connection  willi  lieroic  limes.  The  foun- 
der made  himself  Grand  .Master  of  the  Order,  a  dig- 
nity appointed  to  desceml  to  his  successors;  and  the 
number  of  Knights,  at  tirst  limited  to  24,  was  subse- 
quently increased.  After  the  death  of  Charles  V., 
the  Burgundo  Spanish  line  of  the  House  of  Austria 
remained  in  jio.^session  of  the  Order;  but  at  the  close 
of  the  Spanish  War  of  Succession,  the  Emperor, 
Charles  VI.,  laid  claim  to  it  in  virtue  of  his  jkisscs- 
sion  of  the  Netlierlands,  and  taking  with  him  the  ar- 
chives of  the  Order,  celebrated  its  inauguration  with 
great  magnificence  at  Vienna  in  17i:l.  Philiii  V.  of 
Spain  contested  tlie  claim  of  Charles;  and  thedisimte, 
several  times  renewed,  wiis  at  last  tacitly  adjusted  by 
the  introduction  of  the  Order  in  Inith  countries.  The 
insignia  arc  the  golden  lleece  hanging  frf>m  a  gold 
and  blue  enameled  flintstone  emitting  flames,  and 
borne  in  its  turn  by  a  ray  of  tire.  On  the  enameled 
obverse  is  inscrilied  Pn'tiiiiii  Uihnrnin  non  rile.  The 
deco»ation  was  originally  saspendcd  from  a  chain  of 


alternate  firestone-s  and  rays,  for  which  Charles  'V. 
allowed  a  red  riblMtn  to  be  .substituted,  and  the  chain 
is  now  worn  only  by  the  Grand-Ma.xfer.  The  Spanish 
decoration  differs  slightly  from  the  .Vustrian.  The 
costume  consists  of  a  long  rolie  of  deep  rv'd  velvet, 
lined  with  white  taffetas,  and  a  long  mantle  of  purple 
velvet  lined  with  white  s;itin,  and  richly  trimmed  with 
embroiderv  contjiining  firestones  and  steels  emitting 
flames  and  sparks.  On  the  hem,  which  is  of  white 
satin,  is  embroidered  in  gold,  ./<■  rai/  em/yriti.  There  is 
also  a  cap  of  purple  velvet  embroidered  in  gold,  with 
a  hood,  and  the  shoes  and  stockings  are  reil.  In  Aus- 
tria, the  Emperor  may  now  create  any  number  of 
Knights  of  the  Golden  Fleece  from  the  olil  nobililv; 
when  Protestants, the  Pope's  consent  is  required.  In 
Spain,  Princes,  Grandees,  and  personages  of  peculiar 
merit  are  alone  eligible. 

GOLDEN  HORDE.— A  force  of  Tartars  who  invaded  . 
Kiev  and  Moscow,  destroyed  several  other  cities,  and 
in  1241  massacred  a  M.-igyar  army.  Their  first  leader 
was  the  grand.son  of  Genghis  Klian.  At  the  battle 
of  Bielawisch,  in  1481,  tl.ey  were  destroyed  bj' Ivan 
III.  and  the  Xogay  Tartai-s! 

GOLD  RAIN. — An  ornament  for  rockets  formed  of 
small  stars,  all  of  the  sime  size.  Those  .stars  are 
cubes,  the  length  of  the  side  being  .5  inch.  The 
composition  consists  of  16  parts  of  niter,  10  parts  of 
sulphur,  4  iiarfs  of  mealed  powder,  3  i^arts  of  lamp- 
black, 1  part  of  flowers  of  zinc,  and  1  ])art  of  gum 
arable.  The  sodium  nitrate  may  be  replaced  by  the 
bicarbonate  of  soda  or  the  oxalate  of  soda.  The 
copper  suliihate  is  well  ammoniated.  See  Composi- 
tion'' and  Fii'i-irori'K. 

GOLD  STICK. — Superior  Officers  in  the  English 
body-guard,  and  Captains  in  the  Corps  of  Gcntlcmen- 
at-Arms;  so  called  because  on  state  occasions  they 
carry  a  gilded  baton. 

GOLLETTE.— A  shirt  of  mail  worn  by  foot-soldiers 
in  ancient  times.     S{'e  Animr  and  Hauberk. 

GOMER  CHAMBER.— This  chamljer,  named  after 
its  inventor,  consists  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone  con- 
nected with  the  bore  by  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  a 
sphere.  This  kind  of  chamber  is  considered  very 
advantageous  for  mortars.  Being  large  at  the  mouth, 
it  allows  the  powder  to  act  on  an  entire  hemisphere 
of  the  projectile,  and  no  risk  is  run  of  breaking  it. 
It.  however,  gives  a  less  range  than  either  the  cylin- 
drical or  ^i>herical,  but  its  capacity  is  greater. 

GONFALON.— 1.  One  of  the  "arms  borne  by  the 
Xormans  in  the  elev(>nth  century.  It  was  a  spear, 
sometimes  ornamented  with  a  small  flag,  fixed  just 
below  the  metal  point,  and  similar  to  the  present 
Entrlish  lance. — 2.  .Vii  ensign  or  standard. 

GONFALONIER.— A  Turkish  General  and^  Staiid- 
ard-keciier  who  always  precedes  the  Grand  Seignior 
during  war. 

GONG. — An  Indian  instrimient  of  percussion,  made 
of  a  mixture  of  niet;ils  (78  to  80  parts  of  copper,  and 
22  to  20  parts  of  tin),  and  shapeil  into  a  basin-like 
form,  flat  and  large,  with  a  rim  a  few  inches  deep. 
The  sound  of  the  gong  is  produced  by  striking  it, 
while  hung  liy  the  rim,  with  a  wooden  mallet,  which 
puts  the  meti'il  into  an  extraordinary  state  of  vibra- 
tion, and  produces  a  loud,  piercing  sound.  It  is  used 
bv  the  Chinese  as  an  instrument  of  martial  music. 

"GONG'WALLAS.— A  term  applied  to  the  Militia  in 
India.  It  is  thus  called  from  Gonu,  a  village,  and 
M'lilloa,  a  man. 

GOOD-CONDUCT  BADGES,— Marks  of  distinction 
for  good  coiuluct  which  are  bestowed  >ipon  .soldiers 
in  tiie  English  army.  Each  badge  carries  with  it  a 
reward  of  a  penny  Ji  day.  The  badges  are  worn  by 
soldiers  below  the  elbow,  with  the  jioinls  up. 

GOOD. CONDUCT  PAY.— .\  reward  of  additional  pay 
to  corporals  and  I'rivate  .soldiers  for  good  conduct. 
It  is  granted  und<'r  the  following  circumstances:  A 
soldier  whose  name  <loes  not  aj^pear  in  the  re.dmenfal 
defaulter-book  for  at  least  two  years  ])rcccding  his 
claim  receives— after  2  years,  \il.  per  diem,  with 
one  good-conduct  badge;  after  6  years,  2d.  per  diem, 


GOOD  SEBVICE  PENSION. 


773 


GORGE  OF  MOUNTAINS. 


with  one  additional  badge  for  each  pennj-;  after  12  ] 
years,  3(/.  per  diem;  after  18  years,  id.  per  diem;  ' 
after  23  years,  orf.  per  diem;  after  28  years,  6d.  per  ; 
diem.  A  soldier  of  16  and  less  than  18  yeai-s'  service, 
and  who.se  name  has  not  been  entered  in  the  regi- 
mental defaulter-book  for  14  years  next  preceding 
the  date  at  ^^  liich  he  shall  become  entitled  thereto, 
shall  receive  the  rate  grunted  by  Article  911  of  the 
Warrant,  after  18  years'  service,  on  completion  of  such 
14  years'  continuous  good  conduct;  and  shall  receive 
the  rate  attached  to  23  and  28  years  after  21  and  26 
years  respectively.  The  Warrant  further  states  that  a 
soldier  shall  not  be  advanced  to  a  higher  rate  of  good- 
conduct  pay  imless  he  shall  have  been  in  the  unintcr- 
rupte.l  receipt  of  the  next  lower  rate  for  the  two  years 
immediately  preceding  his  claim.  But  this  "con- 
dition shall  not  apply  to  Uie  accelerated  rates  spccitied  ' 
in  Article  914.  Non-commissioned  otlicers  do  not  re- 
ceive good-conduct  pay.  but  receive  instead  'id.  a  day 
as  an  increase  to  their  regular  pay.  They  receive,  as 
well,  rewards  for  distinguished  or  meritorious  ser- 
vices, annuities  and  medals,  either  while  serving  or 
after  discharge.  A  Warrant,  dated  May  29.  1875, 
has  been  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  revising  the 
regulations  contained  in  the  Warrant  of  December  27, 
1870,  relative  to  the  forfeiture  of  the  service  of  sol- 
diers, and  to  amend  in  certain  respects  the  regula- 
tions relative  to  aood  conduct  pa}'.  I 

GOOD-SEEVICE  PENSION.— An  annuity  of  £100  a 
year  given  to  General  or  Field  Officers  in  the  English 
army  as  a  reward  for  distinguished  or  good  service. 
Only  a  certain  number  of  annuities  is  granted.  This 
reward  is  held  either  for  life  or  until  an  officer  suc- 
ceeds to  his  Colonel's  Allowance. 

GOOD'WIN  COEHORN.— A  small  Coehom  mortar 
fixed  on  a  stake  driven  into  the  ground  at  a  suitable 
angle,  and  tired  by  a  trigger  and  a  lanyard.  It  is  a 
surprisingly  effective  little  piece,  throwing  a  3inch 
shell  to  a  very  great  distance,  and  may  be  carried 
one  under  each  arm. 

GORDIAN  KNOT.— The  traditional  origin  of  this 
famous  knot  was  as  follows:  Gordius,  a  Phrygian 
])ea.sant,  was  once  plowing  in  his  fields,  when  an 
eagle  settled  on  his  yoke  of  oxen,  and  remained  till 
the  labor  of  the  day  was  over.  Surprised  at  so  won- 
derful a  phenomenon,  he  sought  an  explanation  of  it, 
and  was  informed  bj'  a  Prophetess  of  Telmissus  that 
he  should  offer  sacrifice  to  Zeus.  He  did  so,  and  ovit 
of  gratitude  for  the  kindness  shown  him  married  the 
Prophetess,  bj-  whom  he  had  a  son,  the  famous  ilidas. 
When  Midas  grew  up,  disturbances  broke  out  in 
Phrygia,  and  the  people  sent  messengers  to  the  oracle 
at  Delphi,  to  ask  about  choosing  a  new  King.  The 
messengers  were  informed  that  a  King  would  come 
to  them  riding  on  a  car,  and  that  he  would  restore 
peace.  Returning  to  Phrygia.  they  announced  these 
things,  and,  while  the  people  were  talking  about  them, 
Gordius,  with  his  father,  very  opportunely  arrived  in 
the  requisite  manner.  He  was  immedi.itely  elected 
King,  whereupon  he  dedicated  his  car  and  yoke  to 
Zeus,  in  the  acropolis  of  Gordium  (a  city  named  after 
himself),  the  knot  of  the  yoke  being  tied  in  so  skillful 
a  manner  that  an  oracle  declared  whoever  should 
unloose  it  would  be  Ruler  of  all  Asia.  When  Alex- 
ander the  Great  came  to  Gordium,  he  cut  the  knot  in 
two  with  his  sword,  and  applied  theprophecv  to  him- 
self. 

GORE. — In  Heraldry,  a  charge  consisting  of  one 
third  of  the  shield  cut  off  by  two  arched  lines,  one 
drawn  from  the  dexter  or  sinister 
chief,  and  the  other  from  the  bottom 
of  the  escutcheon,  meeting  in  the 
fess  point.  A  gore  sinister  is  enume- 
rated by  Heralds  as  one  of  the  abate- 
ment.s  or  marks  of  dishonor  borne 
for  unknightly  conduct.  See  &us- 
set  and  Heraldry. 

GORGE.  —  1.    A  cavetto,  hollow 
member,  or  round  concave   mold- 
ing, containing  the  quadrant  of  a  circle,  and  used  as 


an  ornament  in  cornices.  The  term  is  commonly  ap- 
plied to  the  entrance  into  any  piece  of  a  fortification, 
which  consists  of  the  distance  or  space  between 
the  inner  extremities  of  the  two  faces.  See  Oorge  of 
MonnUiina. 

2.  lu  fortification,  the  opening  on  that  side  of  the 
work  corresi>onding  to  the  bodj-  of  the  i)lace,  or  the 
side  whence  comes  the  defense.  In  isolated  works, 
the  gorge  is  sometimes  intrenched.  The  gorges  of 
works  not  attached  to  a  fortress,  but  which  are  its 
dependencies,  are  in  general  open,  or  without  para- 
Ijets,  in  order  that  the  enemy  piay  not  cover  himself 
from  the  tire  of  the  place  if  he  should  seize  sucli  de- 
tached works.  If  the  works-  are  liable  to  surprise, 
and  their  corges  cannot  be  shut,  a  row  of  palisades 
are  planted  there,  and  mines  are  prejiared  so  as  to 
overthrow  the  enemy  if  he  should  seize  the  work  and 
attempt  to  construct  a  lo<lgmcnt  there.  The  .gorge 
of  a  bastion  is  usually  an  open  space  between  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  tianks  of  the  bastion.  The  larger 
this  gorge  is,  the  better  is  the  defense;  for  when  the 
ruined  bastion  is  about  to  fall  by  siege  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy,  the  defenders  can  construct  defensive 
works  or  dig  small  ditches  in  the  gorge  of  the  aban- 
doned bastion.  Such  resistance  sometimes  drives  the 
besiegers  to  the  necessitj"  of  battering  in  breach  the 
curtain. 

A  stockade  is  the  best  inclosure  for  the  gorge  of  a 
work.     The  outline  or  plan  of  the  gorge  should  be 


Gore. 


Section  and  EleTation  of  Stockade  of  Gorge. 

a  small  bastion  front,  or  a  tenaille,  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  a  flank  defense.  The  trunks  for  the 
stockade  should  be  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter 
and  eleven  feet  in  length.  It  will  be  best  to  square 
them  on  two  sides,  so  that  they  may  have  about  four 
inches  of  surface  in  contact.  The  top  of  the  stockade 
should  be  at  least  eight  feet  above  the  ground.  To 
arrange  it  for  a  defense,  a  banquette  is  thrown  up 
.against  it  on  the  interior;  the  height  of  the  banquette 
one  foot  nine  inches.  A  strip  about  two  feet  in  length 
should  be  cut  from  the  top  of  two  adjacent  trunks 
•nith  a  Siiw,  so  that  when  they  are  placed  side  by  side 
there  shall  be  an  opening  at  top,  between  them,  eight 
inches  wide  on  the  interior  and  two  and  a  half  inches 
on  Ihe  exterior;  this  opening,  through  which  the 
muzzle  of  the  musket  is  run  out  in  firing,  is  termed 
a  hmp-hoU.  The  distance  between  the  loop  holes 
should  he  three  feet.  In  this  arrangement  the  bottom 
of  the  loop-holes  will  be  six  feet  above  the  ground 
on  the  exterior,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  clo.sing  on 
them  to  stop  them  >ip  or  use  them  in  the  attack. 
About  four  feet  in  front  of  the  stockade  a  ditch  is 
made,  twelve  feet  nide  and  three  feet  deep.  The 
earth  from  the  ditch  is  thrown  up  again.st  the  stock- 
ade, in  a  slope,  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  loop- 
hole, to  prevent  the  enemy  from  attempting  to  cut 
down  the  stockade. 

GORGED. — When  a  lion  or  other  animal  has  a  crown 
by  way  of  collar  round  its  neck,  it  is  s;iid  heraldically 
to  be  gorged. 

GORGE  OF  MOUNTAINS.— The  passage,  more  or  less 
compressed,  iK'tween  two  mountains,  which  is  used 
as  a  passage- way  into  valleys.  Gorges  are  important 
militarj'  points.  If  they  le.ad  to  an  intrenched  camp, 
it  is  necessary  to  fortify  them,  and  there  post  grancl 
guards;  these  positions  are  the  principal  theaters  for 
affairs  of  posts. 


OOBGEBIN. 


774 


GOVEENOE. 


GOEOEBIN. — A  portion  of  armor  at  the  Iwttom  of 
the  hehii  and  bt'low  the  Ixiriire.  It  was  used  instead 
of  the  mail  camail  to  protect  the  neck.     Sec  Gorget. 

OOBGET. — That  part  of  the  ancient  armor  which 
defended  the  neck.  Also  a  crt-scent-shapeil  ornanieiit 
formerly  worn  by  military  ofticrrs  on  the  breast.  The 
gorget  ceased  to  Ix-  worn,  like  other  articles  of  body- 
annor,  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

GOEGONS.— In  military  antiquity,  a  warlike  female 
nation  of  Libya,  in  Africa,  that  hail  frequent  quarrels 
with  another  "nation  of  the  same  sex,  callod  Amazons. 

GOTHS. — The  name  of  a  powerful  nation  of  an- 
tiquity, belonging  to  the  Germanic  race.  By  some 
writers  they  are  thought  to  have  had  a  Scandinavian 
origin,  which  was  the  belief  of  their  own  historian, 
Jornandes.  Indeed,  Jornandes,  Procopius  Capitoli- 
nus,  and  Trebellius  Pollio  identified  them  with  the 
Getse,  a  branch  of  the  Thracian  group  of  nations;  but 
later  researches,  especially  those  of  Dr.  Latham,  leave 
it  almost  without  a  doubt  that  the  Goths  were  origi- 
nally Germans,  The  earliest  notice  of  them  extant 
among  the  writers  of  antiquity  is  that  of  Pytheas  of 
Marseille,  who  lived  about  the" time  of  Alexiinder  the 
Great,  and  wrote  a  book  of  travels,  some  fragments 
of  which  have  been  preserved  in  the  works  of  other 
writers.  In  one  of  these  fragments  we  tind  mention 
made  of  a  tribe  of  Outtorn's  bordering  upon  the  Ger- 
mans, and  who  lived  round  a  gidf  of  the  .sea  called 
>Ieutonomon,  a  day's  sail  from  Uie  Island  of  Abalus, 
where  they  used  to  gather  amber  and  sell  it  to  the 
neighboring  Teutones.  This  gulf,  there  is  every  rea- 
son to  believe,  was  the  Priiti-hes  Huff,  situateil  on  the 
Prussian  shore  of  the  Baltic.  The  next  notice  that 
occurs  of  the  Goths  is  in  the  Oennania  of  Tacitus,  in 
■which  they  are  called  Got/iones,  and  are  represented 
as  dwelling  beyond  the  Lygii;  in  the  same  direction, 
that  is,  as  the  one  pointed  out  by  Pyihe;i.s,  though 
not  on  the  sea-coast.  Tacitus  also  distinguishes  them 
from  the  Gothini,  a  tril)e  east  of  the  Quadi  and  Mar- 
comanni,  and  who  are  represented  by  him  as  using 
the  Gallican  tongue.  The  Gothones,  according  to 
this  historian,  were  under  regal  government,  and  on 
that  account  not  quite  .so  free  as  the  other  tribes  of 
Germany,  but  still  they  enjoj'Cd  a  considerable 
amount  "of  liberty.  The  tribes  next  beyond  them, 
and  dwelling  immediately  on  the  sea-coast,  were  the 
Rugii  and  Eemovii,  whose  form  of  government  was 
also  monarchical,  and  their  weapons,  like  those  of 
the  Gothones,  round  shields  and  short  swords 

GOUDEONS. — Small  fascines,  or  fagots,  which  are 
•well  steeped  in  wax,  pitc^,  and  glue,  and  then  are 
lighted  for  the  puposcof  setting  lire  to  beams,  planks, 
traverses,  galleries,  pontons,  etc.  They  are  likewise 
wscd  in  various  shapes  and  ways  to  convey  light  into 
the  ditches  or  upon  the  ramparts. 

GOUB. — An  article  of  forage  fed  to  elephants  in 
India.  It  consists  of  wheaten  cakes  mixed  with  mo- 
las.ses,  and  the  daily  ration  is  from  15  to  30  pounds, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  animal. 

GOUBDIN.— A  flat  stick,  two  or  three  fingers  in 
breadth, which  was  used  by  the  French  to  punish 
galley  slaves. 

GOVEENMENT.— The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  provides  that  Congress  shall  make  rules  for  the 
government  and  regulation  of  armies.  By  govern- 
ment is  understood  not  only  the  body  of  fundamental 
laws  of  a  State,  hut  also  the  body  of  persons  charged 
with  the  management  of  the  executive  power  of  a 
country,  direction,  power  or  authority  which  rules  a 
community,  administration,  rule,  management.  Gov- 
ernment of  the  militjiry  is  that  branch  of  the  code 
which  embraces  the  creation  and  regulation  of  the 
mililaiy  /lierarchy,  or  the  gradual  distribution  of  in- 
ferior authority.  The  power  of  making  rules  of  gov- 
ernment is  that  of  Supreme  Conunand,  and  from 
this  living  principle  |>roceeds  llie  localization  of 
troops;  their  organization  and  distribution;  rules  for 
rewards  and  punishments;  and  generally  all  rules  of 
government  and  reguUttiun  what.soever  which  the 
legislature  may  judge  necessary  to  maintain  an  effi- 


cient and  well-disciplined  army.  All  authority  over 
the  land  forces  of  the  United  States  must  therefore  be 
derivcii  from  Congress.  For  although  the  President 
is  the  Conunander  in-Chief ,  yet  his  functions  as  such 
must  be  regulated  by  Congress,  \inder  the  17th  clause 
of  Section  8  of  the  "Constitution,  as  well  as  under  the 
general  authority  of  Congress  to  make  rules  for  the 
government  and  regulation  of  the  land  forces.  The 
President  cannot  be  divested  of  power  which  Con- 
gress may  assign  to  any  inferior  Jlilitary  Commander, 
Ijccause  the  authority  of  the  greater  includes  that  of 
the  le.ss.  But  all  authority  over  the  land  and  naval 
forces  save  the  appointment  of  the  Conunander-in- 
Chief  rests  with  Congress,  and  no  authority  can  be 
exercised  not  delegated  by  Congress,  except  such  as 
may  be  fairly  deduced  from  powers  given  for  the  ef- 
fective discharge  of  the  duties  annexed  to  his  oflace. 

60VEBN0B.— 1.  The  officer  placed  by  royal  com- 
mission in  the  military  command  of  any  fortress,  not 
only  over  the  garrison  but  over  the  inhabitants.  In 
time  of  Avar  it  is  an  office  of  great  responsibility,  and 
at  all  times  requires  considerable  experience  and  mili- 
tary information.  In  the  United  States  a  Governor  is 
invested  with  supreme  authority  in  a  State. 

2.  A  device  which  regulates  the  admission  of  steam 
to  the  engine  according  to  the  rate  of  motion.  The  in- 
tention is  to  maintain  uniform  velocity,  and  any  accel- 
eration of  speed  above  a  given  rate  causes  a  valve  to 
be  partially  closed,  diminishing  the  area  of  steam-pas- 
sage: contrariwise  in  case  of  Sagging  in  the  sjiced  of 
motion  of  the  engine.  Fig.  1  shows  a  veitical  section 
through  the  center  of  the  governor  and  iLs  parts, 
together  with  a  cross-section  of  the  girder  of  the  Cum- 
mer engine;  this  section  being  along  the  center  line  of 
the  governor-shaft  shows  the  main  eccentric,  cast  solid 
with  if.  The  cut-off  eccentric,  with  its  sleeve,  it  will  be 
ob.served,  fits  loosely  on  the  governor-shaft,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  flj"ing  ends  of  the  governor-weights 
by  means  of  rods  or  links  (as  shown  in  Fig.  2)  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  cut-off  eccentric,  with  its  .sleeve,  is 
moved  around  the  governor-shaft,  either  forward  or 
backward,  as  the  flying  weights  change  their  position; 
by  this  means  the  steam  is  cut  off  correspondingly 
earlier  or  later  in  the  stroke  as  the  governor  or  fljing 
weights  adjust  themselves  to  the  load. 

The  governor-shaft  istlriven  from  the  main  shaft  by 
a  train  of  gears,  one  of  which  appears  in  section  in  Fig. 
1.  The  governor  case,  to  w-hicll  is  attached  the  fljing 
weights,  is  keyed  to  the  governor-shaft,  and  revolves 
with  it.  It  will  be  noticed  the  governor-shaft  is  hollow, 
and  has  passing  through  it  a  thrust-rod.  One  end  of 
this  thrust-rod  is  attached  to  a  crossbar,  which,  pa.s.s- 
ing  through  a  slot  in  the  governor-shaff,  is  thereby 
made  to  revolve  with  if.  The  cross-bar  just  referred 
to  is  connected  with  the  governor  or  fljing  weights  by 
suitable  connections  and  bell-cranks  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
The  other  end  of  the  thrust-rod  fits  into  a  step  which 
is  jointed  to  the  vertical  arm  of  the  large  bell  crank 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  It  will  be  clear  that  anj'  movement 
of  the  weights  in  the  governor  case  would  cause  the 
thrusl-rod  U)  move  correspondingly  out  or  in,  and  thus 
operate  (jr  change  the  relative  position  of  the  large 
bell-crank  and  cause  the  weight  located  under  the  en- 
gine and  attached  to  the  end  of  the  horizontal  arm  of 
the  bell-crank  to  be  raised  or  lowered  in  an  amoimt 
corresfKJnding  to  the  outer  or  inner  position  of  the  gov- 
ernor-weights. 
I  Referring  once  more  to  the  cut-off  eccentric.  Fig.  2 
'  shows  how  the  Hying  ends  of  the  governor-weights 
are  connected  by  means  of  two  rods  and  a  clamp  col- 
lar with  the  sleeve  of  the  cut-off  eccentric,  so  that,  as 
the  governor-weights  change  their  position,  the  eccen- 
tric, with  its  sleeve,  moves  around  the  shaft  either  for- 
ward or  backward.  When  the  cut-off  eccentric  is  ro- 
tated forward,  the  steam  is  cut  off  earlier  in  the  stroke; 
when  the  eccentric  is  rotated  backward,  the  steam  is 
cut  off  later  in  the  stroke.  The  extreme  range  of  cut- 
off as  controlled  by  this  governor  may  be  from  0  to  8- 
10  of  the  stroke  measured  from  the  'beginning;  these 
extremes  eoirespond  to  the  extreme  positions  of  the 


OOVXBITOS. 


775 


OOVESNOR, 


flying  weights,  or,  in  other  words,  the  engine  is  con- 
trolled by  the  governor  from  a  simple  friction  load 
to  the  full  capacity  of  the  engine.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  dead  weights  suspended  from  the  horizontal  arm 


tion  in  speed  as  they  were  before.  This  balancing  of 
the  centrifugal  force,  which  is  generated  by  the  flying 
weights  of  the  governor,  is  accomplished  by  the 
weights  suspended  from  the  horizontal  arm  of  the 


of  the  large  bell-crank  can  be  varied  or  adiusted  in 
amount.  This  provision  is  made  in  order  to  reculate 
the  speed  of  the  engine.  Whenever  a  change,  either 
faster  or  slower  than  standard  speed,  is  desired,  the  re- 
quired variation  is  efl'ected  by  simply  adding  to  or 
taking  from  these  loose  weights  under  the  bed;  the 
change  is  easily  made  without  the  necessity  for  stop- 
ping the  engine. 

The  object  of  the  governor  is  to  preserve  a  certain 
determined  speed  with  the  smallest  possible  variation 
from  constant  speed  as  changes  in  the  load  occur. 
The  cut-oflf  must  always  be  proportioned  to  the  load. 
When  no  load  is  on,  steam  is  cut  off  very  early  in  the 
stroke,  and  the  flying  weiglit.«i  are  at  their  extreme 
outer  position;  with  a  heavy  load  steam  follows  fur- 
ther, and  the  weights  are  nearer  their  inner  position. 
Between  these  two  limits  any  number  of  positions  of 
the  weights  and  corresponding  angular  positions  of 
the  cut-off  eccentric  may  be  had.  and  in  each  position 
as  the  steam  is  adapted  to  the  load,  the  slightest  in- 
crease or  decrease  in  speed  must  make  a  change  in  the 
cut-off  and  bring  the  engine  agjiin  to  standard  speed. 
In  order  that  the  governor  may  be  very  sensitive  and 
instantly  feel  any  variation  of  speed,  it  is  neces.sary 
that  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  flying  wciirbts  and  the 
opposing  centriiietal  force  exerted  by  the  dead  weights 
and  spring  on  the  large  bell-crank  be  exactly  balanced 
in  every  position  they  can  possibly  take;  then  any 
change  of  sjiecd  will  cause  the  flying  weights  to  in- 
stantly move  in  or  out  and  be  just  as  well  balanced  in 
their  new  position  and  as  sensitive  to  any  other  varia- 


large  bell-crank  and  the  spring  attached  to  the  same 
arm.  The  governor  is  adjusted  for  whatever  speed 
may  be  desired. 

The  mechanism  of  the  governor  is  such  as  to  per- 
mit of  a  delicate  adjustment.  Referring  to  Fig.  1,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  spring 


Fio.  9. 


may  be  shifted  so  as  to  get  more  or  less  leverage  and 
extension  of  the  spring,  and  therefore  more  or  less 
centripetal  force.     There  is  a  series  of  holes  on  the 


OOV£BN0B-O£N£BAL  OF  INDIA. 


776 


SIEHTEB. 


!inn  for  this  purposi'.  The  governor-weights  and  the 
tension  of  the  spring  are  all  calculated  its  closely  as 
may  he;  then  the  final  iwljustnieiit  is  made  bj-  attiich- 
iug"  the  spring  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  Irom  the 
fiiTerum  of  the  lu'llcrank,  and  thus  the  balance  be- 
tween the  opposing  fi)roes  may  be  exactly  determined, 
and  the  adjustment  so  accuiiitely  ma(le  that  these 
forces  increase  and  decrease  in  the  siune  ratio. 

There  is  a  jmint  to  l)e  noted  in  connection  with  this 
spring:  the  dead  weights  furnish  a  constant  centripetal 
force  to  balance  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  weights 
when  at  their  inner  position.  All  the  spring  liiis  to 
ilo  is  to  furnish  what  is  necessary  to  balance  the  in- 
crease of  centrifugal  force  as  the  weights  move  out 
from  the  center;  Uie  initial  tension  is  0;  its  duty  is 
light,  it  is  never  severely  strained,  and  it  has  periods  of 
rest,  so  that  its  elasticity  does  not  become  impaired. 
In  this  respect  this  governor  differs  from  all  those  in 
which  a  spring  is  required  to  furnish  all  the  necess;ny 
centripetal  force.  It  is  quite  obvious  thai  such  a  spring 
has  a  more  severe  and  verj-  injurious  duty  to  perform, 
because  it  is  always  luider  tension,  so  that  its  elasticity 
soon  becomes  impaired  and  the  Governor  does  not  act 
properly.  A  comparison  of  the  two  methods  of  con- 
struction will  show  clearly  the  superiority  of  this  gover- 
nor and  explains  the  very  close  governing  under  vary- 
ing loads  for  which  the  Cummer  engine  has  achieved 
an  excellent  reputation. 

The  effectiveness  and  force  of  a  governor-weight 
varies  in  the  ratio  of  the  squares  of  the  velocities;  and 
as  the  velocity  depends  upon  the  radius  of  gyration,  it 
is  easily  seenWhy  the  weights  should  approach  and 
recede  from  the  center  by  only  a  small  amount,  and 
this  is  permitted  by  the  small  movement  recjuired  to 
operate  the  eccentric;  and  it  follows  also  that,  when 
the  weights  arc  at  their  inner  position,  and  the  en- 
gine is  following  i  to  i  of  the  stroke,  the  weights  have 
moved  inward  so  little,  or  from  Ho  j  of  what  would  be 
necesary  if  the  governor  was  placed  on  the  main  shaft, 
that  the  governor  lias  the  valves  and  the  engine  as 
much  under  control  as  when  in  any  other  position. 
It  is  important  that  the  governor- weights  be  given  such 
an  adjusting  movement  that,  when  at  their  inner  po- 
sition, their  force  and  value  for  governing  shall  not  be 
impaired.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  wMl  be  seen 
that  the  weights  are  always  in  an  effective  position 
ami  the  governor  acts  equally  well  from  0  up  to  |  of 
the  stroke.     See  Stjdm  eiir/iiu: 

GOVEKNOB-GENERAL  OF  INDIA.  —  The  Chief 
Executive  Officer  of  that  Dependency,  who  has  also 
the  rank  and  position  of  a  Viceroy.  He  is  appointed 
by  the  Crown  for  a  period  of  tjve  years,  which,  how- 
ever, can  be  extended.  The  Goverror-Gencral  is  sub- 
ject in  all  matters  of  moment  to  the  control  of  the 
Crown,  through  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India.  He 
is  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council,  composed  of  six 
members,  should  he  see  the  necessity  of  so  many, 
viz..  two  civilians,  a  law  and  financial  member,  a 
military  member,  and  a  member  of  public  works. 
All  acts  of  the  Government  are  performed  in  the  name 
of  the  Governor-General  "  in  Council;"  not  that  he 
is  necc.ssarilji'  bound  to  the  majority  of  his  Council, 
as  he  can  dissent  altogether  from  their  oi)inion,  and 
act  accordingly,  if  he  thinks  tit.  The  above  niem- 
liers,  with  the  addition  of  a  civilian  from  Madras  and 
Bombay,  a  few  non-ollicial  nicinbei-s  selected  from 
the  European  commercial  community,  and  one  or  two 
native  noblemen,  constitute  the  Supreme  Legislative 
Council  for  making  laws  and  regulations.  But  the 
Governor-General  has  the  power  of  making  rules  and 
regulations,  on  an  emergency,  with  reduce<l  numbers 
of  his  Council. 

GOWEIE  CONSPIRACY.— One  of  the  most  singular 
events  in  the  history  of  Scotland,  which  took  place  in 
August.  1600.  (Jn  the  .'ilh  i>f  that  nioiilli,  as  King 
James  VI.,  then  residing  at  Falkland  Palace,  in  Fife, 
wits  going  out  to  hunt,  Alexander  Kulhv<n,  brother 
of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie,  whose  father  had  lieen  exe- 
cuted for  trea.son  in  1584,  came  to  liis  Majesty,  and 
infonneil  him  that,  on  the  previous  evening,  he  had 


st'ized  a  person  of  a  suspicious  apiMarance,  and  evi- 
dently disgnisi'd,  with  a  pot  full  of  Idrcign  gold  hid 
under  his  cloak,  and  had  confined  him  in  his  brother's 
house  at  Perth.  Conceiving  him  to  be  an  agent  of 
the  Pope  or  the  King  of  Spain,  the  King  agreed  to 
examine  the  man  himself,  and  without  waiting  to 
change  his  horse,  set  out  for  Perth,  attcii<ied  only  by 
the  Duke  of  Lennox, the  Earl  of  .Mar,  and  about  twenty 
others.  Soon  after  his  arrival,  while  his  relinue  were 
at  dinner,  Hulhven  conducted  the  King  up  a  winding 
st.iiicase  and  thrnugh  several  aiiarlnients.  the  doors 
of  which  he  locked  behind  him,  and  brought  him  at 
last  to  a  small  study,  where  stood  a  man  in  armor, 
with  a  sword  and  dagger  by  his  side.  Snatching  the 
dagger  from  the  man's  girdle.  Huthven  held  it  to  the 
King's  breast,  and  siiid,  "  Who  murdered  myfather':' 
Is  not  thy  conscience  burdened  by  his  innocent  blood'? 
Thou  art  now  my  jirisoner,  and  must  l)e  content  to 
follow  our  will,  and  to  be  usi^d  as  we  list.  Seek  not 
to  escape;  utter  but  a  cry,  make  but  a  motion  to  open 
the  window,  and  this  dagger  is  in  thy  heart."  The 
'  King  expo.stulated  with  Huthven,  who  so  far  relented 
i  that  he  went  to  consult  his  lirother,  leaving  the  King 
1  in  charge  of  the  man  in  armor.  In  the  mean  time, 
!  one  of  Gowrie's  .servants  hastily  entered  the  apart- 
ment where  the  King's  retinue  were,  and  announced 
1  that  the  King  ba<l  just  ri<iden  olf  towards  Falkland. 
I  All  hurried  into  tlie  street,  and  the  Earl,  with  the 
utmost  eagerness,  called  for  their  horses.  On  Alex- 
ander Rulhven's  return  to  the  King,  he  declared  that 
there  was  now  no  remedy,  but  that  he  must  die,  and 
proceeded  to  bind  his  hands  with  a  garter.  The 
King  grappled  with  him,  and  a  tierce  struggle  ensued. 
Dragging  Kuthven  towards  a  window  looking  into 
the  .street,  which  the  man  in  armor  had  opened,  the 
King  cried  aloud  for  help.  His  attendants  knew  his 
voice,  and  hiustened  to  his  assistance.  Lennox  and 
Mar,  with  the  greater  number  of  the  royal  train,  ran 
up  the  principal  staircase,  but  found  all  the  doors 
shut.  Sir  John  Ramsay,  of  the  Dalhousie  family, 
one  of  the  royal  pages,  ascending  by  a  back  stair,  en- 
tered the  study,  the  door  of  which  Wiis  open,  and 
seizing  Ruthven,  stablM^d  him  twice  with  his  dagger, 
and  thrust  him  down  the  stair,  where  he  was  killed 
by  Sir  Thomas  Erskine  and  Sir  Hugh  Herries.  Upon 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Gowrie  rushed  into  the 
room,  with  a  drawn  sword  in  each  hand,  followed  by 
seven  retainers,  well  anned,  and  was  instantly  at- 
tacked. Pierced  through  the  heart  by  Sir  John 
Ramsay,  he  fell  dead  without  uttering  a  word.  The 
inhabitants  of  Perth,  by  whom  Gowrie,  who  was 
their  Provost,  was  much  beloved,  hearing  of  his  fate, 
ran  to  arms,  and.  surrounding  the  house,  threatened 
revenge.  The  King  addressed  them  from  a  window, 
and  admitted  the  Magistrates,  to  whom  he  fuUj-  re 
lated  all  the  circumstances,  on  which  they  dispersed, 
and  he  returned  to  Falkland,  Three  of  the  Earl's 
servants  were  executed  at  Perth.  The  man  in  armor, 
Andrew  Henderson,  the  Earl's  steward,  was  pardoned. 
All  who  were  examined  were  totally  ignorant  of  the 
motives  which  pronijited  the  brotliers  Ruthven  to 
such  a  deed,  and  they  still  remain  in  some  degree  of 
mystery,  although  recent  discoveries  have  led  to  a 
pretty  general  belief  that  the  object  of  the  conspira- 
tois  was  to  iios.sess  themselves  of  the  King's  person, 
to  convey  liini  by  water  to  Fa.st  Castle,  and  either  to 
give  him  up  to  England,  or  to  administer  the  Oovern- 
nient  in  his  name  in  the  interest  of  that  country  and 
of  the  Presbyterian  leaders  at  home.  Most  of  the 
documents  relating  to  the  plot  are  printed. 

GRADE. — X  term  synonymous  with  rank,  and  pe- 
culiarly applicable  to  the  dilTerent  ranks  among  offi- 
cers, beginning  from  an  Ensign  to  the  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  an  army.     See  liiiiik. 

GRADIENT,— In"  Heraldry,  a  tortoise  when  walking 
is  said  to  be  gradient.  The  term  is  used  chiefly  in 
connection  with  earthworks  and  roads  to  signify  a 
departure  of  the  line  from  a  perfect  level. 

GRADIENTER. — An  attachment  often  used  with 
tiiinsits  for  tixiiig  grades,  determining  distances,  etc. 


OBADIVUS. 


777 


GRADUATION. 


It  is  shown  in  the  drawing,  and  consists  mainly  of  a 
screw  attached  to  the  semicirciilar  expanded  arm  of 
the  ordinaiT  clamp  of  the  telescope  axis;  the  screw  is 
accurately  cut  to  a  given  number  of  threa<ls,  and  pass- 
ing through  u  nut  in  one  side  of  the  arm,  presses 
against  a  little  stud,  A,  fixed  to  the  inside  surface  of 
the  right-himd  standard.  In  the  other  side  of  the 
semicircular  arm  is  inserted  a  hollow  cylinder  con- 
taining a  pin  actuated  by  a  strong  spiral"  spring,  the 
end  of  the  pin  pressing  against  tlie  side  of  the  stud 
opposite  that  in  contact  with  the  screw.  Near  the 
other  end  of  the  screw,  and  turning  with  it,  is  a 
wheel,  or  micrometer,  the  rim  of  which  is  plated  with 
silver,  and  divided  into  one  hundred  equal  parts.  A 
small  silver  scale,  attached  to  the  arm  and  just  above 
the  micrometer-wheel,  is  divided  into  spaces,  each  of 
which  is  just  equal  to  one  revolution  of  the  .screw;  so 
that  by  comparing  the  edge  of  the  wheel  with  the  di- 
visions of  the  scale,  the  number  of  complete  revolu- 
tions of  the  screw  can  be  ea.sily  counted.  It  will  be 
seen  that  when  the  clump  is  made  fast  to  the  axis  by 


Gradienter. 

the  clamp-screw,  and  the  gradienter  screw  turned,  it 
will  move  the  telescope  vertically,  precisely  like  the 
tangent-screw  ordinarily  used.  Xnd  as  the  value  of  a 
thread  is  such  that  a  complete  revolution  of  the  screw 
will  move  the  horizontal  cross-wire  of  the  telescope 
over  a  space  of  one  foot  on  a  rod  at  a  distance  of  one 
hunilred  feet,  it  is  clear  thai  when  the  screw  is  turned 
through  fifty  spaces  on  the  graduated  head,  the  wire 
will  pass  over  fifty  one  hundredths,  or  one  half  a  foot 
on  the  rod,  and  so  on  in  the  same  pro])ortion.  In  this 
way  the  gradienter  can  be  used  in  the  measurement 
of  distances,  precisely  like  the  micrometer  already 
described  in  the  article  on  the  Engineer's  Transit. 
Grades  can  also  be  established  with  great  facility,  ivs 
follows:  First  level  the  instrument;  bring  the  telescope 
level  to  its  center  liy  the  clamp  and  gradienterserew; 
move  the  graduated  head  until  its  zero  is  brought  to 
the  edge  of  the  scale;  and  then  turn  otf  as  many 
spaces  on  the  head  as  there  are  hundredths  of  feet  to 
the  hundred  in  the  grade  that  is  to  be  established. 
See  Mievoineler. 

GBADIVUS.— The  Roman  Mars,  who  as  a  war-god 
was  sumamed  Ontdieiis  (  =  f^rrindi^  dims,  the  great 
god),  also  bore  the  surname  of  SUmiiiix.  and  ajjpears 
to  have  been  originally  an  agricultural  deity;  and 
propitiatory  offerings  were  presented  to  him  as  the 
guardian  of  fields  and  flocks;  but  as  the  fierce  shep- 
herds who  founded  the  city  of  Rome  were  even  more 
addicted  to  martial  than  to  pitstoral  pursuits,  one  can 
•easily  understand  how  .\f.  Silraniis  should  have,  in 


the  course  of  time,  become  the  "  Giod  of  War."    See 

Mars. 

GRADUATION.— The  art  of  di\iding  mathematical, 
astronomical,  and  other  instruments.  The  simplest 
problem  in  graduation  is  the  dividini;  of  the  straight 
line,  such  as  an  ordinary  scale  or  nile.  This  is  com- 
moidy  done  by  copying  from  a  standard  scale,  for 
which  purpose  a  di\-iding  scjuari'  and  a  suitable  knife 
for  eiuting  the  divisions  are  used.  The  dividing 
scjuare  Is  a  hard  steel  straight-edge,  with  a  shoulder 
at  right  angles  like  a  carpenter's  square.  This  is  made 
to  slide  along  the  standard  scale,  and  halt  at  each  re- 
quired division,  when  a  corresponding  one  is  cut  upon 
the  nUe,  etc.,  by  using  tlie  steel  straight-edge  as  a 
guide  to  the  kiiife.  The  original  araduatioii  of  a 
straight  line  into  equal  divisions,  as  in  making  a  first 
standard  scale,  etc.,  is  performed  either  on  the  princi- 
ple of  Imectio)!  or  Mippiiig.  In  bisecting,  the  jjoints 
of  a  beam-compa.ss  arc  adjusted  to  nearly  half  the 
length  of  the  line  to  be  divided;  one  jioint  is  then 
placed  at  one  end  of  the  Hue,  and  a  faint  are  struck 
towards  the  middle:  this  is  repeated  at  the  other  end* 
the  small  distance  In-tween  these  arcs  is  then  carefully 
bi.sected  with  the  aid  of  a  fine  pointer  and  magnifier, 
which  gives  an  accurate  half  of  the  line.  The  half 
thus  obtained  is  again  liisected  in  like  manner,  and 
these  quarters  bisected  again,  and  so  on  until  the  re- 
quired subdivision  is  attained.  Stei)ping  is  performed 
with  delicately  pointed  spring-dividers,  which  are  set 
at  once  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  opening  of  the 
small  division  required;  then  the  points  are  made  to 
step  on,  leaving  at  each  stej)  a  very  fine  dot;  and 
when  it  is  found  that  the  last  dot  either  falls  .short  of 
or  overpasses  the  end  of  the  line,  the  opening  is  ad- 
justed accordingly,  mitil  perfect  accuracy  is  obtained. 
Thus,  if  a  line  were  ili\ided  into  a  thousand  parts, 
and  each  division  were  y,,',,;  too  long  or  too  short,  the 
error  would  amount  to  a  whole  division  at  the  end  of 
a  thousand  steps.  The  method  of  bisection  is  prac- 
tically the  most  accurate,  aud  has  been  adopted  by 
Graham,  Bird,  Ramsden,  Troughton,  and  all  other 
eminent  artists  in  original  graduation.  Curved  lines 
are  divided  on  this  jirinciple.  The  chord  of  an  arc 
of  60°  is  equal  to  the  radius;  therefore  the  opening 
of  the  compa.sses  required  for  striking  the  circle  gives 
this  arc  at  once  to  start  with.  An  arc  of  90°,  or  a  qua- 
drant, is  obtained  by  bisecting  60°  and  adding  the 

I  half.-  By  continual  bisection  of  60°,  the  finer  gradu- 
ations are  produced.  The  amount  of  care,  patience, 
skill,  and  delicacy  of  touch  required  in  the  original 
graduation  of  important  astronomical  instruments  is 
such  that  not  above  one  or  two  men  in  a  generation 
have  been  found  competent  to  the  task,  and  these 
have  become  almost  as  famous  as  the  astronomers 
who  have  successfully  used  the  instruments.  It 
would  be  out  of  place  here  to  point  out  in  detail  the 
minute  precautions  and  methods  of  correction  that 
are  adopted  in  this  most  delicate  manipulation;  but, 
as  one  example,  we  may  mention  the  fact  that 
Graham,  when  di\'iding  the  mural  quadrant  for  the 
Greenwich  observatory,  measured  his  larger  chords 
from  a  scale  made  for  the  purpose:  but  before  laying 
these  down  on  the  quadrant,  he  left  the  scale,  beam- 
conii)a.sses,  and  quadrant  to  stand  for  a  whole  night, 
in  order  to  acquire  exactly  the  sjune  temiierature,  and 
Ihat  neglect  of  this  precaution  would  have  involved 
a  notable  amount  of  error.     The  necessity  of  such 

j  extreme  accuracy  will  be  understood  when  we  con- 
sider the  application  that  is  made  of  these  di\nsions. 
When,  for  example,  the  nntriiier  determines  his  lati- 
tude by  taking  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun,  the 
graduated  are  of  the  limb  of  the  sextant  or  quadrant 
he  uses  represents,  practically,  the  curved  surface 
of  the  globe,  and  the  error  is  magnified  just  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  radius  of  the  earth  exceeds  that 
of  the  divided  arc  of  the  instrument.  Supposing 
this  arc  to  be  part  of  a  circle  of  60  inches  circum- 
ference, each  degree  will  occupy  J  of  an  inch.  An 
error  of  tJ[[  of  an  inch  in  the  division  woidd  thus 
mislead  the  marine*  to  an  extent  of  more  than  four 


GSADUATION  OF  BEAR  SIGHTS. 


i  ( 


8 


GRAND  GUARDS. 


statute  miles  as  regards  his  position  on  the  waters. 
But  such  a  ship's  quadrant  is  but  a  coarse  and  rude 
inslrunicut  compared  with  astronomical  instruments 
for  nioivsuring  celestial  angular  distances  by  means  of 
a  divided  arc;  in  these  an  error  of  a  thou.sandth  part 
of  an  inch  would  lie  regsirded  as  one  of  verj-  serious 
magnitude.     See  Diridiiiq-t  iit/iiif. 

GRADUATION  OF  REAR  SIGHTS.— The  rear  sights 
of  small-arms  are  graduated  with  elevation-marks  for 
certain  distances,  generally  every  hundred  .yards;  in 
aiming  with  these,  as  with  all  other  arms,  it  i.s  first 
necessary  to  know  the  distance  of  the  object.  This 
being  known,  and  the  slider  being  placed  opposite 
the  mark  corresiionding  to  this  distance,  the  bottom 
of  the  rear-sight  notch  and  the  top  of  the  front  sight 
are  brought  into  a  line  joining  the  object  and  the  ej'e 
of  the  marksman.  Tlie  term  oiirse  sight  is  used 
■when  a  considerable  portion  of  the  front  sight  is  seen 
above  the  bottom  of  the  rear-sight  notch;  and  the 
temi/n«'  fight,  when  but  a  small  portion  of  it  is  seen. 
The  graduation-marks  being  determined  for  a  fine 
tight,  the  effect  of  a  coarse  sight  is  to  increase  the 
true  range  of  the  projectile.  If  the  form  of  the  tra- 
jectorj-  be  known,  the  rear  sight  of  a  fire-arm  can  be 
graduated  by  calculation;  the  more  accurate  and  re- 
liable method,  however,  is  by  trial.  Suppose  it  be 
required  to  mark  the  graduation  for  100  yards;  the 
slider  is  placed  as  near  the  position  of  the  required 
mark  as  the  judgment  of  the  experimenter  may  indi- 
cate; and,  with  this  elevation,  the  piece  is  carefully 
aimed,  and  fired,  say,  ten  times  at  a  target  placed  on 
level  ground,  at  a  distance  of  100  yards.  If  the  as- 
sumed position  of  the  slider  be  correct,  the  center  of 
impact  of  the  ten  shot-holes  will  coincide  with  the 
point  aimed  at;  if  it  be  incorrect,  or  the  center  of 
impact  be  found  below  the  point  aimed  at,  then  the 
position  of  the  slider  is  too  low  on  the  soile.  Let  P 
be  the  point  aimed  at,  iuid  P'  the  center  of  impact  of 


the  cluster  of  shot-holes;  we  have,  from  close  similar- 
ity of  the  triangles,  AF:  FP::AA'  :  PP ,  from 
which  we  can  determine  A  A",  the  quantity  that 
must  be  added  to  AA  to  give  the  correct  position  of 
the  graduation-mark  for  100  yards.  If  the  center  of 
impact  had  been  above  P.  the  trial-mark  would  have 
been  too  high.  Lay  off  the  distance  AA'  above  .1", 
on  the  scale,  and  we  obtain  an  api)roximate  gradua- 
tion for  200  yards,  which  should  be  corrected  in  the 
same  way  as  the  preceding,  and  so  on.  The  ilistance 
PP'  is  found  by  taking  the  algebraic  sum  of  the  dis- 
tances of  all  tiie  shots  from  the  point  /',  and  diWd- 
ing  it  by  the  mmil)er  of  shots.  It  will  be  readily 
seen  that  an  approximate  form  of  the  trajectory  may 
be  obtained  by  drawing  a  series  of  lines  through  the 
different  graduation-marks  of  the  rear  sight,  and  the 
top  of  the  front  sight,  and  laying  off  from  the  front 
sight,  on  each  line,  the  corresponding  range.  The 
points  thus  determined  are  situated  in  the  requireci 
trajectory.     See  Sight. 

GRAINOIR.— .V  term  used  in  the  French  artillerj- 
to  signify  a  sort  of  sieve,  in  which  there  are  small 
roiiixl  holes  for  moist  powder  to  be  pa.s,sed  through, 
in  order  to  make  the  grains  perfectly  round. 

GRAINS  D'ORGE.— A  coat  of  mail  in  riveted  rings. 
It  is  entirely  formed  of  metal  rings,  and  has  neither 
wrong  side  nor  lining. 

GRAND  DIVISION.— A  battalion  or  regiment  being 
told  olT  l)y  two  companies  to  each  di\ision  is  said  to 
be  told  oil  in  grand  divisions;  hence  grand-division 
firing  is  when  the  battalion  fires  by  two  companies  at 
the  same  time,  and  is  commanded  bv  one  officer  only 

GRAND  GUARD  MOUNTING.— The  grand  guard- 
mouiitini;  is  c<in(lu(ted  upon  the  same  principle  as  the 
regimental   guard  mounting.      EaMi   regimental   de- 


tachment is  assembled  on  its  parade  and  verified  by 
the  Adjutant,  after  which  it  is  marched  to  the  general 
parade  by  the  senior  officer  or  non-commissioned  offi- 
cer of  the  detachment.  The  officer  of  each  detach- 
ment, having  formed  it  in  open  order,  places  himself 
two  yards  in  front  of  its  center,  the  guides  taking 
their  places  in  the  line  of  file-closers  as  the  detach- 
ment is  halted.  A  Staff-officer  counts  the  files,  veri- 
fies the  details  by  reference  to  written  orders,  causes 
the  guard  to  count  fours,  divides  it  into  two  or  more 
platoons,  and  then  dresses  it  to  the  right.  A  space 
for  the  guide  is  left  between  the  platt>ons,  which  is 
lem|>orarily  occuiiied  by  a  file  closer,  and  through 
which  the  file-closers  pa.ss  at  the  command:  1.  C^S- 
Cfrs  and  non  roniiiiixni'iiu'd  officers  to  the  front  and  cen- 
ter, 2.  ^Iarch.  Each  platoon  is  inspected  by  its  Chief. 
The  guard  having  pas.sed  in  review  before  the  Field 
Officer  of  the  Day  is  formed  to  the  left  into  line,  and 
halted  by  the  Staff-officer.  The  Field  Officer  of  the 
Day  then  sends  the  guard  by  detachments  to  the  vari- 
ous posts.     See  (hiard-inoiniting. 

GRAND  GUARDS.— The  main  guards  covering  an 
army  or  camp  from  an  attack  l)y  the  enemy.  Inas- 
much as  the  grand  guards  furnish  the  outposts,  and 
serve  as  their  supports,  not  more  than  one  third  of 
their  force  should  be  taken  for  the  outjxwts.  The 
grand  guards  are  posted  on  the  principal  avenues 
leading  to  the  detachments  on  which  they  are  to  fall 
back,  if  driven  in;  and,  when  of  infantry,  alwut  200 
paces,  and  of  cavalry,  600  to  80^  paces,  in  the  rear  of 
the  outposts.  The  points  which  they  occupy  should 
be  selected  both  to  secure  them  from  the  enemy's 
view  and  to  give  a  ready  communication  between 
them  and  their  respective  outposts.  Xo  difficult  or 
broken  ground  should  lie  between  the  grand  guards 
and  their  outposts;  if.  any  such  occur,  iJarticularly  if 
it  be  of  a  nature  to  offer  facilities  to  an  enemy  to 
penetrate  to  the  rear,  the  whole  should  be  posted  on 
the  farther  or  hither  side;  and  in  preference  in 
the  latter  position,  if  by  it  the  chain  of  posts  can 
be  kept  unbroken.  Grand  guards  are  chiefly  to 
■watch  the  enemy  in  front;  their  flanks  are  protect- 
ed ))y  each  other,  and  the  camp  must  furnish  ix)sts 
to  protect  their  rear  and  secure  retreat.  In  broken 
or  mountainous  coiuitries,  particularly  if  the  in- 
habitants are  ill-disposed,  intermediate  posts  must  tx; 
established  when  it  is  necessary  to  post  the  grand 
guards  at  a  distance  from  the  camp.  The  General  of 
Division,  if  he  thinks  proper,  changes  the  stations  and 
orders  of  the.se  guards,  and  establishes  |X)sts  to  con- 
nect the  brigades  or  protect  the  exterior  flanks. 

The  following  are  the  standing  instructions  to 
grand  guards,  liesidc  the  special  orders  given  in  each 
case:  To  inform  the  nearest  posts  and  the  Field  Officer 
of  the  Day,  or  the  General  of  Biigade,  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  enemy,  and  of  the  attacks  they  receive 
or  apprehend;  to  examine  every  person  pa.ssing  near 
the  jiost,  particidarly  those  coining  from  without;  to 
arrest  suspicious  persons,  and  all  .soldiers  and  camp- 
followers  who  try  to  pa.ss  out  without  jiermission, 
and  to  send  to  the  General,  unless  otherwise  directed, 
all  counti^V"  iJcople  who  come  in.  Deserters  are  dis- 
armed at  the  advanced-posts,  and  sent  to  the  Cora- 
nninder  of  the  grand  guard,  who  gets  from  them  all 
the  information  he  can.  If  many  come  at  night, 
they  are  received  cttiiti/iusly.  afeiraf  a  time.  They 
are  sent  in  the  morning  to  the  Field  OtHeer  of  the 
Day,  or  to  the  nearest  post  or  camp,  to  be  conducted 
to  the  General  of  the  Brigade.  All  suspected  persons 
are  .searched  by  the  Commanders  of  the  posts.  Grand 
guards  are  often  charged  with  the  care  and  working 
of  telegraphic  signals.  The  Commandants  of  grand 
guards  visit  the~.sentinels  often;  change  their  posi- 
tions when  necessary;  make  them  rejieat  their  orders; 
teach  them  under  what  circumstances  and  at  what 
signals  to  retire,  and  particularly  not  to  fall  back  di- 
rectly on  their  guard  if  i)urs»ied,  but  to  lead  the 
enemy  in  a  circuit.  The  fires  of  grand  guards  should 
be  hidden  by  some  sort  of  screen.  To  deceive  the 
enemy,  fires  are  sometimes  made  on  ground  not  occu- 


GSAin)  HASTEB. 


<  I 


9 


OBANULATING-MACHIKE, 


pied.    Fires  are  not  permitted  at  small  posts  liable  to 
surprise. 

GEAND-MASTEB.— The  title  of  the  Head  of  the  Mil- 
itarj-  Orders,  the  Hospitallers,  the  Templars,  and  the 
Teutonic  Knights;  see  these  articles.  The  title  ori^- 
nally  borne  by  the  Superior  of  the  Hospitallers  was 
simply  "  Master"  (MngiMer);  but  iu  1268  Hugh  de 
Reval  took  that  by  which  they  are  since  known— 
Grand-Master,  Magnus-Mugisle'r.  In  the  Teutonic 
Order,  the  title  "  Master,"  with  different  modifica- 
tions, was  applied  to  the  several  Superiors  of  the 
Order  in  the  various  countries.  Thus,  the  Superior 
of  Glermany  was  styled  TeutMh-Mekter,  "Grerraan 
Master."  The  Superior  of  Livonia  was  called  Ileer- 
Meister,  "  Military  Master."  In  all  these  Orders  the 
office  of  Grand-Master  was  held  for  life.  The  name 
was  also  used  in  the  Dominican  ( )rdcr. 

GEAND  MASTEE  OF  CtLOSS-BOWS.— The  peritoniiel 
of  the  French  artillerj-  was  for  a  long  time  prior  to 
1420  retained,  together  with  the  engineers,  under  the 
general  direction  of  an  officer  who  was  titled  Oraud 
Master  of  Cross-bows.  In  1420  the  ^Blaster-General  of 
Artillcrs-  was  made  independent  of  this  officer. 

GBAND  BOUNDS.— Every  General  Officer,  or  the 
Commander  of  a  Post  or  Garrison,  may  ^-isit  the 
guards  of  his  command,  and  go  the  Grand  Rounds, 
and  be  received  in  the  same  manner  as  prescribed  for 
the  Officer  of  the  Day.  The  Officer  of  the  Day,  wish- 
ing to  make  the  Rounds,  takes  an  e-scort  of  one  non- 
commis-sioned  officer  and  two  men.  Whenever  the 
Rounds  are  challenged  by  a  sentinel,  the  Sergeant 
answers,  "Grand  Rounds!"  and  the  sentinel  replies, 
"  Halt,  Grand  Rounds!  Advance,  Sergeant,  with  the 
countersign!"  Upon  which  the  Sergeant  advances 
and  gives  the  cotmtersign.  The  sentinel  then  cries, 
"Advance,  Rounds!"  and  stands  at  a  carry  till  they 
have  passed.  When  the  sentinel  before  the  guard 
challenges,  and  is  answered.  "  Grand  Rounds!"  he 
replies,  "  Halt,  Grand  Rounds!  Turn  out  the  guard; 
Grand  Rounils! "  Upon  which  the  guard  is  drawn  up 
with  arms  at  a  cany.  The  Officer  Commanding  the 
Guard  then  orders  a  Sergeant  and  two  men  to  advance; 
when  within  ten  paces,  the  Sergeant  challenges.  The 
Sergeant  of  the  Grand  Rounds  answers,  "  Grand 
Rounds!"  The  Sergeant  of  the  Guard  replies,  "Ad- 
vance, Sergeant  with  the  countersign !"  The  Sergeant 
of  the  Rounds  advances  alone,  gives  the  countersign, 
and  returns  to  his  Round.  The  Sergeant  of  the  Guard 
calls  to  his  officer,  "The  countersign  is  risht !"  on  which 
the  Officer  of  the  Guard  calls,  "Advance,  Rounds!" 
The  guard  being  at  a  carrj-,  the  Officer  of  the  Rounds 
advances  alone  to  the  Officer  of  the  Guard,  who  keeps 
his  post  and  gives  to  him  the  parole.  He  then  ex- 
amines the  guard,  orders  back  his  escort,  and,  taking 
another  one.  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  to  other 
guards.  All  material  instructions  given  to  a  sentinel 
on  post  by  persons  entitled  to  make  Grand  Rounds 
are  promptly  and  fully  reported  to  the  Commander 
of  the  Guard.     See  Rounds. 

GEAND  SEEJEANTY.— The  most  honorable  of  all 
the  ancient  feudal  tenures.  According  to  Lyttleton, 
tenure  by  Grand  Serjeanly  is  where  a  man  holds  his 
lands  or  tenements  of  the  Sovereign  Lord  the  King  by 
such  ser\ices  as  he  ought  to  do  in  his  proper  person 
to  the  King,  as  to  carry  his  banner  or  his  lance,  or  to 
lead  his  army,  or  to  be  his  Marshal,  or  to  carry  his 
sword  before  him  at  his  coronation,  or  his  Carver,  or 
his  Butler,  or  to  be  one  of  his  Chamberlains  of  the 
receipt  of  his  Exchequer,  or  to  do  other  like  ser\ices. 
This  tenure  must  have  been  held  of  the  King.  Where 
lands  were  held  of  a  subject,  on  condition  of  perform- 
ance of  services  identical  with  those  which  were  ren- 
dered to  the  King,  the  tenure  was  not  Grand  Ser-  [ 
jeanty,  but  Knight's  Ser\-ice.  Thus,  lands  on  the 
Scottish  border  held  of  the  King  by  coruage — i.e.,  on 
condition  of  winding  a  horn  to  give  notice  when  the  : 
Scots  had  crossed  the  border — were  held  in  Grand 
Serjeanty ;  but  lands  held  of  a  subject  for  the  same  ser- 
vice were  held  in  Knight's  Ser\-ice.  Tenants  holding 
by  Grand  Serjeanty  were  free  from  escuage,  which 


usually  appertained  to  Knight's  Sernce,  and  in  gene- 
ral could  only  be  called  upon  to  perform  their  services 
infra  quataor  maria,  within  the  Kingdom.  The  ser- 
vices in  Grand  Serjeanty  were  to  be  performed  by  the 
tenant  in  jjerson,  where  he  was  able  to  do  so.  "The 
office  of  attendance  on  the  Sovereign's  person  was  es- 
teemed so  honorable  that  no  one  below  the  dignity  of 
a  Knight  could  perform  it.  Hence,  where  lands  held 
by  Gnind  Serjeanty  were  in  the  possession  of  a  citi- 
zen, he  was  permitted  to  perfonn  his  service  by 
Deputy.  This  tenure  by  Grand  Serjeanty  was,  in 
common  with  other  military  tenures,  reduced  to  com- 
mon Socage,  except  so  far  as  regards  the  honorary 
services,  which  continue  to  be  observed  to  this  day. 
Thus,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  holds  of  the  Crown 
his  estate  of  Strathfieldsaye  on  condition  of  present- 
ing to  the  Sovereign  a  flag  bearing  the  national  colors 
on  each  succeeding  anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  Wa- 
terloo. The  manor  of  Woodstock,  with  the  demesne, 
in  which  is  situated  Blenheim  Park,  is  held  by  the 
Duke  of  Marll)orougli  by  Grand  Serjeanty,  on  condi- 
tion of  presenting  to  the  Queen  and  her  heirs,  at  the 
Castle  of  Windsor,  a  standard  of  France  on  the  13th 
of  August  yearly,  being  the  anniversary  of  the  day 
on  which  the  Battle  of  Hochstiidt  was"  fought,  near 
the  village  of  Blenheim,  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube. 
The  tenure  of  Grand  Serjeanty  was  observed  through- 
out the  Continent  of  Europe.  "  The  free-bom  Franks, " 
says  Mr.  Hallam,  Middle  Ages,  "  saw  nothing  menial 
in  the  titles  of  Cupbearer,  Steward,  Marshal,  or  Master 
of  the  Horse,  which  are  still  borne  by  the  noblest 
families  in  every  country  in  Europe,  and  by  Sovereign 
Princes  in  tlie  Empire.  "  The  Count  of  Anjou.  under 
Louis  VI.,  claimed  the  office  of  Great  Seneschal  of 
FVance — i.e.,  to  cany  dishes  to  the  King's  table  on 
state-days.  Thus  the  feudal  notions  of  Grand  Ser- 
jeanty prepared  the  way  for  the  restoration  of  royal 
supremacy,  as  the  military  tenures  had  impaired  it." 
In  Scotland,  Grand  Serjejmty  was  not  known  as  a 
separate  temire — that  is  to  say,  lands  held  on  condi- 
tion of  honorary  services  rendered  to  the  Sovereign 
were  not  attended  with  any  privileges  other  than 
those  attaching  to  lands  held  in  a  similar  manner  of  a 
subject  superior.  In  that  country  a  tenure  by  hono- 
rarv  service  was  known  as  a  Blanch  Holding. 

GEAND  TACTICS.— Tactics,  or  that  branch  of  the 
art  of  war  which  treats  of  the  methods  of  drawing  up 
and  moving  troops  systematically,  has  two  modifica- 
tions. 1.  Jf(n«r  or  drill  tactics,  which  embraces  that 
setting  up  and  preliminary  drilling  of  soldiers  essen- 
tial to  discipline,  expertness  in  handling  their  wea- 
pons, and  facility  of  movement  preparatorj'  to  their 
emplo.yment  on  the  field  of  battle.  2.  Grand  tactics, 
or  the  art  of  combining,  disposing,  and  handling  the 
troops  on  the  field  of  battle.  It  is  this  latter  branch 
of  tactics  that  supplements  strategy.  In  case  the  prin- 
ciples of  lK)th  branches  cannot  Ik^  carried  out  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  recommended  to  adhere  to  the  rales 
of  Strategy  at  the  expense  of  Taetirs,  for  some  means 
may  generally  be  found  to  modify  bad  tactical  dispo- 
sitions; as  a  change  in  the  formation  of  the  troops, 
the  use  of  intrenchments,  etc.  See  Strategy  and  Tac- 
tics. 

GBANULATIN6  MACHINE.— The  machine  used 
for  granulating  or  reducing  the  pressed  cake  into 
grain-powder  is  somewhat  similar  in  construction  to 
the  breakingdown  machine;  it  is,  however,  fitted 
with  four  pairs  of  cutting  rollers,  and  rectangular 
screens  below  the  three  upper  pairs;  these  screens 
convey  any  grain  not  properly  reduced  by  the  one 
set  of  rollers  to  the  next  under  them.  The  machine 
is  composed  of  two  side  frames  of  gun-metal,  which 
carry  the  rollers,  screens,  and  all  the  other  moving 
parts.  The  rollers  are  placed  in  pairs  at  an  inclina- 
tion of  about  33,  and  have  a  vertical  height  of  2  feet 
5  inches  between  each  pair;  they  are  7  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  make  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  thus  giving  a  speed  of  about  48 
feet  per  minute  to  their  toothed  surfaces,  the  length 
of  which  for  operating  upon  the  powder  is  2  feet  6 


GRANULATING-MACHINE. 


780 


GRANULATING  MACHINE. 


inches.     The  press-cake  is  fed  to  the  machine  hy  an 

eiulles.s  liaiid  at  the  rate  of  about  30  lbs.  per  minute. 
The  ttetli  in  the  soviral  pairs  of  rollers  vary  in  size 
and  form.  Those  on  the  upiier  rollers  are  Jiamoiid- 
shaped,  and  resemble  a  series  of  small  inrainids 
standing  out  from  the  surface  of  the  rollers;  these 
teeth  are  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart  and  the  siune  in 
depth,  and  so  arranged  that  those  in  the  one  roller 
work  into  the  spaces  of  the  other.  The  .si'cond  pair 
of  rollers  have  smaller  teeth,  but  of  the  sjime  form  as 
the  upper  pair;  they  arc  a  quarter  of  an  ineli  ajiart, 
but  only  one  eighlh  of  an  inch  in  depth.  Th(|  teeth 
of  the  third  and  fourth  pairs  are  dilferently  shaped; 
in  these  they  arc  formed  by  cutting  V-shaped  ribs 
longitudinally  along  the  rollers  and  the  rectangular 
grooves  a  ({uarler  of  an  inch  apart  by  one  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  depth  round  their  circumferences.  The  ribs 
of  the  one  roller  work  into  the  grooves  of  the  other, 
and  rice  eii-sa,  and  their  top  and  bottom  edges  are 
slightly  rounded.  On  the  side  bearings,  and  behind 
each  roller,  there  is  fixed  a  scraper,  the  edge  of  which 
is  provided  with  teeth  corre!»onding  with  the  grooves 
in  the  rollers,  so  that  as  Ihe  latter  revolve,  any 
powder  adhering  to  them  is  cleared  out,  and  this  pre- 
vents their  ever  becoming  clogged.  The  back  roller 
of  each  pair  is  ])rovidcd  with  a  sliiliug  bearing  find  is 
pressed  forward  towards  the  front  rollers  by  weighted 
levers;  this  arrangement  admits  of  their  opening 
when  necessjiry,  and  permits  a  glut  of  cake  or  any 
hard  material  lo  pass  them  with  safety.     This  is  "a 


Granulatingr-niachiue, 

very  e&sential  matter,  ina.smuch  as  the  process  of 
granulating  is  the  most  dangerous  in  the  whole  manu- 
facture of  gunpowder.  All  the  rollers  are  inclosed  in 
copper  covers  for  confining  the  dust  from  the  cake, 
and  preventing  it  spreading  over  the  granulating- 
house.  Three  screens,  one  under  each  set  of  rollers, 
for  conveying  the  broken  cake  from  one  pair  to  the 
ne.\t,  are  placed  at  an  inclination  of  about  28  ,  and 
consist  of  copper  wire  gauze  of  eight  meshes  to  the 
inch;  while  underneath,  and  embracing  all  the  rollers, 
are  three  tiers  of  light  .separating-screcns,  contained 
within  a  deep  frame  set  at  an  angle  of  33".  The 
upper  screen  is  of  copper  wire  gauzc'of  eight  meshes  to 
the  inch;  the  .second  is  likewise  of  copper  wire  gauze, 
but  of  sixteen  meshes  to  the  inch;  while  the  third  is 
a  very  fine  (nearly  close)  screen,  and  receives  the  dust  i 
from  the  upper  ones  and  conveys  it  into  a  box  placed 
for  the  purpose.  The  separating  screen  frame  is 
slung  from  the  gun-metal  framing  of  the  machine  ! 
by  light  springs  nuide  of  lancewood.  The  screens 
themselves  are  also  carried  from  the  frame  by  the 
same  means,  and  Ihe  whole  has  a  longitudinal  move- 
ment given  to  it  of  182  vibrations  per  minute,  pro- 
duced by  polygonal  wheels  on  the  driving  shaft, 
which  press  against  circular  but  loose-running  wheels 
attached  to  tlie  separating-screen  frame.  The  sur- 
faces of  these  wheels  are  kept  in  contact  by  the 
weight  of  the  screen  itself.  The  process  of  granulat- 
ing the  i)ress-cake  may  be  described  as  follows:  The 


<  cake,  having  been  broken  into  pieces,  is  put  into  a 

wooden  hojijier,  which  holds  700  pounds;  the  side  of 
this  hopjier  next  the  in(line<l  frame  is  open  1o  a  shoot, 
and  the  hopper  itself — when  the  machine  is  at  work — 
moves  slowly  up  this  inclined  frame,  the  speed  being 
regidated  so  as  to  suit  that  of  an  endless  feed-ban(l 
niiide  of  canvas,  with  strips  of  leather  sewn  across  it. 
A  rope,  set  in  motion  by  one  of  the  niachine-.shafts  in 
connection  with  a  worm  and  wheel,  is  u.sed  to  raise 
the  hopper,  the  cake  in  which,  falling  through  the 
shoot  on  to  the  endless  band,  is  carried  forward  to 
the  tippermost  or  first  pair  of  rollers,  h'nnn  these  it 
is  conducted  to  each  successive  l)air  by  the  screens, 
and  these,  having  a  quick  vibrating  motion,  allow  any 
grain  that  has  heen  broken  small  enough  to  pass 
through  them  into  the  upper  long  separating-screen 
in  the  frame  underneath.  Such  grain  as  is  too  large 
to  go  through  any  of  the  screens  is  called  "  chucks," 
and  is  collected  and  jias-scd  through  the  machine  a 
second  tinu\  The  grain  which  pa.sses  the  upper,  or 
eight-mesh  long  screen,  is  used  for  common  powder; 
that  which  jiasses  through  the  sixteen-mesh  long 
screen  is  suitable  for  rifie  or  small  ann  powder;  and 
that  which  passes  through  into  the  lower  screen  is 
dust.  The  powder  as  it  falls  from  the  surface  of  the 
different  screens  is  collected  in  separate  boxes  placed 
underneath  the  machine  for  its  reception.  When  the 
hojiper  has  reached  the  limit  of  its  \rsi\e\  upwards,  and 
all  the  cake  has  passed  on  to  the  feeding-band,  which 
it  will  do  in  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes  after 
the  machine  has  been  set  in  motion,  the  hopper  acts, 
by  a  self-acting  arrangement  on  a  clutch,  which 
throws  the  rope-wheel  out  of  gear,  and  thus  stops 
the  further  travel  of  the  hopper,  while  a  counter- 
balance weight  prevents  its  descent.  At  the  same 
time  that  the  clutch  throws  the  wheel  out  of  gear,  it 
relieves  a  catch  connected  with  a  wire  spring  and 
bell;  the  latter,  by  ringing  in  the  bomb-proof  house, 
wherein  the  workmen  remain  while  the  machine  is  in 
operation,  gives  them  notice  that  the  hojiper  is  empty. 
After  allowing  about  five  minutes  for  the  band  and 
machine  to  become  quite  cmiity.  the  apparatus  is 
stopped,  and  the  attendants,  now  leaving  their  place 
of  sjifety,  enter  the  granulating-house,  and  empty  the 
grain  from  the  several  boxes  into  tubs  for  removal. 
No  one  is  on  anj'  account  pennitted  to  enter  the 
granulating  house  whilst  the  machine  is  working, 
and  as  a  further  precautionary  measure  the  attend- 
ants or  others  who  have  occasion  to  enter  the  house 
at  otlier  times  wear  sewn  Iiide-leather  boots.  After 
all  the  powder  is  removed,  the  hoiiper  is  let  down  to 
its  proper  place  and  refilled  with  cake,  and  the 
machine  is  now  again  ready  for  use;  the  attendants 
therefore  leave  the  gramdating-house  and  retire  to  the 
bomb-proof  building,  where  they  set  the  machine  in 
motion,  and  remain  under  cover  until  the  bell  again 
rings,  when,  after  allowing  a  few  minutes  to  elapse, 
they  stop  the  machine,  both  the  starling  and  the 
stopping  Ixing  effected  in  Ihe  bombproof  hou.se. 
When  a  fine-grain  powder  is  required,  rollers  with 
smaller  teeth  are  \ised,  togctlier  with  screens  of  24 
and  32  meshes  to  the  inch.  The  dust  iiroduccd  by  this 
machine,  as  well  as  from  all  the  other  machines,  is 
collected  and  taken  back  to  the  incor|)oratin,g-mill, 
where  .'iO  pounds  of  it  are  sjiread  out  on  the  bed.  and 
after  being  well  damped  it  is  worked  under  tlie  edge 
runners  for  about  one  hour;  it  is  then  fit  lo  be  .sent 
forward  to  the  breaking-down  machine,  the  press,  and 
other  subsequent  operations.  The  (|uantity  of  dust 
produced  varies  considerably,  acconling  lo  Ihe  con- 
dition of  the  teeth  of  the  granulating  rollers;  if  they 
are  much  worn,  or  become  fold,  as  they  are  apt  to  do 
during  damii  weather,  Ihe  (luantity  of  dust  will  be 
considerably  iticreased;  or  if  only  fine-grain  powder 
is  being  n\;ide,  Ihe  percentage  of  dust  will  be  great. 
As  in  the  case  of  Ihe  breaking-down  machine,  so  with 
the  granulating-ir-achine,  no  iron  or  steel  is  exposed, 
and  indeed  there  is  very  little  of  either  used  in  its 
construction,  Ihe  .shafts  and  bedplate  being  the  only 
parts  made  of  those  metals;  the  former,  as  well  as 


GEAPE  SHOT. 


781 


GRAVIMETEIC  DENSITY. 


the  whole  floor  of  the  granulating-house,  is  covered 
w-ith  soft  leather  bide,  and  the  shafts  arc  all  encased 
in  copper  or  gun  metal.  The  side  frames,  rollers, 
wheels,  bolts,  nuts,  and  all  other  parts  of  the  machine 
are  made  of  gun-metal,  copper,  or  wootl.  A  machine 
of  the  size  described  is  capable  of  granulating  from 
130  to  140  barrels  of  gunpowder  in  a  day  of  twelve 
hours,  supposing  each  barrel  to  contain  100  pounds. 
See  GiDipi/irrli  r. 

GBAPE-SHOT.  — The  grape  shot  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  small  shot  arranged 
around  a  spindle  on  an  iron  disk. 
Formerly  the  shot  were  inclosed 
in  a  canva.s  bag,  which  was  drawn 
together  between  the  balls,  or 
"quilted"  bj' a  strong  line;  but 
the  present  method  is  more  simple 
and  durable.  It  consists  of  nine 
shot  of  a  size  approiiriate  to  the 
caliber  used,  which  are  held  to- 
gether by  two  lings  and  a  plate  at 
each  end  of  the  stand,  connected 
bj'a  rod,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
The  diameter  of  balls  for  grape- 
shot  varies  with  the  caliber,"being 
In  all  cases  larger  than  those  used  for  canister.  Grape- 
shot  are  jiarticularly  valuable  for  use  against  torpedo- 
boats.  Sec  (Jitsi-xhot,  Projectiles,  and  Siege  and  Oarri- 
so'n  Amiiiunitidii, 

GEAPHITE.— A  crystalline  modification  of  carbon, 
very  diffen^nt  in  appearance  and  physical  properties 
from  the  diamond.  It  is  found  in  Cumberland,  Sibe- 
ria, Ceylon,  Gennany  and  France,  and  in  North  and 
South  America.  Graphite  is  a  very  good  conductor 
of  electricity;  like  the  diamond  it  is  unalterable  by 
heat.  It  may  be  jjreiiarcd  arliticially  by  bringing  an 
excess  of  charcoal  in  contact  wijh  fii.sed  cast-iron;  a 
portion  of  the  carbon  dissolves,  and  separates  out 
again  on  cooling  in  large  scales.  It  is  used  sometimes, 
amongst  other  purjioses,  in  glazing  gunpowder. 

GEAPHOMETEE. — A  name  sometimes,  though  in- 
appropriately, given  to  the  protractor,  an  instrument 
us<'d  in  plotting  surveys.  It  is  a  semicircle,  marked 
with  180  ,  and,  in  the  large  instrmnents,  with  i)art.s  of 
degrees.  Its  use  is  to  lay  off  angles.  See  Protrac- 
tor. 

GEAPNEL. — A  small  anchor  of  several  flukes,  used 
in  mooring  boats  or  pontons  for  military  bridges.  A 
grapnel  having  five  prongs  is  also  used  forescalading 
purposes,  to  aid  the  assailants  in  effecting  an  entry 
into  the  i)laee.  When  it  is  thus  used,  it  is  thrown 
over  any  spot  where  it  is  likely  to  anchor  itself.  A 
2-ineh  rope,  60  feet  in  length,  is  attached  to  the 
shank. 

GEASP. — The  handle  of  a  sword,  also  of  an  oar. 
Also,  the  small  part  of  the  stock  of  a  mu.sket. 

6EAS  EIFLE.— The  Chassepot  rifle,  modified  by 
!Major  Gras,  and  now  the  arm  definitively  adoiitcd  by 
the  French  army.  The  barrel  of  the  Chassepot  has 
been  retained  in  the  conversion,  keeping  the  same 
caliber  of  A'-i'i  inch,  with  four  grooves  from  right 
to  left,  with  one  turn  in  21i  inches.  But  in  the  new 
biurel  the  depth  of  the  grooves  is  slightly  diminished, 
and  the  ledges  roimded  off.  The  same  caliber  has  been 
retained  in  order  that  the  same  cartridge  may  be  used 
in  all  arms.  A  metallic  cartridge  has  been  adopted, 
in  lieu  of  the  "  self -consuming"  one  used  for  the 
Chas.sep6t;  the  bullet  is  of  compressed  lead,  conse- 
quently the  densest  and  most  homogeneous.  Its  di- 
ameter at  the  base  is  .429  inch,  instead  of  .468  inch, 
in  order  to  reduce,  within  the  smallest  limits,  the 
enormous  friction  the  bullet  undergoes  in  the  barrel, 
which  considerably  diminishes  the  initial  velocity. 
Thus  the  bullet  of  "the  Gras  rifle,  being  smaller  than 
the  bore,  is  forced  by  dei)ression,  whilst  in  the  Chas.se- 
pot  it  is  forced  longitudinally.  This  diminution  of 
friction,  combined  with  the  removal  of  the  "  chambre 
ardente,"  or  space  behind  the  cartridge  in  the  old 
rifle,  has  produced  this  effect,  and  the  initial  velocity, 
which  was  1365  feet  in  the  Cha.ssep6t,  has  attained 


1491  feet  in  the  new  arm.  The  length  of  the  bullet 
i^  1.092  inch,  mstead  of  .993  inch  as  formerly;  that 
is,  two  and  a  half  calibers.  A  greased  wad  i^;  placed 
between  the  i)owder  and  the  bullet.  The  bullet  is 
covered  with  a  strip  of  paper,  in  order  to  i)revent 
leadimj;  that  is,  deposits  of  lead  in  the  grooves,  which 
are  fatal  to  accuracy.  The  barrel  of  this  converted 
weapon  has  been  modified  in  such  a  manner  as  to  en- 
able it  to  receive  the  new  cartridge:  1st,  by  an  altera- 
tion in  its  caliber;  2d,  by  the  removal  of  the  ti'tf  mo- 
bik',  or  movable  head,  in  the  breech  mechanism,  and 
by  a  mo<lification  of  the  cylinder,  whereby  the  car- 
tridge fit.s  in  closely;  and,  lastly,  by  the  substitution 

j  of  a  striker  or  piston  for  the  needle,  and  by  the  addi- 

!  tion  of  a  stronger  spring  and  a  cartridge-extractor. 
The  breech  action  remains,  as  before,  on  the  bolt  prin- 
ciple. The  conversion  of  the  Chassepot  to  the  Gras 
rifle  is  computed  to  cost  ten  francs  apiece. 

GEASS-CUTTEES.— Natives  of  India  attached  to  the 
artillery  and  cavalry  branches  of  the  service  in  that 
covmtry,  whose  sole  duty  is  to  collect  and  bring  in 
^rass  daily  for  the  hoi'se8»of  their  regiment.     There 

j  IS  one  to  each  horse  or  one  to  every  two  horses;  the 
latter  is  called  a  jorawa/lah,  and  receives  the  pay  of 
two  men,  b\it  unrler  these  circumstances  he  has  to 
keep  a  pony,  and  bring  in  gra.ss  equal  to  the  load  of 
two  men.  The  grass-cutter's  pay  is  from  8«.  to  10s. 
a  month. 

6EASSIN. — A  verj'  early  name  for  all  militia  com- 
posed of  light  troops.     Now  obsolete. 

GEATIFICATION.— In  a  general  acceptation  of  the 
term,  this  word  meant,  among  the  French,  certain 
rewards  which  Generals  gave  to  the  troops,  after  a  se- 
vere engagement,  in  testimony  of  their  valor  and 
good  conduct.  These  rewards  were  distributed  ac- 
cording to  rank.  By  gratifcatimi  was  likewise  meant 
the  accumulation  of  a  certain  sum  which  was  de- 
posited for  the  specific  purpose  of  burying  a  deceased 

I  soldier.  The  term  also  meant  a  certain  allowance  in 
money  allotted  to  prisoners  of  war. 

I  GEATUITIES.  —  In  the  English  army,  sums  of 
money  given  to  soldiers  under  the  following  circum- 
stances: To  soldiers  on  re  engagement,  that  is,  when 
thej'  engage  to  serve  on  for  a  longer  term  of  service; 

'  to  soldiers  settling,  on  discharge,  in  the  Colonies;  and 
to  all  good-conduct  soldiers  on  discharge.     This  latter 

j  gratuity  is  taken  from  a  fund  formed  of  the  fines  im- 
posed u)i(in  drunken  soldiers. 

GEAVEL  WALLS.— In  fortification,  walls  made  of 
a  conglomeration  of  cement,  or  lime,  and  pebbles  and 
small  stones  or  slag.  They  are  built  in  casings,  ancl 
the  planks  may  be  taken  away  after  the  ma.ss  has 
properly  hardened.  Apertures  for  doors  antl  win- 
dows, or  embrasures,  should  be  made  while  the  wall 
is  in  process  of  building. 

I  GEAVEURS.— Persons  employed  and  paid  by  the 
founders  of  caimon  for  repairing  damaged  pieces  of 
artillery.  Some  individual,  however,  was  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  Grnreiir  rie  L'artillerii',  and 

1  was  permitted  by  the  Grand-Master  of  the  Ordnance 

'  to  exhibit  over  his  shop-door  the  Arms  of  the  Royal 

I  Artillerv. 

I  GEAVIMETEIC  DENSITY.— The  gravimetric  den- 
.'^ity  of  a  powder  is  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
of  the  powder  cxprcs.sed 
in  ounces.  It  .should 
fall  between  8T.5  an<l  900 
oimces.  This  cannot  be 
relied  upon  for  the  true 
density,  as  the  shape  of 
the  grain  may  make  the 
denser  powder  .seem  the 
ligh'er.  It  is  only  of 
v.due  as  giving  a  tolera- 
bly correct  idea  of  the 
volume  of  the  air-space 
in  a  ^iven  weight.  The 
griiri meter,  shown  in  the  drawing,  is  weighed  when 

I  tilled  loosely,  and  again  when  filled  by  packing  the 


Oraviineter. 


OBAVITY. 


782 


GBAT  CAST-IBON. 


powdiT.  The  powder,  as  it  is  poured  in,  is  allowed 
to  adjust  itself  nntundiv,  witboul  any  packing.  Tlie 
scttli'd  weijrht  is  obtained  by  packing  the  powder 
through  tlie  ]iroc'ess  of  ro<'king,  shaking,  turning, 
and  jarring  the  graWineter  on  a  cradle,  shown  in 
the  ligure,  and  ailding  gradually  to  the  contents, 
as  a  space  is  made  by  the  packing  together  of  the 
gniins.  In  either  case,  when  weighed,  the  gm\i- 
meter  must  be  level  full.  This  is  shown  by  placing 
a  pane  of  plate-gla.ss  over  its  top,  and  noticing 
whether  it  touchi-s  the  rim  of  the  gravimetcr  all 
around,  and  also  if  the  powder  is  up  to  the  surface  of 
the  glass  all  the  way  across.  The  only  value  attached 
to  the  use  of  a  irranmeter  is  that  of  obtaining  a  tol- 
erably correct  itlea  of  the  volume  of  the  air-space  in 
any  given  weight.  The  air-space  is  dependent  on  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  granules,  and  on  the  amount  of 
settling  or  shaking  together  to  which  the  powder  is 
subjected.  Knowing  the  specific  gravity  of  the  pow- 
der under  examination,  the  air-space  is  found  as  fol- 
lows: If  w  =  the  weight  in  ounces  of  1  cubic  foot  of 
homogeneous  powder,  or  the  specific  gravity  multi- 
plied by  1000,  and  it'  =  the  weight  in  ounces  of  1 
cubic  foot  of  same  powder  granulated,  or  the  ascer- 
tained gravimetric  density;  then  —  =  P  is  the  pro- 
portion or  per  cent  of  the  cubic  foot  occupied  by  the 
powder,  and  1  —  P  =  p  is  the  proportion  or  per  cent 
of  the  cubic  foot  occupied  by  air.  These  percentages 
are  determined  for  the  powder,  both  loose  and  settled. 
See  Innpeetioii  of  Pmcdir. 

GRAVITY.— Projectiles  and  all  other  bodies,  when 
raised  into  the  air  and  left  unsupported,  fall  to  the 
earth  in  lines  perpendicular  to  it.  The  force  which 
CiUises  them  to  do  so  is  termed  gravity,  and  acts  to- 
wards the  earth's  center;  more  strictly,  it  acts  peipen- 
dicularly  to  the  surface  of  still  water.  But  if  a  pro- 
jectile be  projected  obliquely  into  the  air,  it  is  made 
to  describe  a  curved  path,  ha\ing  a  highest  point, 
vertex,  or  apogee;  and  when  it  meets  the  earth  in  its 
descent,  its  direction  is  not  towards  the  center,  but  in- 
clined to  it  at  the  angle  of  projection.  Observing 
this,  and  that  the  body,  if  not  interrupted  by  the 
earth's  surface,  would  continue  to  move  in  a  curve, 
with  its  tangent  always  away  from  the  center,  it  is 
ea.sy  to  imagine  that  if  not  interrupted  it  might  circu- 
late round  the  center  as  the  moon  does  round  the 
earth.  Next,  knowing  that  the  force  of  gravity  is  ex- 
erted at  all  accessible  heights  above  the  earth,  the 
question  arises — May  it  not  be  e.\erted  as  far  off  as  the 
moon,  which  we  know  to  be  influenced  by  same  force 
which  continually  deflects  her  from  the"  tangent  to 
her  orbit,  and  makes  her  circulate  round  the  earth'? 
Observing  now  the  time  of  revolution  of  the  moon, 
and  calculating  its  centrifugal  force,  which  we  know 
must  equal  the  centripetal  force,  we  put  the  question. 
Is  this  force  the  same  as  gravity?  The  answer  is  that 
it  is  a  force  3600  times  less  energetic.  If,  then,  gra\'ity 
be  the  force  which  really  holds  the  moon  to  her  path, 
it  must  be  explained  wliy  it  acts  upon  her  so  much 
more  feebly  than  it  would  were  she  a  body  on  the 
earth's  .surface.  The  explanation  is  given  lit  once  if 
we  suppose  gravity  to  be  a  force  whose  energy  di- 
minishes with  increase  of  distance,  and  is  inversely 
as  the  squares  of  the  distances  at  which  it  is  exertecl ; 
for  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  earth's  center 
is  just  about  60  times  that  of  the  earth's  surface  from 
its  center,  and  3600 :  1  :  ;  60' :  1.  We  infer  that  it 
does  so  from  the  fact  that  there  is  nothing  inadmis- 
sible in  such  a  <liniinution  of  energy  with  increase  of 
distance— that,  on  the  contrary,  there  are  many  anal- 
ogies for  it,  as  in  the  emanations  of  light  and  heat; 
and  in  the  argiunent  drawn  from  the  necessity  of 
otherwi.se  supposing  some  other  force  than  gravity  to 
be  employed  in  deflecting  the  moon,  and  the  force  of 
graWiy  to  cease  at  some  unknown  level.  On  these 
views,  and  a  generalization  to  be  afterwards  men 
tioned,  Newton  is  underst(K)(l  to  have  at  first  rested 
his  law  of  universal  gravitation:  "  Every  particle  of 
matter  in  the  universe  attracts  every  other  particle 


with  a  force  directly  proportioned  to  the  mass  of  the 
attracting  particle,  and  inversely  to  the  square  of  the 
distance  between  them" — a  law  the  truth  of  which, 
since  it  was  fii-st  Ijroached,  has  been  i)ut  Ix'yond  all 
question  by  the  most  complete  body  of  predictions, 
fulfilled  to  the  letter,  that  can  be  cited  in  support  of 
any  law  of  nature. 

Before,  however,  the  argument  on  the  extension  of 
terrestrial  gntvity  to  the  sphere  of  the  moon  could 
have  become  pregnant  with  so  great  a  result,  much 
investigation  had  to  take  iilace  in  other  fields;  and,  in 
fact,  Newton  had,  previously  to  conceiving  the  law, 
explained  the  three  great  Kcplerian  laws  of  order  ob- 
taining in  the  solar  system  by  reference  to  an  attrac- 
tive force  residing  in  the  sun.  The.se  laws  are — 
1.  That  the  planets  revolve  round  the  sim  in  ellipses, 
having  the  sim  for  a  common  focus;  2.  That  every 
planet  moves  in  such  a  way  that  the  line  ilrawn  from 
It  to  the  sun  sweeps  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times; 
3.  That  the  squares  of  the  times  occupied  by  the  seve- 
ral planets  in  their  revolutions  in  their  elliptic  orbits 
are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances 
from  their  common  focus,  the  sun.  From  the  law  of 
equal  areas,  Newton  inferred  that  every  planet  is  re- 
tained in  its  orbit  by  a  force  of  attraction  directed 
towards  the  center  of  the  sun;  from  the  orbits  being 
elliptical,  he  inferred  that  in  each  case  tliis  force 
varies  in  intensity  according  to  the  inverse  square  of 
the  body's  distance  from  the  sun;  while  from  the  third 
law  he  inferred  the  homogeneity  of  the  central  force 
throughout  the  solar  system.  It  was  then,  after  being 
familiar  with  the  notion  of  terrestrial  gravity  and  its 
action,  through  the  researches  of  Galileo,  Huyghens, 
and  Hooke,  and  with  the  iiotion  of  a  central  force 
acting  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  of  its 
object,  through  his  explanations  of  the  laws  of  Kep 
ler,  that  he  put  to  himself  the  question, — Is  not  the 
force  with  which  the  moon  gravitates  to  tlie  earth  the 
same  with  gravity'? — the  force  which  ca'Uses  a  stone 
to  fall  on  its  sm-face.  A  question  answered  afflrma- 
tively  on  the  supposition  of  gra\-ity,  like  the  sun's  at- 
traction, being  a  force  diminishing  with  increase  of 
distance,  and  according  to  the  same  law.  The  result 
was  to  bring  the  whole  solar  system,  the  planets  and 
the  sun,  and  satellites  anil  their  planets — tjie  Siitellites 
being  ob.ser\-ed  to  obey  the  same  laws  of  order  with 
reference  to  their  primaries  that  the  latter  obeyed  in 
reference  to  the  sun — under  the  law  of  gravitation. 
And  the  imagination,  lifted  up  by  the  grandeurof  the 
conception,  would  refuse  to  limit  the  operation  of  that 
law  to  our  own  system,  were  there  no  facts  to  entitle 
us  to  extend  it  beyond.  The  phenomena  of  double 
stars,  however,  of  themselves  justify  the  extension 
and  the  statement  of  the  law  as  we  have  given  it  m 
univei-sal  terms.  It  may  be  observed,  in  conclusion, 
that  the  Kcplerian  laws,  which  may  be  said  to  have 
been  the  basis  of  Newton's  researches,  are,  owing  to 
perturbations  caused  by  the  mutual  action  of  the  plan- 
ets, etc.,  onlj' approximately  con-ect;  and  that  these 
perturbations  afford,  when  examined,  a  further  proof 
of  the  truth  and  universality  of  the  law  of  graritation. 
See  Central  Farces,  Falling  Bodies,  Force,  and  IVo- 
jecU>rti. 

GRAY  CAST  IRON.— This  variety  of  cast-iron  is 
softer  and  less  l)rittle  than  white  iron;  it  is  in  a  slight 
degree  malleable  and  flexible,  and  is  not  sonorous;  it 
call  be  easily  drilled  and  turned  in  the  lathe,  and  does 
not  resist  the  tile.  It  has  a  brilliant  fracture,  of  a 
gray  or  somelimes  a  bluish-gray  color ;  the  color  is 
lighter  as  the  grain  becomes  closer,  and  its  hardness 
increases  at  the  same  time.  A  medium-sized  grain, 
bright  gray  color,  lively  aspect,  fracture  shaip  to  the 
touch,  and  close,  compact  texture  indicate  a  good 
quality  of  iron.  A  grain  either  very  large  or  very 
small.a  dull,  earthy  aspect,  loo.se  texture,  dis,similar 
crystals  mixed  together,  indicate  an  inferior  quality. 
Gray  iron  melts  at  a  lower  temperature  than  white 
iron,  becomes  more  fluid,  and  preserves  its  fluidity 
longer;  it  runs  smoothly;  the  color  of  the  metal  is 
red,  and  deeper  in  proportion  as  the  heat  is  lower,  it 


GBAZE. 


78P, 


GBEAX  BBITAIN. 


does  not  stick  to  the  ladle;  it  fills  the  mould  well;  ' 
contracts  less;  and  contains  fewer  cavities  than  white  I 
iron;  the  edges  of  a  casting  are  sharp,  and  the  surface 
smooth,  convex,  and  c(>vered  with  carburet  of  iron. 
Gray  iron  is  the  onlj'  kind  suitable  for  making  cast- 
ings which  require  great  strength,  such  as  cannon. 
Its  tenacity  and  specific  gra\ity  are  diminished  b}'  slow 
cooling  or  annealing.     See  Cant-iron. 

GEAZE.— The  point  at  which  a  .shot  strikes  and  re- 
bounds from  earth  or  water.  A  grazing-fire  is  that 
which  sweeps  close  to  the  surface  it  defends. 

GEAZING  EICOCHET.— The  description  of  ricochet 
fire,  when  the  iingl.i  of  full  does  not  exceed  4'.  In 
this  fire  the  ball  is  given  a  great  velocitj',  and  the 
curve  described  is  long  and  flat. 

GBEAT  BEITAIN.— The  Arms  of  the  United  King- 
dom of  Great  Britain  and  of  Ireland  are  borne  by 
her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria.  Quarterly,  first  ani 
fourth  gules,  three  lions  passant  gardani  in  pale,  or, 
for  England;  second,  or,  a  lion  rampant  within  a 
double  tressure  flory  counterflory  gules, for  Scotland; 
third,  azure,  a  harp  or.  stringed  argent,  for  Ireland; 
all  siu'rovmded  by  the  garter.  Crest. — Upon  the  royal 
helmet,  the  imperial  crown  proper,  thereon  a  lion 
statant  gardant  or,  imperially  crowned,  also  proper. 


Royal  Arms  of  Great  Britain. 

Supporters.— TtexXev,  the  lion  rampant  gardant  or, 
crowned  as  the  crest.  Sinister,  a  unicorn  argent, 
armed  crined,  and  unguled  or,  gorged  with  a  coronet 
composed  of  crosses  pattee  and  fleur-de-lis,  a  chain 
affixed  thereto,  passing  between  the  fore  legs,  and  re- 
flexed  over  the  back,  also  or.  Motto. — Dieii  et  inon 
Droit  in  the  compartment  below  the  shield,  with  the 
imion  rose,  shamrock,  and  thistle  ingrafted  on  the 
same  stem.  Arms  have  l>een  ascribed  by  heralds  to 
the  Saxon  and  Xorman  Monarchs  of  England  in  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries;  but  as  Heraldry  was, 
in  point  of  fact,  unknown  till  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century,  they  must  be  dealt  with  as  fabulous. 
However,  at  a  period  almost  before  the  earliest  dawn- 
ings  of  hereditan,-  coat- armor,  the  Sovereigns  of  Eng- 
land, in  common  with  various  other  Monarchs  of 
Christendom,  adopted  the  lion  as  their  de\iee.  Rich- 
ard I.,  in  his  earliest  seal,  hiis  two  lions,  which  are 
borne  counter-rampant;  but  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign,  after  his  return  from  the  Third  Cnisade,  the 
great  seal  of  Coeur-dc-lion  represents  the  three  lions 
in  pale  and  pa.s.sant  gardant,  as  they  have  been  almost 
uniformly  depicted  since.  The  only  sub.si'i|uent  in- 
stance of" which  we  are  aware  of  any  variation  in  the 
number  is  on  a  seal  of  the  Carmelites  at  Oxford,  in 
Avhich  Edward  III.  is  represented  in  the  surcoat 
charged  with  four  lions  in  pale  passant  gardant,  a 
proof  of  the  latitude  which  heralds  occa.sionallv  al- 
lowed themselves  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  In  1340,  Edward  III.,  in  virtue 
of  the  supposed  right  of  his  mother,  assumed  the  title 


of  King  of  France,  and  quartered  the  Arms  of  France 
with  those  of  England,  giving  to  the  former  the  pre- 
cedence. The  fleurs  de  lis  were  then  generally  borne 
mins  nonibre;  but  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Henrj'  IV.  they  were  reduced  to  three,  borne  or  on  a 
field  azure.  No  further  change  took  place  in  the 
roj-al  escutcheon  until  the  tune  of  James  I.,  except 
that  Mary,  on  her  second  great  seal,  made  after  her 
marriage  with  Philip  II..  impaled  the  Arms  of  Spain 
and  England.  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  on  succeeding 
to  the  throne  of  England,  quartered  the  Arms  borne 
by  preceding  Sovereigns  with  those  of  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  the  first  and  fourth  quarters  being  France 
and  England  quartered  as  before,  the  second  quarter 
the  lion  rampant  of  Scotland  within  the  double 
tressure,  and  the  third  quarter  the  harp  of  Ireland. 
The  Royal  Anns  were  similarly  bonie  by  all  the  Sov- 
ereigns of  the  House  of  Stuart  till  the  reign  of  Anne, 
except  that  William  III.  bore  over  all  the  coat  of 
Nas.s;m  on  an  escutcheon  of  pretense.  In  the  reign 
of  Anne,  the  legislative  union  with  Scotland  brought 
about  a  materia!  change.  England  and  Scotland  im- 
paled were  placed  in  the  first  and  fourth  quarter, 
France  in  the  second,  and  Ireland  in  the  third.  The 
accession  of  George  I.  displaced  England  and  Scotland 
from  the  fourth  quarter,  to  make  way  for  the  Arms  of 
his  Majesty's  German  dominions.  A  further  altera- 
tion took  place  on  the  imion  with  Ireland,  when 
George  III.  laid  aside  the  titular  assumption  of  King 
of  France,  and  abandoned  the  French  ensigns.  The 
Arms  of  England  were  now  made  to  occupj-  the  first 
and  fourth  (|uarter,  Scotland  the  second,  and  Ireland 
the  third,  while  the  German  ensigns  were  relegated 
to  an  escutcheon  of  pretense.  These  last  were  finally 
abandoned  on  the  severance  of  Hanover  from  the 
Crown  of  Great  Britain,  which  took  place  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Queen  Victoria,  and  the  royal  escutcheon 
thus  assumed  its  present  arrangement. 

From  the  union  of  the  Crowns  of  England  and 
Scotland  under  James  I.,  up  to  the  union  of  the 
Kingdoms  in  1707.  the  Royal  Arms  were  somewhat 
differently  marshaled  in  Scotland,  Scotland  being 
allowed  in  all  Scottish  seals,  ensigns,  and  Arms  to 
occupy  the  first  and  fourth  quarter,  and  England  the 
second,  while  the  whole  were  ensigned  with  the 
Crown  of  Scotland;  but  the  Act  of  Union  of  1707 
recognizes  no  iwal  ensigns  but  those  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  which  are  to  be  "such  as  her  Majesty 
shall  think  fit;"  and  on  the  union  with  Ireland,  it. 
was  enacted  that  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  United 
Kingdom  "  shall  be  such  as  his  Majestj'  by  his  royal 
proclamation  under  the  Great  Seal  of  the  United 
Kingdom  shall  be  pleased  to  appoint."  The  prac- 
tice, which  prevails  to  a  certain  extent  in  Scotland,  of 
giving  the  precedence  to  the  Scottish  lion  in  the  rojal 
shield,  is  incorrect,  though  the  error  has  been  com- 
mitted in  several  of  the  official  seals  of  the  Kingdom. 

The  lion  passiint  as  the  crest  of  England  first  ap- 
pears on  tlie  Great  Seal  of  Edward  III. 

The  siippt/rters  borne  in  former  times  by  the  Kings 
of  England  varied  much,  particularly  during  the 
earlier  period  when  these  appendages  of  the  shield 
were  invested  with  more  of  a  decor!iti\e  than  a  he- 
raldic character,  and  perliaps  often  left  to  the  fsmcy 
of  the  engraver.  When  the  Arms  of  any  of  the 
English  Sovereigns  from  Richard  II.  to  Edward  r\'. 
are  represented  with  supporters,  the  animals  selected 
are  almost  indifferently  lions,  antelopes,  or  white 
harts,  and  occa.sionally  their  place  is  supplied  by  an- 
gels. Edward  TV. 's  shield  is  sometimes  supported 
on  one  side  by  a  black  bull,  and  Richard  III.'s  in  one 
inst;mce — in  a  MS.  in  the  British  Museum — on  both 
sides  bv  white  boars.  During  the  reigns  of  HeiuT 
VII.  and  Henry  VIII..  Edward  VI.,  Mary  aiul 
Elizabeth,  the  lion,  red  dragon,  and  greyhound  were 
the  supporters  most  in  vogue,  and  as  the  herald  or 
engraver  had  it  not  in  his  power  to  represent  all  three 
at  once,  he  seems  to  have  been  allowed  to  .select  any 
two  at  pleasure.  James  I.  for  the  first  time  clearly 
defined  the  royal  supporters,   adopting  the  lion  of 


GREATCOAT. 


784 


GREENLEAF  LITTEE. 


England  and  unicorn  of  Scotland  as  thej'  have  ever 
since  Iiecn  Iwrne.  the  unicorn  having  been,  up  to 
1707.  allowed  precedence  in  Scotland.     See  Armf. 

GREAT-COAT. — The  overcoat  is.sued  to  enlisted 
men.  In  ihe  Uniteii  States  army  it  is  of  sky-blue 
cloth,  douhle-brejisted.  or  singlc-bn'asted  with  the 
additional  rape;  Ihe  linings  and  facings  conforming 
to  the  trimmings  of  the  uniform.  On  the  frontier 
and  campaign,  officers  may  wear  the  soldier's  great- 
coat with  insignia  of  rank  on  the  sleeve.  See  Oar- 
coat. 

GREAT  CULVERIN.— A  cannon  of  the  French  ar- 
tillery, under  Henry  II.,  carrjing  a  projectile  weigh- 
ins  frnni  1-")  lbs.  i  ounces  to  1.5  lbs.  4ounccs. 

GREAT  FORTIFICATION.— One  of  the  divisions  of 
the  first  system  of  Vauban.  It  consists  in  a  fortifica- 
tion whose  exterior  side  is  from  185  to  260  toises,  or 
from  370  to  520  yards,  and  is  seldom  adopted  but  to- 
wards a  river  or  a  marsh. 

GREAVES. — Pieces  of  armor  formerly  used  as  a 
defense  for  the  legs  (in  the  patois  of  Burgundy,  grirr 
still  signifies  "shin  ").  They  were  originally  made  of 
leather,  quilted  linen,  etc.,  and  afterwards  of  steel, 
hollowed  out  to  fit  the  front.*  of  the  legs,  and  fast- 
ened with  straps  behind.  The  Greeks  termed  them 
knimidt'S  (whence  the  frequent  expression  in  the 
Ilmd.  f}ikiiemitl,:')  Ar/uiioi,  or  the  "  well  -  greaved 
Greeks"),  and  the  Romans  i>c>r(F. 

GRECIAN  ARMY.— Under  a  law  promulgated  in 
1876,  the  militarv  forces  of  Greece  are  divided  into 
four  jiarts — the  l^egular  Army,  the  Regular  Reserve, 
the  Militia,  and  the  Militia  Reserve.  All  Greeks 
between  19  and  30  years  of  age,  not  .serving  in  the 
Regular  Army,  are  placed  in  the  Regular  Reserve; 
those  from  31  to  40,  in  the  Militia;  and  those  from  41 
to  50,  in  the  Mililia  Reserve.  The  whole  strength  of 
the  army  under  the  bill  is  estimated  at  200,000^  120,- 
000  of  whom  belong  to  the  Regular  Armv  and  its 
Reserve,  50,000  to  the  Militia,  and  30,000  to  the  Jlilitia 
Reserve.  The  number  of  the  Regular  Army  is  usu- 
allv  about  15,000.     See  Aniii/. 

GREEK  BUCKLER.— This  shield  was  distinguish- 
ed by  its  two  handles, — one  in  the  center  through 
which  the  arm  pas.sed.  and  one  at  the  edge  for  the 
hand.  In  addition  to  this  there  was  a  leathern  strap 
to  hang  the  shield  round  the  neck. 

GREEK  FIRE. — A  composition  supposed  to  have 
l)ccn  of  niter,  sulphur,  and  naphtha  as  a  principal  in- 
gredient, with  which  the  Greeks  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire  were  wont  to  defenil  themselves  against  their 
Saracen  adversaries.  The  aecoimts  of  its  effects  are 
so  mingled  with  obvious  fable  that  it  is  difiicult  to 
arrive  at  any  just  conclusion  as  to  its  power;  but  the 
mixture  appears  to  have  been  highly  intlamraable, 
and  to  hiive  possessed  the  power  of  burning  under 
water.  It  was  projected  either  on  blazing  tow,  tied 
to  arrows,  or  through  a  tube,  the  precursor  of  cannon. 
Wherever  Ihe  comiaisliblc  fell,  it  made  great  havoc, 
from  the  inextinguisbable  nature  of  the  fire.  The 
invention  of  this  material  has  u.sually  been  ascribed 
to  Callinicus  of  Ileliopolis,  and  the  year  668  A.U.; 
but  there  seems  to  1k'  reason  to  believe  that  it  was 
rather  imported  from  India.  At  Constantinople,  the 
process  of  making  Greek  fire  was  kept  a  profound 
secret  for  several  centuries.  The  knowledge,  how- 
ever, of  its  composition  gradually  spread;  and  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  gvmpowder,  Greek  fire 
fonned  a  recognized  defensive  element  in  most  wars 
from  western  Europe  to  Asia  Minor.  Subsisting  for 
sometime  concurrently  with  gunpowder,  it  gradually 
died  out  before  the  advances  of  that  still  more  effec- 
tive competitor,  till  now  little  vestige  remains  of 
Greek  fire  bcjond  a  Norman  corruption  of  its  name 
in  our  firework  "Cracker,"  which,  derived  from 
"  Crcyke"  of  the  Middle  Ages,  is  but  a  corruption  of 
"  Grc((|ue." 

GREEN  CHARGE.— In  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder certain  ]iroces.ses  have  to  be  carried  out,  the 
primarj'  one  being  that  of  "  mixing  the  ingredients" 
after  tliey  have  been  weighed  and  brought  into  con- 


]  tact  previous  to  being  incorporated.  The  process  of 
iiiu-iiig  is  performed  l)y  putting  the  composition  into 

,  a  cylindrical  gun-metal  or  copper  dmm,  about  2  feet 

'  in  diameter,  with  an  axle  passing  through  its  center, 
on  which  there  are  metal  fiyeiv  like  forks;  the  ma- 
chinerj-  is  so  arranged  that  the  fivers  and  drum  re- 
volve in  opposite  directions,  at  a  rate  of  about  100 
revolutions  a  minute;  five  minutes  is  long  enough  for 
a  thorough  mixture;  the  charge  is  then  drawn  off  by 
a  slip  into  a  canvas  bag  capable  of  holding  a  50-lb. 
charge,  which  is  tightlv  tied  and  removed  to  a  small 
magazine  until  required  for  the  incorporating  process. 
In  this  form  it  is  called  a  green  c/mrr/e. 

GREENE  GUN.— A  breech  loading  rifle,  ha\nng  a 
fixed  chamlKT  clo.sed  by  a  movable  breech-block 
which  slides  in  the  line  of  the  barrel  by  direct  action. 
This  piece  has  a  concealed  spinil-spring  lock.  It  is 
loaded  through  a  mortise  cut  in  the  side  of  the  re- 
ceiver, and  is  locked  bv  projections  on  the  bolt  en- 
gaging with  corresponding  cavities  in  the  receiver. 
The  handle  of  the  breech-bolt  is  so  formed  as  lo  lie 
close  to  the  stock,  when  turned  down  and  closed.  A 
detachable  magazine  or  pannier,  made  of  tin,  can  be 
connected  with  the  right  side  of  the  receiver,  and  is 
worked  by  canting  the  gun  to  the  left,  and  allowing 
a  cartridge  to  roll  into  the  receiver  in  front  of  the 
bolt,  when  it  is  withdrawn  to  load. 

GREENER  BULLET.— About  1836  ^Ir.  Greener  in- 
vented and  submitted  for  trial  at  Tynemouth,  imder 
the  authority  of  the  JIaster  General,  and  Board  of 

i  Ordnance,  a  bullet  to  expand  by  the  action  of  the 
powder.  It  was  shaped  like  an  egg,  ha^nng  an  open- 
ing at  one  end  to  receive  a  taper  plug,  with  a  head 
like  a  round-topped  button,  of  a  composition  of  lead, 
tin,  and  zinc.  This  plug,  which  was  rather  larger 
near  the  head  than  the  opening,  .was  driven  home  on 
the  explosion  of  the  powder,  when  Ihe  sides  of  the 
bullet  were  dilated,  and  forced  into  the  grooves  of 
the  rifle,  thereby  stopping  all  windage,  and  increas- 
ing the  accuracy  of  shooting  as  compared  with  the 
Government  bidlet.  The  Board  of  Ordnance  rejected 
this  bullet  on  the  ground  of  its  being  compound;  in 
1857,  however,  Mr.  Greener  was  awarded  t'lOOO  "for 
the  first  [lublic  suggestion  of  the  principle  of  expan- 
sion, comnionlv  called  the  Minie  principle,  for  bullets, 
in  1836." 

GREENLEAF  LITTER.— A  combination  horse  and 
hand-litler,  constnicted  after  the  plan  of  the  Indian 
traeail.  It  consists  of  four  ash  poles,  two  for  shafts 
and  two  for  litter-poles;  Ihe  former  are  7i  feet  long, 
2  inches  wide,  2J  inches  deep  at  the  butt,  and  fj 
by  If  inches  at  the  point;  the  latter  are  8+  feet  long.  3 
inches  wide,  and  2J  inches  deep,  with  rounded  edges 
and  corners.  On  one  end  of  the  litlcr-pole  are  riveted 
two  WTOught-iron  bands  ^  inch  thick  and  IJ  inch 
wide.  (Jne  of  these  collars  is  set  2  inches  from  the 
end  of  the  lilter-pole,  and  has  a  diameter  of  4|  inches 
by  2  inches;  (be  other  is  set  12  inches  from  the  end 
of  the  poles,  and  lias  a  diameter  (<f  5|  by  2  inches. 
The  o])p(isit('  end  of  Ihe  litter-pole  is  shod  with  an 
iron  tliinible  1  foot  long.  Two  cro.s.s-bars,  30  by  li 
by  2i  inches,  with  a  square  collar  of  iron  i  inch  thick 
by  lA  inch  wide  on  each  end,  serve  to  keep  the  poles 
separated  and  steady;  the  collars  should  have  a 
diameter  of  2  by  2J  inches,  and  the  liller-iiole  must 
be  square  at  its  front  end  and  21  feet  from  the  rear 
end  for  their  reception.  A  canvas  bed  6  feet  by  33 
inches,  with  strongly  bound  eyelets  8  inches  apart  on 
the  upper  end  and  upper  three  feet  of  the  sides,  and 
permanently  fastened  to  the  lower  three  feet  of  the 
sides,  compUlis  the  affair.  The  litter  is  dragged  by  a 
horse  or  mule  hitched  into  the  shafts, — Ihe  rear  ends 
of  the  litler-polcs  resting  on  the  ground,  the  patient 
occupying  the  canvas  bag  in  Ihe  middle.  To  put  it 
together,  Ihe  small  end  of  Ihe  shaft  is  pa.ssed  from 
behind  forward,  through  Ihe  rear  and  larger  collar 
on  Ihe  front  end  of  the  lilter-pole,  thence  through  the 
smaller  collar,  and  then  "pulled  home,"  until  the 
butt  of  the  shafts  is  tightly  einbniced  by  the  collars; 
the  cross-bars  are  then  put  into  their  resijcctive  places 


OBENASE. 


785 


GEENET  BATTEET, 


by  slipping  their  collars  over  the  front  and  rear  ends 
of  the  litter-poles  and  pushing  them  securely  home, 
the  canvas  bed  lashed  to  the  poles  by  ropes  "passing 
through  the  side  eyelets  and  aroimd"  the  poles,  and 
through  the  end  eyelets  and  around  the  cross-bars; 
the  ropes  at  the  head  of  the  bed  should  be  slack,  to 
afford  "  bag"  enough  to  the  cjinvas  to  bring  the 
head  and  shoulders  of  the  i)atient  nearly  on  a  level 
with  his  feet.  By  the  arrangement  of  "splicing  the 
shafts  to  the  litter-poles  through  collars  of  unequal 
sizes,  a  constant  tightening  of  the  parts  goes  on  hy  the 
force  exerted  by  the  animal  in  pulling  the  litter)  and 
no  opportunity  for  loosening  occurs;  while  as  the 
greatest  weight  occurs  at  this  point,  additional 
strengUi  is  gained  through  the  iron  collar  and  the 


ployed  in  throwing  hand-grenades,  but  in  modem 
parlance  a  member  of  the  first  company  of  every  bat- 
tidion  on  foot,  in  which  the  tallest  and  finest  men  of 
the  regiment  are  placed.  This  company  used  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  rest  bj'  tall  l)car-skin  caps;  it 
holds  the  place  of  honor,  viz.,  the  right,  when  in  line, 
and  the  front  when  in  oohnnn  of  attjick. 

GEENADIEH  GUARDS.— The  first  regiment  of  foot- 
guard.s  in  (he  British  Hou.sehold  Brigade  of  Guards, 
and  generally  considered  the  finest  corps  in  the  arm}'. 
It  comprises  2540  othcci-s  and  men,  divided  into  three 
battalions.  The  ofiicei-s  of  this  fashionable  corps  are 
usually  from  the  families  of  the  nobilit  v  or  more  distin- 
guished landed  gentry.  The  First  Foot-guards,  under 
which  name  the  regiment  was  originally  known,  was 


Greenleaf  Litter. 


double  thickness  of  pole,  '^itb  a  collar  and  harness, 
which  can  be  carried  without  much  trouble,  the  litter 
can  be  hitched  to  an  animal  by  a  chain  attached  to  the 
harness,  and  having  on  its  end  a  goose-neck  pin  to 
pierce  the  shaft  from  below,  and  be  fastened  above 
by  a  nut  or  linch  pin.  To  unship  the  latter,  give  a 
smart  blow  on  the  small  end  of  the  shaft  which  will 
drive  it  back  through  the  collars,  when  it  can  be 
taken  out;  remove  the  cros.s-bars,  unfasten  the  ropes, 
and  wrap  the  poles  and  cross-bars  in  the  canvas, 
packing  the  whole  thing  like  a  tent  on  a  pack-mule. 
For  use  as  a  hand-litter,  it  is  only  necessary  to  unship 
the  shafts.     See  Litter. 

GEENADE.— A  small  shell,  about  three  inches  in 
diameter,  of  iron  or  annealed  glass,  tilled  with  pow- 
der, and  thrown  from  the  hand.  Hurled  among 
dease  masses  of  troops,  as  those  assembled  in  the 
ditch  of  a  fortress  during  an  a.ssault,  grenades  are 
partictdarly  embarrassing,  the  splinters  inflicting  deep 
■wounds  and  causing  gi-eat  confusion.     The  discharge 


Hand-grenade. 

is  effected  by  means  of  a  sm.all  time-fuse.  Grenades 
are  occasionally  rolled  over  the  ])arapet,  through 
■wooden  troughs,  into  the  trench  below;  there  is  also 
a  species  of  handgim  fired  from  a  rest,  called  "  mus- 
keton,"  from  which  grenades  may  l>e  projected  to  a 
short  distance.  These  missiles  are  said  to  have  been 
first  used  in  the  year  1.594.  See  Hand-grenade,  Pro- 
jectiles, Rii mparl-grennde,  and  Sfiells. 
GEEHADIER.— Originally  a  soldier  who  was  em- 


I  first  raised  in  1660;  since  then  it  has  ever  borne  an 
honorable  position  in  all  the  wars  of  the  country,  and 
especial!}-  in  the  Peninsula,  at  Waterloo,  and  in  the 
Crimea. 

GEENADIEES  AUXILIARIES.— During  the  siege, 
and  when  a   place  was  closelj-  invested,  a   certain 
I  number  of  grenadiers  were  chosen  out  of  the  battal- 
I  ions  belonging  to  the  trenches,  for  the  purpose  of 
I  making  headway  against  the  besieged,  whenever  they 
j  might  risk  a  sally,  or  assault  the  works.     It  was  the 
I  peculiar  duty  of  these  men  to  stand  forward  on  every 
occasion,  to  set  fire  to  the  gabions  attached  to  the  bat- 
teries, and  to  crush  every  attempt  which  might  be 
made  by  the  garrison  to  aimoy  the  men  that  were 
posted  in  the  trenches,  etc. 

GEENET  BATTEEY.— A  variety  of  battery  much 
used  for  military  puqioses. 
It  occupies  but  little  space, 
furnishes  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  current,  is  beauti- 
ful in  design,  and,  as  the 
zinc  can  be  raised  from  the 
fluid,  may  be  kept  charged, 
ready  for  use,  for  many 
months,  and  can  be  set  in 
action  any  time  when  re- 
quired, by  simply  depress- 
ing the  rod  of  bra.ss  which 
slides  through  the  center  of 
the  cover  of  the  cell,  and  to 
which  the  zinc  is  attached. 
For  operating  induction-coils 
and  electro  -  medical  instni- 
ments  it  is  unequaled. 

To  Make  the  Soluiiem.— To 
three  pints  of  cold  water  add 
five  fluid  ounces  of  sulphu- 
ric acid.    When  this  has  be- 
come  cold,  add  six  ounces  „       .  „  „ 
(or  as  much  as  the  solution           «'^'""  ^"^--y- 
will  dissolve)  of  finely  pulverized  bichromate  of  potas- 
sa.     Mix  well. 

To  Charge  the  Battery. — Poiu'  the  above  solution 
into  the  glass  cell  until  it  nearly  reaches  the  top  of 
the  spherical  part,  then  draw  up  the  zinc,  and  place 


OEEVIEKES. 


r86 


OROHMETS. 


the  elements  in  the  cell.     The  fluid  should  not  quite 
reach  the  zinc  when  it  is  dniwn  up. 

WhiTf  it  i.s  designed  to  have  a  batterj-  for  occa- 
sional siTvice,  such  as  is  needed  for  operating  large 
induction-coils,  electric-light  experiments,  charging 
larirc  magnets,  and  for  genend  laboratory  work,  the 
plunge-battery  is  probably  the  most  efficient  and  con 
venient  yet  devised.  When  not  in  ase  the  plates  are 
lifted  from  the  solution,  but  are  always  ready  at  a 
moment's  notice.  The  fluid  used  is  that  of  the  (irenet 
battery.  The  plates  can  be  rcailily  detached  and  re- 
placeil  at  slight  expense  when  neccs.sary,  and  the  jars 
easily  emptied,  cleaned,  and  refilled  \\ithout  taking 
the  plates  apart,  which,  together  with  the  crank-lift, 
make  this  battery  one  of  the  most  convenient  ever  de- 
vis^'d  for  the  ]uiriioses  to  which  it  is  adapted. 

GREVIERES. — Pieces  of  armor  for  the  protection 
of  the  legs  and  thighs.     See  TriniitliiiYs. 

GRIBEAUVAL  SYSTEM  OF  ARTILLERY.— About 
17G5,  various  iniprovtments  were  introduced  into  Eu- 
ropean artillery  by  General  Gribeauval.  He  sepa- 
rated Jitl<l  froni  xifffi'  artillerj',  lightened  and  shortened 
field-guns,  anil  diminished  the  charges.  He  adopted 
elevatinj-screws,  strengthened  the  carriages,  and  in- 
troduced neater  uniformity  in  the  dimensions,  ena- 
bling spare  parts  to  be  carried  for  repairs.  See  Syilem 
of  Alii //try. 

GRICES.— A  term  used  in  Heraldry  to  signify  the 
young  wild-boars.     See  Hcniklri/. 

GRIENDEL  DACH  SYSTEM  OF  FORTIFICATION. 
— This  system  is  a  combination  of  the  bastion  and 
tenaille  tracings.  The  enceinte  is  bastioned  and  serves 
as  retrenchment;  the  tcnailles  are  formed  of  great 
ravelins  traced  on  the  prolongation  of  the  faces  of 
the  bastions.  The  four  flanks  of  the  ravelin  and  its 
reduit  must  be  destroyed  by  the  mine  when  the  be- 
sieger has  breached  the  ravelin.  The  ditch  of  the 
reduit  is  defended  by  a  double  flank  constructed  on 
the  face  of  the  bastion.  Between  the  tenailles  are 
ravelins  with  long  flanks.  The  outlay  is  very  great, 
and  the  i)lace  is  much  exposed  to  enfilade. 

GRIFFIN. — ^A  chimerical  creature,  which  the  fancy 
of  the  modern  has  adopted  from  that  of  the  ancient 
world.  The  griffin  is  first  mentioned  by  Aristeas, 
perhaps  about  560  b.c,  though  the  accounts  of  Aris- 
teas seem  to  be  about  as  fabulous  as  those  of  the 
griffin.  The  origin  of  those  monstrous  conceptions 
in  general,  of  whicli  the  griffin  is  one,  has  already 
been  considered  under  Dragox.  The  griffin  is  vari- 
ously described  and  represented,  but  the  shape  in 
which  it  most  frequently  appears  is  that  of  an  ani- 
mal generated  between  a  lion  and  an  eagle,  having 
the  body  and  legs  of  the  former,  with  the  beak  and 
wings  of  the  latter.  In  this  form  it  appears  on  an- 
tique coins,  and  as  an  ornament  in  cla.ssical  architec- 
ture. Like  all  other  monsters,  griffins  abound  in  the 
legendary  tales  of  the  Teutonic  nations,  and  the  name 
in  various  forms,  slightly  differing 
from  each  other,  is  to  be  found  in 
most  Teutonic  dialects.  Whether  in 
the  two  cases  both  the  name  and  the 
notion  might  not  be  traceable  to  a 
common  source,  or  whether  it  was 
through  barbarian  or  cla.ssical  chan- 
nels that  they  found  their  way  into 
the  nomenclature  and  the  |irac"tice  of 
heralds,  are  subjects  on  which  we  do  not  venture  an 
opinion.  Certain  it  is,  however,  that  there  are  few 
fabulous  conceptions  with  which  the  science  of  Her- 
aldry is  more  conversiint  than  the  grilfin.  Nor  were 
they  regarde<l  by  the  patiiarclis  of  that  science  alway;» 
as  mere  creatures  of  the  imagination,  for,  incredible 
as  it  may  seem,  we  find  Gerard  Leigh,  a  herald  of 
great  reputation  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  talking  of 
them  with  entire  sincerity  as  existing  animals.  "I 
think  they  areof  great  hugeness,"  hesays,  "  for  Ihnre 
a  elaw  of  one  nf  their  paim,  v,-h\ch  should  show  them 
to  be  as  big  as  two  lions."  In  the  heraldic  griffin,  the 
claws  of  the  eagle  are  usually  substituted  for  the  fore- 
paws  of  the  lion.     Gwillim  blazons  a  griflin  in  this 


Grimn. 


attitude  "  nunpant,"  alleging  that  any  fierce  animal 
may  l)e  so  blazoned  as  well  a.s  a  lion.  But  the  more 
appropriate  and  usvial  term  is  "  segreant."  In  re|)re- 
senting  the  griffin,  the  cars  ou^ht  not  to  lie  omitted,  as 
they  indicitte  the  attribute  of  watchfulness,  which, 
along  with  strength  and  swiftness,  went  to  make  up 
theclas>;i<al  conception  of  his  character.    See  Wyrern. 

GRIFFIN  GUN. — A  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
3-inch  rifle  used  in  the  United  Stjites  field-.service, 
from  its  inventor,  Mr.  Grilfin,  of  Uie  Pha'iiix%ille 
Iron  works,  Feunsvlvania,  where  the  gun  was  made. 

GRINDING  MACHINE.— The  u.se  of  emery  giind- 
ingniachiues  in  almost  everj'  branch  of  accurate 
machine  construction  is  extending  every  year.  Wher- 
ever exact  cylindrical  forms  or  true  plane  metal  sur- 
faces are  required,  emery-wheels  have  been  found  to 
be  the  most  ellective  means  of  supplementing  the  work 
of  the  lathe  and  planing-niachine  in  producing  exact 
work.  Sir  Joscjth  Whitworth  was  among  the  first  to 
develop  the  true  surface-plate  .system,  which  he  ar- 
rived at  by  scraping  the  surface  and  correcting  the 
errors  and  inequalities  by  fitting  the  plates  to  each 
other.  Two  plates  may  be  made  to  fit  each  other 
perfectlj'  and  neither  be  a  true  plane,  because  one 
may  be  convex  and  the  other  concave  to  correspond: 
but  if  one  plate  is  fitted  to  two  others  and  the  latter 
are  both  convex  or  concave,  they  will  not  fit  each 
other.  Latterly,  however,  true  surfaces  are  repro- 
duced by  moving  an  object  on  a  perfectly  true  plane 
or  table  over  a  grinding- wheel  in  the  ndddle  which 
removes  all  the  projections  of  the  object,  and  in  this 
way  the  perfect  plane  of  the  table  is,  so  to  speak, 
transferred  to  the  object. 

The  machine  shown  on  page  787  is  intended  to 
produce  perfectly  true  wearinsj  surfaces  on  various 
work  in  this  way.  The  engra\ing  illustrates  its  con- 
struction so  clearly  that  little  or  no  description  is 
needed.  The  distance  from  the  floor  to  the  center  of 
the  spindle  is  27  inches.  The  latter  is  of  steel,  2 
inches  in  diameter,  and  two-  or  three-cone  pulleys  are 
furni.shed  as  may  be  required.  The  machine  is 
intended  for  emefv-wheels  of  20  inches  diameter  and 
4  inches  face,  which  it  will  wear  down  to  9  inches 
in  diameter.  The  plate  for  the  surface-grinding  is  5 
feet  long  and  11  inches  wide,  and  can  be  elevated  and 
lowered.  These  machines,  in  great  numbers,  are  em- 
ployed in  arsenals.     See  Emery-griinhr. 

GRIP. — 1.  In  some  guns  the  bore  is  slightly  en- 
larged to  within  about  a  caliber  in  front  of  the  shot- 
chamber;  the  intervening  portion,  which  has  a  less 
diameter  than  any  other  part  of  the  bore,  is  termed 
the  grip.  The  diameter  of  this  rjrip  is  the  caliber  of 
the  gun.     2.  The  handle  of  a  sword. 

GRIPES.— A  complaint  with  which  horses  are  often 
attacked;  the  remedy  recommended  is  as  follows:  On 
the  horse  being  observed  to  be  in  pain,  he  should  be 
trotted  about  until  his  bowels  are  emptied.  Should 
this  fail,  he  must  be  bled  to  the  extent  of  two  or  three 
quarts,  and  a  ball  composed  of  one  drachm  of  gum 
opium  and  two  of  powdered  ginger,  made  up  with 
bruised  meal,  given  to  him,  and  a  clyster  of  oatmeal 
gruel  every  two  hours.     See  Veterinary  Art. 

GROGNARDS. — A  term  applied  to  the  old  soldiers 
of  the  Frpn<h  Empire,  who  weri'  noted  for  iirumbling. 

GROINED  VAULTING.— In  forlification'and  build- 
ing, that  kind  of  vaidting  in  which  the  vault  is  not  a 
plain  l)arrel-va\iU  from  end  to  end.  but  where  one  vault 
cuts  into  another.  The  angle  fonned  by  the  intersec- 
tion is  called  the  groin.  In  Roman  architecture  the 
groins  were  generally  left  as  a  plain  sharp  edge;  in 
Gothic,  they  were  usually  protected  and  strengthened 
with  libs. 

GROMA. — A  Rom.an  measuring-rod,  abovif  20  feet 
lonir.  visi'il  for  setting  olT  di'^taiiccs  in  ji  camp. 

GROMMETS— GRUMMETS.— Circular  pieces  of  rope 
attached  to  shot  to  keep  the  shot  steady  in  the  l>orc. 
They  are  made  of  various  sizes.  Grummet-wads  are 
also  used  when  firing  at  angles  of  depression,  or  at 
angles  of  elevation  less  than  3  ;  the  grummet  is 
placed  over  the  shot  to  prevent  it  from  nmjiing  out  of 


OBOOH. 


787 


GROOVES. 


the  piece.  The  use  of  grummet- wads  with  rifled 
muzzle-loading  guns  has  been  discontinued  for  hind- 
ser\ice,  except  when  these  guns  arc  firing  at  a  depres- 
sion. The  tenn  griinuiui  is  applied  to  a  rope  ring 
worked  in  a  particular  manner.     See  Wad. 

6EO0M. — One  of  several  otficers  of  the  English 
Royal  Household,  chiefly  in  the  Lord  Chamberlain's 
Department;  as,  the  Groom  of  the  Chamber;  Groom 
of  the  Stole,  or  Robes. 

GKOOM-PORTER.— An  officer  in  the  Household  of 
the  King  of  England,  who  succeeded  the  Master  of 
Revels,  and  gave  directions  as  to  sports. 

GROOVES.— The  width  of  the  groove  generally  de- 
pends on  the  diameter  of  the  bore  and  the  peculiar 
manner  in  which  the  groove  receives  and  holds  the 
projectile.  Wide  and  shallow  grooves  are  more  easilj- 
filled  by  the  expanding  portion  of  a  projectile  than 
those  which  are  narrow  and  deep;  and  the  same  holds 
true  of  circular-shaped  grooves  when  compared  to 
those  of  an  angular  form.     An  increase  in  the  num- 


groove  may  be  used  with  advantage,  as  it  diminishes 
the  friction  of  the  projectile  when  it  is  first  set  in 
motion,  and  thereby  relieves  the  breech  of  the  piece 
of  a  portion  of  the  enormous  strain  which  is  thrown 
upon  it.  If  the  twist  be  too  rapid  toward  the  muzzle, 
there  will  be  a  thuicer  of  bursting  the  piece  in  the 
chase.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  variable  groove 
is  well  adapted  to  expanding  projectiles  with  short 
bearing  surfaces;  but  the  uniform  groove,  being  more 
simple  in  its  construction,  and  nearly  as  accurate  in 
its  results,  is  gcnemlly  preferred  for  military  fire-arms, 
both  large  and  small. 

The  width  of  a  groove  depends  on  the  diameter  of 
the  bore,  and  on  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  the 
gioove  receives  and  holds  the  projectile.  Wide  and 
shallow  grooves  are  more  easily  filled  by  the  expand- 
ing portion  of  a  projectile  than  tho.se  which  are  nar- 
row and  deep;  and  the  siime  holds  true  of  circular- 
shaped  grooves,  when  compared  to  those  of  angular 
form.     An  increase  in  the  number  of  grooves  increases 


Emery  QrindiDg-machine. 


ber  of  grooves  increases  the  firmness  with  which  a 
projectile  is  held,  by  adding  to  the  nimibcr  of  points 
which  bear  upon  it.  The  effect  of  decreasing  the 
depth  of  rifle-grooves  is,  generally,  to  increase  the  ac- 
curacy but  diminish  the  range.  The  increase  of  ac- 
curacy undoubtedly  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  pro- 
jectile is  held  more  firmly  by  the  grooves  as  it  passes 
along  the  bore;  while  the  diminution  of  range  arises 
from  an  increase  of  friction  between  the  projectile 
and  the  grooves.  The  comparative  advantages  of 
unifomi  and  variable  grooves  depend  on  the  means 
used  to  connect  them'  with  the  projectiles.  If  the 
bearing  of  the  projectile  in  the  grooves  be  long,  and 
the  metal  of  which  it  is  made  be  unyielding,  il  will 
be  unsjife,  if  not  impracticable,  to  emijloy  variable 
grooves;  and  if  the  metal  be  partially  yielding,  a  por- 
tion of  the  force  of  the  charge  will  Ix-  expended  in 
changing  the  form  of  that  part  of  the  projectile  w  hich 
projects  into  the  grooves,  ivs  it  moves  along  the  bore. 
When  the  portion  in  the  grooves  is  so  short  that  its 
form  will  undergo  but  slight  alteration,  the  increasing 


the  firmness  with  which  a  projectile  is  held,  by  add- 
ing to  the  number  of  points  which  bear  upon  it.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  rifle-cannon,  intended  for 
flanged  projectiles,  should  have  four  grooves;  as  a 
greater  number  incre;ises  the  difl[iciilties  of  loading,  and 
a  lesser  number  does  not  hold  the  projectile  with  suffi- 
cient steadiness.  For  expanding  projectiles,  an  odd 
number  of  grooves  is  generally  employed,  for,  as  this 
places  a  groove  opposite  to  a  land,  less  expansion  will 
be  required  to  fill  Ihcm.  The  mmilx;rof  grooves  used 
in  the  3-inch  field-gun  is  seven,  and  the  number  used 
in  41-ineh  siege-guns  is  nine.  The  number  of  grooves 
in  the  4-inch  Armstrong  gun  \s  fifty. 

The  object  of  rifle-grooves  being  to  communicate 
an  effective  rotary  motion  to  a  projectile  throughout 
its  flight,  it  remains  to  determine  what  velocity  of  ro- 
tation, or  inclination  of  grooves,  is  necessary  for  dif- 
ferent projectiles.  The  velocity  of  rotation  will  de- 
pend on  the  form  and  initial  velocity  of  the  projectile, 
the  causes  which  retard  it,  and  the  time  of  flight; 
therefore  tliere  is  cme  particular  inclination  of  grooves 


GBOS. 


788 


GRUSON  SEA-CO&ST  CABBIAGE. 


iffiieh  i»  bftt  suited  to  each  caliber,  form  of  pr^jeetilf. 
charge  of  poirder,  and  angle  of  fire.  It  hiis  liecn  no- 
tioed  tliiit  if  very  long  projectiles  be  fired  from  the 
rillc-musket,  they  nre  less  aecurate  than  the  ordinary 
projectile,  the  length  of  which  is  less  than  two  cali- 
bers. 5Ir.  Whitworth  states  that  lie  has  known  a  bul- 
let twice  this  h'liirlli  turn  over  end  for  end  within  six 
feet  of  the  niu/./.le  of  the  Knglish  ritle-musket,  the 
caliber  of  which  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
American  ritle  musket.  This  instability  undoubtedly 
arises  from  the  want  of  sullicient  rotation  arounii  the 
long  axis.  What  increase  of  angular  velocity  must, 
therefore,  be  given  to  compensate  for  a  given  increji.sc 
of  length  of  an  oblong  projectile? 

The  resistance  which  a  projectile  offers  to  angular 
detlection,  when  rotating  around  a  priiicipitl  axis,  is 
proportional  to  the  moment  of  its  quantity  of  motion 
taken  with  reference  to  this  axis,  or  M  k"ir,  M  l)eing  the 
mass,  k  the  radius  of  gjTation,  and  ir  the  angular  veloc- 
ity. Let  this  ex))ression  represent  the  moment  of  the 
quantity  of  motion  around  the  long  axis,  and  k  and  ir 
the  radius  of  gjration,  and  angidar  velocity,  around  a 
short  axis,  and  suppose  the  angular  velocity  ir  and  c, 
to  be  such  that  the  resistance  to  a  deflection  from  the 


bore  4  inches  in  diameter.  See  Increasing  Twist,  Tirist, 
anil  Uniform  Twint. 

GSOS. — Any  body  of  soldiers;  a  detachment.  The 
French  frequently  .say,  Un  gros  d'infanterie,  a  body 
of  infantry. 

GROUND. — A  common  term  in  military  phraseolo- 
gy, meaning  the  field  or  a  place  of  action.  What  is 
termetl  diking  ground  is  the  extension  of  a  body  of 
troops  in  any  direction.  To  gain  ground  is  toad- 
vance;  to  li/si  ground  is  to  retire  or  retreat. 

GROUND  ARMS.  -An  old  word  of  command,  di- 
recting the  soldiers  to  lay  down  their  arms  upon  the 
ground.     It  is  omitted  from  tlie  present  tactics. 

GRUSON  SEA-COAST  CARRIAGE.— Carriages  for 
guns  of  isinch  caliber  only  have  been  furnished  by 
Gruson.  They  dilTer  from  the  corresponding  car- 
riages made  by  Krupp  in  this  essential  particular,  that 
cast-iron  is  used  for  several  of  the  imjiortant  parts  in 
place  of  cast-steel  or  wrought-iron,  and  in  conse- 
quence a  cheaper  but  heavier  carriage  is  made.  The 
8-inch  guns  are  of  two  distinct  cla.s.ses,  differing  from 
each  other  in  the  distance  between  the  rimbases, 
being  35  inches  and  lio.H  inches  respectively,  and  re- 
quiring separate  carriages.     The  top-carriage  consists 


Gruson  Sea-coast  Carriage.. 


axes  shall  be  equal:  we  have  MA-'ir  =  "iiikhr  ,  and  by 
reduction  !c,  =  — -  (c.  Hence,  if  we  determine  by  ex- 
periment the  value  of  w,  the  angular  velocity  neces- 
sary to  give  pniriieable  stability  of  rotation,"  we  can 
determine  the  value  of  ir  ,  and  consequently  the  siijieri- 
or  limit  of  the  deflecting  forces.  Substituting  the  value 
of  w,  in  a  similar  expression  for  any  other  projectile, 
■we  can  determine  the  angular  velocity,  and  from  this 
the  inclination  of  grooves  necessary  to  give  the  second 
projectile  .steadiness  in  flight. 

The  foregoing  method  of  determining  the  relation 
between  the  lengths  of  two  ritle  projectiles,  and  the 
inclination  of  gi-ooves  necessiiry  to  give  them  equal 
steadiness  of  flight,  is  true  only  inider  the  supposition 
that  they  preserve  throughouttheir  range  the  relative 
angular  velocities  with  which  they  started.  It  is 
neces.sary,  therefore,  to  consider  the  causes  which  af- 
fect rotiilion.  The  inclination  of  grooves  for  a  rifle- 
cannon  best  suited  to  a  given  projectile  hsis  not  yet 
been  determined  by  experience;  and  the  consequence 
is  that  a  wide  cliversity  of  "twists"  is  eniiiloyed  in 
the  various  services,  aiid  by  dilTercnt  expeiimenters. 
Colonel  Cavalli,  in  his  experimenis  in  Sweden,  ol)- 
tained  good  residts  from  twists  of  one  turn  in  12  feet, 
and  one  turn  in  :!.">  feet,  in  a  32-pdr.  gun;  and  a  still 
greater  variety  of  twists  have  been  erajiloyed  in  our 
own  ser\'ice.  For  a  projectile  one  luid  a  lialf  diame- 
ters long,  and  O-pdr.  calilier,  excellent  jiractice  has 
l)ecn  obtained  with  a  twist  of  25  feet;  and  in  a  certain 
form  of  the  Armstrong  gun  the  twist  is  13  feet  for  a 


of  two  cheeks  of  cast-iron,  each  in  one  .single  piece, 
with  a  rib  on  the  outside  extending  around  the  edge 
and  forming  on  the  lower  side  a  shoe  which  slides  on 
the  rail.  TIw  cheek  is  cut  out  in  the  middle  to  make 
it  lighter,  and  is  reinforced  with  a  rib  around  the 
edge  of  the  hole  thus  formed.  The  cheeks  are  con- 
nected together  by  two  cast-iron  transoms,  front  and 
rear,  at  right  angles  to  the  shoe,  each  held  in  place 
by  two  pins  and  three  bolts,  The  spaces  between  the 
ends  of  the  transoms  and  the  cheeks  are  filled  up  with 
melted  zinc,  and  whenever  two  pieces  of  cast-iron  are 
connected  together  without  planing  the  surfaces, 
nulled  zinc  is" poured  into  the  space  between  them. 
The  front  transom  has  a  cross-head  cast  to  it  on  its 
under  side  to  operate  the  (liston  rod.  and  guides  to  di- 
rect the  niotion  of  the  lopcariiage  on  tin-  rails.  Guide- 
hooks  are  bolted  on  the  uniler  side  of  this  transom  to 
prevent  any  vertical  motion  of  the  top-carriage  and 
the  binding  of  the  piston-rod,  A  sheet-iron  step 
rests  on  two  brackets  which  are  boiled  to  the  cheeks 
in  rear  <if  the  rear  transom,  for  the  man  to  stiind 
on  who  elevates  or  <lepresses  the  gim.  The  lib  on 
the  outside  of  the  cheek  fonns  a  recess  at  the  front 
anil  rear  corner  for  the  tnick\vheels,  which  are  made 
of  cast-iron  bushed  with  while  metal,  and  provided 
with  luliricating-holes.  The  axle  of  the  front  roller 
is  bellied  to  the  cheek.  The  rear  rollers  are  slightly 
larger  than  the  front  ones,  and  are  mounted  on  an  ec- 
centric axle.  The  portion  of  the  axle  which  pa.sses 
through  the  cheek  is  made  larger  than  the  rest  and 
has  a  circular  slot  extending  about  a  quarter  of  the 


6UAEANTEE  ASSOCIATION. 


789 


OUABI). 


circumference  around  it.  A  screw  set  in  from  the 
rear  end  of  the  check  plays  in  this  slot  and  acts  as  a 
stop  to  limit  the  turning  o"f  the  axle,  and  also  to  pre- 
vent it  from  moving  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 
There  is  a  hole  in  the  axle  on  the  inside  of  the  cheek 
for  the  end  of  a  handspike  by  which  to  turn  the  axle 
and  throw  the  rollers  in  or  out  of  gear.  The  elevat- 
ing-apparatus consists  of  a  strong  screw  pivoted  on 
a  shaft  secured  to  the  left  cheek,  and  a  female  screw 
of  brass  which  is  operated  by  means  of  four  handles 
•cast  to  the  lower  part  of  the  female  screw.  India- 
rubber  rings  are  interposed  between  the  female  screw 
and  box  to  lessen  the  force  of  the  shock  of  the  recoil 
on  the  screw  box.  The  top-carriage  for  the  smaller 
gim  differs  from  that  just  described  in  this,  that  the 
cheeks  are  bent  outwards  at  the  bottom  to  preserve 
the  same  distance  between  the  shoes  in  the  two  car- 
riages, so  that  the  same  chassis  may  be  used  for 
•either,  and  in  having  a  different  elevating-apparatus. 
The  preponilerance  of  these  guns,  992  pounds,  allows 
the  application  of  a  single  elevating-screw  under  the 
breech  of  the  gun,  a  female  screw  being  titled  in  a 
boss  on  the  rear  transom.  In  order  to  obtain  high 
angles  of  elevation  without  having  a  screw  of  very 
great  length,  a  cast-iron  cap  is  placed  on  the  head  of 
the  screw  between  it  and  the  gun,  and  is  kept  there 
for  all  angles  of  elevation  less'  than  8',  which  corre- 
sponds to  a  range  of  3280  yards. 

The  rails  are  12-inch  rolled  beams,  connected  to- 
gether by  three  transoms  of  boiler  plate,  two  at  the 
front  and  one  at  the  rear  end.  "Wooden  hurters  are 
secured  to  the  front  end  of  the  rails  for  the  front 
truck-wheels  to  strike  against.  India-rubber  counter- 
hurters  are  secured  to  the  box-flange  of  the  hydraulic 
cylinder,  and  are  struck  by  the  guides  on  the  rear 
transom  of  the  top  carriage.  The  hydraulic  cylinder 
is  of  cast-iron,  75  inches  long  and  1.1  inch  thick.  It 
has  a  flange  or  seat  cast  on  the  bottom  at  each  end  for 
securing  it  to  the  bottom  transom.  The  rear  seat 
takes  the  form  of  an  open  box,  the  length  equal  to 
the  distance  between  the  rails  to  which  it  is  bolted, 
as  well  as  to  the  bottom  ti-an.som.  The  ends  of  the 
cylinder  are  turned  off  square,  and  are  closed  by  cast- 
iron  covers  fitted  closely  and  bolted  to  the  cylinder,  a 
piece  of  pasteboard  .s;iturated  in  linseed-oil  being  in- 
terposed between  the  surfaces  to  make  a  close  joint. 
The  front  cover  cont;iins  the  stuffing-box,  which  is  of 
brass.  The  rear  cover  has  a  recess  in  the  inside,  so 
that  the  nut  on  the  end  of  the  piston-rod  shall  not 
strike  it.  There  is  a  gauge-cock  in  the  center  of  this 
cover  to  regulate  the  height  of  the  gljxerine  in  the 
cylinder.  The  piston-head  is  of  cast-iron.  The  four 
holes  in  it  are  reamed  out  to  be  parabolic  in  section; 
the  least  diameter  is  .78  inch.  The  traverse-wheels 
are  of  cast-iron;  the  front  ones  are  solid  and  smaller; 
the  rear  have  spokes.  The  sole  is  flat,  and  the  front 
flange  is  much  stronger  than  the  rear  one.  The  front 
flange  of  the  rear  wheel  has  holes  in  it.s  periphery  to 
receive  the  end  of  a  handspike  to  traverse  the  chassis 
in  case  the  traversing-gear  should  fail  to  operate.  The 
traverse-wheel  forks  are  also  of  cast  iron.  The  front 
fork  has  no  rear  branch,  the  wheel  being  supported 
only  on  the  front  side.  The  traversing-gear  is  held 
in  a  frame  formed  of  two  parallel  iron  plates  bolt- 
ed by  means  of  angle-irons  to  the  rear  bottom  tran- 
som. It  consists  of  a  large  grooved  wheel  for  the 
chain,  and  four  guide-rollers;  two  with  their  axles 
horizontal  are  grooved  like  the  large  wheel;  the  oth- 
ers have  their  axles  vertical.  A  large  spur-wheel  is 
shrunk  on  the  nave  of  the  chain- wheel,  and  is  driven 
by  a  pinion  and  bevel  gears  on  a  cro.ss-shaft  which 
is  turned  by  a  crank.  The  projectile  crane  consists 
of  a  crane-box  of  cast-iron  bolted  to  the  outside  of 
the  right  chassis-rail.  The  crane  proper  is  composed 
of  two  parts — the  body,  which  is  a  round  iron  rod, 
and  moves  freely  up  and  down  in  the  circular  hole 
in  the  crane-box,  and  the  bent  neck,  made  of  two 
flat  bars  riveted  to  the  flattened  iip|)er  end  of  the 
ix)dy.  The  neck  has  two  fixed  pulleys  between  the 
flat  bars  for  the  chain  to  work  over.     A  straight  rack 


is  secured  to  the  body  at  their  upper  ends,  the  end  of 
the  former  being  bent  at  a  right  angle  to  itself,  with  a 
circular  hole  in  the  bent  end  for  the  body  of  the  crane 
to  pass  through.  A  shoulder  on  the  top  of  the  body 
rests  on  the  rack  where  the  Ixjdy  passes  through  the 
bent  end.  The  nick  is  operated 'by  means  of  a  wheel 
and  pinion  turned  by  a  crank.  A  chain  with  a  hook 
on  each  end  is  fastened  at  one  end  to  the  crane-box, 
passes  over  the  two  pulleys,  hangs  from  the  end  of 
the  neck,  and  is  fastened  to  the  projectile-cart.  In 
raising  the  crane  the  projectile  is  also  raised  by  the 
shortening  of  that  part  of  the  chain  which  hangs  from 
the  upper  roller.  The  implements  are  the  same  as 
for  Krupp's  carriage,  with  the  exception  of  the  hand- 
spike, which  is  entirely  of  iron;  and  the  traversing- 
gear  has  two  cranks.  The  weights  of  the  two  car- 
riages are  as  follows: 


' 

Krupp'B. 

Gnison's. 

Weieht  of  top-carriage 

Weight  of  chassis  

Poundt. 
4,608 
10,880 

Point  ds. 
.5.512 

8,819 

Total  weight 

15,482 

14,331 

See  Sea-i-ooKf  nitd  Garrimin  Ciirriages 

GUARANTEE  ASSOCIATION.— An  Association  in 
England  which  for  a  small  percentage  imdertakes  to 
vouch  for  the  prudence  and  fidelity  of  such  public 
officers  as  Paymasters,  Ordnance  Storekeepers,  Com- 
missaries, Staff  Officers  of  Pensions,  Barrack  Mas- 
ters, etc.  The  Government  accepts  the  guarantee  of 
this  particular  office  in  preference  to  that  offered  by 
private  individuals. 

GUAED.— 1.  A  body  of  men  whose  duty  it  is  to  se- 
cure an  army  or  place  from  being  surprised  by  an 
enemy.  Camp  and  garrison  guards  are  relieved 
every  twenty -four  hours.  The  guards  at  outposts  are 
ordinarilj'  relieved  in  the  same  manner,  but  this 
must  depend  on  their  distances  from  camp,  or  other 
circiimstances,  which  may  sometimes  require  their 
continuing  on  duly  several  days.  In  such  cases  they 
are  previously  warned  to  provide  themselves  acconl- 
ingly.  All  persons,  of  whatever  rank  in  the  service, 
are  required  to  observe  due  respect  toward  sentinels. 
The  cuunterifign,  or  watchword,  is  given  to  such  per- 
sons as  are  entitled  to  pass  during  the  night,  and  to 
officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  sentinels  of 
the  guard.  Interior  guards  receive  the  countersign 
only  when  ordered  by  the  Commander  of  the  troops. 
The  parole  is  imparted  to  such  officers  only  as  have  a 
right  to  visit  the  guards,  and  to  make  the  grand 
rounds;  and  to  officers  commanding  guards.  Senti- 
nels are  relieved  everj'  two  hours,  unless  the  state  of 
the  weather,  or  other  causes,  should  make  it  neces- 
sary or  proper  that  it  be  done  at  shorter  or  longer  in- 
tervals. Those  at  the  guard -house  or  guard-tent  are 
the  first  relieved  and  left  behind.  Each  relief,  before 
being  posted,  is  inspected  by  the  Commander  of  the 
Guard.  The  Corporal  reports  to  him,  and  presents 
the  old  relief  on  its  return.  If  the  sentinels  are  nu- 
merous, the  Sergeants  are  employed,  as  well  as  the 
Corporals,  in  relieving  them.  Sentinels  do  not  take 
orders  or  allow  themselves  to  be  relieved,  except  by 
an  officer  or  non-commis-sioned  officer  of  their  guard 
or  party,  the  Officer  of  the  Day,  or  the  Commanding 
Officer;  in  which  ca.se  the  orders  are  immediately  no- 
tified to  the  Commander  of  the  Guard  by  the  officer 
giving  them.  Sentinels  report  ever}'  breach  of  orders 
or  regidations  they  arc  instructed  to  enforce. 

2.  A  position  in  bayonet  and  saber  exercises,  exe- 
cuted as  follows: 

With  the  Bai/onet. — Bring  the  left  toe  nearly  to  the 
front;  carry  the  right  foot  three  inches  to  the  rear, 
the  heel  two  inches  to  the  right  of  the  left,  the  feet  at 
right  angles.  (Two.)  Carry  the  right  foot  fifteen 
inches  to  the  rear,  feet  at  right  angles,  knees  slightlv 
bent,  the  body  resting  equallj'  on  both  legs;  at  the 
same  time  bnng  down  the  piece  into  the  left  hand. 


OUABS-DETAIL. 


790 


GUAKO-HOTTNTINO, 


the  little  linger  at  the  lock-plate,  thumli  along  the 
stock,  the  right  hand  at  the  small  of  the  stock,  the 
barrel  turned  slightly  to  the  left,  the  butt  three  inches 
in  front  of  the  l)<)dy  and  a  little  below  the  belt-plate, 
the  jwint  of  the  bayonet  in  front  of  and  at  the  height 
of  the  chin,  both  arms  half  extended,  the  left  elbow 
near  the  body.  All  movements  in  the  bayonet-exer- 
cise, not  specially  excepted,  are  executed  from  guard, 
to  which  position  the  piece  is  restored  after  evei^' 
movement  In'  the  command  guard.  The  position  is 
shown  in  Fig   1 . 

With  the  Saiier. — Carrv'  the  right  foot  about  two 
feet  to  the  right,  heels  on  ihe  same  line;  place  the 
left  hand,  closed,  six  inches  from  the  body,  and  as 


FlQ.l. 


Fig.  2. 


high  as  the  elbow,  the  fingers  toward  the  body,  little 
finger  nearer  than  the  thumb  (position  of  the  bridle- 
hand);  at  the  same  time  place  the  right  hand  in  tierce 
in  front  of  and  a  little  higher  than  the  right  hip, 
thumb  extended  on  the  back  of  the  gripe,  little 
finger  by  the  side  of  the  others,  the  point  of  the  saber 
inclined  to  the  left,  and  two  feet  higher  than  the 
hand,  which  grasps  the  saber  without  constraint. 
The  position  is  shown  in  Fig  2.  To  return  to  the 
carry,  the  Instructor  commands:  1.  Carry,  2.  Saber. 
At  the  command  saber,  the  recruits  resume  the  posi- 
tion of  the  soldier,  and  come  to  the  carry.  See  Bayo- 
■net-1'Jrcrci.ie,  Ferwing,  and  Sdber-exercise. 

GUARD-DETAIL.— The  men  from  a  company,  regi- 
ment, or  other  organization  detailed  for  guardnduty. 
The  First  Sergeant  keepis  the  roster  and  makes  tliis 
detail. 

GUAED-DUTY. — In  a  general  sense,  that  duty  per- 
formed by  a  sentinel.  This  duty  in  peace  is  much 
more  severe  than  is  generally  supposed,  and  usually 
requires  that  during  the  24  hours  of  its  continuance 
the  sentinel  shall  make  a  march  under  arms  of  some 
16  miles  for  one  third  of  the  time,  and  be  "present 
for  duty  equipped  "  at  a  moment's  notice  always.  If 
this  happened  once  a  week  it  would  be  often  enough. 
Coming,  as  it  does,  twice  or  thrice,  it  impo.ses  more 
labor  and  exposure  than  all  other  militar)'  dtity,  and 
year  after  year  of  it  tells.  There  are  two  ways  of 
meeting  this  trouble;  one  by  relaxing  the  regiments 
of  guard-duly  to  some  extent,  and  one  by  enlarging 
the  numlKT  of  men  upon  whom  it  is  imposed.  Its 
proper  performance,  so  far  as  security  of  buildings 
and  stores  is  concerned,  or  even  the  restriction  of 
tmvel  to  certain  directions,  does  not  require  a  full 
uniform  or  even  a  14-poiind  musket.  "To  tjike 
charge  of  all  public  property  in  view,"  when  nothing 
can  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye  but  a  20-ton  gun  and  a 
chain  pump,  hardly  demands  that  a  man  should  pace 
majestically  back  and  forth  from  one  to  the  other 
forever.  lie  would  be  just  as  useful  if  he  carried  a 
switch  and  came  round  at  intervals;  if,  in  fact,  he 
dared  to  consider  himself  less  of  a  sentinel  and  more 
of  a  watchman.  In  these  days  of  telephones,  when 
offices,  stables,  quarters,  etc.,  "can  all  be  put  into  im- 
mediate communication  with  one  another,  and  a  man 
at  his  desk  may  in  a  moment  summon  into  his  jires- 
ence,  or  receive  a  report  from,  anj'body,  whether  a 
Police  Sergcjint  or  Post  Surgeon,  the  time-honored 
formalities  and  display  of  guard-duty  may  well  be 


relieved  of  much  that  is  out  of  date  and  out  of  use. 
It  can  Ix!  made  much  less  mechanical  and  tedious 
with  no  loss  of  value.     See  Guard. 

GUARD-HOUSE.  —  The  buildmg  occupied  by  the 
guard.  The  prisoners  being  kept  in  the  building,  it 
is  frequently  used  as  a  synonj-m  for  prison-room  or 
lock-up.  7o  take  one  to  the  guard-houte  is  to  confine 
him.     See  Ouard-room. 

GUARD  MESS.— The  table  which  is  kept  for  the 
ofticers  of  the  Life  and  Foot  Guards  in  St.  James's 
Palace.  The  sum  of  £4000  per  annum  is  allowed 
for  the  Mess. 

GUARD-MOUNTING.— The  military  ceremony  of 
marching  on  guard.  At  the  assembly  of  guard-details, 
the  men  warned  for  duty  fall  in  on  their  company 
parade-grounds,  in  two  ranks,  facing  to  the  right, 
non-commissioned  officers  and  supemimieraries  falling 
in  as  file-closers;  each  First  Sergeant  then  faces  his 
detail  to  the  left,  verifies  it,  fixes  bayonets,  brings  the 
detail  to  rear  open  onler,  inspects  the  dress  and  gene- 
ral appearance,  replaces  bj-  a  supernumerary  any  man 
whose  condition  makes  him  luitit  to  march  on  guard, 
and  then  brings  the  detail  to  close  order.  The  band 
takes  post  on  the  regimental  parade,  so  that  the  left 
of  its  front  rank  shall  be  twelve  yards  to  the  right  of 
the  front  rank  of  the  guard  when  the  latter  is  formed. 
At  adjutant's  call,  the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major 
mareli  to  the  regimental  or  garrison  parade,  the  Ser- 
geant-major on  the  left;  the  details  are  conducted  to 
the  parade  bj'  the  First  Sergeants,  the  band  playing  in 
quick  or  double  time.  Upon  arriving  on  the  parade- 
ground,  the  Sergeant-major  takes  post  facing  to  the 
left,  12  yards  to  the  left  of  the  front  rank  of  the  band; 
the  Adjutant  takes  post  so  as  to  be  12  yards  in  front 
of  and  facing  the  center  of  the  guard  when  formed. 
The  detail  which  arrives  first  is  so  conducted  to  the 
line  that,  upon  baiting,  the  breast  of  the  right  front- 
rank  man  shall  be  near  to  and  opposite  the  left  arm 
of  the  Sergeant  major.  The  Sergeant  having  halted 
his  detail,  places  him.self  in  front  of  and  facing  the 
Sergeant-major,  at  a  distance  equal  to  or  a  little  greater 
than  the  front  of  his  detail;  he  then  commands: 
1.  Rear  open  order,  2.  March.  At  the  second  com- 
mand, the  ranks  are  opened,  the  front  rank  dresses 
up  to  the  line  of  the  Sergeant-major  and  Krst  Sergeant, 
the  right  front-rank  man  placing  his  breast  against 
the  left  arm  of  the  Sergeant-major;  the  rear  rank  steps 
back  and  halts  three  yards  in  rear  of  the  front  rank; 
the  non-conmiissioned  ofticers  three  yards  in  rear  of 
the  rear  rank;  and  the  supernumeraries  three  yards  in 
rear  of  the  non-commissioned  officers.  Seeing  the 
ranks  opened,  the  Sergeant  commands,  Frokt;  sa- 
lutes the  Sergeant-major,  and  reports:  The  detail  is 
correct;  or,  (So  many)  Sergeants,  Coijxn-als,  or  privates, 
are  absent.  He  then  passes  by  the  right  of  the  guard, 
and  places  himself  three  yards  in  rear  of  his  supernu- 
meraries. The  other  details,  as  they  arrive,  form  in 
a  similar  manner  on  the  left  of  the  fii-st;  each  First- 
Sergeant  places  him.self  oppo.site  the  left  of  his  detail, 
faces  the  Sergeant  major,  opens  ranks,  salutes,  reports, 
and  places  himself  in  rear  of  his  supernumeraries  as 
already  prescrilwd;  the  rear  rank,  the  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  supernumeraries  of  each  detail, 
dress  on  the  rear  rank,  the  noncommissioned  officers 
and  supernumeraries  of  the  detail  next  ]ireceding ; 
the  rear  rank  closes  to  the  right.  The  company  de- 
tails alternate  in  taking  the  right  of  the  line.  The 
Sergeant-major  returns  the  salutes  with  the  right  band, 
draws  his  sword,  verifies  the  details,  causes  the  guard 
to  count  fours,  completing  the  left  four  as  in  the 
School  of  the  Company,  if  nece.s.sary,  and  then  di\'ide8 
the  guard  equally  into  two  platoons;  after  which  he 
commands:  1. /J/V^/f?,  2.  DuKss.  The  Sergeant  major 
verifies  the  alignment  of  the  ranks,  file-closers,  super- 
mmierarics,  and  First  Sergeants,  and  then  returns  to 
the  right  of  the  front  rank,  faces  to  the  left,  commands, 
3.  Front,  pas.ses  to  the  center  of  the  guard,  turns  to 
the  right,  halts  midway  to  the  Adjutant,  sidutes,  and 
reports:  >**(>.'  The  details  are  correct;  or,  Sir.t  (so 
many)  Sergeants,  Corporals,  or  pritates,  are  absent.     At 


GUABB  U OTTNTING. 


791 


GUABD  HOTTNTING. 


the  order.  Take  your  jxtst,  the  Sergeant-major  faces 
about,  approaches  to  within  two  janls  of  the  center 
of  the  guard,  and,  turning  to  the  right,  places  himself 
facing  to  the  front,  three  yards  to  the  left  of  the  front 
rank.  The  Sergeant  major  having  reported,  the  Offi- 
cers of  the  Guard  post  themselves  facing  to  the  front, 
three  j'ards  in  front  of  the  front  rank,  and  draw 
sword,  the  Senior  opposite  the  center  of  the  first  pla- 
toon, the  Junior  opposite  the  center  of  the  second  pla- 
toon; if  there  he  but  one  officer,  he  places  himself  in 
front  of  the  center  of  the  guard.  The  Adjutant 
superintends  the  formation,  returns  the  sjilute  of  the 
Sergeant-major  with  the  right  band,  draws  his  sword, 
and  commands:  1.  Officers  and  non-commumoned  offi- 
een,  to  the  front  and  center,  2.  M.uiCH.  At  the  com- 
mand march,  iheOfficersof  the  Guard  advance,  closing 
toward  each  other,  and  halt  at  three  yards  from  the 
Adjutant;  the  non-commi.ssioned  officers  pass  bj- the 
flanks,  and  form  in  the  order  of  rank  from  right  to 
left,  three  yards  in  rear  of  the  officers.  The  Adjutant 
then  assigns  their  places  in  the  guard  according  to  rank, 
as  follows:  Senior  Officer,  Commander  of  the  Guard, 
and  chief  of  the  first  plat'ion;  Junittr  Officer,  chief  of  the 
second  platiwn ;  Senior  Sergeant,  right  guide  and  guide 
cf  the  first  platoon;  Second  Sergeant,  left  guide  and  guide  \ 
cfihe  seceind  plntoon;  1}ie  remaining  non-<'oinmi«!ioned 
officers  as  fiU-closers  of  the  first  and  second  platoons. 
The  Adjutant  then  commands:  1.  Officer  and  non- 
commissioned officers,  2.  To  your  posts,  3.  March.  At 
the  command  march,  the  Junior  Officer  of  the  Guard 
and  the  non-commissioned  officers  take  the  posts 
assigned  them,  the  Junior  Officer  placing  himself  three 
yards  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  second  platoon,  the 
non-commissioned  officers  passing  around  the  flanks. 
If  there  be  but  one  Officer  of  the  Guard,  the  Adjutiint 
commands:  1.  Non-commissioned  officers,  2.  7'o  your 
posts,  3.  March.  The  Senior  Sergeant  takes  his  post 
in  the  line  of  file-closers  opposite  the  center  of  the 
second  platoon.  The  officers  and  non-commis.sioned 
officers  having  taken  their  posts,  the  Adjutant  directs 
the  Commander  of  the  Guard,  Inspect  your  guard.  Sir; 
at  which  he  faces  about,  commands,  1.  Order,  2.  Asms, 
8.  Insitection,  4.  Arms,  returns  his  sword  and  inspects 
the  guard.  During  the  inspection  the  band  plays. 
The  Adjutant,  during  the  inspection,  returns  his 
sword,  observes  the  general  condition  of  the  guard,  and 
replaces  any  man  who  does  not  present  a  creditable 
appearance  bj'  a  supernumerary  from  his  company. 
He  a!so,  when  so  directed,  selects,  as  Orderly  for  the 
Commanding  Officer,  the  soldier  who  is  neatest  in  gene- 
ral appearance,  and  notifies  the  Officer  of  the  Guard  of 
his  selection.  When  there  are  two  Officers  of  the  Guard, 
the  Junior  maj',  at  the  discretion  of  the  Senior;  inspect 
the  rear  rank.  If  there  be  no  Officers  of  the  Guard, 
the  Adjutant  inspects,  and  the  Sergeants  designated  as 
chiefs  of  platoon  place  themselves  in  the  line  of  file- 
closers,  opposite  the  centers  of  their  platoons.  If  the 
fuard  be  too  small  to  be  divided  into  platoons,  the 
enior  Sergeant,  who  commands  the  guard,  places 
himself  on  the  right  of  the  front  rank,  and  is  covered 
by  the  right  guide  in  the  rear  rank.  The  inspection 
ended,  the  Adjutant  places  himself  about  thirty  yards 
in  front  of  and  facing  the  center  of  the  guard,  and 
draws  sword;  the  Officers  of  the  Guard  place  them- 
selves three  yards  in  front  of  the  centers  of  their 
respective  platoons,  and  draw  sword;  if  there  be  but 
one,  he  places  himself  three  yards  in  front  of  the  cen- 
ter of  the  guard;  at  the  same  time  the  Officers  of  the 
Day  take  post  in  front  of  and  facing  the  guard,  about 
thirty  yards  or  more  from  the  Adjutant,  the  old  Offi- 
cer of  the  Dav  three  yards  to  the  right  and  one  yard 
to  the  rear  of  "the  new  Officer  of  the  Day.  The  Adju- 
tant then  commands,  1.  Parade,  2.  Rest.  3.  SorXD 
OFF.  The  band,  commencing  on  the  right,  plays 
along  the  line  in  front  of  the  Officers  of  the  Guard  to 
the  left,  and  hack  to  its  place  on  the  right,  when  it 
ceases.  The  Adjutant  now  commands:  1.  Guard, 
3.  Attention-,  3.  Carry,  4.  Arms,  5.  Close  order, 
6.  >L.\Rcn.  At  the  command  march,  the  officers  face 
about,  and  place  themselves  two  yards  in  front  of 


their  respective  platoons.  The  Adjutant  then  com- 
mands, 1.  Present,  2.  Arms;  faces  to  the  new  Officer 
of  tlie  Day,  salutes,  and  reports:  Sir'  The  guard  is 
formed.  The  new  Officer  of  the  Day,  after  acknow- 
ledging the  salute  with  the  right  hand,  directs  the  Ad- 
jutant:  J/<nrA  the  guard  in  rerieir,  Sir.  If  the  Adjutant 
he  senior  to  the  Officer  of  the  Day,  he  reports  without 
saluting;  the  Officer  of  the  Da)' then  sjilutcs  and  gives 
the  Adjutant  the  same  directions  as  before;  the  Adju- 
tant returns  the  salute.  The  Adjutant  faces  about, 
brings  the  guard  to  a  carry,  and  commands:  1.  Pla- 
toons  right  irheel,  2.  JIarch.  At  the  first  command, 
the  chiefs  of  platoon,  if  not  already  there,  place  them- 
selves two  yards  in  front  of  the  centers  of  tieir  respec- 
tive platoons.  At  the  command  march,  the  platoons 
wheel  to  the  right  on  a  fixed  pivot,  as  explained  in 
the  School  of  the  Company;  the  band  wheels  to  the 
right  and  places  it.self  twelve  yards  in  front  of  the 
first  platoon.  The  Adjutant  places  himself  abreast  of 
the  first  platoon  and  six  yards  from  its  left  flank;  and 
the  Sergeant-major  six  yards  from  the  left  flank  of 
the  second  platoon.     The  Adjutant  then  commands: 

1.  Pass  in  rerifw,  2.  Foritard,  3.  Guide  right,  4. 
M.tRCH.  The  guard  now  pa.s.ses  in  quick  time  past 
the  Officer  of  the  Day,  according  to  the  principles  of 
re%iew,  the  Adjutant,  the  chiefs  of  platoon.  Sergeant- 
major  and  Drum-major  saluting.  If  senior  to  the  Offi- 
cer of  the  Day,  the  Adjutant  does  not  salute.  The 
band,  having  pa.ssed  the  Officers  of  the  Day,  wheels  to 
the  left  out  of  the  column,  and  places  itself  opposite 
the  Officers  of  the  Day,  and  facing  them,  ceasing  to 
play  when  the  rear  of  the  column  has- pa.s.sed;  the 
trumpeters  or  field-music  detach  themselves  ftom  the 
band  when  the  latter  wheels  out  of  the  column,  and 
remain  in  front  of  the  guard.  The  guard  having 
passed  the  Officers  of  the  Day,  the  Adjutant  and  Ser- 
geant-major halt,  return  their  swords  and  retire. 
The  Commander  of  the  Guard  wheels  it  into  line  to 
the  left  without  halting,  breaks  it  into  column  of 
fours  to  the  right,  places  himself  on  the  left  of  the 
leading  guide,  and,  preceded  by  the  trumpeters,  who 
begin  lo  play  when  the  band  cea.ses,  conducts  his 
guard  to  its  post.  The  Officers  of  the  Day  face  toward 
each  other  and  salute,  the  old  Officer  of  the  Day  giving 
the  old  or  standing  orders  to  the  new  Officer  of  the 
Day.  While  the  "band  sounds  off,  and  the  guard  is 
marching  in  review,  the  Officers  of  the  Day  stand  at 
parade  rest  with  arms  folded.  They  Ixjth  come  to 
attention  before  the  guard  is  to  be  presented,  and  as 
the  head  of  the  column  approaches.  The  new  Officer 
of  the  Day  returns  the  salute  of  the  Drum-major, 
should  there  be  one,  with  the  right  hand,  and  uncov- 
ers while  the  guard  is  passing,  holding  his  hat  with 
the  right  hand  over  the  left  shoulder.  The  First 
Sergeants  and  supernumeraries  come  to  order  arms, 
parade  rest,  and  attention,  with  the  guard;  they  re- 
main at  order  arms  while  the  guard  is  being  presented 
and  wheeled  into  column.  The  senior  First  Sergeant 
commands,  1.  Parade,  2.  Rest,  at  the  command 
march  for  passing  m  review,  and,  1.  Supernumeraries, 

2.  Attention,  when  the  Officers  of  the  Day  come  to 
attention.  The  First  Sergeants  come  to  parade  rest, 
and  to  attention  with  the  supernumeraries.  The  rear 
of  the  column  ha\-ing  pas.se<l  the  Officers  of  the  Day, 
the  senior  First  Sergeant  commands,  1.  Carry,  2. 
.\rms,  after  which  each  First  Sergeant  marches  his 
supernumeraries  to  the  company  parade  and  dismisses 
them.  The  guard,  if  too  small  to  be  divided  into 
platoons,  may  be  wheeled  to  the  right  and  pa.ssed  in 
re\iew  as  alwve;  the  Commander  of  the  Guard  is  two 
yards  in  front  of  its  center;  the  Adjutant  is  six  yards 
■from  its  left  flank,  the  Sergciint major  covers  him  on 
a  line  with  the  file-closers.  The  Officer  of  the  Day 
may  direct  the  Adiutant:  .Varch  the  guard  to  its  post, 
Sir.  The  Adjutant  faces  about,  brings  the  guard  to 
a  earn/,  and  then  commands:  1.  Guard  to  its  }>ost, 
2.  Fours  right,  3.  March  (or.  Double  time.  March). 
At  the  second  command,  the  Senior  Officer  places  him- 
self facing  to  the  right,  two  vards  in  front  of  the  right 

.  guide;  the  Junior  Officer  places  himself  in  the  line  of 


GUARD-MOUNTING. 


792 


GUARD  MOUNTING. 


flie-closers  in  rear  of  the  center  of  the  second  platoon. 
At  the  coniinand  luareh,  the  {luard  wheels  I)y  fours  to 
the  right;  the  IruniixMers  or  lichliimsic  place  them- 
selves in  Its  front:  the  Senior  Olliier  takes  ponimand 
and  places  himself  on  the  left  of  the  leailiuir  ijuide; 
the  Adjutant  and  Sergeant-major  return  swords  and 
retire,  and  the  First  Sergeants  march  olf  their  super- 
numeraries; the  Ollicers  of  the  Day  sidute  each  other 
as  before,  and  the  band  retires.  As  the  new  guard 
approaches  the  guard-house,  the  old  guard  is  formed 
in  line,  witli  the  trumpeters  or  field-music  two  yards 
to  its  right;  and,  when  the  trumpeters  or  field-music 
of  the  new  guartl  arrive  opposite  its  left,  the  Com- 
mander of  the  old  guard  commands:  1.  Present, 
2.  Arms.  The  new  guard  having  passed,  he  com- 
mands: 1.  C'lrry,  2.  Akms.  The  new  guard  marches 
in  quick  time  past  the  old  guard,  arms  at  a  carry, 
officers  saluting.  The  trumpeters  having  marched 
three  yaids  beyond  the  trumpeters  or  lield-music  of 
the  old  guard,  change  direction  to  the  right,  and, 
followed  l>y  the  guard,  change  direction  to  the  left 
when  on  a  line  with  the  tile-closers  of  the  old  guard. 
The  change  of  direction  is  without  command;  the 
Senior  Officer  of  the  Guard  halts  on  the  line  of  the 
front  rank  of  the  old  guard,  allows  his  guard  to  march 
past  him,  and,  when  its  rear  approaches,  wheels  it  bj- 
fours  to  the  left,  halts  it,  establishes  the  left  guide 
three  yards  to  the  right  of  the  trumpeters  or  tield- 
niusic  of  the  old  guard,  and  on  a  line  with  its  front 
rank,  and  then  dresses  his  guard  to  the  left ;  the 
trumpeters  or  field-music  of  the  new  guard  are  two 
yards  to  the  right  of  its  frfint  rank.  The  new  guard 
being  dressed,  the  Commander  of  each  guard,  in 
front  of  and  facing  its  center,  commands,  1.  Present, 

2.  Arms,  resumes  his  front,  and  salutes.  The  offi- 
cers, having  sjduted,  face  their  guards,  and  command: 
1.  Carry,  2.  Arms,  3.  Order,  4.  Arms.  Should  the 
guards  be  commanded  l)y  Sergeants,  they  present 
■with  their  guards,  standing  on  the  right  or  left  of  the 
front  rank,  according  as  they  command  the  old  or 
new  guard.  If  one  guard  is  commanded  by  an  offi- 
cer, the  other  by  a  non-commissioned  ofncer,  the 
latter  stands  on  the  flank  of  his  guard  and  .sjilutes 
with  it.  The  Officer  of  the  new  guard  now  divides 
the  guard  into  three  reliefs,  numliers  them  first,  second, 
and  third,  from  right  to  left,  and  directs  a  list  of  the 
guard  to  be  made  ;  experienced  soldiers  are  placed 
over  the  arms  of  the  guai'd  and  at  the  remote  and  re- 
sponsible pi«ts;  the  Officer  of  the  Guard  then  proceeds 
to  take  posses.sion  of  the  guard-house  or  guard-tent,  and 
the  articles  and  prisoners  in  charge  of  the  guard. 
During  the  time  of  reliex-ing  the  sentinels  and  of  call- 
ing in  the  small  posts,  the  two  guards  stand  at  place 
rest,  and  the  old  Commander  gives  to  the  new  all  the 
information  and  the  instructions  relating  to  his  post. 
The  lirst  relief  ha\ing  been  designated  and  brought 
to  a  carry,  its  Coqjoral  conmiands":  Call  off.  Com- 
mencing on  the  right,  the  men  call  off  alternately 
front  and  rear  rank:  one,  tiro,  three,  four,  ancl  so  on; 
the  Corporal  then  commands  :    1.   Right,  2.   Face, 

3.  Sitj/pt/rt  (or,  Ili//ht  shoulder),  4.  Arms,  .'J.  Forward, 
C.  March.  The  Corporal  marches  on  the  left,  and 
near  the  rear  tile,  in  order  to  observe  the  march.  The 
Coi-poral  of  the  old  guard  marches  on  the  right  of  the 
leading  rank,  and  takes  command  when  the  hist  one 
of  the  old  .sentinels  is  relieved,  changing  places  with 
the  Corporal  f)f  the  now  guard.  When  the  relief  ar- 
rives at  fifteen  yards  from  a  sentinel,  he  halts  and 
faces  to  it,  with  anns  at  a  carry.  At  si.x  yards  from 
him  the  Corporal  commands  :  1.  Helitf,  2.  Halt. 
The  Corporal  then  adds,  according  to  tlie  number  of 

the  post:  1.   No.  ( ),  2.  Anns,  3.  Pout.     At  the 

third  command  the  two  .senlinels  come  to  arms  port, 
and  approach  each  other.  The  old  .sentinel,  under  the 
supervision  of  both  Corporals,  whispers  his  instruc- 
tions to  the  new  sentinel;  lK>tli  then  come  to  a  carry. 
The  Coqioral  then  commands:  1.  Siipiutrt  (ur,  Rifjht 
shMilder),  2.  Arms,  3.  Forward,  4.  >IarcH.  As  the 
relief  passes,  the  old  sentinel  lakes  his  place  in  its  rear 
at  a  support  (or  right  shoulder)  arms;  the  other  senti- 


nels are  relieved  in  a  similar  manner.  The  sentinel 
at  the  guard-house  is  the  lirst  relieved,  and  is  left  be- 
hind. The  detachments  and  sctnlinels  of  the  old 
guard,  having  come  in,  form  on  its  left,  and  both 
guards  are  brought  to  a  carry;  the  Senior  Officer  of 
the  old  guard  then  marches  if,  with  the  guide  right, 
six  yards  to  the  front,  when  he  conmiands:  1.  Fours 
right,  2.  March.  At  the  command  march,  the  guard 
wheels  by  fours  to  the  right,  the  trumi)elcrs  or  lield- 
music  begin  to  play,  and  the  guard  marches  in  quick 
time  pa.st  the  new  guard,  which  stands  at  present 
arms,  officers  of  both  guards  saluting.  The  Com- 
mander of  the  new  guard,  if  an  officer,  stands  two 
yards  in  front  of  its  center  while  the  old  guard  is  piuss- 
ing;  if  a  non-commissioned  officer,  he  stands  on  the 
right  of  the  front  rank.  The  new  guard  is  brouglit 
to  a  carry  as  soon  as  the  old  guard  has  ])assed,  and, 
when  the  latter  has  marched  about  fifty  yards  from 
the  post  of  the  guard,  the  Commander  of  the  new 
guard  orders  his  men  to  stack  arms,  or  to  place  them 
in  the  gun-racks.  The  Conunander  of  the  Guard 
then  mak(  s  himself  acquainted  with  all  the  instruc- 
tions for  his  post,  visits  the  .sentinels,  and  questions 
them  and  the  noncr)nmiissioned  officers  relative  to 
the  instructions  they  have  received  from  the  old  guard. 
On  arriving  on  the  regimental  or  giurison  parade,  the 
Officer  of  the  old  guard  forms  it  in  line  and  halts  it, 
orders  the  company  details  composing  it  two  yards  to 
the  front,  and  sends  them,  under  charge  of  non-com- 
missioned officers  or  privates,  to  their  respective  com- 
panies. Before  the  men  are  dismissed,  the  cartridges 
are  drawn,  or  discharged  at  a  target.  When  the  de- 
tails return  to  their  companies,  the  chiefs  of  squad 
I  examine  the  arms  and  accoutemients  of  their  men, 
I  and  cause  them  to  be  put  away  in  good  order.  The 
'  Officers  of  the  Day  visit  and  inspect  the  guard-house, 
or  tents,  while  the  old  guard  is  being  relieved,  verify 
the  number  of  prisoners,  .and  then  proceed  to  the  office 
or  presence  of  the  Commanding  Otlicer,  who  receives 
the  report  of  the  old  Officer  of  the  Day,  relieves  him, 
and  delivers  his  instructions  to  the  new  Officer  of  the 
Day.  In  visiting  the  guard-house  the  Officers  of  the 
Day  will  each  be  saluted  hy  his  own  guard,  its  Officer 
i  commanding :  1.  Present,  2.  Arms.  'When  other 
officers  entitled  to  a  salute  approach,  the  Senior  Offi- 
cer of  the  two  guards  commands:  1.  Old  and  new 
guards,  2.  Present,  3.  Arms.  In  rendering  honors, 
j  the  Commander  of  the  Guard,  if  an  officer,  stands  in 
front  of  its  center,  faces  about  to  command  present 
1  arms,  resumes  his  front,  and  then  salutes ;  he  also 
j  faces  about  Ix'fore  commim<ling  carry  arms,  and  again 
1  resumes  his  front.  If  a  non-commissioned  officer 
j  conmiands  the  guard,  he  jircsents  and  carries  arms 
with  it,  standing  on  the  right  of  the  front  rank. 
When  a  small  detachment  is  mounted  for  guard,  as 
at  a  one-company  post,  the  officer  mounting  it  brings 
the  detachment  to  rear  open  order,  and,  after  having 
inspected  it,  places  himself  in  front  of  and  facing  it, 
and  commands:  1.  Parade,  2.  Rest,  3.  Sound  off. 
The  trumjieters  or  tield-music  sound  otf ,  standing  on 
the  right,  after  which  the  guard  is  brought  to  close 
order,  and  without  presenting  (unless  there  bo  an 
(Officer  of  the  Day')  is  marched  direct  to  its  post  by  the 
conunands :  1.  Guard  to  its  post,  2.  liight,  3.  Face, 
4.  Forward,  5.  >Iarcii.  The  non-conunissioned 
officer  commanding  the  guard  during  the  mounting 
stands  on  the  right  of  the  front  rank.  In  conducting 
the  guard  to  its  post  he  marches  near  its  left  and  rear, 
where  he  can  see  its  movements.  A  tile-closer,  if 
there  be  one,  takes  his  place  as  guide.  The  same 
honors  are  rendered  at  the  guard-houiie  as  already  ex- 
plained. If  the  guard  be  armed  with  the  .saber,  the 
commands  at  guard  mounting  are  modified  to  meet 
the  rt'cpiiremenis  of  the  iirm  used. 

Mounted  guard-mounting  is  conducted  in  single 
rank  on  the  same  principles  as  guard-moimting  dis- 
mounted, with  the  following  modifications:  Nosupcr- 
ninneraries  are  formed  with  the  guard;  the  First  Ser- 
geant inspects  the  dre.ss  and  general  appearance  of 
his  detail  before  causing  it  to  mount.     The  sabers  of 


GUAED  OF  HONOE. 


793 


GUAED-SHIF. 


the  First  Sergeants  are  drawn ;  the  sabers  of  the  details 
are  in  the  scabbard.  The  officers  and  non-commis- 
sioned officers  take  the  distance  of  six  yards  from  the 
rank  when  at  open  order,  and  one  yard  when  at  close 
order;  the  First  Sergeants,  in  reporting,  s;dute  with 
the  saber,  and  then  place  themselves  six  yards  in  rear 
of  the  non-commissioned  officers  of  the  guard.  The 
assignment  of  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers 
is  omittetl,  the  non-commissioned  officers  remaining 
in  the  position  above  prescribed;  the  guide  of  each 
platoon  is  the  file  on  the  flank  toward  which  the  guide 
is  annomiced.  If  any  man  does  not  present  a  credit- 
able appearance,  the  "Captain  is  notiticd  through  the 
First  Sergeant,  and  sends  a  man  to  the  Officer  of  the 
Guard,  at  the  guard-house,  to  replace  him.  If  there 
be  no  Officer  of  the  Guard,  the  Adjutant,  when 
inspecting,  notifies  the  senior  two  non-commissioned 
officers  to  serve  as  chiefs  of  platoon;  or,  if  the  divi- 
sion of  platoons  be  omitted,  he  notifies  the  senior  non- 
commissioned officer  to  command  the  guard  ;  the 
non-commissioned  officer  places  himself  on  the  right 
of  the  rank.  The  Adjutant  omits  the  commands 
parade  rest  and  guard  nttenthn,  and,  to  present  the 

fard,  commands:  1.  Drair,  2.  S.\ber,  3.  Present, 
Sabek.  The  platoons  wheel  to  the  right.  The 
Officers  of  the  Day  do  not  fold  their  arms,  and  the 
First  Sergeants,  having  taken  their  posts,  remain  at 
attention  till  the  rear  of  the  guard  has  passed  the  Offi- 
cers of  the  Day,  when  they  return  their  sabers  and 
immediately  retire.  See  Grand  G-uard-mounting  and 
Undress  Quard-mounting. 

GUAED  OF  HONOE.— The  guard  drawn  up  to  re 
ceive  royal  personages  and  persons  of  distinction, 
and  to  attend  at  state  ceremonials.  It  consists,  as  a 
general  rule,  of  100  rank  and  file,  with  a  Captain 
in  command,  two  subaltern  officers  (one  carrying  the 
first  color),  and  a  proportion  of  Sergeants.  Tlie  regi- 
mental band  attends  when  the  Queen  or  other  exalted 
person  is  to  be  received. 

GUAEDEEPOET.— The  report  which  the  Officer 
or  Non-commissioned  Officer  in  Charge  of  a  Guard 
sends  in  to  headquarters  on  dismounting.  The  re- 
port of  his  tour  of  ser\-ice  always  includes  the  out- 
posts.    The  following  is  the  form  of  the  report: 


Beport  of  a  Guard  mounted  at  - 
and  relieved  on  the  ■ 


,  on  the- 


Parole. 

f 

c 

% 

s 

a 
1 

1 
o 

03 

1 

s 
£ 

1 

1 

1     B 
CJ 

Articles  in 

CHilBGE. 

i    Received 
tfie  forego- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

ing. 

Count- 
ersign. 

A.  B.. 

Officer  of 

\the  Guard. 

DetaU. 

LIST  OF  THE  GUARD. 


Reliefs 

AND   WHEN   POSTED. 

2 

First  relief  from 

Second  relief!  [Third    relieti 
from  toijfrom  to 

•2 

to   and 

and , and 

s 

to . 

to . 

to . 

% 

« 

£ 

*i 

« 

.  1 

£ 

.i 

U 

bO 

£ 

-1* 

a 

6fi 

S 

a 

6 

i 

a 

s 

Ai 

!Z 

o 

A 

i 

1 

Sergeant: 

Corporal: 

Orderly  for  Commanding  OfBcer:          Best  Shot: 

LIST  OF  PRISONERS. 


Name  first  the  prisoners  under  sentence  by  G.  C.  M.,  com- 
mencing with  those  who  have  longest  to  be  conaned. 

i 

1 

a 
1 

Confined. 

1 

Sentence. 

i 

1 

d 
Z 

a 

o 

t 

i| 

i 

1 



Regimen  t  of , 

ComuKindiny  the  (ixtard. 

GUABD-EOOM. — The  room  occupied  Ijy  the  guard 
during  its  tour  of  duty.  There  is  a  room  in  the  guard- 
house in  which  prisoners  awaiting  the  investigation 
of  their  crimes  are  kept.  Under  the  s;ime  roof  a 
room  is  attached  in  whic-h  the  Officer  Commanding 
the  Guard  resides  during  his  tour  of  duly. 

GUAEDS. — The  elite  of  the  troops  in  all  armies,  and 
usually  those  most  heavily  armed.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, the  Guards  constitute,  in  time  of  pc:ice,  the  gar- 
rison of  London,  and  the  guard  of  the  Sovereign  at 
Windsor.  The  Guards  compose  what  is  called  the 
Household  Brigade,  and  include  in  cavalry  the  1st  and 
2d  Life-guards,  and  the  Royal  Horse-guards  (blue), 
:ui(l  in  infantry  the  Grenadier  Guards,  the  Coldstream 
Guards,  and  the  Scots  Fusilier  Guards.  The.se  dis- 
tinguished corps  comprise  1303  cavalry  in  three  regi- 
ments, and  59-W  infantry  in  seven  battalions.  Before 
the  abolition  of  purchase,  the  officers  of  the  regiments 


Royal  Horseguardsman  (1T42). 

of  Foot-guards  held  higher  army  rank  than  that  they 
bore  regimentally;  that  is,  Ensigns  ranked  with  Lieu- 
tenants of  other  regiments,  Lieutenants  with  Captains, 
Captains  with  Lieutenant-colonels;  and  on  exchanging 
into  the  Line,  they  were  thus  enabled  to  exchange  into 
the  higher  positions,  a  circumstance  which  often  placed 
officers  of  comparatively  short  service  over  veterans 
of  the  Line,  and  caused,"  perhaps,  more  heart- burning 
than  any  other  anomaly  among  the  regulations  When 
purcha.se  was  the  rule,  every  officer  in  the  G\mnis  was 
quite  ready  to  accede  to  it;  when  it  was  abolished  in 
1871,  this  "exceptional  rank  was  also  aboli.shed  in  re- 
gard to  all  officei-s  newly  entering  the  Guards. 

GUAED  SHIP. — The  s"hipof  war  in  charge  of  a  port. 
She  generally  acts  also  as  a  depot  for  seamen  raised 
there  until  appropriated  to  other  vessels,  and  her  Cap- 


GUARD'S  INSTITUTE. 


794 


QTTERBILLAS. 


(ain  is  responsible  for  the  safely  and  proper  preser- 
vation of  the  men-ofwar  which  may  be  laid  up — out 
of  commission— in  the  harbor.  The  Superintendent  of 
a  dockyard,  if  a  Flas-orticer,  carries  his  flae  at  the 
mast-head  of  the  gruard-ship;  if  he  Ik-  only  a  Captain, 
the  ffuard-ship  is  usually  under  his  nominal  command, 
although  the  actuul  duties  arc  carried  on  by  the  Com- 
mander or  next  Senior  Otticer.  j 

GUABD'S  INSTITUTE.— An  establishment  in  Lon- 
don which  consists  of  reading-rooms,  lecture-rooms, 
etc.,  for  all  officers  and  soldiers  in  the  metropolis.     It 
was  inaugurated  by  the  Duke  of  Cambridge,  July  11,  , 
1887. 

OUABDS  OF  THE  TBENCHES.— In  a  siege-opera- 
tion, to  protect  the  workmen  from  sorties,  as  many 
battalions  of  the  line  as  may  be  requisite,  termed  the 
(Tiianls  of  t/if  Trauht)',  are  thrown  forward  about 
thirty  paces  in  advance  of  and  on  the  flanks  of  the  '^ 
mcn"who  open  the  first  parallel.  The  flank  compa- 
nies of  these  battalions,  divided  into  sections,  cover 
the  front  of  the  battalions,  and  are  posted  about  j 
thirty  paces  from  them ;  and  each  section  posts  two 
sentinels  at  about  the  same  distance  to  its  front.  The 
sentinels  keep  a  lookout,  kneeling  on  one  knee;  the 
remainder  of  the  troops  lie  flat  on  the  ground  to  avoid 
the  tire  of  the  defenses.  When  the  working-parties 
are  all  posted,  the  men  of  each  lying  flat  until  all  are 
ready  to  commence  the  work,  the  order  is  given  to 
rise,  ground  their  arms  a  few  paces  to  the  rear,  and 
break  ground.  The  guards  of  the  trenches  keep  their 
position  until  near  dawn,  when  they  are  withdrawn 
and  take  post  in  the  parallel,  which,  by  this  time,  is 
nearly  excavated  to  its  full  width. 

GUARD-TENTS.— The  tents  occupied  by  the  guard, 
when  a  cimiinand  is  in  the  field  or  camp. 

OUASTADOUBS.  —  Turkish  Pioneers.  Armenians 
and  Greeks  are  generally  employed  in  the  Turkish 
armies  to  do  the  fatigue-work  that  is  necessary  for 
the  formation  of  a  camp,  or  for  conducting  a  siege. 

GUDDA.— The  Indian  term  for  a  fool;  also  a  small 
fort  erected  upon  a  hill  or  eminence. 

GUDDEELAH.— Indian  name  for  a  padded  cloth 
placed  on  the  back  of  a  draught-elephant  before  the 
harness  is  put  on.  It  is  made  of  kurwah  cloth  stuffed 
with  cotton,  the  edges  being  bound  with  leather. 

GUDGEON.— The  circular  part  of  a  shaft  or  axle 
upon  ^hich  a  wheel  revolves.  The  gudgeons  on 
cast-iron  axles  are  simply  parts  of  the  extremities  of 
the  axles  turned  exactly  circular  in  a  lathe.  The  cir- 
cular apertures  in  which  the  gudgeons  turn  are  called 
brasses;  they  are  made  of  a  composition  of  copper 
and  tin,  and  are  very  durable,  as  well  as  not  readily 
worn  by  the  friction  of  the  iron  axles.  The  beams 
in  which  the  bras,ses  are  fixed  are  called  "  bcarinffs." 
GUELPHIC  OBDEB.— An  Order  of  Knighthood  for 
Hanover,  instituted  by  George  IV.  when  Prince  Re- 
gent, on  August  Vi,  181.5.  It  is  both  a  military  and 
civil  order,  unlimited  in  number,  and  consisted  origi- 
nally of  three  cla.sse.s — Knights  Grand  Cross,  Com- 
manders, and  Kniglits — to  which  the  Revised  Stat- 
utes of  1H41  have  added  another  cla.ss  of  simple  mem- 
bers. The  Grand-Mastership  is  vested  in  the  Crown 
of  Hanover.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  a  gold  cross 
surmotmtcd  by  the  Hanoverian  Crown — between  each 
division  of  the  cross  is  a  lion  pas.sant  gardant.  In  the 
center  is  the  liorsc  courant  of  Hanover,  surrounded 
by  a  bhic  circle,  and  llic  niotlo,  Sic  aspera  terrent. 

GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELLINES.  —  The  names  of 
two  great  parties,  the  conflict  of  which  may  almost 
be  said  to  make  up  the  history  of  Italy  and  6ermany 
from  the  eleventh  till  the  fourteenth  centur)'.  The 
origin  of  these  names  was  fonnerly  the  sui)ject  of 
much  speculation;  but  antitjuarians  are  now  agreed 
in  tracing  them  respectively  to  the  two  families, 
Waiblingen  and  Welf,  which  in  the  twelfth  century 
were  at  the  head  of  two  rival  parties  in  the  German 
Empire,  tuid  whose  feuds  came  to  be  identified  his- 
torically with  the  respective  principU'S  for  whicli  these 
parlies  contended.  The  actual  origin  of  the  a.ssuni])- 
tion  of  the  names  is  commonly  fixed  at  the  great  bat- 


tle of  Weinsltcrg,  in  Swabia,  1140  a.d.,  in  which  the 
two  rival  claimants  for  the  Empire,  Conrad  of  IIo- 
henstaufen,  Duke  of  Fnmconia,  and  Hcnrj"  the  Lion, 
of  the  House  of  Welf,  Duke  of  Saxony,  ridliiil  their 
followers  by  the  respective  war-cries,  "  Hie  Waiblin- 
gen!" "  Hie  Welf !"  but  it  is  certain  that  the  names 
were  in  u.se  from  an  earlier  date,  although,  probably, 
rather  as  representing  the  family  feud  than  the  po- 
litical principles  which  the  two  families  afterwards 
severally  supported.  As  the  chief  theater  of  the  con- 
flict of  "these  parties  was  Italy,  the  original  names 
took  the  Italian  form  of  O/iiMlini  und  Guelfi.  The 
former  may,  in  general,  be  described  as  the  support- 
ers of  the  imperial  authority  in  Italy,  the  latter,  as 
the  opponents  of  the  Emperors;  and  as  the  opposi- 
tion to  imperial  authority  in  Italy  arose  from  two 
distinct  parties,  which,  for  the  most  part,  made  com- 
mon cause  with  each  other— from  the  Church,  which 
a.sserted  its  own  spiritual  independence,  and  from  the 
minor  principalities  and  free  cities,  which  maintained 
their  provincial  or  municipal  rights  and  liberties— the 
history  of  the  struggle  is  involved  in  much  confusion, 
and  is  variously  related,  and  its  merits  variously  ap- 
preciated, according  to  the  point  of  view  from  which 
it  is  regarded.  To  the  churchman,  it  is  the  struggle 
of  the  Church  against  the  State;  to  the  friend  of  popu- 
lar principles,  ft  is  the  conflict  of  liberty  asainst  ab- 
solutism and  centralization.  The  same  individual — 
as,  for  example,  the  poet  Dante — is  found  to  change 
sides  in  the  struggle.  For  the  most  part,  however, 
the  interests  of  the  Church  in  these  mediaeval  contests, 
although  regarded  by  Protestants  as  excessive  in  de- 
gree, must  be  confessed  to  have  fallen  in  with  the 
claims  of  political  and  personal  freedom.  Five  great 
crises  in  the  strife  of  the  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  par- 
lies are  commonly  noted  by  historians:  under  Henry 
IV.,  in  1055;  under  Henry  the  Proud,  in  1127;  under 
Henry  the  Lion,  in  1140;  under  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
in  1159;  and  in  the  pontificate  of  the  great  champion 
of  churchmanship.  Innocent  III.  The  cities  of  north- 
ern Italy  were  divided  between  the  two  parties — 
<  Florence,  Bologna,  Milan,  and  other  cities,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  taking  the  side  of  the  Guelphs;  while  Pisa, 
Verona,  and  Arezzo  were  Ghiljelline.  The  great 
Italian  families,  in  like  manner,  took  opposite  sides; 
but  the  policy  of  each  family  frequently  varied  from 
1  one  generation  to  another.  In  general  it  may  be  said 
;  that  the  nobles  of  the  more  northern  Provinces  of 
Italy  inclined  to  the  Ghibelline  side,  while  those  of 
the  central  and  southern  Provinces  were  Guelph.  By 
degrees,  however,  especially  after  the  downfall  of  the 
preponderance  of  the  German  Emperors  in  Italy,  the 
contest  ceased  to  be  a  strife  of  principles,  and  degen- 
;  crated  into  a  mere  struggle  of  rival  factions,  availing 
themselves  of  the  prestige  of  ancient  names  and  tra- 
ditional or  hereditarj-  prejudices.  Even  in  1273  Gre- 
'  gory  X.  could  with  truth  reproach  the  Italians  with 
j  their  siuiguinary  animosities  for  the  sake  of  what 
were  but  names,  the  meaning  of  which  few  of  them 
I  could  understand  or  explain;  and  in  the  following 
[  century,  in  13S4,  Benedict  XII.  practically  disjdlows 
I  altogether  the  reality  of  the  grounds  of  division  be- 
tween the  parties,  by  prescribing,  under  pain  of  the 
;  censures  of  the  Church,  the  further  use  of  those  once- 
stirring  names  which  had  long  been  the  rallying- 
words  of  a  .sanguinary  warfare. 

GUEEITE. — A  small  loop-holed  turret  in  the  wall 
of  a  fortress,  from  which  a  sentry  may  command  a 
view  and  fire  over  the  ditch.  Gucrites  are  generally 
fixed  to  the  acute  points  of  bastions. 

GUEBBE. — War;  warfare;  art  of  war;  dissension; 
strife.  A';i  .7'/(  ;•/■(',  at  war;  inaction;  ready  for  action; 
any  piece  of  ordnance  unlimbered,  trunnions  shifted, 
and  everything  made  ready  for  firing. 

GUERRILLAS. — The  name  given  in  Spain  to  the 
armed  bands,  composed  of  peasants  and  shepherds, 
who,  on  occasion  of  foreign  invasion  or  civil  wars, 
carry  on  an  irregular  warfare  on  their  own  account. 
From  1808  to  1814  they  were  regularly  organized 
against  the  French,  and,  being  favored  by  the  charac 


GUEBSILLSRO. 


795 


OUID£S. 


ter  of  the  country,  were  successful  on  various  occa- 
sions, especially  at  the  commencement  of  the  war, 
under  Empecinado,  the  Pastor  Merino,  Mina,  and 
oilier  leaders.  The  country  itself  sulTered  from  the 
Guerrillas,  who  revenged  political  treachery,  or  even 
the  barest  suspicion  of  it,  by  fearful  devastations. 
Many  of  them,  and  particularly  Mina's  band,  joined 
Wellington,  and  after  ha\ing  undergone  a  course  of 
discipline,  rendered  signal  service  as  regular  troops. 
In  all  the  recent  civil  wars  of  Spain,  the  Guerrillas, 
especially  those  of  the  Basque  Provinces,  acted  a 
prominent  part  on  the  Carlist  side. 

When  Guerrillas  are  taken  captive,  they  should  be 
treated  according  to  the  usual  customs  of  war.  In 
the  Franco-German  War,  the  Germans  refused  to 
recognize  as  .soldiers,  or  extend  the  privileges  of  war, 
to  the  Pranc^-Tireurs—a,  body  of  French  volunteer 
sharp-shooters  who,  to  a  great  extent,  adopted  this 
system  of  guerrilla  warfare.     See  Parlimn. 

GUERBILLERO. — An  irregular  soldier;  a  member 
of  a  guerrilla  band  or  party.     See  GucrriUas. 

GUET. — A  term  attached  to  those  persons  belong- 
ing to  the  French  body-guard  who  did  duty  during 
the  night.  It  also  signified  roimds,  or  those  duties 
of  a  soldier,  or  palrolling-party,  which  are  prescribed 
for  the  security  of  a  town,  etc.,  and  to  prevent  sur- 
prises. It  is  also  t;iken  in  a  military  sense  in  con- 
junction with  other  words;  as,  guct  n  pied,  foot-patrol; 
gud  I'l'  c/iffal,  horse-patrol,  etc. 

GTJEITX. — The  name  assumed  by  the  confederated 
nobles  and  other  malcontents  who  opposed  the 
tyracmical  policy  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  the  Low 
Countries.  Philip  ha\ing  sent  nice  Inquisitors  to 
that  country  to  put  into  execution  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  provoked  by  this  act  the  bitter  re- 
sentment of  the  Protestants,  as  well  as  of  the  Catho- 
lics and  nobility,  who  saw  in  it  an  attempt  to  curtail 
their  ancient  liberties.  A  party  of  opposition  was 
thus  formed,  and,  headed  by  Counts  Louis  of  Nassau 
and  Henry  de  Brederode,  decl^ired  in  an  Act  called 
the  "  Compromise,"  which  was  remitted  to  the  Regent 
Margaret,  their  fixed  determination  to  ignore  utterly 
the  authority  of  the  Inquisitors.  On  the  admission  of 
a  deputation  from  them  to  an  audience,  the  Regent 
seemed  somewhat  unnerved  b^-  their  bold  front,  and 
inclined  to  yield  to  their  demands;  when  one  of  her 
Council  ajiproached  her,  and  whispered  that  she 
"  need  not  be  afraid  of  these  gatherings  of  beggars." 
The  remark  having  been  overheard  by  some  of  the 
deputation,  the  abusive  epithet  was  assumed  as  the 
title  of  their  Association.  As  the  sign  of  fraternity, 
each  of  the  "  Beggars  '  wore  a  medal  known  as  the 
"Beggar's  Denier,"  formed  of  gold  or  .silver,  and 
stamped  on  the  obverse  with  the  image  of  Philip  II., 
and  the  inscription,  "In  everything  faithful  to  the 
King;"  and  on  the  reverse  with  a  wallet,  such  as  the 
mendicant  monks  carried,  held  in  two  hands,  with 
the  words,  "  Even  to  carrying  of  the  wallet."  The 
"Beggars"  maintained  a  long  and  vigorous  contest 
against  the  despotic  proceedings  of  Philip  and  his 
advisers,  but  were  ultimately  compelled  to  succumb 
to  superior  force.  A  branch  of  them,  "  The  Beggars 
of  the  Sea,"  under  the  bold  leadership  of  the  sjivage 
Count  de  la  Marck,  were  almost  uniformly  successful 
in  their  enterprises:  they  several  times  defeated  the 
Spanish  fleet,  captured  transports  with  supplies  for 
Alva's  army,  captured  several  fortresses,  and  succored 
besieged  places  along  the  coast. 

GDICHETS.— Small  doors  or  outlets  which  are 
made  in  the  gates  of  fortified  towns.  They  are  gene- 
rally four  feet  high,  and  two  broad,  so  that  a  man 
must  stoop  to  get  through.  In  garrison  towns  the 
guichet  is  usually  left  open  for  the  space  of  one 
quarter  of  an  hour  after  retreat,  in  order  to  give  the 
inhabitants  time  to  enter. 

GUIDES. —  1.  The  non-commi.ssioned  officers,  and 
other  enlisted  men,  who  take  positions  to  mark  the 
pivots,  marches,  formations,  and  alignments  in  mtxlern 
discipline.  The  French  call  Uiem  }<///'«/ »rs.  Guides 
and  file-closers  always  execute  order  arnis.Jij;  and 


vnfx  bayonets,  and  carry  arm^.  In  rendering  honors 
they  execute  the  present,  reverie,  and  re»t  on  afm*. 
On  drill  they  execute  the  support  and  right  shoulder 
arms,  except  the  guide  of  each  subdivision  in  column 
when  marching  in  common  or  quick  time,  and  the 
.guides  who  mark  the  line  of  battle  during  its  forma- 
tion. They  execute  the  other  movements  of  the 
manual  oidy  when  specially  directed. 

2.  In  military  ixffuirs,  guides  are  usually  persons 
drawn  from  the  country  in  which  an  army  is  en- 
camped. A  sufficient  body  of  intelligent  men  is  col- 
lected at  headquarters  to  enable  one  or  more  to  be 
sent  with  every  detachment  of  troops  which  leaves 
the  camp.  A  guide  should  be  quick  of  eye,  experi- 
enced in  the  topography  of  the  country,  and,  above 
all,  faithful.  As,  however,  guides  must  on  most 
occasions  be  drawn  from  the  midst  of  a  hostile  popu- 
lation, and  have  probably  only  a  pecuniary  interest 
in  serving  well,  their  conduct  is  always  watched  with 
the  utmost  jealousy,  death  being  awarded  as  the  pun- 
ishment for  the  least  departure  from  trustworthiness. 
Any  treason  or  incompetence  on  the  part  of  a  guide 
might  involve  the  most  disastroas  consequences  to  a 
whole  ex]3edition.  In  the  French  army  a  consider- 
able corps  of  cavalrj'  and  infantry  bear  the  name,  but 
the  name  only,  of  "  guides. "  They  were  first  formed 
in  1744,  as  a  small  company  of  messengers  on  active 
.service.  The  number  was  gradually  increa.sed  until 
the  time  of  Napoleon  I.,  who  formed  them  into  a 
guard  10,000  strong. 

Trustworthy  guides  are  invaluable,  but  most  rare, 
in  an  enemy's  country.  The  best,  from  the  informa- 
tion they  acquire  by  their  habits  of  life,  are  to  be 
found  among  those  classes  who.se  avocations  keep 
them  much  abroad,  going  from  place  to  place  within 
a  certain  sphere  constantly;  such  as  common  carriers, 
hunters,  smugglers,  etc.  jVmong  the  first  things  to 
be  attended  to  by  an  officer,  in  taking  post  at  any 
point,  is  to  find  out  persons  of  this  class,  and  to  ascer- 
tain their  whereabouts  when  wanted.  Kind  treat- 
ment, doueei/rx.  and  promises  should  not  be  spared, 
to  enlist  either  their  good-will  or  their  interests;  and, 
if  policy  requires  it,  Ihcy  may  openly  be  treated  with 
apparent  harshness,  to  screen  them  from  odium 
among  their  neighbors.  If  none  of  this  class  can  be 
found,  then  resort  must  be  had  to  a  higher;  local 
authorities  being  in  preference  selected,  and  if  neces- 
siiry  forced  to  act.  Here  very  careful  treatment  is 
requisite;  when  the  necessity  of  the  case  is  admitted 
by  them,  much  may  be  gleaned  by  kindness,  cour- 
tesy, and  a  certain  deference,  from  such  persons, 
that  cannot  be  looked  for  from  their  inferiors.  Before 
starting  on  his  mission,  the  officer  should  question 
his  guide  thoroughly;  and  if  he  has  several,  question 
each  apart ;  like  precautions  should  be  taken  with  re- 
spect to  other  inhabitants.  Care  must  be  had  to  find 
out  the  usual  beats  of  one  taken  as  a  guide,  so  as  not 
to  take  him  out  of  his  own  neigh Ijorhood.  In  all 
cases,  the  guide  must  be  well  watched,  however  trust- 
worthy he  may  seem.  If  tmwilling  or  sulky,  he 
must,  if  needs  be,  be  tied,  and  attached  to  a  strong 
man,  with  a  rope  around  his  middle;  being  first 
strictly  .searched  for  any  cutting  instnnncnt  about 
him.  Should  there  be  but  one  guide,  he  must  neces- 
s;irily  be  placed  with  the  most  advanced  portion  of 
Uie  detachment  accompanying  the  officer.  If  there 
are  several,  one  must  be  there  also;  the  one  apparently 
the  mo.st  intelligent  with  the  officer,  who  should  ply 
him  with  questions;  and  the  others  in  the  rear,  strictly 
guarded.  It  may  be  well  to  remark  that  guides  are 
useful  even  in  a  country  of  ea.sy  communications;  as, 
in  case  of  a  renconter,  they  may  point  out  byways 
convenient  for  retreat,  if  necessary. 

3.  In  the  Indian  army  the  name  of  "guides"  is 
given  to  a  regiment  of  cavalrj-  and  infantry  attached 
to  the  Punjab  frontier  force.  It  was  rai.sed  by  the 
late  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  ehiefiy  with  the  Wew  to 
the  men  acting  as  scouts,  and  obtaining  everj'  avail- 
able information  about  the  country  they  happened 
to  be  in;  also  to  act  in  expeditions  as  aaint-courriers 


OTTIDOHT. 


796 


GTJN. 


of  the  force  to  which  they  Ix'loiigcci,  and  (the  cavalry 
bniifilO  in  carryinsr  onU'i-s  that  rc<iuircd  dispatch. 

GUIDON. — 1."  Oiie  who  carries  a  tiaj;.  Also,  one 
of  a  community  of  {niides  established  at  Rome  by 
Charlemagne  to"  accompany  the  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 
Land. 

2.  A  small  flag  or  streamer  usually  carried  by  the 
mounted  troops.  It  is  broad  at  the  one  end  and  is 
nearly  ix)iuteil  at  the  other.  It  is  .sometimes  used  to 
<iirect  the  movements  of  infantry,  and  to  make  sig- 
nals at  sea. 

In  the  United  Slates  army,  each  company  of  the 
mounted  troops  has  a  silken  miidon,  ami  the  names 
of  battles  in  which  companies  or  b.it levies  in  the 
.service  of  the  I'nilerl  Stales  have  borne  a  nierilorious 
part  are  inscril)ed  upon  their  guidons.  W'illiin  the 
spirit  of  this  regulation,  battles  are  imporlant  en- 
gjigemenls  between  independent  armies  in  llieir  own 
theaters  of  war,  in  contradistinction  to  eontiicts  in 
which  but  a  small  portion  of  the  opjiosiug  forces  are 
actually  engaged — the  latter  being  called,  according 
to  their  nature,  "affairs,"  "combats,"  skirmishes," 
etc.  A  battle  has  for  its  object  the  determination  of 
important  iiucstions  of  policy  or  strategy;  an  engage- 
ment may  be  partial,  and  yet,  if  il  tend  to  lliese  ends, 
it  is  also  entitled  to  Ihe  dignity  of  being  termed  a 
battle.  The  portion  of  a  regiment  which  must  be 
engaged  in  a  battle  to  entitle  Ihe  Tegimetrt  to  have 
inscril)ed  upon  itSfColors  Ihe  name  of  the  bailie  is 
that  number  of  companies  which  by  ladies  and  the 
regulations  is  enlilled  as  a  battalion,  habitually,  to 
carry  the  colors  of  Ihe  regiment.  The  inscriptions 
on  Ihe  guidons  of  artillery  batteries  do  not  include 
the  honors  to  which  the  regiment  is  enlilled,  but 
those  won  separately  by  detached  mounted  batteries. 

The  guidons  for  cavalry  are  made  of  silk,  with 
stars  and  stripes  like  the  national  flag;  made  swallow- 
tailed.  Stjirs  gill,  one  and  one  eighth  inches  in  diam- 
eter from  point  to  point.  The  guidon  measures  from 
the  lance  three  feet  live  inches  to  the  end,  and  lifleen 
inches  to  the  fork  of  swallow-tail,  and  two  feet  three 
inches  on  the  lance.  The  fork  of  the  swallow-tail  is 
equidistant  from  ihe  lop  and  bottom  of  guidon.  The 
letter  of  the  company  is  embroidered  in  yellow  silk, 
or  painted  on  one  of  Ihe  while  bars  of  the  Hag.  The 
lance  is  one  and  one  fourth  inches  in  diameter,  and 
nine  feet  long,  including  spear  and  ferrule. 

When  mounted,  the  heel  of  the  staff  resis  in  Ihe  socket 
attached  to  the  right  stirrup;  Ihe  right  hand  grasps 
the  staff  at  the  height  of  the  cllx)W.  The  guidon 
salutes  as  follows:  (Firnt  itwtioii:)  Lower  the  staff  by 
.straightening  the  arm  to  its  full  extent.  (Second  mo- 
li'iii!)  Bring  back  the  slalT  to  the  habitual  position. 
Dismounted,  the  heel  of  the  staff  is  supported  at  the 
right  hip,  and,  in  saluting,  the  guidon,  in  the  first 
motion,  .slips  the  right  hand  along  Ihe  staff  to  the 
height  of  the  eye  before  lowering  the  staff. 

OUIGE.— A  bell  of  Ihe  Middle  Ages,  by  which  the 
shield  wa-s  secured  to  the  person  of  the" wearer,  and 
also  carried  by  him  without  inconvenience,  suspended 
about  his  neck. 

GUILLOTINE.— The  inslnmieni  of  decapitation  in- 
troduced during  the  French  Kevolulion  by  Ihe  Con- 
vention, and  named  after  its  supposed  inventor, 
Jo.sephe  Ignace  Guillotin,  al'hysician,  who,  however, 
it  is  ascertained,  was  only  Iheperstm  who  lirst  pro- 
posed its  adoption.  Il  is  coniposi'd  of  two  upright 
po.sts,  grooved  on  Ihe  inside,  and  comiectcd  at  the  lop 
by  a  cross-beam.  In  the.si'  grooves,  a  sharp  iron 
blade,  placed  obliquely,  descends  liy  its  own  weight 
on  the  neck  of  the  victim,  who  is  bound  to  a  Iwiird 
laid  below.  The  sjieed  and  cirlainly  wiib  which  this 
machine  separates  the  head  from  the  Inud;  gives  it  a 
great  superiority  over  Ihe  a.xe  or  sword.  The  in\'en- 
tion  of  machines  of  this  kind  is  ascrilied  to  the  Per- 
sians. In  Italy,  from  Ihe  lliirleenlh  century,  it  was 
the  iirivilege  of  the  nobles  lo  lie  put  to  death  by  a 
machine  of  this  kind,  which  was  called  ma  ii  mi  in. 
Conradin  of  .Swabia  was  executed  by  such  a  machine 
al  Naples,  in  126«.     An  iustrunieut  re.sembling  ihe 


guillotine  was  likewise  employed  in  Gernuinv  during 
Ihe  Jliddle  Ages.  During  th"e  si.xteenlh  and  till  late 
in  the  .seventeeulh  century,  a  machine  called  the 
makkn,  which  differed  but  .slightly  from  the  guillo 
tine,  was  employed  in  Scotland  for  the  purpose  of 
decapitation,  'fhat  such  an  apparatus  was  known 
and  used  in  France  at  an  earlier  jH-riod  is  proved  bv 
Ihe  execution  of  Ihe  Due  de  -Monlmoniicv,  who  fs 
described  as  having  been  executed  by  a  falling  axe  at 
I  Toulouse,  in  ICIW.  The  Dutch,  loo, "in  the  eighteenth 
I  century  employed  a  decapitating  machine  in  execut- 
ing sla\es  in  llieir  Colonies. 

Guilty. — The  form  of  verdict  given  by  a  Jury  or 
Court  in  criminal  ca.scs  when  the  crime  charged  has 
been  found  i>ro\cd.  In  England,  there  are  oidy  two 
verdicts  which  can  be  given  in  such  cases,  viz.,  (Suilty 
or  Not  Guilty;  but  in  Scotland  llure  is  an  intermediate 
verdict,  called  "  Not  Proven,"  w  liich,  though  in  real- 
ity a  verdict  of  Not  Guilty  (and  it  is  .so  entered  in 
England),  yet  is  allowed  to  lie  given  by  Juries  when 
they  are  not  satisfied  that  suflicient  legal  evidence  has 
been  given,  but  nevertheless  consider  there  was  some 
foundation  for  the  charge,  or  al  least  some  ground 
for  suspicion.  It  has  been  objected  to  this  verdict 
that  it  leaves  a  stigma  on  the  party;  nevertheless  it  is 
firmly  adopted  in  the  law  and  iiractice  of  Scotland. 

GUISARME. — A  lance  having  a  small  axe  fixed  at 
the  fool  of  ils  blade  or  lancehead  on  one  side  jind  a 
spike  projecting  on  the  other  side.  It  was  popular  in 
the  sixleenth  <  inlurv.     See  Gisdrme. 

GUISARMIERS.— 'French  fool-soldiers  (pietons)  of 
Ihe  free  archers,  arme<l  with  the  f/iiiminin: 

GULES. — The  tenn  by  which  the  color  red  is  known 
in  Heraldry.  In  engraving  it  is  marked  by  perpen- 
dicular lines  traced  from  the  top  of  the  shield  to  the 
bottom.  It  is  supposed  to  indicate  valor,  magnanimi- 
ty, and  the  like,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most  honora- 
ble heraldic  color.     See  Heraldry. 

GUN. — A  term  applied  in  its  most  general  applica- 
tion to  fire-arms  of  any  description,  liul  in  the  more 
restricted  and  technical  sense  to  cannon.  A  gun  is  a 
frustum  of  a  right  cone,  with  a  cylinder  excavated 
round  the  axis,  to  serve  as  a  bore.  Close  home  to  the 
end  of  this  cylinder  the  powder  is  driven,  and  out- 
side it  is  the  ball  to  be  expelled.  The  trunnions  are 
cast  in  one  mass  with  the  piece,  and  are  placed  in  the 
second  reinforce  in  such  a  position  that  the  breech- 
end  of  Ihe  gun  outweighs  the  muzzle.  Their  axis  is 
generally  about  half  their  diameter  below  the  axis  of 
the  piece.  This  locality  has  several  conveniences; 
but  for  'he  maximum  of  steadiness  in  the  recoil,  it 
has  been  shown  that  the  a.xes  of  the  trunnions  and  of 
the  gun  .should  exactly  intersect.  The  use  of  the 
trunnions  is  to  suspend  the  cannon  on  ils  carriage  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  may  be  readily  depressed  or 
elevated,  but  so  that  it  shall  have  no  horizontal  mo- 
tion which  is  not  shared  Ijy  Ihe  whole  carriage.  The 
vent  or  touch-hole,  Ihe  channel  llirough  which  the 
charge  is  fired,  is  a  small  cylindrical  orifice  leading 
at  an  angle  from  Ihe  breech  of  the  bore  towards  the 
base-ring.  The  explosion  within  reacts  with  great 
force  on  the  lower  iiorlioii  of  Ihe  vent,  and  in  case  of 
rapid  or  long-conliinicd  firing  soon  lumcycombs  the 
iron  or  brass,  often  dislodging  considerable  fragments. 
This,  besides  diminishing  the  regularity  of  Ihe  action 
of  the  iiowder  ui)on  the  projectile,  \vould  involve 
danger  of  bursting  if  permitted  to  any  great  extent. 
The  gun  so  affected  is  therefore  honclied,  that  is,  has 
a  new  vent  constructed.  This  process  consists  of 
drilling  a  female  screw,  of  larger  than  the  required 
diameter,  in  the  metal  of  the  gun.  Into  this  matrix  a 
bar  of  |)urc  cojijier  is  screwed  (cojiper  being  the  metal 
least  liable  to  fuse  under  the  intense  heat  of  ignited 
gunpowder),  and  the  vent  is  then  drilled  through  the 
copper.  Sir  A.  Dick.soii  devised  the  following  simple 
mode:  he  rammed  a  cartridge  of  sand  lirmly  into  the 
breech,  then  tilled  Ihe  vent  and  all  Ihe  interstices  with 
molten  copper,  and  had  only  lo  bore  a  hole  through 
Ihe  latter  to  com|)lcte  the  operation.  In  cases  of 
great  urgency,  even  this  simple  procedure   may  be 


QuKB.  J.  Gun  with  match-lock.  S.  Roinrj-.Ioi'k.  3.  Flint  looU.  4.  Freuch  hunter's  gun.  5.  Cossack  guD,  0.  Man  infantry  gun.  7.  Prussiau  ueeUlL-  guu.  9.  Section  of  lock  of  Prussian  need!e-grun.  9.  Prussian 
needlegun  cartridge.  10.  Piussian  ovatft-ball  cariridge.  11.  Lefuucheux  gun,  with  shot  cartridge  13.  %vemn  gun.  14.  Chassepot  rifle,  15  Engiieh  Enfield  rifle.  JO.  Its  cartridge.  IT.  Section  of  latter. 
18.  Austrian  giin,  Wflnzel's  patU-ru.  19.  Reniinglon  rifle.  20.  Peabody  gun.  21.  Cartridge,  and  23.  bull  tbeffl  gg,  Pryffei-  gun.  24.  Speiicei's  repeating  cariiine.  25.  Section  thereof,  and  2l!,  cartiidge.  27.  Ileno's 
repeater.  28.  Prussian  needle  carbine.  20.  American  carbine  30,  Colt's  revolver.  81.  Lefauclieiix  rev^.  ^2.  Lefaucheiix  cartridge.  a).  Russian  Mini^gun.  at.  Bavarian  case -carl  ridge.  35.  Bavarian 
expanding  hall.  36.  English  expanding  ball,  with  wooden  plug,  37.  French  expanding  ball,  ancient  form.  I  Recent  form  of  the  same.  31).  SwisF  ordnance  cartridge,  with  compressed  powder.  40.  Box  cartridge, 
with  peripheral  fire.    41.  Baden  expanding  projectile.    42.  Ploenuis' expanding  projectile.    4a.  Loren;c'Be<%eBsed  projectile.    44.  Old  pointed  pro  jet- tile.  i 

TH-ioe. 


OTTN-BARREL. 


797 


Gim-BARBEI. 


shortened  by  the  inserlion  of  the  stem  of  a  tobacco- 
pipe  during  the  tilling;  the  pipe,  on  being  removed, 
leaves  a  perfect  vent.  A  gun  is  suited  to  tire  hollow 
as  well  as  solid  projectiles;  and  the  only  limit  to  the 
charge  is  the  strength  of  the  projectile  "to  resist  rup- 
ture in  the  piece.  The  emplox-ment  of  shells  in  the 
heavy  cannon,  after  the  manner  of  solid  shot,  con- 
stitutes the  basis  of  what  is  known  as  General  Paix- 
han's  System  of  Artillery,  and  not  the  iieculiar  fonn 
of  the  ^n,  as  is  generally  supposed.  The  caliber  of 
a  gun  IS  generally  expressed  in  terms  of  the  weight 
of  a  solid  cast-iron  ball  of  the  size  of  the -bore.  See 
Cannon,  Ordnance,  and  Small-eirnis. 

GUN-BARREL.— The  iron  for  all  good  musket-bar- 
rels contains  a  portion  of  steel,  or  imdergoes  some 
kind  of  steeling  process.  Horseshoe-nails  or  stubs, 
after  much  violent  usage,  yield  a  very  tough  kind  of 
iron  when  reheated;  and  English  gun-makers  have 
been  accustomed  to  buy  such  refuse  on  the  Continent. 
The  best  barrels  are  now  made  of  laniinaled,  twisted, 
and  Damascus  steel.  To  prepare  hiininated  steel,  Mr. 
Greener,  a  celebrated  Birmingham  gunsmith,  collects 
scraps  of  saws,  steel  pens,  files,  springs,  and  steel  tools 
from  the  various  workshops;  cuts  them  into  small 
and  nearly  equal  pieces;  cleans  and  polishes  them  by 
revohing  in  a  cylinder;  fuses  them  into  a  semi-fluid 
state;  gathers  them  into  a  "bloom"  or  mass;  forges 
this  bloom  with  a  three-ton  hammer;  hardens  and 
solidities  it  with  a  tilt-hammer;  rolls  it  into  rods;  cuts 
each  rod  into  pieces  six  inches  long;  welds  these 
pieces  together;  repeats  the  rolling,  cuMing,  and  weld- 
ing several  times;  and  thus  finally  brings  the  metal 
into  a  very  hard,  tough,  fibrous,  and  uniform  state. 
Twisted  steel  for  baiTels  is  made  by  taking  thin  plates 
of  iron  and  steel,  laving  them  alternately  one  on  an- 
other in  a  pile,  welding  them  by  heat  and  hammer- 
ing, and  twisting  them  by  very  powerful  mechanical 
agency,  until  there  are  twelve  or  fourteen  complete 
turns  to  an  inch;  the  length  becomes  reduced  one 
half  and  the  thickness  doubled  liy  this  twisting.  Da- 
mascus steel  barrels  are  made  of  steel  which  lias  un- 
dcfgone  a  still  further  series  of  welding  and  twisting 
operations.  .SV'/i2><(;n/Mr(;sbarrelsare madeof  a  mix- 
ture of  old  files  with  old  horseshoe-nails;  the  files  are 
heated,  cooled  in  water,  broken  with  hammers,  and 
pounded  in  a  mortar  into  small  fragments;  three 
parts  of  these  fragments  arc  mixed  with  five  of  stub; 
and  the  mixture  is  fused,  forged,  rolled,  and  twisted. 
An  inferior  kind  of  Damascus  twist  is  made  by  in- 
terlaying scraps  of  sheet-iron  with  charcoal,  and  pro- 
ducing an  appearance  of  twist,  but  without  the  proper 
qualities.  Threepenny-slelp  and  tirupenny-skelp  are 
infeiior  kinds  of  barrel  iron;  and  the  worst  of  all  is 
sliani-denn  sirlp,  of  which  gim-banels  are  made  for 
hawking  at  a  cheap  price  at  country -fairs,  and  for 
barter  with  the  natives  in  Africa  and  the  backwoods 
and  prairies  of  America.  The  gun  barrel  manufac- 
ture of  England  is  now  almost  wholly  conducted  at 
Birmingham  and  at  Enfield,  very  few  barrels  being 
made  elsewhere.  The  best  barrels  are  all  twisted  into 
form.  The  skelps,  or  long  strips  of  prei>ared  steel, 
are  twisted  into  a  close  i-piral  a  few  inches  long;  sev- 
eral of  these  spirals  are  welded  end  to  end;  and  the 
fissures  arc  dosed  up  by  heating  and  hammering. 
The  rough  barrel,  with  a  core  or  mandrel  lemporarily 
thrust  in  it,  is  placed  in  a  groove,  and  hammered  cold 
until  the  metal  becomes  very  dense,  close,  strong,  and 
clastic.  The  interior  is  then  bored  tnily  cylindrical  | 
by  a  nicely-adjusted  rotating cutiing-tool.  If,  on  nar- 
row inspection,  the  interior  is  found  to  be  straight  and 
regular,  the  exterior  is  then  giound  on  a  rapidly  revol- 
ving stone,  and  finally  turned  in  a  lathe.  Commoner 
barrels  are  not  twisted:  the  skelps  are  healed,  laid  in  a 
semi  cylindrical  groove,  hammered  till  they  assume 
the  form  of  that  groove,  placed  two  and  two  together, 
and  heated  and  hammered  until  one  barrel  is  made 
from  tlu!  two  halves.  Common  barrels  are  browned 
externally  with  some  kind  of  chemical  stain;  but  the 
best  arc  rubbed  with  fine  files,  and  polished  with  steel 
burnishers. 


Comparatively  few  realize  the  amoinit  of  lalwr  and 
expense  required  to  manufacture  shotgun-barrels 
that  have  a  fancy  figure,  and  the  component  parts  of 
which  are  iron  and  steel.  These  barrels  must  be 
light,  therefore  thin,  and  yet  sufficiently  strong^on- 
ditions  which  can  only  be  obtjiined  bj"  an  cxtraordi- 
narj-  tenacity  of  the  material.  In  these  combination.s 
this  tenacity  is  secured  by  mixing  and  blending  the 
iron  and  steel  so  intimately  together  that  the  peculiar 
proportions  of  each,  toughness  and  ela-sticity,  are  im- 
parted to  every  portion  of  the  ma.ss,  and  "the  barrel 
thus  receives  the  degree  of  hardness  and  .softness  re- 
quired. The  barrels  of  the  celebrated  Parker  gun 
are  manufactured  in  the  following  manner:  The  iron 
and  steel  are  placed  in  layers  according  to  the  figure 
that  may  be  desired,  which  operation  is  called  piling. 
These  layers  are  securely  welded  together  into  a  com- 
pact bar,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  whichiuust  be  absolute- 


y-'s-i 


|T> 


Fro.  1. 

ly  sound  and  perfect  in  every  weld,  as  the  slightest 
spot  left  imwelded  or  unsound  in  this  operation  will 
be  sure  to  cause  a  total  loss  of  the  barrel.  The  pro- 
cess now  consists  in  reducing  this  bar  to  such  a  sized 
rod  as  may  be  required  for  a  certain  weight  of  barrel. 
This  rod  is  now  twisted  similar  to  a  rope,  as  shown 
at  E  in  Fig.  2,  care  being  taken  to  have  the  twist 
uniform  and  even.  Several  of  these  tw  isted  rods  are 
now  placed  side  by  side,  being  careful  to  have  the  in- 
clination of  the  twist  arranged  in  opposite  directions, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  These  .several  rods  are 
welded  together  w  ith  the  same  care  and  precision  as 
in  the  pre\ious  operation,  to  insure  perfectly  sound 
barrels.  This  is  now  termed  a  ribbon  and  is  coiled 
sjiirally  around  a  mandrel,  as  shown  at  F  in  Fig.  2. 
This  spiral  ribbon  is  raised  to  a  welding  heat  and 
jumped  by  striking  the  end  against  the  anvil,  thereby 
welding  the  edges  firmly  together.  They  are  then 
placed  upon  a  welding-mandrel,  reheated,  and  welded 
from  end  to  end.  JIuch  skill  and  care  are  reijuired  in 
this  operation  to  reduce  the  outside  diameter  to  cor- 
rect size  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  the  caliber,  and 
also  maintain  the  proper  taper,  the  barrel  being  much 
larger  at  the  breech  than  at  the  muzzle.  Tlie  tine 
figure  that  appears  in  the  figured  barrel  is  dependent 
upon  the  correctness  of  this  and  the  previous  welding 
operations,  for  if  hammered  unevenlv,  the  figure  itself 
will  be  correspondingly  imeveu.  "then  follows  the 
process  of  hammering  in  nearlv  a  cold  state,  whereby 
the  texture  of  the  metal  is  condensed,  closing  its  pores 


Oim-BOAT. 


798 


OUN-CABBIAOEB. 


and  makiDg  it  harder.  This  finishes  the  operation  of 
barrel-foririnir,  and  the  Iwirrel  is  now  ready  to  be 
bored,  turned,  and  finished  U|H>n  lathes  manufactured 
txpressly  for  the  purpose.  Tlie  curly  tisrure  that  ai)- 
IX'ars  in" the  Dama.srus,  Bernard,  and  laminated  bar- 
rels, as  shown  at  G  in  Fig.  2,  is  obtained  by  twistin;; 
the  rods  before  refened  to,  as  appears  in  the  illustni- 
tion  at  £  in  Fig.  2,  the  variation  of  figure  being  ob- 


tained by  Taryinp  the  piling.  The  white  marks  that 
appear  in  the  finished  barrel  are  iron,  and  the  dark 
ones  the  steel.  The  fine  fijnire  that  is  on  the  barrels 
of  the  hisrh-priced  f?uns  is  obtained  by  an  increa.sed 
numlKT  of  pieces  in  the  oi)eration  of  pilins;.  This 
larger  number  of  pieces  necessarily  renders  the  opera- 
tion of  securing  perfect  welding  m\ich  more  diflicull, 
and  the  liability  of  loss  is  greater.     Some  imagine 


that  the  curly  figures  of  the  barrels  are  simply  etched 
on  the  out-sidc,  when  they  are,  in  fact,  the  \isible 
proof  of  a  superior  strength  Ixith  ilesirable  and  im 
portant  to  every  sliixJter  who  cares  for  his  personal 
safety;  for  if  an  iron  barrel,  no  matter  how  strong 
and  thick,  is  defective  and  docs  not  stand  the  test,  tlie 
I  defective  Jiart  will  splinter  into  more  or  less  small 
pieces,  while  the  Dama.scus,  Bernaixl.  and  laminated 
barrels  will  tear  like  a  woven  fabric.  This  proves 
clearly  the  extraordinary  tenacity  of  the  material. 
These  fine  barrels  are  not,  therefore,  workeil  and 
twisted  so  neatly  and  nicely  that  they  may  look  beau- 
tiful alone,  but  ratlicr  for  the  rea.son  that  greatest 
lighlucss,  combined  with  greatest  durability,  may  be 
produced. 

Each  barrel,  after  manufacture,  should  be  carefully 
tested  and  submitted  to  the  necessjiry  proof .  The  di- 
ameter of  the  bore  should  be  verified  with  the  stand- 
ard and  limit  gauges.  The  standard  gauge  Wa  cyl- 
inder of  the  diameter  of  the  liore,  and  the  limit  gauge 
is  .0025  inch  greater.  The  fonner  should  pass  freely 
through  the  bore,  and  the  latter  should  not  enter  it. 
The  barrel  should  enter  the  groove  of  the  stock,  one 
half  of  its  diameter,  and  it  shovdd  bear  uniformly 
throughout,  particularly  at  the  breech.  The  rent 
should  be  accurate  in  its  dimension,  position,  and  di- 
rection, and  a  wire  should  be  pas.sed  through  it,  to 
see  that  it  is  free.  The  cmic  should  be  sound.  The 
shoulders  of  the  hrorh-nrrvir  should  fit  closely  to  the 
end  of  the  barrel,  and  it  should  be  free  from  cracks  or 
flaws  about  the  tang  screw  hole.  The  straightnem 
of  the  barrel  ma.v  be  ascertained  by  turning  out  the 
brecch-screw,  and  holding  the  barrel  up  to  the  light, 
and  reflecting  the  image  of  a  straight-edge  from  the 
siu'face  of  the  bore.  If  the  l)aiTel  be  straight,  the  re- 
flected image  will  be  straight  in  all  pcsitions  of  the 
barrel.  The  bore  must  be  free  from  all  hammer- 
marks,  ring-bores,  cinder-holes,  flaws,  cracks,  etc.,  as 
such  uTcgularities  cause  an  inaccuracj'  of  fire.  See 
B<iml. 

6UN-B0AT. — A  small  boat  or  vessel  armed  with 
one  or  more  guns  of  hea%'j'  caliber.  From  its  small 
dimensions,  it  is  capable  of  nuuiing  close  inshore  or 
up  rivers,  and  from  the  .same  cause  it  has  little  chance 
of  being  hit  l>y  a  larger  vessel  at  the  long  nuige  which 
the  carrying  power  of  its  guns  enables  it  to  maintain. 
On  the  outljreak  of  the  Russian  War  (1854-56),  as  the 
British  Navy  was  without  a  single  gun-boat,  a  large 
squadron  of  them  was  hastily  constructed  in  1855 
and  1856,  but  too  late  for  that  special  war.  From  the 
haste  with  which  they  were  put  together,  most  of 
these  vessels  proved  defective.  Their  tomiage  was 
small;  and  their  armament  usually  consisted  of  one  8- 
inch  gim  and  one  100-pounder  Armstrong  gim.  In  the 
last  two  wars  with  China,  gim-boats  performed  excel- 
lent service,  ha%'ing  penetrated  nearly  to  Peking,  and 
far  up  the  Yang-tze-kiang.  Gun-boats  in  their  more 
modern  form  are  .small  niastless  ves.sels  mounting  one 
large  gmi  in  the  bow,  and  propelled  by  an  engine 
■nith  single  or  tw in  screws.  The  gun  is"  pointed  by 
means  of  the  helm  or  the  screws,  and  the  gun-boat  is 
in  fact  a  floating  gun-carriage.  The  Sliiinn-li,  the 
first  gun-boat  built  on  this  princiiile  for  the  English 
navy,  has  given  her  name  to  the  whole  cla.ss.  Tl)i>sc 
gun-boats  usually  carry  an  amior-piening  gun  of  18 
tons,  on  a  draught  of  only  4  feet.  But  they  have 
been  designed  to  carry  even  35-ton  guns.  Four  have 
lately  been  built  by  the  Messrs.  Armstrong  for  the 
Chinese  na\'y  -the  Alpha,  JicUt,  Gaiiuiia,  and  Delta; 
two  of  these  carry  a  25-ton  gun,  and  two  a  gun  of  over 
30  tons.  A  small  flotilla  of  such  gtm-boats,  protected 
only  by  their  small  size,  would  Ix;  in  coast-defense 
formidable  opponents  even  for  ironclads.  At  tJie 
begiiming  of  the  century  the  United  States  had  over 
250  of  these  vessels;  but  the  "  gim-lwat  system"  was 
soon  ab.mdoned.  Some  of  the  Continental  Navies 
are  well  provicied  with  gun-boats. 

GUN  CARRIAGES.— Gun-carriages  are  designed  to 
transi)ort  cannon  from  one  point  to  another,  and  to 
support  them  when  fired.     A  suitable  gun-carriage. 


<JUN  CAEBIAGES. 


799 


OUN-CABBIAGES. 


therefore,  should  allow  the  piece  to  be  easily  and 
promptly  pointed  in  the  direction  of  its  object;  it 
should  be  capable  of  being  served  by  the  smallest 
number  of  men,  and  transported  with  the  greatest 
ease;  its  recoil,  under  fire,  should  be  restrained  within 
suitnlile  limits;  and  it  should  have  sutlicient  strength 
and  stability  to  resist  overturn  or  injury  from  the 
greatest  service-charge.  The  injurv  to  the  carriage 
arismg  from  the  recoil  of  the  piece  increases  with  the 
square  of  the  velocity  of  the  recoil,  which  is  deixjnd- 
ent  on  the  relation  between  the  weight  of  the  carriage 
and  the  weight  of  the  piece.  Generally  speaking.^he 
piece  should  be  hea\'ier  than  the  carriage.  Artillery- 
carriages,  like  the  cannon  which  they  sujjport,  are 
classified  into  feld,  motiniain,  prairif,  ififgc,  and  »m- 
conM  carriages.  The  sea-coast  carriages,  not  being  re- 
quired for  the  transportation  of  their  ijieces,  differ 
materially  from  the  others  in  their  construction. 

Itwfevery  case  the  carriage  must  be  so  constructed 
as  to  effectually  meet  the  forces  to  act  upon  it.  As 
the  axis  of  the  bore  intersects  the  a.^is  of  the  trun- 
nions, the  entire  force  of  the  charge,  acting  on  the 
bottom  of  the  bore,  is  communicated  to  the  carriage 
at  the  trunnion-beds.  The  carriage  being  constructed 
symmetrically  with  regard  to  the  a.\is  of  the  piece, 
■we  are  at  liberty,  in  the  following  discussion,  to  sup 
pose  that  the  wheels,  trunnion-beds,  and  tniil  are  all 
situated  in  the  siime  plane,  and  that  the  resultant  of 
the  force  of  the  charge  is  applied  at  the  point  where 
the  axis  of  the  trunnions  pierces  this  iihuie.  The 
action  of  the  force  of  the  charge  is  to  move  the  car- 
riage along  the  surface  of  the  grounil  (supi)osed  to  he 
horizontal),  to  press  the  wheels  and  trail  upon  the 
ground,  and  to  rotate  the  carriage  around  the  point  of 
contact  of  the  trail  with  the  ground.     Let  c  be  the 


^<9^^ 

«  i--'"^''!^ 

^ 

T 

^^>^ 

o% 

iL„ 

qi-.... 

1 

position  of  the  axis  of  the  trunnions,  and  me  repre- 
sent the  amount  and  direction  of  the  force  of  the  re- 
coil, and  0  the  angle  of  fire.  Let  L  be  the  point  of 
contact  of  the  trail  and  ground,  a  the  distance  of  this 
point  from  the  trunnions,  a  the  angle  which  the  line 
joining  these  two  points  makes  with  the  horizontal,  Cf 
the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  p  its  hori- 
zontal distance  from  the  point  L.  If  mc  he  the  force 
of  the  recoil,  R  and  C  the  pressures  exerted  by  it 
upon  the  wheel  and  trail  respectively,  we  have  the 
relation 

mv  sin  0  =  R -{- O. 
The  horizontal  component  acts  to  overcome  the 
friction  of  the  wheel  and  trail,  and  to  set  the  car- 
riage in  motion.  By  making /the  unit  of  friction, 
and  MV  the  quantity  of  motion  impressed  on  the 
carriage,  we  have 

7)10  cos  0  =f(C+  R)  +  MV; 
or,  by  substituting  the  value  of  iJ+  f  from  the  above 
equation,  and  solving  with  reference  to  V,  we  have 

_._  VI B  (cos  0  — /  sin  0) 

■which  is  the  velocity  of  recoil.  As  the  unit  of  fric- 
tion of  the  wheel  and  trail  are  not  exactly  the  same, 
the  foregoing  equation  will  not  give  a  stnctly  correct 
value  for  T'for  field-  and  siege-carriages,  but  it  will  be 
correct  for  fortress  carriages  and  mortarbeds,  which 
do  not  move  on  wheels.  In  recoil.  The  force  dif  also 
acts  to  rotate  the  carriage  around  the  point  L  with  an 
effect  proportional  to  its  lever-arm  Ld,  which  is  equal 
to  a  sin  ilrL;  but  sin  di-Z  =  sin  [180°  —  (<r  +  */)],  and 
the  moment  of  the  force  of  the  charge,  with  ref- 
erence to  the  trail ,  is  m  va  sin  [180°  —(«  +  (/)].  This 
moment  being  equal  to  the  moment  of  the  weight  of 


the  piece,  and  the  moment  of  the  quantity  of  motiou 
impressed  upon  the  carriage,  or  P,  we  have 
mta  sin  (180°-  tt  —  S)  =  Wp  +  P. 


ButP  = 


Ji'Te'w 


;  A-  being  the  radius  of  gyration  of 

the  gun  and  carriage  taken  with  reference  to  the 
trail,  ,9  the  force  of  gra\it_v,  and  f  the  angidar  velo- 
city of  the  gun  and  carriage.  Substituting  this  value 
of  P  in  the  above  equation,  and  reducing,  we  have 


iD-g 


711  m  sm  (180°  -a-  '>)  -  Wp 
Wlfi 


With  this  relation  we  can  discuss,  by  giving  differ- 
ent values  to  0,  a,  a,  and  p,  the  effect  of  the  angle  of 
fire,  length  of  trail,  position  of  trunnions,  and  center 
of  gravity,  on  the  stability  of  the  caiTiage,  or  the  rc- 
sistiuicc  which  it  offers  to  overturning  by  the  force  of 
the  charge  acting  at  the  center  of  the  trimnions. 

Stationary  carriages  consist  of  two  parts,  the  car- 
riage— or,  as  it  is  usually  called,  the  top-carriage — and 
the  chassis,  and,  with  the  exception  of  that  for  the  ^ 
flank-casemate  howitzer,  are  always  constructed  of 
wrought-iron.  The  tojx'arriage  is  composed  of  two 
cheeks,  held  together  by  two  plates  of  boiler-iron, 
called  the  front  and  rear  transoms.  Each  cheek  is 
formed  of  two  plates  of  Ix)iIer-iron  cut  to  a  triangidar 
shape,  separated  by  interposing  at  the  edges  the  ver- 
tical portion  of  a  T-shaped  bar.  The  horizontal 
branches  jiroject  over  each  side  to  form  a  double 
flange,  giving  stiffness  to  tho  .cheeks.  Flat  l)ai-s  of 
iron  are  placed  between  the  plates  at  .suitable  inter- 
vals to  stiffen  the  cheeks  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
weight  and  recoil  of  the  piece  bear  u|)on  them.  All 
these  parts  are  held  together  by  screw-bolts.  The 
jiiece  rests  between  the  cheeks,  and  is  supjiortcd  on 
them  by  the  tininnions,  which  work  in  circular  cavi- 
ties called  tru>uii<>n-b(dK.  This  permits  the  piece  to 
have  free  play  for  purposes  of  elevation  and  depres- 
sion. 

For  most  pieces,  the  motion  of  the  top-carriage 
to  and  from  battery  is  regulated  by  a  pair  of  truck- 
wheels,  one  on  each  side,  which  work  on  an  eccentric 
axle  placed  underneath  and  a  little  in  front  of  the 
axis  of  the  trunnions.  The  wheels  are  thrown  into 
f/iYir  by  means  of  handspikes  in.serted  into  sockets 
upon  the  ends  of  the  eccentric  axle;  the  wheels 
then  rest  upon  the  top  of  the  chassis-mils,  and  only  the 
rear  part  of  the  soles  of  the  top-carriage  rest  on  the 
cha.ssis-rails  and  have  sliding  friction.  The  wheels 
\  are  thro\\^l  out  of  gear  in  the  same  manner;  the  entire 
I  soles  then  have  sliding  friction  upon  the  chassis-rails, 
thus  checking  recoil.  In  the  15-inch  gun  carriage 
there  arc  two  pairs  of  truck-wheels,  one  pair  being 
placed  in  front,  as  just  described,  and  the  other  pair 
near  the  rear  end  of  the  carriage;  the  rear  wheels 
only  arc  on  eccentric  axles,  and  when  these  are  out  of 
gear  the  soles  of  the  top-carriage  rest  fairly  on  the 
chassis-rails,  and  the  motion  is  on  sliding  friction. 
When  the  rear  wheels  are  in  gear  the  front  wheels 
also  touch  the  chassis-rails,  and  the  top  carriage 
moves  on  rolling  friction.  To  prevent  the  rear  wheels 
from  working '»/#  (/.yea/' while  the  gun  is  l)eing  run 
from  batteryror  jumping  in  gear  when  llie  iiiece  is 
fired,  pawls  are  pro^^dcd"for  locking  the  rear  axle. 

When  the  rear  wheels  are  in  gear,  motion  is  com- 
municated to  the  carriage  by  means  of  a  handspike 
on  each  end  of  the  front  axle.  This  handspike  car- 
ries a  double  pawl,  which  works  in  ratchets  or  cogs 
on  the  truck-wheels.  The  handspike  is  arranged 
with  a  counterpoise,  consisting  of  a  heavy  piece  of 
iron  on  the  short  ann  of  the  lever.  In  the  10-  and  15- 
inch  guns,  as  also  in  mortars,  the  elevation  and  de- 
pression are  given  by  means  of  a  lever,  called  the 
elemting-har.  The  point  of  this  bar  works  in  ratchets 
cut  in  tile  breech  of  the  piece.  The  fulorum— usually 
called  the  ratelwt-jiost — rests  on  the  rear  transom  of 
the  gun-carriage.  It  is  of  cast-iron,  and  has  several 
notciies  for  adjusting  the  position  of  the  elevating- 
bar.     Carriages  for  the  8-inch  rifle  (converted)  have 


OUH-CABTBISOE. 


800 


GUN  CONSTRUCTION. 


an  improved  elcvating-apparatiis.  Guns  of  the  Par- 
rott  pattern  bave  an  elevating-screw.  This  is  attachetl 
to  the  rear  transom  of  the  earriajre  at  its  lower  end, 
whik'  the  nut  is  connected  to  the  cjuscabel  of  the  gun. 
The  screw  is  worked  by  a  handle  pa.ssing  through  it 
above  the  nut.  Both  screw  and  nut  admit  of  move- 
ments by  which  the  screw  can  take  any  position  rc- 
((uired  in  the  various  degrees  of  elevation.  See  C/ias- 
»iti,  FuUI-ctirriages,  Ordnance,  SeacoasI  and  Garrison 
Carriii<]()i,  Si>gt-rarriagifi,  and  I'rareling-earriage. 

GUN'cARTEIDGE.— A  bag  in  which  the  charge  of 
powder  is  placed  before  the  cartridge  is  inserted  in  the 
gun.  The  size  and  form  of  cartridges  depend  on  the 
nature  of  the  guns  with  which  they  are  to  be  used, 
and  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  required.  They 
are  made  of  serge,  silk  (a  material  nunle  entirely  from 
refuse  silk),  and  raw  hide — serge  for  service,  silk  for 
.saluting  or  exercising,  and  raw  hide  for  drill  purposes. 
Experience  has  shown  that  serge  is  hardly  strong 
enough  for  heavy  charges;  silk  cloth,  therefore,  which 
is  much  stronger,  is  likely  to  t;ike  its  place.  Serge  or 
tiannel  cartridges  are  hooped  (stitched  round  with 
rings  of  thread  or  broad  braid),  which  tends  to  keep 
theTn  in  their  proper  shape  when  tilled.  In  examin- 
ing cjinnoncarlridges  (tilled  or  empty)  care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  flannel  is  perfectly  sovind  through- 
out, and  the  sewing  uninjured,  and  free  from  all  ap- 
pearance of  moths.  If  tilled,  the  powder  shoidd  be 
free  from  all  lumps  or  dust.  Dust  in  powder  in  any 
package  or  parcel  of  car'tri<lges  will  be  shown  by  the 
flannel  appearing  black  anil  dusty  on  the  outside.  To 
restore  the  cartridge,  if  the  jjowderhas  become  caked 
by  pressure,  gentle  rolling  will  bring  it  to  its  proper 
state;  but  if  it  has  been  caked  from  wet,  it  cannot  be 
restored  without  injury  to  the  grain.  Cartridges 
which  are  injured  by  moths,  or  have  the  flannel  torn 
or  damaged,  or  of  which  the  powder  has  been  wetted 
and  caked,  or  which  is  verv  dustv,  are  unserviceable. 

GUN-CONSTRUCTION.— the  change  from  the  for- 
mer comparatively  light  smooth-bore  gun  to  the  heavy 
rifled  cannon  of  the  present  day,  throwing  an  elon- 
gated projectile  of  at  least  three  times  the  weight  of 
a  spherical  shot  of  the  same  caliber,  has  led  to  the 
almost  entire  abandonment  of  cast-iron,  imaided  by 
other  metals,  for  gun-construction,  and  to  the  trial 
and  adoption  in  its  stead  of  metals  of  higher  tensile 
.strenglhs  and  elastic  limits,  as  forged  iron  and  steel. 
It  is  tnie  that  the  Italian  military  authorities,  and  es- 
pecially those  of  France,  have  experimented  ciuite  ex- 
tensively with  combinations  of  cast-iron  and  steel  for 
heavy  guns  with  good  results;  the  present  naval  and 
sea-coast  armament  of  the  latter  nation  being  made 
up  in  great  pait  of  such  guns. 

It  seems,  however,  that  neither  of  these  nations  is 
disposed  to  rest  satisfied  with  this  combination  of  ma- 
terial for  gim-construction.  In  fact,  the  French  have 
instituted  trials  with  all  steel,  and  recently  with  steel 
wire-wrapped  guns.  Herr  Krupji's  rifled  guns  are 
inade  solely  of  forged  steel.  They  have  been  adopted 
in  Germany,  Austria,  and  by  some  of  the  minor  Pow- 
ers of  Eurojie.  Though  tlie  Armstrong  and  Wool- 
wich guns  are  constructed  essentially  of  wrought-iron, 
we  infer  from  various  sources  that"  English  opinion, 
in  common  with  that  of  the  Continent,  points  to  the 
use  of  steel  in  some  shape  as  the  fviturc  material  for 
heavy  gims  both  for  land  and  naval  ser\nce.  The 
combinations  of  this  material,  as  well  as  those  of 
wrought  iron,  known  as  the  built-up  system,  thus  far 
tried  with  more  or  less  success,  consist  of  a  lining 
tube  surrounded  by  concentric  rings  or  cylinders  of 
greater  or  less  length,  coimected  together  by  methoils 
varying  with  the  ideas  of  the  designers,  as  in  the 
Krupp,  the  Woolwich,  and  the  Armstrong  .systems. 

The.se  dilTercnt  systems  all  agree  in  this," that  the 
a.ssemblage  of  parts  shall  produce  com|)ression  upon 
the  inner  layers  and  extension  upon  the  outer,  so  as 
to  call  forth  in  the  nu)st  cfTcctive  manner  the  resist- 
ance of  tli<>  several  rings  when  subjected  to  the  .strains 
due  to  the  explosion  of  the  charge.  Though  long 
since  a  recognized  fact  that  the  penetration  of  projec- 


tiles into  iron  increases  far  more  rapidly  with  velocity 
of  impact  than  with  weight  of  shot,  it 'is  only  within 
a  few  years  that  changes  in  gun-construction  have 
been  initiated  looking  to  a  large  increa.se  of  initial  ve- 
locities. These  recent  changes  have  involved  great 
increase  in  the  length  of  gun  and  in  the  cajiacitv  of 
the  powder-chamber,  by  which  means  about  one  third 
additional  velocity  of  projectile  has  been  reached,  and, 
notably,  in  the  9.4.5-inch  Krupp  gun,  and  in  the  wire- 
bound  Armstrong  gun  recently  constructed  and  tried, 
alxiut  one  half.  The  leading  inilitary  nations  of  the 
world,  though  already  provided  to  some  extent  with 
guns  of  ricdium  power,  more  or  less  satisfactory,  are 
now  looking  for  such  combinations  of  melals  as  will 
produce  a  stronger  gun  capable  of  burning  a  very 
large  charge  of  powder  so  as  to  attain  the  highest 
pos.sible  initial  velocities  with  Siifety. 

Steel  in  some  form  seems  to  be  regarded  as  the  best 
metal  to  accomplish  that  end.  The  fact  th.at  steel 
wire  can  lie  iiroiluccd  with  more  than  twice  the  ten- 
sile strength  of  steel  forged  as  rings  has  probably  in- 
duced the  recent  construction,  for  trial,  of  wire-bound 
guns  both  in  England  and  France.  It  is  understood 
that  so  far  as  these  trials  have  i>rogressed  the  results 
are  favorable,  indicating  the  attainment  of  high  ve- 
locities. Now,  the  forging  of  the  large  ma.s.ses  from 
which  the  rings  are  produced  by  boring,  that  consti- 
tute the  successive  layers  of  the  steel  gun,  involves  a 
very  expensive  plant,  is  a  verj'  slow  and  costly  pro- 
cess, and  docs  not  result  uniformly  in  the  attainment 
of  a  perfectly  homogeneous  metal.  It  would  there- 
fore be  economy  and  probably  give  better  results  if 
the  outer  layers  of  the  gun  could  be  replaced  by  steel 
in  a  shape  more  readily  produced  and  possessed  of 
greater  tensile  strength."  It  is  in  part  with  this  view- 
that  steel  w  ire  seems  to  have  been  suggested  for  wrap- 
ping under  initial  strains  the  interior  tube  and  next 
consecutive  concentric  bands  of  the  steel  gun.  The 
wire  by  its  great  tensile  strength  cannot  fail  to  impart 
the  requisite  tangential  strength  to  the  structure.  The 
only  apparent  difficulty  of  the  combination  is  in  the 
parts  that  give  resistance  to  longitudinal  strains  de- 
veloped in  the  firing.  Dr.  W.  E.  Woodbridgc,  who 
seems  to  have  been  the  inventor  or  suggested  of  the 
wire  gun.  has  attempted  to  attain  resistance  to  trans- 
verse rupture,  other  tli.m  that  due  to  the  great  fric- 
tion of  the  parts,  by  uniting  them  by  brazing  with 
bronze.  In  Sir  William  Armstrong's  wire  gim,  re- 
sistance to  longitudinal  strains  is  effected  bj-  the  in- 
troduction of  length  wise  layers  of  steel  wire  siirroimd- 
ing  the  barrel  between  layers  of  the  wrapping  wire, 
and  in  Schultz's  gun  the  breech  is  bound  to  the  trun- 
nion-ring by  round  bars  of  steel. 

It  is  claimed  by  the  representatives  of  cast-iron  in 
this  country  that  it  has  never  been  tested  using  the 
slower-burning  and  large-sized  gi-aincd  powders  now 
in  vogue.     Guns,  nnide  of  any  material,  should  evi- 
dently  be  so  constructed  in  dimensions  and  chamber- 
ing as  to  cojie  in  power  and  cfTcctiveness  with  their 
rivals,  caliber  for  caliber.     In  order  to  do  this,  large 
charges  would  necessarily  have  to  be  employed  with 
cast-iron,   and   however  judiciously  air-spacing  and 
chambering  may  be  done,  and  even  using  the  most 
perfect  powders,   the  jiressures  resulting  from  the 
j  large   masses  consumed  would  rise  beyond  what  is 
ordinarily  deemed  a   safe    pressure  (17.1    tons  per 
square  inch),  even  for  gmis  using  steel  and  iron.    To 
illustrate:  The  two  Armstrong  10.2:i()inch  w ire  gtms 
have  been  tired  60  rounds,  and  the  pressures  have 
been  (i7,(K)0  poimds  per  square  inch.     This  is  not 
deemed  by  authorities  on  these  matters  as  safe  for 
I  any  of  the  ordinary  constructions  now  in  use,  and 
'  cannot  hence  Ix;  regarded  a.s  by  any  means  a  safe  one 
'  for  cast-iron,  however  thick  tlie  walls  are  made  with- 
I  in  the  limits  of  reasonableness  of  weight,  and  hence, 
I  although  its  use  might  have  been  entertained  as  pos- 
sibly a  safe  structure  some  time  since,  when  large 
charges  in  stronger  gun-constniclions  did  not  obtain, 
the  conclusion  has  now  to  be  drawn  that  no  good  rea- 
I  sons,  even  on  the  groimds  of  insufBcicncy  of  trial,  ex- 


GUN  COTTON. 


801 


GUN-COTTON. 


ist  for  the  further  test  of  the  metal  which,  owing  to 
high  pressures,  will  be  unable  to  cope  in  power,  gun 
for  gun,  with  stronger  systems  susceptible  of  endur- 
ing the  enormous  strains  arising  from  heavj'  charges, 
and  which  are  beyond  the  capacity  of  any  cast-iron 
^'o  withstand. 

It  is  not  understood  that  any  important  moditica- 
tions  are  at  present  intended  in  the  general  features 
of  the  present  constructions  using  wrought-iron  exte- 
rior tubes,  the  change  being  confined  principally  to 
the  substitution  of  the  one  metal  for  the  other.  The 
change  hjus,  however,  so  far  progressed  and  been  so 
well  established  as  an  improvement,  that  steel  coils 
for  80-ton  guns  have  already  been  produced  at  Wool- 
wich, and  applied  in  the  more  recent  fabrication  of 
these  heavy  pieces;  the  heaviest  proilucts,  in  fact,  as 
yet  turned  out  by  the  Royal  Gun-factory.  See.4;v«- 
strong  Guns  and  Ordiuince. 

GnN-COTTON.— The  prevailing  .'^ntiment  in  mili- 
tary circles  on  the  Continent  is  adverse  to  the  use  of 
this  powerful  explosive.  This  opinion  is  based  on 
the  belief  that  the  substance  is  not  a  stable  one,  but 
is  liable,  under  the  ordinary  circumstances  attending 
its  use  for  military  purposes,  to  spontaneous  combus- 
tion. A  claim  for  reliable  stability  was  set  up  for  it 
in  1862  by  Baron  General  von  Lenk,  who  contended 
that  gun-cotton  when  carefully  prepared  and  thor- 
oughly cleansed  from  all  remaining  free  acid  is  as 
stable  a  compound  as  gunpowder;  but  the  subsequent 
explosion  in  Austria  of  a  magazine  in  which  both 
gunpowder  and  gun-cotton  were  stored  did  not  fail 
to  excite  suspicions  against  the  latter  as  being  in 
some  way  implicated  in  the  explosion,  which  could 
not  be  othemise  sjitisfactorily  ex^plained,  to  ttmi  the 
tide  of  public  opinion  against  the  new  compound, 
and  confirm  the  doubts  which  had  previously  existed, 
■whether  it  possessed  in  a  sufficient  degree  the  quality 
of  stability',  without  which  it  could  not  be  trusted. 
The  experiments  commenced  in  1863  by  direction  of 
the  English  Government  to  test  thoroughly,  upon  a 
large  scale,  the  question  whether  gun  cotton,  prepared 
after  the  process  of  General  Lenk,  posses,sed  the  re- 
quired stability  to  warrant  a  sure  confidence  in  its 
remaining  indefinite!}'  in  an  unchanged  condition 
when  subjected  to  all  of  the  changes  of  temperature 
that  it  would  meet  with  in  actual  service,  have  been 
so  entirely  siilisfactory  as  to  lead  to  its  general  use  for 
desti'uctive  effects  in  mines,  torpedoes,  etc.  In  order 
to  remove  all  trace  of  free  acid  from  the  gun-cotton, 
which  is  an  absolute  e.s,sential  in  all  cases,  the  process 
of  General  von  Lenk  required  long-continued  wash- 
ings in  running  water,  sometimes  extending  over 
several  weeks,  to  accomplish  thoroughly  this  prime 
requisite.  The  capillary  action  of  the  long  fibers  of 
the  cotton  formed  a  great  barrier  to  the  ready  and 
complete  removal  of  the  acid,  and  consequently  the 
operation  of  washing  was  a  long,  tedious,  inconven- 
ient, and  uncertain  one.  Professor  Abel,  the  Chem- 
ist of  the  War  Department,  to  whom  was  committed 
the  chemical  and  manufacturing  part  of  the  investi- 
gations, made  several  important  improvements  in  the 
process  of  manufacture,  chief  of  which  is  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  gim-cotton  to  a  state  of  pulp.  This, 
though  originally  adopted  for  another  purpose,  has 
much  improved  its  quality,  especially  in  regartl  to 
stabOity,  which  has  been  greatly  assured  In-  the  more 
thorough  and  complete  means  of  getting  rid  of  the 
free  acid,  while  the  long  washings  in  running  water 
have  been  avoided,  and  the  time  required  for  the 
whole  process  of  manufacture  reduced  from  three  or 
four  weeks  to  as  many  days.  The  terrific  accident 
which  occurred  at  Messrs.  Prentiss's  works  at  Stow- 
market  in  1871,  where  gun-cotton  was  being  manu- 
factured for  the  Government,  and  when  VSi  tons  were 
explofled,  would  have  destroyed  all  confidence  in  its 
stability  and  caused  its  use  for  military  purposes  to 
be  discarded  forever  after;  but  it  was  conclusively 
shown,  after  a  thorough  and  .searching  examination 
into  the  causes  of  the  accident,  that  the  explosion  did 
not  result  from  spontaneous  combustion  of  the  gun- 


cotton  as  it  came  from  the  last  of>erations  of  the  manu- 
facture, but  was  caused  by  impure  gun-cotton,  ren- 
dered so  by  acids  which  had  been  poured  on  it  will- 
fully by  some  unknown  pei-sons  after  it  had  pa.ssed 
through  the  finishing  processes.  The  evidence  taken 
at  the  examination  is  conclusive,  and  the  exjierimenls 
made  in  England,  on  which  this  evidence  was  based, 
go  to  inspire  entire  confidence  in  the  stability  of  gun- 
cotton  when  it  has  been  carefully  prepared.  Sam- 
ples which  have  been  subjected  for  eleven  years  or 
more  to  everj'  degree  and  change  of  temperature  that 
would  be  encountered  in  actual  service  in  any  known 
climate  show  no  appearance  of  change,  but  remain 
in  exactl}'  the  same  state  as  when  first  made. 

E.xperience  has  shown  that  in  the  manufacture  of 
gun-cotton  it  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance 
for  the  success  of  the  process  and  the  reliability  of 
the  product  that  the  manufacture  should  be  con- 
ductetl  with  the  greatest  care  and  circumspection; 
and  to  s<'cure  this  it  is  desirable  that  il  be  in  the 
hands  of  responsible  persons  who  have  no  interest  in 
slighting  any  part  of  the  work.  Impre.s.sed  with  the 
importance  of  adhering  closely  to  the  minutest  detail 
in  the  different  operations,  the  neces,sity  for  which 
was  brought  out  clearly  in  the  investigation  above  re- 
ferred to,  the  English  Government  determined  to  es- 
tablish a  gun-cotton  factorj-  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  army  officers,  and  accordingly  one  was 
established  at  Waltham  Abljey,  imder  the  direction 
of  the  Superintendent  of  the  gunpowder-mills.  In 
all  of  the  various  stages  of  manufacture  the  gun-cot- 
ton is  in  a  wet  state,  entirely  harmless,  and  the  mani- 
pulations unattended  with  danger.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, therefore,  that  the  buildings  shoidd  be  removed 
at  a  great  distance  from  eiich  other,  as  in  a  gunjiow- 
derfactory,  but,  for  the  convenience  of  furnishmg 
the  necessjiry  power  to  drive  the  machinerj-,  the  build- 
ings, built  of  brick,  are  placed  near  together,  like 
ordinarj'  shops,  with  a  steanie-engine  for  the  motor. 
The  material  required  by  Von  Lenk's  process  for 
making  gun  cotton  was  raw  cotton  of  long  staple  and 
high  quality:  but  Professor  Abel  prefers  to  all  others 
the  waste  cuttings  from  spinning-machines,  such  as 
is  used  in  workshops  for  cleaning  machinery,  for  the 
rea.son  that  it  has  already  imdcrgone  so  thorough  a 
cleansing  in  the  process  of  spinning  through  which  it 
has  pas.sed  that  it  requires  no  further  purification 
to  prepare  it,  and  the  gun-cotton  made  from  it  is  free 
from  those  impurities  foreign  to  cellulose,  which  arc 
removed  from  the  raw  cotton  with  so  much  difficidtj-, 
and  are  apt  to  form  with  the  acids  protlucts  of  some- 
what an  indefinite  and  comparatively  unstiible  nature, 
and  become  the  initial  points  of  any  change  or  de- 
composition which  might  be  started  by  long  exposure 
to  high  temperatures.  The  points  to  be  particularly 
attended  to  are  to  see  that  the  waste  is  entirely  free 
from  impurities,  such  as  portions  of  seed-husks  and 
foreign  substances,  and  is  thoroughly  dry.  The  waste 
is  received  in  bales,  the  cotton  in  a  rough  tangle.  It 
is  first  picked  over  by  hand,  to  remove  all  impurities 
that  can  be  thus  culled  out,  and  is  then  passed  through 
a  machine  which,  by  means  of  toothed  rollers,  opens 
and  loosens  the  cotton,  and  subjects  it  to  the  strong 
blast  of  a  fan,  which  blows  off  other  foreign  matters. 
Raw  cotton  at  ordinary  temperatures  absorbs  from 
the  atmosphere  about  6  per  cent  of  moisture.  To 
remove  this  thoroughly  the  cotton-waste  is  subjected 
to  a  temperature  of  126'  for  the  space  of  20  minutes. 
For  this  purpose  a  drjing-chamber,  long  and  narrow, 
is  made  of  boiler-plate,  covered  over  on  all  sides  with 
a  non-conductor,  to  keep  in  the  heat,  and  for  econo- 
my of  labor  and  fuel  is  so  arranged  that  its  action 
shall  be  continuous  and  not  require  to  be  stopped  to 
introduce  or  remove  the  cotton.  It  is  heated  by  air 
which  has  just  been  in  contact  with  coils  of  hot  pipes, 
through  which  steam  is  kept  circulating.  The  neces- 
sary ventilation  is  provided  to  carry  off  the  moisture. 
It  is  provided  with  five  horizontal  endless  belts  run- 
ning from  one  end  of  the  chamber  to  the  other,  one 
above  the  other;  to  each  of  which  is  communicated 


OUW-COTTOW. 


802 


GUH-COTTOW. 


a  slow  nintioD  by  tUc  mnchinery,  acting;  by  means  of 
l)elts  on  pulleys" outside  of  the  cbaniber,  fixed  to  the 
same  axles  as  those  on  which  the  endless  belts  move. 
The  cotton  is  fed  by  hand  into  a  trouirh  in  the  pick- 
ing-room, and  piisses  thence  to  an  endless  Ijelt,  which 
conveys  it  to  the  upper  belt  in  the  drying-chamlx'r. 
This  belt  carries  it  through  the  length"  of  "the  cham- 
l)er  and  deposits  it  on  the  next  lower  belt,  which  per- 
forms a  corresfmnding  service,  anil  so  on  to  the  last, 
■which  leaves  it  in  a  close  closet  prepared  for  its  recep- 
tion. The  cotton,  now  thoroughly  dry  and  warm,  is 
weighed  out  in  parcels  of  If  pounds  each:  and,  to  pre- 
vent it  from  ab.sorbing  moisture  from  the  air  before 
it  is  usi'd  (it  camiot  be  dipped  in  the  acids  imtil  it 
ha-s  cooled),  it  is  placed  in  tin  boxes,  with  closclv- 
litting  covers,  and  stored  away  until  cool  and  ready 
for  lise.  The  acids  arc  procured  by  contract  from 
private  manufacturers.  It  is  p.'irticularly  required 
that  they  should  be  in  a  highly  concenfnited  state 
and  of  uniform  specific  gravitv,  the  nitric  acid  1.52 
smil  the  stil])huric  acid  1.H5.  't'he  presence  of  hj-po- 
nitric  acid  in  the  former  (from  which,  when  concen- 
trated, it  is  witli  ditliculty  eliminated)  is  not  regarded 
as  an  objectionable  impurity.  The  acids  are  thor- 
oughly mixed  together  in  the  proportion  of  three  of 
sulphuric  to  one  of  nitric,  bj'  putting  a  certain  weight 
of  nitric  acid  into  one  tank,  and  into  another  of  equal 
height  three  times  the  weight  of  the  sulphuric  acid. 
These  two  tanks  are  provided  with  outlet-pipes  which 
■will  empty  Ixith  tanks  at  the  same  time.  These  out- 
lets are  brought  together  into  a  single  pipe,  which 
conducts  the  acids  to  a  considerable  distance  into  a 
third  tank,  in  which  there  is  a  mixer,  to  which 
motion  is  coninumicaled  by  tneans  of  a  pulley  on  the 
outside.  After  the  acids  are  well  mixed  together, 
thej'  are  forced  into  tanks  above  the  dipping-room, 
where  they  remain  well  covered  for  a  considerable 
time  before  being  used — in  all  ca.ses  mili!  their  tcm- 
jjerature,  which  was  raised  by  mingling  the  acids 
together,  has  been  reduced  to  that  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  immersion  of  the  cotton  in  the  acids  gives  rise 
to  active  chemical  action,  that  of  the  nitric  acid 
upon  the  cotton,  and  this  with  the  union  of  the  acids 
■with  the  lilxrated  water  causes  the  evolution  of  con- 
siderable heat  which  it  is  necessary  to  control  and 
regulate.  To  caiTy  off  and  keep  down  this  heat,  the 
ve.s.scls  in  which  the  cotton  and  acids  are  brought 
together  are  surrounded  by  cold  ■nater.  A  large 
deep  trough  extends  along  one  side  of  the  dipping- 
room,  and  a  stream  of  running  water  is  kept  con- 
stantly passing  through  it.  In  this  trough  is  placed 
a  long  row  of  tanks,  each  some  14  inches  wide,  2A 
feet  long,  and  16  inches  deep.  These  are  kept  filled 
with  a  certain  measure  of  acid,  into  which  the  Im- 
pound charges  of  cotton  are  dipped.  The  partition- 
■wall  along  the  line  of  tanks  has  a  row  of  holes  cut  in 
it,  each  lar^e  enough  to  pa.ss  a  charge  of  cotton 
throiigh  it  into  the  dipping-room.  The  holes  are 
about  8  feet  apart  and  are  provided  with  close  shut- 
ters, which  are  kept  closed  except  when  required  for 
the  delivery  of  cotton.  Each  workman  is  charged 
•with  three  consecutive  tanks,  which  he  uses  for  dip- 
ping. He  tills  the  first  to  a  fixed  height  with  the 
acids,  ra|)s  on  the  shutter  for  a  charge  of  cotton, 
■which  is  pas.sed  by  an  attendant  from  the  tin  box  in 
■which  it  has  been  kept  through  the  hole  into  a 
■wooden  scoop  ready  to  receive  it,  from  which  the 
■workman  lakes  it  and  plunges  it  into  the  acid  and 
leaves  it  there.  He  then  ]iroceeds  to  the  second  tank, 
and  go<'S  through  the  same  opcr;ition,  and  afterward 
the  third  tank.  By  this  time  the  cotton  which  was 
dipped  first,  ha\ing  been  in  the  acids  a  sufflcientlj- 
long  lime,  is  taken  out  with  a  long  iron  fork  and 
laid  on  an  open  grate  at  the  back  of  the  tank,  where 
as  much  of  the  acid  is  removed  as  can  be  prcs.scd 
from  it  with  the  fork,  using  it  for  this  ])ur]iose  as  a 
lever,  and  engaging  the  end  imder  a  cross-bar  placed 
in  rear  of  the  grate.  The  charge  of  cotton  is  then 
placed  in  an  earthen  jar,  covered  with  an  overhang- 
ing cover  of  the  same  material,  and  deposited  in  the 


soaking-rooni,- where  it  remains  for  twenty-four  hours 
standing  in  a  basin  of  water.  The  cotton  has  ab- 
.sorlied  and  taken  with  if  about  eleven  times  its  weight 
of  acids.  The  workman  replaces  this  amount  with 
fresh  acid,  inuuerses  another  charge  of  <otton  in  it, 
leaves  it,  and  i>roceeds  to  the  next  tank  to  go  through 
with  the  same  manipulations  as  at  the  first,  and  soon 
to  the  others,  taking  each  in  its  regular  order  of  suc- 
cession and  going  through  exactly  the  sjime  motions. 
By  this  process  of  sjiturating  the  cotton  in  the  acid 
the  greater  part  of  the  foniier  is  converted  into  trini- 
tro-celhdose,  but  there  are  generally  some  portions 
which  escape,  to  a  certain  e.xtcnt,  this  change;  there- 
fore, to  insure  the  conversion  of  the  entire  mass,  the 
cotton  still  containing  an  ample  suHicicncy  of  acids 
to  continue  the  chemical  action  upon  the' fibers  not 
yet  acted  upon  is  set  away  in  earthen  jars  to  give  the 
nece.s.sary  time  to  complete  the  change.  A  consider- 
able amount  of  heat  is  still  generated  by  this  action, 
and,  to  carry  it  off  ami  prevent  its  accumulation,  the 
jars  containing  the  dipjicd  cotton  are  placed  in  cold 

'  wafer  of  a  depth  equal  to  three  fourths  their  height. 

I  The  sonking-room  has  its  floor  laid  in  concrete  and 
ccmei'.t,  and  is  divided  into  several  shallow  basins, 
which  will  contain  each  about  fifty  jars,  and  are 
capable  of  being  readily  filled  with  water  to  a  depth 
of  6  or  8  inches,  and  emptied  at  pleasure.  The  cot- 
ton is  kept  here  for  twenty-four  hours,  during  which 
time  especial  jiains  must  lie  taken  to  prevent  in  every 
way  the  addition  of  the  least  water  to  the  cotton,  as 
the  result  of  such  accident  would  be  its  ignition  and 
entire  consumption.  In  such  cases  strong  nitrous- 
acid  fumes  are  evolved,  and  the  jar  is  removed  to 
the  open  air.  where  the  cotton  is  quietly  consumed 
without  other'damage  than  its  loss. 

The  next  operation  is  to  get  rid  of  the  free  acid 
contained  in  the  cotton.  This  is  effecteil,  first,  b}- 
mcaus  of  the  centrifugal  drjing-machine,  which  is 
30  inches  in  diameter  and  makes  l.'iOO  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  contents  of  five  or  six  jars  are  emptied 
into  the  centrifugal  machine,  and  the  charge  is  imi- 
formly  distributed  before  the  machine  is  set  in  mo- 
tion. When  the  acid  ceases  to  drop  from  the  cotton 
the  latter  is  taken  out  of  the  machine,  and  a  greater 
portion  of  the  remaining  acid  is  removed  and  the 
chemical  action  arrested  by  washing  in  fresh  water. 

I  Care  is  to  betaken  at  thcfirst  washing  that  the  cotton 
is  plunged  quickly,  in  small  quantilies  at  a  time,  into 

I  a  large  Ixxly  of  fresh  water,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
danger  of  ignition.  The  first  washing  is  performed 
in  a  large  tub,  in  one  end  of  which  there  is  a  wooden 

I  wheel  which  plimges  the  cotton,  in  small  portions  at 
a  time,  into  the  water,  and  submerges  it  at  once. 
From  this  tub  the  cotton  is  taken  to  another  centrifu- 

[  gal  drying-machine,  by  which  the  water  is  removed, 

!  when  it  is  again  washed  and  drietl  in  the  same  mim- 
ner.  Tlic  cotton  is  next  caiTied  to  the  pulping-ma- 
chines  to  be  reduced  to  pulp.  These  are  essentially 
the  same  as  the  ordinaiy  machines  used  for  producing 
pulji  for  pajx'r,  and  do  their  work  in  the  sjune  way. 
The  pulp  next  nms  into  the  poachingmachine,  where 
all  of  the  remaining  free  acid  is  removed  by  con- 
tinuous washings  in  fresh  water,  and  finally  at  the 
close  ill  water  made  slightly  alkaline.  The  iKjaching- 
machineis  a  large  trough,  24  feet  long,  12  feet  wide, 
and  al)Out  5  feet  d<'ep,  with  a  large  wooden  wheel, 
like  an  ordinary  water-wheel,  of  24  feel  widtli  of 
face,  iilaced  in  the  middle  of,  and  parallel  to,  the 
longer  side  of  the  trough.  Pijies  are  provided  for 
furnishing  a  continuous  supply  of  pure  warm  water 
and  carryingofT  the  surplus,  as  well  as  for  conducting 
the  pidp  to  and  from  the  trough.  A  rotary  motion 
is  communicated  to  the  wheel,  which  stirs  up  and 
keeps  the  pidp  in  constant  commotion,  tlragging  it 
down  at  one  entl  and  forcing  it  out  at  the  other,  at 
the  same  time  assisted  by  workmen  who,  with  long 
wooden  scrapers,  jMish  it  forward  where  it  will  mei't 
the  acti(m  of  the  wheel,  thus  bringing  every  particle 
in  contact  with  fresh  water  ami  w.ashing  it  in  the 
most  effectual  manner.     This  operation  is  continued 


GTTN-DETACHMENT. 


803 


GUN-LIFT. 


uninterruptedly,  the  water  being  constantly  changed, 
until  samples  of  the  cotton  will  sustain  satisfactorily 
a  severe  heat-test;  this  generally  requires  about  48 
hours,  though  it  may  require  100  hours.  At  lesist  a 
half  ton  of  gun  cotton  is  washed  at  one  time  in  the 
poaching  machine,  and  by  this  means  the  products  of 
many  different  dippings  are  most  intimately  mixed 
together,  so  that  the  greatest  uniformity  in  the  mate- 
rial is  attained.  Before  being  taken  from  the  poach- 
ing-niachine  the  gun-cotton  is  washed  in  water  ren- 
dered slightly  alkaline  with  the  cartxinatc  of  lime  and 
soda.  It  is  desirable  that  the  gun-cotton  should  con- 
tain as  much  as  3  per  cent  of  these  mineral  sub- 
stances. The  manufacture  is  now  comjileted,  so  far 
as  relates  to  the  gi\ing  of  the  cotton  its  explosive 
properties  and  its  resistance  to  further  change  un<ler 
the  ordinary  circumstances  of  service  and  use.  Great 
care  is  required,  even  to  the  minutest  detail  of  manu- 
facture, to  insure  a  product  of  uniform  quality,  and 
it  is  insisted  upon  that  too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid 
upon  the  fact  that  de\iations  from  the  prescribed 
process,  which  may  appear  at  first  sight  trivial  (such 
as  a  slight  variation  in  the  strength  of  the  acids  or 
the  neglect  of  proper  cooling  arrangements),  are  cer- 
tain to  lead  to  varieties  in  the  gun-cotton  produced 
affecting  its  explosive  character  or  its  stability,  or 
even  both. 

In  order  to  control  the  explosive  power  of  gun-cot- 
ton it  is  ncce.s,s;iry  to  compress  the  ])ulp  into  homo- 
geneous masses  of  required  form  and  density.  For 
mining  purposes  and  for  torjU'does  it  is  formed  into 
circular  disks,  3  inches  in  diameter  and  1.7")  inch 
thick,  of  a  density  slightly  greater  than  water  at  60' 
r.,  between  1  and  1.0113,  and  each  disk  has  two  holes 
bored  through  it  about  .2  inch  in  diameter.  To  form 
these  disks  the  pulp  is  drawn  from  the  poaching- 
machine  into  a  large,  close  iron  tank  called  the  stutf- 
chest,  which,  for  convenience  of  drawing  off  the 
pulp,  is  placed  on  a  level  above  the  machines  used 
for  pressing  the  disks.  It  is  supported  on  iron  col- 
umns about  9  feet  high,  and  being  also  on  a  higher 
level  than  the  poachiug-maehiue  the  pulp  has  to  be 
raised  into  the  stuff-chest  by  first  exhausting  the  air 
from  it.  It  is  proWded  with  a  wooden  wheel,  which, 
in  revolving,  keeps  the  ptdp  stirred  up  in  constant 
motion  and  prevents  it  from  settling  and  si'parating 
from  the  water  in  which  it  is  held  suspended.  A 
pipe  in  the  bottom  of  the  stuff-chest  conducts  the 
pulp  into  the  machine  for  forming  the  disks.  This 
machine  is  constructed  on  the  sjime  principle  and 
worked  in  the  .sjune  manner  as  that  used  and  de- 
scribed tor  pressing  pellet-powder.  The  mold-plate 
in  this  case  is  a  large  bronze  cylinder,  about  lo  inches 
long,  and  has  36  holes  about  2i  inches  in  diameter 
bored  through  it.  It  is  stationarj-,  and  made  fast  to 
the  frame  of  the  machine.  A  corresponding  number 
of  closely-fitting  bronze  plungers  enters  these  holes 
from  below  and  closes  them  at  the  bottom.  These 
plungers  are  made  seciu'ely  fast  at  their  lower  end  to 
a  plate  which  is  moved  up  and  down  by  a  hydraulic 
press,  and  are  pierced  witli  small  holes  running 
through  them  parallel  to  their  axis.  The  object  of 
these  holes  is  to  afford  a  way  of  escape  to  the  water 
in  the  pulp  when  it  is  subjected  to  a  heavy  pressure. 
These  plungers  are  first  partially  withdrawn  a  certain 
distance,  so  that  the  molds  shall  contain  a  certain 
fixed  volume;  the  latter  then  are  filled  to  the  top  with 
pulp  from  the  stuff-chest,  and  are  closed  on  top  by 
means  of  an  overhead  block.  The  plungers  are  now- 
forced  upward  by  the  pumps,  and  the  pulp  is  com- 
pressed into  a  solid  cake,  the  water  escaping  from  it 
through  the  plungers.  The  overhead  blocks  are  now 
removed,  and,  the  plungers  continuing  their  upward 
motion,  force  the  gim-cotton  out  of  the  molds  in  shapes 
of  short,  comiiact  cylinders.  They  are  then  carried 
to  the  next  machine",  which  is  similar  to  the  first,  ex- 
cept it  has  onl}-  four  molds,  3  incHes  in  diameter;  in 
each  ot  these  three  cylinders  of  gun  cotton  are  placed, 
separated  from  each"  other  by  circular  iron  plates,  the 
■edges  of  which  are  cut  obliquely,  with  shallow  chan 


nels  to  permit  the  water  in  the  cotton  to  find  its  way 
out.  The  pre-ssure  brought  to  bear  on  each  plunger 
is  1.5  tons,  jmd  the  short  cylinders  of  gun-cotton  are 
pre.s,sed  into  disks  3  inches  in  diameter,  1.75  inch 
thick,  and  weigh  9  ounces  each.  The  gun-cotton  still 
contains  20  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  can  1k'  sawed  or 
bored  with  jx-rfect  safety,  or  placed  in  the  fiame  of  a 
candle,  or  bored  with  a  red-hot  iron  without  danger. 
Each  disk  is  bored  with  two  holes  about  .2  inch  in 
diameter,  parallel  to  the  axis,  and  disposed  symmet- 
rically on  either  side  of  it.  Gun-cotton  is  packed  in 
water-tight  boxes,  containing  about  20  pounds  each. 
As  many  disks  are  put  in  as  the  box  will  hold,  which 
is  then  tilled  with  water,  and  permitted  to  stand  for 
some  nnnutes,  when  it  is  poured  off  and  the  cover 
securely  .screwed  down.  It  may  be  kept  with  entii-e 
safety  m  this  condition  for  an  indefinite  period,  and 
be  transported  without  danger  or  fear  of  accident,  in 
any  conveyance,  ha\nng  in  this  respect  the  advantage 
over  gunpowder  or  most  other  explosives.  The  dis- 
covery made  by  Pi-ofessor  Abel,  that  wet  gim-cotton 
can  be  fired  with  the  same  effect  as  if  it  were  drj-,  if 
there  be  present  a  small  portion  of  the  dry  cotton, 
and  it  be  exjiloded  by  a  detonating  fuse,  is  a  most 
valuable  one,  inasmuch  as  it  obviates  the  necessitj-  of 
drjnng  it,  the  only  operation  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture that  is  attended  with  any  dsuiger.  Besides,  it 
diminishes  the  liability  to  accidents  in  traiLsportation 
and  in  use,  as  the  damp  cotton  is  perfectly  iminflam- 
mable  so  long  as  it  remains  damp.  It  is  uecessiirj'  to 
dry  only  a  disk  or  two  for  each  separate  ma.ss  to  be 
exploded,  and  this  may  be  done  safely  on  hot  plates 
which  are  freely  open  to  the  air  at  the  sides.  The 
factory  at  Waltham  Abbey  has  the  capacitj-  to 
turn  out  4000  pounds  per  day,  and  is  usually 
making  about  I.jOO  pounds  per  day.  The  cost  of 
manufacture  is  stated  to  be  421  cents  per  poimd. 
Experiments  are  being  made  to  test  it-s  fitness  for 
bursting-charges  for  shells  and  rocket-heads,  for 
which  purposes  it  is  thought  to  possess  advantages 
over  gimpowder.  See  EfjSosive  Agents  and  Gunpoie- 
der. 

GUN-DETACHMENT.— The  men  employed  in  the 
service  of  artillery  are  allied  artillerymen,  imd  those 
for  a  single  piececonstitutea.7»«-(W'«'/(;;«/i?.  varjing 
in  number  with  the  size  and  kind  of  jiiece.  The  gun- 
detachment  is  composed  of  two  non-commissioned 
officers  and  from  two  to  ten  privates.  The  senior 
non-eommissioncd  ofliceris  called  the  Chief  of-detach- 
ment;  the  Other,  the  gunner.  The  privates  are  called 
cannoneei-s. 

GUN-^IRE. — The  weU-kno^\-n  name  in  the  army, 
proclaiming  the  break  and  close  of  day  by  llic  firing 
of  a  gun;  in  the  former  ease  troops  turn  out  and  pre- 
pare for  the  forthcoming  duties  of  the  dav,  and  in 
the  latter  all  night-duties  commence.     See  tnttm. 

GUN-LIFT. — A  contrivance  for  moving,  mounting, 
and  dismounting  hea^y  guns.  It  is  variously  con- 
structed. The  gun-lift  generally  employed  in  the 
United  States  service  is  shown  in  the  drawing,  and  is 
described  as  follows:  A  is  the  kHI.  with  mortises  to 
receive  the  legs  of  the  trestles;  B,  is  the  brace-gill, 
notched  to  fit  on  the  sill,  with  a  bolt  and  key  to 
secure  it  in  its  place,  and  a  cast-iron  seat  for  the  end 
of  the  adjusting-screw  of  the  brace  to  rest  in;  C,  the 
Itgs  of  the  trestle,  bolted  and  keyed  together  at  the 
top;  D,  the  brace,  with  adjusting-screws  attached  to 
the  foot,  and  cleats  to  form  a  ladder;  E,  the  cap, 
with  a  shallow  mortise  near  each  end  to  receive  the 
ends  of  the  legs  and  braces,  and  a  hole  to  receive  a 
large  bolt  for  securing  it  to  the  legs.  These  bolts  are 
keyed  below,  and  their  heads  project  above  the  cap 
alxiut  three  inches,  and  serve  as  dowels  to  secure  the 
Ijolsters;  F,  the  boMers,  resting  on  the  cap,  having  a 
cleWs  at  the  center  of  gravity  for  hoisting  it  in  posi- 
tion, .and  morti.se for  the  hoisling-bar  to  piiss  through; 
G,  the  bracket,  fastened  to  the  cap  by  a  bolt,  around 
which  it  turns:  II,  {\ie  tttiging-jiUmk.  resting  on  brack- 
ets; I,  i\xe  fulcrum,  resting  in  the  mortise  in  the  Ixils- 
tcr;  J,  a  Uter,  one  end  resting  in  the  fulcrum  and  the 


OUKLIFT. 


804 


GUN-LIFT. 


other  end  on  the  hydravilic  jack,  and  haWng  a  mortise 
through  which  the  hoisting-bar  passes;  K,  the  hnM- 
iiiy-^u-,  with  hooks  on  the  lower  end  for  sling-chaius, 
and  holes  at  intervals  to  receive  the  supporting  pins; 
L,  «/««;•»,  for  hoisting  into  their  places  the  bolster, 
levers,  fulcrunis,  and  jacks;  JI,  hydraulk  jack,  for 
raising  the  end  of  the  lever,  and  thereby  the  weight. 
Each  giin-lift  is  pronded  with  two  sets"  of  caps  and 
bolsters.  One  of  these  sets  has  the  mortises  for  the 
hoisting-bar  through  its  middle;  this  is  intended  for 
center-pintle  carriages.  The  other  set  has  mortises 
much  nearer  one  end  than  the  other,  and  is  for  front- 
pintle  carriages.  The  Uitler  arniugement  is  intended 
to  permit  the  carriage  to  be  traversed  from  under  the 
gun,  when  it  is  raised,  or  under  it,  when  it  is  lieing 
mounted.  ^Vhen  weights  are  not  excessive — that  is, 
not  exceeding,  say,  lifteen  tons — and  cjin  be  slung 
with  a  single  sling,  but  one  trestle  need  be  used. 
This  would  be  the  case  with  mortars,  gun-carriages, 
and  like  weights.  The  jacks  used  must  be  of  a  power 
equal  to  the  wei.ght  to  be  raised,  as  tliere  is  nothing 
gained  for  them  by  way  of  leverage. 

Twelve  men  are  necessary-  to  erect  the  gun-lift  and 
mount  or  dismount  a  IS-inch  gun.  The  implements 
specially  required  are  two  hydra nlif  jaeks  {30-ton,  or 
one  30-ton  and  one  15-ton),  two  mauU,  two  hammers, 
one  measuring-rrxl  (13  feet),  one  spiritkrel  (carpen- 
ter's).   If  the  carriage  and  chassis  are  to  be  moved, 


quired,  by  turning  the  screw  in  the  foot,  until  they 
shall  have  a  good  bearing  when  the  legs  are  vertical, 
which  is  determined  by  a  plumb-line  or  spirit-level. 
To  raise  the  bolster  a  pair  of  light  shears  is  provided. 
Place  them  so  that  when  raised  the  bead  shall  be 
over  the  middle  of  the  cap  of  the  trestle;  hook  the 
pulley-hook  in  the  link  provided  for  the  purpose; 
fa.steii  two  guys  to  the  head,  one  to  the  front  and  the 
other  to  the  rear;  nnse  the  shears  and  make  fast  the 
guys;  hook  the  pulley  to  the  clevis  of  the  bolster, 
and  raise  it  to  its  place  on  the  cap;  raise  the  staging- 
plank  and  lay  them  on  the  bnickets.  Two  men  as- 
cend the  stejis  on  the  brace  to  the  top  of  the  trestle 
and  receive  the  fulcrum,  lever,  anil  jack,  which  are 
hoisted  to  them  in  turn,  and  place  them  in  position. 
The  hoisting-bar  is  brought  by  the  men  on  the  ground, 
who  insert  it  into  the  mortise  in  the  cap  and  bolster, 
and  raise  it,  assisted  by  those  on  the  trestle,  until  it 
be  in  position. 

To  raise  the  weight,  pass  a  sling  around  the  weight, 
bringing  the  ends  over  the  hook  on  the  end  of  the 
hoisting-bar,  taking  in  all  of  the  slack.  Bring  the 
lever  down  on  the  head  of  the  jack;  put  in  the  pin 
over  it  and  through  a  hole  in  lifting-bar;  commence 
pumping,  and  raise  the  weight  the  full  lift  of  the 
jack;  insert  the  pin  in  the  hole  in  lifting-bar  above 
the  bolster  and  run  down  the  head  of  the  jack  as  far 
as  it  will  go;  bring  the  lever  down  as  at  first,  and 


MinS 


Gun-lift.— TTnited  States  Amiy. 


the  following  will  be  required  in  addition:  one  cradle 
(or  truck-wagon),  six  fradlf -rollers,  twelve  leheeMioeks, 
four  irat/plaiiks,  two  shifting-planks.  A  sufficient 
number  pf  4-1-inch  blocks  of  various  thicknesses 
should  be  at  hand  for  any  purpose  required  of  such 
material. 

To  assemble  and  raise  the  gunlift,  place  the  sills 
parallel  to  each  other  at  the  required  distance  apart, 
and  on  the  spot  where  the  trestle  is  to  stand.  It  will 
be  convenient  to  have  a  wooden  rod  of  a  length  equal 
to  the  proper  distance  between  the  sills.  Lay  down  the 
brace-sills  and  key  them ;  take  two  legs,  bring  together 
the  two  ends  which  form  the  niiter-joint,  pass  the 
bolt  through  them,!md  drive  in  the  key;  raise  one  leg 
above  the  other,  insert  the  head  of  the  legs  into  the 
mortise  in  the  cap,  put  in  the  bolt,  and  drive  in  the 
key.  At  the  same  time  two  other  men  have  gone 
through  the  same  operation  with  the  other  two  legs. 
Place  the  ends  of  the  legs  that  are  on  the  ground 
close  to  the  mortises  in  the  sills;  all  take  hold  of  the 
cap  and  rai.se  it,  bringing  the  trestle  on  its  feet,  and 
placing  the  legs  in  the  mortises  in  the  sills.  A  pole 
with  a  notch  in  the  end,  or  hook  like  a  boat-hook, 
will  be  convenient  in  raising  the  trestle  after  the  cap 
is  too  high  to  hold  it  with  the  hands;  or  the  trestle 
may  be  raised  by  the  shears  in  the  .same  way  as  the 
bolster,  if  the  party  l)e  dclicient  in  force,  or  if  for 
other  rea-sons  it  be  deemed  desirable.  Correct  the 
position  of  the  trestle,  if  it  be  necessary-,  so  as  to 
bring  the  mortise  for  the  hoisting-bar  directly  over 
the  center  of  gravity  of  the  weight  to  be  raised.  Put 
up  the  braces,  varying  their  lengths  as  may  be  re- 


continue  this  operation  as  already  described.  Hie 
weight  should  n/it  be  left  on  the  jofk  for  any  length  of 
time,  but  on  the  pin. 

To  mount  a  15-inch  gun  with  this  gun  lift,  bring 
the  gun  on  to  the  platform  by  means  of  the  cradle, 
or  truck  and  portable  railway,  the  muzzle  to  the 
front,  the  vent  uppermost,  and"  leave  it  in  such  a  po- 
sition, with  the  muzzle  about  two  feet  in  the  rear  of 
where  the  end  of  the  chassis  will  come,  that  when 
the  gun  shall  be  raised  vertically  the  carriage  can  be 
placed  on  its  pintle  and  directly  under  the  gun;  place 
the  shears  midw-ay  between  the  jilace  where  tlie  two 
trestles  are  to  stand;  raise  the  trestles  and  place  them 
over  the  gun  so  that  one  hoisting-bar  shall  be  overthe 
center  of  the  neck  of  the  cascabel,  and  the  other  about 
two  feet  from  the  muzzle;  niise  the  gun  to  its  full 
height  as  already  described  for  riiising  a  weight;  re- 
move the  truck,  bring  the  chassis  (on  a  truck),  and  run 
it  between  the  legs  o^  the  trestles  under  the  gun;  re- 
move the  truck  and  place  the  chas.sis  on  the  pintle; 
bring  the  top-carriage  and  place  it  on  the  cliassis, 
placing  the  trunnion-beds  under  the  trunnions;  lower 
the  gun  into  its  place,  and  remove  the  gun-lift. 

If  the  gun  and  carriage  be  already  on  the  platform, 
or  if  the  peculiar  position  of  the  platform  be  such  as 
to  render  the  foregoing  method  impracticable,  the 
following  plan  may-  be  executed:  Place  the  gun  in 
such  a  position  that  the  axis  of  the  bore  shall  be  in 
the  Siime  vertical  plane  as  the  central  Hne  of  the  chas- 
sis when  the  hitter  shall  be  in  place:  move  thecha.ssis 
parallel  and  close  to  the  gun,  the  top-oirriage  nin 
well  to  the  front;  put  up  the  trestles  overthe  gun  and 


GDNMAKING. 


805 


GUNNEK'S  GIMLET, 


chassis,  both  of  them  being  between  the  legs  of  the  tres- 
tles; hoist  the  gtin,  raise  and  slide  the  chassis  by 
means  of  the  jacks  under  the  gun  and  over  its  pintle; 
run  the  top-carriage  back  under  the  gun,  and  lower 
it  into  its  place.  See  Krupp  Oun-lift  and  Prussian 
Gun-lift. 

GUN-MAKING. — Although  the  terms  gunnery  and 
gun  relate  cbielly  to  great-guns  or  cannon,  the  word 
gun-making  is  always  applied  to  the  manufacture  of 
small-arms.  comi)rlsing  muskets,  rifles,  pistols,  and 
carbines.  In  England  the  great  seat  of  this  trade 
was  formerly  London,  whose  workmen  stood  un- 
rivaled throughout  Europe  for  the  excellence  of  their 
production;  but  of  late  years  the  gun-makers  of  Bir- 
mingham have  succeeded,  from  local  advantages,  in 
turnmg  out  barrels  of  proved  power,  at  such  a  price 
as  to  defy  comiietition.  Since  then  the  London 
makers  have  contined  themselves  to  "tinishing,"  or 
putting  together,  an  art  requiring  the  utmost  nicety; 
and  even  in  this  the  skilled  labor  of  Dublin  aiid 
Edinburgh  has  now  nearly  equaled  them.  There 
are,  therefore,  several  centers  now  in  the  United 
Kingdom  whence  first-rate  arms  are  to  be  obtained. 
America  and  the  leading  Continental  Nations  are 
great  manufacturers  also,  and  each  has  its  particular 
excellences.  The  chief  Continental  Gun  factories  are 
at  St.  Etienne,  Liege,  Vienna,  and  Suhl. 

Machinery  has  been  comparatively  slow  in  being  ap- 
plied to  the  manufacture  of  small-arms,  but  during  the 
last  few  years  it  has  made  giant  strides;  and  now-  the 
government  manufactory  at  Enfield,  in  which  numer- 
ous ingenious  machines  have  been  introduced  from 
the  United  States,  is  fitted  with  everj'  mechanical  ap- 
pliance, and  can  turn  out  many  thousand  arms  per 
annum,  each  of  which  so  exactly  corresponds  to  pat- 
tern that  all  the  constituent  pieces  are  interchange- 
able. Barrels,  instead  of  being  forged  by  the  hand- 
hammer,  are  rolled  at  once  with  a  uniform  pressure, 
and  then  welded  at  one  heat.  In  the  United  States, 
barrels  are  at  present  made  of  cjist  steel,  first  formed 
in  the  solid,  and  then  bored  by  a  succession  of  borers 
of  increasing  diameter.  These  cast-steel  barrels  are 
rapidly  superseding  all  others — at  least  for  sporting 
purposes — in  Great  Britain,  France,  and  America. 
Another  favorite  modern  material  for  barrels  is  lami- 
nated steel.  Barrels  well  constructed  of  laminated 
steel  resist  a  bursting  pressure  of  82,000  lbs.  on  the 
.square  inch  one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  whereas 
common  "twist"  barrels  will  only  withstand  about 
34,000  lbs. 

When  the  barrel  is  finished,  however  made,  it  is 
proofed,  under  very  heavy  charges  of  powder.  All 
non-government  barrels  made  in  England  must  be 
proofed 'at  the  proofing-houses  of  London  or  Bir- 
mingham; government  arms  are  tested  at  Enfield. 
The  portions  of  the  lock  are  made  some  of  iron  and 
some  of  steel,  either  forged  by  hand,  or,  as  in  the 
great  manufactories,  stamped  out  by  a  powerful 
machine.  The  stock  is  turned  by  machinery  from 
strong  light  wood.  On  all  accounts  taken  together, 
it  is  found  that  no  wood  is  so  well  adapted  as  Italian 
•walnut.  The  finishing  or  putting  together  of  giuis  is 
an  art  in  itself;  the  \itmost  attention  having  to  l)e 
devoted  to  everything  that  will  secure  solidity,  light- 
ness, and  the  most  minute  accuracy  of  fitting. 
Skilled  artificers  in  the  gun-trade  command  excellent 
■wages;  rarely  less  than  40«.,  and  often  as  much  as  £4 
per  week. 

In  fitting  and  finishing,  London  is  generally  ad- 
mittetl  to  stand  unequaled;  Paris,  however,  making 
a  good  and  near  second.  For  barrels,  Birmingham, 
St.  Etienne,  and  Liege  have  the  most  re])\Ue.  In  all 
respects,  Toledo,  once  famed  for  its  blades,  holds  a 
high  character  in  regard  to  its  guns,  both  for  sporting 
and  military  purposes.  In  the  United  States,  Wind- 
sor and  Hartford  are  the  leading  manufactories,  with 
Springfield  for  government  arms;  but  the  quality  of 
American  workmanship  is  too  often  sjicrificed  to 
cheapness  in  the  article  turned  out.  The  British  ex- 
port trade  in  small-arms  is  very  great,  the  return  for 


the  year  187.5  showing  an  exportation  of  318,901  stand 
of  all  varieties,  of  the  value  of  £6.5.1,169.  See  Fabri- 
cation of  Smallarms  auA  livyal  Gun -factories. 

GUN-METAL. — An  alloy  of  nine  parts  of  copper 
ami  line  part  of  tin,  u.sed  for  brass  cannon,  etc.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  certain  strong  mixtm^esof  cast- 
iron.     See  Bronze. 

GUNNELS. — A  term  sometimes  applied  to  the  sad- 
dles of  a  ponton-bridge.  Commonly  written  Gun- 
wah'S. 

GUNNER. — A  soldier,  usually  a  non-commi.ssioned 
officer  ranking  next  to  the  Chief-of-detachment,  em- 
ployed to  njanage  and  di.scharge  great-guns.  In  the 
United  Slates  service  there  is  one  gunner  with  each 
gun-detachment.  In  line,  and  in  column  of  platoons, 
he  is  two  yards  in  rear  of  the  center  of  his  detachment, 
except  when  belonging  to  the  left  detachment  of  the 
battery  in  line,  or  of  platoon  when  in  column  of 
platooM, — in  either  of  which  ca.ses  he  places  himself 
on  the  left  of  the  front  rank  of  his  detachment,  and 
is  the  guide  of  that  Hank  of  the  battery  or  platoon;  in 
colunui  of  detachments,  he  is  on  a  line  witli  the  front 
rank  of  his  detachment,  on  the  flank  towards  which 
the  wheel  was  made,  and  one  yard  from  it;  in  column 
of  tiles,  he  is  as  if  he  had  faced  with  his  detachment 
from  line.  When  he  is  the  left  guide  of  the  battery 
or  platoon,  and  by  facing  alxjut  the  front  becomes  the 
rear  rank,  he  does  not  quit  his  position  on  the  flank 
of  his  iletachment,  but  steps  forward  into  the  rear 
(now  become  the  front)  rank.  AVhen,  by  wheeling 
alx)ut,  the  right  sutjdi^ision  becomes  the  left,  the  gvm- 
ner  who  was  the  left  guide  resumes  his  place  in  rear 
of  his  detachment,  and  the  gunner  of  the  detachment 
which  has  now  become  the  left  places  himself  on  its 
left  flank  as  guide  of  the  battery  or  platoon. 
I  In  the  British  army,  the  gunner  is  a  private  .soldier  of 
the  corps  of  artillery;  he  receives  pay  at  the  rate  of  1«. 
2id.  per  diem.  His  unifonn  consists  of  blue  with  red 
!  facings,  and  red  stripes  on  the  trou.^m'rs;  and  his  arras 
!  consist  of  a  carbine  and  sword-bayonet.  At  the  pres- 
ent time,  when  artillery  is  used  with  the  utmost  skill 
and  science,  the  training  a  gunner  must  undergo,  to 
become  thoroughly  efficient,  is  long  and  arduous. 
His  eye  must  be  sufficiently  acute  to  estimate  dis- 
tances instantly  and  appro .ximately;  and  withal,  he 
must  possess  physical  strength  capable  of  sustaining 
the  exertions  neces-sjiry  for  the  ser\ice  of  heavy  guns 
and  the  removal  of  shot  and  ponderous  artillery  stores. 
Master-gitniurs  are  pensioned  Sergeants  of  artillery, 
who  are  placed  in  charge  of  the  stores  in  small  towers 
or  forts;  they  are  divided  into  three  classes,  of  which 
those  in  the  first  class  receive  5ji.  ,  in  the  .second  3*.  6rf. , 
and  in  the  third  3«.  a  day.  Master-gunners  are  now 
borne  in  the  Coast  Brigade  of  Royal  Artillery,  but  the 
office  has  much  degenerated  in  importance  since  it 
was  first  created,  at  least  as  far  back  as  the  time  of 
Henrv  VIII. 

GUNNER'S  CALIPERS.— A  small  calipers  made  of 
shect-bra.ss,  with  steel  points.  The  two  branches  are 
connected  by  a  brass  pivot,  fastened  on  the  upper 
side  by  a  washer  and  screw.  The  branches  are 
graduated  so  as  to  measure  the  lengths  of  fuses,  the 
diameters  of  shot,  and  the  calibers  of  guns.  For 
measuring  shot,  the  points  are  placed  at  the  opposite 
extremities  of  a  diameter,  when  the  size  of  the  shot  is 
shown  by  the  figures  placed  on  a  small  arc  on  the  cir- 
cular part  of  the  arm  near  the  joint,  the  inner  edge 
of  the  other  arm,  or  a  mark  on  it,  coming  in  succes- 
sion opposite  the  different  points  which  mark  the 
sizes.  To  measure  the  caliber  of  a  gun,  the  position 
of  the  points  is  reversed;  they  are  pres.sed  against  the 
sides  of  the  bore  at  the  extremities  of  a  diameter,  and 
the  caliber  is  read  off  from  the  line,  on  a  scale  marked 
"guns,"  with  which  the  back  of  the  other  branch 
comcides.  The  graduations  on  a  scale  next  below 
the  one  marked  "  guns"  will  give  the  diameters  in 
inches. 

GUNNER'S  GIMLET.— This  implement  is  of  the 
same  form  and  size  as  the  priming-wire,  except  that 
at  the  point  a  small  screw  is  formed.     It  is  used  for 


OUHNEB  S  LEVZL. 


806 


GUNNEET. 


boring  out  plujrs  which  have  been  inserted  in  tlie  vent, 
or  the  >;tenis  of  the  primers  which  muy  have  become 
wedired  in  there. 

GUNNER'S   LEVEL. — An  instrument  for  marking 
the  line  of  metal  on  a  piece.     Until  within  a  very  re- 
cent period  it  was  required  with  all  pieces,  but  since 
the  application  of  sights  to  guns  its 
use  is  confined  solely  to   mortars; 
. /TTv.  and  owin^  to  the  fact  that  these 

/         \  pieces  are  left  rough  and  unturned 

on  the  exterior,  the  line  of  metal 
marked,  in  the  usual  manner,  with 
a  gunner's  level  and  a  chalk-line, 
is,"at  best,  but  a  crude  and  imper 
feet  method  of  obtaining  a  line  of 
sight.  The  method  of  using  this 
instrument  is  readily  understood 
b}'  an  inspection  of  the  drawing. 
This  instrument  is  frequently  called  Ibe  gunner's per- 
pendinilar. 

GUNNER'S  PENDULUM.— An  upright  frame  of 
wood,  having  a  cross  arm  attached  to  it,  from  which 
a  pendulum  is  suspended,  vibrating  seconds,  consist- 
ing of  a  string  with  a  leaden  ball,  measuring  from 
the  point  of  suspension  to  the  center  of  giavity  of  the 
ball,  a  length  equal  to  a  second's  pendulum  having 
reference  to  the  latitude;  in  latitude  32^  the  length  is 
39.1.  It  is  employed  to  measure  the  time  of  flight  of 
a  mortar-shell. 

GUNNER'S  PINCERS. — When  an  obstruction  in  the 
vent  projects  bey(«ul  the  surface  of  the  gun,  or  has  a 
head,  it  may  be  withdrawn  with  Ihe  gunner's  pincers, 
which  are  made  of  iron  with  steel  .laws,  and  have  on 
the  end  of  one  of  the  arms  a  claw  designed  for  draw- 
ing nails,  etc. 

GUNNER'S  POUCH.— A  leather  pouch  worn  by  the 
gunner,  being  attached  to  tlie  person  by  a  strap  buck- 
ling around  the  waist.  It  contains  the  smaller  im- 
plements required  by  the  gunner  when  in  action. 

GUNNER'S  QUADRANT.— An  instrument  for  gi\'ing 
elevation  or  depression  to  a  piece.  It  consists  of  a 
graduated  quarter  of  a  circle  of  sheet-brass,  of  six 
inches  radius,  attached  to  a  straight  brass  bar  twenty- 
two  inches  long.    (Fig.  1).    It  has  an  arm  caiTying  a 


Fio.  1. 

spirit-level  at  its  middle,  and  a  vernier  and  clamp- 
screw  at  its  movable  end.  The  arc  is  graduated  to 
half-degrees,  and  the  vernier  reads  to  hve  minutes. 
To  get  a  required  elevation,  the  vernier  is  set  at  the 
indicated  degree;  the  brass  bar  is  ne.xt  inserted  in  the 
bore  parallel  to  the  axis;  the  piece  is  then  elevated  or 
depressed  until  the  level  is  horizontal.  The  elevation 
may  likewi.se  be  obtained  by  applying  the  bar  to  the 
face  of  the  piece,  care  being  taken  to  have  it  in  a 
plane  parallel  to  the  plane  of  fire.  The  latter  is  the 
mode  of  using  it  with  mortars.  The  difficulty  of  a])- 
plying  the  quadrant  to  the  nuizzle  of  guns,  especially 
to  those  in  embrasure,  has  suggested  that  a  metallic 
leilge  be  attached  to  the  end  of  a  trun- 
nion; upon  this  ledge  the  bar  of  the 
((uadranl  is  applied  when  the  elevation 
is  to  be  given.  The  top  of  the  ledge  is 
parallel  witli  the  axis  of  the  bore. 

In  another  form,  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
the  quadrant  is  made  of  wood,  and 
►is  attached  to  a  ride  two  feel  long. 
It  has  a  plumli-liiie  and  bob,  which  are 
canied,  when  not  in  use,  in  a  hole 
in  the  end  of  the  rule  covered  by  a  brass  plate.  The 
quadrant  is  api)lied  either  by  "its  longer  branch  to 
the  face  of  the  piece,  or  this  branch  is  run  into   the 


Fio.  2. 


bore  parallel  with  the  axis,  and  the  elevating-screw 
turned  or  the  quoin  adjusted  imtil  the  required  degree 
is  indicate<l.     See  MurUir. 

GUNNERY. — Ignorance  of  the  laws  of  gravity  and 
of  other  pliysical  circumstances  affecting  the  flight  of 
projectiles  prevented  any  current  theory  of  gunnery 
being  arrived  at  in  the  earliest  stages  of  artillery. 
The  flrst  author  professedly  treating  on  the  flight  of 
cannon-shot  was  Nicholas  Tartaglia,  a  distingui.shed 
Italian  Mathematician,  who  in  1.537  published  his 
work.  La  yuora  Scimtin.  He  had  no  practical  ac- 
quaintance with  his  subject,  but  his  gues,ses  were 
shrewd  and  often  marvelously  near  the  truth.  Among 
other  things  he  ascertained  that  no  portion  of  the  track 
described  by  a  ball  is  a  right  line,  and,  as  a  practical 
aid  to  artillerists,  he  devised  the  gunner's  quadrant. 
After  Tartaglia,  many  i)hiIosophers,  especially  of 
Italy,  theorized  on  the  question,  and  various  tables 
of  ranges,  elevations,  charges,  etc.,  had  been  ])ub- 
lished,  all  more  or  less  fallacious,  when  a  nearer  ap- 
proach to  accuracy  appeared  in  Galileo's  Dialogues  on 
Motion,  printed  in  1638.  The  officers  who  had  charge 
of  artillery  in  actual  u.se  were  too  little  gifted  with 
scicntitic  education  to  deduce  theory  from  practice; 
and  up  to  the  lime  of  Robins,  who  wrote  in  17-12,  but 
four  working-gunners — CoUado,  Browne,  Eldred,  and 
Alderson,  of  whom  the  last  three  were  Englishmen — 
have  left  treatises  of  any  value  on  the  u.se  of  their 
weapons.  Galileo,  in  his  contributions  to  physics, 
had  shown  that  cannon  shot,  or  any  other  projectiles, 
being  affected  by  the  downward  force  of  grarity, 
would  travel  in  the  curve  of  a  parabola,  unless  af- 
fected by  the  resistance  of  the  air.  The  philosopher 
pointed  out  modes  by  which  the  disturbances  caused 
by  this  resisting  medium  might  be  ascertained;  but 
subsequent  writers,  with  the  exception  of  Newton 
and  Bernouilli,  till  the  time  of  Robins,  chose  to  as- 
sume that  the  atmospherical  resistance  was  but  nomi- 
nal, and  boldly  asserted  that  all  shot  described  para- 
bolas in  their  course.  In  1742,  Mr.  Benjamin  Robins, 
who  must  be  considered  the  real  founder  of  the  science, 
published  his  New  Principles  of  Ounnery,  a  work  the 
result  of  long  and  almost  exhaustive  experiments.  He 
treated  of  the  atmospheric  resistance,  of  the  force  of 
gunpowder,  of  the  effects  of  varying  length  and 
weight  in  guns,  and  of  almost  everything  which  in 
any  way  related  to  the  motion  of  projectiles,  carrying 
the  theory  of  gunnery  nearly  to  perfection.  As  one 
result  of  his  experiments,  Robins  established  the  law 
that  common  shot  encoimtered  a  resistance  from  the 
air  during  their  passage,  which  increa.sed  as  the  square 
of  the  velocity,  or  very  nearly  so;  and  that  their  courses 
differed  widel}'  from  parabolas.  By  means  of  the 
ballistic  pendulum,  he  measured  the  speed  of  balls  at 
the  very  cannon's  mouth.  Euler,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  added  nuich  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  by  his  commentaries  on  the  work 
of  Robins,  as  did  also  the  mathematician  Hutton. 

The  theory  of  gunnery,  so  far  as  it  can  be  deduced 
from  the  universal  laws  of  motion,  without  regard  to 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  falls  imder  the  more  general 
heiiil  of  projectiles.  But  except  in  firing  bombs,  w  hich 
from  their  low  velocity  are  not  so  much  afTecled  by 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  the  mere  matliematical  theoty 
is  of  little  service.  All  the  real  practical  rules  have 
been  deduced  from  experiment.  The  following  are 
a  few  of  the  more  imjioiiant  results  thus  arrived  at: 
For  a  given  charge  and  weight  of  projectile  there  is 
a  certain  length  of  bore  that  gives  the  greatest  velo- 
city; the  cause  being,  that  with  a  less  length  some  of 
the  powder  is  discharged  imdecomi)osed,  and  with  a 
greater  the  combustion  is  finished  before  the  ball 
leaves  the  muzzle,  so  that  it  has  to  contend  with  the 
friction  of  the  gun  without  receiving  additional  im- 
pulses. Increase  of  length,  accompanieil  by  propor- 
tionate increase  of  charge,  gives  increased  velocity; 
but  the  greater  velocity  is  only  in  proportion  to  the 
cube  root  of  the  increa.sed  length.  The  resistance  of 
the  air  does  not  arise  merely  from  the  projectile  hav- 
ing to  displace  its  own  bulk  of  it  as  it  advances;  for 


Qvsirz. 


807 


GUN  PITS. 


in  the  case  of  a  body  moving  with  great  velocity  the 
air  becomes  condensed  in  front  of  it,  while  that  be- 
hind is  highly  raretied.  The  disphiced  air  l)ehind  does 
not  return  freely  to  till  up  the  vacuum,  until  the  speed 
of  the  ball  is  reduced  to  1400  feet  per  second;  the 
maximum  profitable  velocity  is  calculated  to  be  1600 
feet,  and  that,  or  any  higher  speed,  is  believed  to  be 
reduced  to  1400  feet  after  a  course  of  400  feet.  The 
resistance  offered  to  bodies  by  the  air  is  as  their  sur- 
faces, i.e.,  in  the  case  of  round  or  cylindrical  shot,  as 
the  squares  of  the  diameters;  whilst  the  power  of  the 
bodies  themselves  to  overcome  resistance  is  as  their 
weights,  or  as  the  cubes  of  their  diameters.  Of  course 
balls  of  like  size  but  different  density  will  produce 
widely  different  results.  Hence  the  greater  range  of 
solid  as  compared  to  hollow  shot.  Solid  shot  tired 
•with  equal  velocities  and  elevations  range  as  their 
■weight,  the  heavier  overcoming  atmospheric  resist- 
ance better  than  the  lighter.  Shot  of  eiiual  weight 
and  diameter  will  range  according  to  their  velocities; 
but  not  in  direct  proportion,  for  the  retarding  power 
varies  as  the  square  of  the  velocity.  Velocities  of  shot 
of  equal  diameter  are  asthe  square  roots  of  the  charges. 
The  diminution  in  speed  caused  by  atmospheric  resist- 
ance may  be  judged  of  from  the  following  table  of 
the  speed  of  a  Sa-pounder  at  different  parts  of  its 
course;  it  being  premised  that  a  body  in  vacuo,  once 
started,  should  move  ad  infinitum,  without  decrease 
of  velocity: 

Feet  per  Second. 

Initial  velocity 1600 

Velocity   500  yards  from  gun 1126 

1000   "   "    "  1000 

1500   "   "    "  608 

2000   "   "    "  465 

2500   "   "   "  367 

Action  and  reaction  being  always  equal  and  in  op- 
posite directions,  the  explosion  of  the  gunpowder  acts 
with  equal  force  upon  the  ball  and  upon  the  cjinnon 
from  which  it  is  discharged,  the  former  demon.strat- 
ing  this  in  its  range,  and  the  latter  by  its  recoil.   This 


Nature. 

Elevation. 

Charge. 

Range  in 
Yards. 

12-pounder  iron  gun 

Point-blank, 

4  lbs. 

300 

1  degree. 
3  degrees, 
6       ■' 

^^ 

700 

laoo 

1800 

12-pounder  Armstrong... 

Point-blank, 

1  lb.  8  oz. 

830 

1  degree. 

" 

700 

3  degrees, 
6        ■* 

10 

(, 

1423 
2440 

" 

3590 

Point-blank, 

10  lbs. 

390 

1  degree. 

'* 

790 

32-pounder  iron  gun ■ 

3  degrees, 
6 

ti 

1500 
2220 

12 

" 

3060 

r 

Point-blank, 

5  lbs. 

360 

1  degree. 

'* 

730 

40-pouiider  Armstrong... 

3  degrees. 

., 

1455 
8505 

12 

" 

4470 

Point-blank, 

20  lbs. 

400 

1  degree. 

950 

68-pounder  iron  gun 

3  degrees, 
6 
12 

.. 

1715 
8465 

" 

3400 

Point-blank, 

13  lbs. 

345 

1 

1  degree. 

*' 

680 

llO-pounder  Armstrong..  •( 

I 

3  degrees, 
6       '* 

„ 

1335 
£280 

12 

1 

" 

403.') 

recoil  has  to  be  guarded  against  as  much  as  possible, 
either  by  the  weieht  of  the  gun  it.self ,  or  by  its  secure 
attachment  to  a  ponderous  carriage.  The  momentum 
of  the  recoil,  being  the  product  of  the  shot's  weight, 
and  the  velocitv,  is  readily  calculated.  The  com- 
mon charge  of  a  24-pounder  gun  being  one  third  the 
weight  of  the  shot,  or  8  pounds,  the  momentum  of 
both  shot  and  gun  will  be  1600  (the  initial  velocity) 
X  24  =  38,400,  which  divided  by  5600,  or  the  .mm  s 
weight  in  pounds,  gives  about  7  feet  as  the  velocity 
per  second;  if  the  gun  is  attached  to  a  carnage,  the 


weight  of  the  carriage  must  be  added  to  that  of  the 
gun  for  a  divisor.  The  foregoing  table  exhibits  the 
effects  of  van,'ing  charge  and  elevation  on  different 
kinds  of  guns.  The  line  of  sight  of  a  gun  is  an  im- 
aginary line  drawn  through  the  back-sight  on  the 
breech  and  the  fore-sight,  a  notch  in  the  muzzle  ring, 
or  on  the  first  reinforce.  The  fore-sight  is  immov- 
able, but  the  backsight  is  so  constructed  that  the 
notch  shall  be  at  a  greater  or  less  height  above  the 
axis  of  the  gini.  When  the  line  of  sight  is  parallel  to 
the  axis  and  horizontal,  the  discharge  is  "  point- 
blank;"  but  when  the  backsight  is  raised,  the  direc- 
tion of  the  a.xis  of  the  gun  will  be  to  a  point  more 
elevated  than  that  to  which  the  line  of  sight  is  directed. 
Consequently,  by  raising  the  back-sight,  a  greater  ele- 
vation, and,  orilinarily,  a  greater  range,  is  given  to 
the  piece.  In  regard  to  point-blank  discharge.  Tar- 
taglia  established  the  fundamental  proposition  that 
the  time  occupied  by  the  ball  in  describing  the  whole 
trajectory  or  path  is  the  s;ime  as  it  would  require 
to  fall  by  gravity  from  the  muzzle  to  the  ground. 
As  regards  "penetration,  it  was  found  by  experiments 
against  a  martello  tower  at  Eastbourne,  with  a  range 
of  1833  yards,  that  solid  shot  from  the  4(l-pounder 
Armstrong  penetrated  into  good  masonry  from  47  to 
65  inches,  and  from  an  HO-pounder  Armstrong  51  to 
90  inches.  See  IjMding,  Ordnance,  Projectiles,  and 
Winihigi . 

GUNNY.  — A  coarse  Indian  fabric  manufactured 
largely  in  Bengal.  It  is  of  two  kinds  for  artillery 
purposes  in  that  country,  single  and  ilmihle  ;  the  for- 
mer is  used  for  charcoal-bags,  for  package  of  gun- 
powder-barrels, and  as  package  generally;  the  latter 
for  .slings  for  carrying  shot  and  shell,  and  small-arm 
ammunition-boxes,  also  for  covering  ammunition- 
boxes,  making  sand  bags,  etc.  The  saleetahs  and 
pin-bags  for  tents  are  atso  made  of  gimny.  The  ma- 
terial from  which  this  article  is  mantifactured  is  the 
fiber  of  two  plants  of  the  genus  Corchorus,  i.e.,  Cor- 
chornn  uUtariiiH  and  Corrlwrns  capsnldrix ;  both,  but 
particularly  the  first-named  plant,  are  very  extensive- 
1}' cultivated  throughout  Lower  Bengal.  This  nature 
of  cloth  is  universiUly  used  for  bags  of  all  sorts,  and 
there  is  a  very  large  exportation  of  this  material  to 
America,  the  Coromandel  and  Malabar  coasts,  and 
Singapore. 

GtJNNY-BAGS. — Bags  made  of  coarse  gunny -cloth, 
and  used  in  India  with  siege-trains  for  carrj'ing  char- 
coal for  the  use  of  the  artificers. 

GUN  OF  EESEKVE.— The  name  given  to  the  old 
French  12-pounder.  Its  particulars  were:  bore,  4| 
inches;  weight,  1350  pounds;  charge,  2J  pounds; 
weight  of  shell.  25,'„  pounds. 

GUN -PENDULUM. —An  instrument  invented  for 
measuring  the  velocity  of  recoil  and  muzzle-veloci- 
ties. It  consists  of  a  frame  in  which  a  light  gun  is 
susiX'nded  by  means  of  a  rod.  The  pendulum,  of 
which  the  gun  forms  the  Ixih,  is  capable  of  moving 
freely  when  the  gun  is  fired.  An  arc  graduated  in 
tlegrees  and  minutes  is  attached  to  the  fmme,  by 
means  of  which  the  ande  of  recoil  is  registered. 
Great  care  is  neces-saiy,  in  adjusting  the  weights,  to 
get  the  center  of  percussion  very  nearly  in  the  axis 
of  the  bore.  The  use  of  the  gun-pendulum  seems  to 
have  been  suggested  by  Robins,  although  Count 
Rumford  first  reported,  in  1781,  the  results  of  various 
experiments  made  with  it  for  the  determination  of  the 
initial  velocity  of  projectiles,  and  the  most  advanta- 
geous position  of  the  vent.  The  quantity  of  mo- 
tion of  the  gun  as  a  pendulum  is  ecpial  to  that  of 
the  projectile,  charge  of  powder,  and  the  air.  From 
this  the  velocity  of  the  projectile  may  Ix"  deduced. 
E.xtended  experiments  with  both  the  ballistic  and 
gun  pendulums  were  made  in  England  from  1775  to 
1791,  by  Hutton;  at  Metz  in  1839  and  1840;  and  in 
the  Uni"ted  States  from  1843  to  1848.  by  Major  Jlor- 
decai  of  the  Ordnance  Department.  See  Ballistic 
Prniliih/m. 

GUN-PITS. — Excavations  made  in  the  earth  for  the 
protection  of  artillery  in  the  field,  when  a  shelter  is 


OUWPOKTION. 


808 


OrWPOWDEE. 


nccessiiry.  The  guns  may  be  often  protected  from 
the  enemy's  tire  bv  naninil  banks,  crests  of  hills, 
siind-mouhds,  etc. ;  but  if  thcR'  be  no  natural  cover, 
resort  must  be  had  to  the  pickaxe  and  spade.  A 
g\ui-pit  can  be  excavated  in  one  hour  by  experienced 
men.  This  gives  but  a  liniilcd  space  to  the  jrunile- 
tachment;  so  if  tlierc  be  time  the  pit  can  l)e  length- 
ened, and  the  thickness  of  the  parapi't  increased. 
Since  i.solntod  gun-pits,  a.s  explained  in  the  tirst  vol- 
ume of  Inntruftion  in  Military  EiiginetriiiQ,  would 
form  good  marks  for  the  enemy's  tire,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  connect  them  by  shelter-trenches,  in 
which,  however,  places  should  be  left  to  enable  the 
guns  to  pass  readily  to  the  front.  Should  no  natund 
cover  whatever  be"  available  for  the  limber,  cover 
for  it  and  a  pair  of  horses  might  be  provided  in  a  i)it, 
somewhat  of  the  form  of  a  charger-pit,  and  similar 
arrangements  should  be  made  for  the  cover  of  more 
horses. 

GUN-PORTION. — In  fortification,  half  of  the  mer- 
lon on  cacli  side  of  the  gun — that  is  to  say.  9  feet  on 
one  side  of  llic  cnilmi.sure  and  9  feet  on  the  other. 

GUNPOWDER.— Gunpowder  is  the  agent  employed 
in  modern  warfare  to  propel  projectiles  from  all  guns 
and  small-arms,  and  generally  as  the  bursting  charge 
of  projectiles;  for  the  explosion  of  mines:  blasting 
purposes,  etc.  It  is  a  mechanical  mixture  giving 
light,  heat,  and  gas  in  the  combustion  or  chemical 
union  of  its  ingredients.  Explosion  is  a  phenomenon 
arising  from  the  sudden  enlargement  of  the  volume 
of  a  lx)dy;  as  in  the  case  of  gunpowder,  the  solid 
body  is  rapidly  converted  into  a  gas  many  times  its 
volume.  If  tlie  body  is  confined  in  a  limited  space 
and  exploded,  great  heat  is  developed  and  a  vast  ex- 
pansion or  propelling  force  produced,  the  volume  of 
gas  beipg  very  many  times  greater  than  that  of  the 
powder.  In  the  United  States  ser\ice,  gunpowder  is 
obtained  from  private  manufacturers.  It  is  distin- 
guished by  granulation,  irregular,  as  musket,  mortar, 
cannon,  and  nmmmoth  ;  regular,  as  cubical,  and  the 
molded  powders,  i.e.,  })ellet,  liei-agonal,  and  prismatic 
(perforated  hexagonal  prism.s).  In  all  of  these  the 
proportions  of  the  ingredients  are  the  same;  they 
differ  onlj'  in  the  size  and  shape  of  grain,  density  and 
details  of  manufacture.  Musket-powder  is  used  for 
small-arms;  mortar  for  field-guns;  cannon  for  light 
siege-guns,  and  the  larger-grained  and  special  pow- 
ders ifor  heavy  sea-coast  guns.  The  materials  re- 
quired are  jwtasxium  nitrate  (niter),  charcoal,  and 
mtlphur.  They  should  Ix;  of  the  greatest  possible 
purity  to  insure  excellence  of  qualit}-  and  guard 
against  accidents  in  manufacture.  The  proportions 
by  weight  of  the  ingredients  used  in  the  United  Slates 
ser\-ice-powder  are  {  1%  niter,  -J  \\  charcoal,  10  sul- 
phur. It  is  es.sential  to  the  successful  and  uniform 
manufacture  of  powder  that  the  ingredients  should 
be  procured  in  their  rough  state,  and  be  refined  and 
prepared  for  u.se  at  the  factory;  this  is  also  necessary 
as  a  securitj-  against  accidents  at  the  mills.  All 
foreign  matter  must  be  carefully  e.xcluded,  and  every 
precaution  taken  against  their  introduction  in  hand- 
ling and  moving  the  refined  materials. 

For  the  general  i)urposes  of  artillery,  slight  varia- 
tions in  the  proportions  of  the  ingreilients  for  powder 
are  not  found  to  affect  its  strength:  but  for  blasting 
or  mining  purposes  a  slower  powder  is  found  to 
answer  nearly  as  well  as  a  quick  one,  consequently 
the  proportion  of  niter  is  reduced  much  below  that  of 
gunpowder.  Bla-sting-powder  is  thus  made  cheap; 
but  as  it  leaves  a  large  amomit  of  residuum,  it  can- 
not be  advantageously  used  in  fire-arms.  The  sc'vcral 
operations  of  fabriaiting gunpowder  arc:  1st.  Piiher- 
izing;  which  consists  in  rc<lu<ing  the  ingredients  to 
finely  divid<(l  dust.  ad.  Incnrjioriitiiiii:  which  con- 
sists in  bringing  the  particles  of  this  dust  into  such 
intimate  contact  that  each  piirlicli-  of  powiier  shall 
be  composed  of  one  of  each  of  the  ingredients.  lid. 
Coinpnssinf/;  which  gives  strength  :in(l  density  to 
the  substance  ot  the  powder,  by  <()nverlirig  the  incor- 
porated mixture  into  a  cake  which  will  not  crumble 


in  transportation.  4th.  ^rami'Hp'V  which  breaks  up 
the  cake  into  small  fragments  or  grains,  and  incrca.scs 
the  surface  of  combustion,  .'jth.  Ohniiif/;  which 
hardens  the  surface,  to  protect  it  from  the  action  of 
moisture,  and  rounds  the  sharp  angles  of  the  grains 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  dust  in  trans|)ortation. 
tith.  Dryinrj;  which  frees  the  powder  from  the 
moisture  introduced  in  certain  operations  of  the 
fabrication.  7th.  Dusting;  which  frees  it  from  the 
dust,  which  would  othcnvise  fill  up  the  interstices 
and  retard  the  infiammation  of  the  charge.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  ingredients,  as  well  asthe  art  of  mak- 
ing gunpowder,  vary  in  different  coimtries,  and  even 
among  the  ditfcreni  nianufactories  of  the  sjune  coun- 
try. The  variations  in  the  proportions  are  slight, 
however,  and  the  differences  in  the  modes  of  manu- 
facture are  principally  confined  to  the  more  impor-* 
tant  operations  of  pulverizing,  mixing,  and  compress- 
ing the  composition. 

The  buildings  in  which  the  different  operations  are 
carried  on  are  seiiarated  from  each  other,  luid  ])ro- 
tecteil  by  trees  or  traversesas  far  as  iiraclicable.  The 
Siiltpetef  is  usually  pulverized  sufficiently  when  it 
comes  from  the  refinery.  The  charcoal  is  placed  in 
large  cast-iron  barrels  with  twice  its  weight  of  zinc 
balls.  The  barrel  has  several  ledges  on  the  inferior, 
and  Is  made  to  revolve  from  20  to  25  times  in  a 
minute.  It  is  pulverized  in  two  or  three  hours. 
The  sidphur  is  placed  in  barrels  made  of  thick 
leather  stretched  over  a  wooden  frame,  with  twice 
its  weight  of  zinc  balls  from  .3  to  .5  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  the  barrel  made  to  revolve  about  20  times 
per  minute.  It  takes  one  hour  to  pulverize  the  sul- 
phur. The  ingredients  having  been  weighed  out  in 
the  proportions  above  given,  the  charcoal  and  sulphur 
are  put  together  in  a  rolling-barrel  similar  to  that  in 
which  the  sulphur  is  pulverized,  and  rolled  for  one 
hour.  The  .saltpeter  is  then  added,  and  rolled  for 
three  hours  longer.  In  some  mills  this  operation  is 
omitted.  It  is  now  taken  to  the  cylinder,  or  rolling- 
miU.  This  consists  of  two  cast-iron  cylinders  rolling 
round  a  horizontal  axis  in  a  circular  trough  of  about 
four  feet  diameter,  with  a  cast-iron  bottom.  The 
cylinders  are  six  feet  in  diameter,  18  inches  thick  on 
the  face,  and  weigh  about  eight  tons  each.  They  are 
followed  by  a  wooden  scraper,  which  keeps  the  com- 
position in  the  center  of  the  trough.  A  charge  of  75 
pounds  in  some  mills,  and  150  [Munds  in  others,  is 
then  .spread  in  the  trough  of  the  rolling-mill,  and 
moistened  with  two  to  three  per  cent  of  water,  accord- 
ing to  the  hygrometric  state  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is 
rolled  slowly  at  first,  and  afterward  from  eight  to  ten 
revolutions  of  the  roller  per  minute,  for  one  hour  for 
50  pounds,  and  three  hours  for  1.50  pounds  of  com- 
position. A  little  water  is  added,  as  the  process  ad- 
vances, if  the  composition  gets  very  dry — which  is 
made  known  by  its  color.  When  the  materials  are 
thoroughly  incorporated,  the  cake  is  of  a  uniform, 
lively,  grayish,  dark  color.  In  this  state  it  is  called 
mill-cake.  The  quality  of  the  powder  depends  much 
on  the  thorough  incorporation  of  the  materials,  and 
burns  more  rapidly  as  this  operation  is  more  thor- 
oughly performed. 

The  mill  cake  is  next  taken  to  the  press-house,  to 
be  pressed  into  a  hard  cake,  is  sprinkled  with  alx)Ut 
three  percent  of  water,  and  arranged  in  a  scries  of 
layers  about  four  inches  thick,  separated  by  brass 
[ilates.  A  powerful  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  on 
the  layers,  which  are  s\ibjccted  to  the  maximum 
pressure  for  about  10  to  15  minutes,  when  it  is  re- 
moved. Each  layer  is  thus  formed  into  a  hard  cake 
about  an  inch  thick.  The  press-cake  must  now  be 
converted  into  the  particular  size  of  grain  required. 
And  the  means  employed  to  break  uji  the  iiresscake 
must  be  so  arranged  as  to  crush  it  up  as  nearly  as 
possible  into  the  size  or  sizes  of  grain  wanted,  with- 
out reducing  much  of  it  to  dust.  The  smaller  the 
size  of  grain,  the  larger  will  lie  flic  percentage  of  it 
obtained  from  granulated  press  cake;  hence  with  the 
small  size  of  grain  formerly  used  with  cannon,  any  of 


GUNPOWDEB. 


809 


GUNPOWDEB. 


the  older  and  ruder  appliances  for  effecting  granula- 
tion gave  good  percentage  of  grain.  But'as  recent 
exix-riments  have  conclusivelj'  proved  that  much 
larger-sized  grains  should  be  employed  in  the  larg- 
er charges  for  heavy  ordnance,  new  and  improved 
granulating-machines  have  been  introduced. 

The  granulated  powder  as  it  comes  from  the  ma- 
chine contains  amongst  it  a  large  quantity  of  dust. 
This  is  formed  by  the  crushing  action  of  the  granu- 
lating-machine, and  must  of  course  pa.ss  through  (he 
various  sieves  and  screens  with  which  the  machine  is 
pro\ided  along  with  the  grain.  The  grain  itself  is 
not  in  a  condition  to  be  made  use  of  as  powder,  being 
rough  and  porous  on  the  surface  and  very  angular  in 
shape:  and  moreover,  the  presence  of  a  "large  quan- 
tity of  fine  dast  amongst  it  would  render  it  not  only 
most  inconvenient  to  handle,  l)ut  would  also  render 
it  more  liable  to  absorb  moisture,  and  to  deterio- 
rate. A  rough,  unpolished  angular  grain  would 
also  very  speedily  rub  down  into  dust,  if  subjected 
to  mucli  shaking  in  transport.  It  becomes  necessary, 
therefore,  to  free  the  gitinulated  powder  from  all 
traces  of  dust,  and  to  polish  or  give  a  surface  to  the 
grains  themselves  to  enable  them  to  bear  a  great  deal 
of  friction  without  deterioration.  Powder  is  freed 
from  diist  by  placing  it  in  revohnng  reels  covered 
■with  cloth  or  wire-mesh  of  various  degrees  of  fine- 
ness, through  which  the  dust  escapes.  It  is  glazed  by 
causing  the  grains  to  rub  against  each  other  in  re- 
voh-ing  wooden  barrels.  The  extent  to  which  the 
operations  of  (lusting  and  glazing  are  carried,  and  the 
nature  of  the  appliances  used,  depend  entirely  on  the 
density,  hardness,  and  size  of  grain  of  the  powder 
operated  on.  Large-.arrained,  dense,  hard  powder  will 
bear  a  great  deal  of  knocking  alwut  in  the  reels  with- 
out becoming  disintegrate*!  and  forming  fresh  dust; 
and  will,  moreover,  bear  a  great  deal  of  friction  in 
the  glazing-barrels,  acquiring  speedily  a  high  ilegree 
of  polish.  But  when  operating  on  a  small-grained, 
soft  powder  of  low  density,  the  dusting  must  be  care- 
fully conducted,  as  the  process  will  develop  as  much 
fresh  dust  as  it  removes;  and  the  amount  of  friction 
the  grains  will  bear  in  glazing  must  ha  likewise  care- 
fully regulated.  It  is  found  in  i)ractice  that  powder 
may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes,  each  of 
which  requires  different  treatment  in  dusting  and 
glazing,  viz.,  the  cannon-powder  of  all  classes  and  the 
small-arm  powder  of  all  clas,ses.  The  former  is  not 
only  pressed  to  a  higher  density,  but  is  made  of  a 
larger  size  of  grain;  the  latter  generally  is  of  lower 
density  and  much  smaller, size.  Modern  cannon- 
powder,  being  of  large-sized  grains  and  of  firm  con- 
sistency, admits  of  a  comparatively  open-meshed 
reel-covering  being  used  in  dusting,  and  of  the  pro- 
cess being  continued  as  long  as  required  without  risk 
of  injury  to  the  grain.  The  powder  can  therefore  t)e 
rendered  perfectly  free  from  dust,  and  sufficiently 
glazed  at  the  same  time,  coming  out  of  the  reel  as 
finished  powder  at  one  operation.  Glazing,  although 
of  marked  advantage  to  the  finer  cla.sses  of  powder, 
is  believed  to  be  highl}'  injurious  to  varieties  ap 
proaching  mammoth  in  size,  for  tlie  reason  that 
through  the  action  of  wearing  away  at  one  point  and 
building  up  at  another  the  powder  Ix'comes  an  as- 
semblage made  up  of  nuclei  of  about  the  density 
sought^incased  in  envelopes  of  dust,  deposited  dur- 
ing the  period  of  glazing,  and  of  vcrj-  materially 
lower  specific  gra\ity  than  the  rest  of  the  raa.ss, 
although  the  average  "or  apparent  density  maj-  be  as 
desired;  this  causes  extreme  rapidity  of  combustion 
in  the  outer  strata  during  the  first  instants  of  burning, 
followed  by  a  less  rajjid  development  of  gas  from 
equal  surfaces  of  the  denser  center  toward  the  end  of 
that  period. 

Before  powder  for  the  militarj-  ser\-ice  is  received 
from  the  manufacturer,  it  is  in.s"pected  and  proved. 
For  this  purpose  at  least  fifty  barrels  are  thoroughly 
mi.xed  together.  One  barrel  of  this  is  proved  by 
firing  three  rounds  from  a  musket,  with  service- 
charge,  if  it  be  musket-powder;  if  cannon-  or  mam- 


moth-powder, from  an  8  inch  columbiad,  with  10  lbs. 
and  a  solid  shot  of  65  lbs.  weight  and  7.88  inches  in 
diameter;  if  it  I)e  mortar-powder,  from  a  3inch  rifle- 
gun,  with  a  charge  of  1  lb.  of  powder  and  an  expand- 
ing projectile  weighing  10  lbs.  The  general  character 
of  the  grain,  and  its  freedom  from  dust,  are  noted. 
Gunpowder  should  l>e  of  an  even-sized  grain,  angu- 
lar, and  irregular  in  form,  without  sharp  corners,  and 
very  hard.  When  new  it  should  leave  no  trace  of 
dust  when  poured  on  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  when 
flashed  in  quantities  of  ten  grains  on  a  copper  plate 
it  should  leave  no  bead  or  foidness.  It  should  give 
the  rt»quired  initial  velocity  to  the  ball,  and  not  more 
than  the  maximum  pressure  on  the  gun,  and  should 
absorb  but  little  moisture  from  the  air.  There  are 
five  kinds  of  powder  in  the  United  States  land-.ser\ice, 
depending  on  the  size  of  the  grain,  viz.:  mammoth 
for  the  15-inch  gun,  cannon  for  smaller  sea-coa-st  guns 
and  mortars,  inurtar  for  field-  and  siege-cannon,  mu9- 
ket  for  rifle-muskets,  and  rifle  for  pistols. 

The  size  of  the  grain  is  tested  by  standard  sieves,  ■ 
made  of  sheet-brass  pierced  with  round  holes.  The 
diameters  of  the  large  and  small  holes  are  a.s  follows, 
viz.:  for  mammoth,  .9  inch  and  .6  inch;  for  cannon, 
.31  inch  and  .27  inch;  for  mortar,  .1  inch  and  .07  inch; 
for  musket,  .06  inch  and  .035  inch.  Not  more  than 
5  per  cent,  should  remain  upon  the  large  nor  pass 
through  the  small  standard  sieves.  The  specific  grav- 
ity of  gunpowder  must  t)e  not  less  than  1.75;  and  it 
is  important  that  it  should  be  determined  with  accu- 
racy. Alcohol  and  water  satvirated  with  saltpeter 
have  been  used  for  this  purpose;  but  they  do  not 
furnish  accurate  results.  Mercury,  only,  is  to  be  re- 
lied ujx)n. 

Government  jwiwder  is  packed  in  barrels  of  100 
lbs.  each.  The  barrels  are  made  of  well-seasoned 
white  oak;  and  hooped  with  liickorj-  or  cedar  hoops, 
which  should  be  deprived  of  their  bark  to  render 
them  le.ss  liable  to  be  attacked  by  worms.  Barrels 
made  of  corrugated  tin  are  undergoing  trial,  to  test 
their  fitness  to  replace  those  made  of  wood.  Each 
barrel  is  marked  on  both  heads  (in  white  oil-colors, 
the  head  painted  black),  with  the  number  of  the  l)ar- 
rel,  the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  year  of  fabrica- 
tion, and  the  kind  of  powder, — cannon  (used  for 
heavy  cannon),  mortar  (used  for  mortars  and  field- 
cannon),  or  miigket, — the  mean  initial  velocity,  and 
the  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  pressure-piston. 
Each  time  the  powder  is  proved,  the  initial  velocity  is 
marked  below  the  former  proofs,  and  the  date  of  the 
trial  opposite  it.  In  the  powder-magazines,  the  bar- 
rels are  generally  placed  on  their  sides,  three  tiers 
high,  or  four  tiers  if  nece.s.sary;  small  skids  should  he 
placed  on  the  floor,  and  between  the  several  tiers  of 
barrels,  in  order  to  steady  them;  and  chocks  should 
be  placed  at  intervals  on"  the  lower  skids,  to  prevent 
the  rolling  of  the  barrels.  The  powder  should  be 
separated  according  to  its  kinil,  the  place  and  date  of 
fabrication,  and  the  proof-range.  Fixed  ammuni- 
tion, especially  for  cannon,  should  not  be  put  in  the 
same  magazine  with  powder  in  barrels,  if  it  can  be 
avoided.  Besides  being  recorded  in  the  magazine- 
book,  each  parcel  of  powder  should  be  inscribed  on 
a  ticket  attached  to  the  pile,  showing  the  entries  and 
the  i.ssue. 

For  the  preservation  of  the  {X)wder,  and  of  the 
floors  and  lining  of  the  magazine,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
imiMjrtance  to  preserve  unobstructe<l  the  circulation 
of  the  air,  under  the  flooring  as  well  as  atxive.  The 
magiizine  .should  be  opened  and  aired  in  clear,  dry 
weather,  when  the  air  outside  is  colder  than  that  in- 
side the  magazine;  the  ventilators  must  be  kept  free; 
no  shrublieiy-  or  trees  should  Ik-  allowed  to  grow  so 
near  as  to  protect  the  building  from  the  sun.  The 
moisture  of  a  magjizine  may  be  absorbe<l  by  chloride 
of  calcium,  sus|)ended  in  an  open  box  under  the  arch, 
and  renewed  from  time  to  time;  quick-lime,  as  \ye- 
fore  observed,  is  dangerous.  The  sentinel  or  guard 
at  a  magazine,  when  it  is  open,  should  have  no  fire- 
arras;  and  ever^'  one  who  enters  the  magazine  should 


OUNPOWSEB. 


810 


OUNFOWDEB. 


tnke  off  bis  sbocs,  or  put  socks  over  thein;  no  sword 
or  tane,  or  anything  which  might  occasion  sparks, 
shouhl  Ih'  carried  in^  Barrels  of  jwwiler  shoidd  not 
be  rolled  for  tninsportation:  tbcy  should  be  carried 
in  baud-barrows,  or  slings  made  of  rope  or  leather. 
In  inovins:  powder  in  the  magazine,  a  cloth  or  carpet 
should  1k^  spread;  all  implements  used  there  should 
be  of  wood  or  copper;  and  the  barrels  should  never 
be  repaiR'd  in  the  magazine.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  roll  the  powder,  for  its  better  preservation  and  to 
prevent  its  caking,  this  shovdd  be  done  with  a  small 
quantity  at  a  time,  on  boards  in  the  magazine  yard. 
In  wagons,  barrels  of  i)owder  must  be  packed  in 
straw,  secured  in  such  a  maimer  as  not  to  rub  against 
each  other,  and  the  load  covered  with  thick  canvas. 

The  recognition  of  the  fact  that  different  guns  re- 
quire for  their  most  efficient  service  different  powders 
marks  an  important  epoch  iu  the  history  of  gunpow- 
der. Previous  to  this  time  powder  was  the  same, 
whether  it  was  to  be  tired  iu  a  O-pouuder  or  10- 
iuch  gun;  and  though  experience  showed  that  the 
large  gun  did  not  resist  the  strain  of  the  discharge  as 
well  as  small  ones,  the  difference  iu  their  endurance 
was  attributed  to  other  causes  than  the  want  of  adap- 
tation of  the  iiowder  to  the  gun.  It  was  not  suspected 
that  the  trouble  arose  from  the  unsuitablencss  of  the 
powder.  It  soon  became  a  recognized  fact  that  the 
combustion  of  gunpowder  was  influenced  to  a  great 
degree  by  the  size,  the  shape,  and  the  density  of  the 
grain;  and  as  the  weight  of  the  projectile  to  be  started 
became  greater,  so  much  greater  became  the  neces,sity 
of  regulating  these  particulars  in  the  powder  to  be 
used.  The  improvements  which  have  been  made  by 
attention  to  these  particulars  have  rendered  it  practi- 
cable to  use  larger  guns  and  heavier  projectiles  than 
had  been  deemed  only  a  few  years  before  to  be  within 
the  limits  of  possibility.  The  point  to  be  atlendeil  to 
is  to  see  that  the  evolution  of  gas  at  the  tirst  moment 
of  inflammation  is  not  excessive,  and  this  is  effected 
by  reducing  the  surface  of  ignition,  that  is,  by  in 
creasing  the  size  of  the  grains.  Further,  the  evolu- 
tion of  gas  should  be  gradual  and  progressive,  and 
this  is  accomplished  by  giving  the  grain  such  a  den- 
sity that  the  hot  gas  shall  not  be  forced  by  the  pres- 
.sure  through  the  mass  of  the  grain.  The  shape  of 
the  grain  is  also  a  matter  of  much  importance,  as  in- 
fluencing the  progressive  evolution  of  the  gas.  That 
shape  of  grain  must  be  best  which,  other  things  being 
equal,  has  at  lirst  a  small  burning-surface  and  one 
that  is  continually  increasing:  or,  this  being  deemed 
impracticable,  the  grain  which  approximates  nearest 
this  ideal  must  be  best.  The  prismatic-shriped  grain. 
with  perforations  riuming  through  it  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  prism,  is  to  be  preferred  to  all  others  that 
have  yet  been  proposed.  If  it  has  not  thus  far  given 
better  results  than  others,  it  is  because  the  practical 
difficulties  in  the  manufacture  are  such  as  have  not 
yet  Ix-en  overcome  sjitisfactorily;  but  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  they  are  such  as  niay  not,  by  future  im- 
provements, be  surmounted. 

It  is  an  established  fad  that  the  (juality  of  powder 
made  from  day  to  day  will  vary  with  the  hvgromctric 
state  of  the  atmosphere,  an<l  it  is  almost  imiwssible  to 
make,  at  different  times,  two  lots  of  powder  which 
shall  Ik!  the  same  in  quality.  The  ingredients,  if  in- 
corjiorated  with  a  certain  amount  of  moisture,  will 
liroduce  a  different  powder  from  the  same  materials 
mixed  with  a  different  quantity.  Notwithstanding 
this  fact,  no  efforts  have  been  nnide  to  eliminate  this 
source  of  variation,  as  it  is  believed  might  be  done  by 
keeping  the  air  of  the  incorporating-mill  constantly 
charged  at  all  times  with  moisture.  An  imijortaiit 
step  lias  been  maile,  however,  to  avoid  this  cause  of 
<lilterence  more  comi)letely  in  a  ditTerent  way,  and 
that  is  by  the  entire  exclusion  of  water  in  all  of  the 
processes  of  fabrication.  The  improvement  comes 
from  Russia,  as  did  the  machine  fur  making  the  pris- 
matic powder.  The  materials,  after  being  p\dverized 
and  thoroughly  incorjxiraled  in  tumbling-barrels,  are 
raised  iu  temperature  up  to  the  melting-point  of  sul- 


phur at  the  siime  time  that  they  are  compres.sed  into 
a  cake.  They  are  then  cooled  while  under  this  pres- 
sure. The  pfess-cake  is  broken  into  grains  and  glazed 
in  the  usual  way.  The  charcoal  has  absorbed  no 
moisture,  and,  as  was  to  be  expected,  the  powder  has 
been  proved  to  be  stronger,  and,  it  is  said,  more  uni- 
form in  quality  than  ordinary  powder.  Should  Uiis 
process  develop  unknown  dilncidties  and  come  .short 
of  the  expectations  that  have  been  raised  by  it,  never- 
theless it  will  most  likely  exercise  a  Ix'ncticial  influence 
on  the  mode  of  manufacture  bv  stiimilating  and  di- 
recting investigations  in  a  diiection  that  will  probably 
lead  to  imjiortant  results  in  the  end.  Gmipowder  fails 
iu  too  many  respects  to  come  up  to  the  ideal  of  what 
the  jirojectile-compound  of  the  present  time  should  be 
to  retain  its  place  much  longer,  ludess  marked  changes 
shall  be  soon  made  in  some  of  its  properties. 

English  giuipowder  has  been  long  held  in  descrved- 
l)'  high  estimation  for  its  strength  or  explosive  force, 
a  quality  which  has  been  obtained  for  it  by  the  exer- 
cise of  great  care  in  the  selection  of  the  best  materials, 
aud  by  the  close  attention  paid  to  every  detail  of  their 
preparation  and  thorough  aud  complete  incorpora- 
tion. The  greatest  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  qualitv  of  the  powder  since  the  time  when,  instead 
of  procuring  the  supplies  retjuired  for  the  military- 
and  naval  scr\'ices  by  contracts  with  private  parties, 
the  Government  became  the  owner  of  a  powder-mill, 
and  the  manufacturer  of  its  own  powder,  or  a  part 
of  it,  the  different  processes  of  fabrication  being  car- 
ried ou  under  the  immediate  direction  and  supervision 
of  its  own  agents.  This  mill  is  not  of  sufficient  ca- 
pacity to  supply  all,  or  anything  like  it,  of  the  pow- 
der that  is  required  in  times  of  war;  but,  besides 
being  of  the  greatest  use  in  keeping  up  the  high  stan- 
dard of  the  quality  of  powder  (samples  of  standard 
powder  are  furnished  annually  to  all  powder-makers 
of  the  Kingdom),  it  is  also  of  value  iu  keeping  down 
the  price  when  supplies  have  to  be  procured  from 
private  manufacturers.  The  Royal  Gunpowder-fac- 
tory at  Waitham  Abbey  is  situated  very  near  the  old 
church  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  al)out  twelve 
miles  from  London,  on  the  Eastern  Counties  Railway. 
The  grounds  are  the  rich  meadows  ou  the  river  Lea, 
which  stream  connects  the  canals  between  the  differ- 
ent mills  with  the  Thames,  aud  furnishes  water-trans- 
portation to  Purfleet,  where  the  powder  is  stored  in 
large  magazines.  A  ]iortion  of  thegrounds  is  planted 
with  willows,  set  out  with  great  order  and  neatness, 
the  wooil  to  lie  used  for  making  charcoal  for  powder. 
The  buildings  in  which  the  different  processes  of  fab- 
rication are  carried  ou  are  scattered  over  upward  of 
fifty  acres,  and  built  with  special  reference  to  the 
purposes  for  which  they  are  intended.  The  niter  and 
sulphur  used  are  procured  in  the  crude  state  and  re- 
fined at  the  factory.  This  course  is  pursued  in  pref- 
erence to  purchasing  them  already  refined,  with  a 
view  of  insuring  uniform  results  iu  the  powder  manu- 
factured, and  of  guarding  mon^  effectually  agiunst 
accidents,  so  much  to  be  dreaded,  frtmi  the  presence 
of  certain  foreign  particles  iu  the  materials,  intro- 
duced among  them  before  they  reach  the  mills. 

The  grough  saltpeter  of  India  is  purchased  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  others.  The  process  of  refining  is 
the  usual  one,  and  has  in  it  nothing  calling  for  re- 
mark. The  water  u.-icil  is  from  an  artesian  well,  and 
is  remarkably  pure  and  free  from  all  mineral  sub- 
stances. The  sulphur  is  procured  from  Sicily,  and 
contains  from  3  to  1  per  cent  of  earthy  matter,  from 
which  it  is  purified  by  distillation.  If  is  ground  under 
a  small  pair  of  wheels,  when  it  is  ready  for  mixing. 
Willow  aud  alder  are  the  woods  used  for  making 
charcoal  for  all  powders  except  musket.  For  this 
latter  the  alder  buckthorn,  or  the  berry-bearing  alder 
{Wiiitiinnx  fratir/nhi),  commonly  known  as  the  black 
dog-wood  among  powder  makers,  is  exclusively  used. 
All  of  these  woods  grow  in  different  parts  of  England, 
and  efforts  have  Ix'en  made  to  cultivate  them  on  the 
grounds  of  the  powder-mill,  with  success  as  regards 
the  first  two,  but  not  the  last,  which  requires  a  poor 


GUNPOWDEE. 


811 


GUNPOWDEB. 


and  rockj'  soil  instead  of  a  rich  mejidow-land  for  iu 
growth.  Large  quantities  of  the  dogwood  are  stored 
awaj-  for  future  use  at  the  factor\-;  the  sticks,  of 
about  one  inch  in  diameter,  all  brought  from  Prussia, 
at  a  cost  of  from  |60  to  $75  per  ton.  The  difference 
between  this  and  all  of  the  other  woods  commonly 
regarded  as  best  adapted  for  making  powder  is  most 
marked,  all  of  the  others  being  light,  brittle  woods  of 
rapid  growth,  whereas  this  is  a  dense,  tough  wood 
of  slow  growth,  requiring  usually  ten  years  to  attain 
a  size  of  one  inch  in  diameter,  the  charcoal  is  pre- 
pared by  distillation  in  cast-iron  retorts  of  cylindrical 
shape,  set  in  brick-work,  with  flues  to  conduct  the 
flame  all  round  them.  The  gaseous  matter  and  t;ir 
evolved  iu  the  distillation  is  conducted  by  pipes  into 
the  fire,  and,  besides  economizing  fuel  in  pre|>aring 
the  charcoal,  furnishes  the  readiest  means,  by  the 
color  with  which  they  burn,  of  determining  when  the 
charcoal  has  been  carried  to  the  jiroper  point. 

For  convenience  in  handling,  the  wood  is  first  put 
in  sheet-iron  cylinders,  which  are  placed  in  the  re- 
torts. The  retorts  being  thoroughly  heated,  the  oper- 
ation of  charring  requires  from  2i  to  3A  hours.  As 
the  quality  of  the  powder  depends  greatly  on  the  tem- 
perature at  which  the  charcoal  is  prepared,  great  oire 
is  taken  to  have  this  temperature  constant  and  suffi- 
ciently high,  but  not  too  high.  This  is  indicated  by 
the  color  and  fracture  of  the  coal,  which  should  be  "a 
jet  black,  with  a  clear  velvet-like  look  when  freshly 
broken.  Analysis  confirms  the  practical  experience 
of  powder-makers,  that  dogwood-charcoal  makes  a 
stronger  powder  than  coal  of  any  other  wood,  con- 
taining as  it  does  a  greater  amount  of  gstseous  constit- 
uents. The  charcoal  is  ground  in  a  mill  resembling 
an  ordinary  coffee-mill,  and  is  sifted  by  piissing  it 
into  a  cylindrical  frame  covered  with  iron-wire  cloth, 
32  meshes  to  the  inch,  and  having  a  rotary  motion 
aroimd  its  longer  and  horizontal  a.xis.  The  propor- 
tions of  these  ingredients  are  the  same  as  those  used 
in  this  coimtrj'.  They  are  weighed  out  in  the  proper 
proportions  for  a  50-pbund  charge,  the  saltpeter  con- 
taining from  3  to  6  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  are 
mixed  together  in  the  mixing-machine.  This  con- 
sists of  a  hollow  bronze  drum,  which  makes  40  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  A  shaft  passes  through  the  axis 
of  the  dnmi,  ha\in!r  a  large  number  of  arms  made 
fast  to  it.  The  shaft  and  arms  revolve  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  to  the  drum,  and  at  twice  its  speed,  thus 
mixing  the  ingredients  together.  The  thorough  in- 
corporation of  the  materials  is  effected  under  hea\y 
cast-iron  or  stone  wheels,  as  in  this  coimfry.  The 
wheels  are  of  various  sizes,  some  as  large  as  7  feet  in 
diameter,  and  others  only  one  half  of  this,  the  prefer- 
ence being  given  to  the  smaller,  as  they  are  not  so  apt 
to  cause  explosions.  The  weight  varies  from  3A  to  4 
tons.  The  bed  is  about  7  feet  in  tliameter.  there 
are  in  all  32  pairs  of  wheels  for  incorporating.  A 
portion  of  them  are  driven  by  water-power,  others  by 
steam.  The  time  required  for  the  incorporation  of  a 
charge  depends  upon  the  kind  of  powder,  the  weight 
of  the  wheel  used,  and  its  velocity.  Cannon-powder 
requires  from  2*  to  3i  hours;  musket-powder  from 
4  to  5i  hours.  For  the  convenience  of  apjilying  the 
motive  power,  the  wheel-mills  are  placed  in  groups 
of  four  or  six;  and  to  prevent  the  explosion  of  one 
from  extending  to  others  of  the  same  groui),  each  is 
provided  with  a  large  vessel  of  water  overhead,  so 
arranged  that  an  cxpfosion  of  either  mill  of  the  group 
•will  overturn  all  of  these  vessels  and  pour  the  con- 
tents into  the  mill-bed  beneath.  This  apparatus  hits 
been  found  to  answer  a  good  purpose,  and  has  saved 
at  different  times  a  largeamoimt  of  property. 

Before  being  taken  to  the  press-room  to  be  pressed 
into  cake,  the  mill-cake  is  passed  through  the  break- 
ing-downi  machine,  which  breaks  up  the  lumps  into  a 
fine  state  of  division  to  facilitate  the  operation  of 
pressing.  The  breaking-down  machine  consists  of  a 
pair  of  gun-metal,  cylindrical  rollers,  grooved  longi- 
tudinally. Thev  are  placed  side  by  side,  their  axes 
parallel  and  horizontal.     The  bearings  of  one  roller 


are  not  fixed,  but  can  be  moved  to  or  from  the  other, 
and  are  held  in  their  proper  iX)sition  by  means  of  a 
weight.  The  two  rollers  revolve  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, and  the  powder  passing  between  them,  the 
cakes  and  lumps  are  broken  up  into  fine  meal.  A 
second  set  of  rollers  like  those  just  described  are 
placed  directly  under  them,  and  break  up  any  lumps 
that  may  have  escaped  the  action  of  the  first  pair. 
The  powder  to  be  broken  up  is  placed  iu  a  large 
hopper,  from  which  it  is  carried  to  the  rollers  by 
an  endless  iK'lt  of  strong  canvas,  which  pa.«.ses  through 
an  oijening  at  the  bottom  of  the  hopper  to  the  top 
of  the  machine,  where  it  falls  between  the  first  pair 
of  rollers. 

The  press  used  for  pressing  powder  into  thin  cakes 
is  operated  by  water  pumpea  into  a  vertical  cylinder. 
The  press-box,  in  which  the  powder  Ls  placed,  is  30 
mches  by  14  inches  inside,  made  of  great  strength, 
of  bronze,  lined  on  the  in.side  and  out.side  with  oak 
boards.  Three  sides  of  the  box  are  hinged  to  the  bot- 
tom, and  when  closed  are  secured  by  .short,  .strong 
bronze  screws.  In  order  to  charge  the  box  the  open 
top  is  temiKirarily  covered  with  a  piece  of  board,  and 
the  tx)Xes  turned  over  on  one  side.  Bronze  racks, 
with  vertical  grooves  in  them  li  inches  ajjart  to  hold 
the  press-plates,  are  placed  against  two  opposite  sides, 
and  the  plates,  48  in  number,  slipped  in.  The  spaces 
between  the  plates  are  filled  with  powder  thrown  in 
with  a  shovel,  and  the  racks  are  then  withdrawn, 
lea\-ing  the  powder  in  layers  li  inches  thick,  with  a 
plate  between  the  consecutive  layers.  The  side  which 
is  now  on  top  Ls  screwed  fast,  and  the  box  is  turned 
over  onto  the  table  of  the  hydraulic  press,  bringing 
the  press-plates  horizontal.  The  board  cover  is  re- 
moved, and  the  solid  wooden  block  overhead,  which 
resists  the  pressure  of  the  ram,  is  adjusted  so  as  to 
enter  the  box  and  be  forced  deeper  and  deeper  into  it 
as  the  powder  is  compacted.  The  pressure  is  applied 
by  pumps  driven  by  water-power  in  another  building, 
between  which  and  the  press-house  there  are  large 
earthen  traverses.  The  inspection  of  powder  is  con- 
ducted with  a  strictness  that  would  surprise  our 
powder-makers.  An  inspection  is  requued  of  the 
pres.sed  cake  after  each  pre.ssing,  and  its  density  is 
determined  with  the  mercury  densimeter  before  it  is 
permitted  to  pa-ss  on  to  the  succeeding  processes. 
The  density  of  musket-powder  is  fixed  about  1.725, 
and  that  of  pebble-powder  from  1.77  to  1.81,  and 
R.  L.  G.  1.67.  The  finished  product  of  each  day's 
labor  is  inspected  and  proved.  The  size  and  shape  of 
the  grain  are  accurately  determined.  The  proof  of 
the  different  kinds  of  powder  consists  in  determining 
the  velocity  imparted  to  a  projectile  fired  from  a  gun 
under  circumstances  as  nearly  similar  as  possible  to 
those  of  actual  ser\-ice.  Musket-ix)wdcr  mu.st  give 
the  ser\ice-ball  a  certain  velocity  when  fired  from  the 
regulation  musket;  cannon-powder  is  in  like  maimer 
proved  by  testing  its  strength  when  fired  in  the  12- 
pounder  rifled  gun;  and  pebble-powder  when  fired  in 
a  9-inch  or  large  gun. 

In  Russia  all  powder  used  in  the  military  and  naval 
serWces.  as  well  as  most  of  that  for  sporting  and  min- 
ing, is  made  under  the  direction  of  the  Government 
at  its  own  factories.  Of  private  mills  there  are  only 
a  few  small  ones  in  Finland,  where  powder  for  sport- 
ins  and  mining  purposes  is  made.  The  Government 
mtUs  are  three  in  number,  and  are  situated  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  Empire:  1.  The  Ohktenskoi  mills, 
near  St.  Petersburg.  2.  The  Michael-Schosta,  in 
Little  Russia,  in  the  saltpeter  district.  3.  That  in  the 
Kazjin.  Of  these  the  second  is  the  most  extensive; 
the  first  is  provided  with  the  newest  machinery  and 
most  improved  appliances,  and  has  a  great  capa- 
city. The  Ohktenskoi  mills  are  situated  on  the 
Olikta  River,  about  six  miles  from  St.  Petersburg. 
They  occupy  about  1^  square  miles  of  land,  230  acres 
of  which,  where  the  dangerous  operations  are  per- 
formed, being  inclosed  by  a  high  picket-fence  on  three 
sides,  and  the  river  on  the  fourth.  The  river  fur- 
nishes the  greater  part  of  the  power  required  for  nm- 


GTJNPOWDEE. 


812 


OtrNPOWDER. 


nine  the  mills,  but  their  number  has  been  from  time 
to  time  increased  until  the  eaiiaeity  of  the  stream  has 
been  exeeeiled,  and  now  horses  and  steam  have  to  be 
employed  in  addition  to  the  water-power.  The  build- 
ings are  substantially  eonstrueted  of  brick  on  three 
sides,  the  fourth  b*'iuj;  of  wood,  so  as  to  yield  readily 
to  any  explosive  force  from  wi'hin.  The  side  selected 
for  tins  purpose  is  that  whicli  is  in  the  ojiposite  direc- 
tion from  those  buildings  nearest  to  it.  The  build- 
injrs  most  recently  erected,  besides  being  built  more 
solidly,  are  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  an  embank- 
ment "of  earth  15  feet  hijrh,  4t)  feet  broad  at  the  base, 
and  13  feet  at  the  top.  It  ha.s  been  found  by  experi- 
ence that  the  vibrations  resultiiiic  from  an  explosion 
are  broken  mostcfTectually,  and  contiguous  buildings 
are  injured  less  when  a  body  of  water  is  interposed 
between  them  and  the  place  of  the  explosion.  For 
this  reason  a  canal  or  pond  of  water  is  dug  between 
the  mills  most  liable  to  be  exploded  and  the  bouses 
nearest  to  them.  The  grounds  vary  considerably  in 
level,  and  the  communication  between  the  different 
mills  is  principally  by  means  of  wheelbarrows,  very 
little  by  l)oat,  and  none  by  railway- trucks.  The  mo- 
tive power  furnished  by  the  river  is  well  applied. 
Just  below  the  dam  two  larire  iron  tubes  200  yards 
long  and  -t  feet  in  diameter,  resting  upon  iron  rollers 
raised  on  brick  piers  6  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  conduct  each  a  stream  of  water  to  a  series  of 
eight  water-wheels  placed  between  a  double  row  of 
■wheel-mills,  so  that  each  water-wheel  communicates 
motion  to  two  mills.  Some  of  these  water-wheels  are 
overshot,  of  12  horse-power,  and  made  of  wood;  but 
those  most  recently  put  in  are  of  iron  and  of  a  pecti- 
liar  construction.  The  water  enters  through  a  ver- 
tical pipe  into  the  interior  of  the  wheel  to  within 
about  2  feet  of  the  bottom,  and  is  then  discharged 
fnjin  the  curved  siu'faces  which  form  the  exterior. 
It  is  said  to  have  a  coefficient  of  .8.  The  rollers 
under  the  iron  pipe  are  for  the  purpo.se  of  enablins  it 
to  acconnnodate  itself  readily  to  the  changes  in  its 
length  caused  bj'  the  expansion  and  contraction  due 
to  the  variations  of  temperature  to  which  it  is  ex- 
posed; and  this  is  considerable,  between  three  and 
four  inches. 

The  proportions  of  the  materials  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gimpowder  in  Russia  are  the  same  as  those 
used  in  this  country  and  England.  The  salti)etcr  is 
obtained  partly  from  I^ittle  Russia,  where  it  occurs  as 
a  natural  efflorescence  on  the  ground,  and  may  In, 
much  hastened  by  scraping  the  surface;  and  pailly 
from  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  ^'here  there  are  found 
vast  mounds,  numure-heaps,  which  are  now  so  many 
mines  of  saltpeter.  So  far  from  Russia  being  depend- 
ent upon  any  other  country  for  this  all-important 
material  in  times  of  war,  she  has  within  her  own  ter- 
ritory a  larger  supply  than  is  necessary  for  her  own 
wants,  and  is  able  to  export  some  to  Austria.  Sup- 
plies requireil  for  the  manufacture  of  gunjiowder  are 
furnished  at  the  mills  by  contractors,  already  refined 
and  ready  for  innnediate  use.  The  sulphur  is  ob- 
tained from  Sicily  in  the  state  of  roll-sulphur,  which 
is  further  purified  by  distillation  in  the  usual  way. 
The  chaicoal  was  fonncrly  made  from  the  alder,  hill 
it  is  now  made  from  a  variety  of  the  l)irch.  Young 
trees  as  large  as  ."j  or  0  inches  in  diameter  are  used. 
It  is  prepared  in  the  usual  way  by  distillation  in  iron 
cylinders  iu  charges  of  144  lbs.  Fuel  being  abund- 
ant, no  effort  has  been  made  to  economiz(^  it  by  con- 
suming the  gaseous  products  of  the  distillation  "of  the 
wood,  as  is  done  in  Englan<l  and  Pnissia.  The  char- 
coal and  sulphur  are  ]iulveri/.(d  together  in  a  metal 
barrel  'ii  feet  long  and  the  .same  iu  diameter.  Three 
parts  of  charcoal  and  two  parts  of  sulphur  are  put 
into  the  barrel  with  bronze  bidls  J  inch  in  diameter. 
The  barrels  are  set  in  motion  by  horsepower,  and 
made  to  revolve  until  the  materials  are  reduced  to  a 
tine  powder  and  thoroughly  mixed  together.  The 
l)alls  are  separated  from  the  mixture  by  means  of  a 
coarse  sieve  through  which  it  is  made  to  pass.  One 
part  of  this  composition  is  added  to  three  i)art3  of 


saltpeter,  and  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed  together 
by  hand  on  a  table  with  raised  sides  and  covered  with 
acotton  cloth  having  holes  in  it  to  admit  the  arms  of 
the  workman.  A.  little  water  is  first  added.  This 
comiiosition  is  next  put,  in  charges  of  120  lbs,,  under 
the  w  heels  to  be  ground  for  four  hours.  The  wheel- 
mills  are  of  different  construction,  depending  on  the 
date  at  which  they  were  put  in.  Thosc>  first  used  are 
of  bronze,  with  bronze  beds,  about  4i  feet  iu  diame- 
ter, and  weigh  about  3i  tons  each.  Those  more  re- 
cently i)ut  in  arc  of  iron,  with  iron  beds  atx)ut  7  feet 
in  diameter,  and  weighing  4J  tons  each.  Some  Jiairs 
of  wheels  revolve  around  an  axisequiilistant  from  the 
two  wheels;  in  other  mills  the  two  wheels  travel  over 
tracks  of  unequal  length.  The  results  of  a  long  ex- 
])cricnce  show  that  there  is  no  advantage  to  be  had  in 
making  the  wheels  or  bed  of  bronze;  that  such  mills 
are  no  more  exempt  from  explosions  than  the  cast- 
iron  mills,  and  iu  consequence  the  use  of  the  costly 
material  in  future  constructions  is  lelinquished.  The 
particular  arrangement  and  disposition  of  the  build- 
ings for  the  incorporating-mills  adoi)tcd  at  this  estab- 
lishment, by  which  they  are  placed  in  double  parallel 
rows,  with  a  v\ater-wheel  between  each  pair,  the 
buildings  being  brought  so  close  together,  is  most 
convenient  and  economical  in  supplying  power  to  the 
different  mills,  but  is  highly  objectionable  in  tending 
to  render  the  explosions  more  destmctive  by  increas- 
ing the  chances  of  the  explosion  of  one  mill  com- 
municating to  others. 

The  jjowder,  as  it  leaves  the  incorporating  mills,  or 
mill-cake,  as  it  is  termed,  is  broken  into  pieces  by 
hand  with  wooden  mallets  and  is  passed  to  the  press- 
house  to  be  formed  into  cake.  This  is  done  by  two 
different  varieties  of  presses,  the  hydraulic  and  the 
Prussian  press.  The  density  of  the  Russian  powder, 
like  that  of  the  Prussian,  is  very  low,  cannon-powder 
being  .940,  and  musket  from  .920  to  .935.  The 
gianulation  of  the  powder  is  also  performed  in  ma- 
chines of  quite  different  construction.  One  is  the 
same  as  that  used  in  Germany;  the  other  consists «f  a 
long  bed  in  which  are  arranged  several  series  of  sieves, 
each  series  consisting  of  four  sieves,  which  are  placed 
one  over  the  other,  the  coarsest  at  the  top.  To  this 
beil  contiiining  the  sieves  a  quick  horizontal  recipro- 
cating motion  is  communicated  by  machinery.  The 
press-cake  is  placed  in  the  upper  sieve,  and  with  it 
liardened  lead  balls  about  one  inch  in  diameter.  The 
balls  now  impinging  against  the  cake,  break  it  into 
pieces,  the  opcratioiT  being  continued  until  the  pieces 
have  been  reduced  in  size  so  that  they  will  pass 
through  the  meshes  into  the  sieve  beneath.  The 
smaller  pieces  pass  through  the  sieves  until  they  have 
been  as,sorted  according  to  sizes  of  the  meshes,  the 
dust  falling  into  a  trough  under  the  sieves.  The  con- 
tents of  the  sieves  are  put  away  arranged  according 
to  the  size  of  the  grain,  and  the  dust  found  in  the 
trough  is  taken  back  to  be  worked  over.  The  glaz- 
ing is  done  in  the  usual  way  by  the  friction  of  the 
grains  against  each  other  in  revohnng  bands.  It  is 
next  dusted,  and  the  grains  arc  again  assorted.  The 
operation  of  dusting  is  different  from  that  generally 
seen  in  other  mills,  though  it  is  believed  that  its 
novelty  is  its  only  claim  entitling  it  to  notice.  The 
machiiic  consists  of  a  horizontal  wooden  frame,  with 
vertical  guides  to  direct  its  motion  up  and  down.  On 
the  under  side  of  this  frame  there  are  pins  driven  in, 
from  each  of  which  is  suspended  bj'  its  closed  end  a 
long  narrow  bag  of  coarse  linen  cloth,  something  like 
a  shirt-sleeve.  The  lower  and  open  end  of  the  bag  is 
drawn  aside  from  its  vertical  position,  distended,  and 
made  fast  to  a  wooden  partition  clo.se  by.  Holes  of 
the  size  of  the  mouth  of  the  bag  are  cut  into  this  par- 
tition where  the  bags  are  fastened  to  it,  and  are  closed 
by  snugly-fitting  trap-doors  which  arc  secured  from 
the  outside.  The  powder  is  introduced  into  the  bags 
through  these  holes  until  they  are  less  than  half  full, 
and  the  holes  closed;  a  vertical  reciprocating  motion 
is  now  communicated  by  machinery  to  the  horizontal 
frame  from  which  the  bags  are  suspended,  extending 


GUKPOWBEB. 


813 


GUNPOWDEE. 


the  bag  each  lime  its  full  length,  bringins  the  closed 
end  tirst  above  and  then  below  the  lixed  end,  and 
causing  the  powder  to  traverse  back  and  forth  from 
one  end  to  the  other  and  by  its  gentle  motion  to  sift 
the  dust  through  the  cloth,"  when  it  falls  to  the  flo<jr 
beneath.  Prismatic  powder  is  made  by  compressing 
a  given  charge  of  soft  grain-powder,  which  contains 
from  5  to  6  per  cent  of  moisture,  in  a  strong  mold  of 
the  required  size.  The  holes  in  the  prism  are  foniied 
at  the  same  time  the  prism  is  made  by  means  of  small 
tapered  spindles,  which  pass  through  the  powder  and 
the  compres-sing-punches.  The  only  machine  that 
has  been  devised  for  the  manufacture  of  this  powder 
is  the  one  designed  by  Profcs.sor  Vichnegradski ,  and 
made  in  Ritssia,  and  s"ince  copied  in  Prussia  arul  Hol- 
land. The  idea  of  using  powder  compressed  into  a 
solid  cake  with  parallel  holes  running  through  it  form- 
ing surfacesof  combustion  which  shall  be  continually 
increasing  as  the  combustion  continues  was  borrowed, 
as  the  Russians  themselves  frankly  admit,  from  some 
experiments  made  tirst  bj-*  Captain  Rodman  at  Fort 
Monroe  in  1861,  and  witnessed  by  a  distinguished  ar- 
tillerj'  officer  of  the  Russian  army.  The  idea  was 
carried  out  successfully  in  a  pract"ical  form  first  by 
the  invention  and  ojieration  of  this  niacbine,  which  is 
essentially  one  strong  vertical  punch  carrying  six 
pimchcs,  and  forming  six  Jirisms  or  grains  of  powder 
at  each  revolution  of  the  shaft  or  the  descent  of  the 
punches.  It  is  widely  different  in  its  general  design 
and  working  from  the  machine  made  in  England  for 
pressing  the  grains  of  pellet-powder,  as  well  as  more 
successful  anil  economical. 

From  the  machine  the  prisms  are  next  taken  to 
the  drying-house,  where  they  are  kept  for  a  month; 
or,  wlien  the  weather  is  good,  they  are  dried  iu  the 
open  air,  that  is,  in  a  building  provided  with  nume- 
rous doors  and  windows  which  are  kept  open,  but 
without  the  aid  of  artiticial  heat.  Here  they  will  dry 
in  the  course  of  live  weeks.  The  density  of  prisms 
varies  from  1.65  to  1.75,  according  to  the  gun  in  which 
it  is  to  be  used;  the  latter  density  is  for  the  11-inch 
gim.  Prismatic  powder  is  not  glazed;  it  is  .said  to 
resist  the  action  of  moisture  oetter  than  ordinary  pow- 
der. It  is  packed  in  boxes  lined  with  paper,  the 
prisms  laiil  on  their  bases,  close  together,  so  they  can- 
not move,  and  covered  with  felt.  This  kind  of  pow- 
der is  not  made  at  either  of  the  other  mills.  In  filling 
cartridges  with  prismatic  powder,  pains  is  taken  to 
pack  the  prisms  in  the  bag  laid  on  their  ba.ses,  tittins 
as  closely  as  they  can  be  packed,  the  holes  in  the 
prisms  corresponding  with  those  above  and  below, 
and  forming  air-pas.sagcs  for  the  communication  of  the 
flame  through  the  whole  length  of  the  cartridge. 
The  cartridge-bag  is  tied  closely  over  the  powder, 
fitting  it  snugly,  and  keeping  the  prisms  in  their 
places.  Prismatic  powiler  is  u.sed  exclusively  for  all 
gims  of  a  caliber  of  8  inches  and  over.  For  6-inch 
guns  it  is  sometimes  used,  but  not  invariably,  ordi- 
nary cannon-powder  being  also  occasionally  used, 
though  less  frequently  than  the  prismatic.  Ordinarj- 
cannon-powder  is  used  for  all  field-guns  and  those  of 
less  caliber  than  6  inches.  All  powder  is  proved  by 
firing  service-charges  and  deterimning  the  initial  velo- 
city of  the  ball.  Ordinary  cannon-powder  is  proved 
in  a  4-poimdcr  gun,  the  prismatic  in  an  8-incb  gun. 
The  pressure  exerted  on  the  bore  of  the  gim  bj'  the 
prismatic  powder  is  also  detennined. 

Gunpowder  for  tlie  Prussian  railitaiT  service  is 
made  part  at  the  Royal  Powder-mills  of  Spandau  smd 
Neisse,  ,aiid  part  by  private  manufacturers  indifferent 
parts  of  the  Empire,  the  standard  of  quality  being 
regulated  by  the  former.  The  pow<ler-works  at 
Spandau  are  of  very  ancient  date,  a  pounding-mill 
having  been  established  here  as  early  as  the  year  1344. 
They  are  situated  on  low  ground  on  the  hanks  of  the 
Spree,  in  the  midst  of  a  wood  only  a  short  distance 
from  the  Arsenal  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 
The  buildings,  mainly  of  wood,  are  placed  at  consid- 
erable distances  from  each  other,  and  the  roads  lead- 
ing from  one  to  another  are  covered  with  tan-bark  to  , 


avoid  the  introduction  of  sand  or  gravel  into  the 
buildings,  carried  on  the  feet  of  the  workmen.  Watcr- 
jiower  is  the  motor  used  to  drive  the  machinery,  with 
the  exception  of  one  steam-engine  which  drives  the 
fan  for  forcing  hot  air  into  thedrying-hou.se  somedi.s- 
lance  off,  the  boiler  furnishing  the  means  of  healing 
the  air.  Few  changes  have  t)een  made  in  the  manner 
of  making  powder  within  iLe  last  fifty  years  or  more. 
The  mrtluMl  of  incorporating  the  materials  known  as 
the  ■'  rcvohitionarj'  proce.s-i,"  from  its  having  been 
a(i(jpted  during  tlie  war  of  the  French  Revolution, 
though  given  up  by  everj-  other  nation,  has  teen  ad- 
hered to  with  only  slight  modifications.  By  this 
method  the  materials  are  pulverized  and  incoi-porated 
by  being  rolled  in  barrels  turning  on  horizonud  axes, 
and  containing  besides  a  quantity  of  bronze  balls  of 
small  size.  The  composition  is  pressed  into  cake  by 
means  of  two  rollers  between  which  it  is  made  to  pass, 
being  first  evenly  distributed  on  an  endless  band  of 
coarse  linen.  The  upper  roller  is  of  bronze,  and  its 
pressure  on  the  lower  roller  is  increa.scd  and  regtdated 
by  a  weighted  lever.  The  woods  used  for  making 
the  charcoal  are  the  berrv-lx;ariiig  alder  and  willow, 
which  are  cut  into  lengths  of  about  one  foot,  from 
branches  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  distillation 
is  conducted  in  cylindrical  iron  retorl.s  into  which  the 
wood  is  closely  packed  and  then  .sealed.  The  retorts 
arc  provided  with  small  wheels  for  the  convenience 
of  running  them  in  and  out  of  the  furnaces. 

After  glazing,  the  powder  is  dried  at  a  t<'mperature 
of  190  F.,  \mng  laid  out  for  the  puqwse  on  thin  can- 
va.s  stretched  over  hot-water  pipes,  the  hot  air  being 
forced  up  through  the  powder  by  means  of  a  f;in- 
blower.  One  hour  and  a  half  is  "sufficient  to  dn,-  it. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  1.64.  The  process  of  maniifac- 
ture  of  prismatic  powder  was  obtained  by  Prussia  from 
Rus.sia.  The  prisms  are  1  inch  thick,  and  the  diame- 
ter of  .the  circumscribing  circle  is  1.57  inch.  There 
are  seven  holes,  one  in  the  center  and  the  others  op- 
posite the  angles,  the  center  .33  inch  distant  from  the 
angle.  The  holes  are  tapering  from  .185  inch  to  .165 
inch.  Specific  granty  1.66.  A  prism  weighs  587 
grains.  They  are  packed  in  boxes  of  110  poimds 
each.  To  prevent  the  prisms  from  breaking,  a  piece 
of  fell  .4  inch  thick  is  placed  on  top  of  the  prisms 
and  at  the  end  of  the  lx)X.  Prismatic  powder  is  used 
in  the  15-centimeter  and  all  larger  guns.  The  powder 
used  by  Krupp  in  all  of  his  large  gims  is  of  the  pris- 
matic form,  made  at  Hamm,  by  a  private  manufac- 
turer, after  the  Russian  .system.  The  size  of  the 
prisms  is  the  sjmie  as  used  by  Russia  and  Prussia,  the 
density  varying  with  the  caliber  of  the  gim  in  which 
it  is  to  be  used.  For  the  12-inch  and  14-inch  guns 
the  prisms  are  perforated  each  by  only  a  single  hole 
instead  of  seven,  and  that  is  in  the  center;  it  is  .59 
inch  in  diameter.  The  specific  gra\nty  is  from  1  73 
to  1.76.  Important  changes  have  been  made  in 
France  during  the  last  decade  in  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder.  The  separate  department  for  the  man- 
agement of  the  powder-mills  and  saltpeter  refineries 
has  been  abolished.  The  greater  numlxT  of  these 
establishments  which  were  engaged  in  making  sport- 
ing and  mining  powders  has  passed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Minister  of  Finance;  and  five — Ripault, 
Bouchet,  Saint  Chamas,  Angouleine.  and  Esquerdes 
— have  been  reserved  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpow- 
der for  the  Army  and  Navy.  Since  1865,  the  date  of 
this  change,  all  experiments  on  cannon-powilcr  have 
been  carried  on  exclusively  by  officers  detailed  for  the 
purpose.  The  powder-mill  of  Bouchet  has  been  com- 
pletely under  the  orders  of  the  marine  in  making  ex- 
perimental powders  for  large  gtms.  Numerous  and 
different  powders,  varying  in  the  i)roportions  of  the 
ingredients,  the  mode  and  time  of  mixing,  the  density, 
size,  and  shape  of  grain,  have  been  made  and  sent  to 
Gilvre  or  Ruelle,  to  lie  tired  from  gims  of  proper  size, 
and  the  effects  on  the  projectile  and  the  gun  carefully- 
noted.  Similar  trials  have  been  made  with  foreign 
powders,  such  as  the  English  jH-llet.  tlie  Rus.sian  and 
Dutch  prismatic,  the  Wettereu  large-grain,  and  pow- 


GtriTPOWBEB  BAGS. 


814 


OUNPOWDEE-HAMMEK. 


tiers  made  like  them,  and  their  effects  carefully  com- 
pareil. 

Of  all  the  ixiwdcrs  experimented  on,  tliat  which  has 
given  the  licst  results  in  larcegunsisthelarfre-frrained 
powder  made  at  the  Royal  Powder-mills  of  "Wetteren, 
in  Beliriuni.  The  iwundinginills,  with  their  mor 
tars  and  iR'stles,  which  have  been  so  long  used  for  in- 
corporating the  materials  of  irunpowiler,  have  at  last 
given  place  to  the  wheel-mill,  in  spite  of  the  objections 
made  to  its  use.  It  was  found  to  he  impossible  to 
make  powder  suitable  for  the  new  nuiterial  by  this 
process,  and  a  change  has  been  also  made  in  the  pro- 
portions of  the  ingredients,  and  the  fornuda  used  bj- 
most  oilier  nations  has  bei'U  adopted.  France  has 
acted  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  Power  on  the 
principle  that  every  gun  has  its  jiarticular  powder, 
which  will  do  in  this  gun  more  work  than  any  other, 
imd  has  accordingly  prescribed  the  size  of  gniin  for 
the  ix)wdcr  to  be  used  in  each  of  the  large  calibei-s. 
The  sizes  adopted  are,  for  the  14-centinieter  gun,  be- 
tween .27.5  inch  and  .B937  inch;  19-and  24-ceulimcter 
gun,  to  ween  ..51  inch  and  .tj3  inch:  2T-centimeter 
gun,  between  .63  inch  and  .Tt<T  inch.  The  Conimand- 
mg  Officer  of  the  Bouchet  powder-mill  was  charged 
with  the  duty  of  getting  u|)  a  powder  which  should 
give  as  favorable  results  in  large  guns  as  that  pro- 
cured from  Wetteren.  Following  the  process  sug- 
gested by  Captain  Castan,  the  etfort  was  entirely 
successful,  as  was  shown  by  the  satisfactory  report 
made  on  it  by  the  Commission  at  Gavre,  where  it  was 
tested.  The  form  given  to  the  grain  is  that  of  a  flat 
pai'allelopipcdon,  the  thickness  of  which  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  pressed  cake.  A  large-grain  powder 
has  also  been  made,  suitable  for  the  field  artillery, 
and  another  for  siege-guns.  The  latter  has  grains 
.4;^  inch  thick  and  a  density  of  1.79.  It  gives  as  high 
a  velocity  as  the  compressed  rings  i)re\'iously  used, 
with  a  less  pressure  on  the  bore  of  the  gun. 

Austria  obtains  her  supply  of  powder  partly  from 
mills  belonging  to  the  Government,  and  parti}-  from 
private  contractors.  Numerous  experiments  have 
been  made  with  prismatic  powder  with  the  u-sual 
favorable  results,  but  the  expense  of  manufacture  led 
to  the  search  by  experiment  for  a  less  costly  powder 
which  should  meet  the  requirements  of  the  sei-vice. 
In  1873  trials  were  made  with  a  pebble-powder  of 
an  English  make,  and  samjiles  made  at  .Stein,  with 
grains  of  different  sizes  and  density.  The  results 
showed  the  practicability  of  vaiying  the  grain  in  size 
and  density  so  as  to  produce  a  powder  which  shall 
give  in  the  gun  for  wliich  it  was  intended  sufficient 
ballistic  effects  with  little  fatigue  to  the  gun.  The 
experiments  have  not  yet  been  concluded.  Trials 
have  been  made  with  the  Castan  powder  with  good 
results.  All  of  the  dense  powders  thus  far  tried  have 
given,  with  velocities  equal  to  those  given  by  the 
prismatic  powder,  considerably  less  strain  on  the  gun. 
These  powders  have  a  sjiecilic  gravity  of  1.759  to 
1.785.  The  proportions  of  the  constituents  u.sed  are 
74,  10,  16,  and  the  incorporation  is  effected  liy  means 
of  the  wheel-mill.  See  Almilnte  Force  nfGinijtf>iri/i  r, 
lircakiny-diiirii  Mucliiiie,  Cliuiroal,  CiinipenKatlnri  Pair- 
der,  Citbiral  Pinrder,  Deiisinitlir,  Driiiiiii  sUire,  Dust- 
ing-reels, Explosion, Erpltmii  AgenU,  (ibniiin-ninrhiue, 
OranuUititin-miirltine,  Qun-rotton,  He.ra{ioiuil  Powder, 
Ineorpnrating-tiiill,  Insjwction  of  Poirdtr,  Magnzine, 
Mammoth  Powder,  Mij-iiig-i/iiir/iiin ,  Nitintf  of  Soda, 
Nitro-glgrtrine,  Piieking  of  Powder,  Pebble -powder, 
PeUct-jmwiler,  Powder-jtrrss,  Priserriition,  Prismatic 
Powder,  Progressive  Powder,  Hound  Powder,  Saltpeter, 
Schaghlieoke  Powder,  Sehultze  Powder,  Sifting  reel, 
Special  Powders,  Sphero-hragonal  Powder,  Square 
Powder,  Storage  and  TVansportntion  of  Powder,  Sul- 
p/i'ir,   Wrttrnn  Powder,  and  Wiener  Powder. 

GUNPOWDER  BAGS.— Hags  made  of  serge  or  other 
clotli,  and  used  for  lilowing  open  gates,  stockades, 
etc.  The  size  of  the  bags  ditfcrs  accordinir  to  the 
charge  intended  to  be  placed  in  them;  they  are  tired 
generally  by  means  of  a  Bickford  fuse.  The  bags 
arc  cither  placed  on  the  ground  or  fastened  by  a  hook 


to  the  gate.  In  Burmah,  in  1852,  experiments  were 
made  to  test  the  value  of  powder  bairs  in  blowing 
down  stockades,  and  the  result  proved  most  satisfac- 
tory: bags  containing  about  tifty  pounds  of  powder 
causing  a  rent  large  enough  to  admit  of  a  section  of 
infantry  entering  within  the  inelosure.  K.\iieriments 
were  also  at  the  same  time  made  with  S-inch  howii 
Zeis,  which  failed  to  make  much  impression  on  this 
manner  of  defense.  The  Indian  water-caiTiers'  mus- 
suck  (water-l)ag),  can  be  used  as  a  powder-bag  in  any 
emerirencv. 

GUNPOWDER  FACTORY.— A  .series  of  bviildings  in 
wbicli  the  several  proces.ses  in  the  maiuifaeture  of 
gimix)wder  are  carried  out.  A  giuijiowder-factory 
shoiild  Ix' situated  far  away  from  iidiabited  localities. 
The  buildings  should  be  made  of  wi«xl,  so  that  in 
case  of  explosion  the  smallest  resistance  would  be 
otTered  to  tlie  force  of  the  powder.  Explosions  un- 
der any  circumstances  are  disastrous,  but  if  they  oc- 
cur in  a  masonry  building  are  still  more  so.  The 
generality  of  mill-bouses,  therefore,  will  be  found  to 
be  made  of  wood,  and  protected  from  one  another  by 
huge  banks  of  earth  or  thick  masonry  surrounding 
each  house.  There  is  no  obiection  to  makuig  incor- 
porating -  houses  of  ma.sonry  if  the  walls  are  built 
thick  enough  to  withstand  "the  explosive  force  of  a 
"  mill-charge"  (fifty  pounds).  To  add  to  the  safetj- 
of  incorporating-honses,  in  case  of  an  exjilosion  in  one 
room,  the  charges  in  the  other  rooms  are  by  means  of 
self-acting  machinery  instantaneously  drowned  in  the 
water. 

The  principal,  indeed  the  only,  Goverrmient  fac- 
tory for  the  manufacture  of  gimpowder  in  England 
is  at  Waltham  Abbe)-.  All  powder  required  in  ex 
cess  of  what  this  factory  is  able  to  turn  out  is  sup- 
plied by  private  factories  on  contract.  In  India  there 
are  three  I'aetories.  one  in  each  Presidency.  See 
Poi/al  (xu npowderfiirfori/. 

GUNPOWDER-HAMMER.— The  pile  driver  operated 
bj'  the  exjilosive  force  of  gunpowder.  Strong  efforts 
have  been  made  to  bring  this  machine  to  successfid 
operation,  but  in  consequence  of  the  great  expense  of 
working,  the  constant  care,  and  the  very  accurate  ad- 
justment required,  it  has  fallen  into  general  disuse, 
especially  for  military  purposes.  The  machine  in  its 
improved  form  may  be  described  as  follows:  The 
leaders  are  built  of  iron  and  veiy  carefully  aligned. 
The  "  gun,"  shaped  somewhat  like  a  short  field-piece, 
with  wings  on  either  side,  and  a  recess  at  the  breech, 
is  fitted  by  means  of  grooves  in  the  wings  to  slide 
easily  between  the  leaders,  the  recess  or  cap  recei\-ing 
the  liead  of  the  iiile  t5  be  driven.  When  in  position 
for  driving  a  jiile.  the  ram  is  suspended  at  the  top 
of  the  leaders,  held  there  by  a  trip  operated  by  a  line 
in  the  hands  of  a  man  on  the  deck  of  the  machine. 
From  the  lower  face  of  this  suspended  ram  is  a  shaft 
turned  to  accurately  fit  the  bore  of  the  gun,  whose 
upturned  nuizzle  is  expected  to  receive  it.  At  a 
suitable  height  to  accommodate  the  oi^erator  is  an 
adjustable  platform,  which  carries  the  operator  and 
his  supply  of  cartridges,  containing  each  usually  about 
three  ounces  of  powder.  When  it  is  desired  to  drive 
a  pile,  the  ojierator,  standing  on  his  platform,  drops  a 
cartridge  into  the  muzzle  of  the  "gun"  and  trips 
the  suspended  ram,  w-hose  projecting  i)intle.  entering 
the  nnizzle  of  the  "gim,"  by  comiiressing  the  air 
generates  the  degree  of  heat  necessiuy  to  explode  the 
cartridge,  the  explosion  of  which  throws  up  the  ham- 
mer, and  at  the  .same  time  projects  the  pile  into  the 
ground.  As  the  liammer  or  ram  is  tbrowii  up,  the 
alert  operator  drops  in  other  cartridges,  which  are  in 
turn  exi)l()ded  by  the  returning  ram.  As  the  pile  .set- 
tles into  the  ground,  assistants  keep  the  jilatform  oc- 
cupied by  the  operator  in  projier  iiosilion:  and  w-hen 
it  is  desired  to  stop  the  di-iving.  enough  cartiidgesare 
droiijH'd  into  the  gun  to  produce  an  ex]ito.sion  that 
will  send  the  hammer  clear  to  the  top  of  the  leadens, 
where  it  is  caught  and  held  ready  for  the  next  pile, 
which  is  Inought  into  position  in  the  usual  manner 
and  by  the  use  of  the  ordinarj-  machinery,  which  also 


GTJNPOWDEB-L  4WS. 


815 


GUNPOWDER  PLOT. 


twists  the  gun  and  lowers  tbe  same  on  to  the  head  of 
the  pile.  In  practice,  to  drive  a  13inch  pile  twenty 
feet  into  firm  clay  about  two  hundred  blows  would 
be  struck,  at  an  expense  for  powder  of  between  three 
and  four  dollars.  The  gun  is  found  to  soon  become 
foul,  and  creases  are  soon  cut  in  it  so  that  an  escape  of 
air  causes  the  failure  in  exploding  a  charsc;  in  which 
case  a  jammingof  llie  piiille  in  the  bore  of  the  "  gun" 
results,  causing  a  great  delay  and  no  little  expense. 
In  Shaw's  pile-driver,  the  monkey,  or  ram,  is  sus- 
tained at  its  highest  elevation  by  means  of  a  ratchet 
and  pawl,  while  a  cartridge  and  "cap  are  placed  in  a 
recess  in  the  head  of  the  pile.  The  pawl  being  with- 
drawn, the  monkey  falls  upon  and  explodes  the  car- 
tridge. The  force  of  the  explosion  raises  the  monkey 
to  the  height  from  which  it  fell,  where  it  is  auto- 
matically arrested  bj-  the  detent  arrangement.  The 
effective  force  of  tlic  fall  is  said  to  be  much  increased 
by  the  action  of  the  powder.  One  man  places  the 
cartridge  in  position  and  releases  the  ram.  See  Pile- 
driver. 

GUNPOWDER-LAWS.— In  order  to  guard  against 
the  frightful  consequences  to  the  public  likely  to  aiise 
from  carelessness  in  the  preparation,  preservalion.  or 
conveyance  of  this  most  dangerous  article,  the  Englisli 
Legislature  in  187.5  made  stringent  rules  upon  the 
subject.  By  an  Act  which  applies  also  to  Scotland 
and  Ireland  it  is  provided  that  no  gunpowder  shall 
be  manufactured  except  at  a  factory  lawfullj- existing 
or  licensed  under  the  Act,  and  it  shall  not  be  kept 
except  in  the  factory  where  it  is  made,  or  in  a  maga- 
zine or  store  duly  licensed,  or  in  registered  premises. 
The  license  Is  obtained  from  the  local  authority  (usu- 
ally Justices),  and  approved  by  the  Home  Secretary. 
General  rules  are  imposed  for  regulating  factories  and 
magazines.  There  must  be  a  lightning-conductor. 
No  charcoal  nor  oiled  rags  must  be  taken  into  the 
building  except  for  immediate  use.  No  smoking  is 
allowed.  Tools  arc  to  lie  made  of  wood  or  soft  mate- 
rial. Workingmen's  clothes  are  to  be  without  pock 
ets.  Carriages  and  boats  for  conveying  gunpowder 
must  have  in  their  interior  no  iron  or  steel  exposed. 
Each  building  is  to  have  affixed,  so  as  to  be  easily 
read,  the  quantity  of  gunpowder  allowed  in  each. 
Retail  dealers  must  be  registered,  and  must  kee]) 
their  powder  in  a  sejiarate  house  or  in  a  fire-proof 
safe,  not  exceeding  200  lbs.;  but  if  kept  inside  the 
dwelling-house,  .50  lbs.,  or  if  in  a  safe  inside,  100  lbs. 
The  building  or  s;ife  is  to  have  no  exposed  iron  or 
steel  in  tbe  interior.  A  breach  of  precautions  against 
fire  or  explosion  is  visited  with  heavy  penalties.  The 
local  authoiities  must  keep  registers  of  licensed  i)er- 
sons,  and  all  rate-payers  can  demand  a  copy  thereof. 
Retail  dealers,  if  using  less  than  .5  lbs.  for  cartridges 
at  one  time,  are  exempted  from  taking  out  a  factoiy- 
license.  No  powder  nuist  be  sold  to  a  child  under  13. 
All  powder  exceeding  1  lb.  weight  must  be  sold  in  a 
canister  or  case  securely  fitted,  and  with  the  word 
"gunpowder"  visible.  Also,  powder  must  be  closely 
and  securely  packed  and  labeled  for  conveyance,  if 
exceeding  .5  lbs.,  and  the  amount  carried  is  not  to  ex- 
ceed 100  lbs.  All  Railway  and  Canal  Companies  arc 
to  make  rules  and  have  special  times  and  places  for 
loading  and  unloading  powder.  Fire-work  factories, 
if  making  ami  keeping  less  than  .500  lbs  of  fire-works, 
need  only  a  license  from  the  local  atithority;  but  ex- 
ceeding that  quantity,  one  from  the  Home  Secretary. 
To  let  off  a  fire-work  in  a  street  or  highway  subjects 
the  offender  to  £.5  penalty.  A  Government  Inspector 
may  at  any  hour  of  day  or  night  enter  and  inspect 
any  factory,  magazine,  "or  registered  premises,  and 
mav  require  the  "occupier,  under  a  heavy  penally,  to 
make  alterations  or  take  cert;vin  preciutions.  Search- 
warrants  are  also  readily  granted,  and  in  urgent  cases 
are  dispensed  with. 

GUNPOWDER  MILL.— A  machine  used  for  mixing 
or  incorporating  the  ingredients  of  which  gimpowder 
is  composed.  The  operation  was  fonnerly  effected 
as  follows:  The  ingredients  being  duly  proportioned 
and  put  into  the  mortars  of  the  liiiUs,  which  are  hol- 


low pieces  of  wood,  each  capable  of  holding  20  pounds 
of  pa.ste,  are  incorporated  by  means  of  the  pestle  and 
spindle.  There  are  24  mortars  in  each  mill,  where 
are  made  each  day  480  pounds  of  gunpowder,  care 
being  taken  to  sprinkle  the  ingredients  in  the  mortars 
with  water  from  time  to  time,  lest  they  should  take 
fire.  The  pestle  is  a  piece  of  wood  10  feet  high  and 
4J  inches  broad,  armed  at  the  bottom  with  a  round 
piece  of  metal.  It  weighs  about  60  pounds.  For 
more  modern  methods  of  incorporation,  see  the  ar- 
ticle GiiiijiDinlcr. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT.— A  fanatical  project  on  the 
part  of  a  few  Roman  Catholics  to  destroy  the  King, 
Lords,  and  Commons  on  the  meeting  of'  Parliament 
on  November  the  .5tli,  1605.  James  I.  had  succeeded 
Elizabeth  two  years  before,  and  his  Government  had 
exercised  great".severities  against  the  Roman  Catholics, 
not  merely  denying  them  religious  toleration,  l)ut  con- 
fiscating their  "property.  A  few^  ruined  and  exas- 
perated men  l)ande<l  together  to  overthrow  the  Gov- 
ernment. The  originator  of  the  plot  was  Robert 
Catesby,  a  man  of  fortune,  which  he  had  inii)air(d  by 
youthful  extravagance,  and  who  communicated  his 
idea  to  Thomas  AVinter,  who  was  horrified  at  first, 
Init  after  a  while  began  to  approve  and  further  it. 
For  this  end  be  enlisted  into  llie  conspiracy  Guy 
Fawkes,  a  soldier  of  fortiuie,  of  consiileralile  military 
experience,  and  a  most  determined  and  fearless  char- 
acter. Catesby  enlisted  other  two,  by  name  Wright 
and  Percy- the  latter  a  relation  of  the" Earl  of  North- 
umberland. Thej'  hired  a  house  and  garden  contigu- 
ous to  tbe  Parliament  House,  and  commenced  their 
mine,  a  part  working  when  the  others  slept,  and  the 
rubbish  lieiug  buried  during  night.  One  day  thej' 
were  alarmed  by  a  noise  after  they  had  with  much 
labor  iiierced  the  wall  three  yards  thick.  Fawkes 
learned  that  this  noise  proceeded  from  a  cellar  under 
the  House  of  Lords,  which  would  soon  be  vacant. 
He  hired  it,  and  barrels  of  gunpowder  were  placed 
ill  it,  and  stones  and  billets  of  wood  placed  over  them, 
for  the  double  purpose  of  concealment  and  to  act  a.s 
destructive  missiles  when  the  gunpowder  was  fired. 
In  tbe  interval,  a  brother  of  Wright  and  a  brother  of 
Winter  had  been  added  to  the  conspirators,  so  thej' 
were  now  seven.  But  they  wanted  money;  and  to 
supply  it,  two  others  were  induced  to  enter  this  fa- 
natical copartnery,  and  these  were  Sir  Everard  Digby 
of  Gateburst,  in  Buckinghamshire,  a  young  gentleman 
of  large  estates;  and  Francis  Tresham,  a  follower  of 
Essex,  like  Catesby  aind  Percy,  but,  unlike  them,  a 
selfish  unenthusiastic  man.  Their  plan  was  finally 
arranged  for  the  reas.sembling  of  Parliament,  wliich 
was  to  take  place  on  the  .5th  of  November.  Guy 
Fawkes  was  to  fire  tbe  mine  (if  the  gunpowder  in  tbe 
cellar  may  be  so  called),  and  then  flee  to  Flanders  by 
a  ship  provided  with  Tresliam's  money,  and  waiting 
ready  on  the  Thames.  All  tbe  Roman  Catholic  Peers 
and  others  whom  it  was  expedient  to  preserve  were 
to  be  prevented  from  going  to  tbe  Parliament  House, 
by  some  pretended  message  or  other,  on  the  morning 
of  that  day.  After  all  was  ready,  Lord  ]Mounteagle 
was  at  supper  at  his  country-house  at  Hoxton,  where 
he  very  seldom  was.  As  be  sat,  a  page  handed  him 
a  letter  received  from  a  stranger,  advising  him  "  to 
devise  sotne  excuse  to  shift  off  your  attendance  at 
this  Parliament,  for  God  and  man  hath  concurred  to 
punish  the  wickedness  of  this  time."  That  this  letter 
was  written  bj-  or  for  Tresham,  who  was  the  Lord 
Momiteagle's  brother-in-law,  there  can  be  little  doubt. 
That  he  desired  to  save  bim  was  certainly  one  reason 
for  writing  it;  that  he  desired  to  save  the  conspirators, 
or  at  least  to  allow  them  to  escape,  is  very  probable; 
and  that  they  might  have  escaped,  but  foi"  the  fanati- 
cal hopes  of  Catesby.  is  all  but  certain.  It  is  also 
probable  that  Lord '  Jlounteagle  had  been  fully  in- 
formed of  the  whole  matter  by  Tresham,  and  that  tbe 
supper  in  the  country  and  the  letter  wen'  mere  de- 
vices to  conceal  Tresham 's  treachery.  When  the  let- 
ter was  formally  commtinicated  to  the  King,  he  at 
once  declared  its  meaning,  and  the  most  simple  way 


OVV  SHELTEB8. 


816 


GUN-STOCK. 


of  nc'counting  fur  liis  nowpr  of  divination  is  to  sup- 
pose that,  like  Lord  Moiinlciigle,  lie  had  l)ci'n  told 
iK-forehand.  On  Ihi'  very  cviiiin,!;  of  the  4tli,  the 
Lord  C'hiinilierliiiii  and  Lord  Mimnteagle  visited  the 
Parliament  House,  and  entering  the  cellar  in  a  easual 
wav,  told  Guy  Fawkes,  whom'they  found  there,  and 
who.passi'd  as  Percy's  servant,  that  his  master  had 
laid  m  a  jilenty  of"  fuel.  Only  fanaticism  gone  the 
length  of  fatuilv  could  have  made  him  persevere  after 
this.  But  he  did,  though  escape  was  still  possible; 
and  on  lite  morning  of  the  Sth,  a  little  after  mirlnight, 
he  was  arrested  coming  out  of  the  cellar,  dressed  as 
for  a  journey.  Three  matches  were  f<nind  on  him,  a 
diirk-iautern  burning  in  a  corner  witliin,  and  a  hogs- 
head and  thirty  six'barrcls  of  gunpow<ier.  He  was 
examined  and  tortured.  He  confessed  his  own  guilt, 
liut  would  not  discover  his  associates.  However,  he 
and  the  chief  of  them  were  either  killed  on  being 
captured,  or  died  on  the  scaffold;  except  Tresham, 
who  at  first  walked  about  openly,  l)ul  at  last  was 
apprehended,  and  died  of  a  natural  disease  in  the 
Tower.  The  memory  of  this  plot,  invested  by  much 
fiction,  has  survived  in  England;  and  it  was  not  more 
diabolical  than  hopeless  antl  mad.  It  was  in  itself 
mysterious,  and  for  purposes  of  state  policy  iUid 
Protestant  zeal  a  further  mystery  was  thrown  over 
it.  No  name  in  English  history  has  been  more  de- 
tested than  that  of  Guy  Pawkes. 

GUN-SHELTERS. — During  the  third  period  of  siege- 
operations  the  musketry -fire  of  the  besiegers  becomes 
very  destructive  to  the  artillerists  of  the  defenses 
whilst  ser\'ing  the  guns.  Strong  iron  or  oak  musket- 
proof  blinds  should  be  arranged  to  mask  the  mouths 
of  the  embrasures  when  the  guns  are  not  in  battery. 
Blinds,  or  covers  of  timber  and  of  earth  under  which 


iSm. 


1 

: 

hi^^ 

C--  "- 


guns  can  be  secured  from  projectiles  that  would  reach 
them  at  top  or  in  flank,  will  now  be  serviceable.  A 
few  guns  covered  in  this  way,  and  placed  in  the  sali- 
ents of  the  collateral  works,  to  obtain  rever.se  views 
on  the  trenches  constnicted  on  the  glacis  of  the  works, 
will  prove  a  serio\is  annoyance  to  the  sappers,  and 
will  greatly  retard  their  "progress.  When  railroad- 
iron  can  ix-  obtained,  shields,  with  embrasures  in 
them,  can  be  made  as  represented  in  the  drawing. 
One  thickness  of  iron  is  sufficient  protection  against 
projectiles  from  field-ginis,  two  from  siege-giuis,  and 
four  from  pieces  of  the  8-inch  rifle  cla.ss.  The  sjmie 
material  may  be  used  for  constructing  field-casemates. 
Sec  Mfinflet. 

GUN-SHOT.— The  distance  of  the  point-blank  range 
of  a  cannon-shot.  The  distance  to  which  .shot  can 
be  thrown  from  a  giui  so  as  to  he  effective.  The 
term  f/nn-rnir/i  is  used  in  the  Stime  sense. 

GUN-SHOT  WOUNDS.— The.se  wounds  may  vary  in 
severity  from  a  sinijile  bruise  to  the  tearing  away  of 
a  whole  limb.  Single  b;dls  produce  a  cut,  bniised  or 
lacerated  wound,  according  to  the  amount  of  their 
velocity  when  they  strike  the  body.  The  effects  of 
small  shot  vary  with  the  distance  and  )>ower  of  the 
gun;  when  close,  the  charge  enters  with  the  pellets 
so  close  together  as  to  make  one  woimd  like  a  single 
ball.  Some  years  ago  it  was  commonly  V)elieved 
that  the  "  wind  of  a  large  shot"  coidd  produce  seri- 
ous injuries:  this  belief  may  have  arisen  from  the 
circumstance  that  when  a  hca\'y'  ball,  which  has  lost 
some  of  its  force,  strikes  the  bodj'  at  a  particular 
angle,  the  .skin  docs  not  always  give  way,  but  tlic 
deeper  stnutures,  such  as  the  mtiscles,  or  the  large 
organs,  as  the  liver,  may  be  completely  crushed. 
If  the  wind  of  a  shot  could  kill   a  man,  it  is  not 


likely  that  soldiers  should  have  had  ears,  noses,  and 
lips  "shot  off  and  yet  have  experienced  only  the 
symptoms  produced  by  those  slight  injuries. 

When  a  b\dlet  jiasses  out  of  the  liudy.  there  are 
two  openings — that  of  "entrance,  "  which  is  gener- 
ally depressed,  round,  regular,  and  smaller  than  that 
of"  exit."  The  modern  conical  ball  makes  a  well- 
defined  oblong  wound,  but  it  may  shift  its  direction, 
so  as  to  strike  longitudinally,  and  cause  a  more  ex- 
tensive injury  to  the  skin.  When  a  bullet  strikes  the 
shaft  of  a  bone,  it  cracks  or  .splinters  il,  and  either 
remains  or  pas-ses  through  the  cancellated  ends.  In 
its  course  the  ball  may  carry  before  it  pieces  of 
cloth,  coins,  or  other  foreign  bodies,  which  increa.se 
the  danger  of  the  wound.  JIany  persons  who  have 
been  shot  during  the  excitement  of  battle  describe 
the  sensation  as  resembling  the  sharp  stroke  of  a  cane; 
but  in  most  instances  the  wouniled  man  soon  In-gins 
to  tremble  as  if  in  an  ague-fit,  complains  of  cold,  his 
face  becomes  pale,  his  pulse  scarcely.  ]ier<eptible,  and 
he  appears  as  if  about  to  die.  This  is  the  condition 
termed  shuck;  and  though  death  sometimes  does  en- 
sue during  this  state  of  prostration,  it  is  not  so  serious 
as  it  appears,  and  the  patient  will  probably  pass  out 
of  it  in  a  few  hours  with  the  help  of  stimulants  and 
rest.  Although  excessive  bleeding  is  not  so  common 
after  giin-shot  as  other  kinds  of  wounds,  it  may  occur 
immediately  to  a  fatal  extent  if  assistance  be  not  af- 
forded. This  assistance  any  one  can  give;  it  consists 
simply  in  placmg  the  fingers  in  the  wound,  and  if  the 
vessel  can  be  reached,  pressing  them  upon  it,  directed 
to  the  proper  point  by  the  warm  gush  of  the  blood. 
Slioidd  Uie  wound  be  too  small  to  admit  the  finger,  a 
handkerchief  may  be  tied  round  the  limb  above  the 
wound,  and  twisted  tightly  with  a  stick.  It  is  well 
to  examine  the  wound,  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the 
injury  done,  and  whether  there  are  splinters  of  bone 
or  portions  of  dress  lying  in  it,  which  should  be  re- 
moved. But  neither  the  examination  nor  the  removal 
should  be  attempted  if  they  seem  likely  to  aggravate 
the  injury.  The  treatment  is  similar  to  that  of  other 
wounds,  and  consists  in  protecting  the  part  during  the 
healing  stages,  moderating  inflammation  by  a  cold- 
water  dressing  and  s(X)thing  poultices,  and  hastening 
the  last  .stasres  of  cure  by  the  use  of  stimulating  lo- 
tions.    See  ^Vounds. 

GUN-SLING.— A  sling  for  lifting  a  gim  off  its  car- 
riage, or  off  the  ground  when  placed  vmder  a  gin  or 
other  lifting-machine.  It  is  formed  by  splicing  the 
ends  of  a  length  of  white  rope  together,  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  rope  varying  with  the  weight  to  be  lifted. 
For  very  heavy  guns,  chain  slings  are  used.  Guns 
should  invariably  be  slung  as  .short  as  possible.  This 
becomes  absolutely  neces.s)iry  when  heavy  guns  are 
to  be  raised,  otherwise  the  tackle  will  be  "  chock-a- 
chock"  before  the  gun  is  sufficiently  high  to  admit 
of  the  trunnions  clearing  the  carriage. 

GUNSMITH. — A  maker  of  small-ai-ms;  one  whose 
occujiation  is  to  make  or  repair  any  small  fire-arms; 
an  Armorer. 

GUN-STICK. — A  stick  to  ram  down  the  charge  of  a 
musket,  etc.;  a  rammer  or  ramrod.  This  term  is  now 
rarelv  emploved. 

GUN-STOCK.— The  part  of  a  gun  to  which  the  bar- 
rel and  lock  are  fastened.  It  is  usually  of  walnut:  in 
Europe  the  Jiiglans  re;/itt,  in  Amei-ica  the  Juf/liuis 
iiif/ni.  Gim-stocks,  until  the  invention  of  the  Blan- 
diard  lathe,  were  made  by  hand  in  a  laborious  and 
tedious  manner.  This  machine  was  introduced  into 
the  Springfield  Armory  about  1820.  A  rough  chunk 
of  wood  is  placed  in  the  first  of  the  stocking-ma- 
chines, from  whence  it  emerges  with  its  sides  cut 
to  the  projier  shape  for  turning.  In  another  machine 
its  butt-end  is  sawed,  and  a  diagonal  line  cut  at  the 
breech.  The  third,  armed  with  two  circular  .saws, 
fashions  the  iii^per  part  of  the  stock  in  its  finished 
form.  Another  machine  reduces  the  butt  to  its  ulti- 
mate shape.  Another  simi>ly  planes  various  places  in 
the  sides  of  the  stock  as  points  for  the  working  of 
other  machines,  an  operation  which  is  known  as  spot- 


GUN-STONE. 


817 


GUTHRIE  AMBULANCE-CABT. 


ting     A  sixth  machine  performs  six  distinct  items 
called  grooi-mg  for  the  barrel,  breech-pin,  and  tanir' 
heading  down,  milling,  and  liniA-grwduo    The  stock 
IS  at  this  stage  prepared  for  the  littin'/  in  of  the  bir- 
rc  .     A  seventh  machine  planes  the  top,  bottom,  and 
sides;  while  the  eighth  and  ninth  do  the  shaping  mid 
bedding  for  the  butt-plates.     The  next  machine  pre- 
pares the  stock  for  the  reception  of  the  locks     An- 
other machine  is  used  lo  cut  for  the  guards,  to  bore 
for  the  side-screws  of  the  lock,  and  two  more  to  make 
places  for  tips  and  bands.     After  these  various  opera-  I 
tions  comes  the  second  turning  and  smoothin"  of  the  ' 
work;  then  the  groo\ing  for  the  ramrwl;  then  the 
bonng  for  the  ramrod  from  the  point  at  wliich  the  I 
groove  ends.    These  machines  are  each  provided  with  ! 
a  pattern  or  templet,  which  is  the  exact  counterpart  ' 
of  the  cavity  or  other  form  to  be  produced  m  the 
stock.   They  arc  furnished  also  with  cutters  or  borers 
which,  being  placed  above  the  stock,  are  made  to  I 
rev-olve  rapidly,  and  cut  the  wood  in  exact  imitation 
of  the  pattern  below.     The  movements  of  the  tool  arc 
controlled  by  a  giude  which  is  inserted  within  the  pit- 
tern.     The  tool  is  made  to  ievol\e  bv  means  of  ^nwil 
machmery  within  its  frame,  the  latter  and  all  within 
it  movmg  together  with  both  lateral  and  vertical  mo- 
tions   being  governed  by  the  guide,  which  is  con- 
nected with  It,  by  the  aid  of  verj-  curious  and  intri- 
cate machinery.     The  work  of  the  artisan,  when  the 
machine  is  in  motion  and  the  stock  is  adjusted  in  its 
bed  within  it  beneath  the  borers  or  cutters,  is  simply 
to  bnng  the  gmde  down  into  the  pattern  and  move 
n  about  the  circumference  and  through  its  center 
The  cutting-tool  follows  the  movements'of  the  guide' 
and  the  result  is  a  perfect  duplicate  in  the  stock  of 
the  form  in  the  mold  below.     See  Ixithf 

GUN-STONE.-A  .stone  used  for  the  shot  of  cannon 
Before  the  invention  of  iron  balls,  stones  were  used 
for  shot,  but  are  now  altogether  superseded 

GUN-TACKLE.-The  arrangement  of  blocks  and 
ropes  for  the  means  of  raising  and  lowerin"-  guns 
There  are  two  of  this  name  used  in  the  artiirer^-  ser- 
vice. One  consists  of  two  double  blocks,  called  a 
gun-Uu-klf,  the  other  a  heary  gun-tackk,  consistino-  of 
a  double  and  treble  block.  In  the  former,  the  power 
is  increased  fivefold  when  the  standing  end  of  the  fall 
is  made  fast  to  the  movable  block,  and  fourfold  when 
made  fast  to  the  other.  In  the  latter,  the  power  in- 
creases five  or  six  times,  as  used 

6UNTER  CHAIN  AND  SCALES.— The  chain  and 
scales  commonly  used  by  militarv  engineers.  The 
chain  Is  66  feet,  and  its  convenience  in  practice  turns 
on  the  fact  that  ten   square  chains  make  one  acre 


sector,  and  marked  N,  S,  T,  meaning  the  lines  of 
logarithmic  nu,id>ers,  of  logarithmic  fine),,  and  of  the 
oganthmic  UingenU.     To  understand  their  construc- 
tion and  us<-  requires  a  knowledge  of  logarithms; 
tliey  are  explained  in  every  school-book  of  practical 
mathematics.     The  distances  of  the  divisions  marked 
1,~,  d,  etc.,  on  the  line  of  logarithmic  numbers  repre- 
i  '^-'  ""^  logarithms  of  those  numbers— viz.,  0,  .:«1, 
.4(7,  etc.— taken  from  a  scale  of  equal  parts  '   The 
other  lines  are  constructed  on  an  analogous  plan 
Callmg  to  mind  that  multiplication  of  numU-rs  Is  ef- 
lected  by  the  addition  of  the  logarithms,  division  by 
their  subtraction,  involution  by  their  mullii)lieation 
and  evolutK  11  by  their  dirisio'n,  we  are  able  to  per- 
ceive with  what  ea.se  man  v  rmigh  prob- 
lems in  areas,  heights,  cubic  contents, 
and  other  matters  mav  be  performed 
through  the  agency  of  Guntcr's  scale. 
GUEGES.— A  charge  in   Heraldry, 
meant  to  represent  a  whirlpool.     It 
t;ikes  up  the  whole  field,  and  when 
born  proper  is  azure  and  argent.   Also 
written  (iorges. 

GUBEIES.— The  common  name  for  mud-forts  in 
India.  These  forts  are  frequently  constructed  near 
dwellings  and  where  there  is  an  absence  of  rock  and 


G  urges. 


Gunter'.s  C'ltaiu. 

The  chain  is  dinded  into  100  links,  and  thus  100,000 
square  links  make  an  acre. 

The  name  of  Gunter's  Scale  or  Ounter's  Lines  is 
usually  given  to  three  lines  to  be  seen  on  almost  any 


timber.  They  are  quickly  thrown  up,  and  form  a 
safe  point  of  retreat  in  case  of  dauL^er.  The  drawing 
shows  one  of  these  forts  as  constructed  by  Generjd 
Howard  on  the  Prairies  of  Idaho  and  Montana  dur- 
ing the  Nez  Perce  Indian  Campaign  of  1877. 

GUSSET.— 1 .  A  piece  at  first  of  chain,  and  afterwards 
of  plate-armor,  intended  as  a   protection  to  the  vul- 
nerable point  where  the  defenses  of  the  arm  and 
breast  left  a  gap.    2.  In  Heraldry,  the  gus.set  is  enume- 
rated as  one  of  the  abatements  or  marks  of  disgrace 
for    unknightly  conduct.     It    is    represented    by  a 
straight  line  extending  diagonally  from  the  dexter  or 
sinister  chief  point  one  third  across  the  shield,  and 
then  descending  perijendicularly  to  the 
ba.sc.     Heralds  tell  us  that  the  gu.«sct 
dexter  indicated  adultery;  the  gitsset 
sinister,  drunkenness;  and  when  both 
were  borne,  it  was  because  the  bearer 
was   faulty  in    both    respects.     Cow- 
ardice was  indicated  by  an  abatement 
calleil  the  gore  sinister,  wliich,  though 
somewhat  similar,  we  are  told  care- 
fully to  distinguish  from   the  gusset,         Ousset. 
and  which  consists  of  two  arched  lines  drawn,  one 
from   the  sinister  chief,  the  other  from  the  middle 
base  of  the  escutcheon,  meeting  in  the  fe.ss  point.     A 
gore  like  a  gu.sset  represents  a  detached  part  of  a  gar- 
ment; and  according  to   Guillim,  gores  and  gus.sets 
"are  things  in  use  among  women,  especially  semsters, 
and  therefore  are  fit  notes  of  eowanis  andwomanish 
dispositions."     .'^ee  Gore. 

GUTHBIE  AHtBULANCE  CAET.— The  form  of  am- 
bulance used  in  the  English  army.  The  severely 
wounded  are  laid  on  it  at  full  length,  while  those 
slightly  hurt  sit  io  front  and  rear,  and  on  the  sides. 


OUTTA  FEBCHA  IMFBESSIOHS. 


818 


OUTTEBINO. 


A  stn-tcher  is  slung  from  the  lo!>  foi-  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  fonner.  Tlie  back-board  is  let  down  for 
cases  requirinj;  amputation.  The  hospitnl-chcsts  are 
lashed  uuderiiealh.  After  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  in 
which  1980  British  ollicers  and  soldiers  were  killed 
or  wounded.  Lord  Hasilan,  who  was  almost  without 
umhulauces  and  dniuglat-animals,  was  much  embar- 
nissed  for  the  means  of  dealing  with  his  poor  sutler- 
log  men;  the  conveyance  of  them  down  to  the  beach 
for  shipment  to  the  inilitary  hospitals  at  Scutari  was 


GutUrie  Ambulance-cart. 

a  work  of  delay  and  miserj-  to  all  concerned.  Since 
then  ambulances  have  been  titled  up  with  all  medical 
appliances,  mid  a  certain  number  have  been  attached 
to  regiments.  The  latest  pattern  ambulance-cart  in 
the  British  army  is  constructed  to  carry  seven  sick  or 
wounded  men — viz.,  two  inside  on  the  stretchers,  two 
seated  Ix'side  the  driver,  and  three  seated  in  the  rear. 
One  ambulance  is  allowed  to  each  regiment,  and  lif- 
teen  to  each  division.     See  Anihnhini-i . 

GUTTA-PERCHA  IMPRESSIONS.— Gutta-percha 
impressions  of  a  i)ortion  of  the  bore  of  a  gun  are  con- 
venientl}'  jirocured  by  means  of  wooden  blocks  or 
wedges.  For  this  purpose  two  blocks  are  used,  one 
about  two  thirds  the  length  of  the  other;  the  longer 
block  carries  the  gutta  pereha  for  the  impres.sion,  the 
shorter  one  is  used  as  a  wedge.  Each  block  has  a 
staff  longer  than  the  bore  of  the  gun,  enabling  the 
operator  at  the  muzzle  to  place  the  blocks  in  any  de- 
.sired  position  in  the  bore,  drive  the  wedge,  and  \\-ith- 
draw  the  blocks.  These  blocks  are  so  shaped  as  to 
form  an  imperfect  cylinder  whose  diameter  is  less 
than  that  of  the  l)ore,  enabling  the  longer  block  to 
carrj-  the  gutta  i)eicha  to  the  required  place  in  the 
bore.  By  driving  in  the  wedge,  the  diameter  of  this 
cylinder  is  increased  nearly  to  that  of  the  bore;  the 
gutta-purcha  is  pres.sed  against  the  surface  of  the  bore, 
and  forced  by  the  dri\ing  wedge  to  take  the  impres- 
sion. Before  taking  an  impression  the  gun  should  be 
thoroughli'  washed  out  and  oiled  with  a  well-oiled 


the  staff  near  the  end,  and  struck  with  the  sledge  un- 
til it  starts,  when  it  is  easily  withdrawn.  The  carrj'- 
ing-block  will  generally  wU  or  relea.se  itself  by  its 
own  weight,  bringing  the  impression  with  it,  if  the 
impres.sion  is  taken  anywhere  in  the  upper  half  of 
I  the  bore.  Where  an  impression  is  wanted  from  the 
Ixittom  of  the  bore,  a  small  block  or  rider  is  piLshed 
in  at  the  same  time  as  the  carrying-block,  so  as  to 
keej)  the  gutta-percha  from  touching  the  surface  of 
the  bore  while  being  pushed  into  place.  Afterwards 
the  rider-block  is  withdrawn,  the  wedge  driven  in, 
and  after  the  wedge  is  withdrawn  the  rider  block  Ls 
pushed  back  close  to  the  carrying-block,  and  acts  as 
a  fulcrum  by  which  the  imjiression  is  ndsed  free  from 
the  bore,  when  both  may  be  w  ithdrawn  together.  In 
taking  an  impres.sion  on  the  side,  it  is  better  to  push 
in  the  blocks  as  in  taking  the  impression  above,  and 
then  to  turn  the  blocks  to  the  side.  Unless  the  block 
under  the  gutta-percha  is  well  oiled,  some  ditliculty 
ma}'  Ix;  experience<l  iu  releasing  the  impression  fitiiii 
the  block.  The  carrying-block  should  have  a  slight 
raised  edge  on  each  side  of  the  ujiper  surface  of  the 
block,  to"  prevent  the  gutta-percha  from  spreading 
out  too  much  when  undergoing  the  pressvire  from  the 
wedge,  and  also  to  protect  it  wlien  turning  the  blocks 
for  a  side  impression.  Impressions  are  marked  by 
their  distance  from  the  muzzle  in  inches;  the  name, 
number,  and  caliber  of  the  gim,  and  whether  taken 
at  top,  bottom,  right,  left,  top  right,  top  left,  bottom 
right,  bottom  left,  of  the  bore,  when  facing  the  muz- 
zle. A  convenient  size  to  obtain  the  pitta-ix'rcha  is 
in  slabs  twenty  inches  long,  five  inches  wide,  and 
live  eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  Each  slab  will  make, 
ordinarily,  two  or  three  impressions,  and  can  be  used 
several  times  if  desired.  The  defects  are  noted  in 
the  following  manner:  The  distance  is  recorded  in 
inches  from  the  muzzle,  and 
the  position  aroimd  the  gim 
is  recorded  in  eveiy  case  ac- 
cording to  the  diagram,  look- 
ing from  the  muzzle,  as 
"up,"  "  D,"  "  R,"  "L,"  or 
in  intermediate  positions,  as 
"Rof  D,""Lof  up,"  etc., 
etc.  If  a  defect  extends  any 
length,  it  is  noted  as  in  the 
following  examples:  "36  in- 
ches, D  to  L,"  which  means 

defect  thirtj-six  inches  from  the  nuizzle  going  round 

the  bore  from  "down"  to  "left  ;"  or  "49  inches  to 

I  56  inches  up,"  meaning  a  defect  running  along  the 

top  of  the  bore  from   forty-nine  inches  to  tifty-six 

1  inches;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  seven  inches  long. 


sponge;  the  gutta-percha,  softened  by  hot  water,  just 
below  the  boiling-point,  to  the  required  consistency — 
about  that  of  putty — is  then  jilaced  on  the  block, 
well  oiled,  worked  and  kneaded  with  oil  until  it  is 
spread  over  the  required  portion  of  the  lilock.  The 
block^J  are  also  well  oiled.  ])articularly  the  surfaces 
which  come  in  contact.  The  two  blocks  are  put  to- 
gether at  the  muzzle,  and  Ixith  together  are  pushed 
into  the  bore  to  the  distance  desired,  marked  on  the 
staff  of  the  carrying-block.  The  carrj-ing-block  is 
held  steadily  by  its  st.aff,  while  the  wedge-block  is 
driven  in  bj'  several  lilows  of  a  sledge  on  the  end  of 
its  .staff;  from  two  to  five  minutes  is  suflicient  to  allow 
it  to  set.  The  wedge-block  is  withdrawn  first  and  the 
carrying-block  with  the  im].rcssion  afterwards.  To 
withdraw  the  wedge-l)lock,  an  iron  pin  is  run  through 


See  Lnpremfin  taker,  Imtpection  of  Ordnance,  OrA- 
nancf,  and  Vent-ii)ipremi>us. 

6UTTE — GUTTY. — A  term  in  Heraldrv',  from  the 
Latin  f/utUi.  a  drop,  said  of  a  field,  or  any  particular 
charge  on  the  field,  covered  with  drops.  When  the 
drops  are  red.  they  are  sujiposed  to  represent  drops  of 
blood,  and  the  bearing  is  sai<l  to  be  ijiitU'  de  sang.  In 
this  ca.se  some  great  sulTcring  or  labor,  such  as  fight- 
ing for  the  recovery  of  llie  Holy  Land,  is  indicated. 
Where  they  are  blue,  iigain,  they  represent  tears,  and 
the  bearing  is  said  to  be  nitiU'  de  larmeH.  Whi'ii 
white,  they  arc  called  drops  of  water,  and  the  bear- 
ing is  iles'cribed  as  (jntt:'  dc  Vnni  ;  but  Nisbetis  of 
O|)inion  thai  tears  arc  iiUended  in  this  tasc  also,  and 
that  rcixiitancc  or  penitence  is  .signified  by  both. 

GUTTERING. — The  scoring  or  erosion  observed  at 


L 


GUTTEKING. 


819 


GUTTEEINO. 


Mm 


"ii^i 


2^. 
F 


t 


For  Reference 

Not  to  be  taken  from  this  room 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIOfJAl  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


.iaiiilHiiiiiPOTil' 


